MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SPEQAL COUJECTFiONS a ARCHIVES ^/■ I C Per S F65 ^, THE FARMERS' REGISTER, A MONTHLY PUBLICATION Mfevoted to the improvement of the Prfictice, fSUPPOllT OF THE IJ\'TEIIEISTS OF *10mCl/Z,TURE. And he cave it for his opinion, " that whoever conld make two ears of corn, or two blades of crass to grow upon a spot I of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind^ and do more essential service to his coun- try, than the whole race of politicians put together." Swift. EDMUND RUFFIPf, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. VOL. I. SHELLBANKS, VA. PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR 1834. V. < ■Jf <0t j^i T,inZ,E OF CO.-^^^Tl^^^'TS OF \*OIj, I Acid from sumach berries 508 "Agricultor" on harvest management 48 Agricultural intelligence — reports of the season and crops 636 Agricultural books, foreign 192 — the scarcity and high prices of in the United States 761 — bad policy of the duty thereon 761, 762, — plan of republishing them in a cheaper form proposed 762 Agricultural journals 93 Agricultural knowledge, public institutions in Europe for promoting 390 Agricultural improvement and interests, tiie neglect of by the legislature of Virginia and their need of legis- lative aicl— by J. M. G. 613 Agricultural interests, injured by the operation of the poor lavF system 110 Agricultural premiums offered by societies, generally useless or injurious 147 Agricultural schools 474 Agricultural science, obstacles to the diffusion of 597 Agricultural societies, their usual advantages and de- * fects 200 — means recommended to render them more useful 201 Agricultural Society of Albemarle, some account of by AV. 553 ^gi'icultural Society of Fredericksburg, address to, by their president J. M. Garnett 509 — remarks on native cattle 510— thrashing jnachines 510 — implements, experiments 511 Agricultural Society of Middlesex, (Mass.) reports on the farms of Mr. How and Mr. Moor 597, 598 Agricultural Society of Rockbridge, premiums offered by 181 — extracts from address to by Dr. R. R. Bar- ton 439 Agriculture, state of in Virginia 493; in Prince George in 1821 232— in Georgia 490 Agriculture, propriety of encouraging the improve- ment of by legislative enactments 452, 662, 672, 690, 748, 741 — means for promoting the improve- ment of 738 — reflections on its improvement by Medicus 26.3 — observations on the improvement of in Virginia, by Jolui Dickinson 26 Agriculture of the Netherlands, described at length 100, to 106 Agriculture in Virginia essay on by Claiborne W. Gooch; causes of its decline, anrf suggestions for its improve- ment 121 to 127 Agriculture, encouragement of by government, in New- York— circular letter of J. P. Beekman correspond- ing secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society 309 — remarks on applied to Virginia 309 Alabama, the calcareous region of described 276— fa- vorable to health 276 Alabama lands 217 Ale, made from Mangel Wurtzel 715 Mga marina, or sea weed as manure 513— its use in New Jersey and in Scotland 514 Alimentary tubercle of Van Deimen's land 665 Alnpach, slide of, a remarkable work 52 — its construc- tion and uses 53 Analysis, chemical of shells 589 Analysis of various calcareous deposites 581 Answers to queries respecting the implements and ope- rations of farmers on James river 648 Ants destroyed by camphor 380 Aphis Lanata or American Blight 372, 683 Apiaries 70 Apple seed, time to sow 224 Apples, means to keep 684 Appomattox, Upper, on improvements in the naviga- tion of 670 Arabic work on Agriculture, notice of 492 — transla- tions from 515, 583 Arabs, their opinions and treatment of horses 602 Archer, Robert, on the culture of artificial grasses in Lower Virginia 398 Ashes, leached, as manure value of 748 Ashes Dutch, {"cendres de mer' or sea ashes) chem- ical composition of 375, 538— use of as manure in the Netherlands and remarkable effects of 376 — their im- portation into England recommended by Sir John Sinclair 376— account of their use and value as ma- nure 679— substitutes proposed for 537, 714 Ashes of pit coal as manure 628, 630, 635 Asparagus, new and successful mode of rearing, by covering the beds with sand 135 Atmosphere, influence of on land and the importance of preparing soils to profit by it 336 Ai-tichokes, Jemsalem, as food for stock and their cul- tivation 639 Avalanclie in the White Mountains 406 B Bacon, to prevent its being injured by skippers 203 Barley, on the culture of 598 Banks Indian, of decayed shells a valuable manure 514 Bat, tame 421 Bay beny or myrtle wax 419 Beds, wide, in drained low-grounds, how laid off and kept 709 Bee, history of 698— a parasite of 443 Bee-hive, an improved plan described by Z. 749 Beekman, J. P. his account of the farming and im- provements by plaster and clover in Columbia coun- ty, Ne^v York 542 Bees, 444 — treatise on the manawment of, translated from the French 65 — different kinds of 65 — distinc- tion between the queen, drones and working bees 65; their reproduction 66— sting 66— produce honey, wax, pollen and propolis 66— swarms -67— diseases of bees and their enemies 63— hives 69, 70, 71— manual for the management of during each month of the year 71 — moving them to pasture 75 — directions for buy- ing 72— management of 250— in Cashmere 677— kept at work in a garret 218— manner of hunting them, to discover the trees or hollows in which they live 146— means for preserving in winter 119 Beets, product of, and proposed as food for hogs 595 Berwickshire, old and new husbandry of 88 Bird killing, effects of 752 Birds, winter food of 699— useful to destroy insects 476 — should not be wantonly destroyed 26— protect- ing seed-corn from their depredations 713 Black tongue, a disease of horses 572 Blaettermann, Professor, on Terrc houille, S(C. 540 — his translations from an Arabic work on agriculture 515 Bland grape 89, 456 Blight American (or Aphis Lanata j 372 Blue grass by H. C. 580 Boabab, the largest tree in the world; description of 598 Boats, new principle used to increase their motion on water without additional power 303 "Boke of Husbandry" by Fitzherbert, review of 369 "Book farming," popular objections to and rts great effect in improving the agriculture of England 743 FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. Bookstores in Raleigh 468 Bone manure, its use and valuable effects 312, 728 Bots or grubs in horses, remedy for 639 Bread, consumption of in France and England 710 Breeding, influence of parentage on offspring 193 Breeding, for a dairy stock, remarks on 79 Breed improved of hogs and cattle belonging to the Rev. John Kirkpatrick C32 Bronn, Professor, his theory of the influence of the origin of seeds on their products 2.57 Brooui corn (sorghum saccharatum) its cultivation and uses 600 Browne, Peter A. on the geology and mineralogy of Virginia 504 Bruce, James C. on horizontal trenching 334 Brush (Pickering) for destroying caterpillars in their nests 302 Buckwheat 371 — account of it and its culture in France 391 — culture of 216 — its culture and product by E. Crenshaw 345 — as green manure 5S4— queries on 477 Burnt clay 396 Butter, observations on the making, curing and casking 299 Buzzard, Turkey, facts respecting 752 C Cabell, N. F. on native grapes; Woodson, Bland, Cun- ningham and Venable grapes 89 Cabin system of Ireland, strong example of the ill effects of minute division of lands 89 Calcareous deposites in Lower North Carolina, de- scribed by Isaac Ccoom 614 Calcareous earth, supposed to be absent in the middle region of Virginia, previous to the late discovery of marl, by W . S. Morton 6 Calcareous earth, its powers of combining with pu- trescent matters and thus promoting cleanliness and health 76 — useful for these purposes in towns and still more in the country 77 to 79 Calcareous soil, favorable to health in Alabama 276, 214 ■Calcareous manures, the use of favorable to health 557 Calcareous rocks proposed as manure for the mountain region 487 Calcareous tufa, its formation 487 — a valuable material for manure 487 Cameron, Duncan, his report on public works proposed for North Carolina 546 Campagna di Roma, description of as desolated by ma- laria 538 Canada Thistle, the danger of its progress and the ne- cessity for legislative safeguards against 612, 756 — its appearance in Queen Ann's county, Md. stated byT. Emory 755 — the difficulty of destroying it 756 Canal boats on a new plan 603 Canal, recently made by natural means in Upper Ca- nada 684 Canals, accelerated movement of boats on 92 Canals, their superiority to rail roads 56 Cane violet, on the culture of as food for cattle 720 Carolina, North, objects for public works within, and means for their construction 546 Report of the Board of Public Works 591 Caroline county, queries and remarks on farming in 436 Carrots, cultivation and profits of 656 Carter, Hill, some account of his farming on Shirley 105 to 107 — statements of his embanked tide swamp 129— his cultivation under the four-shift rotation 132 Castor bean oil cake used profitably as manure 109 — account of by T. G. Peachy 267 — queries on, 700 Catawba grape 455— -wine made from by John Carter; report on by W. R. Johnson 574 Caterpillar, Gooseberry, destroyed by lime water 663 Cattle, experiments on feeding with mangel wurtzel, turnips and potatoes 164— monthly increase of flesh fromthe^e different kinds of food 166— live and dead, comparative weight of 749 — distemper of, enquiry as to its cause and suggestion of means for arresting its ravages 160 Cattle, management of by Mr. Nicolau 174 — Devon and Durham breeds in Buckingliam 643 — Meades' stock 350, 486 — native 510 — results of crossing the Devon and improved short-horned 67.3 — improved short-horn, observations on 660— of choice breeds and qualities imported by Corbin Warwick 127 — improvements in the breeding of in England 741 — English, to be imported in Ohio 596 Cement, fire proof used in France 312 Central region of Virginia, obstacles to and means for the improvement of its lands 585 Charlestown, on the Kanawha 528 Charters for incorporating gold mine companies 502 Chasselas grape, 455 Chesapeake Bay, and its tributary rivers abound with marine manures 513 Cheap farming in Virginia, satirical account of 186 Cheat (or Chess) controversy 304 — proofs in support of cheat being produced from wheat 305, 535, 619, 638,724— and the contrary 83, 305, 400 Cheese making 418 Cheese made of potatoes in Germany, method de- scribed 268 Chemistry, importance of its study to farmers 473 Chlorine, favorable to the germination of seeds 289 Clay burnt, its value as manure 27, 28 — causes of fail- ure in burning 27— method of burning — expense 28 Cliff, fall of in England 420 Clover, Buffalo 216 Clovjr, its effects as a manure 243, 543— difference be- tween the Western and Southern 544 ;means of setting it on poor land 400 — sowed among growing com 687 Clover crops at Weyanoke and manner of making into hay 23 Clover-hay, management of in New York 169 — re- markable instance of its salivating horses 462 — how prevented 462 — manured by gypseous earth 33 Clover and trefoil seeds, fraud practised with by "doc- toring" 62 Clo\er lay, great value of as manure 323 Clover seed, machine to clean 487 — easy mode of sow- ing 566 — machine for thrashing 382 Clover system on Sliirley 134 Coal discovered in Berkley and Morgan counties 312, 4.36 Coal, recent discovery of in Prince Edward, described by W. S. Morton, "506 Coal, estimate of the expense of transporting by rail road and canal 686 Cocke, Thomas with W. I. Cocke and Edmund Ruffin their experiment on cheat 83 Cocke, W. T. on moth weevil in the crop of 1833, 450 Cocke, J. H. (sen'r.) on propagating the Chinese mulberry by cuttings 503 Cocoons, market for in Baltimore 109 Cold weather at New Orleans 582 Coleman, C. G. on grafting 607 Colony, Pauper, in Holland, account of its origin, ex- pense and advantages 142 to 144 — similar establish- ments desirable in Great Britain and Ireland 144 Columbia county. New York, system of farming in, by J. P. Beekman 542— farming in, by Mr. Sanders 599 Commercial reports, monthly, and state and prospects of markets for agricultural products 212, 289, 383, 445, 493, 575, 617, 702, 766 Commercial speculations, anticipated 215 Conventions, Internal Improvement of North Carolina, their meeting and objects 467— memorial from to the legislature 546 Copy rights, American, expense of purchasing, by Carey, Lea & Co. 460 Corn, Indian, examples of remarkable heavy products FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. 13t different circumstances 137 to 141; deductions from these obssrvations 141; preparation and application of, at Weyanoke 20; great did'erence of practice respecting, among good farmers 21; made in sum- mer 24 Manuring, the Flemish system of 377; surface, advan- tages of, and reasons for 48^; on fallows for wheat 485 Maple sugar, on the manufacture of 739 Marble, beautiful kind discovered in Kanawha 309 Market, home, allbrded for agriculture by protecting duties 599 Marl, instance of its remarkable effect on corn, stated by Edmund Harrison 35; in the Northern Neck, 349; from Prince Edward, discovery and description of 7; analysis of 9; in the middle region of Virginia, exten- sion of the discoveries in Prince Edward, Mecklen- burg and Lunenburg counties 117; the mode of ana- lyzing directed in the Essay on Calcareous Manures, objected to 193; analyzing of 192; Jersey (so called) eupposed to be identical with the gypsgous earth on James River 211; its usa and value 572; contains no carbonate of lime 272, 572; of James City and York, rich and abundant 108; first use of marl in Virginia 108; prejudices against its use in Virginia 753; trans- portation and sale of from Middlesex 534; plain di- rections for anal}'zing 609; the importance of this Erocess to every larmer using marls, &.c. 609; water- orne, expense of applying, compared with lime 567, 568; water-borne, use and cost of in England 365; tnagnesian of Hanover, found in tlie coal and granite region 424; its constituent parts 425; analysed by Professor Rogers 425; auger, description of 184 Marl beds on tlie Rappahannock 555; in Nansemond 581; in New Kent 534; on Nottoway river 701 Marling, queries on, by Corn Planter 270; answered 271; hints for carrying on, by Edmund Noel 197; progress of improvement by 606; in King William county 40 Marly formation in Prince Edward, description of 6, 7, 8 Marsh, embanked, at Shirley 107; and remarks on such works in general, and their transient value and pro- ductiveness 107 Marsh land of North Carolina 472; on reclaiming, and preparing such lands I'cr cultivation 167 Marsh, diked, by Col. John Taylor, put down by the courts as injurious to health 729 Marshes, embanked, under rice culture in Georgia 235 Marsh mud as manure 21S, 314 Marsh, salt, the cishes from, proposed as manure 542 Marshall, Thomas, his description of the paddle, and its use in cultivating corn 554 Martins, house 423 Mattresses of corn shucks, tlie manner of making them described 616 Meade's Durham cattle 486 ^Measures, Scottish, (note) 98 "Medicus," on the improvement of agriculture 263 Meteoric phenomena, remarkable appearance of, No- vember 13th, 1333, 436 Mice, prodigious number of, and their depredations in young plantation of trees in England 717 Milk, its becoming sour prevented 752 Milk sickness on the Wabash 319 Millponds, on substituting by canals, advantages of 733 Mineral resources of \ irginia, letter on, by G. W. Featherstonhaugh 520 Mineral waters of Virginia 2; suggestion of their use in irrigation 700 Mineralogy of Virginia, importance to the common- wealth of a proper investigation, by geological sur- veys 504; importance of the study of, to Virginia 118 Mines, gold, of Virginia 523 Minge, C H. his estimates of tlie expense of liming and marling 567 Mobile, its former unhealtliiness, and the beneficial change since paving the streets with shells 279 "Mockjack," on the culture, products, &c. of Lowef Virginia 283 Mole, account of the habits of 718 Moles, destroyed by the castor bean 749 Moon, influence of on the seasons, considered 162 Mortar, formation of 373 Morton, W. S. on coal discovered in Prince Edward 506; discovers and describes the argillaceous mar! and sclenite of Prince Edward 5; describes the "tern houille'" or "dead coal" of Prince Edward county 629 Moth, wax 73 Mouse, Harvest 421 Mowing machine 701 Mulberry, white, may be grafted on native stocks 26; on the culture of 485 Mulberry raised from cuttings 443 Mulberry, Chinese, propagated by cuttings — Mr. Car- ter's practice 503 Murrain 398 INIuscadine grape, early white, 455 Muskrats, their desti'uctive operations on embankments, and the means used to restrain the mischief 131 Myrtle wax 419 N Natural bridge on Stock Creek described 154 Natural History (Jesse's) Gleanings in 394 North Carolina — her policy as to works for interoaJ improvement 204 Negroes, on the proper management of 564 Negro stomach, peculiar formation of 665 Netherlands, agriculture 9f 100; in Campine of Bra- bant 101; Brabant contiguous to Campine 102; Wal- loon Brabant and Northern Hainauit, 103; Middle Brabant 103; Flanders 104, 106; Pays de Waes 106 Newton, W^illougliby, on marine manures 513 Noel, Edmund, on native and foreign grapes, &c. 457 Norfolk (England) soils and subsoils of, 81; "pan" uni- versal below the soil 81; cause of its formation 81 Northumberland, wood trade and farming of 630 Nottoway river, navigation of 304 Nutrition of plants, tlie seven periods of, described ITO O Oak Hill farm, recent improvements on 346 Oats, a large species of 653; animated 275 Oat grass, description and value of 297 Oats cleaned of black-dust 275 Oil from sunflower seed, its production and value 109; from castor beans 109; from other seeds 646 Onions, culture of 301 O}' ster-shells, means for pounding desirable 216; pow- dered, as manure 28; account of their application 29; cost of buying, burning, and applying to land 567 Oyster-shell h me 240 Oxalis Crcnata, a newly introduced root — ^promises to rival the potato 27; account of 686 Oxen used for grubbing 616; trained to back 603 P Painting houses, errors in the practice 249 Pampas of South America, vegetation of 716 Parentage, influence of on offspring in breeding 195 Pasture and grazing at Shirley 134, 135 Peachy, T. G. his practice, and products derived in using the oil-cake of the castor bean as manure 267 Peas, field, tlieir value as a crop 34; supposed to pre- vent the growth of the partridge pea 35; queries concerning 120; black (or tory,) as green manure 584 Pea vines, wild 401 Peat mosses, and shell marl beneath, at Dunnichen in Scotland — the supposed formation of both 90, 92 Pens, to receive early gathered corn — directions for constructing 50 Petersburg, value of property in 444 Periodical, literary, want of in the Southern States, 761 Physiology, vegetable, remarkable law of 295 Pine, long leaved, remarks on 496 X FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. Pines leaves as manure 120 Pise, for enclosures 339 "Planter" on rotation for tobacco lands 524 "Planter of Mecklenburg," on an improving tobacco rotation 603 Plants, number of to the acre, at various distances 318; mixed species, extraordinary production of 317; luminous property of certain kinds 605; large leaved, narrow leaved, fibrous, tuberous, and tap- rooted, their different effects under culture, and their proper places in rotations of crops 11 Plaster of Paris, see Gypsum. Plough, hillside 487; used for ditching 385, 435 Ploughs worked by steam 620 Plough and horses, estimate of annual expense, and la- bor performed 97 Ploughing, horizontal, insufficient to prevent washing 449; on deep 239, 150 Pollen, gathered by bees, its use 68 Prairies of Alabama, account of 277, 367 • Premiums, report on, to the United Agricultural Socie- ties of Virginia 147; offered or conferred by agri- cultural societies, generally either useless or inju- rious 147; experiments, the proper objects for 149 Premiums offered by the Agricultural Society of Rock- bridge 181 Propolis, produced by bees, its use 66 Provincial and improper terms, remarlcs on 701 Poisons, action of, on vegetable structure 226 Poultry, diseases of 710 "Poor Farmer" encpnres the means of improving the central region of Virginia 275 Poor lands, estimate of the usual losses from their cul- tivation 232 Poor Laws, effects of 361; their evil operation on agri- cultural interests 110; evidence respecting, reported to tlie British parliament 110 to 115 Posts, for fences, more durable if set with tiie upper end in the ground 747 Potash, enquiry concernino; the manufacture of, and reply , by D.T. 645; carbonate of, on the manufac- ture of 645 Potatoes (Irish) raised under a bed of pine leaves 214; gathering and securing of, through the winter 374; Used in Germany to make cheese of 268; improved culture, and increased products of 721; dlfierent chemical products from 723; culture of 476; planting 120; a premium crop of 673; effects of removing por- tions of the plants 190; manner of preserving for a long time 213; experiment with, in feeding cattle 164; on the cultivation and preservation of, by G. L. Corbin 764 Powell, R. D. on the culture of cotton, and the rot 581 Public works, bad policy of Virginia respecting the construction of, by J. Dickinson 535; proposed by the Internal Improvement Conventions of North Car- olina 469, 472, 456; and by Board of Public Works 591; reasons for and against 469 Rabbits 684 Radiation of heat, applied to culinaiy vessels 222; Radiation, terrestrial, its effects on the processes of vegetation 696 Hafflesia arnoldi, a gigantic flower 634 Railroad, Petersburg, report on its construction, by M. Robinson, 53; later progress of the work 55, 758, 404; from Portsmouth to the Roanoke, advantages of and estimate of cost 174; proposed from Richmond to Fredericksburg and Potomac creek 92 Rail roads of Virginia, and the (supposed) rival in- terests of Fredericksburg, Petersburg and Norfolk, considered by Smeaton 620, 622 Rail road, Charleston, and Hamburg, errors of con- struction and management 260, 362; description of by A. Dexter 261; peculiar advantages of its con- struction 262 Rail road proposed from Raleigh to Newbern 354 Rail roads, accidents and dangers of — their causes, and means for prevention 588; more economical and ef- ficient for transportation than canals 177; to convey granite to Raleigh 468; on the errors in tiie usual mode of construction, &c. 530; wooden, on William's and Hartman's plan, recommended 281; Liverpool and Manchester, made far more costly, by using steam instead of horse power 179; undulating plan and the principle 175, 651, 672 Rake used in the Valley of Virginia, description of 203 Raleigh, improvement of 468 Rats (and mice,) means of extirpating 687; to kill 684, 729; method of catching practised by a success- ful rat catcher in England"31; attested by T. A. Knight 33 Register, Farmers', remarks on its course, and the proper means to render it most serviceable to the community 62; proposal to publish 63; plan of the work 64 Review of the Paradise within the reach of all men, &,c. 657 Rice, culture of on embanked marshes in Georgia 235 Rice mill, an improved kind 687 Road law in Virginia, objections to 760 Roads and railways, considered in connexion with the interests of the Southern States, by Smeaton 258 Roanoke, light lands of, need being consolidated 630 Rockbridge countj% rotation and practices suitable to 485 Rocks split without gunpowder 136; split by lightning 443 Rooks, useful destroyers of worms in the soil 30 Root culture 682 Rotation of crops, essay on by J. Hamilton Couper 9; the theory of, investigated and explained 9; should be directed and altered according to certain princi- ples 12; rationale and principles of, according to dif- ferent authors 223; experimental proofs of De Can- dolle's theory 317; Italian near Parma 14; in Tusca- ny, in Lombardy, and of Sorrento 14; of Norfolk 14; for Rockbridge countv', by R. R. B. 484; the three- field, best adapted to the tide water region of Virgi- nia 569; compared in effects with the four-field 132; proposed for tobacco lands 524 Rot in cotton 575; observations on 496; comparative safety from of the Alvarado cotton 496; in timber, cause, and means of prevention 307 Roy, W. H. on the three-field rotation, and the im- provement of land in Lower Virginia 569 to 571; his account of the transportation and sale of marl irom Middlesex 534 Ruffin, Edmund, on the gypseous earth of James ri- ver 207 Rye, cultivation of 246; in the grain, good food for horses 685 Salivation of horses by clover hay, remarkable instance of 462; means of prevention 462 Salsafy, cultivation of, and manner of cooking 812 Sand, sea, wastes formed by — means for reclaiming 194 Salt, common, some account of 726; on ears of corn (in the shuck) 404; not proper to use in curing hay 95; useful on asparagus beds 218; with lime and clay, as manure 228 Salt wells of the Kanawha 527 Salt works, of King and of Preston, Saltville, Va. 500 Saltville and its neighborhood described, with remarks topographical, geological, and general 497 Saltpetre,old method of manufacturing in Virginia 601 ill effects of, on meat 364; denied 364 Sampson, Richard, his practice of manuring wheat on the surface, during winter, and top dressing grass land in summer with unrotted straw 58, 59 Sanders, Mr. his great crop of corn 599 Sassafras bushes, queries as to the means of destroying FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. them 158; their rapid increase on cultivated fields 158; supposed fitness of sassafras for medicinal and other uses 159; on extirpating the growth 366, 398 Schistus, as manure 635 Schools, agricultural 474 Scuppernong grape, white and black 456 Seasons and crops, reports of solicited 447 Seedlings, from grafted and ungralted trees 372 Seed wheat, importance of its being well matured, and perfect, proved by experiment 318 Seeds, the influence of their origin on the crop, Pro- fessor Bronn's theory 257, 258; locomotive powers of 634; producina; oil, on the cultivation of— a^ new source of profit to farmers in the United States 646; their germination favored by chlorine 289; garden, duration of the vitality of 251; of annual flowers, 650; grass, frauds in the sale of 62 Selden, John A. on the four-shift rotation, and account of the improvement of the Westover farm 321 Selcnite, found in Prince Edward 9 Semple, Judge James, account of his improvement by marling, &c. in York county 157 Shands, William, on the yellow locust 215 Sheep, statement of actual profits from a flock 747; husbandry 182, 230, 414, 415, 416; merino, brought into Virginia when imported the burs of the Span- ish tliislie 273 Shells, chemical analysis of, by Professor Rogers 589 Shells, used in Mobile for paving the streets, and the supposed benefit thence resulting to the health of the inhabitants 152, 279; broken down by being co- vered wath fermenting dung 116; decayed oyster, banks of (or Indian banks) a valuable manure 514 Shells, fossil, (or marl) proposed as a material for roads 395; in New Jersey 382 Shells and organic remains found in a marl bed in North Carolina 298 Shelluiarl under peat moss in Scotland— its formation — £ 1000 a year obtained by its sale 90, 92 Shirley farm, its state and products first under the three- shift, and then under the four-shift rotation 132; soil and crops 106; management of manure on 107; em- banked marsh 107 Short stages, advantages of in drawing heavy loads 697 Silk, culture of in New England 410; in New York recommended 378; in South Carolina 152, 413; in Virginia, and obstacles to its extension 120, 230 Silk worm, Virginia natural, account of in an old poem 734 Silk worms, directions in detail for rearing and manag- ing 476; the United States well adapted to the rear- ing of 26; a tabular statement of their food at every ao-e, &c. 483; simplicity of their management 631; Persian method of managing 542; number of eggs of 525 Silk reeling and twistintr machine of Adam Brooks 242 Sinclair, sfr John, on Malaria 557; sketch of his life and public services 286 Sirop for feeding bees 71 Skippers in bacon, means for preventing 203 Slavery and Emancipation, review of late works on, by Professor Dew, and Mr. Harrison 36 Slavery, evils of to Virginia 36; remedy proposed for 40; the three kinds of 48 Slaves, manasjement of 564; refugee and emancipated carried olf by the British to Nova Scotia and to Trinidad 405; their subsequent condition 405 Slaves of hunger — laborers in English factories 187 "Smeaton" on°the policy of North Carolina as to pub- lic works 204 Smut in wheat 401 Snakes, their usefulness to the farmer, and the folly of the general wanton destruction of their lives 402 Soap making, hints on 760; proper metliod and causes of failure 55 Soils, sandy, in Columbia county, greatly enriched by clover and gypsum, 543; light or sandy, the great benefit of their being rested and consolidated 710; of Bedford county, description of, and their value 337; their bad management in general 338; in Wes- tern New York 403 Soil of embanked fresh water marshes — a putrescent and rapidly wasting body, which will return under the dominion of the tides 107 Song of the bees 203 Sorrel, growing on marl 116; explanation 117 Spelt produced from wheat 633 Spider, (the water,) account of 678 Spring, burning, on tlie bank of the Kanawha 527 S.eam power, new method of applying 662; for rail- ways more costly than horse power 179 Steam thrashing machines in Scotland 655 Steam ploughs proposed 620 Steam carriages 694; on common roads 489 Steam boiler," to prepare food for stock 381; construc- tion, &c. described 475 Steam boat disasters, frequency of 467 Steamed food for swine and cattle 475 Steamer, to destroy bedbugs 382 Steger, J. H. his plan lor lessening the labor of cutting down and removing corn on the stalks 269; discovers a new marl in Hanover 424 Stimson's, (Earl) farm, its products and manage- ment 442 Sting of the bee 66 Stock, live, in England, the great increase of weight produced by improvements in breeding 672 Stock, dairy, remarks on breeding 79 Stone walls for fences 715 Straw, wheat, Richard Sampson's use of unrotted to cover his grass land during summer 58 Straw feeding 366 Straw cutters, usefulness of 662 Streams, necessity of a good outlet for, in draining 390 Stumps, machines for pulling up 302, 662 Suckering corn, opinions and facts respecting 685 Sugar, claying or whitening 746 Sugar crop of 1833, 444 Sugar, beet-root, account of the product in France 693, 694; estimated value of the production 5(;7 Suggestions for ditlusingof aoricultural knowledge, by tours, lectures, £tc. by F. G. A. 648 Sulphuric acid in springs in New York 542 Sumach leaves, use of in Norfolk— their value as a crop for market 152 "S(/u7/i Cuique," on the injustice and impolicy of the law of enclosures, or fencing in Virginia 396 Swallov>'s, destroyers of numerous insects 476 Swamp (tide) of Shirley, account of the manner and cost of its embanlcment, by Hill Carter 129; its cul- tivation, and crops from 1826 to 1832 inclusive 130 Swamps, extensive, their drainage prohibited (in ef- fect) by the operation of the laws of Virginia 232 Sweetwater (summer and white) grapes, best of fo- reign kinds 455 Tar from pitcoal, a cheap substitute for paint 289 Teasel, used in the cloth manufacture 619 Temperature of fermenting manure observed 137 to 141 'Tm-c hoxLilk" its properties 539, 540, 541; supposed to be identical with the "dead coal" of the Chester- field mines 628; found in Prince Edward 629 Thistle, Canada, a growing enemy to agriculture, which ought to be guarded against 612; account of it in New York 613 Thistle, Spanish, introduced in Virginia by tlie impor- tation of Merino sheep 273; its extiqmtion recom- mended, and objections tliereto anticipated 273 Thrashing- machine, a simple and cheap one described by A. %. Venable, 274; Z. Booth's recommended 512 Three-field rotation, the best for the climate and soil of the tide-water region of A''irginia 491; and by Wm. H. Roy, 569 FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. Tide-water district of Virginia, its superiority main- tained, by Mockjack 155 Tillage, improvements of, in England 742 Timber, preserved Irom rotting by lime 668 Tobacco, management of, by Frederick Oronoko 290; topping and priming 290; cutting and flavor 291; co- lor 291; firing and curing 292: pressing 292; stripping and assorting 292; substance and texture 292; order 293; wood for hogsheads 293; queries on curing, and answers 294; concise directions for the cultivation and management of, by J. F. Edmunds 641; priming and topping, cutting and housing 641; curing — strip- ping and prizing 642; management of every process described by "Yellow Pryor" 632; on culture of, by G. 579, 751; tillage of the crop and manage- ment in its growing state; topping, priming, worm- ing 751; the cultivation not opposed to the improve- ment of the soil 441; rotation with clover, example of on the farm of Wm. Old 441; preparation for, and planting — cultivation — remarks and queries on Mr. Old's method of cultivating 608; should not be made the first crop on newly cleared land — best to follow corn and peas 461; regulation concerning the trade of, in France; means of guarding from early autumnal frosts 508 Tobacco growers, a few hints to, by "A Planter ol Mecklenburg," 603 Tobacco regie n of Virginia, on the improvement ol the lands of, by "Planter"' 524 Tornado in Vijginia,descriptionof its appearance 763; etfects in Prince George 764 Trees, wounds of, the process of nature to heal 225 Trees, transplanting 382 Trees, diseased, experiment on one with calomel 214 Trees, raining, or such as possess a power of collect- ing water 666 Trenching, horizontal, to prevent the washing of hilly land, by James C. Bruce 324; advantages of, 334; process 335 Trunks, for dikes of tide marshes 131, 167, 237 Tufa, Calcareous, improperly called "marl" in Rock- bridge 436; recommended as a valuable material for manure 4S7; its manner of formation by nature 487 Tulipomania in Holland, account of, 219; parallel case in the land speculations and bank mania in Virginia 221 Turkeys, young, cure for their gapes and snuflles 116; proper treatment of 348 Turkeys, query respecting 286 Turnips, quantity to the acre 684; exhausting effect of 488; culture at Weyanoke 22; qualities of several kinds 153 Turnips, Swedish, equal in fattening to potatoes 564; experiment with, in feeding 164 U Undulating railway 464 University of Virginia, report of honors conferred July 1833, 190 V Vegetables, instinct of 59 Vegetables, large 403 Vegetable structure, action of poisons on 226 Vegetable mould, natural formation of 228 Venable,A. W. describes a cheap thrashing machine 274 Venable grape, 89 Venison ham manufactory 649; opposite politico-eco- nomical views of the subject 650 Vetches, winter 676 Vine, propagation and culture of 413; by N. Herbe- mont 493; in Europe 24 Vines, Mr. Herbemont's 448; pruning of 412; frame or trellis for, described 458; planted in yards 383 Viper, 422 Virginia, general dcsciiption of, 1; civil divisions — face of the countiy — geology and mineralogy — mineral waters 2; public works 3; agriculture and manufac- tures 4; climate 4; population 5; the great and various mineral resources oi', 520; mineral springs, proposal for their improvement 297 Virginia Farmer, remarks of its editor on the Farmers' Register 128 Vitahty, the duration of, in various garden seeds 251 W . W. on the locust tree 344; on ornamental trees W. on thrashing machines, and Albemarle Agricultu- ral Society 553 Walnut, Englith, may be grafted on native stocks 26 W^ardsfork's observations on hillside ditching to save lands from being washed 562 Warwick, Corbin, his importation of cattle of choice breeds 127; their pedigree 128 Water obtained by boring, in the city of New York 184 Water power for small mills 436 Water racks, for the passage of streams through fences, proper course for constructing and fixing them 692 Water used for combustion 488 Wax moth 73 Weather, diary of 573, 637, 703, 747; Weed, ware, sea, used as a manure 513 Weevil 724; destroyed by China leaves 227, black, some account of, 325; moth, its manner of propa- gation inquired into, by E. R. 325; by T. S. 331; its ravages 325; dillierent opinions of its origin 325, 326, 327; experiments to ascertain the manner of propagation 327; means to guard against the increase and depredations of moth weevil 329; unusual num- ber in new corn of 1833, 331; means of preventing injury from 218; state of, in crops of 1833, 450; a proof of its manner of propagating 463; the scarcity of, 381 Weights and measures, Scottish, (note) 98 Westover farm, its management and improvement under the four shift rotation, by John A. Selden 321 Weyanoke farm, course of cultivation and improve- ment on 17; its soil analyzed 18 Wheat culture and product at Weyanoke 22; advantaga of cutting before it is ripe 759; its first introduction in New Zealand 490; experiments on, with regard to its changing to cheat 420; great crops of in New York 383, 759; machine for r^-^aping, invented by C. McCormick, and tried in Rockbridge county 301 Wheat, Yellow Lammas, enquiry respecting 161 Wheat and corn, on raising good crops of, 242 Wheat insect, (new) its ravages 310, 351 W. J. D. on the greater healthiness of calcareous soils} 214; diseased trees — raising potatoes 214 Wheel carriages, jjroper construction and fixing of, 87 Whole Arte and Trade of Husbandrie, by Googe, re- view of, 407 Williamsburg, improvements of land near, 109 Wood land, what season best to cut down? 639 Woodson grape 89 Wool, Saxony, 678 Wounds of trees, natural process of their healing 223 Worms destroyed by rooks 30; by lime water 730 W. X. Z. on marl beds in New Kent 534 X X. his Monthly Commercial Reports 212, 289, 383, 445, 493, 575, 617, 702, 766 Yankee management and economy 167 "Yellow Pryor" his directions for the management of tobacco 632 "Young Farmer" on tillage of Indian corn 45fl FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. to the acre 359— tillage of by deep ploughing 457 — great yield of under the cultivation of A. B. Meg- ginsoii 89 — culture of in Fairfax on level close soil, and recommended for such as are similar, by Jere- miah 212 — mode of cultivating on Pamuuky river, the best and cheapest for light and level lands 560; culti- vation of at Upper Brandon, by W. B. Harrison 495; cultivation of by a Farmer of the Lower James, 577; manner of cultivation at Weyanoke, by E. 11. 553; general errors in cultivating and their origin 340 — no one method of cultivating proper under different circumstances 341 — theory of tillage 341— Taylor's system 342— level tillage 342 — hilling corn improper 342— injured by cutting otf the tops 355— the pro- priety of the usual practice of suckering questioned 685— curing of as practised by Mr. Nicolau 173 — a cheaper mode of cutting down to clear the land for sowing wheat, by J. H. Steger 269— planting 615 — comparative products of tlie rare-ripe and large kinds 488 — gathered earJy, experiments on by E.ll. 49 — advantages of the plan 52 — early gathered "without damage 509 — with peas, best to precede tobacco on newly cleared land 461 Corn, (grain in general) histoiy of the use of in Eng- land 712 — produce of in 1689, 713 Corn cribs, easy mode of measuring the contents of 398 Corn and wheat, on raising good crops of 242 Corn-stalks on the effect of cutting 373 — manner of ploughing them in the land where they grew, and supposed advantages of the plan 461 Corn rows, how laid off on veiy wide beds 710 Correspondents of the Fanners' Register, increase of 575 Cotton, rot in 575 Cotton, queries respecting cultivation of 348 and an- swers thereto 452 — on the culture of by R. D. Pow- ell 581 Cotton crops in the United States 384 Cotton factories newly erected 316, 444 Cows, native breed, of excellent qualities 619 Craven, John H. sketch of his system of farming 150 Crenshaw, E.on buckwheat 345 Crops made at Weyanoke 20 — made at Curie's Neck, in Henrico 1738, 64 — made at Manikin in 1789, 464 — table of on Shirley 132, 133 — on the Upper and Lower Roanoke in 1833, 636 Crops, double or secondary in Flanders 13 Crops green, ploughed in for manure 5S4 Crows, to kill 684 — destruction of in England 687 — their usefulness in destroying insects 6S7 — debate in the Massachusetts legislature on a bill to pay a bounty for killing them 683 Cucumber tree described 283 Cultivator, a new agricultural periodical, notice of 716 Culture in Central vii-ginia, hints respecting 508 Cunningham grape 89 Curie's Neck, beginning and progress of its improve- ment 324. D Dahlia, description of, and observations on the collec- tion offered for sale by Mr. Smith of Baltimore 215 Dairy management and products 726 Dairy stock, remarks on breeding for 79 De Candolle, experimental proofs of his theorj' of the rotation of crops 317 Deep Creek Navigation Company obstiucted in their operations '619 Diary of the weather 637, 573, 703, 747 Dickinson, on the improvement w agriculture in Vir- ginia 265 — on the policy of Virginia respecting sub- scriptions to roads and canals 267, 536, — on horizon- tal bedding 537 Directory, a Farmer's suo-gested 584 Discoveries,, new exposed by Quid Nunc 315 Distemper in cattle 347 — supposed causes of its exten- sion, and means for prevention 166 Ditches, (see Drains and Draining) — excavating by aid of the plough 435 — open side, method of consti'uct- ing 706 — cross, where necessary, and how to be made 708 — covered, to take off springs, 707 — to guard against surface water seldom wanted in Virgi- nia 707; practice in Britain 707; hillside, horizontal or graduated, to prevent washing 450, 735 — re- marks on Wardsfork's views of, by A. B. 725 Dock, narrow leaved, a fertilizer of land 200 — Dodo, animal recently become extinct, account of 715 Dog and Fleas, a fable Drainage of a body of low land, (formerly a heaver pond) on Birchen creek, and hints on the cultivation of s-nch drained lauds, by P. W. Harper 643 — flakes in Holland 80 Draining, legal obstacles to, and necessity of a law to pei'iuit, in Virginia 386, 518, 733 Draining, essay on by R. N. No. 1, 385, No. 2, 705 Draining, by straightening the course of -streams 389, 733 Draining, surface, by a Farmer of the Lower James 577 Draining, Elkington's, (or vertical,) the oiJy cure for boiling springs 709 Drains, different objects of 335 — for discharging rain water 385 — method for making ^^■ith the plough 385; as carriers of streams 386 — covered, manner of con- structing 707, 708 — side and cross 388 Drones, description and account of 65 Dry rot, means of preventing 695 Ducks, a successful method of rearing o56 — the spe- cies best for breeding 357 Dung,_farm yard, on the management of 98, 100; Davy's opinions on the fermentation of, 99; remarkable ex- amples of opposite efle-cts 365, 366 Durham cattle, of Meade's stock 486 Durham and Hereford cattle imported 170. E Earths, nature of, ^vith reference to the growth of plants 702. Editorial articles and remarks on the " General Descrip- tion of Virginia," 5; on the argillaceous marl of Prince Edward 7, 9; analj'sis of the same 9; on Ed- mund Harrison's expex'iment with marl 35; on Rich- ard Sampson's plan of ap])lying manure 53; weights and measui\=-s, Scotch and English compared with those of Virginia 98; request for information re- specting Shirley marsh, and manuring from castor bean oil cake 109; on importation of cattle 127; on the remarks of the editors of various publications, and especially of the Virginia Farmer, on tlie Far- mers'' Register 128; on communication respecting as- paragus 135; on the former agricultural societies of Virginia 147; on the shell pavement of Mobile 152; on "cheap" farming 187; foreign agricultural publi- cations 192; on communications from plain practical farmers (note) 193; on Ed. F. Noel's communication on marling and objections to the process for analyz- ing marl 199; on G. B. Smith's collection of dahlias 215; gama grass near Petersburg 216; on moth wee- vil 218; on the madness of land speculators in Vir- ginia, caused by a depreciated paper currency 221; on Professor Bronn's theory of the influence of the origin of seeds on their pro'ducts 257, (note) 258; on the plan of the Charleston and Hamburg rail way 261; on communications of small improvements in practice 269; answers to queries of Corn Planter on marling 271; on the cost of manure in Long Island 272; on the identity of "Jersey marl" with "gypseous earth" 273; on the calcareous soils of Alabama 277; on additional proofs of the benefit of calcareous matter, in preserving health 279; bad taste in plant- ing tiees on the Capitol Squai-e in Richmond 283; on Sir John Sinclair 385; Norton grape 301; cheat (or chess) controversy 304; on the aid given to the improvement of agricultur in New York, and ap- FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. plication to Virginia 309; copies lost by mail, of the Farmers' Register 57G; loss in crops of wheat of 1833 323; on Mr. Eruce's letter on hill side trenching 335; alleged remedy for Hessian Fly 351; Dutch ashes 375; progress and prospects of tiie Farmers' Register 384; study of the natural histoiy of ani- mals important to agriculture 3D4; foreign opinions of Virginia farming, 395; on tlie discovery of a new marl in Hanover ot singular properties 425; its analy- sis, showing it to contain a large proportion of car- bonate of magnesia •425; importance of geological surveys and investigations to the agriculture of Vir- ginia 426; on using the plougli to aid cutting ditch- es, &.C. 435; answer to strictures of the Albany Ar- gus, on the political course charged to the Farmers' Register 44G; on the advantage of reports of tlie seasons and state of crops 447; Mr. Hcrbemont's grape vines 44S; on the improvement of the Colum- bia lands, and the facilities for similar effects on the poor and cheap soils of Eastern Virginia 544; on the marine manures, &c. available for lower Virginia 515; procuring and using marl 556; on Sinclair on Malaria 286; on Wardsforli on hill side ditches 363; on the comparative expense of liming and marling 567; losses by the mail 569; on the letter and opinions of W. H. Roy 571; on New Jersey marl, and its entire deficiency in carbonate of lime 572; on the increase of coiTespondence of the Farmers' Register 575; on agencies 576; addressed to postmasters 576; on crop grass 580; on the quality of various specimens of marl, or grass calcareous eartii 581; on a "Farmers'Directo- jy" 534;dirferent value of gray and white fossil shells as manure 591; on the mianagcment of hogs in Virgi- nia 596; on the progress of the Canada thistle 612; on the Commercial Report of April 5th, and on the curi'ency 618; on the fence laws of Virginia and New Jersey, and on raising hogs at large, and in styes 634; on the alleged changes of wheat to cheat and spelt 633; on the contraclictory statements on gama grass, ruid on the publication of such opposite opinions 640; on Mr. Rogers' analysis of magnesian marl 462; on making collections of shells and other fossil remains 462; on soils favorable and mifavora- ble to the locust tree 4S7; on the calcareous tufa of the Ihnestone region 487; the Farmers' Register, not useless to the planters of Georgia 491; on the gold mines of Virginia, and the evils and benefits to ac- crue to the community from gold mining 50 J; on the introduction of the manuhictory of beet sugar 506; on hay making in England 61; on tiie advan- tages of agricultural journals, and the measures de- sirable to be adopted to make the Farmers' Register more useful 62; on the manufacture of potash 645; FoUett's cotton hulling macliine Gi6; on the com- ments on tlie venison ham manufactory 650; on the Tuckahoe 666; supply of foreign periodical publica- tions obtained 673; on the "Emancipation policy of Great Britain" — and the English Reviews republish- ed by Condy Raguct 689; on provincial terms used in agricultural publications 701; on tlie "Cultivator," and elfects of agricultural journals 716; bone manure, 728; on the eflect of the law in forbidding draining 734; on draining mill ])onds 734; on Canada thistle * 756; on the effect of heat on gypsum 757; on the want of a literary periodical in the Southern States 761; on the scarcity and high prices of foreign agri- cultural books in the United States, and proposal of a plan for a cheap republication of the best 761, 763; on the terms of publication of the Farmers' Regis- ter, and state of the work at the end of Vol. I. IHT, 768 Eggs, means of preserving 356 Eggs of the sdk worm, number of 525 T'2iectricity, its supposed cii'ect on vegetation 404 Emancipation and deportation of slaves, the impracti- cability of the plan 41 Emancipation policy of Great Britain— a plan contem- plated during the late war with the United States 688 Emerson's Point, the farm of William Hambleton, Ma- ryland, the improvement of, and the means used for the pui-jiose 314 Enclosures, law of in Virginia, its injustice and bad policy, and the enormous losses caused by it 185, 396, 450, 490, 753, 633 Engine, locomotive, load of on the Petersburg rail way 296 Engines, locomotive on rail ways, performance of with different grades, loads, and velocities 495 Entomology, importance of to the study of agricul- ture 411 E. R. on the origin and properties of moth -weevil 325 Evergreens, observations on planting 746 Excavating earth, machine for 732 Exotic trees, bad taste in planting in Virginia 283 Experimenting in agriculture, often misunderstood 115 Eyre, W. L. his remarks on the manures and farming of the Eastern Shore of Virginia 731 F Factories, English, condition of their laborers 187; ev- idence thereon laid before the British Parliament 188; infant labor 189 Fairfax county, description of soils of, and their ma- nagement, by F. 552 Fallow, the various and contradictoiy senses in which that term is used, and the origin of these ditierent applications 202; summer, best when dry 321 Farinaceous aliment obtained from straw 702; farm of Samuel Chamberlain, its great products stated 229 Farm dung, management of 98, 100; Davy's opinion on the fermentation of 99 "Farmer of the Lower James" on surface draining, and the cultivation of corn 577 Farmers, hints to 90; the cause of, connected with edu- cation 727; of the west, advice to 653 Farmers and mechanics 437 Farmers' Register, remarks on 183; progress and pros- pects of 384; parly course charged to, and denied — what political subjects claimed as proper ibr discus- sion 4.46; terms of for Vol. II, 767; remarks on, in closing first Vol. 767 Farming on Long Island 271; in lower Virginia, objec- tions to by a foreigner 395; contrast of good and bad 740; in Northumberland 630; in Halifax, Va. 631; in Virginia and New York, contrasted 750; seasonable, practical effect of 434; in Scotland, great expense ot in preliminary improvements 310 Farms, large and small, the difference exemplified in the former and present husbandry of Berwickshire, and the cabin system of Ireland 88, 89 Farm management, by W. X, Z. 539 Featherstonliaugh, G. W. on the mineral resources of Virginia 520 Fecundity of insects, examples cited 464 Feeding with hay 96 Fence law^ 350 (see enclosures) Fences, dead, objections to 338; live, different plants proposed for by N. Htjrbemont 389; of different kinds 659 Fern owl 422 F. G. A. suggests some means for the better difiusion of agricultural knowledge 648 Fishes, salt water, naturalized in fresh 714 Fitzlierbert's Buke of Jlusbanifrij, review of, and ex- tracts from 369 Flanders, double or secondary crops, common in the husbandry of 13 Floating (irrigating) land, profits of 97 Flour, improvement in the preparation of, for expor- tation 412 Flour trade of the United States, from 1821 to 1831, inclusive 219 Floyd, Govenor, of Virginia, extracts from his mes- sage on the public works of the state 472 Fossils of Lower Virginia, a collection of specimens desired 463 FARMERS^ REGISTER— INDEX. vil Four-shift rotation, its advantage illustrated by the cultivation and products of the Shirley farm 132; and at Westover 321 Fruit, gathering and preserving 409 Fruits, method of generating, new varieties of 223 Fruit trees, Chinese method of propagating 697 Forest trees, the most ornamental 282 Fuel, means for economizing 60 G G. on tobacco culture, No. 1, 579, No. 2. 7.51 Gama gi-ass, botanical description of, by H. B. C. 227 observations on, by N. Herbemont 238 — account of by W. B. Meares 241 — its vigorous and luxuriant growth in Dinwiddie, by John Grammer 610 — its value doubted 611 — found in South Carolina, and near Petersburg, Va. 216 — in Halifax county 631 — in Sussex 630 — on Roanoke 492— in Prince Edward 401 Gapes in young turkeys, how cured 116 Gardening and agricu'lture, products of improved by improvements in cultivation 732 Garnett, J. M. his address to the Fredericksburg Agri- cultural Society 509 Gases, the liquefaction supposed — the great power that it will constitute for propelling machinery 53 Gelatine, dispute respecting its nutritive qualities 701 Guinea grass, its value and management 60, 217 Geological essays by Galen 529, 605, 605 Geological investigations and surveys, important to the developement of the resources and wealtli of Vii-- ginia 504, 522, 118, 153 Geological map of Virginia wanted 154 Geological speculations 473 Geology, application of to agriculture 246 Georgics, Old Virginia, a poetical fragment 551 Gestation, period of in ditferent domestic animals 765 Gloucester farming 491 . Gold, the value of late discoveries in Virginia 244, 501, 523, — benefits to be expected and dangers to be feared on this account, from the public 501 Gold in Virginia, ancient belief of 619 Gold mines, charters for working — reasons for and against granting the various a})plications to the legis- lature 502 Gooch, C. W. on curing hay 162 Googe's Whole Arte and trade of Husbandric, review of, and exti-acts 407 Grafting, the various modes described, by Clayton G. Coleman 607 Grafting grape vines 457 Grammer, J. (jr.) on the growth of Gama grass in Dinwiddie — deems it of but small value 610 Grape, profit attending the culture of 182 Grape, Norton, description and valuable qualities of 300 — contrary opinion thereon 301 Grapes, to preserve 382— native and foreign, their qualities 455 — the native the best 45-5 — Woodson, Cunningham, Venable 89 — Bland 89 — methods of propagating, by cuttings, layers and ingrafting, by Edmund Noel 457 Grass, orchard 413 Grasses, artificial, cultivated profitably in Lower Vir- ginia, by Robei-t Archer 398 — different kinds of 399 Grass seeds, plan for sowing 434 Grazing in common, the right of by the law of Vir- ginia 490 Grazing business in the Valley of Virginia 631 Green cropping in England 674 Green crops turned in as manure, profit of and com- parison with tlie cost of other manure 308 Grigsby, Reuben, on the value of the yellow locust 156 Grubbing, by oxen attached to a lever 616 Grubs or bots in horses, remedy for 639 G. W. F. on the importance of geological surveys and investigations to Virginia 153 — describes the natu- ral bridge over Stock creek 154 — sends Sinclair on Malaria 556 Gypseous earth, by Edmund Ruflin 207 — a powerful manure for clover 33 — its discovery, location and constitution 208— supposed to be identical with the "Jersey marl" described by Judge Peters 21 l-"Sup- posed causes of the disuse of Jersey marl 212 G^ pseous deposites in Prince Edward 700 Gypsum from Smythe county, Va. 9; Gypsum, experi- ments with, anil effects of as manure 217, 229, 366, 507; beneficial use of in Columbia, N. Y. 654 — time to sow 746 — on the use of 756— practice in the western part of New York 756 — opposite opinions as to its being injured by heat 757 H Hambleton, AVilliam, the improvement of his farm, at Emerson's Point 314 Hampden Sydney College, anniversary exercises, and honors conferred 345 Harder, Teunis, statement of tlie expenses and profits of his farm 544 Harnessing work horses, importance of a proper mode 754 — diil'erence of practice in Belgium and France 755 Harper, P. W. on Draining 64-3 — on cultivating low grounds 644 Harrison, Edmund, states the effect of marl on a crop of corn 35 Harrison, W. B. on cultivation of corn 395 — states re- sult of an experiment of the comparative effect of marl and lime 396 Harvest management, by "Agricultor" 48 Hay, clover, made cheaply by Fielding Lewis 23 Hay making in England 60, 94 Hay management of, and slovenly practices 94 — proper time for mowing 95 — salt not proper in curing hay 95 — manner of feeding 96 Hay stacks, the heating of by fermentation, and the effects thereof on the hay 60 Hay, curing of, by C. W. Gooch 162 Health endangered by hog pens and filtli US Heat, new process for generating 466; radiation of, im- portant to be considered in culinary vessels 222 Hedges 238; instructions for rearing 144; various plants recommended for 145 Hemp, culture of 669 Herbemont, N. his observations on Gama grass, hedges, &.C. 23S; on urate rials for enclosures 338; plants for hedges 339; pise walls 339; on teri-e houille 541; re- commends the trial of ashes from salt marsh 542 Herds grass 4S6 Hessian Fly 401; means of destroying 351; not con- fided in 351; tlie egg of, supposed to be deposited on the grain of wheat 723 Hickory tree of remarkable size 612 Hill-side ditches — the plan of Mr. Bruce objected to, and another recommended by Wardsfork 562 Hilly lands, on the several plans used to prevent their being washed — horizontal ploughing, trenches and graduated furrows 680 Hill-sides, plan for retaining rain water on, and pre™ venting washing 730 Hiving swarms of bees 74 Hives, for bees, the common objectionable 69; Huber's book-hive 69; village hive, description and use of, and manner of constructing 72 Hog, increase of weight in fattening 525 Hogs, on fattening 432; folly of permitting them to run at large 432; method of feeding in st}-es, and with milk 433; bad management of, cfescribed by "A Poor Farmer"' 595; of tlie Byfield breed 319 Holland, ancient eruption of the sea in 80; draining lakes in 80 HoUert, M. memoir on his discovery of an artificial manure, proposed by him as a substitute for Dutch ashes 538 Honey, manner of taking from hives 74, 76 Hops, faults in managing 302; may be substituted in yest, by the Life Everlasting 631 FARMERS' REGISTER— INDEX. Hornblende, supposed useful as manure -192 Horse, biting, curious mode of curing 766 Horses, power of the Arabian blood, and necessitj' of frequently recurring to it in breeding 333; treatment of, and opinions concerning, by the Arabs, 602; fed advantageously with rye iii the grain 6S5; manner of working and feeding in Noribllc, (England) S2; for mail coaches, manner of keeping and working in England 87; ti'eatment of 19S; when travelling 222; stage performance of, by J. F. Caldwell 199; to prevent tlieu- shoulders being chafed by the collar 34S; observations on the pulse of 6S5; tlie black tongue, a disease of 572; Horses and cattle of choice breeds, risk and cost of their importation, and a plan proposed 611 Horse chestnut, described 283 Horse rake 244 "Houille," described by several writers 539, 540, 541 How, Mr. report on his farming, made to the Middle- sex, (Mas-:.) Agricultural Society 597 Husbandry, Flemish, characteristics of 311 Hybrid between the pheasant and common fowl 697 Ice houses, how built near Boston 308 Implements of agriculture, improvements in 737 Intluence of pai'entage on oiispring in breeding stock 193 Insects, observations on 695; effects on, of odoriferous substances 417; noxious kinds 422; language of 444; desti-oyed by birds 26, 476; usefulness of swallows in that respect 476; examples of their wonderful fecundity 464 Insects in trees, how to desti'oy by sulphur M9 Internal improvement policy of North Cai'olina, by Smeaton 204 Internal improvement of North Carolina, address of the convention 251 Instinct of vegetables 59 Irrigation, profits of 97 Isabella grape 455 James City county, its soils and marl 108 James river, improvement of, address thereon from the Richmond Committee 254; list of sums sub- scribed to the work 256 Jefferson, Thomas, his plan of farming 725 J. E. H. description by, of the Valley of the Kanawha 525; defends tlie statements_of tlie "Genei'al Descrip- tion of Virginia" 195 "Jeremiah" on the cultivation of corn 212 J. M. G. sends "old Virginia Georgics" 551; on Oie necessity for legislative protection to agriculture 613 J. W. on shistus, tore houille, and coal ashes as ma- nure 635 K Kanawha, description of the Valley of, by J. E. H.525 Kiln for burning oyster-shells 19 Land, high price cf in Pennsylvania 578; how to make the most of a little 840 Lands, on the Rappahannock 555 Lawyers, the injuries caused by tlieir fornaing a large proportion of legislative bodies 623 Lease, ancient Greek, a copy of 180 Leaves, plants remai'kable for the large size of 633; of pine, and other woods litter, a valuable material for manure, and means for improvement, as used and described by John P. BoUing 690 Legislative bodies rendered injurious to the public in- terests by being composed principally of lawyers 623 Lewis, Fielding, fai'm management of on Weyanoke 17; his cultivation of corn 553; remarks on his rota- tion 324 Lifie Everlasting, a good substitute for hops 631 Lime, its use in West Chester, described by William Darlington 15; what soils suitable to — quantities ap- plied— used in caustic state 16'; on what crops most suitable — manner of applying, and cost 16; neglect of its use in Virginia and JN^orth Carolina, and its high price in the latter, when transported from Maine 468; a})plied as manure in Albemarle 631; oyster- shell, method of burning and application 18 Lime and putrescent manure, their eflects combined 655 Lime, carbonate of, none contained in several speci- mens of the New Jersey "marl" 572 Lime,magnesian, opinions of in England, and practice in Pennsylvania 564 Limestone, near Raleigh 468; east of the Blue Ridge 118; magnesian, is it pernicious to vegetation? 426; i strictures on the foregoing 428 ! Liming land on James river by water-borne shells, estimate of tlie expense by C. H. Minge 567; com- parison with tlie expense of using water-borne marl 567 Locust, j'eUow, its grovvth proposed as a part of farm- ing economy, and the product estimated, by Reuben Grigsby 156; remarks on its cultivation "for posts, and railway timber, by W. Shands 215 Locust ti-ee, the value and durability of its timber, by W. 344; value of for fencing — remarks on raising 660 Locust timber 486; not capable of growing on acid soils 487 Low lands, common errors in the management of 388 Lucerne, culture and product, by Ed. F. Tayloe 286, 322 M Machine, Brooks' for reeling and twisting silk 242; thrashing, 510; enquiries ancfremaiics on 553; Booth's performance of 512; for reaping wheat 301; for com- pressing loose soils, plan and description of 711 Magnesia, and magnesian limestones, eflects of as manures 431 Magnesia not hurtful to vegetation 429; experiments thereon 430; Magnesian marl of Hanover 424 Magodaba bean, a great improver of the soil 285 Mail coaches, speed of in England 84; horses for, theii" keephig and working 84; proper construction of, and of other wheel cai'riages 87 Malaria, remarks on the prevention of, by Sir John Sinclair 556 Mangel Wurtzel, ale made from 715; incapable of fattening animals 29; means to preserve tlirough w inter 30; considered valuable for fattening qualities 30; ex'periments with in feeding 164; advantages of 745; its uses, mode of culture, product, 8cc. 352; its value — experiment on 49; at Oak Hill, 347 Manufactures in Virginia 4 Manure, durable etiect of 366; mai'ket price and value of in New York 244; and in Long Island- 271; as top dressing for wheat, the practice of Richai'd Sampson 58; of salt and lime 650; (dung,) remarkable in- stance of its want of effect 365 Manures, various — ashes from burnt salt marsh soil 542; shell marl 534; /errc houille, &c. 537 to 542; oys- ter shells, powdered 28; oyster shell lime IS; Indian banks 514; specific manures 33; sea-weed 513; gyp- seous earth 33; new" mineral, proposed, as substitutes for the ''ccndres de mer" or Dutch ashes 537; marine on the Cheasapeake and its tributaries (by Wil- loughby Newton) 513; (by W. L. Eyre) 731; con- centrated 360; green for wheat 347; of gypsum 543; castor beans 109; of pine leaves 120; animal and vegetable, management and use of, by J. H. Powell 240; experiments on the formation of 668; on the proper application of 736; low price of in Peters- biu-g 346; of marsh mud 218 Manures, putrescent fermentation of 136; fermenting, temperature of, observed at different times, and under THE FARMERS' REGISTER. VOL.. I. siiKSiBisa^snDa gwsri2 a©QQ«» NO. 1. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. $5 PER ANNUM. T. W. WHITE, PRINTER. General Description of Virginia. From the Encyclopaedia Americana. Virginia, one of the thirteen original states of the American Union, is situated between 36° Sr and 400 39^ N. lat. and 6° 35^ W. and 1« 48^ E. Ion. from Washington city. It is bounded on the north and north-east by Pennsylvania and Mary- land, east by Maryland and the Atlantic, south by North Carolina and Tennessee, and west by Ken- tucky and the Ohio river, or state of Ohio. Ac- cording to Mr. Boyes's map, published by state authority, its mean length, from east to west, is 355 miles ; its mean breadth, from north to south, 185 miles ; and its horizontal area, 65,624 square miles. Civil Divisions, &c. The state is divided into one hundred and ten counties, whereof sixty-five are situated on the east, and forty -live on the w est of the Blue ridge mountains. Adopting the classi- fication under the new constitution, these two great sections may be further subdivided into, 1. the district extending from the sea-coast to the head of tide-water, comprehending thirty-six counties and three towns entitled to representation, to wit, Accomack, &c. &c. 2. the territory stretching from the head of tide-water tQ the Blue ridge, con- taining twenty -nine counties, Albemarle,. &c. &c. 3. the valley district, embracing fifteen counties, between the Blue ridge and Alleghany, Augiista, &c. &c. 4. the trans-AUeghany counties, thirty in number, viz. Brooke, &c. &c. The principal towns are Richmond, the seat of government, delight- fully situated at the falls of James river, contain- ing 16,000 inhabitants; Norfolk, on Elizabeth river, which flows into Hampton roads, population in 1830,9816; Petersburg and Fredericksburg, at the falls of the Appomattox and Rappahannock rivers, the first containing 8300, and the last 3400 inhabitants; Lynchburg, on James river, 120 miles above the falls, population 4157; and Wheel- ing, on the Ohio, which, tliough only tlie fourth in size and population, containing 5000 inhabitants, is, perhaps, the most flourisliing town in the stale. Besides these, Winchester, Sheplierdstown, Mar- tinsburg, Staunton, Lexington and Fincastle, in the valley, and Charlestown and Abingdon, in the trans-AUeghany district, deserve to be noticed. Williamsburg, in the eastern section, and the an- cient seat of government, is on the decline ; but Charlottesville, where the stale university is situ- ated, lias rapidly improved witliin a few years. — The principal rivers flowing into the Chesapeake bay are the Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James, all of which are large and navigable. The Shenandoali traces its quiet course down tlie val- ley, at tlie base of the Blue ridge, and unites v>ith the Potomac at Harper's Ferry. The Roanoke rises in the mountains, and, passing into North Carolina, empties its waters into Albemarle sound ; and the Great Kcnawha and Monongahcla are both tributaries to the Ohio. Besides these, there are numei'ous streams whicli intersect the country in every direction, and which render it interior to few in the facilities of water communication. The Vol, 1,-1, Chesapeake bay, one of the finest on the conti- nent, extends 190 miles, from its entrance, through the states of Virginia and Maryland. It is from seven to twenty miles broad, and generally nine fatlioms deep. JTace of the Country. The mountains of this state commence about 180 miles from the sea- coast, and run nearly parallel Avith it, in a south- west direction, disposed in ridges one behind ano- ther. The first continuous c-liain, derives, from its deep blue color, the name by which it is dis- tinguished. Tlie North mountains are from twenty to tliirty miles farther w est ; and these are suc- ceeded by the Great Appalachian or Alleghany range, which divides the eastern and western wa- ters, and Avhich Mr. Jefferson calls the spine of the country. The Appalachian system spreads into its Avidest base in Virginia, and, comprehend- ing its various lateral ridges, occupies a superficies of nearly a hundred miles in breadth. Tlie whole of this breadth, hoAvever, is not actually covered by mountains, but embraces many picturesque, salubrious and fertile valleys. The highest points of the Blue ridge are the peaks of Otter, which are seen at a great distance. One of them is re- markable for its symmetry, being cone-shaped, and terminating in a limestone cube, whose upper surface is barely sufficient to contain a dozen per- sons. It has been supposed that these beautiful peaks are the highest in the state, computed from the base; but the White Top peak of the Iron mountain, near the North Carolina line, is now believed to be still more elevated. The different portions of the state are strikingly distinguished from each other in their appearance. The tide- water, or eastern section, is, in general, low, level, sandy and unproductive, and parts of it exhibit almost as desolate an aspect as the pine barrens of Jersey. Above the falls of the rivers, the outlines of the country are bolder and more picturesque, and the soil, if not generally productive, is in most cases capable of improvement. The alluvial lands, or river and creek bottoms of this section, are very fine ; and those of the James river will compare witli any in the world for fertility. The valley between the Blue ridge and Alleghany contains a considerable proportion of mountainous and sterile country ; but no part of tlie common AveaUh pre- sents larger tracts of fertile and well-cultivated land. West of the Alleghany, a large part of the country must for ever continue in primitive forest. It is generallj^ mountainous and broken, inter- spersed w-ith fertile valleys, and occasionally pre- senting rich bodies of limestone land. Geology and Mineralogy. Tracing a line from the mouth of Potomac creek, by the Bowling Green, and forks of the Pa,munkey, to Richmond, thence through Petersburg and Hicksford to the Roanoke near Weldon, we embrace, between it and the ocean, only tertiary and alluvial forma- tions. These contain oxides of iron, shells and marl, bones of sharks, whales and other fish, car- bonated wood, and the remains of vegetables. — - Thence fo fho Blue ridge, the formation may be # FARMERS' REGISTER— DESCRIPTION OF VIRGINIA. regarded as essentially primitive, and presents nnost of the rocks of this denomination. Two belts of transition and secondary formation have, however, been found resting on the primitive rocks in this distance. One of these is the sandstone and coal formation of the counties of Goochland, Powhatan and Chesterfield, Avliich is supposed to continue through the state in a direction parallel to its mountains ; the other, a narrow seam of limestone, which has been found at the base of the South- west mountain, at various points between the Po- tomac and James rivers, and which yields, in seve- ral places where it has been opened, very beauti- ful marble. In this primitive region, various ores and metals have been discovered; among them, iron ore in layers and masses, black-lead, copper ore and gold. A formation in which this last metal is frequently found, it is now well ascer- tained, extends from near Fredericksburg, on the RappaJiannock, in a south-west direction, through this and the adjoining states. The dip of the rocks in this region is usually about forty-five degrees. West of tlie Blue ridge, the country may be con- sidered as divided by a line sometimes correspond- ing with the Alleghany mountains, but in the northern part of the state passing east of them, and south of the head waters of the Roanoke, stretching along the summits of the Brushy, Clinch and Garden mountains. East of this line, the primitive rocks appear only at the tops of high ridges and mountains, the intervals between, and slopes of the mountain being generally transition, but sometimes secondary formations. Among the rocks of this region are blue and gray limestone, slate, sandstone, conglomerate or pudding-stone, gypsum and bidir-stone. Iron ore, of the best quality, is extensively distributed in this portion of the state, and valuable lead mines are worked in Wythe county, near Austinville. The dip of the rocks in this district, is generally less- than in the primitive, but sometimes rises to forty-five de- grees. West of the line above described lies the great secondary formation of the state. The strati- fication is more or less undulating, but in general nearly horizontal. This portion of the state abounds in mineral wealth. Bituminous coal and iron ore are found almost every where. Beds of limestone are extensively distributed, and the caverns which abound in them furnish large quantities of nitre; and the salt wells of the Great Kenawha and the Holston are rivalled only by those of Onondaga, in New York, in the strength of their brine. — Whenever greater facility of access shall be given to this district of country, it may be confidently predicted that no part of the United States will present larger rewards to enterprise and industry. Mineral JVaters. The hydro-sulphurous springs of Virginia have been long celebrated. In no part of the world, perhaps, are they surpassed for effi- cacy, in most of the cases which result from de- rangement of tlie liver, and want of function of this organ and the stomach. They are known by the appellation of the White, Salt and Red Sul- phur springs, and are situated, the former in the county of Greenbrier, at the foot of the western slope of the Alleghany, and the two last in the county of Monroe. All of them, particularly the White Sulphur, act, when taken in doses of two or three glasses at a time, as an alterative, exer- cising on the system much of the salutary influ- ence, without the evil cffetls, of mercury. Used in larger doses, they become actively diuretic and purgative. The White Sulphur is more remarka- ble for the former, the Salt SulfAur for the latter property. Tlie Red Sulphur, besides the proper- ties which it has in common with the other two, is remarkable for its action on the pulse, which it reduces considerably in a short time. It is this property which makes it so highly valuable in pulmonary affections. None of these waters, it is believed, have been accurately analyzed. The Sweet springs are situated on Pott's creek (a branch of James river,) about twenty-two miles east of the Salt Sulphur, and seventeen miles south- east of the White Sulphur spring. They are of the class of waters called acidulous , and are valua- ble as a tonic in cases of debility, and in all the varieties of dyspepsia Avhich are unaccompanied by inflammation. Their temperature is about seventy-three degrees. In the same range of mountains between which the Sweet springs are situated, and from thirty-five to forty miles north- north-east, are the thermal waters, known by the name of the Warm and Hot springs. The bath of the former has a temperature of about ninety- six degrees, the latter about one hundred and twelve degrees. If the hydro-sulphurous waters above described are valuable in hepatic affections and dyspepsia, the Warm and Hot baths are not less so in rheumatic and cutaneous cases. Doctor Bell, in describing these springs, observes : "All that has been performed by the Bristol, Buxton and Bath waters of England, may be safely claimed as of easy fulfilment by the use of the Virginia waters just enumerated. If to these springs, the Sweet, the Warm and the Hot, be added the White Sulphur, the Salt Sulphur and the Red Sulphur, we can safely challenge any district of country of the same extent in the world as that in which these springs are situated, to produce the same number and variety, whether we have regard to their mineral impregnation or temperature; or the use of which shall be attended with more speedy, en- tire and permanent relief from a host of most dis- tressing maladies." Besides the above mineral waters, there are others, of more or less value, in different parts of Virginia. The springs at Bath, in Berkeley county, have similar properties, with a temperature somewhat higher than the Sweet springs. In Botetourt, Montgomery and Augusta, are also hydro-sulphurous waters, similar in cha- racter to the Sulphur springs of Greenbrier and Monroe, but of less efficacy. Scenery and Natural Curiosities. Tlie scenery of Virginia is in general highly picturesque. — Without possessing the combination of highland and water prospect, which gives such a charm to the shores of the Hudson, or the soft lake scenery of the interior of New York, she, perhaps, sur- passes even that picturesque state in the beauty of her valleys and the grandeur of her mountains. The James river valley offers, at many points in the bold outline of its hills, and its broad and fer- tile lowlands, images which remind the traveller of the rich scenery of the Loire and the Garonne ; and the mountains of the state are strikingly dis- tinguished, not only by an ever-varying succession of hill and vale, but by the beauty of their cover- ing, their cheerful grov/th of oak, chestnut and lynn, contrasting advantageously with that of the mountainous districts of the Northern and Eastern States. Tlic curiosities of Virginia form, to the % FARMERS' REGISTER— DESCRIPTION OF VIRGINIA. traveller, objects of still more interest than its sce- nery. Among them may be enumerated the pas- sage of the Potomac through the Blue ridge, so happily described by Mr. Jefferson, and that of the James river through the same mountain ; the cliffs of New river, which present, for a distance of twenty miles, a succession of sublime scenery, rivalled, in our country, only by that of the Ni- agara, between the fiUIs and Queenstown; the celebrated natural bridge, " the most sublime of nature's works;" the Warm and Hot springs, noticed under the preceding head; the Burning springs of Kenav/ha, and the extensive and beau- tiful caverns in the limestone districts of the state. Among these last is one of surpassing interest and beauty : it is denominated Wej'er's cave, from its discoverer, and is situated in the county of Au";us- ta, near the little village of Port Republic. The description given by Goldsmith of the grotto of Antiparos, seems almost literally to apply to this interesting work of nature, v/hich presents, for a distance of half a mile, a series of apartments, some of them of great extent and majestic height, incrusted with crystals, and glittering Vvith the most beautiful stalactites. We feel, in traversing them, as if we were visiting one of those enchanted palaces, in which the knights of chivalry were spell-bound, or gazino* on one of the scenes so vividly portrayed in the Arabian tales. A cave on Jackson's river, near Covington, is said to be much more extensive and intricate, though per- haps not so beautiful, as that just mentioned. — There is also a natural bridge in the south-west part of the state, which bears no comparison, in grace of proportion, or grandeur of effect, to the one in Rockbridge. In Hampshire county there is an ice mountain, whicJi is very remarkable. On its north-west side, the surfiice is covered by loose rocks, which being removed to tiie depth of about three feet, presents an abundance of ice at all sea- sons of the year. The most noted cataract in the state is that of the falling spring, in the county of Alleghany. The stream is of sufficient volume, a few yards from its source, to turn a mill-wheel; and about a mile belov/ it has a perpendicular de- scent of 200 feet, down a precipice of calcareous rock. Before it reaches the bottom, it is almost converted into vapour, and the temperature is much reduced. The stream unites v/ith Jackson's river, about two miles below the cataract. The lake in Giles county not havuig been embraced in any written account of the state, deserves to be noticed. It presents the curious spectacle of a beautiful sheet of water, a mile and a half in cir- cumference, and a hundred fathoms deep, on the summit of a lofty mountain. Some of the aged people in the neighborhood remember when its bottom was a spot of marshy ground, covered with oak and pine, and much frequented by deer and elk, in pursuit, as was supposed, of salt. In pro- cess of time, a small pond was formed in the cen- tre, increasing slowly at first, until a stream, which had its source high in tlie mountain, suddenly ceased to flow. AfterAvards, the lake rose rapidly, and, covering the higlicst trees, finally ascended to the mountain top, ■\vhere it overflows at a single point below the genci-al level. The \vater is not saline, as is generally supposed, but pure and pota- ble. It abounds in lizards, but no fish have been discovered. The idea whicli prevails of its alter- nate rise and fall is erroneous. This lake is 3700 feet above the level of the ocean. Lake Drum- mond, in the Dismal Swamp, is about seven miles in extent, and about twenty -four feet above tide- water. Its waters are cool, strongly tinged with juniper, and pleasant and Avholesome to drink. If our limits allowed, the ebbing and flowing springs of Washington county, and Cow-pasture valley, the carved or calico rock of Kenawlia, and various other curiosities in the state, would merit particu- lar description. Internal improvements. The Virginians are said to be privileged to have bad roads. Sup- posing such a privilege to exist, they have certainly availed themselves of it largely. In none of the Atlantic states, in proportion to their extent and population, has so little been done to improve the common highways of the country. To improve- ments of a higher class, tlie people and their public agents have not been indifferent. Two highly valuable canals have been constructed, and are now in successful operation. One of these, the Dismal Swamp Canal, is twenty-two and a half miles long by sixty feet wide, and seven feet deep, and connects the navigable waters of the Chesa- peake bay Avith those of Albemarle sound. The other, the James river canal, extends from Rich- mond, about thirty miles up the James river val- ley. This work is among the best executed of our country, and will probably be extended, in a few years, to Lynchburg, and perhaps to the foot of tlie Alleghany, whence a rail-road of 140 miles in length Avould connect the canal Avith steam-boat navigation on the KenaAvha. Besides these, there are several otlier canals of less extent. Among them are the Blue ridge canal, about seven miles long and thirty-feet Avide, overcoming a fall of one hundred feet in the river ; the Roanoke canal, a work of the same extent, around the falls of the Roanoke; and the Appomattox and Rappahan- nock canals, similai* Avorks near Petersburg and Fredericksburg. Rail-roads, though of but late introduction in the United States, have attracted considerable attention in Virginia. One of these has been lately executed near Richmond, the re- sults of Avhich are more brilliant, in proportion to its extent, tlian those of any similar Avork in the Union. It is about thirteen miles long, and con- nects the coal mines of Chesterfield Avith tide- Avater. The Avhole capital invested in it, includ- ing cars for transportation, stables and horses, was % 150,000. The trade on it is already fifty thou- sand tons per annum, and the receipts for trans- portation during the present year Avill, it is under- stood, be about ^''^0,000. Tlie stock is, of course, largely above par. A second rail-road, of greater extent, is now in active jjrogress betAveen JPeters- burg and tJie Roanoke. It Avill be sixty miles long, and Avill connect, Avhen completed, the Roa- noke navigation Avith the toAvn of Petersburg. — The first thirty-five miles of this improvement Avill be in operation in the course of the present year, (1832) and the Avhole Avork Avill be com- pleted by the beginning of 1834. Other rail-roads are proposed, and Avill probably soon be executed. In 1816, the legislature created a " fund for inter- nal improvement," the capital of Avhich, in 1831, amounted to .<^' 1,500,000, and the revenue of the year to about ,^90,000. Out of the annual in- come, the state contributes, in aid of valuable im- provements, two-fifths of ihe capital stock, leaving the residue to individual subscription. The great FARMERS' REGISTER— DESCRIPTION OF VIRGINIA. line of improvement between James river and Kenawha lias been managed exclusively by state authority since 1820; but the last general assem- bly (1831-2) incorporated a joint-stock company, with a capilal of Sjji5,000,000 (the state takinp; two fifths,) and gave it ample powers to establish a more perfect communication, by continued canals and rail-ways, between the waters of the James and the Ohio. If the scheme should be successi'ul, its influence upon the future destinies of the state will be incalculable. But it would lengthen this article too far to point out the many natural ad- vantages of Virginia, and her many facilities for developing them. It seems to be always the wise economy of nature to leave something to be ef- fected by the industry and enterprise of man. — When these shall have developed, to their fidl ex- tent, the resources of this state, it may be confi- dently anticipated that she will rival the most flourishing of her sisters in wealth and prosperity. Agriculture, Manufactures, &c. Tlie agricul- ture of this state is various, but, for the most part, badly conducted. The old practice of clearing and cultivating land every year vuitil exhausted, then turning it out to recover from its own resources, still continues in many places. In others, the three- shift system ])r by ails; that is, 1. a crop of Indian corn; 2. wheat, rye or oats; 3. theyear of res/, as it is called, in which the spontaneous vegetation furnishes a scanty subsistence to stock; after which the soil is again subjected to the scourging process of cropping, while little attention is paid to the application of manures, or the culture of artificial grasses. This destructive system, for the most part, prevails from the sea-board to the head of tide-water, and on the soutli side of James river as far as the Blue ridge. On the north side of that river, cultivation is better, particularly in the counties approaching the Potomac. Rotations of crops are attended to; grass-seeds, most commonly red clover (trifnlium pratense') are sown on the small grain ; and animal and vegetable manures are saved Avith care, and judiciously applied. — Gypsum is also used, and with powerful effect. In the Valley district, agriculture is also well con- ducted; and irrigated meadows are abundant and productive. On both sides of the Blue ridge, maize, or Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and buck- wheat are the principal grain crops. Tobacco is extensively cultivated in Eastern Virginia, but sparingly in the Valley, and that chiefly in its southern portion. The grass-seeds common to both regions are red clover (tr if olium pratense,') orchard grass (daciylis glomerata,') timothy (^phlc- um pratense') and herd-grass (jalopecurus praten- sis,') the two former on dry, the latter on moist soils. In the eastern and southern districts, cotton is planted to some extent. On the shores of the Chesapeake, barley and the castor oil bean (rici- nvs communis) are cultivated ; and, on some of the best lands above tide-water, hemp is raised to ad- vantage. The trans-AUeghany country, being ex- ceedingly mountainous and remote from market, is chie'fly devoted to the raising of live stock. — Very little more grain is raised thaii is necessary to supply the country itself, and the travellers and stock -drovers who pass through it. The climate and soil being favorable, the pastures are excel- lent. The greensward (^poa viridis) and white clover (trifolvum repens) spring up spontaneously Avhcrcver the limber is removed or deadened, and, on rich ground, are very luxuriant. Of the pro- fits of agriculture in Virginia, it is difficult to speak with precision. In very many instances, it yields a bare subsistence to the cultivator; in others, a net income of two or three jjer cent. — But, where the land is in good heart, the conver- tible husbandry practised, and wheat and tobacco are the chief products, there is no doubt that, with slave labor, a profit of from six to eight per cent, may be annually derived from the capital invested. For this result, however, great activity and at- tention are necessary on the part of the owner. — Lands in the Valley, v/here there are compara- tively few slaves, sell higher than on the eastern side of the Blue ridge ; and the general appearance of the country is more prosperous, although the soil is, for the most part, inferior ; the climate de- cidedly so; running streams less frequent; and communication with markets more diificult and expensive. In 1831, according to official returns, 44,529 hogsheads of tobacco were delivered from the several warehouses in the state for export and manufacture; and, during the year which ended in June, 1832, upwards of 544,000 barrels of flour passed tlie various inspections. The quantity of ilour inspected is, however, a very uncertain index to the total product. Some of the Virginia flour, and especially the Richmond brand, has acquired great celebrity in South America and elsewhere. Most of the vegetable productions found in the Middle and some of the Southern States are com- mon also to Virginia. West of the Alleghany, the sugar maple grovt's in abundance. There are some excellent native grapes, the culture of which will claim greater attention, since the winters have been found too severe for the foreign vine. Few countries possess greater facilities for manufactur- ing ; the raw material of almost every khid, labor sutficientlj' cheap and abundant, inexhaustible sup- plies of fuel, and water power without limit. Yet, with all these advantages, planting and farming will long be the favorite pursuits. In the northern and north-western parts of the state, and in some of the principal towns, valuable manufactories are established of cotton and Avoollen cloths, glass, iron, &c. The Kenawha salt-works produce annually about 1,000,000 bushels, and those of the Holston about 100,000. Climate. In a country of such great extent, and of so uneven a surface, there is, of course, great diversity of climate. It is believed that few meteorological observations have been made, either at public seminaries or by private citizens. The diary of an intelligent gentleman at Richmond ex- hibits the following table of mean temperature for the years stated. His later observations are in- complete. Average Tem- perature in Morning. Noon. Night. 1824, ----- 49 5-6 65 55 1825, ----- 48J 64§ 54§ 1826, ----- 48i 65 54 1827, ----- 50 1-6 65 55 This table exhibits a striking approximation in the results of each year. The monthly calcu- lations upon which it is founded, if compared with five years observations made by Mr. Jefferson at Williamsburg, from 1772 to 1777, will authorize the conclusion that the climate of lower Virginia has undergone a considerable change in the last FARMERS' REGISTER— DESCRIPTION OF VIRGINIA, &c. half century. According to Mr. Jefferson, the average daily range of the thermometer, in the five years mentioned, did not exceed from 5" to 7" ; — whereas, from 1824 to 1827 inclusive, the average variation was 16". Richmond and Williamsburg are sixty miles distant, and except that the latter is nearer the ocean, and within the influence of its breeze, the difference in temperature must be in- considerable. That the climate is much more fluctuating than formerly accords with the expe- rience of most persons advanced in years. The changes are more sudden and violent : the heats of summer, especially in latter years, are more in- tense, and the winter cold more severe for short periods. The spring is exceedingly inconstant; but the latter part of autumn, particularly in the upper country, is a fine and delightful season. — The Indian summer, which seldom fails to occur late in the fall, or in early winter, is distinguished by a golden haze, and most agreeable temperature. Population. By the census of 1830, the free white population amounted to - 694,300 Free colored _ _ _ 47,348 Slaves - - _ _ 469,757 Total, 1,211,405 In 1800, the free white males numbered 514,280 Free colored - - 20,124 Slaves - - - 345,796 880,200 Increase in thirty years, - 331,205 or thirty -seven and a half per cent. In the same period, the free whites increased 180,020, or 35 per cent. ; the free colored persons 27,224, or 135 per cent. ; and the slaves, 123,961, or 36 per cent. For the ten years preceding the census of 1830, the rate of increase of the whole population diminished considerably, and the rela- tive inci'ease of the several classes varied from tlie foregoing results. On the whole population, the rate was reduced from 37| to 13^ per cent. ; on the free white, from 35 to 15 per cent. ; on the free colored, from 135 to 28^ per cent. ; and on the slaves from 36 to 10^ per cent. It is to be ob- served, however, that, while the black population of the whole state has been diminishing, wlien com- pared with the white, the reverse is true in re- spect to Eastern Virginia, which is peculiarly the slave region ; for, while, in 1790, there was in tliat district a majority of 25,000 whites, the slave and free colored population outnumbered them at every successive census, vnitil, in 1830, the excess was upwards of 81,000. The facts thus exhibited show that Western Virginia, which contains compara- tively few slaves, has rapidly increased its white population in the last ten years, the rate of increase amounting to 25 per cent. ; while, on the eastern side of the mountains, the increase of the whites, in the same period, did not exceed 7^ per cent. The greater multiplication of blacks in Eastern Vir- ginia, notwithstanding constant deportation to the Southern and South-western States, may be partly ascribed to the mild treatment which they gene- rally receive from their owners. On the other hand, the evil effects of slavery, and the policy of adopting some scheme for gradual abolition, are topics which have been freely and earnestly dis- cussed, and have already arrayed the Virginians into two powerful parties. The slow progress of tlie white population, compared with some of the other states, when so many propitious causes exist for its advancement, has been \irged as a promi- nent objection to slavery. Indeed, the march of its aggregate population has fallen far short of the predictions of former times. Mr. Jefferson, in his Notes, which were written in 1782, estimated that the then existing stock, unaided by foreign emi- gration, would be multiplied to 2,270,000 by the year 1835, exceeding, by upwards of a million, the result of tlie last'census. That the increase of numbers has been restrained by powerful checks seems reasonable; but to point out their true cha- racter and operation, belongs rather to the depart- ment of moral and political pliilosophy.* For the Farmer's Register. Discovery of Marl in a. new District. " Lime is the basis of every agriculfural improvement." Baron Hepburn's Survey of East Lothian. Mankind have, in all ages and countries, been prone to seek deliverance from the curse originally inflicted on the race, that they should live by the sweat of their brow. This propensity often leads us to seize with avidity, any scheme, however wild, which has the charm of novelty, and promi- ses great results, from little effort. It subjects us, in every department of life, to the vilest tricks of the vilest impostors. Tlie wisdom paid for by experience, often at an enormous price, may, sometimes, remedy the di- rect evils restilting from this principle. But, there are others growing out of an an antagonist pro- pensity, affecting llie interests and prosperity of tlie community, perhaps, still more seriously. — Having suffered ourselves, or having seen otliers suffer severely, by hastily adopting novel plans of improvement, whicli had nothing to recommend them, but the extravagant praises of their propa- gators, we sometimes become prejudiced against every change in conducting the concerns of life, and obstinately persist in old practices, merely be- cause they have been tried, although daily witness- ing and acknowledging their defects, rather than expose ourselves to ridicule for failure hi an untried course. The foregoing remarks should not be applied to the district for which this article is particularly in- tended, but with much qualification and allowance. The agriculturists of middle Virginia are generally, intelligent and enterprising. Tliey see and deplore their peculiar obstacles to improvement. Their efforts have, in a great measure, been thwarted or controlled by the privations of nature, or the still more galling and intolerable, because unjust, op- pressive and relentless regulations of man. From + |CIp'Itis peculiarly suitableto the jilan of our publi- cation to present a general description of Virginia, as in- troductory to the many references that will be made to different regions and particular localities, and to the agricultural reports on farms, or on counties, for which we hope to be obliged to some of our correspondents. This object could not have been better attained than by offering to our readers the foregoing extract from the excellent article on Virginia in the Encyclopccdia Amer- icana. It is attributed to the pen of a Virginian who is distinguished for literary taste and acquirements. We shall be much pleased to obtain directly from the same source, the valuable aid which it can so well give to our pages. — [Ed. Far, Reg, FARMERS' REGISTER— DISCOVERY OF MARL. the forced introduction of the African laborer, to the present day, we have felt the influence of go- vernmental interference in tlie regulation of do- mestic indusiry; and we arc still — ungrateful for the paternal interposition. After yielding to gloomy forebodings in relation to the agriculture of his native land, so as, some- times, almost to be driven to the painful alterna- tive of emigration — ^to his feelings, nearly synony- mous with expatriation — the writer thinks he can perceive brighter prospects before us. Tliese hopes have, in a great measure, been excited by the pe- rusal of " An Essay on Calcareous Manures," by INIr. Ruffin, of Prince George. The publication of this work, it is believed, will form a most im- portant era in the agricultural history of the state. No man can understandingly read the iiook with- out perceiving the pleasing opportunity afforded the inhabitants of the tide-water country, of reno- vating their exhausted fields, and many of our agricultural brethren beyond the mountains, of al- most indefinitely enriching their already fertile soil. The great value of lime, as a manure, has long been known in Europe, and indeed, the true secret of the surprisingly large crops of which we sometimes read, seems to consist in its use. It was reserved for Mr. Ruflin to point out, for some parts of our own country, exhaustless stores of this kind of manure, and to digest and develope a theory of its operation, w-hich, it is believed, will hardly be controverted. It has been commonly supposed, that calcareous matters to any valuable extent, were denied to that part of Virginia between tide-water and the moun- tains. The writer of this article having recently discovered considerably extensive beds of clay marl on his own land, and perceived the indica- tions of it on the lands of others, feels impelled, how- ever diffidently, to make a communication to the public, of the very small degree of information, as yet acquired on the subject by himself He has known from his childliood tl)at there were very nu- merous pebbly concretions issuing from the clay in the gullies, and the crevices and fissures of the rocks, possessing the qualities of lime, inasmuch as they made a good cement for plastering, and would be rendered caustic by burning. But of these there were not enough to be valuable in the purposes of masonry, and of marl, the writer knew scarcely more than could be lea'/ned from the defi- nition in a dictionary — not even knowing that lijne was necessarily a constituent. On reading a few pages in Mr. Ruffin's book, he began to suspect that the clay in which those calcareous pebbles were found was itself calcareous, and a very slight ex- amination confirmed the suspicion. Primary formations sometimes furnish ledges of magnesian limestone. Lime and its combina- tions, as the w^riter believes, are generally found in lands that are of secondary formation, that is, lands which have at some time formed the beds of seas or lakes, or undergone some radical change of structure since the creation. And this it is believed is the chief source whence lime is obtained. A stripe or vein of land of secondary formation, passes through Prince Edward county, from north to south, containing small veins of pit coal, coal slate, freestone, whinstone, large strata of sandstone, occasionally slightly calcare- ous, and other substances usually found in such lands. Many of the strata of rock are impreg- nated with common salt, epsom salt, and other sa- line matters. There are occasionally to be found very minute seams or veins of selenite (crystal- ized gypsum,) thougli, as yet, none have been dis- covered large enough to become important in agri- cullure. It is highly probable, however, that those rocks which have this substance deposited in their crevices, are, throughout, more or less im- pregnated with it. As to the extent of this kind of land, the wri- ter possesses no exact knowledge. His personal observation of it extends from a i'ew miles to the north east of Willis's mountain in Buckingham, almost to the Roanoke in Mecklenburg. It is said to go many miles into North Carolina, crossing the river Hyco. But neither its southern or north- ern termination are known to the writer. In width it varies very much in different neighborhoods; in some places being eight or ten miles wide, and in others very narrow, or even apparently swal- lowed up in the hills of primary formation. A stranger travelling from Raine's tavern to Farm- ville, would, on looking westwardly from some points on the road, suppose himself in the vicinity of a vast river, from the depression of this land below the adjacent country. This kind of land is in that neighborhood, of very considerable width, where it has long borne the name of the clover forest country, from its propensity to produce, in wet summers, a species of annual clover, called the buffalo, of a beautiful and luxuriant growth. The seed of tliis clover, like tliose of cJieat and many other plants, require much moisture, at a particular juncture, to excite them to vegetation, so that the crop is but seldom seen. For many miles on the south side of the Appo- mattox, this stripe of land contracts to a much nar- rower space. It has been long since the writer was in the eastern end of Charlotte or the western end of Mecklenburg. But he is inclined to be- lieve, from his recollection of the country, that, in those parts, this kind of land is very broad. It is generally accompanied by a very bold stratum of black rock, particularly striking whenever the writer has been able to trace it. The character of the soil, generally, in this vein of land, has not stood high. The subsoil being commonly what is called pipe clay, it is vei-y wet in winter, so much so, that in some parts roads could scarcely be made without the aid of extra- neous materials. The soil however is more favo- rable to tlie production of grass than that of the adjacent lands of primary formation, and when ap- parently exhausted, more speedily furnishes mate- rials for its own resuscitation. The existence of lands half way between tide- wviter and the mountains, capable of furnishing calcareous manures, is a fact no^el and unexpect- ed— this being a locality as little likely to enjoy such an advantage, as any in the state. So that, some ground is afforded for inferring that there may be other similar stripes of land, intersecting the state in such a manner as to afford the means for furnishing a sufficient supply of this best of all manures to all that portion of the state most need- ing it, whenever the facilities for transportation, by improving the navigation of our streams and con- structing rail roads, shall have been sutficiently afforded. In reply to the question, hoAV some parts of Scotland could have been so surprisingly im- proved within a few years, an old farmer of that FARMERS' REGISTER—DISCOVERY OF MARL. country observed, that they owed it all to good roads and lime. There can bo little doubt, but that all that sec- tion so abundantly furnishing coal, in Goochland, in the lower end of Powhatan, and in Chester- field, contains also bountiful supplies of marl. — We would also expect to find it in the level swampy country to the south and south-Avest of Manchester. In countries Avhere this kind of manure has been fixirly tried, there would be little need of urging its importance. Scotland, some thirty or forty years ago, was remarkable for the sterih'ty of its soil, for the poverty of its inhabitants, and the scarcity of the means of subsistence. In agricul- tural skill and prosperity, and the higli rate at which its lands are rented, it now stands, if not before all other countries in the world, at least in the foremost rank. All the agricultural writers of that country, ascribe to the instrumentality of lime, the chief agency in effecting this change. In our own state, until very recently, but little atten- tion has been paid to this subject. Our forefathers having an abundance of virgin soil before tliem, thought little of troubling themselves about ma- nures of any sort. Instead of lending to the earth, with a view of drawing interest, we have been la- vishly squandering the principal. And after the stock was nearly exhausted, we have found pu- trescent manures too unattainable in sufficient quantities, and too transient in their effects, to re- store to the soil its pristine vigor. In some states of disease, diffusible stimulants serve, perhaps, only to burn out more hastily tlie remnants of vi- tality. The patient needs something permanent — tonics, which will produce a constitutional change, and afford scope for the action of stimulants. In this light, lime, as a manure, may be viewed. It is a necessary ingredient in the constitution of eve- ry good soil — a constituent in tlie formation of eve- ry vegetable, and we believe that scarcely a single plant could be brought to maturity if entirely de- prived of its agency. It is the common opinion of our geologists, that all the strata of rocks in this district of country, which pursue an extensive range, observe a course parallel to that of the Blue Ridge mountains. — This opinion is, in the main, correct. The ledge of black rock, however, of Avhich we have spoken above, so far as it has been traced, continues in about a due north and south direction, intersecting the general range of strata, at about an angle of' forty-five degrees. This may readily be perceiv- ed from its outrunnings, Avliich appear above ground, for a distance of more tlian fifteen miles ; from the lands of the late John W. Eppes, Esq. of Buckingham, to several miles south of Prince Edward Court House. This we believe to be the case with others of the ledges of round black rock, which occasionally traverse the country. They appear to form braces, intersecting the ledges, which run north east and south west. The strijie of secondary land, of which we have been treat- ing, seems generally to stretch from north to south, but the strata of rocks imbedded in it go north east and south west, and dip towards the north west, at right angles to tlieir course. The outrunnings of ledges which may be observed on the western side of this stripe of land, though m- (crrupted by it for some distance, may be found again on the eastern side of it, preserving the same course, and having the same accompaniments. — We thought it might not be amiss to record these observations, thougli entirely unconnected with our subject. The writer felt bound to furnish to the public information v/hicli circumstances threw in his way, hoAvever imperfectly he has performed the task ; because, he hoped it might cause others, better qualified, to investigate this important subject. — To be placed before tlie public in this Avay, to him, is a novel and impleasant predicament. But if he can thus excite those living in the same range of land Avith himself, or persons elsewhere, enjoying the same advantage, to attend to the subject of marl, lie Avill consider liimself liighly reAvarded. It only remains for liim to state that he has no experience of the benefits of marling, having but recently discovered the existence of marl on his land. He has spread about a thousand horse cart loads on about ten acres of land, dropping the loads in squares of tAventy feet. Nearly all this land Avas in tlie second groAvth of trees, having long been considered totally exhausted, and very much gullied. He proposes to cultivate a part of this ground in corn and a part in cotton. Should it produce good crops, it may be considered a trium- phant proof of the efficacy of marl, as none Avho view the land now, can be persuaded to augur fa- A'orably concerning it. Our experience in marling, suffices to con- vince us tliat it is not one of the expedients to become rich Avithout trouble. The operation is both expensive and laborious, especially in Avinter, on a Avet soil and rotten substratum. And even should its avails equal the repiesentations of wri- ters on the subject, they are only to be attained by industry and perseverance, directed by some de- gree of skill. W. S. MORTON, Near Farmvillc, February 22d, 1833. To the foregoing important communication, Ave Avill take the liberty of adding some extracts from seve- ral letters Avritten by Dr. Morton on the same sub- ject, but without any expectation of their being pitb- lished, and before he suspected that the Farmers' Re- j^isterAvould have an existence. The more minute de- scriptions Avhich these extracts furnish, Ave are sure Avill be both interesting and useful to many who reside in the region through Avhich our correspondent supposes this calcareous formation may be found. In the infancy of a discovery which promises to prove so important to an extensive district, the directions to those who desire to pursue the investigation, cannot be too full or minute. We trust that this Aviil serve widi Dr. M. to excuse us for thus extracting from his letters : our other patrons will not consider that any apology is required. Di^CEMBER 17th, 1832. I presume it Avill excite in you as much pleasure as surprise, to learn, that in this part of the state, calcareous manures can be found, and possibly, in considerable al)undance. The opinion has obtain- ed currency, that hi geological structure a prima- ry formation prevails from the Blue Ridge to the head of tide-Avater. This is certainly correct in the main. There is, hoAvever, at least one slight exception. Having paid but little attention to ge- ology, and been but a very moderate traveller, my information cxfcnds not far from home. 8 FARMERS' REGISTER— DISCOVERY OF MARL. A stripe or vein of land extends from near the residence of tiie late Dr. Hubbard of Bucking- ham, a few miles to the north east of Willis's mountain, to the neighborhood of Samuel L. Locket, Esq. on the Roanoke, in Mecklenburg, evidently bearing all the evidences of secondary formation. How much farther it may extend each or either way, I know not. It contains free- stone, whin, coal slate, small veins of very fine coal, smooth quarts, river stone, marine and ep- som salts, and many other matters, clearly indi- cating the secondary character. In some places there are numerous very small and irregular seams of calcareous matter, between the strata, and in the broken crevices of the rock, and occa- sionally, deposits in the vallies, of calcareous clay, which, I suppose, may fairly come under the de- nomination of marl. I have known, for many years, that my land contained some modification of lime, and have frequently mended broken plastering about the house, with a cement made of calcareous pebbles found in the gullies. But having a very vague idea of marl, I never thought of seeking for it here, until I fortunately met with your work on calcareous manures. After meeting with this, 1 made search, and very readily found two deposits, which, I believe, contain lime enough to render them valuable as manure. I have, however, no means of accurately determining their quantity of lime. There are, also, very small veins of a cal- careous appearance, containing crystals which I take to be gypsum — and extensive beds, near these, of a very fine clay of a marly appearance, which will not eftervesce with muriatic acid, pos- sibly on account of the presence of sulphuric. — One would, on first sight, prefer this, as manure, to the clay, which does effervesce with muriatic acid. I find the deposits, in every instance, lying un- der a superstratum of black gravel, and in the gidlies above these deposits, it lies in minute seams, between the strata of rocks and in their crevices, from which, in vei-y wet weather, it is- sues of the color and consistence of cream, and, on drying, forms a very hard cement. Wherever there is an accumulation of clay in the banks of the gullies, about such places, it seems to become marly ; I suppose, from the exudation, so often oc- curring from those seams. January 19th, 1833. The hill-side above my marl-bed is composed of numerous strata of slaty sand-stone and coal slate, which I suppose to be slightly calcareous, their innumerable crevices and seams being filled with either chalky concretions, or soft calcareous matter. The Avater oozing from these strata to the foot of the hill, on coming in contact with pipe clay, is filtei-ed through, and deposits lime. The , following fact, I think, confirms this opinion. — About the richest marl I have fbinid, is contain- ed in the scite of what was, within my recollec- tion, a guUey of considerable depth, now filled with clay marl ; so that, I should judge, the marl is constantly forming in situations suitable for the deposite of lime. The beds of marl, in so far as I have seen, are covered by beds of black gravel, the gravel hav- ing assumed about the same shapes and appear- ance, except in color, as the calcareous conci'e- tions below. From this, I would infer, that the gravel was once calcareous, though now probably chalybeate, and that the lime is constantly sink- ing, or in some other way wasting. Lower down, or, to the eastward of the marl bed, I find in the crevices and fissures of the rock, thin layers of beautiful selenite, the crystals being so delicate, that they scarcely can be handled with- out demolition. In the vicinity, and to the east of this material, there are much fewer of the limey concretions ; but a vast deal of rich looking clay, of a very unctuous feel, when wet. Possibly this clay may contain lime, combined with sulphuric acid. About these seams of selenite, much com- mon salt is, in frosty dry weather, perceivable by the senses, and evinced by the propensity of sheep and other stock, to lick the banks. My recollec- tion of chemical affmities does not, at this moment, enable me to say, whether this article would not decompose gypsum in any form. January 24th, 1833. I have endeavored to send about a fair sample of the marl, by cutting a block of it, which would just fit the box, from a good, but I think, not the best part of the bed. You will observe, that the calcareous matter appears to be deposited in the cracks and interstices of the clay, and that there is but little lime in the lumps of clay. The gravelly concretions in the lop of the box, I think, are nearly all lime; they are very nume- rous in the marl bed, and you will doubtless find some of them in the block of marl sent you. — They are generally surrounded by loose calcare- ous matter, whether given off from, or about to be added to them, I know not. This, 1 suppose, will constitute the chief riches of my bed : as the peb- bles are too hard to benefit the soil immediately, and the lumps of clay have but little lime in them. Though much interrupted by wet weather, I have s})read five or six acres, aiming to put on about four hundred bushels to the acre. My soil is so wet in winter, that a pit dug, without an outlet, will generally remain full of water. And this winter it has been much wetter than usual. As soon as the earth dries sufficiently, I propose to plough the marled land with small ploughs at first, to avoid burying the marl too deep. The selenite thus far, is only interesting as a cu- riosity— as, being found only in irregular seams of slight thickness, the quantity is too small to be im- portant in agriculture. I hope, however, to find a bed of marl containing this material, on the eastern side of my plantation, as it is here that I find the seams of selenite. My other engagements have prevented my mak- ing searches for marl at a distance from home ; I have, however, found superficial indications in se- veral places, which look well, but the beds have not been explored. February 22d, 1833. Not long after I sent you the box of samples, I found anotlier bed, or perhaps, more correctly, a continuation of the same bed, containing, appa- rently, much richer marl. It is much more fria- ble, and the calcareous matter more intimately blended with the other matters. The extremely wet weather has, however, prevented my making much use of it. I now suspect that there is a vast deal of marl FARMERS' REGISTER— DISCOVERY OF MARL, &c. in the vein of the country about which I have written so much. The specimens mentioned above, were examined, and the following results obtained. Of the mass of argillaceous earth, (which formed an unbroken cube of about seven inches,) three several sjdc- cimens were taken, of near a pound each, and fromcacli of these, after being pounded, smaller portions were again taken for examination. To the eye, it appeared that either was a fair sample of tlie argillaceous marl. Of these. No. 1, 100 grs. yielded 91 of carb. of lime, = 91 pr. ct. — 1, 300 — — 28 — — = 9J pr. ct. — 2,200 ~ — 24 — — z=12pr. ct. — 3, 400 — — 35 — — = 9i pr. ct. The- mass contained several of the hard concretions described by Dr. M. but no portion of them was includ- ed in these three samples, nor in any way served to af- fect the result. Of the concretions alone, a sample formed of three different lumps, yielded 64 hundredth's of carbonate of lime. The remarkable adhesiveness of the argillaceous earth, made it imjjossible to sejiarate from it (by wash- ing on a filtering paper,) all the acid used — and of course, all the lime dissolved in the acid, could not be . removed. For this reason, any mode of examination except that used (the measurement of the carbonic acid gas evoh'^ed,) would have given a deceptions i-esult. The same adhesiveness, and its consequences, prevented an examination of the clay marl for gypsum, which may well be supposed present in sufficient quantity to to be useful as nmnure, in conjunction with the more abundant calcareous ingredient. To determine this question, we hope our friend Professor Gushing, who resides near this region, will direct his attention, and re- port the result of his examination. The crystals sent were pure sulphate of lime, (sele- nite, or gypsum.) Two other samples were of mix- tures of clay, with very large proportions of these crys- tals, of small size: but they were not analyzed, as the quantities found were stated to be too small for use as manure — and the process of separation, with the im- perfect means that only could have been employed, would have been troublesome, and tlie result not exact. We hope that the small proportion of the calcareous part of this marl reported, will not damp the zeal of tlie discoverer, or others who can use the same means for improvement. The richest parts of the bed per- haps have not yet been exposed to the eye. The sour- ces from which the fluid calcareous matter exudes, and which concretes by age, are probably much richer ; and searching for them by boring would probably repay the labor. The hard lumps also may possibly be reduced by time and exposure, (as hard shells are when applied to acid soils,) so as greatly to increase the average rich- ness of the whole quantity of the manure. But, at the worst, if the manure should generally contain only ten per cent, of calcareous matter, and can be cheaply ap- plied in large quantities, it may be as valuable as other marl of thrice its strength, but more difficult of access. We regard the discovery of this mineral manure, in this particular region, as holding out a prospect of the most important and beneficial consequences to the agri- culttu-al improvement of Virginia. — [Ed. Farm. lieg. Gypsiiiii frosn Smytli County, A friend who recently travelled through the south- western part of Virginia, has brought to us for examina- tion a specimen of gypsum obtained in Smyth county, where, as he was informed, it is found in great quan- tity. The lump before us is very pure, and of a texture much more soft and yielding than the gypsum from Nova Scotia, and 'therefore the more easily prepared for manure. If our friend was correctly informed as to the abundance of this mineral, and if facilities should hereafter be afforded for its transportation, it will not only prove valuable to the farmers of Smyth county, but to many who arc hundreds of miles distant from the quarries. Essay on Rotation of Crops. By J. Hamilton Couper. From the Southern Agriculturalist. The difiereuce of efFect produced on the fertility of the soil, by the spontaneous grov/th and by the artificial culture of plants, isso strikingly con- trasted, as to present itself very forcibly to all ob- servant minds. Where nature is allowed to sow her own seeds and to reap lier own harvests, the earth, instead of being impoverished by her vege- table productions, seems at each new effort but to augment that fertility, which is ever presenting to the eye a varied aspect of beauty and fruitfulness. But very different has been the effect in most coun- tries, where man has controlled the productions of the soil, and limited them to those alone which contribute to tlie gratification of his wants, conve- niences and luxuries. Their exhaustion generally follows production, and utter impoverishment would succeed to teeming fertility, were not resort made to benign nature, or to expensive manures, to restore the lost fertility. Is this contrast the necessary effect of the pecu- liar character of the plants which have been select- ed for cultivation? is it ov/ing solely to cultiva- tion; or has it arisen from a vicious system of agriculture, in relation to both.'' The continued and increasing fertility ot some countries, where these plants are more extensively grown; and where cultivation is carried to the greatest perfec- tion, proves that the impaired productiveness of the soil, is not necessarily the result of the two first causes, whatever m,ay be their tendency ; and that it is chiefly attributable to the effect of a vi- cious system. The great error of this system has been, that man, instead of following the golden maxim of Lord Bacon, of conquering nature by obeying her laws, has endeavored, in opposition to those laws, to force her into a subservience to his own views. Had he observed the changes of vegetation which were spontaneously occurring arotmd him, he would have perceived, that of tlie seeds of plants, which are scattered with a lavish hand over the earth, those to which the soil and climate v^ere most congenial, and which found the greatest sup- ply of food fitted to their support, obtained the mastery in the contest for existence ; and continu- ed to flourish, until having reduced or exhausted those principles of nourishment peculiar to them- selves, they al^andoned the soil to others, to which it still afforded the elements of unimpaired luxuri- ance. These in their turn, having occupied it for a time, gave way (o more succespful rivals. Thus 10 FARMERS' REGISTER— ROTATION OP CROPS. the earth, forever occcupied by plants, to the I growth of whicli it is best adapted, presents the greatest mass of vegetation, vv^hich, under existing circumstances, it is capable of bearing ; and by their decayed remains, and their ceaseless change, the exhaustion of any principle is soon I'estored, and the fertility of the soil is preserved unimpair- ed. Here the seeds of plants are abundantly thrown on the lap of the earth, and unerring na- ture selects those which it is best fitted to bear. But such has not been the course pursued by man. Of the plants spontaneously produced by nature, he has made a selection ; and has wisely aimed at the extension of those best adapted to his use. But his want of skill has marred his own wishes. Ignorant of the principles of vegetation, he has consigned to the earth that which it was not fitted to bear ; or if at first fatted, his avarice has induced him to continue the cultivation, until it was no longer so. The soil has been tortured to produce what it refused ; and it has been refused that Avhicli it could produce. Man labored : the earth was impoverished ; and scanty products were the precursors of others still more so. Happily this gloomy result is not the necessary consequence of the cultivation of those plants, which minister most to the comforts of man. The progress of information, and the important disco- veries of the laws of vegetation, which scientific research has made, during the last half century, have gradually led to a correction of vicious prac- tices. And the establishment of sound principles in most of the departments of husbandry, now prove that the cultivator may pursue an uninterrupted succession of useful crops, and at the same time maintain the soil in a state of unimpaired fertility. ' This result is mainly attributable to the imita- tion of the principle of change, which constitutes the great and economical law of vegetable pro- duction : an imitation Avhich has led to the most important practice of modern husbandry, the ro- tation of crops. I have thought that I could not better fulfil the duty which has devolved upon me by the appoint- ment of this society to prepare an essay upon some subject connected with agriculture, than by at- tempting a succinct developement of the princi- ples upon which the rotation of crops is founded ; to illustrate those principles by the practices of the most celebrated agricultural districts; and to sug- gest a few hints for a succession of crops for our own country. If in this discussion I am led be- yond the legitimate bounds of an essay, I must throw myself on the indulgence of the society, who will, I trust, pardon the trespass on their time, in consideration of the extent and intricacy of the subject, and of its importance in reference to the peculiar deficiences of our own agriculture. The problem to be solved by the theory of a ro- tation of crops is, to ascertain by what combina- tion or succession of crops, the soil may be kept in the highest state of improvement, and at the same time be made to yield the greatest net production, for a series of years. The first object of the rational cultivator, will be to select the most valuable crops, which the pe- culiar circumstances of his climate, soil and situa- tion admit of He will further have reference to his own wants, and the demand which arises from markets. But when he has ascertained the crops which, under these circumstances, are the most valuable, the soil may not be sufficiently enriched to pro- duce them in the greatest abundance, or if suffi- ciently fertile, the crops may be of a nature so ex- hausting, as to have a tendency to impair it. He will, therefore, in order to maintain his land in the highest state of improvement, be under the neces- sity, either of adopting crops less exhausting ; of cultivating the exhausting ci'ops less frequently ; or of supporting the fertility of his soils by manures. Wliei-e extraneous supplies of manures can be obtained, as from a vicinity to towns, mineral ma- nures, marshes, irrigation, &c. a course of ex- hausting crops may be followed, Avithout impair- ing the fertility of the soil; and the judicious cul- tivator will avail himself of these extraordinary means of enrichment. But as these favorable si- tuations are comparatively few, and as the investi- gation of the question will be simplified, by omit- ting any allusion to them, it may be assumed as a general principle, that every soil, from its own pro- ductions, must be made to maintain its own fertility. The successful application of this principle, de- pends upon a knowledge of the manner in which vegetables in general, tend to exhaust or enrich the soil ; and of the nature more or less exhaust- ing of each vegetable. Plants do not, by the mere effect of their vege- tation, impregnate the earth with any fertilizing principles. Their ameliorating . influence results entirely from the mechanical action on the soil ; the beneficial operation of a peculiar mode of cul- tivation, during their growth; and the return to the earth of their decayed remains. As all plants do, to a greater or less degree, sub- tract alimentary substances from the land in which they grow, were the whole of their vegetation re- moved from it, all plants would be impoverishing. Their enriching tendency, will depend upon the return to the soil, on their decay, of more of the principles of vegetation, than they have subtracted from it, during their growth. Were all plants alike in their organization and vegetation, their comparative enriching effects would be in the relative proportion of their vege- tation removed from the soil on which they grew, to that returned to it, — and to the period of their growth at which it was removed. But this is not the case, for vegetables are found to differ essen- tially, in their exhausting effects, agreeably to their peculiar character, and to the pai'ticular mode of culture which they require. The food of vegetables is found dififtised through the soil; or floating in the atmosphere. And plants derive their nourishment, in part by their roots from the principles contained in tiie soil on which they are fixed ; and in part by their leaves and succulent bai'k, from the atmosphere which surrounds them. Vegetables having a system of large, succulent leaves, and much open and tender bark, absorb the greater part of their nourishment from the at- mosphere. While those with firm and narrow leaves, and close and hard bark, derive their sup- port chiefly from the soil. It will be obvious from the enunciation of these principles that, by the cultivation of vegetables with a system of large leaves and tender bark, a greater mass of vegetation can be produced, with a given expenditure of the fertilizing principle of the soil, than by the growth of those with narrow FARMERS' REGISTER— ROTATION OF CROPS. 11 leaves and compact bark, since a greater portion of the nutriment of the former is derived from the atmospliere. It is further obvious that, as vegetables Avith a system of large leaves, draw much more of their food from the atmospliere than from the soil, if they be returned wholly, or in greater part, to the soil, it will receive more of the principles of fer- tility than it has lost ; and that their tendency must be eminently enriching. On the contrary, as plants with a system of narrow leaves receive their nourishment principally from the soil, if the greater part of their product be removed from it, that which is restored to tlie earth is less than what has been taken from it, and their effect will be ex- hausting. The different proportions, iuAvhich different ve- getables derived their nourishment from the soil and atmospliere, is considerably influenced by tlie changes which tliey undergo in their organization during their growth. Before tlie period of flow- ering, a greater proportion of their nutriment is derived from the atmosphere. But the reverse takes place during the maturing of the seed. The proportion of food derived from the soil while the seeds are ripening, also depend much upon the peculiar character, and the chi^nges which tlie other parts of the plant undergo at that time. The more oleaginous and farinaceous the seeds, and the greater their weight in comparison with the other parts of the vegetable, the greater is the proportion of nutritive principles furnished by the soil. This is still more increased when the leaves, bark, and other spongy parts of the plant, become dried up about the period of flowering, and the nourish- ment requisite to the perfecting of the seeds, is ne- cessarily derived entirely through the roots, from the soil. From the review of these principles of vegeta- ble physiology, we arrive at the practical infer- ence, that by the cultivation of crops with systems of large leaves, the soil is less exhausted, than if it be made to produce those with narrow leaves : that if the broad-leaved plants are cut before the period of flowering, they are still less exhausting, than if allowed to mature their seeds : and that ii the product of their vegetation be returned whol- ly, or in greater part to the soil, they become em- inently fertilizing. Hence they have been called ameliorating crojjs. On the contrary, as narrow- leaved crops are highly exhausting, the more par- ticulai-ly when they are allowed to mature their seeds ; and these seeds and much of their other pro- ducts are removed from the soil, they have been denominated exhausting crops. With a know- ledge of these principles, and of the character of the plants which he cultivates, the agriculturist is enabled to maintain a proper degree of fertility in his soil. If his land be poor, "he will cultivate more ameliorating and fewer exhausting crops, un- til it is sufficiently enriched. If sufficiently en- riched, he will maintain it in that state by his ameliorating crops, which are a source of manure to restore to the soil, those principles of vegeta- tion which have been subtracted from it by the ex- hausting crops. This is to be accomplished either, immediately, by ploughing in the ameliorating crops; or mediately, by employing them as food for cattle, and applying the products of the farm yard in the form of manure. Tliis interchange of broad and narrow-leaved crops, constitutes one of the most important prin- ciples of a rotation of crops. Its application to practice is, however, to be modified by the circum- stances which are about to be mentioned. We have just seen that vegetables are separa- ted into two classes, in reference to the organs by which they derive their food from the atmosphere. The same utility results from a classification with respect to those by which they take it up from the soil. Hence they have been divided into tap and tuberous, and fibrous rooted plants. The roots of the first class penetrate far into the earth, subtract their nourishment principally at a great depth, and divide the soil by their mechanical ac- tion. The latter extend themselves near the sur- face, draw their Ibod from it, and tend to bind the soil. It results from the different action of these two systems of roots, that their interchange will be mutually advantageous; and that an economy of manure will be obtained by it, for when the surface of the soil becomes exhausted and unable to support the fibrous rooted crop, its subtratum may still afford an abundant pasture to plants ca- pable of reaching it, by their tap or tuberous roots. But independently of the quality in vegetables of withdrawing more or less of their nourishment from the soil, in consequence of the peculiar struc- ture of their leaves and roots, experience has proved that every plant has a habit of vegetation peculiar to itself, which by its action on the soil, after a certain period, renders it unfit to reproduce that particular vegetable, until a restoration has been effected of those peculiar principles of which it has been exhausted. Experience has also proved that, although a soil may be thus exhausted and unfit to produce one vegetable, it may be still in a state highly favorable to the growth of many others. These facts are firmly established by the change of plants which is incessantly renewing and beautifying the vegetable covering of the eartli; by the alternation of the trees of our forests, so familiar to us all; by the succession of grasses on meadoAvs ; and by the daily observation of all practical agriculturists. But while the fact is confirmed beyond the possibility of doubt, it is to be regretted that this is one of the secrets of vege- tation upon which scientific research has shed the least light. In lamenting the want of that clear perception of principles, which is so necessary to the direct and useful application of knowledge, it is, however, satisfactory, that enough has been es- tablished to prove that in the interchange of plants of different habits of vegetation, there is a positive economy of the alimentary principles contained in the soil ; and consequently that by it a greater pro- duct can be drawn from a given amount of ma- nure, than by the continued culture of the same plant. The effect of plants in exhausting the soil of those principles peculiarly adapted to their sup- port, will obviously be greater the longer they have been cultivated. And in whatever way those principles are restored, it is evident that the time taken to accomplish it, will bear a ratio to that in which they have been exhausting. It is also evident that, if the recurrence of the same plant, on the same field, proves injurious, the suc- cession of those approaching each other in charac- ter will also be so, to an extent, varying with their greater or less affinity. From these views results one of the leading 12 FARMERS' REGISTER— ROTATION OF CROPS. principles of a rotation of crops that, the return of the same vegetable, of the same field, or of vege- tables approaching each other in character, should be removed as far as possible. By a judicious succession of broad and narrow- leaved crops ; of fibrous and tap-rooted plants ; and by an interchange of vegetables of different char- acters, the cultivator will be able to adapt his crops to the actual state of the fertility of his soil ; and at the same time, to maintain it in a progres- sive state of improvea"ient. But in obtaining this he has not accomplished all that is required. The order of his crops may be such, as not to admit of stirring the earth, and of draAving it up to the growing plant ; operations which are absolutely necessary to the eradication of weeds; which permit the free admission into the soil of dew and heat, and of the gases, and finer particles of nourishment which constitute, or are found suspended in the atm.osphere ; and which while by a minute division of the soil they make it more absorbent of moisture, at the same time prepare it for the more ready escape of whatever is superfluous : operations, in fine, which contri- bute eminently to tlie luxuriance of the growing plant, and to the prosperity of subsequent crops ; and which have been tbund to conduce essentially to the preservation of the fertility of the soil. An attention to these points leads to a selection of such a rotation as will alternate crops which of- fer facilities in weeding and stirring the soil Vv'ith others which do not : and to commence with a cleansing crop v/henever the land is foul with v/eeds, or is likely to be made so, by the applica- tion of manures containing their seeds. As some plants require a greater degree'of fertil- ity of soil to effect their full developement than others; and as they require those principles of fer- tility to be in different states of preparation, and to a certain extent of different kinds, the cultivator will perceive the necessity of applying his manure to the most exhausting crop ; and so to arrange the others, as that they may follow in the most fa- vorable succession. Such a succession, as will prevent that useless expenditure of manure, which results from conveying, at one time, to the plant more than it can consume ; and which must, there- fore, in great part, be dissipated and lost in the at- mosphere ; or which takes place, when the manure is in such a state, that its fertilizing principles are brought into operation, at a period too early, or too late, to meet the exigences of the growing plant. Such are the principles of the convertible hus- bandry derived from the laws of vegetation. There are others founded on the economy of labor, of time, and of means. . The practical agriculturist will feel the necessi- ty of making such an arrangement, that the labor of preparing the soil, and sowing, cultivating, harvesting, and getting his crops ready for market, may follow in easy, regular, and economical suc- cession. And tliat it shall be such, as to require the least expenditure of manure and tillage, wliich may be consistent with a state of the greatest pro- ductiveness. He will also keep in mind that his profits depend upon the economical employment not only of la- bor, but of time and space. He will, therefore, leave his land unoccupied by a crop as short a time as possible and increase his products by the frequent introduction of double or secondary crops- To this course, he will be the more strongly im- pelled, v/hen he reflects, that, animal and vegeta- ble manures, being volatile, are rapidly evapora- ted into the atmosphere, whenever the surface of the soil, in which they are contained, is exposed to the action of the sun : that this suljfraction of the fertility of the soil is greatest, when there are no vegetables to be benefitted by it"; and that it is, therefore, one of pure loss, unattended by any equivalent or peculiar advantage of immediate pro- duction, or of remote amelioration. He will not allow his soil to clothe itself with a spontaneous growth : for then that fertility is expended in use- less weeds which might be converted into valua- ble crops, and the selection of tlie plants, which should be the result of choice, is left to chance, a chance which is likely to intermingle exhausting with ameliorating vegetables, with salutary gras- ses, baneful v/eeds, whose ill effects, from the de- posit of their seeds, will extend to subsequent crops. In the preceding observations, an attempt has been made to sketch out, and to elucidate by the sound theories of science, those leading principles of a rotation of crops, which have received the sanction of the ablest practical and scientific agri- culturalists. Before proceeding to illustrate them by tlie practises of the best cultivated countries, it may not be useless to present, in a more distinct form, the following recapitulation. First principle. — In the selection of crops, to consult tlie climate, soil, situation, the demand re- sulting from markets, and the other circumstances Vi'hich constitute the peculiarities of local position. Second principle. — Plants possessing a system of broad leaves, are to be alternated with those having narrow leaves. Third principle. — Fibrous'rooted are to be alter- nated with tap and tuberous rooted vegetables. Poiirth principle. — The recurrence of the same plant, on the same field, or of plants of the same character, is to be removed as far as possible. And their return should be so much the longer delayed as they have the longer occupied the soil. Fifth principle. — Plants which, during their groAvth, require the operations of stirring the earth and weeding, to be alternated with those which do not. Sixth principle. — The application of manure to be made to the most valuable and exhausting crops, as far as may be consistent with the preceding prin- ciple. Seventh principle. — The succession of crops should be so arranged, that the work which they require shall follow in easy, regular and economi- cal order. Eighth principle. — Land should be left bare as short a time as possible, and should be kept cover- ed Avith plants valuable in themselves, or which contribute to the increased value of those which are to follow. The first example of a course of crops will be draAvn from French Flanders, a part of Europe inferior to no other in the value of its crops, the garden-like culture of its fields, and the skill with which its diversified products are combmed, which claims to be the " true cradleof regular and syste- matic rotations of crops,"* in which they have * y vart. FARMERS' REGISTER-ROTATION OF CROPS. 13 been pursued for a century ; and \vhen the fertility and beauty of the country — a b.appy and comforta- ble population amountinjj; to nearly an individual to two acres of land, and a disposable surplus ot one-third of the products of the soil, attest the perfection of their peculiar system of ao-riculture, and is the highest eulogium which can be paid to the value of a rotation of crops. In this district the courses of crops vary with the soil to which they are to be applied, not only in the kind but in the number of the plants of ■which they are composed; presenting a nice adaptation of the character of tlie vegetable to the peculiarity of the soil ; and fulfilling all, or nearly all of the conditions of an enlightened system of rotatiofis. Amidst the diversity which exists,- from this cause, a leading principle is still observa ble in all of the courses, whether of long or of short duration. The plants which compose them are thrown into three great divisions, comprising different natural flimilies.* These divisions are made to alternate with great regularity, although the plants contained in them are frequently de- ranged in the order of their succession, to meet the "fluctuations of markets, and the vicissitudes of the seasons. The first division contains Oleaginous plants, as rape, flax, poppy, cameline and hemp, — and plants of the Solamcn lixmily, as potatoes and to- The second embraces Cereal or grain plants, as wheat, barley, oats and rye. The third, Leguminous plants, as beans, peas, vetches, lentils, clover, sainfoin and lucerne. This mode of succession will be best illustrated by the following example taken from the vicinity of Lille.t It is a rotation on a farm of forty-eight acres. 1st year. Plants of the first division. Rape, with stable and liquid manure, four acres, followed as a second crop, by two acres of carrots, beets or turnips. 2d year. Plants of the second division. 1^ olir acres of wheat, not manured ; second crop, two acres of turnips, carrots, or cabbages, with liquid manure. 3d year. Plants of the third division, i our acres of beans. 4th year. Plants of the first division. Four acres of potatoes, Avith stable and liquid manure. 5th year. Plants of the second division. Two acres of barley, with clover cut the first year. — Two acres of oats, do. do. Cth year. Plants of the third division. Four acres of clover, three cuttings. 7th year. Plants of the first division. Three acres of flax, with liquid manure and oil cakes. One acre of tobacco, same manure, followed as a second crop, by two acres of turnips, carrots, &c. 8th year. Plants of the second division. Two acres of bearded wheat, two acres of rye, follov^ ed by carrots, turnips, &c. as in second 'crop, with liquid manure. 9tb year. Plants of the third division. Two acres of winter barley, cut green, two acres winter forage,! followed by two acres of cabbages, beets, or turnips, as a second crop, with liquid manure. * Cordicr. Mciaoire sur I'Agri : de la Flandre Fran- caise. t Wem. p. 291. X A mixed forage crop, principally of legiimes. 10th year. Plants of the first division. Rape, four acres, for the seed, with stable and liquid ma- nure, followed as a second crop, by two acres of turnips, carrots, &c. 11th year. Plants of the second division. Four acres of wheat, followed by two acres of turnips and carrots, as a second crop. 12th year. Plants of the third division. Three acres of beans, one acre winter barley, cut green, followed by a nursery of rape plants, as a second crop, with liquid manure. In this course of crops there are four returns of the three great divisions. Each return fufils liiost of the important principles. The first year, the land is well manured, and well stirred and weeded. The application of manure is made to the most oxhaur,ting and valuable crop of the se- ries. At the end of this year, the soil is left rich, well stirred and clean, qualities which are required by the grain crops which are to follow. The crops of this year, are removed in time to admit of the preparatory operations for those of the next. The second year the land is occupied liy grain crops, which succeed perfectly well, as it is clean, en- riched and well stirred. No manure is added this year, as its recent application fills the soil with \s eeds, and from an excess- of vegetation, occa- sions the lodging of the grain. The ihird year it becomes necessary to rcfdace the grain crops, — which have left the soil impoverished, hard, and foul with weeds, by some crop which is amelio- rating and cleansing. Hence the cultivation of leguminous crops this year, which by their broad leaves and succulent stems, draw their nourish- ment from the atmosphere, and by the decayof their leaves, stems and roots, convey it to the soil; which, by their system of tap-roots, pulverize the earth, — and by their dense shade and the culture wliich they require, destroy the weeds produced by the preceding crop. These effects are reproduced whatever may be the length of the rotation. "It may be seen," says the author from whom this example is taken, " that in this rotation of twelve changes, each va- riety of oleaginous, cereal and leguminous plants, only returns twice ; that the greater part and the most exhausting, as potatoes, flax, are only culti- vated once. The great condition, therefore, of an extreme variety of crops is accomplished, and all the others are exactly fulfilled, since ameliorating crops and hoed and manured plants precede and follow the grain crops, wliich have the double in- convenience of exhausting and infesting the eailh with noxious weeds." The productiveness of this rotation is shown by its yielding four grain, four oleaginous, four legu- minous, and four secondary root crops; being six- teen crops in twelve years. The frequent introduction of double, or secon- dary crops, forms a striking and valuable feature in this and all the other rotations of Flanders. One not less valuable is, that fallows, whether naked or covered, form no part of them. It would be interesting to enter into an exami- nation of the course of crops adopted in Dutch Flanders, as they present many useful hints and valuable lessons ; but I fear that I have already exhausted the patience of the society— and as I purpose, should leisure permit, to offer at some future time, the result of a personal examination of the agriculture of that country, I pass from it 14 FARMERS' REGISTER— ROTATION OF CROPS. with the less reluctance to the rotations of En- gland. These are much less perfect than those of Flan- ders, as they include, on strong clay lands, a naked fallow, (a practice justly exploded by the best agriculturists,) and from tlie climate and pecu- liar circumstances of the countiy, admit a less va- riety of plants, and conseqviently of a less pro- tracted course of ci-ops. Tliese limited rotations are, hov/ever, managed with much judgment. I will instance only two. Tlie first is the celebrated Norfolk rotation, — adapted to a sandy loom. The change which it has produced in tlie agricultural character of the country, is so notorious as to be familiar to all. — An examination of the high state of culture, and of the beautiful crops produced by it, on soils of the most unpromising appearance, enable me to bear personal testimony of its excellence. 1st year. Turnips, on twenty-seven inch ridg- es, with from eight to fifteen tons of manure, and one-fourth of a ton of oil cake to the acre — pre- ceded by four ploughings and harrowings, and cultivated by two or three horse and hand hoeings. The crop eat on the ground by sheep. 2d year. Barley, sown in drills of seven inches, without manure. Ten pounds of white clover and sixteen quarts of rye grass seed so^vn with it. 3d year. Clover and rye grass. 4th year. Wheat, in drills nine inches apart. This course is sometimes prolonged to five years, by continuing the clover and grass a second year. Its excellencies are, that turnips and clover, — which are ameliorating crops, are alternated with baidey and wheat, which are exhausting; plants with different systems of roots succeed each otlier; the same plants recur only once; the manure is applied to the preparatory and cleansing crop of turnips, Vv'hich being an ameliorating one, and eat on the ground by sheep, leaves the soil in a high state of neatness and fertility, to receive the ex- hausting crop of barley, which follows ; the inter- val between the wheat and turnip crops admits of the production of the fine tilth which the latter re- quires ; the clover and grass induce the closeness of staple desirable on a sandy soil for wheat, while the treading of the land by sheep, corrects that openness which is one of the defects of light, gravelly lands. The faults in this course are, that tliere is a waste of manure in feeding turnips on the ground, and that the shortness of its duration does not admit of the deficiency of manure which results from this cause, and from the number of exhausting crops being supplied from additional ameliorating crops. These defects have led Mr. Coke to combine it with a second rotation, — in which a peas crop succeeds a second year of grass, making a six years course of, 1st turnips, 2d bar- ley, 3d cocks-foot and other grasses pastured, 4th grass pastured, 5th peas, 6th wheat. In this ro- tation the increase number of ameliorating crops, corrects the defect of the preceding. The next examples which I shall offer to yovir consideration are taken from Italy, a country which, approaching our own in climate and vege- table productions, becomes the more interesting to us for modified imitation. On the rich alluvial plains of Po, in the vicinity of Parma, the ^following course of crops is that generally pursued.* 1st year. Indian corn and hemp, manured. 2d year. Wheat. 3d year. Winter beans. 4th year. Wheat, manured. 5th year. Clover, turned in after the first cut- ting. 6th year. Wheat. This is an instance of highly productive and very exhausting rotation ; but which is sustained by the great natural fertility of the soil, maintain- ed by the abundance of manure, which is afforded l)y an irrigated meadow of more than a fourth of tiie extent of the arable land, cut three times a year, and consumed by large stocks of cattle. On the rice lands of Lombardy, the rotation adopted is of five years, being three years in rice, and two in natural meadow. For three years the land is planted in rice. " No manure is applied during this time; the continuance of the water would neutralize the effect, and its presence is suffi- cient for the vegetation. But after these three con- secutive crops, the exhausted earth requires sun, air and repose. It is left uncultivated, and the humidity produces a spontaneous growth of plants adapted to the nature of the soil ; it is manured — then only on the new sward, and during two years an abundant but coarse crop of hay is gathered from it."t This rotation is not cited as offering an example for imitation, but merely to show the necessity which, in a country so fertile as Lombardy and. Avhere there is a command of water, is deemed to exist of manuring, and of restoring to a dry cul- ture and a change of plants in the cultivation of rice. In the valley of the Arno, in Tuscany, the fol- lowing course of four years, is a common one. J 1st year. Wheat, followed in autumn by hari- cot beans, intermixed with Indian corn. 2d year. Wheat, followed by lupins. 3d year. Wheat, followed by a forage crop. 4th year. Indian corn, millet or sorgho. Being seven crops in four years, of which four are exhausting and three ameliorating. We have in this example, an admirable instance of great pro- ductiveness, resulting from the introduction of secondary crops, which at the same time happily interrupt the succession of the exhausting plants. It is owing to the latter cause, to great natural fer- tility, the highest cultivation, and to irrigation, — that the soil is not exhausted under this rotation, which has been adopted to meet the exigencies of a very dense population. I will detain the society, to present to their con- sideration only one more example of rotation, — drawn from the vicinity of Sorento, in the king- dom of Naples, in which our great staple is intro- duced. 1st year. Indian corn, manured. 2d year. Wheat, followed by beans. 3d year. Cotton. 4th year. Wheat, folloAved by purple clover. 5th year. Melons, followed by legumes. Producing eight crops in five years. " It is im- possible,'' says Chateauvieux, " to make a better ar- * Lettres Ecrites d'ltalie a M. Pictet. f Chateauvieux. jSimonde Tableau de I'Agri: Toscane. FARMERS' REGISTER— USE OF LIME. 15 rangement of the various crops. Tlie nature of their vegetation, and the various cultures which tliey require, alternately rest and prepare the soil, of which the fertility is preserved by this variety, for the production of every thing which the earth can render to human industry." On tlie use of Linic in Agriciiltiire. (From Proceedings of the New-York State Agricultural Society.) West Chester, Pa. Dec. 17, 1832. Dear Sir — Your letter, containing a numher of queries relative to the operation and utility of Ihiie, in the process of agriculture, was received in the early part of June last; but as I have been much engaged, during the past summer, with duties which required all my attention, — and, as your letter intimated that answers furnished "any time during the present year" would be in season for your purposes, I have taken the liberty to post- pone my reply until now. I proceed, then, with great pleasure, to furnish you with such facts and remarks as my opportuni- ties for observation have enabled me to otfer. — With a view to render the answers more explicit and satisfactory, I will annex them, seriatim, to your several inquiries. Query I. " Upon what lands does lime operate most beneficially .'" 1. In regard to geological formation, as primi- tive, transition, secondary, and alluvial. 2. In reference to the soil, as sand, clay, lime ajid vegetable matter. 3. As indicated by natural growth of timber and plants. Answer. My residence has always been in a primitive region, and my observations very much limited to agricultural processes in soils upon tliat formation. The prevailing rock here is gneiss, — with occasional beds, or veins, of hornblende, — greenstone and sceinite. About five miles to the north of us, is the great valley of transition lime- stone, stretching from north-east to south-west, and immediately on the southern side of this val- ley, running parallel with it, is a broken ridge of hills, formed of mica slate, with beds of serpentine rock and hornblende, on the side next to the gneiss rock, on the south-east. Over the gneiss rock, and among the hornblende, the soil is generally a stiff loam ; and there, I think, the best effects are per- ceptible from a given quantity of lime. On the soil overlaying the schistose rocks, the good effects of lime are sufficientlyobvious, imder the manage- ment of skilful farmers ; but the benefits seem to be less permanent. On the serpentine rock the soil is extremely sterile, and neither lime nor barn- yard manure can be used with much advantage. In the limestone soil of the great valley, where one would suppose it was already redundant, lime is used with advantage, and much heavier dressings are put on, than in the adjacent districts. I cannot furnish the rationale of this practice, but I believe the fact is established, that more lime is required to produce the same beneficial effect upon soils resting on limestone rock, than upon those over- laying gneiss, and perhaps some other primitive rocks. I have had no opportunity to witness the effect of lime upon secondary, and strictly alluvial for- mations; but the above circumstance has led me to suspect that the same quantity of lime would not be so signally beneficial in secondary, as it is in certain primitive formations. Lime, undoubtedly, has a good effect in soils which are sandy, — even where sand predomi)iates ; but I believe its meliorating properties are most conspicuous in a clay soil, or rather in a stiff" loam. A good proportion of decomposed vegetable matter adds greatly to the beneficial effects of lime; and hence our farmers are desirous to mingle as much barnyard manure as possible with their lime dres- sings, and to get their fields into what is called a good sod, or turf, full of grass roots. Then a dres- sing of lime has an admirable eirect.* The soils indicated by a natural growth of black oak, — (quercus tinctoria) Avalnut, (juglans 7tigra) and poplar, (liriodendron) and tliose in which such grasses as thepoas anA festucas best flourish, are generally most signally benefitted by the use of lime. In short, I may observe, that lime has been found more or less beneficial in every description of soil, in this district. It is most so, on hilly, or rolling lands, where clay predominates ; less per- manently so, among the mica slate; and least of all, on the magnesian rocks. The soil on these last is rarely worth cultivating. Query II. " What quantity of lime is applied to the acre, upon different soils, at a single dressing, and during a period of years .^" Jlnswer. The quantity of lime, per acre, which can be used advantageously, varies with the con- dition and original character of the soil. Highly improved land will bear a heavier dressing than poor land. On a soil of medium condition, the usual dressing is forty to fifty bushels per acre. A deep, rich soil, or limestone land in the great val- ley, will receive seventy to eighty, (and I am told even one hundred) bushels to the acre, with ad- vantage. On very poor land, twenty to thirty bushels per acre, is deemed most adviuitageous to commence with. It is usually repeated every five or six years— i. e. every time the field comes in turn to be broken up with the plough; and as the land improves, the quantity of lime is increased. The prevailing practice here is, to plough doAvn the sod, or lay, in the fall or early in the spring, — harrow it once, and then spread the lime (pre- viously slaked to a powder) preparatory to plant- ing the field with Indian corn. Every field, in rotation, receives this kind of dressing; and as our farms are mostly divided into about half a dozen fields, the dressing, of course, comes once in six years, more or less, according to the num- ber of the fields. Some enterprising farmers, how- ever, give their fields an intermediate dressing, on the sod, after they come into grass, which I con- sider an excellent practice, tending rapidly to im- prove the condition of the land. Query III. " Is it applied in a caustic or an effete state.?" Answer. It is usually obtained in a caustic state from the kiln, deposited in heaps in the fields where it is to be spread, and water sufficient to * Tlie yard manure is not usually mingled widi the lime, when tlie latter is first applied. The practice is, to lime the Indian corn ground, prior to planting that grain on the inverted sod, — and, the ensuing spring, to manure the same field for a hmie^j crop; — or, to reserve the manure until the succeeding autumn, and apply it to the ivheat crop. It is not well settled which of these is tlie better practice. Each has its advocates, but it is most usual to reserve the manure for tlie Avheat. 16 FARMERS' REGISTER— USE OF LIME. slake it to a powder, is tlien thrown upon it. As soon as slaked, it is loaded into carts, and men with shovels distribute it as equally as possible over the ground. It is g'cnerally considered best to put it on the ground whilst it is fresh, or xvarm, as the phrase is ; and it is certainly easier to spread it equally, while in a light pulverised state, than alter it gets much wet with rains. I am inclined to think, too, it is belter for the land^ vv'hcn applied fresh from the kiln. Query IV. " To what crops is it most advan- tageously applied, and at what seasons.^" Answer. It is usually applied, as already inti- mated, to the crop of Indian corn, in the spring of the year — say the montli of April. Occasionally it is applied, preparatory to sowing wheat, in au- tumn. When used as a top dressing, on tlie sod, it is generally applied in the tall — say November. The prevailing impression is, that it is most ad- vantageously applied to the Indian corn crop ; and hence the general practice. But the truth is, it is highly advantageous at any, and at all seasons ; — and our shrewd old farmers have a saying, — " Get yoiir lime on for your corn, if you can, — but be sure you get it on the land some time in the year." Query V. "How is it incorporated with the soil — by the plough or the harrow? and is it applied in any case as a top dressing to grass and to grains^ and with Avhat eifect.'^" Answer. As already stated, after the sod is ploughed down for Indian corn, it is usually har- rowed once, to render the surface more uniform. The lime is spread as equally as possible over the field, and then the ground is well harrowed in diffe- rent directions, in order to incorporate the lime with the soil. Soon afterwards the field is marked out, and planted with corn. The plough is rarely, if ever used, for the purpose alluded to. I have mentioned above, that lime is occasionally used as a top dressing, for grass. It appears to be particu- larly beneficial to tliat crop, and answers extreme- ly Xvell, when applied in that manner. The prac- tice of applying it to Indian corn, as above re- lated, is, however, chiefly followed ; and the ap- plication of a dressing to each field, in rotation, causes as much labor and expense every year, as our farmers generally are willing to incur. Lime has rarely been used as a top dressing to grain crops, within my knowledge. Query VI. " What is the ordinary cost, per acre, of liming, and the relative profits, in in- creased products, of a period of years .^" Answer. Quick lime, at the kilns, usually costs twelve and a half cents per bushel. The farmers generally haul it with their own teams, and the additional expense depends, of course, materially upon tlie distance. It is frequently hauled by them a distance of eight, ten, and even twelve miles. — The average, peidiaps, is about five or six miles. It is delivered to me by the lime burners, (a dis- tance of near six miles) at eighteen cents per bushel. At the rate of forty bushels to the acre, the cost, at eighteen cents, Avould be "^1 20 cents per acre. It is difficult to estimate, with preci- sion, the relative profits, in increased products. — But I can safely say, from my own experience, on a small flirm of middling quality, tliat two dres- sings of lime at the above rate, in the course of eight or nine years have more than trebled the products of the land to which it was applied, both in grain and grass. It is to be understood, how- ever, that the system of ploughing only so much ground as could be well manured, was adopted at the same time. I )nay also observe, generally, that the farmers of this district, (v/ho are shrewd economists) are so well convinced of the beneficial effects of liming, that, costly as its application seems to be, they are unanimous in sparing no effort to procure it. Lime has been found to be peculiarly fivorable to the grov/th of pasture, when the farm is otherwise well managed : and, as our farmers are mostly in the practice of feeding cattle, tliey resort to liming as an indispensable auxiliary to successful grazing. Query VII. " Is lime applied with yard ma- nures, or earthy composts, and with Avhat results?" Answer. I have already intimated that vegeta- ble matters, and especially yard manures, are highly important in conjunction with lime. Both a,re valuable, even when used separately; — but when combined, the effect is most complete. If to this be added that great secret of good farming, viz. to plough only so much ground as can be well manured, the state of agriculture may be con- sidered nearly perfect. Lime is, in some instances, added to earthy com- posts, preparatory to distribution on the field. But it is doul-ttful whether the extra labor of this method is compensated by any peculiar advantages. It is not generally practised. Query VIII. " Is powdered limestone (carbo- nate of lime) applied to soils — and if so, does it induce fertility otherwise than by mechanically ameliorating their texture?" Answer. No instance of powdered limestone being applied to soils has come under my notice. I can, tiierefore, form but a very imperfect opinion of its utility. If it Avere even as beneficial as quick lime, (which I doubt) I apprehend it could not be procured and applied with less cost and labor. . Query IX. " On what soils, if any, in your neighborhood, is lime found to be inoperative, as a fertilizing apjdication, and the cause of its failure?" Answer. There is no soil in this district, deemed worthy of cultivation, on which lime is ivholly in- operative as a fertilizer. On some sterile, slaty ridges, and on magnesian rocks, it has indeed but a slight effect ; and even the benefits of barnyard manure are very transient. In low, swampy grounds, also, unless they are previously well drained, the labor of applying lime is pretty much thrown away. There seems to be something ia the constitution of magnesian rocks peculiarly un- friendly to the growth of the more valuable plants. Indeed, there are patches of the soil perfectly des- titute of all vegetation. Repeated attempts have been made to cultivate the bases of our serpentine banks, but neither lime nor manui-e, will enable the farmer to obtain more than a light crop of small grain. Neitlier clover, nor the valuable grasses can be induced to take root and flourish in the ungenial soil. It is, therefox'e, almost univer- sally neglected. I have thus endeavored (in rather a desultory manner, I confess,) to answer your queries ac- cording to my best judgment, if what I have furnislied shall in any diegree tend to make the sulyect better understood, I shall be amply grati- fied. With great respect, I have the honor to be, your obedient servaiit, Wm. Darlijvgton, Jesse Buel, Esq. Cor. Sec. &c. FARMERS' REGISTER— GENERAL SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, &o. 17 For the Farmers' Register. MEMORANDA Of tlic general system of cultivation and lni= Xjroveinent practised by Fielding Lewis, Esq. of Wyanoke. Reports of tlie practices and opinions of expe- rienced and sii.ccessful farmers, however incom- plete, or limited in their plan, are generally, inter- esting and histnictive to those who have still to contend with similar difficulties, and are able to make use of similar means for the improvement of their lands. Independent of these general con- siderations, there are other circumstances peculiar to the farm of Mr. Lewis, v/liich may cause a re- port of its management to be more satisfactory than might be piesented elsewliere, even though equal intelligence and industry had been exerci- sed, and equal or greater improvements made. Under these impressions, I offer the following memoranda of a visit recently made to Wyanoke, (April the 19th, 1833,) the time of which was dili- gently employed in viewing the farm, and inaking inquiries, tlie answers to which will be here pre- sented. The general appearance of the land Mill be described as it struck upon the first view of a stranger : but the details of practice, or opinions, will be given as furnished by Mr. L. aided (when he found it necessary) by reference to tlie diary of his operations. The lower part of Wyanoke, belonging to Mr. Lewis, is situated on the north side of James Ri- ver, in Charles City County. The whole farm (exclusive of 150 acres of land outside of the en- closure, principally low marsh,) consi.*^ts of 600 acresof land, almost entirely arable. It is a low peninsula, surrounded by the river and a small creek, except on one side, Avhere a straight land line forms a boundary. The whole peninsula, though nearly level throughout, is no where entirely so : but has a gently undulating surface, which serves to keep the soil abundantly dry, without there be- ing any where enough declivity to be objectiona- ble. The whole of the arable land was cleared iong ago; and as its natural boundaries forbid an alteration of the extent of the farm, the quantity of land subjected to tillage has not varied in half a century. For this reason, the rate of improve- ment may be here estimated with a degree of pre- cision that is rarely attainable on other farms, where new clearings or other circumstances have frequently served to alter the extent of land culti- vated. AVyanoke is altogether of that class of low lands which are found at intervals along the tide water of James River — which seem to have been formed by the alluvion of the river, but which formation could not have taken place, un- less the water had then both a volume and rapidi- ty very far exceeding what now exist, and a long continued elevation withal, 20 feet higher than has ever been known. Such an origin, apparently, had the fine lands of Curie's Neck, Shirley, Berk- ley, Westover, Flower de Hundred, Brandon and Sandy Point, and various other tracts, which, not- withstanding all the existing diversities of soil, and of elevation, maintain a general resemblance. Wyanoke stretches out so as to form an angle in the course of the river ; and the many depressions in the land extend througli from west to east, and nearly parallel to each other, seemingly as if the Vol. I.— 3. river had passed over in its direct course, forming the land by its sediment, and leaving in these de- pressions the channels or traces ofthe strongest cur- rents. The upper or western side of the land is the highest, and the elevation gradually increases through the adjoining land (Dr. Minge's) which is of the same apparent formation and general character. But contrary to what might be expect- ed from such natural causes, the upper and most elevated lands are the most argillaceous, and the eastern and lowest extremity ofthe peninsula, is a silicious sand, of which the particles of course are much heavier. This lower extremity has but a fijw feet of elevation above the highest tides ; and the depressions are there low enough to be often covered by the tides, unless where protected by short dykes. The few and narrow strips thus in- jured or lost, form the only unproductive or waste land within the mass of arable. The western end, which is generally tlie highest, may be called a good loam of medium texture, equally removed from adhesiveness and looseness. The lowest and some other parts are very sandy and loose in tex- ture, and the great body of land is of different grades between these two extremes. In its im- poverished state, and when under tillage, a great part of the farm in dry weather might suffer inju- ry from the force of high winds. The general fertility and peculiar value of the low lands referred to above, are well known. Low- er Wyanoke seems to differ from all in being more sandy, and until improved, was also much jX)orer, than the greater part of those lands. Enough still remains unimproved to indicate the general quality of nearly all the farm in 1794, when Mr. Lewis be- came its owner, and perhaps long after. A consi- derable space, which has never yet been limed now appears even more unproductive tlian Mr. L. estimates its probable yield ; viz : 15 bushels of corn, or 8 of rye. Such poor land he finds more profitable in rye or oats, and therefore does not sow in wheat ; but supposes it might bring 5 or 6 bushels to the acre. The natural growUi now on it is very meager, and throughout is in part formed of sheep sorrel and heii's nest grass. This piece is very level, and has well improved ground lying along side. It is rather more sandy than the ave- rage of the fiirm. Except for the reddish brown colour of this and the other unimproved land, there is no perceptible indication of its having been rich in a state of nature, which Mr. L. supposes was the case with the whole of Wyanoke, though all was impoverished before he first knew the farm. All the spots that have not been limed (and they are in various places) show a considerable growth of sorrel — and it appears in smaller quantity even in many places that have been limed, tlius prov- ing sufficiently the original suitableness of the soil to that weed. The reddish brown color belongs to all the land, being the darker where most im- proved. The subsoil is not very different from the soil, but is more sandy. No clay any where.* * Two samples of soil were selected to ascertain by- subsequent examination the actual pi-oponions of sili- cious sand contained. The land from which one sam- ple was taken was considered by Mr. L. to be of me- dium texture, compared with the whole farm — had l)ccn limed at his usual rate some years before, as well as manured, and now supposed to be capable of yielding 32 or 33 bushels of corn, and aftei"vvards, 14 or 15 bush- 18 FARMERS REGISTER— GENERAL SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, &c. It is a very general opinion in Virginia that sandy soils are greatly inferior to clay soils, in their capacity for receiving durable improvement, and yielding the most valuable products and pro- fits to the cultivator. This opinion has probably grown out of the facts, that nearly all of our most valuable lands arc loams of different degrees of adhesiveness, and that our sandy soils are almost always poor, and of little profit to their OAvners. Another opinion, still more extended, and indeed almost universal, is that though rich sands may be even the best of corn lands, tliey must be compara- tively worthless for the production of wheat. The belief long entertained that both these opinions are quite erroneous, formed another inducement to present a report of the farm, which furnishes abun- dant proof that the mere deficiency of clay does not prevent a soil reacjiing the highest value. Wheat requires a stiff soil to yield the greatest pos- sible product — but such lands require so much la- bor, and their management depends so much on the season and weather, that tlieir crops of wheat are often less heavy, and still oftener less profitable, than on good sandy soils, where the friability of texture causes tillage to be far cheaper, and the alternations of wet and dry seasons have compara- tively but little effect in injuring the crop, or ob- structing tillage. The crops of' a sandy soil, of which the maximum product is 25 bftshels of wheat, would generally be heavier, and certainly would give more average clear profit, than those of clay soils that might bring 40 bushels, under the most favorable circumstances. But it is time to bring forward in support of this position, opin- ions and practice that will be justly deemed of much higher autliority, than any deductions or reason- ing of mine. notation of Crops, and general plan of Cultiva- tion. The farm was formerly kept by JNIr L. un- der the three field rotation, 1. corn — 2. wheat — 3. at rest, under the spontaneous growtli of grass and •weeds, and more or less grazed. At that time, and long afterwards, this rotation was the mildest in use in lower Virginia. Since 181G, his rotation has been 1. corn — 2. wheat on all good land, and oats or rye on the unimpi'oved and poorest — 3. clo- ver, mowed — 4. clover, grazed. Clover however has occupied no more land than had been previous- ly limed. Field peas, which always follow the new applications of lime, take a part of the field of els of wheat to tlie acre. The other sample was cho- sen to sliow the texture of the lightest soil forming any considerable part of the whole extent of the farm. The results obtained were as follows : 1000 grains of the mediu.m soil, yielded £25 — sand, mostly coarse, and almost none ve- ry fine. 1G4 — fine clay, &c. 11 — lost in the ijrocess of separation. 1 000 grains of the lighter soil, yielded 873 — sand, still coarser than the other. 122 — fine clay, &c. 5 — lost. Much of the sand of both samples was tinged with the color of rust of iron. The clay was brown, slight- ly inclining to red. No carbonic acid gas could be ex- pelled from either sample, and therefore, no carbonate of lime was present. the 4th year : and another smaller part is vmder turnips. Formerly, 190 acres, or one third of the farm, Avas every year under wheat, except such parts as were quite too poor — and tlie average crop v/as less than 1000 bushels. Now 140 acres make a field, and the unimproved or poorest parts (usu- ally about 40 acres) being in rye or oats, only about 100 acres are put under wheat, and the an- nual average crop is now more than doubled. Last year, 1832, when only 98 acres were in wheat, the crop was over 2000 bushels. The present ave- rage product of all the land usually put in wheat, is supposed to be 20 busliels — and the corn from the same land the previous year is 35 bushels or more. Though Mr. L. has been, since 1794, attempt- ing to improve his land by using putrescent ma- nures in unusually great quantities, and by his well known careful and judicious general manage- ment, still the great improvements made have com- menced within the last twelve years, during which time he has been regularly applying lime, and has noAV given that manure to about three-fourths of the land. He had made small experiments with lime as long as six years before, when its use was unknown in this part of the country, except in small experiments. But for tlie last twelve years, like some other neighboring farmers, he has gone as fully into the practice as the supply of shells and the disposable labor of the farm would permit. Lime first enabled him to make clover a field crop. Before, it could not be produced Avith any cer- tainty or profit, except on the richest lots around the houses, Avhich had the best preparation and every care bestowed. It is noAV an abundant crop Avherever his lime and the subsequent covering of putrescent manure extend. The quantity of stable and fixrm-pen manure prepared and applied are unusually great, even considering the aljundant supply of materials, com- pared to the general usage. But no other jneans for furnishing vegetable substances to the soil are used, no green crops ploughed in, nor the entire groAvth of grass left any where to rot upon the land. It is preferred to pass every putrescent ma- terial through tlie stables and cattle yards. In this respect the practice of Mr. L. differs essentially from other successful improvers of the soil. His green or meliorating crops of clover, peas, &c. are partly secured for dry food, and the balance consumed by live stock m the field. He has tried marsh mud, (to Avhich his access is very easy,) but found it not worth the labor. It Avas of a kind composed principally of decayed vegetable sub- stances. Naked fallows for av heat are rejected; and even Avheat on clover lay, as being on the whole, less profitable on such land than Avlieat after corn. This decision is not influenced by a belief that the former practices Avould be injurious to the soil. He is not satisfied of the correctness of the common opinion, that the soil is impoverished by exposure to the sun. burning and applying Oyster S/iell Lime. Close kilns Avilli Avails of brick or stone, have not yet been used to burn oyster shells for manure ; and until fuel becomes more costly than the additional transportation of the lime, it Avill be cheaper to use Avooden kilns. What are commonly called lime kilns are merely heaps of Avood and shells, built up in a somcAvhat cubical form, by Avhich the burning is imperfectly performed at great ex- FARMERS' REGISTER— GENERAL SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, &c. 19 pense of fuel, though without much trouble. Mr. L. burns his shells in the following manner. A pen of sixteen or seventeen feet square, is built of round green pine logs, (notched where they lock, so as to come as close together as their form will allow,) and with a floor of similar logs, chinked with smaller pieces, so as to prevent the shells dropping through. The bottom logs of the kiln are laid on four corner blocks, of tv,elve inches, so as to leave a vacancy of twelve or fifteen inches be- tv/een the earth and the bottom of the floor, whicli is to be packed closely with dry wood. The walls of the pen are raised about nine feet ; and about one hundred logs of six to eight inches through (which these now put up seemed to be,) usually serve for the floor and side walls. The shells are thrown in, and in layers of different degrees of thickness, according to their order, and separated by thin layers of pine wood, cut eight Icet long, and split to the usual size for fuel. The size of the last kiln burnt by Mr. L. according to his memo- randum book, was as follows : Kiln 17 feet square and 9 feet high, inside mea- sure. The lowest bed of shells 8 inches, (he thinks it might as well liave been 12 inches.) The second bed of shells 12 inches. — third — — 16 — — fourth — — 20 — — fifth — — 15 — — sixth — — 6 — The layers of wood between were equal, and about six inches. This kiln took one hundred hogsheads of shells, and consumed ten cords of wood in the layers, and three more of foundation or kindling wood. The kiln should be fired in calm weatiier ; and if the wind afterwards rises, it should be kept off as much as possible by a screen of brush, or whatever may be most conve- nient. The burning (in preference) is done in March, or as soon alter as may be. The newly burnt shells are carted to the field as soon as they are cold enougli, and deposited in small pai'cels of a mea- sured heaped half bushel each, at distances of six yards. The field is previously plouglied, and marked off carefully in checks of six yards square. These small heaps of shells are immediately covered completely, but not heavily, by the surrounding- earth being drawn over them with broad hoes. If a heavy rain was to catch the lime before tliis covering, much of it would become a wet sticky mortar, difficult to manage, and impossible to dis- tribute equally. When secured in the heaps, the moisture absorbed from the earth will usually slake the lime in forty-eight hours. The heaps are then cut down and mixed with hoes, and carefully spread so as to cover the field very equally. Tlie land is then well harrowed, more effectually to distribute and mix the lime with the soil. Tiie quantity applied to the acre is aliout seventy bush- els of the burnt and unslaked shells, which quan- tity is produced by burning six hogslicads (108 bushels) of shells ; and the same, if well burnt, ^vill swell in slakhig, to 125 or 130 bushels. The lime is always put on a part of the field of the fourth year, and is put under field peas the same year. The red, or cow pea, is preferred, being considered most profitable for live stock ; and as that is a late kind, it should be planted as soon as possible after the 20th of April, that the crop may mature. Two afler ploughings and one slight hand weeding serve to cultivate the crop ; and its product, Mr. L. thinks, though without having made any experiment or careful estimate, usually pays the whole expense of the liming. He has the bulk of the peas gathered by hand, but not closely ; and the remaining pods and vines are eaten on the ground by cattle. The peas are partly ground into meal and mixed with other food for mules, for which use they are much valued. Mr. L. has never compared the products of peas with corn on equal land, but supposes that more bushels per acre would be obtained from corn. Mr. L. does not think that a heavier cover of lime would be much more effective. He showed the ground where an experiment had been care- fully made to test this question, and which is still on trial. Three years ago a certain space marked out through equal land, was limed with a second cover equal to the first and usual quantity, which had been applied to the field four years earlier, and was followed by manure from the stable and farm yard, the year after the first liming. The field is now in wlieat, and the growth excellent through- out, but unequal, and the part doubly limed is not perceptibly superior to that on either side. Still he expects a different result on a soil less light, and applied liis last lime as a second and lighter dressing to tlie stiffest loam, in preference to the lighest land that had yet received none. He has found that the lightest soils here, and the stiffest among the clay soils of his farms in G-loucester, are neither so much improved by liming as are soils of medium texture. The whole expense of liming has not been esti- mated by ]Mr. L. nor has the benefit from lime alone been ascertained. He always covers with putrescent manure the whole of the previous year's limed land, and sows all in clover. The durable benefit obtained from the manure in part, and the whole value derived from the clover, are indirect- ly the effects of the lime. The expense bears a very small proportion to the profit. The only dif- ficulty in liming, arises from the scantiness of the supply of shells, and the fear that they will be still more scarce, as their use extends. Small vessels now bring cargoes of oyster shells and sell them (on board) at 62| cents the hogshead. The labor of landing them is an additional expense to the farmer. Gypsum had been frequently tried on clover as well as other crops before liming, and with little or no benefit. It has not been tried since liming, but he is now about to make the experiment again. No value is attached to the caustic quality of the lime, and indeed it is supposed to have lost that quality by exposure under the usual treatment, before the succeeding crop of peas begins to grow. Ten or twelve days are generally allowed to inter- vene for this purpose, between the spreading and harrowing in of the lime, and the planting of the peas. . VVlien peas were planted immediately after the spreading, tlieir growth was thought to show some injury from the remaining causticity of the lime. Still Mr. L. is not satisfied, that an equal quantity of mild calcareous earth in any other form, would serve as well as lime prepared by burning. Without denying the correctness of that deduction from his opinions and practice, he pre- fers adhering to the practice which experience has proved to be highly beaeficial and sufficiently 20 FARMERS' REGISTER— GENERAL SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, &c. cheap. No banks of fossil shells are on his land, nor nearer than eight or ten miles distance by wa- ter carriage. As one fourth of the farm has not yet been limed, the general improvement by that means is still in progress, and the increase of crops may be fairly supposed to be yet much below what a few more years of the same practice w ill exhibit. — Whatever increase of product has been obtained is almost entirely owing to the lime, considering its indirect as well as its direct benefits. Without lime, there was (and could be) no improvement from clover : and all the putrescent manure used before liming, seemed merely to keep the products of the farm from decreasing. This opinion re- quires no stronger proof than the foIloAving table of all the crops of corn and wheat made for 21 suc- cessive years before liming was begun, and when the farm was under the regular three shift rota- tion. The fulness and accuracy of Mr. Lewis's diary, has enabled him to furnish me with this statement. WHEAT. Bushels, 17i)G 1162 1797 1798 1799 896 975 1280 1800 1801 1802 790 1400 1453 1803 1804 1805 940 1150 8G6 1806 1807 ISOS 1160 980 1060 1809 1810 1811 987 1060 1255 1812 1813 1814 905 820 790 CORN. BaiTcls. Price of Corn sold. 616 842 G50 661 620 750 811 626 573 650 524 6F0 616 700 750 548 652 667 494 448 425 $3 75 3 00 3 00 2 50 4 41 3 33 2 46 4 00 5 00 2 33 5 00 2 00 2 33 3 50 3 75 4 00 3 00 3 33 ~3~sT 4 00 7 00 Though this table shows much difference of pro- duct from good and bad seasons, there is no appa- rent average increase in the product of any one field. The crop of wheat, which stands first in each division of three years, was in every case on the field which was in corn tlie previous year ; and in like manner for the second and third crops. — Thus each division of the corn crops shows tlie whole product of the whole farm in corn — and the same as to the wheat, for as much of each field as was worth putting under that crop. The fields were about 190 acres each. When divided into four fields, after 1816, the crops of the first years were diminished, by each of the fields losing about fifty acres in extent, notwithstanding the counteracting benefits then beginning from lime. The last crop of wheat (1832) was 2199 bushels, from 98 acres, and 88 bushels of seed. The sea- son was good for ^vheat — the field is rather more productive tlian the general average of the four, but is not the best of them, Tlie crops of corn have not been so much in- creased as those of v/heat for several reasons. — The unimproved part of each field is now as for- merly, always under corn in its turn, and it may be well supposed that no increase of product is shown there ; and the former impoverishment of the other land did not lessen the yield of corn so much as wheat, from the peculiar fitness of this sandy soil for tlie growth of corn. Since the putrescent manures have succeeded lime, it is not supposed that their beneficial effects have been lost by time and after cultivation. It needs no other evidence than the foregoing table of crops to prove that the effect of the manure for- merly applied must have lasted but a very short tim.e. Putrescent Manures. About 50 head of cattle are kept, (not counting the calves under a year old) GO sheep, 10 or 11 work horses or mules, 4 saddle and carriage horses, and as many hogs as will furnish about 50 annually to be slaughtered for bacon. From 2600 or 2700 good horse cart loads of manure from the stables and littered pens, (with some other putrescent matters) are usually made, besides the land manured by naked cow pens in summer. The whole space manured al- ready for the present corn crop, amounts to 54 acres. The vegetable materials used as food and litter to make this manure, are the stra^v of the wheat crop, the stalks and the better forage of the corn, the clover from as much as can be mowed of tlie limed land of one field, and the coarse hay of 18 acres of wet marshy meadow. Leaves raked in the woods, are enough valued to be cart- ed (when leisure permits) two and a half miles, which is the distance from the woodland belong- ing to the farm. Five or six acres of turnips are also made, w hich add greatly to the value of the manure, as well as to the food of the milch cows, oxen, &c. The winter pens for cattle are made in the field to be manured, which is always the land intended for corn. Plenty of litter is furnished, and early in January tlie ricking is commenced, and continued from time to time as the state of the weather and the manure may require. The stable yard has a long pit 18 inches deep, into which the fresh manure is thrown, with the litter cleared out of the stables. This general clearing out is not done except on rainy days, or other leisure times. When quite wet, this manure is carted from the pit, to aid in forming a rick made just without the cow pen. For this purpose, the parcels of litter from the cattle and from the horses, are laid in al- ternate beds on each other, two feet of the former to one foot of the latter. The ricks are built 16-|^ feet wide, (being the width of three corn beds) 5 feet high, (which lessens to 3, by settling and fer- mentation) and of any length that is convenient. The materials are thrown on very lightly, and the building proceeds from one end of the rick, so that each part is soon finished, after its foundation is laid. Tills ricking is done whenever the manure is wet enough, Avithout much regard to the time the materials have been exposed to trampling. The ricks usually begin to ferment in forty -eight hours, and in fifteen or twenty days may be carted to the field. Its texture will be then considerably soft- ened, though the manure when used, cannot in FARMERS' REGISTER— GENERAL SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, &c. 21 general be said to be as much as half rotted. Poles are placed in different parts of the ricks ivhcn they are made, and by pulling them out and feeling- them, the heat of the whole mass is known. By this mode of fermenting, ^re^ngtng-, (the white mouldy appearance so common on manure,) is avoided, and the whole rick makes good manure. The cow pen litter when used alone for manure, was always found very weak. Mr. L. thinks it E roper to heap and ferment the manure, so as to reak down the texture of the coarse litter, but does not approve of thorough fermentation, any more than the total want of it.* The times of carting out the manure from the ricks, do not depend so much on their age, (after having been heaped fifteen or twenty days,) as upon the state of the land. When carried out, the heaps are dropped at 24 by 27J feet, spread and ploughed under very carefully, and as soon as pos- sible to avoid waste from exposure to the air. The whole job had been completed but a few days be- fore the day of my visit (April 19th.) The ma- nure now making in the stables and littered pens, will be used for turnips, after being ricked. Of course the season, and the length of time will cause the fermentation to be more complete. Mr. L. does not approve of top dressing, though no actual experiment had proved the loss incurred by that practice; but supposes it may be advisable when the manure is perfectly rotted. The cattle will now soon leave their last littered pens for moveable pens on the naked land, as is the usual practice. During the summer, about five acres are dunged in this manner. The land intended to be manured by the summer pens, is ploughed first, and as mucli as is manured in good time, is pre- pared for turnips. The raked leaves are used only for the hog pens, in which they are put so thick as to prevent the hogs from rooting to the earth below. Enough of this litter is used to make about 300 loads of manure, the quality of which is very good. The pme leaves are considered the most valuable. All the hogs are confined in pens through the winter and spring, until the clover is enough advanced * It issurprisins; what different opinions are hekl wit]i regard to the most advantageous preparation and eco- nomical api^lication of farm yard manure. Even within the small county of Charles City, practices the most opposed, arc found on the farms of several intelligent gentlemen, all of whom are good farmers, and success- ful improvers. The practice of Mr. Lewis is described above. Mr. William Minge, of Sturgeon Point, leaves all his manure vmdisturbed on the farm yard until after harvest, when it is moved, jiut into large heaps, and covered with earth, to remain until used the succeeding spring on corn. Mr. John Sekicn, of Westover, uses the whole of his farm yard manure the springit ismade, for corn, without heaping to ferment. Mr. Hill Carter, of Shirley, leaves his manure in the yard, thickly co- vered with straw, until August and September, Avlicn it is carried out and ploughed in on his follow for wheat, Mr. Collier Minge, of "Walnut Grove, approves of and practices top dressing on wheat. Some other differences, though less striking than these, may be found in almost every farmer's practice ; yet each one thinks his own course the best to avoid (what all alike fear) tlie great waste of the enrichixig principles of the manure. Such opposite opinions and practices, show how much is lost for want of free communication and discussion, and that by an interchange of opinions, each individual perhaps might both i-cceive and dispense instruction. for their grazing, when they are turned upon the field of the fourth year. They are now confined, and on corn ieeding. Forty hogs nearly grown, in one poi at this time, are kept in thriving con- dition on two bushels of corn.a day. Simblms are raised for hog food, an-d considered very valuable for that purpose. It is not from choice that the hogs are thus kept in pens, but because if turned outside of the enclosure they are often lost or stolen. The cattle and sheep ha\'e some advan- tage from 150 acres of land outside of the enclo- sure, of which much the greater part, however, is low tide marsh, irom which the cows can get very little food, and the sheep none. Throughout the winter the cattle arc confined to their pens, except during the short time required to drive them to water t^v'icc a day. The fallacy of the general opinion that close confinement of cattle in littered pens is injurious, by making them both lousy and diseased, is sufficiently exposed by the good condition of the stock of Mr. L. under this treatment. The injury imputed to this cause is in fact, produced by a \vant of enough litter to keep the cattle dry and comfortable. With sheep, the case is different. Though the want of suitable pasture ground for them com- pels Mr. L. to pen his small flock during winter, they suffer from the confinement greatly; and many would die, but for the succulent food fur- nished them in turnips. Peas are given to them also, in considerable quantities. The management of sheep which Mr. L. adopts, is not such as he deems profitable, or would recommend to others. He considers their grazing so destructive to grass, and consequently so injurious to the soil, that it causes him to keep no more than will serve for the suj)ply of mutton and lamb for the family. It being my object only to report the general system of cultivation and improvement, I do not enter upon the feeding of live stock, except as con- nected with the making of manure. Yet there is no part of the economy of Mr. Lewis's farm more admirable (as is generally suj)posed) than his man- ner of feeding, particularly as it regards horses and mules. Preparation, for Corn. Low as is the Wya- noke land, and with a surface seemingly shaped so as not to permit much surface water to run off, very little draining is any where requisite, and cul- tivation with a level surface is admissible, except on some of the land so lovv as to be affected by the highest tides. Generally, the open texture of the soil and subsoil is sufficient to pass off all super- fluous water from the surface. Not a sjjring Ijursts out any where on the farm, and there is no need for any side ditch to cut otT such oozing waters as form the greatest objection to our hilly lands. This absence of springs is one of the great advantages possessed by the cultiva- tors of soils formed like Wyanoke. But though ridges and water furrows are not wanting to keep tlie surface dry, the corn land intended to receive the manure is always ploughed and tilled in 5^ feet beds, under the belief that the manure can in that manner bejiest secured in the soil, and less dis- turbed and^xposed by the after tillage. Still, the manure is not accumidated in the former water furrow, when the beds are reversed; for care is taken so to spread it, that it may be dispersed as equally as possible through the Avholo width of the bed. The land not recently manured is ploughed 22 FARMERS' REGISTER— GENERAL SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, &c. flat early in the winter, the rows laid off in checks, andtilled by double shovel ploughs, and oilier im- plements suilablcto the friable and yielding nature of the soil. The labor of tillage is very light, considering the richness of the land, except where wire grass grows : and even those spots are made nearly as easy to cultivate as the balance, by remo- ving that abominable weed at an enormous cost of labor, before planting the crop. Tlie growth of wire grass seemed the only considerable evil atten- dant on the numerous advantages of this farm. The sandy and rich soil now made calcareous, is as fa- vorable as possible to the growth and increase of this plant. Mr. L. computes the labor caused by wire grass to be equal to one fourth of the whole tillage and management of his crop of corn. His most laborious operation is conducted in the follow- ing manner. When breaking up the land in De- cember, the ploughmen mark every spot of wire grass turf by setting up small sticks, whicii are provided in great numbers for the purpose. These marks are necessary, because when the soil is well turned 5 to 6 inches deep (5 preferred to a greater depth,) the wire grass can scarcely be seen until it begins to grow, Avhicli is late in the spring. In the latter part of winter, and whenever the earth is fit for the operation, men dig up the long roots with three pronged hoes — such as are described and recommended by Taylor, for digging, and loading with coarse manure. These tools are made strong, and are admirably suited to taking up the vfire grass. The roots Avhich are thus ob- tained in great quantities, are shaken clear of the soil, heaped when dry, burnt, and their ashes scattered on tlie land. At this time, they are cart- ed off and throAvn into a small piece of adjacent marshy ground. The burning, or throwing away of so much vegetable matter, whicli also could not be entirely cleared of the rich mould in which it grew, seemed to be a waste of materials for manure not according with Mr. L.'s general practice. But he considers wire grass roots as but a poor litter — and when he formerly tried it for manure, its life was never entirely destroyed, before it was carried out to the field to increase tlie stock already grow- ing there.* Six men were engaged in this job at the time when these oliservations were made, and they had still ahead of them a large portion of tlie field thickly marked by the sticks which directed to the concealed enemy. Mr. L. has his seed corn prepared in a manner which he finds effectual in preventing crows from eating it. They will make a sufficient examina- tion throughout the whole field, and then move off to some otlier place offering better fare. The same means however arc not sufficient to guard against blackbirds. Tlie seed is treated in the following- manner : — To a convenient quantity of corn pour hot water, keeping the corn well stirred as long as the water is pouring on. The water may be al- most boiling without injury, if the corn is kept in motion. Alter standing in the water about twelve hours, the corn is drained by being placed in bas- * A farmer on hilly land can use wire grass advanta- geously to lay on his numerous galls, where the soil has been entirely washed av.'ay. As wire grass cannot grow on very wet land, the roots if heaped in a wet pit surely would die and rot. Tlic green roots contain much sac- charine matter, and arc cagci-ly eaten by hogs, and also by mules when thrown into the stables. kets, and then sjiread on a table. Tar, and stur- geon's oil (or train oil) are then well mixed with the corn, in the proportion of two pints of tar and one of oil to three bushels of corn. Enough quick lime is then added to cover the grain, and be fix- ed by the tar and oil : and finally one gill of poun- ded sulphur is Avell mixed with each bushel of corn. Wheat. The quantity of seed given is only tliree to three and a half pecks to the acre general- ly— and only a bushel for the best, or the stiffest soil. Tliicker sowing considered injudicious on soil so light. An observer riding through the fields at this time, would not suspect that so small a quantity of seed had been given, as the growth looks thick enough, as well as very luxuriant. Many jiarts of the field now appear as if the crop would lodge. Mr. L. supposed that some of the best spots will produce at the rate of thirty bush- els to the acre. His lodged wheat is cut with reap hooks. The land manured for corn is kept in beds through the cultivation, to prevent as much as possible exposing the manure. For the same reason, the wheat is afterwards sowed on the sur- face, and covered by small (double shovel) ploughs. All the other land is ploughed before sowing, with two horse ploughs, tlirowing several corn rows in- to one flat bed, and the seed is then sowed and co- vered with harrows. The slight covering of the seed is not supposed at all injurious to the crop. The beds formed in ploughing for wheat, are not needed (except in a few situations) to keep the land dry, but are useful to direct the sowing of clover seed. Turnips and other Succulent Crops. Mr. Lewis decidedly prefers turnips to any other root crop. He supposes his usual product of turnips, (Avithout a bad season or some other serious disaster,) equal to 800 bushels the acre. He does not believe that turnips (in this country) deserve to be considered as an improving crop, as they are held to be in England : and neither does he concur in the gen- eral opinion entertained among us, that they are extremely exhausting to the soil. To support his defence of this plant, he showed the land now in wheat, which Avas manured by summer cowpens in 1831, and only part of which was put in turnips, and the Avhole in corn the following year. The wheat on all is very fine, and pei'ceptibly better on the part which was not under turnips : but the difference is so small, as to sustain the opinion that the injury caused by the turnips, bears no com- parison to the value gained from that crop. Parsnips and carrots are also made in smaller quantities, to furnish juicy food to milch cows, &c. after turnips are unfit for use. Carrots require much richer land than turnips. Some rich lots of orchard grass, and lucerne also are kept for green feeding before clover is enough advanced. None of these crops except the turnips occupy any part of the four fields, and therefore do not affect the general rotation, nor come within the range of my inquiries. Postscript. A subsequent visit to Wyanoke (May the 13th) has enabled me to supply some defi- ciencies in the foregoing memoranda, particularly as to the management and uses of clover. A ievf years only have passed since the establishment of the fact that the profitable field culture of clover was possible in the tide water district of Virginia, FARMERS' REGISTER— GENERAL SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, &c. 23 except on some soils of rare and peculiar qualities. Even now, it is far from being generally known that calcareous manures (and notiiing else without them) will serve to remove the general incai)a- city of our lands to produce clover — and will make that crop safe and valuable, even on some of our most worthless natural soils. The methods for making clover hay in the northern states, and in England, are unsuitable lor us, not only because of the difference of climate, but also of our cultiva- tion in general. When our clover is ready for mowing, Ave are pressed with tlie heaviest and most essential part of the tillage of our largest and most important crop — corn. On this account, it is not so important for us to make hay of the best possible quality, as to obtain the greatest value in quantity and quality combined, for the limited amount of labor which we can tlien devote to that purpose. For these reasons, as well as the very limited extension of the clover husbandry among us, I hope at least to be useful to novices in this bu- siness, by stating the experience and opinions of a farmer Avho has had to contend with every com- mon obstacle to the production of this important crop. Mr. L. saves his clover seed from the second growth, (after once mowing,) of the second year of the grass. The dry heads are gathered liy a simple utensil,theoperatingpartof which is mere- ly a short piece of plank, haviiig the end cut into a comb-like form : the long slender teeth allow the stems to pass between, but break off and save the heads, which fall to pieces at the same time. The seed thns saved are not only cheaper, but tliey come Tip better than tiie clean seed brought for sale from the northern states. They are sown in February and the beginning of March on the wheat land. — No harrowing or other means of covering the seed is considered necessary. To distribute them at the proper rate to the acre is the only difficulty — to surmount which, the lengths of tlie wide beds are measured as often as necessary, to fix their extent nearly — and each seedsman scatters over a certain assigned space, the proper measure of seed. If he leaves a remnant at any one trial, he will know better how to suit his casting to the next piece of land. A flour barrel of seed in the chaflt', pressed in very lightly, is equal to a gallon of clean seed, which is our usual allowance for an acre ; but Mr. L. thinks that quantity too small for good sowing, and gives 1-^ gallons, or 1-| barrels in the chaff, to the acre. The next year, mowing begins early in May, for green food for horses and mules. It is gene- rally thought that green clover is weakening and injurious to working horses and mules ; and some of us who hold a contrary opinion, are yet com- pelled to yield to the prejudices of our overseers, that we may deprive them of the ready excuse which green clover feeding would furnish them for sIoav and insufficient ploughing, or poor teams. Mr. L. has a day's allowance mowed in the morning, which is thrown into small heaps as soon as it is clear of dew. This is used for feeding at night and the next morning. Two well filled horse carts are brought up every night and used at the two feed- ings. The long food for mid-day is always of dry fodder. Corn, as usual, is given at every time of feeding, but less is eaten, from the greater relish of the horses for the clover. So far from any injury being sustained, the horses seem to improve from the use of their green food. It should be mention- ed that one or t\vo of the work horses are generally not at work, and this share of rest they have as they most need it. A t other times all are at work together. The second growth is never mowed for green food, as its salivating quality makes it al- ways hurtful. Owing to the very succulent nature of clover, and the variableness of our weatlicr, there is much risk in curing clover hay. With all tlie care that can be used, the thin leaves will generally become crisp, and fall off in the various handlings of the hay, before the large sappy stalks are enough cur- ed to stack. If a soaking rain or even heavy shower falls, the best made cocks of clover hay will be so penetrated with wet, as to require all the trouble and loss of drying. .After sustaining much loss of labor and of crop from these causes, Mr. L. has adopted a method which he has found to save a deal of labor, and on a general average, to furnish better hay. His mowing for hay goes on in any wea- ther, except it is raining too heavily for laborers to be out of the house, or unless the earth is full of wa- ter. Three sv»aths are raked into one high ridge, immediately after mowing, if clear of dew, or as soon afterwards as the dew has dried off'. This operation substitutes all the usual and various la- liors of opening, turning, putting into cocks, &c. The rows remain, taking the sun and rain, until the hay is cured, which may be in five or six days of common weather, and has been as long as ten in the worst. The surface is so burnt by the sun as to cause the row to appear to be ruined by the exposure ; but the injury is only superficial, and that cover protects what is beneath. If rain comes, as usually happens, the whole row is made com- pletely wet, but it is thin enough to dry afterwards without moving. When cured, it is thrown into small cocks, which facilitates the loading of the wagons, and also serves to air the hay, and re- move any remaining dampness. If the weather is good, the hay is moved Avithout delay to a house where it is packed away, or otherwise put into large ricks containing from 12,000 to 20,000 lbs. of hay, and which are covered thickly v/ith straw. If the weather is threatening, the cured hay is put into small stacks until it can be put into the house. From the description of this mode of hay -making, it might Avell be supposed that the hay would al- ways be bad, and generally worthless as food. — But Mr. L. has commonly made better hay in this manner, than when he used mu^h more care and labor — and has never entirely lost any, from the worst of Aveather. The Aveather can scarcely be expected to be Avorse for hay-making than in 18.30, yet his clover Avhich passed through that trial, made Av hat might be called hay of belter than mid- dling quality.* In general, the leaves remain on * After hearing this statement from Mr. L. I acciden- tally observed his memoranda of tlie circumstances re- ferred to, as Ave were looking into his diary for some other facts — and, Avith his permission, I took the folIoAv- ing abstract, relating only to tlie Aveather and other cir- cumstances connected Avith the hay-making. " 1830— Mat 30.— Heavy rain. "June 1. — Began mowing for hay. Weather still " very threatening, but no more time can be spared. " 4tli. — A very great fall of rain. " 5th. — The earth so saturated Avitli A\-ater, that no " field Avork (normoAving) could be done. " Gth. — Rftin threatening through the day, and at night 24 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF THE VINE. the stalks, and the greater bulk of the hay retains its green color. Though tlie general plan of the rotation is to mow the clover tlie year after wheat, yet the mow- ing never extends over the whole field, for want of time and labor for so heavy a job. 'I'he balance of the field is grazed. Summer Fermented Manure. Much the greater part of the manure is made during the colder part of the year, because there is neither enough litter left, nor enough spare labor during the warmer inonths, to profit fully by the supply of animal matter furnished by the stables alone. The use of litter on summer cow pens would be rejected, even if it was more abundant, as a wasteful application, from the certaint}^ of great loss from fermentation. Still some loss from fermenting bulks of manure must necessarily be suffered. When all the fer- mented (or ricked) manure is carried out in April, the cow pen is moved to the land intended for corn the next year, and littered ; and the cattle remain there the short time that intervenes before the naked penning is begun. This litter Avill be too dry and too poor for early heaping; but when wet weather allov/s the stal}l« dung pit to be emptied, its contents are carted to the cow j^en, and a rick formed, as was before described, by using alter- nately layers of the two kinds of mamu'e. This has not yet been done : but the pit was full of dung, and flooded with water from late rains. This is the proper state of things for the operation of rick- ing. The scarcity of litter in the stable during sum- mer, prevents the heat that Avould otherwise take place, and no inconvenience is sustained by the horses from that cause, between the times when the staljles arc emptied of the manure. In dry weather, the water in the pit settles to the bottom, and the upper part of the manure woidd suffer by becoming too dry. To prevent this, five or six holes are dug through tlie dung to the bottom of the pit. In these the water collects; and every morning it is thrown over the top of the manure, which is quickly done with broad paddles. The heaping of the litter of the pens where beeves and milch cows had been kept until lately, was going on, which gave me an opportunity of witnessing the great superiority of the three- pronged hoes, and three-pronged forks to our com- mon tools, for moving coarse manure. Few, per- haps, Avould consider the use of these tools of much importance from any description of their advan- " it came so heavily, iliat again on the 7th no field work. "8lh. — About IG acres of clover has been mowed, and " raked three rows into one — the crop a heavy one for " our land. Such heavy rains have fallen, and have " driven through the clover ridges, that unless we have " clear weather from this time, I fear we shall have a " very indifferent crop of hay. Have been five days " mowing. Weather now fair, and we are putting the " liay into cocks pi-evious to stacking. " 9th. — Fine day for hay-making, since the last clear- " ing off, but unfavorable to corn, being uncommonly " cool. For five days past, the thermometer has been " each morning as low as from 52" to 54° in the shade. - " lllh. — Fine morning. Thermometor 65o. Yester- " day liauled to hay house 25 loads. This day we con- " tinuc — 2 more loads to the house, and 12 to the stack. " Next day finislied the stack v/ilh 7 more loads, or 19 " in all." tages ; but whoever sees them used for five minutes, will determine never again to heap, or load with manure, without their aid. This manure, though coarse, (being principally corn-stalks) was rich from the fat animals kept on it, and the richness of their food, and was quite wet. I should expect it to suffer from fire fanging, the effect of violent fermentation ; but Mr. L. entertained no such fear. ThiSj and the other ricks that the stable dung will help to form, will be used for turnips. It is remarkable that Mr. Lewis's fields are no where infested with blue-grass, which is the worst of plagues on most good loams, and especially after liming. It is true that this grass thrives best on soils that are both moist and somewhat adhesive, as well as of good constitution. If, indeed, it is the want of suJficient moisture and adhesiveness that prevents this grass growing on any spot here, the fact furnishes stronger evidence of the dryness and sandiness of the soil, than would be inferred from my description. Without drawing that in- ference, I merely state the fact. Partridge peas, which are so troublesome in wheat crops on all calcareous soils, and more so on light than stiff, are remarkably scarce on Wyanoke ; but the exemption from the ill effects of this pest Avill not last long, as it is increasing fast on the limed parts of the land. Gtiltitre of tl«.c Viiic* (From Proceedings of the New-York State Agricultural Society.) Extracts from a Letter from Le Ray De Chaumont. Plessis, near Vendome in Touraine, ) J. BuEL, Es(i. Dec. 16, 1832. \ Cor. Sec. of the State jlgricul. Society, Jllhany. Sir, — When I resolved, last summer, to pay a visit to my native country, I was much pained with the idea that it woidd deprive me for a consi- derable length of time of the satisfaction of uniting my efforts with those of such of the members of our State A gricultural Society as were zealous in promoting its success. However, I was relieved, when I considered how many there were in our society who could render the same service : while, during my travels and stay on this side of the wa- ter, I could make them useful by observations and notes collected on my route, upon whatever might be worth communicating ; also, by connecting our society with some of those in France whose object is somewhat similar to ours. The alliance of such societies cannot but prove useful and produce im- provements. Having began my travels rather late this year my information will not be as interesting as I could wish ; but I hope, that during the other year I intend to appropriate to my stay in Europe, I will have collected facts more worthy the atten- tion of our society. My travels have been through those parts of France, of the duchy of Bade and Switzerland, which have much analogy, in respect to climate, to that of New York. Culture of the Vine. I will begin by the grape- vines. I am still more of opinion, since I left America, that serious attention should be paid to that impor- tant cultivation. I am more certain of the success which is to attend it in the state of New York. I have received from the county of Jefferson, in- formation that grapes perfectly ripe have been picked from vines cultivated in open ground, and FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF THE VINE. 25 the letter which mentioned it reached me here wlien they had not yet began their vendages, and were not expecting the grapes to be sufficiently ripe for several days to come. You must consi- der that I am here in that celebrated country for fruits, Touraine, which is in the centre of France. They were much more backward in those coun- tries I had just left and mentioned above, and in some parts of which wine is made in quantity. You know how uncommonly severe and Ion"- was last winter in the state of New York, and 1 must observe that in this country it was one of the mildest; and the spring very tine, as well as the summer ; this last season was, however, rather too dry. I Avas still more astonished at the compara- tive quickness of the growth of the vine, and the abundance of its production. It is so much in our favor, that I not only created wonder, but yet a sentiment bordering upon entire incredulity, when I mentioned the produce of a cutting planted along the house of Major Brown, late in 1827, and which had produced above one hundred fine clusters, per- fectly ripe in the middle of September, 1830, and more than three hundred the following year ; at the same period, equally good and fine flavored; a fact which has been v/ell ascertained by tlie ag- ricultural society of the county, and published af- terwards in their transactions. My great objection and I must say the only one which I had, and even published formerly, to the cultivation of the vine, with a view of making M ine, is removed by the happy result of many inquiries and observations I have made, in examin- ing attentively a method very different from the one which is uniformly adopted in all the vine- yards of the middle and northern parts of France. There nine-tenths of the work, at least, is made by the hand of man, and part of it so painful and hurtfid to the body, as to injure materially the workmen ; while in many parts of the south, and in some parts of Switzerland, where very good wines too are made, the most painful and more la- borious part of the cultivation of the vine is achiev- ed by the work of horses and cattle. The differ- ence is such in favor of this country, between the two methods, that I do not hesitate to say, that every thing considered and calculated, this last method, with some improvements I will suggest, will not occasion you more expense than in France, to produce the same quantify of wine that Avould be obtained by the other method, which would cost you nearly three times as much as in France. This result is not only occasioned by the difference of the price of labor of men in the two countries, which in the preferred method is substituted for the greatest part, by the work of animals, that do not cost more in the state of New York than in France, and which can be fed cheaper ; but because this preferred method owes principally its greater produce to its having a much greater proportion of land consecrated to the same quantity of vine- stalks, and that the land is considei-ably cheaper than here. Mr. Thiebault in comparing the two methods, to prove the iimnense advantage of the one he recommends, does not calculate the pro- duce of an acre, but of the number of stalks. He says "that 2000 stalks trained according to this method, will protluce nearly 26,000 gallons of wine ; while on the other hand, 6000 stalks trained in the ordinary way, produce, in common seasons, only from 780 to 1300 gallons, and in the very best Vol. 1.-4 seasons only about 2600 gallons." This enormous difference of thirty to one, I do dot warrant, but only that there is a considerable one. Mr. Thie- bault adds, that the increase in quality is also con- siderable. Considering the comparative value of the land you would appropriate to the cultivation of the vine, with the same nature ©f land in Europe, and that there is a difference of at least nine-tenths in favor of the United States, I would propose an al- together different and more economical method in the first planting of the vine. I would set the roots and wooden posts a rod apart, instead of eight feet, as recommended by JMr. Thiebault, leaving as he does, the space between for the cultivation of grain or other productions, as preferred by the farmer. The trenches two feet broad and one foot deep, should be made with the plough and the scraper, which can be equally useful and conveni- ent in covering the roots. Some alteration and economy could be made in the hand labor, when we take into consideration that a considerable part of it can be done by children during the vacations. On the line of that plantation I would recommend planting, in an eastern and western direction, a mulberry tree alternately with the grapevine. The wooden post will for several years be the sup- porter of the grapevine, but it will probably be rotten and rendered useless when the vine will have sufficient strength to need no support for its stalk, but would require soiTie aid to keep its lateral branches in the desired position. The mulberry tree will then answer the purpose : It must be well ta- ken care of at all times, and will pay not only the expense but yield a handsome benefit for those who will pursue the cultivation of silk, or who have in their neighborhood some one cultivating it. At all events, their cattle would relish that food which would come for them in a very good season. The tree must be trimmed in such a way as to have one single stock and a very small head, which when ar- rived at the height of about eight feet, must be re- gularly trimmed twice in tlie fine season, when its foliage is most suitable to the feeding of worms. In that way the mulberrj' will give no injurious shade either to the vines or to the grain or plants which are to be sown between the ranges. You will ob- serve that in that Vt'ay of planting and cultivating the vine, the cattle, as I have stated in the begin- ning of this article, will do the essential part of the work; and that they not only afford the greatest help for cultivation, but yet come in for the hard- est share at the time of collecting the fruit. I will one day give more details upon what is to be done in the years which will follow the planting and first growth ; and you may rely upon my readi- ness to transmit to tlie society what further infor- mation they can ask from me. I intend to exam- ine more minutely this kind of cultivation, and as- certain as near as I can the real produce. Mean- while, I think the society may boldly recommend the cultivation of the vine, chiefly in the west and north of the state. To support this advice I can- not better conclude this article than by quoting, what I notice Avith pleasure, in a letter I have just received from the respectable secretary of the agricultural society of Jefferson county. Among tiie different valuable details he gives me of the cattle show and fair which took place the 26th Sep- tember last, I find the following : "A curious ex- hibition of the process of silk-making was interest- 26 FARMERS' REGISTER— WHITE MULBERRY— BIRDS AND INSECTS. ing-; and Dr. Gutliie accompanied his specimen of grapes with a letter, stating that the culture of the grape was ouncing every time upon tiie grub, his enemy and ours. These are facts which are derived from tlie researches of the ornitholo- gists : and they certainly show, that a knowledge of the character and habits of birds may be of con- sequence in legislation, if it should do no more than to give protection to the innocent. We have already seen that the act to which we liave referred, protects some birds certain seasons of the year; among others, the robin, av ho lives on insects and worms, and has no taste for vegeta- ble diet ; and tlie lark, who is extremely useful in his way ; the only wonder is, tliat it should have been thought expedient to allow them to be shot in any season. The quail, another of the privileg- ed class, has no title to be named in company with the others ; in tlie planting time, he makes more ha- voc tlian a regiment of crows, v/ithout atoning for his misdeeds, by demolishing a single grub. Nor is the partridge a much more scrupulous respecter of the rights of propertj' ; though, as he lives in comparative retirement, he succeeds in preserving a better name for honesty. There are some other of our most familiar birds, of which a word may here l)e said. Every body has observed the little goldfinch on the thistle by the wayside, and wondered perhaps, that his taste should lead him to so thorny a luxury ; but he is all the while engaged in devouring the seed, which but for him, would overrun the grounds of eveiy farmer. Even the bob'o'link, a most conceited coxcomb, who steals with all imaginable grace, though we are bound to say that he is much more attentive to our southern neighbors in this particu- lar, than to us, destroys millions of the insects which annoy the farmer most. All the little birdi3, in fact, which are to be seen about the blossoms oi' the trees, are doing us the same service, in their own way. Perhaps there is no bird which is con- sidered more decidedly wanting in principle, than the woodpecker ; and certainly, so far as man is concerned, there is none more conscientious. So long as a dead tree can be found for his nest, he will not trouble himself to bore into a living one ; whatever wounds he makes upon the living, are considered by foreign gardeners as an advantage to the tree. The sound tree is not his object : he is in pursuit of insects and their larvfe. In South Carolina and Georgia, forests to a vast extent have been destroyed by an insect, which would seem as capable of lifting a tree as of destroying it ; the people were alarmed by the visitation, and saga- ciously laid the mischief to the door of the wood- pecker, until they found that they had confounded the bailiff Avith the thief The injury arising from the loss of a single crop is hardly to be estimated. The experience which is taught us by our own misfortune is very dearly- bought ; and we think that if we can derive it from others — if, for example, wo can learn from the ornithologist, the means of preventing such injury, as in many instances we may, the dictates of economy combine with those of taste, and warn us not to neglect the result of his researches. Ox!iJi.^ Cremates,^ A ITIVAli TO TIIE POTATO. This plant has been recently introduced into this country from Chili ; and it is not improbable that it may shortly command the attention of the agri- culturist as a rival to the common potato. In April last, a small tuber of the root was planted by Mrs. Hirst, of Great Roj^ers, Warley, Suffolk, and the roots were taken out of the ground on the fifth of this month. As the habits of the plant were very little knov/n, this lady placed tlie tuber first in a small pot, and afterwards in the open ground of the garden. It appears, however, that this precaution was vumecessary, as the herbage grew very vigo- rously, and the leaves remained, and v/ere but slight- ly injured by the frost, until the roots were examin- ed. Altho' tiie tuber planted did not weigh half an ounce, the produce Aveighed upAvards of 4 lbs. Be- sides tlie family at Sopers, several other botanists had visited and Avatched tlie progress of this Oxalis ; and Avhen a fcAV of the tubers Avere boiled, all the party admitted, that, as much as they resembled tlie potato, their flavor Avas decidedly superior. — This result is very promising ; and Avhen it is re- collected that our common potato, (solanum tube- rosum,) also from South America, Avas confined to gardens more tliau a century, its tubers being small and Avatei'y, avc may reasonably expect that cultivation can do much for the noAv plant. The stems Avere numerous, large, and diffuse ; the floAv- ers, Avhich appeared in August, yelloAV and slightly notched ; hence the epithet crenata. At present, the tubers somcAvhat resemble small kidney pota- toes, inclining, hoAvever, to groAv in an aggregate form. — [London Paper. &R the '^■\ane of ^i?rnt €lay As Btan-iJi'c. From the Ediiibiirgii Fanners' Magazine. Sir — I am much concerned to see the ashes of a friend of mine, lately the cause of considerable speculation and interest, now suffered to repose in utter neglect, and going, as it Avould seem, rapidly to olilivion. I do not mean the ashes of PlatoiT, or of Barclay de Tolly, or of any other of the illus- trious men Avho have figured in the world, but merely those of inanimate clay, conceived at one time Avell adapted to assist in i*aising food for Avar- riors, and all tiie less distinguished inhabitants of the earth. Seriously, sir, I do think that this manure, clay ashes, has fallen into unreasonable neglect. Prol>a- 28 FARMERS' REGISTER— POWDERED OYSTER SHELLS AS MANURE. bly those who first manufuctiired, and used it in Scotland, did too much blazon it forth, and rate too highly the benefits to be derived from the use of it — thus creating in men's mhids expectations that could not be realized, the disappointment of which might cause them to abandon it in disgust, ne- glecting the comparatively humlde advantages which it really may, and, I believe, does possess. As a ground ibr the favorable opinion expressed of this agricultural auxiliary, I shall, with your leave, state here my experience respecting it. In the winter 1814-15, notices of the practice were given to the public by a Mr. Craig ; and, if I recollect aright, by other gentlemen of Gallo- way, which excited a good deal the curiosity and interest of agriculturists in this quarter. I for one felt so much, as made me as soon as possible take a journey to head quarters, that I might see and hear all particulars concerning it. The process of burning, I could not at that time of the season see. The effect of the ashes was visible in some very fine fields of turnips near Kirkcudbright, and more particularly at Mi'. Craig's at Cally, where I saw a fine crop of Ruta Baga that had been produced by them; and this excellent vegetable, every one knov>s, requires an abundant alloAvance of dung, and that of good qual- ity, to make it arriv-e at any tolerable ])erfection. I came home, determined to set to burning as soon as the weather would admit. As tlie opera- tion was imported from Ireland, I naturally in- quired among laborers, natives of that country, (and of whom we have al^undant store,) for a jier- son skilled enough to undertake the job. There was not one of these worthies to whom I spoke but professed thoroughly to understand the Avhole pro- cess. I engaged some of them ; but their per- formances, as may have sometimes happened with gentlemen in a higher sphere, by no means ac- corded with their promises: — they were dismissed. New hands came, who knew it better than their predecessors ; — they in their turn Ibund it neces- sary to walk off. In short, there was nothing but blundering the whole season. However, in the end of June, and by dint of fuel, I had got seventy or eighty single horse-cart loads, at an expense probably of half-a-crown for every cart. These "were applied to part of a turnip field left purposely, at the rate of filty-live to sixty cart loads per acre. The turnips Avere sown on the 6th of July, and proved by no means a heavy crop ; nor was it to be expected they would. In 1810 the whole field was sowed with barley ; — that part on which the ashes were laid pi'oved fully equal to the rest of the field, which had been dunged rather heavily. I could observe no ditference of the hay crop in 1817; and this year, the appearance of the whole field in pasture is exactly similar. In spring 1816 I was lucky enough to get a la- borer who really understood what he professed to do. He burned for me, during the summer, 500 or 600 cart loads, but too late to be used for tur- nips. Some of these ashes, in the end of the year, were spread on a field of natural bog meadow. I dare say sixty cart loads at least were applied to an acre; but I cannot speak very precisely to that point : — whatever was the quantity, the change ef- fected on the meadow was most gratifying. In- stead of the ghost of a crop of hard coarse grasses, which was formerly reaped, I had, in 1817, a luxu- riantly abvmdaut crop, consisting of AoZc«s lanatus (provincially Yorkshire fog,) and of all the finer meadow plants. In a word, I had more than tiiree times the quantity, and the quality entirely altered for the better. I had more land in bare fliUow in 1816 than I had dung for; and when ihat was^finished, I be- took myself to clay ashes for the remainder of the break. The whole was in oats last year ; and the division manured- Avith ashes certainly proved not hiferior to the other parts of the field. It is now in pasture, and no distinction discernible : — the quality of the soil is perfectly alike. I prepared a considerablequantity of ashes early last sunmier — they were mostly applied to turnip : and truth obliges me to say, that they produced a much better crop than dung on the same field and soil. I am certain I do not overrate the superi- ority at 30 per cent. The field is wholly in bar- ley this year, but in that crop I cannot distinguish the least shade of difference. If you think that I have not already intruded too much upon your room, I shall nov/, in a {ew sen- tences, acquaint you with my jnodns operandi, or manner of converting the raw material into the useful article. A considerable proportion of the farm which I possess, is, from its elevated situation, and the bad- ness of the land, not fitted to be profitably culti- vated ; and it is therefore occupied entirely by sheep. The rough and coarse boggy part of it is the place whence the ashes are procured. The soil a stiff clay incumbent on a stiffer till. This, after being properly marked out, is cut by the spade into slices of about a foot in length, eight or nine inches in depth, and three inclies in thickness. These pieces are then set up by the hand, and al- lowed to stand to dry for a week or longer, ac- cording to the weather. When in tolerable order, they are burnt in kilns, formed in the manner which have already been too often described to need repetition here. The earth, thus prepared, consumes incomparably quicker than that burnt without any previous })rocess. I have now given up the use of the subsoil, as I think it cannot af- ford ashes of equal fertility with the surface earth. The land used of the nature I have described, is only injured for a year or two, as it soon regains a sward, when sown with ryegrass seeds, and co- vered with a few of the ashes. Indeed, it is rather improved than deteriorated by the operation. An essential part of the business yet remains — the ex- pense ; and, on that head I can speak positively. The ashes have never yet (the first year excepted) cost me more than 6d. each single-horse cart load ; generally they am.ount to 4d. ; and this season I am certain they will not exceed threepence. I hope I have now satisfied you that I at least have reason to think well of these respectable ashes; and shall only add, that I would be much pleased if any of your correspondents or readers would take the trouble of giving us the result of their experience on this subject. I am, sir, &c. yinnandale, 13th July. j. h. s. Oil jPotmlercd Oyster Shells As a Maniu-e. From the Edinburgh Farmers' Magnzine. Sir — An important discovery has recently been made in the preparation of oj'ster shells as a ma- nure, the particulars of Avhich, from respectable FARMERS' REGISTER— MANGEL WURTZEL. 20 authority, I enclose, to be inserted in "The Far- mers' Magazine." It is an article that has hither- to been much neglected in Scotland; — though it would seem well entitled to attention. The pro- priety of applying this manure depends much upon the dififerent effects of mild and of caustic lime. It is well known that mild lime may be safely ap- plied in cases Avhere the land has been exhausted by the use of caustic lime; for instance, the scrap- ings of roads, made of limestone, though the caus- tic lime from that very stone would be injurious. Mild lime has been advantageously used, mixed with dung, for potatoes, and, instead of rendering them scabby, improves the crop. INIild lime may likewise be used in compost with dunghills; and it does not, in that state, injure the dung, as caus- tic lime would do. Pounded oyster shells, con- sisting entirely of calcareous matter, would evi- dently be more useful than 'Scrapings of roads or pounded limestone ; more especially as, with the shells, there may be a small mixture of saline par- ticles, or of animal matter. I hope that some spirited agriculturists will be induced, from these hints, to try some experiments with powdered oyster or other shells; and to com- municate the result to the public, in your valuable repository. I am, &c. joiix sikclair. Ormly Lodge, Ham Common, Surry, ? 2-Lth September, IS 18. S Extract of a letter from Mi-. Blaikie, of Holkham, to Sir John Sinclair, dated 18th September, IS 18. " Oyster shells povnided or bruised, (without having been burned,) were first used upon Mr. Coke's farm, as a manure, in the year 1816. In the summer of that year, the experiment was tried upon a hungry, light, sandy soil, which had been cleaned for turnips. The oyster-shell dust, or pow- der, was drilled in the usual way, upon twciity- seven-inch ridges, at the rate of Ibrty bushels per acre, (without any other manure) was slightly covered with earth, and the turnip-seed sown upon it. Another part of the same field, quality of land equal, was manured with farm-yard dung at the rate of eight tons per acre, put into the same sized ridges, and sown with turnip-seed as before de- scribed, (no other manure having been applied.) The turnips proved a good crop on both pieces ; nor were there any perceptible difference in the bulk, (but the produce was not weighed.) The turnips were all ate upon the ground by sheep ; and the succeeding crop (barley) was good on both, and apparently equal : but the produce was not thraslied separate. The seeds, or layer, (crop of clover,) in the present season (an. 1818) is a good plant, and appears equally so. It is eaten by sheep. In this experiment, so far as it goes, it appears that forty bushels of oyster-shell powder is equal in virtue as a manure, to eight tons of farm-yard dung, at least for the purjwse to which it was ap- plied. In the autumn of 1816, pounded oyster shells were tried as a manure for -wheat, in competition with rape-cake powdered. The experiment was upon a one year's clover layer, the wheat sown after one ploughing — the soil a kind, light, gravelly loam. Oyster-shell powder, at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre, Avas drilled with the wheat seed on one part of the field, and, on another part, (of tlie same quality) rape-cake dust was drilled with the whe'ays, which appears to attract the rats. Even the quality of the straw is very important ; for as the oil of carraways must be used in an exceedingly small quantity, it is ea- sily overpowei-ed. But the evidence which the author has adduced of his own success, he trusts, is unquestionable ; and he has no doubt, that any person who attentively follows these directions, will not be disappointed. The annual value of the crops of wheat and oats, alone, of the British European empire, cannot be less, the author observes, than 25 millions sterling; and of this, at least, one fiftieth part, upon the lowest calculation, is eaten or destroyed by rats and mice. The public loss therefore, in these ar- ticles alone, is at least £500,000 per annum, ex- clusive of the dama^'e done in ships, in storehou- ses, and buildings of every kind. The advantages to be derived therefore from the adoption of this plan, can hardly be sufficiently estimated. Copy of a letter from T. A. Knight, Esq. of Downton Castle, to the Rev. J Duncumb, Se- cretary to the Herefordshire Society. Downton Castle, Feb. 18, 1812. Dear Sir, — In compliance with the wishes of the Agricultural Society of Herefordshire, Mr. Broad of Thruxton has been here to afford me an oppor- tunity of witnessing the very extraordinary pow- ers which many respectable inhabitants of Here- fordshire have stated him to possess, of attracting or taking rats ; and I am happy in being able to inform you, that his success has been most com- plete, though he had to contend with more than or- dinary difficulties. The rats in my house and pre- mises were not very numerous ; and they had been much harassed, and many had been killed, and the i-emainder rendered shy and suspicious : and, as they had access to my scullery, kitchen, and stables, they were probably well supplied with food of various kinds. I imagined that under these iL'ircumstances they could only be taken at night ; but Mr. Broad desired me to appoint any hours of the day which were most convenient to me ; and by my appointment he commenced his operations about the middle of the day upon Thursday last, the I2th. Five box traps, nearly of tlie ordinary construc- tion, being set, were examined by me about two o'clock, and the five traps contained fifteen rats. Vol. I.— 5 These were taken out, and the traps in succession set again ; and as soon as I had seen the rats kill- ed, I returned again to the traps, when I found the falling doors of all down, and seven rats enclos- ed : Upon these being taken away, the traps were set again, and within less than 20 minutes nine more rats Avere taken ; when the traps w^ere removed to be baited again. During the succeed- ing 36 hours, the rats continued to enter the traps, though more slowly ; and upon Saturday morning 59 rats had been taken. Sir. Broad then return- ed home, leaving the traps properly baited, and in- forming me that he believed the extensive drains about my house and buildings still contained ten or a dozen rats, which would come to the traps ; and, within the succeeding 24 hours, eight more rats, making in the whole 67, were taken. Sub- sequently not a single rat has been seen or heard about my house ; and all my people agree with me in thinking, that not one remains alive here. Some of those destroyed were young; but much the greater part were very large and well fed, and apparently very old. There apjjears to be no difficulty whatever in the managementof the traps, or skill required to make them ; and I cannot but give my opinion decisively, that, by the means Mr. Broad employs, rats may be, under almost all circumstances, ef- fectually destroyed in a very few days: and I be- lieve this species of animal might be almost exter- minated, for they appear to lose all their native sa- gacity, and to enter the traps with the blind stupi- dity of moles. 1 am, dear sir, &c. THOMAS ANDREW KNIGHT. Spe€iMcJfIauur€S— Clover— Field Peas, May 18th, 1833. Tathe Editor of the Farmers'' Hegister. Sir, — I have long wished the publication in eastern Virginia of a paper similar in character with that which the prospectus of the Farmers' Register indicates. From it, I confidently antici- pate important improvements in our agricultural operations, as w ell as an increase in the fertility of our farms, surpassing what had (until within a few years,) been hoped by the most sanguine pro- prietor. Under that excitement, and pei-ceiving that you invite the transmission of agricultural no- tices of even mnior importance, I have determined to send this paper, in aid of what I deem a lauda- ble adventure on your part — leaving it entirely in your discretion to publish or suppress it. No intelligent agriculturist hesitates to admit that the deterioration or increased fertility of our farms depends essentially on the greater or less quantity of animal and vegetable manures spread on them, and that to increase the amount, ought to form a primary object in the operations of every intelligent proprietor — still, as valuable auxilia- ries are doubtless attainable, it becomes our duty to seek after them with greater assiduity than has as yet been manifested. The resemblances in the ani- mal and vegetable kingdoms, (so numerous and so obvious as to induce the most intelligent writers on natural history to class them as beings of the same order, and that nature passes from the one to the other by imperceptible degrees,) affords an unbounded field for investigation, and when ex- 34 FARMERS' REGISTER— SPECIFIC MANURES, kc. plored, will, I am persuaded, furnish invaluable instruction. It is highly presumable when man first subject- ed the horse, ox, &c. to his control, as nature ap- parently had provided only green vegetables lor their subsistence, that he, confiding in her uner- ring wisdom, also deemed other food superfluous : but the earliest records of history present tliose animals participating with their masters in tlie use of corn, and experience evinces that in their in- creased bulk and muscular strength we are amply remunerated. The dog rejects vegetables; and although he can subsist on bread, yet if entirely deprived of flesh, (the food most congenial to his nature,) it will be attended v/itli a proportionate decrease of strength and courage. Eirds and fish in like manner require for their maturity that ali- ment which is adapted to their different constitu- tions. The vegetable kingdom sustains the ana- logy. Animal and vegetable manures are conge- nial to the growth of every species of vegetables, and yet the locust if planted in a soil the most fer- tile, but defective in lime, like the dog feeding on bread, although sustaining still its growth, bears no proportion to trees of like kind on utterly ex- hausted hill sides abounding with marl. Tlie pine on the contrary, luxuriates on soils v/ortlilcss for the production of food for man or beast beyond any tree of the forest ; but if transplanted into a higlily calcareous soil, however abounding with putrescent vegetables, its growth amioiinces un- congenial food, and like the sheep sorrel, it seems (from the presence of lime,) divested of the power of feeding on the abundance of manure by which it is surrounded. This discrepance common to ani- mals and vegetables, serves more obviously to il- lustrate the similitude in nature's works, and should teach us tha.t discrimination in food v. Inch experience has ascertained to be indispensable to the improvement of the animals under our imme- diate care and observation, is equally expedient in our agricultural operations : and as that unerring instructer has shov.n that vegetables spontaneous in growth are inadequate to the perfection of ani- mals, we should infer their incompetence, wlien rotted, to perfect the variety of the species of plants whicli we cultivate : and this suggests the expediency of our exploring that portion of the earth itself accessible to us, to discover, if possi- ble, any combinations v/ithin, congenial to the growth of vegetables, which, from their position, are inaccessible to the roots of growhig plants. I am the more confident in advising otlier agri- cultuiusts to institute similar investigations, from an experiment with gypseous earth, made under anticipations of success so feeble, as barely to buoy me under the operation on one acre of land— be- cause I then was as I now am, uninformed of the quantity of the sulphate of lime per bushel, and knew not the duration, if any, of its nutritious ef- fects on the growth of clover or other grasses ; but at this time, I appreciate the consequences of my trial as far more important than any other (the use of marl always excepted,) which has ever come luider my observation. Corn Avas cultivated in 1831, on a sandy ridge in my field, marled in 1826, and yielded from eight to ten bushels ; it was seeded with w heat in October, and clover seed (in the chaff) sowed in December following, and soon after from forty to fifty bushels of gypseous earth carelessly spreai! on an acre. In June, the number of plants, and the growth of the clover, palpably marked that por- tion on which the gypseous earth had been thrown, and v/asto me exhilirating indeed — while the yel- low and feeble aspect of the pretermitted spaces under any other circumstances, could not fail to deter every prudent farmer from adventuring a se- cond crop of clover on a similar soil. The wheat languished, and appeared neither cherished or da- maged by aliment the most nutritious to clover, by which it was surrounded, and scarcely yielded a recompense for its cultivation. This spring, ap- pearances are equally flattering, the clover being about two feet high, and a space of thirty or forty acres Avhich was spread last fall with the same earth, fully sustains the character of this manure being the specific food for clover. How long its beneficial influence will endure, experience will hereafter determine. Annual applications of the French and Nova Scotia i)laster are considered ad- visable. The effects of the gypseous earth used by me, are, I think, superior the second year, and far exceed any benefit Avhich I have ever derived from my use of the imported gypsum. On viewing the prospect before me, T can no longer entertain a doubt that every acre of my fields, (without aid from the stable and farm pen manures,) at tlie trivial expense of carting and spreading from forty to fifty bushels of gypseous earth per acre, may be made to produce an exu- berant growth of white, red, and bird-foot clover, and I rely on the experience of others, as well as on my own, for assurance that wheat sowed on a heavy clover lay will yield an abundant crop ; and as I am disposed to think that corn, aided by the stubble of the preceding crop of wheat, as well as the pu- trid clover, Avili yield as abundantly after Avheat as before it, I would suggest the expediency of chang- ing the present rotation, notwithstanding the al- leged ol;jeclions of the extra labor, and the proba- ble detriment to tl;e young clover. For the for- mer, (admitting the fact,) ample recompense will be derived in tlie increase of the Avheat crop, from the improvement of the soil by guarding the ve- getables ploughed in, from the waste which is in- evitable from the corn cultivation ; and as the pre- paration of the field may be commenced early in September, and easily completed by the 10th of October, — the liarrows drawn both by the horses (then at leisure) and the oxen, will sufficiently co- ver the sowed wheat by two operations, and com- plete the seeding in fifteen or twenty days. Of the effects on the young clover plants I am not fully informed. My course will be to sow the seed, (v.'itl!0ut separation from the chaff,) as I " lay by" corn or give the last tillage. The cover on the seed will protract their vegetation, probably until the foliage of peas planted from the 1st to the 10th June Avill afford protection from the sun. The cultivation of field peas has so long engag- ed the attention of fai-mers, as to create a strong presumption that every valuable property apper- taining to them must long since have been ascer- tained, and consequently, that farther speculation on their value will be superfluous. But, as there may be others as well as myself, v/ho again and again have derived the benefit, and have not no- ticed, or if they have, have not systematically availed themselves of that crop for the suppres- sion of v/eeds, grass, &c. and thereby greatly fa- cilitating their sowing of wheat — to those, perhaps. FARMERS' REGISTER— EFFECT OF MARLING. 85 the following notices may not be altogether unim- portant. A rich mould abounding with the partridge pea, weeds, &c. was last year Cultivated with difficul- ty, and yielded an abundant crop of corn. Early in June, peas were planted equidistant with the corn, covered with the foot, and no farther labor in- curred than a slight hilling Vi'hen the corn was last worked. In October, the vines were removed, and the land remained quite clean, and in the best pos- sible condition for sowing of wheat, which was com- pleted by a single operation of the harrows after the fluke hoe ; and at this time my prosj)ec(s are entirely satisfactory, and no obstacle either to cutting or gathering up the crop is appre- hended. My neighbor, from land of precisely si- milar description, and immediately adjoining, rais- ed an abundant crop of corn, but planted no peas. In October, the double bar share plough was used; the harrows w^ere necessary to smooth the fur- i'ov/s — and after the wheat was sowed, a second operation with them was required to cover the seed, v/hich I considered less eiTectual than mine, on the rougher surflice left by the fltike hoe. His wheat is obviously and greatly inferior at this time ; and so overwhelmingly numerous and luxuriant are (he vines of the partridge pea, that I am confi- dent he must resort to tlic reap hook or grass scythe lor the preservation of his crop. But be thrd as it may, I have no hesitation in assuming that the im- pediments in cutting and the inevitable loss in gathering up the wlieat, will far surpass in value the seed peas and the trifling labor of lioeing them — leaving in favor of my course, without drav/back, a heavy amount of the most nutritious food (if fed while green, and alternated with corn) for fattening hogs ; and if judiciously attended to (when pulled up for sowing wlieat,) the vines are eminently valuable food during the winter, for every description of stock. Before I close this communication, (already much longer than I had contemplated,) I must in- vite attention to tlie previous notice on tlie effect of the growth of the field pea on that of the i)ar- tridge pea. To allege tliat the foliage of the for- mer, in the months of August and September, ob- structed the vegetation of the latter in the month of October, and onv/ards through the Avinter, is obviously inadmissible. To what cause then shall we assign it.'' I hope hereafter to read in your pa- per a solution of the inquiry ; but in the mean time, I shall remain under the impression that the previous growth of the field pea liad gleaned the pasture peculiarly suited for the nourishment of both, and left the partri(ige pea no resource but to await a future and suitable fecundation of the soil. A SUBSCRIBER. liicreasetl Pi-oiluct Of Corn fa'omi fJflarling, To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Sir: The field on Aberdeen whicli came in course last year, has a slip of land from north to south, about one hundred and fifty yards wide, left un- marled in the spring of 182S, when the land on each side of it had been marled the fall and v\'inter before ; and after the crop of corn, the ma; led sides of the slip were sovv'n in v/heat, and the slip left unsown. Last spring, the same field was laid off four and a half feet one Avay and four feet the other, for corn ; and about the 20th of De- cember, I commenced gathering in that part of the field. I counted in a square six hundred hills of corn east of the slip, on the marled land, and it produced five bushels and a peck, equal to tAventy- one bushels per acre. On a line, as I Judged, ex- actly west from it, in the middle of'^the slip, I countQd in a square the same number of hills of corn, and it produced one bushel and something less tlian two pecks, but say six bushels per acre. Still in the same line west, but on the marled land, the same number of corn hills in a square yielded five bushels, equal to twenty bushels per acre. For your farther information, I think it is proper I should add, that before the marling in 1828, the above named three squares counted by the corn hills, Avere, to the best of my judg- ment, of equal quality, and that no manure has ever been spread on either of them ; and perhaps the difference in produce would have been great- er, had the marled land, as the slip Avas, been left also unsoAvn. The same course Avas pursued last fall — the marled land sown, and the slip unsoAvn. I have driven doAvn locust stakes on the corners of each square, and you have the means of being in- formed in 183G, when the same field Avill be again in corn, Avhat is llie ditTerence in produce. I as- sure you it Avill afford me great pleasure to inform you of the result. EDMUND HARRISON. Aherdecn, Prince George Co. ) January 20th, 1833. 5 The rcmarkabte difference of appearance last year of tlie corn groAving on these strijis of land, induced us to request of Mr. Harrison a measurement and report of the products, which Ave knew might be relied on as being made Avith the utmost care and accuracy. The course of tillage previously pursued on this field Avas far from being favorable for exiiibitii)g tiie greatcs' effects from calcLircous manures. We I'.ave been flivored by a merchant of this city, with the folloAving extract from the Paris Price Cur- rent: 'ipJotice to SIcrcliaiits. " Merchants who propose selling foreign to- bacco, for the sup]>ly of the Royal Manufacto- ries of France, are advised that a Concours for the purchase of the necessary quantity, will be opened on the 1st of March, and from that time to the 1st of June. The samples will be received iii the store room of the Regie at Paris. A new notice Avill make known the day Avlien the ten- ders are to be deposited, and that of the adjudica- tion. " Tlie administration of the Tobacco Department think it their duty to make known to commerce the probable importance of the purchases they propose making, which Avill consist of about 3300 hlids. of Virginia leaf tobacco, 2-50 hhds. light yel- loAY leaf Kentucky tol^acco, and about 200 hhds. of dark l)roAvn Maryland tobacco. " In closing this notice, tlie administration beg leave to notify the public that the finest qualities of these descriiitions will alone suit their Avants." lliichmond IV/iig. 36 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. Agricwltiiral Review. Slavery aiitl Eiwaiiciiiatioii. 1. lievieio of the debate in the Virginia Legisla- ture of 1831 and 1832. By Thomas B. Dew, Professor of History , Metaphysics, and Political Law, William and 3Iary College. Ilichmond. White— 18S2. 1). 133. 2. Review of the Slave Question. By A Virgi- nian. Riclmiond. White — 1833. p. 48. The courteous usage of periodicals may seem to forbid a review of the tAvo works here named, as they are themselves reviews of earlier publica- tions. They originally appeared as articles in the American Quarterly Review— but both have sine* been republished as independent works, and one of them (Mr. Dew's) with important additions. Under these circumstances, and considering the intimate connexion (in whatever aspect it is view- ed,) of the interests of agriculture with the exist- ence and continuance of slavery in Virginia, we could not with propriety, and conformably to our expressed engagement,"^ omit all notice of these works. Still, however, there are obvious reasons why we should not launch our frail bark on this stormy ocean of controversy ; and we shall, there- fore, confine our remarks within narrow limits, and content ourselves with presenting such ex- tracts from both works, as will exhibit the strong points of their opposing arguments. We hope thus to aid in drawing the attention of the farm- ers of Virginia to the entire publications, both of which do honor to their authors, and deserve well the serious consideration of their countrymen. The question of slavery in Virginia requires for its examination the exercise of cautious and sound judgment, a deliberate and clear view of the whole ground of the argument, and a disposition to ar- rive at truth, wherever it may I e found, and not to support particular tenets in a partizan spirit. Unfortunately, a very different course has been pursued. Slavery affects,, and deeply affects the interest of every citizen of Virginia — and in a greater or less degree, the discussion of its effects and tendencies, has engaged every pen, and every tongue. But nearly all have taken sides without a full examination of the arguments of their an- tagonists; and each one has been satisfied with, urging and maintaining the strong positions of his party, and exposing and denouncing the absurdi- ties of his opponents, without attending to the other points in dispute, in which he perhaps is fee- ble, and his adversary unanswerable. The aboli- tionist can scarcely fail, when attempting to pro\e that negro slavery in Virginia is attended with enormous evils; and having established that posi- tion, he passes at once to the conclusion that the removal of slavery v/ould be cheaply purchased at any cost. The ant i -abolitionist is equally success- ful in maintaining the im.mense difficulties of the attempt, and evil consequences of his opponent's schemes, and thence persuades himself that slave- ry, if not a positive good, is at least an institution that admits of no remedy from legislative enact- ments. These strictures are intended to apply in their full extent, only to those who argue and de- cide without due deliberation — and certainly are not applicable to the authors of the works no\v be- fore us. Yet, profound and extended as have been their investigations and views, and closely as each of them has examined the positions of his oppo- nents, still eiilier work taken alone, will serve as an arsenal to furnish powerful weapons to those who maintain the same truths in a partizan and fanatical spirit. Mr. Harrison, (the author of the latest of these works) proves 1)eyond dispute, that the existence of slavery in Virginia, is a great and increasing evil — and his views are presented with a degree of force and eloquence worthy of his cause, and the generous feelings it calls forth; and Mr. Dew as clearly demonstrates the utter ineffi- ciency, or ruinous cost, of all the schemes that have been proposed for the emancipation and re- moval of tlie African race. If we can ever settle beneficially this distracting question, it Avill be only by giving due consideration to the opinions of our antagonists, as well as to those on our own side. In this spirit of toleration and of compro- mise, we invite the attention of our readers to the perusal of both the able works before us. We proceed to give as copious extracts as our limits will permit, and in such manner as will do justice to the most material and opposing arguments of each. Considering this question only as it affects the agricultural interests of Virginia, we inten- tionally avoid the other branches of the discussion, which however important, are unsuitable for an agricultural review. We will commence our extracts, by presenting ]Mr. Harrison's views of the evils of slavery as existing in Virginia: — " Before beginning to unfold more fully our own views of the present exigency in Virginia, we take occasion to declare distinctly that our purpose is not by over- cliargcd pictures of the iniquity of slavery, or the cruel lot of the slaves, to raise a storm of gratuitous indigna- tion in the minds of the jieoj^le of the United States against Virginia. We believe that there is not the shghlest moral turpitude in holding slaves under exist- ing circumstances in the south. We know too that the ordinary condition of slaves in Virginia is nol such as to make humanity weep for his lot. Our solicitations to the slaveholders, it will be perceived, are founded but little on the miseries of the blacks. We direct ourselves almost exclusively to the injur-es slavery inflicts on the whites. And of these evils suffered by the whites, the evil consequences of practising the immorality of slaveholding will not be our mark. Reproach and re- crimination on such a subject would answer no good purpose; it would naturally provoke defiance from die slaveholders. All the eloquent invectives of the British abolitionists have not made one convert in the West In- dies. This is no part of our humor. It is o?h" oliject to lure Virginia onward in her present hopeful state of mind. We mean to confine every word we write to Virginia. The whole scope of this article will be to shoti) the necessity of her promptly doing something to check the palpable mischiefs her prosperity is suffering from slavery. We design to show that all her sources of economical prosperity are poisoned by slavery, and we shall hint at its moral evils only as they occasion or im- ply destruction to the real prosperity of a nation. Un- less we flrst make this position impregnable, we shall ask no one to sacrifice merely to abstiact humanity and justice. Nor shall we insist on Virginia's beginning action on this momentous subject, until we have shown that her genuine ultimate interest will be promoted by it. The best way of persuading men of this world to deeds which involve the sacrifice of present interests, is to convince them that a greater prospective interest may be thereby secured. We shall strive then to procure the concurrence of self-interest ss well as the approba- tion of humanity. Hence, even should we succeed in making out our case as to Virginia, it will be instantly remarked that we have said very little that will touch South Carolina and Georgia, and scarcely any thing FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. 37 applicable to Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, If the prosperity of any of these is founded in circum- stances of soil, climate, products, &c. of such nature and degree, as that it will not sink under the precarious specrHc (neck or nothing) of slave labor, « la bonne heiire — let them go on. This is undoubtedly the case more or less of the sugar, cotton, and rice plantation states But it is not the case of Virginia. "We propose to treat " I. Of the injury slavery does to the prosperity of Virginia. Let us cursorily indicate some of the evils which the experience of the United States shows to be consequent on slavery under ordinary circumstances, some of which Virginia has suffered in common with other states, and of some of which she has been pecu- liarly tiie victim. 1. An inertness of most of the springs of prosperity — a want of what is commonly called pub- lic spirit. 2. Where slave labor prevails, it is scarcely practicable for free labor to co-exist with it to any great extent. Not that the latter would not deserve the pre- ference, both for cheapness and efficienc)^, but that many obvious causes conspire to prevent the rivalship being perssveringly sustained. Freedom being itself regard- ed as a privilege in a nation that has slaves, there is a natural tendency to consider exemption from manual labor as the chief mark of elevation above the class of slaves. In a republic this tendency is vastly increased. A disposition to look on all manual labor as menial and degrading, may safely be set down as a distemper of the most disastrous kind. We shall not dilate on this. It must instantly be admitted that nothing can com- pensate a nation for the destruction of all the virtues which flow from mere industry. Virginia has experi- enced this most signally ; had her slave labor been ten times as productive as it has been, and grant that she possesses all the lofty qualities ever claimed for her in their highest degree, she would still have been the loser by contracting this ruinous disjiosition. Nothing but the most abject necessity would lead a white man to liire himself to work in the fields under the overseer, and we must say that we cannot refuse to sympathize with the free laborer who finds it irksome to perform hard work by the side of a slave. 3. Agriculture is the best basis of national wealth. 'Arts,' says that eminent farmer Mr. John Taylor of Caroline, ' improve the works of nature ; when they injure it they are not arts but barbarous customs. It is the office of agriculture as an art not to impoverish, but to fertilize, the soil and make it mo1-e useful than in its natural state. Such is the effect of every species of agriculture which can as- pire to the name of an art.' Now it is a truth that an improving system of agriculture cannot be carried on by slaves. The negligent wasteful habits of slaves who are not interested in the estate, and the exacting cupidi- ty of transient overseers who are interested in extorting from the earth the greatest amount of production, ren- der all slave agriculture invariably exhausting. How many plantations worked by slaves are there in Vir- ginia which are not perceptibly suffering the sui-e pro- cess of exhaustion? Perhaps not one, except a few on the water courses, composed of the alluvial soils which are virtually inexhaustible. The uncertainty of the profits of a crop generally deters the planters in Vir- ginia from giving standing wages to their overseers — indeed, it has too often happened that the salary of the overseer has absorbed all the proceeds. Hence it is usual to give him, instead of salary, a share of the crop. The murderous effects of this on the fertility of the soil may well be conceived. An estate submitted to over- seers entitled to a share of the crop, (who are changed of course, almost yearly) suffers a thousandfold more than would English farms put out on leases of one or two years to fresh lessees. Twenty-one years is thought too short a term there. 4. It is a fact that no soil but the richest, and that in effect inexhaustible, can be pro- fitably cultivated by slaves. In the Legislature of Vir- ginia it was repeatedly said that her lands were poor, and for that reason none but slaves could be brought to vfork them well. On the contrary, poor lands and those of moderate fertility can never rep.ay the expense of slave labor, or bear up under the vices of that slovenly system. 5. In modern times, in most cases where slave labor prevails, it has been found in plantation states and colonies. There are many obvious reasons why, if profitable any where, it must only be there. Now, if iliis be the case, it would appear that slavery to be pro- fitable IS essentially incompatible with a dense popula- tion— at all events, with a relatively dense population of freemen. No country can afford to be given up ex- clusively to agriculture in the shape of plantation til- lage, or to devote the entire attention of all the men it rears to that occupation, except its soil be extremely fertile and its products of tlie richest nature. Under other circumstances, the soil and products not making adequate returns, there is a vast waste of capabilities for other purposes, which the surface of many countries might answer. 6. It seems agreed among the econo- mists of the south that slaves are unfit for the business of manufactures. A most sensible essay was published in Philadelphia in 1827 by Dr. Jones, afterwards super- intendent of the patent office at Washington, to show that slaves are not necessarily unfit for this employ- ment. We were persuaded at the time, that, if his po- sition r.ere true, it would prove the most important of all suggestions in an economical view, to Virginia. It has surprised us, indeed, that the advocates of the ]Dcr- petuity of slavery in Virginia have not seen the im- mense advantage of such an argument to their side of the question. But the entire current of opinion in the south (led by an invincible sentiment of hostility to the protective system) is that states where slave labor pre- vails, and where the whole capital for labor is vested in slaves, cannot manufacture. It will need no words to show what an injury this voluntary disability inflicts on a country which may happen to liave the most feli- citous capacities for manufactures. 7. Where slave la- bor prevails, it would appear that the rearing a large class of skilful mechanics is greatly discouraged. The slaves themselves of course never make mechanics ex- cept of the coarsest description. Although the whites in the cities are not entirely averse to becoming arti- sans, yet, in the country, the natural policy of the rich planters to have mechanics among their slaves to do all the needful business on their estates, deprives the white mechanics of their chief encouragement to perfect them- selves in their trades, diminishes the demand for their services, and generally has the effect of expelling them from one neighborhood to another until they finally ex- patriate themselves. 8. Slave labor is, without contro- versy, dearer than free. It suffices to state, that in the one case you have a class of laborers that have a direct interest in doing and saving as little as possible, so that they barely escape punishment ; in the other a class, every member of wliich has a direct interest in pro- ducing and saving as much as possible. But this posi- tion is too well established to justify any one in an ar- gument to prove it. The categories wherein the con- trary holds true are cumulatively : a. it must be in a plantation country ; 6. it must be in a soil extremely and inexhaustibly fertile ; c. where the products are of the greatest value ; d. and after all, it must be where white men cannot endure the climate and the nature of the cultivation. 9. The experience of the United States has shown that slavery decidedly discourages immigra- tion (to use Dr. Southey's word) from foreign countries into the sections of country where it is prevalent. It is not a sufiicient answer to this to say that the emigrants are in general allured to the United States by the temp- tation of the rich country in the west, so that slavery cannot be said to repel them from the southern states. It is not true of the best emigrants that come to our shores, that they are intent on pushing into the path- less forest, to be there banished from all the blessings of a settled country. This is in fact the positive passion of none but the hardy native pioneers, the Boones of Vermont, of New York, and Virginia. The Germans, for example, who are perhaps the most valuable of the 38 FARxMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. emigrants to America, are not j^eople who would prefer to make tlieir home in the midst of the extreme discom- forts and often cruel privations which the pioneers un- dergo. Besides, what rejDcls all those emigrants who are not agriculturists, and whose occupations lead them among crowds of men ? Of immigration into the slave- holding stales, except in some of the western states, where the principle of slavery is not yet predominant, it may be said there is none. The emigrants under- stand that their hope of employment there is forestalled, that the only labor wanted is indigenous to the soil ; they feel that that labor is incompatible with their own, and they shrink from the idea of giving their children, who are to live by manual labor, a home in a slave- labor land, while fair regions, dedicated as well to do- mestic as to civil freedom, tempt their adventurous foot- steps. With this evil may be classed the tendency of the whites of these states to emigrate from the soil of their birth. 10. Slavery begets inevitably a train of habits and ojiinions which^ to say the least, are destruc- tive of all those springs of prosperity which depend on economy, frugality, enterprise. Young people bred up to be maintained by slaves are apt to imbibe improvi- dent habits. Of its favorable operation on the spirit of liberty in the whites, we are not disposed to t;uestiou the well known opinion of Mr. Burke ; the passage we refer to, is itself an evidence of the profound knowledge he possessed of the human heart. We consider it truer, however, of the spirit of liberty in its aspect of resist- ance to foreign oppression: in its home aspect it is, we think, comparatively just. But as relates to its opera- tion in equalizing the whites with each other, v/e throw out the suggestion without note or comment, that no property gives rise to greater inequalities than slave pro- perty. We question, too, whether it could well be main- tained that the beau ideal of a nabob — (we use the word in its fair, not invidious sense,) — endow him with noble- ness of soul, sensibility, the utmost delicacy of honor, generosity, and hospitality — is the finest specimen of our species. There are many solid and essential virtues (wholly disconnected with those named) which could not so well be dispensed with as some of those, in going to make uj) the being of whom par excellence nature might stand up and say ' this is a man.' " We can now venture to define pretty accurately what sort of a country that must be, which having re- gard solely to the economincal principles, is adapted to be for a long term of years a prosperous slave-labor state. It mvist possess an extremely rich soil, hence under most circumstances be a comparatively small country, (otherwise the greater the difficulty of finding a uniformly fine soil, and consequently the impossibility of making the ivhole state flourish,) in a latitude the products of which, from their scarcity in the world, the pei-manent demand for them, and the possibility of rearing them in but few spots on the globe, are sure of a market at high prices, where the culture of such crops requires that the slaves be worked together in bodies, so that the constant supervision necessary over them may be performed by a few whites, and finally in a chmate so nearly tropical, or otherwise precarious, as to make the esjjosure and toil insupportable to free (say xohite) laborers. A country unithig all these re- quisites may be prospei-ous with slave labor. It pos- sesses certain sources of wealth, by the help of which it may dispense with many others, that are the neces- sary resource of counti'ies of moderate fertility, and which are under different general circumstances. Such a country seems to need the moral-economical springs less. It will of necessity contain a sparse white popu- lation, but it may be formidable in war from its superior relative wealth. The countries growing cotton, rice, and the sugarcane, bountifully, are of this description. For aught we know, Brazil may fall under the defini- tion. The principal West India islands appear to be entitled to expect prosperity, (supposing no adverse ad- ventitious circumstances) but Louisiana unites all the requisites more perfectly perhaps than any other coun- tr3^ South Carolina and Georgia do it but imperfectly, on account of there being so large a portion of both of them to which such description would not at all apply ; Alabama and Mississippi do more perfectly than tliey. But it may boldly be said that Virginia possesses scarce- ly a single requisite to make a prosperous slave-labor stale. " She has not the inexhaustible rich soils : her earth origi- nally yielded fair returns to hard labor judiciously di- rected, but all such soils, as she has learned by bitter ex- perience, are fated, under the hands of slaves, to dete- rioration down to utter barrenness. She has too large a territory : the curse of the presence of slaves and the monopoly of labor in their hands, is all over the state ; the spots really adapted for profitable slave labor are few and scattered. She has not the so7't of products : only a small part of the state ))roduces cotton ; the culture of tobacco, which was originally the general staple of Old Virginia Proper, after destroying immense tracts of good lands, is shrinking into a very diminished compass, and scarcely repays the cost of production under the ave- rage prices of the last fifteen years. If any one would cast his eye over the list of the Tobacco Inspections es- tablished by law, in the revised code of Virginia, he would smile to see places mentioned for inspection ware- houses, in quarters of Virginia where no man has ever seen a hundred weight of tobacco. Besides this, there is an unlimited competition springing up around her, to reduce prices to nothing. With regard to the crops of tobacco of the western states, we can say with confi- dence, that there is a regular annual increase in quanti- ty, with great imjirovement in its curing and manage- ment; so that it is fiist taking the place of Virginia to- bacco for consumption in the leaf in the north of Europe, and as strips in Great Britain. The article of tobacco is novf cultivated in Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Tennessee, and in Canada, as well as Mary- land, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia. The quan- tity raised is altogether too great for consumption. The other jiroducts of Virginia are the ordinary growth of all temperate, and most northern regions. She has not the climate which would put slaves on the vantage ground above whites : every part of her territory is adapted to the men of all climates, and she has not a foot of soil which nature declares that none but blacks shall culti- vate, nor a product the cultivation of which demands lives and labors baser than those of white men. To- bacco is notoriously cultivated with success by whites in any part of the world, which is temperate enough to grow it. It is then a total miscalculation in every point of view — a false position for Virginia to have allotted to herself the exclusive labor of slaves. "But appeal is made to the history of the economy of Virginia to contradict this assertion. Is it demanded for instance, why Virginia should jirosper before the revolution as she .did, with her slave labor, if there be a fatal error in her adoption of slavery ? We may an- swer, that there is no great mystery in that. Virginia while a colony never did furnish the miracles of great and sudden fortunes which the West India and South Carolina nabobs used to exhibit in England. Adam Smith in his day made this remark. At that time fine tobacco was an article only grown in Virginia and Maryland, and the prices were relatively to the times very high ; whereas now and for all future time, a com- petition wholly beyond the conception of that day has completely revolutionized the market. But admit that the colony was very prosperous : if from this it is meant to argue that Virginia may again be so under the same system, we hope it will not at least be denied that the revolution found almost all the lands which had been opened nearly or quite exhausted, showing plainly that the preceding hundred years had been passed in fits of profitable planting from the frequent resort to succes- sive new lands. Mr. Taylor of Caroline had under- stood that 60,000 hogsheads of tobacco were exported from Virginia, when the whole population did not ex- ceed 1 50,"000. Had the fertility of the country by pos- sibihty rc'nained undimijiished, (as he says it would if FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. 39 her slave agriculture had been any thing else than ' a barbarous custom,' not an art,) Virginia ought in ISIO, to have exported 240,000 Jiogsheads, or their equivalent in other produce, and at present nearly the d'oubleot" that. Thus the agricultural exports of Virginiain 1810 would, at the estimated prices of the Custom House at that time, have been seventeen millions of dollars, and now at least thirty-four, while it is known tliat they are not of late years greater than from three to five millions! — This will at once show that the great crops of the colo- nial times were forced, or we may say exaggerated by the possession of means, v.'hich will never again be in her hands. " The fact that the whole agricultural products of the state at present, do not exceed in value the exports eighty or ninety years ago, when it contained not a sixth of the population, and when not a third of the sur- face of the state (at jjresent Virginia) was at all occu- pied, is however a very striking proof of the decline of its agriculture. What is now the productive value of an estate of land and negroes in Virginia? We state as the result of extensive inquiry, embracing the last fifteen years, that a very great proportion of the larger 23lantations, with from fifty to one hundred slaves, actu- ally bring their proprietors in debt at the end of a short term of years, notwithstanding what would once in Vir- ginia have been deemed very sheer economy ; that much the larger part of the considerable landholders are content, if they barely meet their plantation ex- penses without a loss of capital ; and that, of those who make any profit, it v.-ill in none but rare instances ave- rage more than one to one and a half per cent, on the capital invested. The case is not materially varied with the smaller pro^jrietors. Mr. Randolph of Roa- noke, whose sayings have so generally the raciness and the truth of proverbs, has repeatedly said in Congress, that the time was coming when the masters would run away from the slaves and be advertised by them in the public papers. A decided improvement in the Virginia system is taking place in some parts of the state, which consists in the abandonment of the culture of tobacco for that of wheat, Indian corn, &c. which can be pro- duced on soil too poor for tobacco, requires fewer labor- ers, and will not be so apt to reduce the fertility of the soil still lower. This is a judicious thing in itself, but here again recurs the truth we have already set forth ; plantations with such products as these never can be profitably managed with slave labor. Wheat and corn will not do for this ; let the planter turn his sons in to work his lands, and then these products will sufiice. — Tobacco was the only article which ever could by pos- sibility justify the expense of slave labor in Virginia ; and now we see that the wiser planters ai-e to a great degree withdrawing their lands from it. " There is however one way in which capital invested in slaves may be said to be productive. We will now let the reader into a secret of slave-holding economy. — The only form in which it can safely be said that slaves on a plantation are profitable in Virginia, is in the mul- tiplication of their number by births. If the proprie- tor, beginning with a certain number of negroes, can but keep them for a few years from the hands of the sheriff or the slave trader, though their labor may have yielded him not a farthing of nett revenue, he finds that gradually but surely, his capital stock of negroes multi- plies itself, and yields, if nothing else, a palpable inte- rest of young negroes. While very young tliey occa- sion small expense, but they render none or small ser- vice ; when grown up, their labor, as we have already seen, hardly does more than balance the expense they occasion. The process of multiplication will not in this way advance the master towards the point of a nett revenue ; he is not the richer in income with the fifty slaves than with t^venty. Yet Jthese young negroes have their value : and what value ? The value of the slaves so added to his number is the certain price for which they will at any time sell to the southern trader. Should the humanity of the proprietor, however, and his rare fortune of keeping out of debt, prevail on him never to treat his slaves as hve stock for traffic, he finds himself incumbered with the same unproductive burden as before. That master alone finds productive value in his increase of slaves, who chooses to turn the increase of his capital, at regular intervals, into money at the highest market price ! There arc, we make haste to say, very many masters with whom it is a fixed rule never to sell a slave, except for incorrigibly bad cha- racter, so long as the pressure of necessity does not compel it. There are some who v.ould feel it to be the wanton breach of a tie next in sanctity to the most sa- cred of the domestic relations. But such sensibility cannot be supposed to be universal. Accordingly, the state does not derive a tangible profit from its slaves: this is true to the heart's content of the adversaries of abolition, and that by means of yearly sales to the negro traders. An account, on which we may rely, sets down the annual number of slaves sold to go out of the state at six thousand, or more than half the number of births ! The population returns show only a yearly addition of four thousand eight hundred to the slaves remaining in the state. If all these sales were the result of the ne- cessities of the masters, while it must forever be la- mented, it would at the same time be the most porten- tous proof of the financial ruin of the planters of tlic state. But if otherwise, if but a common course of business regularly gone into for profit, what volumes does it speak of the degradation to which slavery may reduce its supporters! And will ' the aspiring blood of Lancaster' endure it to be said that a Guinea is still to be found in America, and that Guinea is Virginia? — That children are reared with the express object of sale into distant regions, and that in numbers but little less than the whole number of annual births? * * * * Shall the profits to Virginia, from this contaminated source, be alleged as an economical argu- ment to magnify the sacrifice involved in the abolition of slavery, and this too by statesmen who profess to execrate the African slave trade? For ourselves, we can see but little diflTerence between this form of the in- ternal slave trade and the African trade itself. But we have too deep a stake ourselves in the good name of the land of Washington and Jeflferson, to be willing to ad- mit that this form of profit from slaves is cherished by any but a very few persons. This is not then an in- come which Virginia loves to reap. She scorns those who resort to it, and will count lightly of the sacrifice which the extinction of this fountain of impure wealth would involve. " Banishing this then out of view, there is no pro- ductive value of slaves in Virginia. Shut up all outlet into the southern and southwestern states, and the price of slaves in Virginia would sink down to a cypher. — Without the possibility of deriving from slave labor any of the benefits, by which in some countries it seems to compensate (whether adequately or not) for its perni- cious moral effects, Virginia is cursed with an institu- tion unproductive of good to her, and potent in mis- chiefs beyond all her fears. If ever there was a specific, which failing of its possible good effects, would induce irremediable pains, it is slavery. We check the strug- gling inclination to paint the woes Virginia has suftered from its miscarriage, in their true colors, but the truth would seem exaggeration. Take then the following temperate detail from the speech of Mr. Marshall, every word of which is true by the experience of Virginia: " ' Wherefore, then, object to slavery ? Because it is ruinous to the whites — retai-ds improvement — roots out an industrious population — banishes the yeomanry of the country — deprives the spinner, the weaver, the smith, the shoemaker, the carpenter, of employment and support. This evil admits of no remedy ; it is increas- ing and will continue to increase, until the whole coun- try will be inundated with one black wave covering its whole extent, with a few white faces here and there floating on the surface The master has no capital but what is vested in [slaves;] the father, instead of being 40 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. richer for his sons, is at a loss to provide for them — there is no diversity of occupations, no incentive to enter- prise. Labor of every species is disreputable because performed mostly by slaves. Our towns are stationary, our villages almost everywhere declining, and tlic gene- ral aspect of the country marks the curse of a wasteful, idle, reckless population, who have no interest in tiie soil, and care not how much it is impoverished. Public improvements are neglected, and the entire continent does not present a region for which nature has done so much, and art so little. If cultivated by free labor, the soil of Virginia is capable of sustaining a dense pojiu- lation, among whom labor would be honorable, and where " the busy hum of men'' would tell that all were happy, and that all were free.' " Virginia has suffered, and is now suffering under all the ten specifications just given, and in a greater de- gree than any other of the slave holding states could. — Her statesmen and engineers mourn over her inertness of spirit for public improvements ; her economists mourn over the little inclination of her citizens to labor of any kind ; her agriculturists upbraid her for letting the soil sink into irrecoverable exhaustion, that she is burdened with the dearest sort of labor, and jiersists in applying to a country of originally moderate fertility, a System absolutely ruinous to any but the richest allu- vial soils; that industry and frugality are banished; that she renders it virtually impossible to open a new source of wealth in manufactures, and that Avhile the princi^Dle of population is almost stagnant among her whites, and her own sons are departing from her, she repulses by her domestic relations all the emigrants to ^America from the old world, who might else come in to repair her ruin. It is ridiculous to talk of the prosperity of a country wholly agricultural, with slave labor and ■exhausted lands. The proud homes of Virginia, from the revolution down to this day, have been passing from the hands of their high-minded proprietors, to the humble overseers that used to sit beloiv the salt at their board, and from them in their turn to some otb.er newer parvenus: agriculture has failed to enrich. Of the white emigrants from Virginia, at least half are hard working men, who carry away with them little besides their tools and a stout heart of hope : the mechanic trades have failed to give them bread. Commerce she has little, shipping none, and it is a fact that the very staple of the state, tobacco, is not exported by her own capi- tal— the statedoes virtually a commission business in it. All the sources of prosperity, moral and economical, are deadened ; there is a general discontent v/iih one's lot ; in some of the first settled and choicest parts of Jier territory, symptoms are not wanting»of desolate an- tiquity. And all this in youthful America, and m Vir- ginia too, the fairest region of America, and with a race of people inferior to none in the world in its capacity to constitute a prosperous nation. " There are some facts disclosed by the population returns for 1830, which we are not aware Imve been fully brought to the pubHc notice. Every one is now acquainted with the uncomfortabletruth, that the whites east of the Blue Ridge had in 1790 a majority of 25,000, and that in the course of forty years they have not only lost it, but suffered the blacks to get an ascendency in number to the extent of 81,000: thus the advance of the blacks is 106,000 in that half of the state in that period. But we may see by the subjoined table that there are not a few counties of middle as well as lower Virginia, (component parts of eastern Virginia) which have actu- ally diminished in white population in the last ten years! The first five are counties between the Blue Ridge and the head of tide-water; the others below the head of tide-water. Whites in 1S20. 1830. Brunswick, 5B89 5397 Amelia, 3409 3293 Goochland, 3976 3857 Loudoun, 16144 15516 Whites in 1820. 1830, Mecklenburg, 7710 7543 Fairfax, 6224 4892 James City, 1 556 1284 King and Q.ueen, 5460 4714 King William, 3449 3155 Lancaster 2388 1976 Northumberland, 41 34 4029 Sussex, 4155 4118 Stafford, 4788 4713 Warwick, 620 619 These counties at an average annual increase of three per cent, (which is sufficiently moderate) would have added more than 20,000 to their aggregate numbers ; they have sustained a loss of near 5000 in ten years, which is fully one twelfth of their capital in 1820. — Conjccturally the people in these counties are as pro- lific as elsewhere ; emigration, the result of the charac- teristic ills of Virginia, has done most to occasion this loss. All of these are fine counties." We next proceed to tlie means proposed by Mr. Harrison, for removing slavery from Virginia. "We believe that means may be found to colonize the annual surplus of the slaves of Virginia, and to pur- chase such a portion of that surplus as it may be neces- sary to purchase. "The annual increase of slaves in Virginia (leaving- out of view the 6000 supposed to be taken off to the southern markets) is less than 5000. If this number of slaves be valued at the average of !§200 per head, the sum necessary to purchase them will be about a million of dollars. To defray the expense of their deportation to Africa and subsistence there for some months will, on the satisfactory calculation of Mr. Mathew Carey, to wliich we must refer, at $25 per head for adults and children, require $125,000 — add to which the cost of de- portation of 1200 free blacks (their annual increase,) $30,000, and we have the sum of )>; 150,000. That the state of Virginia has no possible means of purchasing 5000 slaves per annum is obvious. But were the entire cost that of transportation onlj^, $150,000, we should insist that the Lcjiislature take it into serious considera- tion how far that expense exceeds its means. In any event, our adversaries will allow us to set down the item of transportation to the charge of the state: if this be all, it is to ofler no insurmountable embarrassment. Perhaps it may be thought best to deport the free ne- groes first, and then the whole expense is that of trans- portation. Where, however, shall we find that greater fund which will presently be needed for the purchase of the surplus of the slaves, and before long for the pur- chase of a part of the capital number ? There is not far off a fund to which we believe our eyes may be turned. We have come to the conclusion that such a fund is the proceeds of the public lands in the treasury of the general government ; and we do now invite the friends of the removal and colonization of the negroes to fix hereafter their thoughts and to press their pre- tensions on this fund. The annual income to govern- ment from the public lands is now estimated at three millions. Let one-third of this amount be demanded for this object, to be under the entire management of the state authorities, " In coincidence with the known opinion of Virginia, we are not willing to demand a simple appropriation of money from Congress, But we are inclined to think, that an appropriation from the receipts of the public lands would not be liable to the constitutional objection, which would forbid a grant of money raised by taxes. We have an unfeigned respect for constitutioonal scru- ples, but we are not ambitious ourselves of entertaining more scruples than Mr. Madison. Let us hear then what tliat greatest living authority says upon the sub- ject, in his letter to Mr. Gurley, of December last: — " ' In contemplating the peexmiary resources needed for the removal of such a number to a great distance, my thoughts and hopes hcive been long turned to the FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. 41 rich fund presented in the western lands of the nation, which win soon entirely cease to be under a pledg'e for another object. The great one in question is truly of a national character, and it is known that distinguished patriots not dwelling inslave-hokliiig states have viewed the object in that light, and would be willing to let the national domain be a resource in cflecting it. Should it be remarked that the states, though all may be inte- rested in relieving our country from the colored popu- lation, are not equally so; it is butfair to recollect, that the sections most to be benefitted are those whose ces- sions created the fund to be disposed of. I am aware of the constitutional obstacle which has presented itself; but if the general will should bo reconciled to an appli- cation of the territorial fund to the removal of the co- lored population, a grant to Congress of the necessary authority could be carried, with little delay, through the forms of the constitution.' "Before any one condemns us for looseness of con- struction of the constitution, we beg further that he will read Mr. Jefferson's letter to Mr. Sparks, (vol. iv. pp. 3S3-391;) we adopt all the qualifications therein men- tioned. " Judge Marshall most properly suggests that the objection, in a political view, to the application of this ample fund, is very much lessened, in his estimation, by the fact that our lands are becoming an object for v.-hich the states are to scramble, and which threatens to sow the seeds of discord among us, instead of being what they might be — a source of national wealth. " A great part of the proceeds of the jDublic domain once appropriated to this object, there would soon be found no insurmountable difficulty in the removal of the necessary number in Virginia. But it is said that were Congress disposed to give a million annually for the specific object of the removal of the slaves, it would feel bound Lo bestow it proportionally on all the slave-hold- ing states, or if all be not inclined to receive it, then on those which would be. We answer, that, if Congress should consent to pledge a certain share of the revenue from the lands for the purchase and removal (under the laws of the states) of the slaves of the United States, we have no doubt it would be thou^-ht wise to begin with the effectual relief of the greatest sufferer first. A minute's attention to the following statement of Gene- ral Brodnax, will show the immense claims of Virginia. " 'The state of Virginia contains, by the last census, less than one fifteenth j^art of the whole ivhlle popula- tion of the United States ; it contains more than one seventh of the free negroes; and it possesses between a fourth and a fifth of all the slaves in the union, " 'Virginia has a greater number of slaves than any other state in the union — and more than Loitisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Tennessee, all put together; and more than four times as many as either of them. — Louisiana and South Carolina are the only states in which the slaves are more numerous than the white population ; and Virginia has more slaves, without esti- mating her great and unfortunate proportion of free persons of color, than both these states put together. Nay, one half of the state, that which lies on the east of the Blue Ridge of mountains, itself contains nearly as many.' " But if Congress should decline to grant from this fund for the specific purpose of the removal of the blacks, and prefer to distribute among the states the portion of money severally assignable to them, let such portion 'as would fall to Virginia be earnestly claimed of the Legislature for this object. The annual receipt of between two and three hundred thousand dollars, which Mr. Clay's bill (limited to five years duration) would assign to her, would not be adequate for compensating masters on the foregoing plan, but it might suffice for doing an immense deal of good on the plan in Mr. Jef- ferson's letter to Mr. Sparks, the purchase of the children at a small but just price, the children to be disposed of either according to the particulars of that plan, or un- der any other jilan wliich might be speedier, and less Vol. I.— 6" burdensome to the persons to be charged with rearing them. "Wc believe that before half a million of blacks were conveyed to Africa, there would not remain a master obstinately resolved to retain his slaves, except in the most southern and south-western states, where slave labor is next to essential (we hope not absolutely) for the cultivation of the good lands ! "We exhort the people of Virginia then, first to seek aid from their own Legislature to the extent it can be afforded ; second, to insist on the passage of permanent laws going as far in the subject as joublic opinion will justify ; and third, to assert their claims to a sliare of the proceeds of the public lands. Let it not, by her lastidiousness, be made true, that she ceded an empire to the general government, under a virtual condition that she alone was to derive no benefit from it. " Suppose then means to be thus found to defray the expense of emancipating and ti'ansporting them to some otlicr country, the next question is, where a suitable asylum may be found to which to convey them ? We answer, that Africa affords the most eligible situation for such an asylum, and that we hope Virginia would avail herself of the noble beginning which has been made by the American Colonization Society at Li- beria." From Mr. Dew's work, our extracts will be limited to his remarks on the plans for the aboli- tion of negro slavery. "Under this head we will examine, first, those schemes which propose abolition and deportation, and secondly, thosp- which contemplate emancipation with- out deportation. " 1. Emancipation and Deportation. — In the late Vir- ginia Legislature, where the subject of slavery under- went the most thorough discussion, all seemed to be perfectly agreed in the necessity of removal in case of emancipation. Several members from the lower coun- ties, which are deeply interested in this question, seem- ed to be sanguine in their anticijjations of the final suc- cess of some project of emancipation and deportation to Africa," the original home of the negro. 'Let iis trans- late them,' said one of the most resj)ected and able members of the legislature (General Brodnax,) 'to those realms from which, in evil times, under inauspi- cious influences, their fathers were unfortunately ab- ducted. Mr. Speaker, the idea of restoring these peo- ple to the region in Avhich nature had planted them, and to whose climate she had fitted their constitutions — the idea of benefitting not only our condition and their con- dition by the removal, but making them the means of canying back to a great continent, lost in the profound- cst depths of savage barbarity, unconscious of the exis- tence even of the God who created them, not only the arts and comforts and multiplied advantages of civilized life, but what is of more value than all, a knowledge of true religion — intelligence of a Redeemer — is one of the grandest and noblest, one of the most expansive and glorious ideas which ever entered into the imagination of man. The conception, whether to the philosopher, the statesman, the philanthropist, or the Christian, of rearing up a colony which is to be the nucleus around which future emigration will concenter, and open all Africa, to civilization and commerce, and science and arts and religion — when Ethiopia shall stretch out her hands, indeed, is one which warms the heart with de- light.' {Speech of Gen. Brodnax of Dinividdie, pp. 36 and 37.) We fear that this splendid vision, the crea- tion of a brilliant imagination, influenced by the pure feelings of a philanthropic and generous heart, is des- tined to vanish at the severe touch of analysis. Fortu- nately for reason and common sense, all these projects of deportation may be subjected to the most rigid and accurate calculations, which are amply sufiicient to dis- pel all doubt, even in the minds of the most sanguine, as to their practicability. We take it for granted that the right of the owner to 43 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW- his slave is to be respected, and consequently that lie is not required to emancipate him, unless his full value is paid by the state. Let us then, keejiing this in view, proceed to the very simple calculation of the expense ol emancipation and deportation in Virginia. The slaves, by the last census (1830) amounted within a small frac- tion to 470,000 ; the average value of each one of these is §200; consequently the whole aggregate value of the slave population of Virginia in 1830, was $94,000,000, and allowing for the increase sirce, we cannot err far in putting the present value at «! 1 00,000,000. The assess- ed value of all the houses and lands in the £.tate amounts to $200,000,000, and these constitute the material items in the wealth of the state, the whole personal property besides bearing but a very small proportion to the value of slaves, lands, and houses. jNow, do not these very simple statistics speak volumes upon this subject? It is gravely recommended to the state of Virginia to give up a species of property which constitutes nearly one-third of the wealth of the whole state, and almost one-half of that of Lower Virginia, and with the remaining two- thirds to encounter the additional enormous expense of transportation and colonization on the coast of Africa. But the loss of $100,000,000 of property is scarcely the half of what Virginia would lose, if the immutaljle laws of nature could suffer (as fortunately they cannot) this tremendous scheme of colonization to be carried into full effect. Is it not population which makes our lands and houses valuable ? Why are lots in Paris and London worth more than the silver dollars which it might take to cover them ? V/hy are lands of equal fertility in England and France worth more than those of our Northern States, and those again worth more than Southern soils, and those in turn v/ortli more than the soils of the distant West? It is the presence or ab- sence of population which alone can explain the fact. It is in truth the slave labor in Virginia which gives value to her soil and her habitations — take away this and you pull down the atlas that upholds the whole system — eject from the slate the whole slave popu- lation, and we risk nothing in tha prediction, that on the day in which it shall be accomplished, the v,-orn soils of Virginia will not bear the paltry price of tlie government lands in the west, and the Old Dominion will be a ' waste hov/ling wilderness,' — ' the grass shall be seen growing in the streets, and the foxes peep- ing from their holes.' " But the favorers of this scheme say they do not contend for the sudden emancipation and deportation of the whole black population ; — they would send ofl' only the increase, and thereby keep down the popula- tion to its present amount, while the whites increasing at their usual rate, would finally become relatively so numerous as to render the presence of the blacks among us for ever afterwards entirely harmless. Tliis scheme, which at first to the unreflecting seems plausible, and much less wild than the project of sending off the whole, is nevertheless impracticable and visionary, as we think a few remarks will prove. It is computed that the annual increase of the slaves and free colored jDopu- lation of Virginia, is about six thousand. Let us first, then, make a calculation of the expense of purchase and transportation. At $200 each, the six thousand will amount in value to $1,200,000. At $30 each, for trans- portation, which we shall soon see is too little, we have the whole expense of purchase and transportation §1,380,000, an expense to be annually incurred by Vir- ginia to keep down her black population to its present amount. And let us ask, is there any one who can se- . riously argue that Virginia can incur such an annual ex- pense as this for the next 25 or 50 years, until the whites have multiplied so greatly upon the blacks, as in tlie opinimi of the alarmists for ever to quiet the fears of the community? Vain and delusive hope, if any were ever wild enough to entertain it ! Poor old Vir- ginia, the leader of the poverty stricken team, which have been for years so heavily dragging along under the into- lei'able burthen of the Federal Government, must in- evitably be crushed whenever this new weight is impos- ed on her, in comparison with which federal exactions are light and mild. We should as soon expect the Cha- mois, the hardy rover over Alpine regions, by his unas- sisted strength, to hurl down the snowy mantle which for ages has clothed the lofty sunmit of Mont Blanc, as that Virginia will be ever able by her own re- sources to purchase and colonize on the coast of Africa six thousand slaves for any number of years in succes- sion. " But this does not develope to its full extent the mon- strous absurdity of this scheme. There is a view of it yet to be taken, which seems not to have struck very forcibly any of the speakers in the Virginia Legislature, but which appears to us of itself perfectly conclusive against this whole project. We have made som.e efforts to obtain something like an accurate account of the num- ber of negroes every year carried out of Virginia to the south and south-west. We have not been enabled to succeed completely ; but from all the information we can obtain, we have no hesitation in saying, that up- wards of six thousand are yearly exported to other states. Virginia is in fact a negro raising state for other states; she produces enough for her own supply, and six thousand for sale. Now, suppose the government of Virginia enters the slave market, resolved to pur- chase six thousand for emancipation and deportation, is it not evident that it must overbid the southern seeker, and thus take the very slaves who would have gone to the south ? The very first operation then of this scheme, provided slaves be treated as property, is to arrest the current which has been hitherto flowing to the south, and to accumulate the evil in the state. As sure as the moon in her transit over the meridian arrests the cui-- rent which is gliding to the ocean, so sure will the ac- tion of the Virginia government, in an attempt to emancipate and send off 60CO slaves, stop those who are annually going out of the state ; and when 6000 are sent off in any one year, (which we never expect to see,) it will be found on investigation that they are those who would have been sent out of the state by the operation of our slave trade, and to the utter astonish- ment and confusion of our abolitionists, the black popu- lation will be found advancing with its usual rapidity — the only operation of the scheme being to substitute our government, alias ourselves, as purchasers, instead of the planters of the south. This is a view which every le- gislator in the state should take. He should beware lest in his zeal for action, this efllux, which is now so salutary to the state, and such an abundant source of wealth, be suddenly dried up, and all the evils of slavery be increased instead of diminished. If government really could enter with capital and zeal enough into the boundless project, we might even in a few years, see the laws of nature reversed, and the tide of slavery flowing from the south in Virginia, to satisfy the philanthropic demand for colonization. The only means which the government could use to prevent the above described ef- fect, would be either arbitrarily to fix the price of slaves below their market value, which would be a clear violation of the right of property, (which we shall pre- sently notice,) or to excite a feeling of insecurity and apprehension as to this kind of property, and thus dis- pose the owner to part with it at less than its true va- lue:— but surely no statesman would openly avow such an object, although it must be confessed that some of the speakers even who contended that slaves should ever be treated as property, avowed sentiments which were calculated to produce such a result. "It is said, however, that the southern market will at all events be closed against us, and consequently that the preceding argument falls to the ground. To this we answer, that as long as the demand to the south exists, the supply will be furnished in some way or other, if our government do not unwisely tamper with the sub- ject. Bryan Edwards has said, that ' an attempt to prevent the introduction of slaves into the West Indies would be like chaining tlie winds, or giving laws to the FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. 43 ocean.' We may with truth affirm, that an attempt to prevent a circulation of this kind of property through tli3 slave-lioldiiig states of our confederacy, would be equally if not more impracticable. But there is a most striking illustration of this now exhibiting before our eyes — the Southampton massacre produced great ex- citement and ajipreliension throughout tlie slave-holding states, and two of them, hitherto the largest pin-chasers of Virginia slaves, have interdicted their iniroduction under severe penalties. Many in our state looked for- ward to an immediate fall iu the price of slaves from this cause — and what has been the result ? Why, wonder- ful to relate, Virginia slaves are now higher than they have been for many years past — and this rise in price has no doubt been occasioned by the number of south- ern purchasers who have visited our state, under the •belief that Virginians had been frightened into a deter- mination to get clear of their slaves at all events ; 'and from an artificial demand in the slave purchasing stales, caused by an apprehension on the pavt of the farmers in those states, that the reguhir supply of slaves would speedily be discontinued by the operation of their non- importation regulations;'* and we are, consequently, at this moment exporting slaves more rapidly, through the operation of the internal slave trade, than for many years past. " Let us now examine a moment into the object propos- ed to be accomplished by this scheme. It is contended that free labor is infinitely superior to slave labor in every point of view, and therefore that it is highly desi- rable to exchange the latter for the former, and that this ■will be gradually accomplished by emancipation and deportation ; because the vacuum occasioned by the ex- portation of the slaves will be filled up by the influx of freemen from the north and other portions of the union ; and thus, for every slave we lose, it is contended we shall receive in exchange a free laborer, much more productive and more moral. If we arc not greatly mistaken, this, on analysis, will be found to be a complete specimen of that arithmetical school boy reasoning, which has ever proved so deceptive in politics^ and so ruinous in its practical consequences; and first, let us see whether any thing- will be gained in point of productiveness, by this ex- change of slave labor for free, even upon the avowed principles of the abolitionists themselves. The great objections to slave labor, seem to be — First, that it is unproductive, or at least, not as productive as free la- bor ; and Secondly, that it is calculated to rejiiel free labor from the sphere in which it is exercised. This latter effect has been briefly and more ingeniously urg- ed by a writer in the Richmond Enquirer of the 3d of iNlarch 1832, over the signatiu'c of 'York,' than by any one who is known to us, and we shall consequently introduce an extract from his essay. " ' Society naturally revolves itself,' says this writer, ' into three classes. The first comprehends professional men, capitaHsts and large landed proprietors ; the se- cond, embraces artizans and small proprietors ; and the third, is composed of common laborers. Now we are a society placed in the anomalous predicament of being totally without a laboring class ; for all our labor is per- formed by slaves, who constitute no part of that society, and who quo ad that society, may be regarded as brutes or machines. This circumstance ojjerates directly as a check upon the increase of white population. For, as some intelligence cr property is required to enable a man to belong to either of the two first classes above enumerated, (and which I have remarked ate the only * From Louisiana, many of the farmers themselves, have come into our state, for the purpose of purchasing their otcn slaves, and thereby evading the laics. There are in fact, so 7nany plans which will effectually defeat all these preven- tive regulations, that we may consider their rigid enforce- ment, utterly impracticable ; and moreover, as the excite- ment produced by the late insurrection in Virginia, dies away, so will these laws be forgotten, and remain as dead letters upon the statute bocks. classes which we have,) and as no one with ordinary self-respect, can submit to sink below them, and become outcasts, the immediate tendency of the supernumei-ary members is to emigration.' We will not for the pre- sent, dispute the premises of the very intelligent and graceful writer, from whom we have copied "the above extract; we have endeavored throughout this review, to show that our adversaries are not justified in their con- clusions, even if we admit the truth of their premises. Now, what is the conclusion arrived at by our adversa- ries, from the premises just mentioned ? That we must deport our slaves as fiist as possible, and leave the va- cuum to be filled by free labor. In the first place, then, we say upon their oicn principles even, they cannot expect free labor to take the place of slave, for every one ac- knowledges it utterly impossible to send away, at once, all our slaves — there is scarcely we presume, a single abolitionist in Virginia, v.ho has ever supposed, that we can send away more than the annual increase. Now, then, we ask, how can any one reasonably expect that the taking away of two or three negroes from a body of one himdred, (and this is a much greater proportion than the abolitionists hope to colonize,) can destroy that prejudice against laboring with the blacks, which is re- presented as preventing the whites from laboring, and as sending them in multitudes to the west. If we are too proud to work in a field with fifty negro men this year, we shall surely be no more disposed to do it next year, because one negro, the increase of the fifty, has been sent to Liberia ; and consequently the above reason- ing, if it prove any thing, proves that we must prevent our laboring classes (the blacks) from increasing, be- cause whites will not work with them — although the whites will be just as averse to working with them af- ter you have checked their increase as before ! " But let us suppose, that by some kind of logical le- gerdemain, it can be proven that free labor will supply the place of slave labor, which is deported to Africa — even then, we think they will fail upon their other great prin- ciple, that free labor is better than slave, the truth of which principle for the present, we are willing to allow — and tlieir whole argument fails, for this plain and palpa- ble reason, that lice labor by association with slave labor, must inevitably be brought down to its level and even below it, — for the vices of the slave you may cor- rect, by means of your authority over him, but those of the associate free laborer you cannot. Every farmer in Virginia, can testify to the truth of this assertion. He knows full well, that if he employs a white laborer to work with a black one, even at job ivork, where of course the inducement to labor is greatest — he will not do more than the negro, and perhaps in a majority of cases, he will not do as much, V\^hat then might we expect of him, if he should enter the field with fifty fold his num- ber of blacks, to work along v,'ith them regularly through the four seasons of the year? We hazard little in say- ing, he would be a more unproductive laborer than the black, for he would soon have all his idle propensities, without beingsubjected to the same salutary restraint. "It is a well known general fact, to all close observers of mankind, that if two dift'erent grades of labor as to productiveness be associated together in the same occu- pation, tlie higher has a tendency to descend to the level of the lower. Schmalz, in his Political Economy, says, that the indolence and carelessness of the serfs in the north of Europe, corrupt the free laborers who come in- to contact with them. Jones, in his volume on Rents, says, ' a new road is at this time (1S31) making, which is to connect Hamburg and the Elbe with Berlin ; it pass- es over the sterile sands, of which so much of the north of Germany consists, and tlie materials for it arc supplied by those isolated blocks of granite, of which the pre- sence on the surface of those sands forms a notorious geological puzzle. These blocks, transported to the line of road, are broken to the proper size by workmen, some of whom are Prussian free laborers, others Lei- beigeners of the Mecklenburg territory, through a part of winch the road passes. They are paid a stipulated sum 44 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. for breaking a certain quantity, cmcl all arc paid alike. — Yet tlie Leibcigeners could not at first be prevailed up- on to break more than one-third of the quantity which formed the ordinary task of the Prussians. The men were mixed, in the hope that the example and the gains of the more industrious, would animate the sluggish. — Now mark the result. A contrary effect followed ; the Leibcigeners did not improve, but the exertions of the other laborers sensibly s'.ackencd, and at the time my in- formant (the English engineer who superintended the work,) was speaking to me, the men were again at work in separate gangs carefully kept asunder.'* And thus do we find,"by an investigation of this subject, that if we should introduce, by any means, free labor in the stead of slave labor deported to Africa, that it will be certain to deteriorate by association with slave labor, until it sinks down to and even below its level. So far, ■we have admitted the possibility of exchanging slave for free labor, and have endeavored to prove, upon the principles of the abolitionists, that nothing would be gained by it. We will now endeavor to prove, and we think we can do it incontestibly, that the scheme of abo- lition and deportation will not and cannot possibly effect this exchange of slave labor for free, even if it were de- sirable. And in order that we may examine the pro- ject fully in this point of view, we will endeavor — first, to trace out its operation on the slave population, and then on the white. "Since the publication of the celebrated work of Doc- tor Malthus on the ' Principle of Population,' the know- ledge of the causes which aflect its condition and in- crease, is much more widely diffused. It is now well known to every student of political economy, that in the wide range of legislation, there is nothing more dangerous than too much tampering with the elastic and powerful spring of population. "The energies of government are for the most part feeble or impotent when arrayed against its action. — It is this procreatlve power of the human species, either exerted or dormant, which so frequently brushes away in reality the visionary fabrics of the philanthropists, and mars the cherished plots and schemes of statesmen. Euler has endeavored to prove, by some calculations, that the human species, itnder the most favorable cir- stanccs, is capable of doubling itself once in twelve years. In our western country, the progress of popu- lation has, in many extensive districts, been so rapid as to show, in our opinion, most conclusively, that it is ca- pable of doubling itself once in fifteen years without the aid of imigration. The whole of our population, since the independence of the United States, has shown itself fully capable of duplication in periods of twenty-five years, without the accession from abroad. f In some portions of our country, the population is stationary, in others but very slowly advancing. We will assume then for the two extremes in our country, the stationary condition on the one side, and such increase on the other as to give rise to a duplication every fifteen years. — Now as throughout the whole range comprehended be- tween these extremes, population is capable of exerting various degrees of energy, it is very evident that the statesman "who wishes to increase or diminish popula- tion, must look cautiously to the effect of his measures on its spring, and sec how this will be acted on. If for example, his object be to lessen the number of a slowly increasing population, he must be convinced that his plan does not stimulate the procreative energies of so- ciety to produce more than he is cajiable of taking away; or if his object be to increase the numbers, take heed lest this project deaden and paralyze the source of increase so much as to more than counterbalance any eflbrt of his. Now looking at the texture of the Vugi- nia population, the desideratum is to diminish the blacks and increase the whites. , Let us see how the scheme of emancipation and deportation will act. We have al- ready shown that the first operation of the plan, if slave property were rigidly respected and never taken with- out full compoisation, would be to put a stop to the ef- flux from the stale through other channels ; but this woukl not be the only effect. Government entering in- to the market with individuals, would elevate the price of slaves beyond their natiu-al value, and consequently the raising of them would become an object of primary importance throughout the whole state. We can readi- ly imagine that the price of slaves might become so great that each master would do all in his power to encourage marriage among them — would allow the females almost entire exemption from labor, that they might the better breed and nurse — and would so completely concentrate his efforts upon this object, as to neglect other schemes and less productive sources of wealth. Under these circumstances the prolific African might no doubt be'sli- mulated to press hard ujion one of the limits above sta- ted, doubling his numbers in fifteen years ; and such is the tendency which our abolition schemes, if ever seri- ously engaged in, will most undoubtedly produce ; they will be certain to stimulate the procreative powers of that very race which they are aiming to diminish ; they will enlaige and invigorate the very monster which they are endeavoring to stifle, and realize the beautiful but melancholy fable of Sisyphus, by an eternal renova- tion of hope and disappomtment. If it were possible for Virginia to purchase and send ofl' amnially for the next twenty-five or fifty years, 12,000 slaves, we should have very little hesitation in affirming, that the number of slaves in Virginia woukl not be at all lessened by tlie operation, and at the conclusion of the period such hab- its would be generated among our blacks, that for a long time after the cessation of the drain, population might advance so rapidly as tp produce among us all the calamities and miseries of an over crowded peo- ple. " We arc not now dealing in mere conjecture ; tlierc is ample proof of the correctness of these anticipations in the history of our own hemisphere. The West India Islands, as we have before seen, are supplied with slaves more cheaply by the African slave trader than they can raise them, and consequently the black population in the Islands nowhere keeps up its numbers by natural in- crease. It appears by a statement of Mr. F. Buxton, I'e- cently 25ublished, that the total number of slaves in the British West Indies in IS 17, was 730,112. After a lapse of eleven years, in 1828, the numbers were re- duced to 678,527, making a loss on the capital of 1817, in the short space of eleven years, of 51,585.* In the Mauritius in the same space of time, the loss on the ca- pital of 1817 amounting to but 76,774, was 10,767. — Even in the Island of Cuba, where the negro slave is treated as humanely as any where on the globe, from 1804 to 1817, the blacks lost 4,401 upon the stock of 1S04; 'Prior to the annexation of Louisiana to the United States,' saj's Mr. Clay jn his Colonization Speech of 1830, ' the supply of slaves from Africa was abundant. The price of adults was generally about one hundred dollars, a price less than the cost of raising an infant. Then it was believed that the climate of the province was unfavorable to the rearing of negro chil- dren, and comjiaratively few were raised. After the United States abolished the slave trade, the price of adults rose very considerably — greater attention was consequently bestowed on their children, and now * See Jones'' Political Economy, vol. 1 pp. 51, 52; Lon- don Edition. t The longest period of duplication has been about Iwen- ty-three years and seven months, so that the addition of one year and five months will more than compensate for the cmi- gj-ation. * Bryan Edwards attributes the decrease of the slaves in the West Indies jwincipally to the disproportioji of the sex- es. But in the present instance, ive are constrained to at- tribute it to another cavse, for ice find of the 730,112 slaves in the sugar islands in 1S17, 369,577 Jt'cre males, and 363,535/e)nnie5, being'very nearly unequal division of the sexes. FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. 45 nowhere is the African female more prolific than she is in Louisiana, and the climate of no one of the south- ern states is supposed to be more favorable to the rear- ingof her offspring;.' For a similarreason now, thcslaves ill Virginia multiply more rapidly than in most of the Nouthern states; — the Virginians can raise cheaiDcr than they can buy ; in foct it is one of their greatest sources of profit. In many of the other slaveholding states tiiis is not the case, and consequently the same care is not taken to encourage matrhnony and the rearing of cliiklren. "But our opponents perhaps may be disposed to an- swer, that this increase of slavery from the stimulus to the l)lack population afforded by the colonization abroad, ought not to be objected to on our own principles, since each slave will be worth two hundred dollars or more. This answer would be correct enough if it were not tliat the increase of the blacks is effected at our expense both as to wealth and numbers ; and to show this, we will now proceed to point out the operation of the scheme under consideration upon the white population. Mal- thus has clearly shown that joopuiation depends on the means of subsistence, and will, untler ordinary circum- stances, increase to a level with them. Now by means of subsistence, we must not only comprehend the ne- cessaries of life, such as food, clothing, shelter, &c. but likewise such conveniences, comforts, and even luxu- ries, as the habits of the society may render it essential for all to enjoy. Whatever tlicn has a tendency to de- stroy the wealth and diminish tlic aggregate capital of society, has the effect, as long as the standanl of com- fort* remains the same, to check the progress of the \}o- pulation. " It is sure to discourage matrimony, and cause chil- dren to be less carefully attended to, and to be less abundantly supplied. The heavy burthens which liave hitherto been imposed on Virginia, through the opera- tion of federal exactions, together with the high stan- dard of comfort prevalent throughout the whole state, (about which we shall by and by make a few observations) have already imposed checks ujion the progress of the wiiite population of the state. If not one single indi- vidual were to emigrate from the state of Virginia, it would be found, so inert has become the principle of in- crease in the state, that the population would not ad- vance with the average rapidity of the American peo- ple. Now, under these circumstances, an imposition of an additional burthen of 1,380,000 dollars for the pur- pose of jiurchase and deportation of slaves, would add so much to the taxes of the citizens — would subtract so much from the capital of the state, and increase so greatly the embarrassments of the whole population, that fewer persons would be enabled to support fami- lies, and consequently to get married. This great tax, added to those we are already suffering under, would weigh like an incubus upon the whole state — it would operate like the blighting hand of Providence that should render our soil barren and our labor unproduc- tive. It would diminish the value of the fee simple of Virginia, and not only check the natural increase of population within the commonvx-ealtli, but would make every man desirous of quitting the scenes of his home and his infancy, and fleeing "from the heavy burthen whicli would for ever keep him and his cliiklren buried in the depths of poverty. His sale of negroes would partly enable him to emigrate; and we have little doubt, that whenever this wild scheme shall be seriously com- menced, it will be found that more whites than negroes will be banished by its operation from the state. And there will be this lamentable difference between those who are left behind ; a powerful stimulus will be given to the procreative energies of the blacks, while those of the whites will be paralyzed and destroyed. Every emigrant fi-om among the whites will create a vacuum * By standard of comfort, we mean that ammmt of ne- cessaries, conveniences, and luxuries, which the habits of any people render essential to them. not to be supplied — every removal of a black will stimu- late to the generation of another. ' Uno avulso non deficit alter.' " The poverty stricken master would rejoice in the pro- lificness of his female slave, but pray Heaven in its kindness U) strike with barrenness his own spouse, lest m the plenitude of his misfortunes, brought on by the wild and Uuixotic philanthropy of his government, he m]ght see around him a numerous offspring unprovided for and destined to galling indigence. "It is almost useless to inquire whether this deporta- tion of slaves to Africa would, as some seem most strangely to anticipate, invite the whites of other states into the commonwealth. Who would be disposed to enter a state with worn ont soil and a black population mortgaged to the payment of millions per annum, for the i^urpose of emancipation and deportation, when in the West the most luxuriant soils, unencumbered with heavy exactions, could be purchased for the paltry sum of gl 25 per acre? " Where, then, is that multitude of whites to come from, which the glowing fancy of orators has sketched out as flowing into and filling up the vacuum created by the removal of slaves ? The fact is— throughout the wliole debate in the Virginia Legislature, the" speakers seemed to consider the increase of i^opulation as a sort of fixed quantity, which would i-emain the same under the endless cliange of circumstance, and consequently that every man exported from among the blacks, les- sened pro tanto exactly the black population, and that the wliites, moving on witli their usual speed, would fill the void ; which certainly was an erroneous supposition, and manifested an almost unpardonable inattention to the wonderful elasticity of the powerful spring of popu- lation. The removal of inhabitants, accompanied with great loss of productive labor and capital, so far from leaving the residue in a belter situation, and disposing them to increase and multiply, produces the directly opposite effect ; it deteriorates the condition of society, and deadens the sjiring of population. It is curious to look to the history of the world, and see how complete- ly this position is sustained by facts. Since the down- fal of the Roman Emisirc, there have been three forced emigrations of very considerable extent, from three of the countries of Europe. The Moors were expelled from Spain, the Protestants from the Netherlands, and the Hugonots from France ; each of these expulsions came well nigh ruining the country from which it took place. We are best acquainted with the effects of the expulsion of the Hugonots from France, because it hap- pened nearer to our ov.n times, during the reign of Louis XIV. In this case only 500,000 are supposed to have left France, containing then a population of 20 or 25,000,000 of souls. The energies of this mighty coun- try seemed at once paralyzed by this emigration, her prosperity was instantly arrested, her remaining popu- lation lost the vigor which characterized them as long as this leaven was among them, and to this day, France has not recovered from the tremendous blow. Her in- feriority to England, in industry and all the useful arts, is in a great measure to be traced back to this stupid in- tolerance of her great monarch Louis XIV. The rea- son why these expulsions were so very injurious to the countries in question, was because the einic'rants were the laboring classes of society, and their banishment con- sequently dried up the sources of production, and lessen- ed the aggregate wealth and capital of the people. Now these expulsions are nothing in comparison with that contemplated by our abolitionists. In France only one in fifty of the po])uIation was expelled, and no ex- pense was incurred in the deportation ; but in Virginia the proportion to be expelled is much greater, and the expense is to devolve on the government. " When the emigration is accomj-ianied with no loss of capital to the state, and no abstraction of productive labor, then the population will not be injuriously affec- ted, but sometimes greatly benefitted. In the hunting state, the expulsion of li'alf of the tribe would bcncfi^t 46 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. the remainder in a jjolilica-cconomical light, because they live on the game ofilic forest, which becomes more abundant as soon as the consumers diminish. Pastoral nations, for a like reason, are rarely injured by emigra- tion, for they live on cattle, and the cattle live on the spontaneous produce of the earth, and when a colony is sent off, the remainder will generally be benefitted, since the consumption is relieved while the production is not diminished. And this satisfactorily explains the diffi- culty which has so mucli puzzled histonaiis : — how the North of Europe, which Gibbon, Blume, and Robertson, all maintain was in a pastoral state, and not nearly so thickly settled as at present, should nevertheless have been able for several centuries to furnish those terrible swarms of barbarians, who ' gathering fresh darkness and terror' as they rolled on upon the South, at length, with their congregated multitudes, ' obscured the sun of Italy, and sunk the Roman world in night ' This example of the barbarians in the North of Europe, sending so many hundreds of thousands of emigrants to the South, is a beautiful illustration of the capacity of population to counteract the effects of emigration in all those cases where the spring of population is not weakened. As soon as new swarms left the country, tlie means of subsistence were more ample for the re- sidue ; the vigor of population soon supplied the defi- ciency ; and then another swarm went forth and reliev- ed agahi the national hive. Our purchase and deporta- tion of slaves would produce a similar effect on our blacks, but it would be entirely at the expense of both the numbers and wealth of the whites, and would be therefore one of the most bligluing curses that could scathe the land. Ireland, at present, is suffering heavy afiiictions from an overcrowded population ; but her go- vernment could not relievcherby sendingoffthe paupers, and for the simple reason that it would require an ex- pense on the part of Ireland which would produce as great or even greater abstraction of caj)ital than of un- productive mouths, and would moreover give more vigor to the sjDring of population. If other nations would incur the expense for her, then perhaps there might be for her a temporary benefit; but in a sliort time such a stimulus would be given to population, as would counteract all the vain efforts of man, and in the end, leave her in a worse condition than before. We doubt whether England, France, and Germany, by a steady concentration of all their financial resources upon the deportation and comfortable settlcnyjnt and sujiport of the superabundant population of Ireland, would, at the expiration of fifty j'ears, be found to have lessened the numbers by one single individual. The effect would merely be, to pledge the resources of these three nations to the support of the Irish pojuikuion, and to substitute the procreation of Irislimen, for that of Englishmen, Frenchmen, and Germans, and as soon as this support was withdrawn, the very habits which had been gene- rated by it in Ireland, would be its greatest curse. The only effectual means of relieving Ireland, will be to raise the standard of comfort in that country, and to ar- rest the population by the preventive checks which would lessen the marriages. Until this be done in seme way or other, Ireland is doomed to suffer the heavy penalty. "We are now prepared to exjilain how it is that so many negroes have been exported from Africa by the slave trade, while the gap, says Franklin, is almost im- perceptible. Gen. Brodnax, in his speech, computes the average number now annually sent out from Africa by the operation of the slave trade, to be 100,000; and, he adds, if all this can be effected against so many risks and hazards, and in violation of the laws of God and man, shall it be said that the whole state of Virginia cannot export 6,000 to Africa in a year ? Yes, strange as it may seem, this is all true ; and the simple reason of the great difference is, that Africa incurs no expense, but on the contrary, generally receives a full equivalent for the deported slave, which augments her means of subsistence, and stimulates the spring of population. — The slave trade which takes off 100,000 human be- ings from Africa for the slave market of the West In- dies and South America, has by its operation, quicken- ed the procreative powers of society in Africa to such an extent as not only to keep up her numbers, but to furnish besides 100,000 souls for exportation. Could we supjjose it possible for this slave trade to be annihi- lated at a blow, repugnant and shocking as it is to eve- ry feeling of humanity, it would be found that its sud- den cessation would plunge the whole of Western Africa for a season into the most dreadful anarchy and appalling distress. It would be found that the habits of the peo- ple had been formed to suit the slave trade, and accord- ingly would be much too favorable to the rapid increase of pojjvilation without that trade, — prisoners of war would be slaughtered, infants murdered, marriages dis- couraged, and swarms of redundant citizens sent forth to ravage neighboring countries, and all this would arise from the too lapid increase of population, for the means of subsistence, caused by the sudden stojijiing of the slave trade. It will be thus seen that the 100,000 annually sentofffrcm Al'rica, are a source of profit and not of expenditure. Saddle Africa with the wbole of this burthen, and we are perfectly sure that the entire resources of that immense continent would not suffice to purchase up, send off, and colonize 5,CC0 per annum. — There is the same difference between this exportation from Africa, and that proposed by the abolitionists from Virginia, that there is between the agriculturist who sends liis produce to a foreign state or country and re- ceives back a full equivalent, and him who is condemn- ed to send his abroad at his own expense, and to distri- bute it gratuitously. We imagine that no one who was acquainted with the condition of these two farmers would wonder that one should grow wealthy, and the other miserably poor. The 6,000 slaves which Virginia annuallj' sends off to the South are a source of wealth to Virginia ; but the 1 ,000 or 2,000 whites who probably go to the West are a source of poverty ; be- cause in the former case w-e have an equivalent left in the place of the exported slave — in the latter we lose both labor and capital without an equivalent ; and pre- cisely such a result in a much more aggravated form, will spring from this mad colonization scheme, should it ever be carried into operation. If the governments of Europe were silly enough toajopropriate their resources to the purchase of our slaves, at their full marketable value, ibr the purpose of deportation, they should, for ought that we could do, have every one that they could buy. An equivalent would thus be left for the deported slave, and however much others might suffer for their folly, we should escape. " Against most of the great difficulties attendant on the, plan of emancipation above examined, it was im- possible for the abolitionists entirely to close their eyes; and it is really curious to pause a moment and examine some of the reflections and schemes by which Virginia was to be reconciled to the jJan. We have been told that it would not be necessary to purchase all the slaves sent away — ^that many would be surrendered by their owners without an equivalent. 'There are a number of slave-holders, (said one v.-ho has all the lofty feeling and devoted patriotism which have hitherto so proudly characterized Virginia,) at this very tim.e, I do not speak from vain conjecture, but from what I know from the best information, and this number would continue to increase, who would voluntarily surrender their slaves, if the state would provide the means of colo- nizing them elsewhere. And there would be again another class, I have already heard of many, while they could not afford to sacrifice the entire value of their slaves, Avould cheerfully compromise with the state for half of their value.' In the first place, we would remark that the gentleman's anticipation would certainly prove delusive — the surrender of a very fev/ slaves would enhance the importance and value of the residixe, and make the owner much more reluctant to jiRrt with them. Let any farmer in Lower Virginia ask FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. 47 himself how many he can sjDarc from his plantation — and he will be suqDrised to see how few can be dispens- ed with. If that intelligent gentleman, from the store- house of his knowledge, would but call up the history of the past, he would see that mere phllmdhropy, with all her splendid boastings, has never yet accomplished one great scheme; he would find the remark of that great judge of humm nature, the illustrious author ot the Wealth of Nations, that no people had the gene- rosity to liberate their slaves until it became their inte- rest to do so, but too true ; and the philosopiiic ])age of Hume, Robertson, Stuart, and Sismondi, would inform him that the serfs of Europe have been only gradually emancipated through the operation of self interest and not phUaiithropy : and v^e shall soon see that it was fortunate for both parties that this was the cause. " But it is strange indeed that gentlemen have never reflected, that the pecuniary loss to the state, will be precisely the same, whether the negroes be purchased or gratuitously surrendered. In the latter case the bur- then is only shifted from the whole state to that portion where the surrender is made — thus if we own 510)000 worth of this property, and surrender the whole to go- vernment, it is evident that we lose the amount of SlOjOOO ; and if the whole of Lower Virginia could at once he induced to give up all of this property, and it could be sent away, the only effect of this generosity and self-devotion would be to inflict the bloio of desola- tion more exclusively on this portion of the state — the aggregate loss would be the same, the burthen would only be shifted from the whole to a part — the West would dodge the blow, and perhaps every candid citi- zen of Lower Virginia would confess that he is devoid of that refined incomprehensible patriotism which would call for self immolation on the shrine of folly, and would most conscientiously advise the eastern Virginians never to surrender their slaves to the government with- out a fair equivalent. Can it be genuine philanthropy to persuade them alone to step forward and bear the whole burthen ? " Again ; some have attempted to evade the diflicul- tics by seizing on the increase of the negroes after a cer- tain time. Thus Mr. Randolph's plan proposed that ail born after the year 1810, should be raised by their masters to the age of eighteen lor the female and twen- ty-one for the male, and then hired out, until the nett sum arising therefrom amounted to enough to send them away. Scarcely any one in the legislature — we believe not even the author himself— entirely approved of this plan.* It is obnoxious to the objections we have just been stating against voluntary sun-ender. It proposes to saddle the slave-holder with the whole burthen ; it infringes directly the rights of property ; it converts the fee simple possession of this kind of property into an estate for years; and it only puts oft' the great sacrifice required of the state to 1840, when most of the evils will occur that have already been described. In the mean time it destroys the value of slaves, and with it all landed possessions — checks the productions of the state, imposes (when 1840 arrives) upon the master the intolerable and grievous burthen of raising his young slaves to the ages of eighteen and twenty-one, and then liberating them to be hired out under the superintend- ence of government (the most miserable of all mana- gers,) until the proceeds arising therefrom shall be suffi- cient to send them away. If any man at all conversant with political economy should ever anticipate the day when this shall happen, we can only say that his faith is great indeed, enough to remove mountains, and that he has studied in a totally different school from our- selves. Let us ask in the language of one of Virginia's most cherished statesmen, who has stood by and de- * The difficulty of f Ming vpon any definite plan which can for a moment command the approbation of even a few of the most intelligent abolitionists, is an unerring symptom of the difficulty and impracticahility of the whole. fended with so much zeal and ability the interests of Lower Virginia — and who shone forth one of the bright- est stai-s in that constellation of talent which met to- gether in the Virginia Convention— 'Is it supposed that any tyranny can subdue us to the patient endurance of such a state of things ? Every prudent slave holder in tlie slave holding parts of the state, would either mi- grate with his slaves to some state where his rights in slave property would be secured to him by the laws, or would surrender at once his rights in the parent stock as well as in their future increase, and seek some land where he may enjoy at least the earnings of his own industry. In the first case, the country would be de- serted; in the other it would be abandoned to the slaves, to be cultivated under the management of the state. The plan would result in a sacrifice, more pro- bably an abandonment, of our landed, as well as the abolition of our slave property. Can any thing but force, can any force tame us to wrongs like these ?'* " Again; we entirely agree with the assertion of Mr. Brown, one of the ablest and most promising of Vir- ginia's sons, that the ingenuity of man, if exerted for the purpose, could not devise a more efficient mode of producing discontent among our slaves, and thus en- dangeruig the peace of the community. There are born annually of this population about 20,000 children. Those which are born before the year 1840 are to be slaves ; those which are born after that period are to be free at a certain age. These two classes will be reared together; they will labor together, and commune to- gether. It cannot escape the observation of him who is doomed to servitude, that although of the same color and born of the- same parents, a far different destiny awaits his more fortunate brother — as his thoughts again and again revert to the subject, he begins to re- gtird himself as the victim of injustice. Cheerfulness and contentment will flee from his bosom, and the most harmless and happy creature that lives on earth, will be transformed into a dark designing and desperate rebel. (Broivn^s Speech, pp. 8, 9.) " There are some again who exhaust their ingenuity in devising schemes for taking off the breeding portion of the slaves to xlfrica, or carrying away the sexes in such disproportions as will in a measure prevent those left behind from breeding. All of these plans merit nothing more than the appellation of vain juggling legis- lative conceits, unworthy of a wise statesman and a moral man. If our slaves arc ever to be sent away in any systematic manner, humanity detnands that they should be carried in families. The voice of the world would condemn Virginia if she sanctioned an)' plan of deportation by which the male and female, husband and wife, parent and child, were systematically and re- lentlessly separated. If we are to indulge in this kind of regulating vice, why not cure the ill at once, by fol- lowing the counsel of Xenophon in his Economics, and the practice of old Cato thcCensor ? Let us keep the male and female separatef in Ergastula or dungeons, if it be necessary, and then one generation will pass av/ay, and the evil will be removed to the heart's content of our humane philanthropists! But all these puerile con- ceits fall far short of surmounting the great difficulty which, like Memnon, is eternally 23resent and cannot be removed. ' Sedet etermcmque sedebit.'' "There is $100,000,000 of slave property in the state of Virginia, and it matters but little how you destroy it, whether by the slow process of tlie cautious practi- tioner, or with the frightful des})atch of the self confi- dent quack; when it is gone, no matter how, the deed will be done, and Virginia will be a desert." * Letters of Appomattox to people of Virginia, \st Let- ter, p. 13. f See Hume''s Essay on the populousness of Ancient Na- tions, where he ascribes this practice to Cato and others, to prevent their slaves from breeding. 48 FARMERS* REGISTER— HARVEST MANAGExMENT. Undoiil.'todly tlic condition of a slave is dcjjlora- blc, and it must ever be afllicting tliat sucl) a stale should exist, and lie extended so -widely over the globe, as to seem to lie the inevitable lot of a larce ])ortion of mankind. Eut in our benevolent /cal for the removal of slavery, we should not for^^et that there are afilictions, numerous, wide-spread, and unavoidable in the most refined and advanced state of society, that are even more intolerable th.an the slave's toil, stimulated by the slave-owner's lash. The substance, tliougli not the name of slavery is to be found almost every where in this miserable Avorld — and tlic fcAv fa\ ored spots now free from such causes of human sutrering, must in their turn be visited with like inflictions. Except in newly settled countries, or in others having" as yet a sparse population and plentiful means of subsistence, and a free government witlial, the laboring poor are slaves in fact, either to individuals, to government, or to their own craving and never satisfied neces- sities. Tise negro slaves of Virginia present strik- ing examples of the first kind — tlie peojjle of Egyjjt, and emancipated llayti of the second — and the en- tire laboring population of free and j)hi!anthropic England of the tliird. Of these three kinds, per- sonal slavery as existing in Virginia, is the most injurious, or the least profitable, to the masters, and attended with the least unhappiness (so far as mere animal comforts are considered) to the slaves; and where hunger is the only taskmaster, its vic- tims are the most miserable of slaves, and yet com- pelled to yield tlic greatest possible nett amount, by their labor, and abstinence from enjoyment. li a rich English manufacturer, or landholder, was offered all the laborers in his employment, with their wives and children, and all their posterity, to be held jn'ccisely as the negro slaves are held and maintained in Virginia, considcra.tionr; of economy alone, would instruct him to reject the fatal gift, as he would avoid certain bankruptcy and ruin. On the other hand, if all the slaves of Virginia were at once emancipated, and left to provide for themselves, want, wretchedness and disease, would make such havoc among them, as to threaten finally, and at no remote period, the extinction of the race. Tiie adult males, and even the females not burthened with children, might possibly do well ; but the greater number of the feeble and in- firm from old age, infancy, or disease, would in- evitably perish. Marriages would nearly cease, and births greatly diminish, and the work of death proceed as if a general pestilence was raging. The effects of emanci])ation in equal time, would di- minish the African race in Virginia, more than the operation of any scheme tliat philanthropy has yet devised, though aided by the general will, and all the disposable wealth of the countrj'. Harvest Maiiagemeiii. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Sir — Tlie interesting season is approaching Avhen, if ever, the following hints on the manage- ment of the wheat harvest will be useful. They are furnished rather in compliance v/ith your wish than from any confidence I have in their merit. Your partiality has caused you to form expecta- tions which are not, I fear, destined to be realized. There are sources, whence you may derive much and valuable inlbrmation on this subject, and on another equally important, the management of wheat fallows. I refer to my friends of Shirley and Westover, with whose distinguished success in tlie culture of the wheat crop you are not un- ac<|uainted. Communications from them on these sulijects would, I venture to affirm, be among the most important with which the pages of the Regis- ter could ha enriched. To myself, individually, tliey would be fraught with interest. To get ready previously tocommencing harvest, is tlie first and fundamental rule. It should be Ijorne in mind that, in this critical operation, as much may sometimes be done in one or two good days as in a whole unfavorable week, independent- ly- of the injury sustained by tlii3 grain. Abundant and timely preparation should, therefore, be made ; a supply of meal laid in, extra implements, timber fashioned out for prompt use, &c. provided. In line, every thing that can, shculd be dene, to pre- vent interruption. When maiiy laborers are en- gaged, and at a distance from the work-shop, as is often the case in Virginia, a carpenter should fol- low the reapers with tools, timber, and grindstone, so as to afford, in fact, an ambulatory shop. When not em])loyed grinding the scythes and making re- pairs, he may be Avith the shockers. Food and wafer sh.ould be hauled in a cart, by which some labor may be saved. For the latter, barrels should be provided, with an aperture in the upper side, and a flap of stout leather over it, to prevent the water from splashing out. One of these should always be convenient to the hands, to wliom the Avatcr may be carried without their leaving the ranks. The next rule is to commence as early as possi- Ide. This may be done when the straw is dry a short distance below the head, if the weather be fine. Do not wait for large bodies of wlicat, but begin with tliose spots that rijien first. Let the reajiers be an hour or two in advance of the bind- ers, and set the sheaves in stooks till fit to be shocked. If left long on the ground, as it is dis- charged fi'om the cradle, exposed to our scorching- sun, the straw is too suddenly dried up, and the grain denied the nourishment necessary to its per- fection. The skin of wheat cut thus early, is thin and bright, though some persons think the prac- tice more advantageous to the miller than the far- mer ; and it would, perhaps be so, could there be a guarantee agahist rain, by which both too fre- quently suffer. It is certainly better to cut wheat rather green, when properly managed, than to cut it wet, which persons are not unfrequently obliged to do in a protracted harvest. Light wheat, too, may be cut with more expedition and less waste when the stem is somewhat succulent, than when dry and brittle, as it becomes at the end of a long harvest. Cut that portion of the wheat first of which you can secure most. It should never be cut v.hen too wet to be tied in slieaves, and soon shocked. — Wheat cannot possibly bain so good a situation to dry rapidly as when standing erect in the field. Much more has been lost in our warm climate, by its sprouting in the sheaf and the shock, than from exposure when standing in the open field. At a juncture so busy, despatch should lie the farmer's watchword. Every hand should l)e turned out, who can render the least service ; the old as sliock- ei'S, the very young as sheaf carriers, — •without, however, exacting too much from either. My cradles are now all constructed on the same FARMERS' REGISTER— MANGEL WURTZEL, &c. 49 scale, adapted to blades fifty inches in length. — Most of my implements, indeed, are made on this principle, so that the sound parts of one may fit when transferred to another. The reaphook is never used. In wheat which is too much tano'led for the cradle, the naked blade is employed. Each binder is furnished with a small rake having a handle two and a half feet long, with which he hastily gathers as much wheat as he can, to di- minish the quantity leil on the ground. A horse rake follows as speedily as possible, and the loose wheat thus collected, is either put in small cocks, or, which is greatly jjrefcrable, hauled in at once, and housed or stacked. A friend in Berkeley coun- ty informed me that a German had introduced there a better method of gleaning fields than by the help of a horse, the rake being so constructed as to be drawn by a man, with a strap around the body. I have written to ask a more particular description, and will fui'nish you a copy wlien I receive it. Never during harvest, open damaged shocks, unless the weather be good, and then not too many at a time. After harvest there should be an imme- diate and general inspection. I have found it con- venient to set the shocks straiglit one way, but in the middle of the cutting the other, to save dis- tance in carrying the sheaves. Tiie sljocks should be of an oval form, nicely balanced to prevent their leaning, Avith a high and sharp apex, well capped. In order to bring them to a proper point, some very small sheaves must be made. Piarvest, though a period of intense labor is, nevertheless, in Virginia, a sort of negro festival. It is pleasing to witness the merry faces on such occasions. I tliink the usual allowance of ardent spirit a wholesome corrective of the vast quanti- ty of water rendered necessary by the heat and exercise. But be that as it may, I should be loath to abridge the enjoyment of tlie poor creatures, l^y making them members, by compulsion, of the temperance society. To those who prefer it, an equivalent of molasses may be given. I will not close this article without first offering a fervent Avish for your success, and that of the great cause Avith Avhich you have identified your- self. May 29, 1833. agricultok. Manuel Wiirtsci foi* Cattle. By the Editor of the American Farmer. Last year Ave made an experiment Avith mangel wurtzel for cattle, and the result Avas highly satis- factory— so much so that Ave shall hereafter adopt it in preference to all other root crops for tlie pur- pose. Having about the sixth of an acre of ground prepared for early corn for Avhich Ave liad not seed enough, we determined to plant it in m.angel Avurt- zel as an experiment, having A'ery little confidence in its equality Avith ruta baga. We accordingly soaked the seed tAventy-four liours in Avarm Avater, laid oft furrows about tv/o feet apart, and dropped the seed six or eight inches apart, covering it as Ave do corn. When the plants Avere up, Ave passed over the field Avith a Aveeding hoe, and subsequent- ly run a small plough through it tAvice, clearing out the Aveeds Avith a hoe. This is all the cultiva- tion it had, and Ave feel certain that all tlie Avork liestoAved upon it, including the original prepara- tion of the ground for com, did not amount to Vol. I.— 7 more than tAvo full days Avork for one man. We put no manure on the ground, though it had been manured the year beibre for potatoes, and for planting in early York cabbages, AvhichAvere kill- ed by the severity of the av inter. The soil Avas a fair medium mold, a mixture of sand, clay and vegetable matter ; high ground, but level. When the mangel Avurtzel Avas gathered, it Avas estimat- ed by every one at seventy-five bushels ; some more, but none less. It was also perfectly evident that Ave might have taken at least one-fourth more, if net double the quantity, from the same ground, had Ave planted more carefully, and laid the roAvs fifteen or eighteen inches apart, instead of tAvo feet. There Avas many places in the rov/s Avherc there Avas not a plant for six or eight feet ; and tiien again many places Avhere they Avcre so crov/ded that the roots could not fairly devclope themselves. x\s food for cattle, especially for milch coavs, our experiment Avas as follows : In October, our best milch cow began to fail in her milk, and Ave cut an arm full of the tops of the mangel Avurtzel for her ; this seemed to have a good effect, and it Avas re- peated night and morning for a Aveek, Avhen she fully recovered her usual supply. The leaves Avere then Avithheld, and she immediately failed again in her milk. 'At that time her full quantity Avas about tAvelve quarts a day, and Avhen the man- gel Avurtzel leaves Avere Avithheld, the quantity she gave Avas only about six quarts. She had a good pasture, Avith an excellent stream of Avater in it, and plenty of salt durhig the time; but at tliat season the grass does not afford sufficient nutritive matter. After another Aveek Ave began giving her the roots of the mangel Avurtzel, cut small, and occa- sionally sprinkled Avith shorts or corn meal, and a little salt ; one peck of the roots given thus, had tlie same ef!ect on her milk that the tops had ; and Ave suspended these a Aveek, to try their effect the more certainly. The result Avas as above stated, a conviction that mangel Avurtzel is the best and most profitable root Ave can raise for milch coavs. After cutting off the leaves, tliey very soon groAv out again, so that they may be cut every fortnight. But Ave think it better to select the largest roots from crowded places, and give them tops and all ; as Ave think the neAV groAvth of leaves is at the ex- pense of the roots. — [American Farmer. For th^ Farmers' Register. EXPERIMENTS ON THE Early Gutlneriiig of C^ria. So many advantages attend our general practice of making corn a preparing crop for Avheat, that Ave Avill probably adhere to it on all soils suitable to lioth crops, nctAvithstanding tlie alleged impro- priety of one grain crop folloAving another. Be- sides this succession being opposed to theoretical vieAvs of the rotation of crops, there are also prac- tical objections to all the various modes adopted for clearing the land of the first crop, for the pur- pose of preparing for and soAving the second. — Formerly, the slovenly and yet most troublesome plan of soAving and plouglung in Avheat between tlie roAvs of standing corn, Avas universal — it be- ing believed that corn could not be cut up Avitli safety, early enough to soav Avheat. Now, the stalks are dug up, or cut off at the surface of the 50 FARMERS' REGISTER— EARLY GATHERING OF CORN, &c. earth, and put up in shocks, to remain on the tield until wheat sowing is done, and the corn is dry enougli to put away in houses. The manner in which corn is shocked is varied much by ditTerent farmers ; but in every way there is much labor lost by twice moving the corn and stalks — and the wheat is more or less injured by the final carting away of both. To avoid these disadvantages, I have tried gathering the corn before sowing wheat, and dry- ing it in covered and ventilated pens, which plan, I have been informed has been long practised to some extent in Nottoway. Tlie blade Ibdder and tops of corn are usually secured in stacks (or might be) before the 1st of October, and on good and warm soils, still earlier. It is seldom safe in eastern Virginia, to sow wheat before the lOtli of October, on account of the Hessian fly ; and this interval of ten days or thereabout, may be used for the operation I propose. But before making more general observations, I will give the details of my experiments, and in substance, as noted in my memorandum book at the several times. EXPERIMETVT I. September 22d, 1832. Begqn to gather the corn from a field of 18 acres, which tlie after measure- ment showed to have produced 88, barrels. The land was unequal in quality, and of course so v.as the corn in maturing. The ears were carted home, shucked, and put up in pens in the follow- ing manner : On three sleepers, or logs of six to eight inches through, laid parallel on the ground, common fence rails were laid across, so as to form a floor. The pen was built on this floor of similar rails, forming a square of nine feet inside mea- sure ; having a flue (a) of four inches through the pen, made by laying two other rails at that distance apart, through the middle. Tlie flue, to- ( I gether Avith the rails forming it, "took up near a foot of the space W'ithin the pen, so that the two -partitions (6 and c) intended to .contain the corn, were each nine by four feet. The side rails were notched where they crossed, so as j ~" j to lie close enough to prevent the ears passing between. This trouble was after- wards found to be not only useless but injurious — as the laborers were so much on tlie corn as to shake down the ears closer than they ought to lie. As fast as three ov four rails w^ere put up on each side, the spaces were filled with ears. The corn was 9^ feet high on the 25th, when the pen was completed, and covered with corn stalks a foot thick, and sloping enough to pass off the rain. — It held 56 barrels of corn, or twice that bulk in ears. The gathering and shucking were conti- nued, and a second pen of like dimensions v,'as finished on the 27th, and a third on the 1st of Octo- ber. The stalks had been carted off the field, and many of them to the hog pen, as all that were green were eaten by the hogs. The stacking of my top "fodder that year was begun the 12th of September, from Avhich it may be inferred that the corn must have ripened more early than usual. From the 21st of September, the weather was uncommonly cool, and on the 1st of October there was white frost. October 7th. Discovered that some of tlie corn in the oldest pen was mouldy, and believing that j».ll was in danger, the two first pens were hastily pulled down, and the corn sorted and spread over vacant floors. There is no statement of the amount of damaged corn, nor does my memory supply the omission : but it was so much less than was ex- pected, that the third pen was allowed to stand until the 22d of November, when it was housed, and found to be perfectly sound, with the excep- tion of 20 to 50 ears. This was the latest gather- ed, and from better land, and therefore was the dry est corn Avhen penned. The loss sustained from this experiment was apparently caused by not being sufficiently care- ful in separating the unripe ears. EXPERIMENT II. 1824. A pen of like size and construction was filled from a few acres of rich bottom land, and some adjacent high land. At what precise time it was done was not noted, as I was absent on a journey : but it was believed to have been in the last days of September. This remained in the pen until nearly tlic last of December, and proved to be as sound and glry as any corn whatever. EXPERIMEXT III. Though this plan greatly lessens the whole la- bor of harvesting corn, removing stalks, and sow- ing wheat, still it requires more v/ork, (or spare hands,) during the time of the operation — and suf- ficient time and opportunity were not again offered for the purpose until 1832. Every corn grower in lower Virginia must re- member how unusually late the crop was in ripen- ing in 1832. The grain continued soft and milky so long, that the fodder could not be stiipped with- in twelve days of the usual time. Indeed, if we had waited until all the shucks had lost their green color, and no milk remained in the grain, the fod- der -would have been so dried as not to be worth gathering. Still, my crop being very small for the labor employed, I was enabled to secure all the Ibdder by the last day of September. Having previously decided to adopt this plan of early gathering this year, the gathering was com- menced on the 4th of October, and contmued thro' the 5th. The part to be gathered Avas selected, because it contained seven or eight acres of the poorest land in the field, Avhicli it Avas desirable to aid Avith manure, before soAvmg in Avheat — Avithout considering that the poorest land Avould of course have the latest corn. This order so thoughtlessly given, Avas as thoughtlessly obeyed : and on visit- ing the Avork on the 5tli, the damage had been car- ried too far to be entirely remedied. All the ears Avere pulled off — mostly carted to the pens for shucking, and thirty barrels or more sliucked. It Avas obvious that much of the corn (from the poor- est land,) Avas too green and full of sap for ga- thering. Nor could all the green ears be sepa- rated after shucking, as the eye did not discover their condition, and the laborers Avould not exer- cise enough care, nor had they enough judgment to make a proper separation. The quantity shucked too (mostly the night before,) had been throAvn to the heap from Avliere the laborers stood, or distances of five to ten yards. This had necessarily bruis- ed or Avounded some of the grains of many of the sappy and heavy ears — and my former trials had shoANii that tlie grains so Avounded Avould mould or rot, though without that injury the whole ear might have kept sound. This error Avas stopped, and the remaining ears Avere placed in baskets FARMERS' REGISTER— EARLY GATHERING OF CORN, kc. 61 as shucked, and sorted, so as to leave out tlie greenest and the already rotten corn. Two pens were begun and carried on together. One was built in the same manner as formerly, except that the rails were not notched at all, ex- cept near the bottom of the pen. This saved much trouble, and admitted air more freely. The dry- est corn, so far as it was obtained by careless ne- groes, was used to fill this, and was emptied in from baskets as the building rose. The laborers were not allowed to stand on the corn, that it might lie the more open. Ears were placed on end, with some care, along the widest openings between the rails, to prevent any falling through. Tlie second pen was of the same size of base, nine feet square within the side rails ; but for greater safety, was given two parallel flues, which divid- ed the space to be filled with ears into three parts, each 9 by 2^ feet. One of the outer parts was filled nearly to the top with the greenest of the ears that were sound, and tolerably well filled. The balance of this compartment, and the whole of both the others, received the dryer corn, such as filled the first pen. The first was raised to fourteen feet, and the second to eleven, and both contained from 120 to 130 barrels of corn. After taking off these two sorts of corn, there remained the rotten (or rotting) ears, those most imperfect- ly filled with grain, and the greenest and softest of all, from late replanting. Altogether, this parcel contained nothing that would have been fit for sale if it remained in the field, or for any other use, except to feed hogs. This was laid on a floor si- milar to those of the other parcels, and penned Avithoutany partition, or flue, as it was expected to be used for fattening hogs before it would suffer damage. This bulk was three to four feet thick in the middle, but thinner at the sides, and only covered by loose shucks. Several days passed be- fore the hogs could be put up, which delay caused this parcel to be that much longer on hand than was expected. Several rains fell on its cover of loose shucks, and it was not dried or removed. Tn fact, the quantity of corn was so small, and in the course of being rapidly consumed, that the over- seer neither examined it, nor thought of its being in danger, until too late. The last of it rotted, and there was a loss of about ten bushels of grain, which the slightest care might have prevented. The pens were covered by cornstalks, laid straight, and about a foot thick, raised to a ridge across the middle, and forming eaves projecting two feet over the north and south sides. The corn was closely watched, and with much alarm for its safety, for twelve or fifteen days. 'SVithin three days after the pens were finished, a few ears on the north of the first pen, so near the outside as to be exposed to the eye, began to show a white mould forming in some spots ; but they were left undisturbed, and the damage did not appear to ex- tend much farther. The interior of the bulk was examined by pulling out enough ears in other pla- ces, and found in good condition. No scent, nor other indication of sweating or heating was per- ceived. On December the 7th, the pens Avere emptied, and the corn again sorted, and put away in the house. By cutting an opening through a fev/ of the bottom rails of each division, the ears come down as fast as required. Every rotten and da- maged ear was thrown out, and the whole appear- ed to the eye about equal to a bushel of grain. — Perhaps fii'teen or twenty ears were entirely rot- ten. All besides was sound, in perfectly good con- dition, and uncommonly dry for the time of year, so as to shatter considerably in the operation. I examined particularly the emptying of the parti- tion which contained the greenest corn, and found it as solmd as any. But many of the ears, though sound, were so shrunk as to offer abundant evi- dence of their very green and sappy state when gathered and put up. Others that were plump and well filled, remained bent by the pressure they had suffered in the pen ; and even the grains in some spots were indented and altered in posi- tion by the pressure of another ear, without be- ing otherwise affected. Some others, however, showed mouldiness at such indented spots. Alto- gether, the loss in the pens from both rotting and mouldiness Avas very inconsiderable, and less than would have been sustained if the corn had remain- ed either standing or in shocks in the field. The shrivelled ears did not suffer either from penning or too early gathering — but from having the fod- der taken off before the grain was enough advan- ced. The plant is effectually killed when depriv- ed of its top and leaves ; and the ear may be as safely pulled witliin three or four days after, as at any later time, if it can be kept as well exposed to the sun and air. The gross error committed in gathering for this experiment so much of the greenest corn, caused much trouble and still .jiiore alarm. But even with that blunder, I think there was no loss of crop sustained, except in the parcel used for hogs, which also Avas caused by neglect. When these pens Avere completed, the Avhole of the balance of the field might have been safely gathered for pen- ning ; but I feared to proceed Avith even dryer corn, when 130 barrels Avere considered already at great risk. I therefore proceeded to cut off the remainder of the coi*n, and carted the Avhole to the ground before the cribs, and ricked it, by the op- posite rows of stalks being made to lean against each other across poles on iov»- forks. The Avidth across the tops of these ricks, Avhere the ears Avere, Avas generally from six to ten feet ; and about the loth of October, one place (for Avant of room at that time,) Avas set up betAveen tAvelve and fifteen feet across the top, Avhich Avas considered safe, from the dry state of the corn then brought in. But this spot Avas damaged by the thickness of the rick, and about one to one and a half barrels of corn was found Avhen gathered, to be partly or entirely rotted. This corn, from the better quality of the land, Avas much more matured than the greenest part penned, at the time when the latter was ga- thered. Another examination Avas made of the corn that had been penned in March 1833. Its good condi- tion continued, nor Avas any difference from other corn perceptible, except that the large end of the cob generally appeared darker. Eight or ten acres of my present crop Avere planted from this corn, Avhich was for.nd to vegetate as Avell as the adjoining, planted Avith other seed. We arenoAV using the same for bread, and can discoA'er no ob- jection to its quality. The results of all these experiments proA-e that corn may be safely gathered a month earlier than is usual ; and the errors that have been stated, and the consequent losses, probably may serve as 52 FARMERS' REGISTER— SLIDE OF ALPNACH. warning enough to guard against every danger. A sufficient guide to sho\v when the large and soft grained corn (such as mine was,) ia fit to gather, is the sluick liaving lost its green color, and the grain being firm, and clear of milk ; and on rich and warm soils, corn is often in that stale by the 20th of September. The advantages of this plan are these : 1. The whole labor of moving of the corn and stalks, is much less than in any of the usual modes of first carrying them to shocks, and cart- ing them home after the wheat is sowed ; 2. The shucks and stalks are saved for food or for manure, when more full of sap, and much richer lor both purposes than they can be alter exposure to the weather, until late in November, even if a wet season does not keep them much lo!iger in tlie field ; 3. The whole field is cleared for ploughing, and sowing wheat, so as to allow that important operation to be performed in the best and cheapest manner. Clear space is also given for applying to wheat whatever manure may be on hand and rea- dy for use. It may not be practicable or desira- ble to gather the whole crop of corn in advance of our wheat sowing ; but if only one third is so ma- naged, it will permit the preparation for wheat to be advanced ten or fifteen days, and at a time when, on corn farms, horses are generally without employment. e. r. May 4ih, 1833. From Di\bbage's Economy of Macliineiy and Manufactureg. Amongst the forests which flank many of the lofty mountains of Switzerland, some of the finest timber is found in positions almost inaccessible. The expense of roads, even if it were possible to make them in such situations, would prevent the inhabitants from deriving any advantages from these almost inexhaustible supplies. Placed by nature at a considerable elevation above the spot on which they are required, they are precisely in fit circumstances for the application of machinery; and the inhabitants constantly avail themselves of it, to enable the force of gravity to relieve them from some portion of their labor. The inclined planes which they have established in various for- ests, by which the timber has been sent down to the v/ater-courses, must have excited the admira- tion of every traveller; and these slides, in addition to the merit of simplicity, have that of economy, as their construction requires scarcely any thing be- yond the material Avhicli grov.^s upon the spot. Of all these specimens of carpentry, the Slide of Alp- nach was by far the most considerable, both fi-om its great length, and from the almost inaccessible position from which it descended. The following is the description of that Vv'ork given in Gilbert's Ahnalen 1819, and translated in the second vol- ume of Brewster's Journal : "For many centuries, the rugged flanks and the deep gorges of Blount Pilatus were covered Avith impenetrable forests. Lofty precipices encir- cled them on all sides. Even tlie daring hunters were scarcely able to reach them; and the inhabi- tants of the valley had never conceived the idea of disturbing them -with the axe. These immense forests were, therefore, permitted to grov/ and to perish, without being of the least utility to man, till a foreigner, conducted into their wild recesses in the pursuit of the chamois, was struck with wonder at the sight, and directed the attention of several Sv/iss gentlemen to the extent and superi- ority of the timber. The most intelligent and skilful individuals, however, considered it quite impracticable to avail them.selves of such inacces- sible stores. It was not till November 1816, that M. Rupp, and three SAviss gentlemen, entertain- ing more sanguine hopes, drew up a plan of a slide, founded on trigonometrical measurements. Having purchased a certain extent of the forests from the commune of Alpnach for 6000 crowns, they began the construction of the slide, and com- pleted it in the spring of 1818. "The slide of Alpnach is formed entirely of about 25,000 large pine trees, deprived of their bark, and united together in a very ingenious manner, without the aid of iron. It occupied about 160 workmen during eighteen months, and cost nearly 100,000 francs, or £4,250. It is about three leagues, or 44,000 English feet long, and terminates in the Lake of Lucerne. It has the form of a trough, about six feet broad, and from three to six feet deep. Its bottom is formed of three trees, the middle one of v/hich has a groove cut out in the direction of its length, lor receiving small rills of water, which arc conducted into it from various places, for the purpose of diminishing the friction. The whole of the slide is sustained by about 2,000 supports ; and in many places it is attached, in a very ingenious manner, to the rug- ged precipices of granite. "The direction of the slide is sometimes straight, and sometimes zig-zag, with an inclination of from 10 to 18°. It is often carried along the sides of hills and the flanks of precipitous rocks, and some- times passes over their summits. Occasionally it goes under ground, and at other times it is con- ducted over the deep gorges by scafiblding 120 feet in height. "The boldness Avhich characterizes this work, the sagacity displayed in all its arrangements, and the skill of the engineer, have excited the wonder of every person who has seen it. Before any step could be taken in its erection, it was necessary to cut several thousand trees to olitain a passage through the impenetrable thickets^ and, as the workmen advanced, men were posted at certain distances in order to point out the road for their return, and to discover, in the gorges, the places where the piles of wood had been established. M. Rupp was himself obliged, more than once, to be suspended by cords, in order to descend precipices many hundred feet high ; and, in the first months of the undertaking, he Avas attacked with a violent fever, which deprived him of the power of super- intending his workmen. Nothing, however, could diminish liis invincible perseverance. He was carried every day to the mountain in a barroAV, to direct the labors of the workmen, Avhich was ab- solutely necessary, as he liad scarcely two good carpenters among them all ; the rest having been hired by accident, without any of the knowledge which such an undertaking required. M. Rupp had also to contend against the prejudices of the peasantry. He was supposed to have communion v/ith the devil. He Avas charged with heresy, and every obstacle Avas throAvn in the Avay of an enterprise, Avhiclithey regarded as absurd and im- practicable. All these difficulties, hoAvever, Avere surmounted, and he had at last the satisfaction of oliserving the trees descend from the mountain t^ARMERS' REGISTER— NEW POWER FOR MACHINERY, &c. with the rapidity of lightning. The larger pines, Avhich were about a hundred feet long, and ten in- clies thick at their smaller cxtremit}', ran through the space of three leagues, or nearly 7? ;'nc miles, in two minutes and a half, and during their descent, they appeared lo be only a few feet in length. The arrangements for this part of the operation were extremely simple. From the lov/er end of the slide to the upper end, where the trees were intro- duced, workmen were posted at regular distances, and as soon as every tiling was ready, the work- man at the lower end of tiie slide cried out to the one above him, '■'■Ladicz" (Let go.) The cry was repeated from one to another, and reached the top of the slide in three minutes. Tlie workmen at the top of the slide then cried out to the one be- low him, "^IlvienV^ (It comes,) and the tree v/as instantly launched down the slide, preceded by the cry which was repeated from post to post. As soon as the tree had reached the bottom ; and plunged into the lake, the cry of Lachez was re- peated as before, and a nev/ tree was launched in a similar manner. By these means a tree descended every five or six minutes, provided no accident happened to the slides, which sometimes took place, but v/hich was instantly repaired v/hen it did. "In order to show the enormous force which the trees acquired from the great velocity of their de- scent, M. Rupp made arrangements for causing some of the trees to spring from the slide. They penetrated by their thickest extremities no less than from eighteen to twenty-four leet into the earth ; and one of the trees having by accident struck against the other, it instantly cleft it through its whole length, as if it had been struck by light- ning. "After the trees had descended the slide, they were collected into rafts upon tlie lake, and con- ducted to Lucerne. From thence they descended the Reuss, then the Aar to near Brugg, after- wards to Waldshut by the Rhine, then to Basle, and even to tlie sea, when it was necessary. " In order that none of the small wood might be lost, M. Rupp established in the forest large manu- factories of charcoal. He erected magazines for preserving it when manuiijctured, and had made arrangements for the construction of barrels lor the purpose of carrying it to the market. In winter, when the slide was covered v/ith snov/, the barrels were made to descend on a kind of sledge. The wood which was not fit for being cai'bonized, was heaped up and burnt, and the ashes packed up and carried away, during the v/inter. " A few days before the author of the preceding account visited the slide, an inspector of the navy had come for the purpose of examining the quality of the timber. He declared that he liad never seen any timber that was so strong, so fine, and of such a size; and he concluded an advantageous bargain for 1000 trees. " Such is a brief account of a work undertaken and executed by a single individual, and which has excited a very high degree of interest in every part of Europe. V/e regret to add, that this magnifi- cent structure no longer exists, and that scarcely a trace of it is to be seen upon the flanks of Mount Filatus. Political circumstances having taken away the principal source of the demand for timber, and no other market having been found, the opera- tion of cutting and transportmg the trees necessa- rily ceased." Professor Playfair, who visited this singular slide, states, that six minutes v/as the usual time occupied in tlic descent of a tree ; but that in Avet weather, it reached the lake in three minutes. &i3.pp&sUiGn of a J%*ew Potter FOR MACi-lINERY. The rnost portal)le form in which power can be condensed is, perhaps, by the liquefoction of the gases. It is known that, under considerable pi-es- sure, several ol" these became liquid at ordinary temperatures. Carboriic acid, ibr example, re- quires a pressure of sixty atmospheres to reduce it to a liquid state. One ot tlia advantages attending the use of these fluids is, that the pressure exerted by them remains constant until the last drop of li- quid becomes gaseous. If either of the elements of common air should be found to be capable of re- duction to a liquid state before it unites into a cor- rosive fluid with the other ingredient, then we shall possess a ready means of conveying power in any quantity and to any distance. Probably liy- drogen will require the strongest compressing force to render it liquid, and may, therefore, pos- sibly be applied where still greater condensation of power is wanted. In all these cases the con- densed gases may be looked upon as enormous springs, which liave been wound up by the exer- tion of power, and v/liich will deliver the whole of it back again v/hen "required. These springs of nature differ in some respects from the steel springs formed by our art ; for in the compression of the natural springs an enormous quantity of la- tent heat is forced out, and in their return to the state of gas an equal quantity is absorbed. May not this very property be employed with advan- tage in these applications } The mechanical difficulty which v/ill remain to be overcome, Vv ill consist in the valves and packing- necessary to retain the fluids under the pressures to which they v/ill be submitted; and the effect of heat on these gases has not yet been sufficiently tried to lead us to any very precise notions of the additional power which its application to them v/iil supply. The elasticity of air is sometimes employed as a spring instead of steel : in one of the large print- ing presses the momentum of a considerable mass of matter is destroyed, by making it condense the air included in a cylinder, by means of a piston against which it impinges. — \_Ibid. Public "WorliS for Ifacilitatiiig Traiisyortatlou.. I^etcrsMwg Mail M&ad. Petersburg, 6th Dec. 1832. Sir — I am requested by the president and di- rectors of the Petersburg rail road company, tO' communicate to you, for the information of the board of public works, an account of the condi- tion and cost, and my own impressions of the pros- jjects of the v/ork committed to my charge. Its objects, as the board are no doubt apprized, were to connect the Roanoke river at a point where there must be necessarily a trans-shipment of produce from one description of boats to another, with the town of Petersburg to accojnmodate much better, and of course to command the trade of the vippcr Roanoke, and to afford the lower Roanoke country and a large part of the interior of North 54 FARMERS' REGISTER— PETERSBURG RAIL ROAD. Carolina, a readier and cheaper way to a market than they now have. A careful examination of tlie subject, satisfied the hoard of directors, that an improvement of a superior character -was well justified by the ends in view ; and on tlic other hand, that the trade of the Roanoke and of the districts of North Carolina, ■which the contemplated rail way was to reach, would be diverted but partially from its accustom- ed channels, by a work of an inferior order. It seemed to the board also advisalile, in the execu- tion of their work, to attempt, not only the objects w hich first led to its being pmjecled, but others, which it was seen might be subsidiary to the end of making it a profitable investment to stockholders. By adapting the plan and profile of the rail road to th.e use of locomotive power, it Vv'as evi- dent, that not only a much more perfect accom- modation would be alibrded to trade and passen- gers, but that an important facility would be gi- ven to the postoffice department in the transmis- sion of its mails, for w jiich, it was presumed the govei'nment would be v,'illing to award a liberal and adequate remuneration. With these objects in view, a rail road was lo- cated between the town of Petersburg and the Roanoke river, at a point one and a half miles be- low its falls, unsurpassed, and it is believed, un- equalled in directness, in freedom from curvature and beauty of graduation, by any similar work of the same extent. The whole length from the de- pot in Petersburg to that on the Roanoke, is but fifty nine miles, or three and one eighth miles more than a straight line between these would be. Most of its curves are arcs of circles of from tvto to nine miles in diameter, and its graduation in no place (after leaving the town of Petersburg) ex- ceeds a rise or fall of thirty feet per mile. It would have been a subject of gratification to the board of directors and their officers, if the con- struction of their work could have corresponded in all respects with the excellent location which was obtained for it. It was evident, hoAvever, that the resources of tlie company would not be adequate to a work of the most permanent character through- out, and it became therefore a subject of consider- ation, in Avhat respects retrenchment could be, made without impairing its usefulness and value. The conclusion arrived at, w-as to execute the 'rail road on the plan contemplated by the under- .signed in a report of the 8th of April 1830, to the common council of Petersburg. Tlie graduations of the road and the masonry of the bridges, culverts and other constructions, being on the most perma- nent plan, whilst, a superstructure of a more econo- mical character, it Avas thought might be admitted, in place of the stone and iron superstructure gen- erally adopted in England, and on some few of the rail roads in this country. It is doubtful whetlier if the funds of the compa- ny had been more ample, good judgment would have dictated a different course lioni that which was determined on. Temporary constructions are undoubtedly in most cases to be avoided on pub- lic work. If, however, they are in any case ad- missible, they would seem to be so in the super- structure of a rail road. In the present instance, a track of wood and iron, of a highly substantial character, (heart yellov/ pine rails 5 by 9, plated with iron ^ inch thick by 2 inches wide, secured in white oak sills 12 inches in diameter,) will have been laid at a cost of less by two thirds than would have been necessary to lay down iron rails on stone blocks. Its average duration is about ten years, and before it decays it may be made use of to put in place the materials, and thereby defray a large portion of the cost of a more permanent construction. Condiilon and Cost of the TVork. At this tim^e four fifths of the labor of grading and bridging on the Petersburg rail road may be considered as ctrcctcd, and the remainder, if the winter should be favorable, may be expected to be finished by the first of June next. 0{ superstructure, the first thirty miles from the corporation line are completed, and the rail road for that distance has been in use for the last six or eight Aveeks. The remaining distance to the Me- herrin, and the portion of the rail road within the corporation line (if the weather should be favora- ble) may be completed in the course of a few weeks ; so that by the first of February, at farthest, the company may ex])ect to open their rail road between Petersburg and Hicks' ford (forty one miles) for transportation. The remaining dis- tance between the Meherrin and Roanoke is so far advanced as to leave little doubt of its completion within less than tAvelve months from this time, and that the whole line of rail road, if no untOAvard circumstance should occur, may be opened to the Roanoke in the month of November next. By that time the necessary depots and Avarehouses for the accommodation of the trade Avill have been constructed, the engines and cars requisite pro- cured, and all other arrangements for tranportation made. The cost of the rail road, so far as it has been completed, has been entirely within the original estimate ; and on those parts which are yet to be completed, there Avill, Avith one exception, be no material variation. On the portion within the corporation of Petersburg, the amount assessed against the company for damages has been great- er than Avas anticipated, and an extra expendi- ture of about i^! 12,000 Avill be incurred in order to avoid an inclined plane at the termination of the rail road, Avhich had been at first contemplated. On the other items of expense yet to be incurred, there Avill as often be a reduction as an increase on the prices alloAved in the estimate, and the Avhole Avork Avill, at any rate be executed for the sum contemplated (^400,000) at the period of its commencement. An increase of capital or a loan of money will, hoAvever, be requisite, in order to procure the ne- cessary locomotive engines, cars and carriages for the purposes of transportation, and to give to the trade of the road a sulnciently extensive ac- commodation, in the Avay of Avarehouses and depots. The extent to Avhich this Avill be requisite, Avill depend on the views of the board of directors and of the stockholders, and on circumstances yet to be ascertained. It Avill be important that the company should be in these respects adequately and amply proA'ided, and particularly so in the event of the transportation of the mail being ef- fected by it. Prospects of the Company. It has seldom occur- red in Virginia that the results of a AVork have equalled the expectations of its projectors. It is confidently believed that the Petersburg rail road will form an exception to the rule. FARMERS' REGISTER— SOAP. 65 The easy curvatures and gentle graduation of the road have been before alluded to. These and a careful execution, will give to the power em- ployed on it a large useful efTect, and enable loco- motive engines to attain the highest desirable ve- locity with entire safety. It has been mentioned above, that one half of the rail road was opened for transportation in the month of October ; since then, a light engine, but little upwards of four tons gross, has been engaged in nearly daily trips on this distance, transporting from 18 to 20 tons nett, or from 30 to 33 tons gross, in an average period of 2^ hours. So fiir, the cost of her repairs has not been five dollars, and the fuel consumed by her has been but about half a cord of wood per day. It is agreed that the above is an unusual case, and that the performance of their engines general- ly, will scarcely equal that of the beautiful loco- motive, with which the board of directors have commenced their transportation. Still with large deductions and allowances, the saving in the cost of transportation, as well as in time, by their im- provement, and its efficiency when it meets the Roanoke, can scarcely be questioned. I must leave to others, more conversant than myself with the trade of the Roanoke, and with that of Peters- burg beyond this stream, to estimate its amount and probable increase on the completion of the rad road. On that subject the information in my possession is scarcely definite enough to admit of my hazarding an opinion. If it is such as has been confidently stated to be, there can scarcely be a doubt of the productiveness of the rail road, within a very brief period. I am, sir, very res- pectfully, your obedient servant, M. ROBINSON, Engineer. To James Brown, Jr. Second j^luditor. The following extract from a letter from Donald Mackenzie, Esq. President of the Petei'sburg Rail Road Company, in answer to our inquiries on this subject, presents the still later operations connected with this important and valuable public work. "Petersburg, April 28, 1833. " On the 24th December last, forty one miles of the road were completed and has been in regular use, conveying a much larger portion of produce, merchandize and passengers than was anticipated in the outset in that distance — the remainder of the road from the Meherrin to Blakely on the Roa- noke has been in the hands of contractors for some time, and will probably be completed in a few months, — so that in the course of the ensuing fall, we may fairly calculate on being in possession of an uninterrupted line of transportation from the Roanoke to the Appomattox. We have lately received two locomotive en- gines, which are now alternately in operation to Belfield, and back again the same day, generally with heavy trains of cars and coaches. So far the prospect seems favorable, and strongly tends to confirm the original expectations of the community, and gives assurance that the laudable zeal in which this enterprise originated will be re- warded." SOAP. As this is the season of the year when most of our housekeepers attend to making soft soap for the use of the flmiily, we trust a few observations may be acceptable. Much difficulty is frequently exj)cricnced in tliis business, and many vulgar errors have Ijjscn con- nected with it; and we have heard women declare that they believed their soap was bewitched. When the principles arc once understood, the whole pro cess is easy and simple. First, then, it is proper that housekeepers should know the properties of the component parts of soaji. There are two fixed alkalies used in soapmaking, viz. potash and soda. Potash is called the vegeta- l)le, and soda the mineral alkali. Either of these alkalies will unite with grease and form soaps: potash and grease make soft soap only, but soda and grease make hard soap. Both these alkalies have a strong affinity for acids — uniting with them and forming what is generally called neutral salts. Thus potash and nitric acid form saltpetre ; soda and sulphuric acid form glauber salts, and soda and muriatic acid, or spirits of salts, form common salt. Now no woman in lier senses would think of ma- king soap of either of these salts; and yet the base of either, when separated from the acid, would form when mixed with grease, as good soap as if they had never been united. There is also another acid which combines with these alkalies, which will equally prevent their uniting with grease as either of the before men- tioned acids — that is carbonic. Now this acid is continually floating in the atmosphere unseen, and will combine with potash or soda whenever it comes in contact, forming a carbonate of soda or potash — neither of ay hie h will unite with grease to form soap. Much of the difficulty which housekeepers meet v/ith in soap-making, arises from their ley having become more or less saturated Avith carbo- nic acid. Ashes Avhich have laid long in a damp place, or become damp by any other means, Avill absorb carbonic acid, or if the ley is alloAved to stand too long after it is leached in an open vessel, the same thing Avill take place. Lime is often placed in the bottom of the leach, and but few can tell Avhy they do it. If the question is asked, the reply is — because it makes the ley cleaner. Lime has a stronger affinity for carbonic acid than pot- ash has, and of course Avill separate it from it. Common limestone is lime and carbonic acid: when limestone is burned in a kiln, the carbonic acid is separated by heat, and quicklime is formed. Now if this quick or fresh-burnt lime is placed in the bottom of the leach and the ley made to pass through it, it becomes purified from the acid, and the only thing necessary then to have it unite Avith grease, is to have it of sufficient strength. — This may be ascertained by its specific gravity — to learn Avhich, put a new-laid egg into it : if the egg floats, the ley is strong enough ; if it sinks, the ley must either be evaporated by boiling, or by again leaching it through ashes. The grease made use of is the refuse fat of animals, and before it is united Avith the ley, should be freed from all the salt by boiling it in Avater. The quantity ne- cessary for a barrel of good soap is about sixteen pounds, or half a pound to a gallon. Soap Avhen Avell made, should be thick and salve-like, capable of being spread thin upon cloth Avithout flaking or rolling off. — If to such soap about an equal quantity of soft Avater is added, the soap becomes hard and liver-like, capable of being taken up in the hand. This many think is 66 FxiRIvIERS' REGISTER— RAIL ROADS AND CANALS. desir it for •able, — especially the soap-boilers who make ;• sale, as they make cloublfe the profit they would oii the other quality. Some housekee}>crs ])ractice making their own hai'd soap. This is done by adding salt to the soap after it is well made, Avhile it is yet boiling-. The effect is thus explained. Salt is soda and muriatic acid. Potash has a stronger afTinily for muriatic acid than soda has, and when tl.ey come in contact, as in this case, the potash decomposes the salt and combines with the muriatic acid, Ibrm- ing a muriate of potash — leaving the soda pure to Ibrm a hard soaj) with the grease : — the muriate of potash will be found on cooling, in solution at the bottom, lieing of greater specific gravity than the soap. The salt should be added by sinall quantities until the separation takes place, which may be knoviai by the soap becoming curdled ; af- ter which it should be allov/ed to stand until cold, when it may be cut into bars or cakes, as suits the operator. Many suppose that resin is necessary to harden the soap. This is not the case; it is used as a matter of profit — not of necessity. The common yellow color of soft soap is owing to the iron contained in it, as the oxide of iron is dissolved by potash. Where white soap is desira- ble, it may be made by substituting pearlash or carbonate of potash, and abstracting the carbonic acid by lime — and by using lard or other white grease, the jmrest white soap may be made. — [ Gen- esee Farrncr. From the Alexandria Gazette of Feb. 7. No subject can he more interesting to our read- ers than that of Internal Improvements, and the inventions which have recently been brought in- to use, to facilitate trade and commerce and inter- communication. Hence, v.e are always studious to collect and arrange focts having a bearing upon these matters for their use and information. A few years only are passed since the wonders performed on Rail Roads ^vere regarded as mere Travellers' Tales. Now, at our own door;; near- ly, we may see them realized. In point of velo- city and burthen, the Locomotives have proved jcapable of more than was at first asserted. In our day, too, we have the wonders of increased and extraordinary velocity on Canals, which would not once have been believed, and against which the trials on the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal have been cited. On this sulyect, however, we have been favored with a pamphlet, published in England, which contains so much that is really important, and to us deejily interesting, that Ave will take the present opportunity to copy some of its pages, regretting that our limits only allov/ us to make extracts : " The Liverpool and Manchester Railwa}' Com- pany in their competition with the water carriage, have obtained but a very trifling ])roportion of traffic from the canals. The profits (if any have actually been made by tlie carriage of goods on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway) are ex- tremely small ; yet the water distance between Manchester and Liverpool, is nearly double the Railway distance ; and instead of possessing the regularity of Canal Conveyance, is, for eighteen miles of this additional lengtli, subject to the wiiids and tides of the Mersey. Nevertheless, of an amount of nearly fourteen hundred thousand tons annually, for the carriage of which the Di- rectors of the Ijiverpcol Railway were desirous to provide, before tlieir Railway was opened, little more than an eighteenth part, including the en- tire road traffic, has been as yet obtained for the Railway ; and the expenses of carrying this frac- tion of the tra-<'s and young, is preserved from this species ot inundation by means of the board at top. If this water should remain for some time on the stands, the ends of the combs would become mouldy and oive the interior of the hive a disagreeable and imhealthy smell. This should be prevented by, cleansing and drying the hives as directed m No. 9., 11. When the snow is melting in a clear and tolerably warm day, which commonly happens m FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF BEES. 73 February and JNIarch, the bees deceived by the mild temperature quit the hives, and as tliey fly very low, the coldness of the earth and snow, over which they pass, strikes them and they fall and perish. To prevent this accident the entrance of the gratings should be temporarily closed, but so as to leave the little holes open to supply air to the bees. When the snow is completely melted their liberty may be restored. 15. In February, if the winter has been mild, the bees in the light hives must be supplied with food as directed in No. 10. 16. The cold weather being over, hives may be purchased and conveyed as in Nos. 3 and 8. March. 17. In the cool of the morning, the bees should be smoked by inclining the hive to one side ; and, with a knife, all the black wax and loAver parts of the combs which appear to be spoiled, should be pared off. 18. By following these directions, the dysentery seldom makes its appearance amon^ the bees. See what has been said of it in chap. vii. 19. Where there is a scarcity of water in the vicinity, it should be provided for the bees, and so disposed that they may run no risk of being drown- ed. For this purpose there must be made of a cask, two tubs of eight or ten inches deep. They should be sunk into the earth to a level with its surface, and so placed, near a well, that the water from one may flow into the other. In each vessel, five or six inches of earth are put, and they are then filled with pure water, and three or four water cresses with their roots are planted m each. These cresses will soon cover the tubs, their vegetation will preserve the water pure, and the bees will frequent it without danger. If two tubs are not sufficient, others may be added, taking care that the water shall flow from one to another, and all should be kept full during the summer. There is no danger to be apprehended in approacliing the bees which come to drink ; and as they are very cleanly, the cresses may be used at table to pre- vent their becoming too thick. 20. The principal object in keeping bees, is to obtain from them as much wax and honey as pos- sible; and it is this which induce^ those persons who are in the habit of smothering their bees, to destroy all in the heaviest hives. But we, who wish to preserve our bees, imitate these destroyers only in their desire to obtain the stores of the fullest and heaviest hives, without waiting till they are four or five years old. Therefore, when the apiary is sufficiently stocked, preparations may be made for transierring the bees from the v/ell stored hives to others. At the commencement of the fine weather, the bees should be put in a position which will compel them to work in a new hive. To ef- fect this, let the full hive be i-emoved from its stand and an empty one set in its place ; the old one should then be fixed upon this, and luted to it, having its entrance also securely closed. The bees, having no other means of exit, will soon become accustomed to the new hive. As tlieir number is increased by the hatching of tlie new brood, they are too much crowded in the full hive, and their instinct forcing them to labor in this season, they will soon establish themselves in the new hive, to Vol. I.— 10 which the cleanliness of the cells will in a short time attract the queen, now in the height of her laying, and she also will continue in the new abode. Bothliives must be left in this state until the struc- tures in the new one have been finished, and until the young brood of the old one has reached its ma- turity and taken its flight ; this will happen at the end of four or five months, or in the beginning of the summer in the following year. 21. Those persons who have single undivided hives, of the old form, may also make the prepa- rations for transferring their bees into the village hive. [This appears to be the name, given here for the first time, to the straw hive and lid previ- ously described.] For this purpose, if the base of the old hive does not exceed 14 inches in diameter, it may be fixed and luted upon the hive I have mentioned, which must then be set in the place of the old one. But if the old hive has a greater di- ameter, a border or exterior roll of straw must be added to the new one on which the old is to be placed and luted, so that the bees may not be able to go out or in, except by the new hive. The two hives are to be left in this position until the proper time for completing the transfer of the bees as di- rected in No. 45. 22. If the moth which produces the wax-worm appeared at only one season of the year, it would be easy to make war upon it; but it shows itself first in April, and is seen in each successive month until the end of October. To destroy this insect, -the following means may be employed: The entrance of the hives should be small, and they should be luted to the stands so that only the entrance may be open ; and as the moths attack weak hives, whose entrances are ill defended, sooner than strong ones, we should endeavor to have only good hives. The bats which come into the neighborhood of the hives should not be fright- ened or driven away, as they seize and swallow these night moths in their flight. The moth keeps itself concealed during tlie day against the hives, under their coverings, beneath the stands, and in obscure corners of the apiary ; therefore during this month and until the last of October, the cover- ings of the hives should be occasionally taken off, and the insects should be sought for and destroyed, which may be easily done, as from not seeing well in the day they never move. Some cakes of wax should be fixed against the sides of the hives under the coverings ; the smell of these will attract the moths, and they will ^o upon them to deposite their eggs. Finally, it these insects are very nu- merous, two old hives must be sacrificed in suc- cession to destroy them. Let one of these be raised on small wedges or blocks about 6 lines thick ; the moths finding an easy entrance, will flock to it in great numbers; and when it is observed that the worms have taken possession, and the bees have deserted the hive, it should be carried off and burned with all its contents. The other hive should be immediately set upon the blocks, and treated in the same way. It has been said that lights should be set near the hives, into which the moths will fly and be burned at night; this is true, as we iuay infer from the moths which produce the little insects that gnaw the woollen stuffs in our houses, and which fly into our candles at night. This remedy might be practicable, if the wax- moths appeared only at one season ; but as they are seen tor more than six mouths together, this plan 74 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF BEES. cannot be adopted; and besides, it would be dan- gerous near hives covered with straw. 23. The gratings directed to be attached to the hives in No. 4, should now be taken ofl". 24. We should remember that it is only in this season and until the end of June, that the bees make their structures in wax, therefore the lids that are full should be robbed between the latter end of April and the first of June, that the bees may still have time to form new combs in the empty lids which are substituted for those that are full. With the back of the middle finger strike upon the lids; those which return a hollow sound should be left; those which are full will give a dull sound; and the strings which fasten these to the hives should be untied, and the luting taken off with the point of a knife: and as the bees will also have plastered with propolis on the inside the little opening between the hive and the lid, we must, standing at the back of the hive, draw to us the handle of the lid just enough to loosen it. It happens sometimes, that the combs of the lid are attached to the board at the top of the hives by some junctions in wax ; in this case a blade of iron or brass should be passed between the hive and the lid to separate the pohits of junction, which are not numerous ; the blade should be left in its place to allow the bees to become calm after the agita- tion which may have been excited by the motion aroimd and above them. Between ten and eleven o'clock in the morning, in fine weather, when many of the bees are abroad, two or three slight blows should be struck with a rod on the body of the hive to attract llie queen to it ; an instant after, the full lid should be taken off without attending to the bees that may remain in it, and an empty lid should be put in its place. The full lid is to be carried into a close room, free from cobwebs; a passage by the door or window must be left to allow the bees to see their way out to go and join their queen ; the cells which con- tain the honey being closed, the bees from other hives will not come to plunder, and those belong- ing to the lid not being daubed with honey, will fly off in the space of an hour. There are, how- ever, some lids which the bees are unwilling to quit; in this case they come from between the combs to congregate on the outside of tlie lid, and they should be swept with the feathers of a quill into some vessel and carried to the entrance of the hive, into which they ^vill soon return. When all the bees have gone from the lids they should be removed into some close place, secure from the farther access of the bees. If any portion of honey comb has x-emained upon the board of the hive, it must be taken off, so that this board may be always clean, and nothing left on it to serve the bees as a foundation ibr a superstructure of new comb. May. 25. As the swarming of the bees commences in this month, we should get ready a sulficient num- ber of hives of the different sizes before directed. 26. The signs which announce the approaching departure of the swarms, are — 1st. That the drones or males issue from the hives in great numbers from about noon till three o'clock, and have a bold and steady flight. 2d. That the stands are moist in the morning at the entrance of the hives ; this moisture indicates the excessive heat within the liives from the great number of bees that are crowded together. 3d. That on listening close to the hive in the evening, a confused buzzing is heard in which a shrill sound is distinguished re- sembling tlie note of the grasshopper, and which appears to be emitted by a single bee. 27. The swarms do not quit the mother-hives in cold or cloudy weather, nor while it is raining, and seldom when the wind is at the north ; they take their flight when the wind is southerly or easterly, when it is calm and the sun shines ; fre- quently in showery days, when the sun in the in- terval between two showers produces a sultry heat, and sometimes between two gusts or warm rains. 28. A swarm, when leaving the hive, makes an extraordinary buzzing, which cannot be mistaken. The bees that first go out return, hover for a mo- ment before the hive, and then fly off: at this sig- nal the others rush out, offering the image of a stream flowing with great rapidity. The bees which first left the hive lead the others; the queen comes out afterwards and joins the swarm. If the swarm, after having settled, or been hived, con- tinues in a state of agitation, which is manifested by a great buzzing and a confused hurrying of the bees, it is certain that some accident has hap- pened to the queen. She must then be sought for near the hive from which she should have issued, and may be found the more easily as she is accom- panied by her escort, which never abandons her; she must be taken gently and carried to the swarm, in which an immediate calm will be produced. If the queen should have been unable to leave the hive the swarm will return to it to join her, and they will come out again on the next day, or in a few days after. 29. The swarms settle either on the earth or on the branch of a tree, on a shrub, or on some solid body. In whatever position they may be, we should hasten to hive them, as they w^ill not remain long quiet, particularly if exposed to a hot sun. But if for any reason they cannot be hived im- mediately, a second departure should be prevented by shelterhig them with bushes, or with a wet cloth. 30. When the swarm is to be hived every thing should be done gently, without agitation and with- out fear; therefore the head should be muffled up and the arms and legs covered, to guard against the stings of the bees. Quietness and silence should be enjoined on all present. The hive, with its lid separate, is to be brought near to the swarm and set upon the ground, or on a small light plank ; one side of it should rest on a small stick or on a peb- ble, to raise it sufficiently to allow the bees which are to be put into it to go in and out with ease ; a little stick five or six lines thick, should be put also on the board at the top of the hive. The bees must then be shaken from the branch on which they have settled into the lid; or if they are at- tached to any solid body, they must be swept into the lid with a bunch of feathers, or other soft in- strument. The lid should be held for an instant with its mouth upwards, to allow the bees that have fallen on tlieir backs to turn ; it should then be placed upon the hive softly ; this should be done softly to prevent the bees from falling down in clusters on the board of the hive. This mode is easy and less inconvenient than collecting the s^varm in a whole hive, besides that it insures the bees commencing their labors in the lid. I have seen swarms hived in whole hives, not woi'k in the FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF BEES. 75 lid at all during; the first year. When the swarm is hived, the bees will remain if the queen is with them, but if she is not, they will desert the hive to rejoin her, and it will be necessary to hive them a second time. After the bees are settled in the hive, the little stick which is on the board at top, must be gently withdrawn, and the lid tied on and luted to the hive ; the whole may then be removed, if necessary. 31. If, during this month, several swarms leave the apiary at the same time, we must endeavor to prevent their uniting, by casting handfuls of dust between them. If, notwithstanding, the swarms unite, the bees must be separated when settled, and put into two hives ; this succeeds when there hap- pens to be a queen in each, but otherwise the hive in which there is no queen will soon be abandoned by the bees to go into the other. In this case the lid of the hive in which both swarms are, should be raised ; and when it is observed to be nearly full, it must be set upon an empty hive, taking care to put another lid on the first. Should this foil, and the bees still persist in occupying the same liive, it must be marked and managed as will be directed in the following month. 32. When two swarms issue at the same mo- ment, or nearly so, if the one is a first swarm from a hive and the other a second swarm, although they may be hived separately, if the two new hives are placed near each other and in sight, the bees of the second swarm, although they have a queen, generally quit her to go and join the queen of the hrst swarm, because this last being the mother- queen of the hive from which she issues, is impreg- nated, while the other is yet in her virgin state. This happens because the bees have but a slight attachment to their queens when in their virgin state, while their affection is very strong for those that are laying. When a case of this kind occurs, to prevent the union of the two swarms the hives must be quickly carried to a distance from each other. 33. If swarms issue soon after others have been liived, the leaders of the last, attracted by the odour which the first have left behind them, rusii into the hive and are mixed with those recently se- cured. To remedy this inconvenience we must quickly destroy tiie traces of the queens. For this Iiurpose, as soon as a swarm is in its hive it should )e removed and carried to a distance ; if there is not time for this, and the mixture has commenced, the lid of the hive containing the first swarm should be removed immediately and put upon another hive, which is to be carried away from the first. 34. Persons desirous of forming an apiary v>fith swarms should take advantage of this season, for then they will be sure to have their bees in the best condition. Such only, however, as live within a league of an apiary can enjoy this advantage, as the bees must be carried gently, and in the arms, on the very day that they are hived. 35. When new hives are raised to supply the bees with food, it should be done very carefully, without shaking them or inclining them to one side, because the structures having as yet no con- sistence, and being surcharged with bees, might fall and occasion disorder in the hive. Except for this purpose new swarms should never be touched, nor even examined till a month after their estab- lishment, because not until then will lijeir works have acquired solidity. Jane. 36. When the springs are backward the swarms do not appear before the first of June, and there are exposures in which they never appear till this time. In these circumstances the swarming sea- son is protracted until the first days of July ; but generally in our climate as the season of flowers is departing by the middle of June, the bees which swarm after this time being engaged, at first, in preparing cells for the eggs of their queen, have not time to construct*the combs necessary for re- ceiving abundant stores. It is necessary, there- fore, to conform to the course of nature, and to keep the swarms in the mother-hives when the season is advanced. July and August. 37. The destruction of tlie males takes place sometime in the month of May or of June in weak hives, and in this case we are to expect no swarms. In the other hives, this destruction occurs in the course of July and August. Once commenced, the slaughter continues till all the drones are killed, and occupies four or five days for each hive. 38. At the end of this month, as the structures of the new swarms have then acquired some so- lidity, they may be examined to ascertain if they have thriven ; this may be judged of also by the weight of the hives 39. Some persons preserve all their swarms, however weak they may be, hoping that they will be strengthened by the laying of the queen : but these swarms, particularly those whicli are hived about the end of June, can often make only combs - enough to fill the lids of their hives. There are two ways of turning these swarms to account; the first is to take oft", in July or August, a full lid from an old hive, and to substitute for it a lid con- taining a weak swarm; this way of uniting them is the easiest, causes no strife, and furnishes a strong hive. The second way is, when a hive is suffering from pillage, to take off' its lid and put in the place of it another, containing also a feeble swarm ; the disorder will soon cease, the bees which have lost their queen will attach themselves to her who is given to them, and form a good hive. If the weak swarms should already have constructed some pieces of comb in the body of the hive, it should not be regarded ; but in this case, when we wish to put the Aveak swarm on another hive, we must drive the bees into the lid by smoking them for a little while. 40. At the end of July the owners of bees which are on level and unsheltered districts, -where they now rather consume than add to their stores, will transport their hives to the vicinity of forests ; this transportation may be made by water, or by land in wagons. If the transportation is made by water several owners may imite ; and the hives, after having been wrapped up in cloths, should be car- ried on hand-barrows to the boats, into each of which three or four hundred may be put. They are then to be conveyed to the vicinity of forests adjacent to rivers. Boats and boatmen who will take charge of the bees, may be easily procured at the rate of eight or ten sous per hive. The boatmen should take care to keep shel- tered from the hard winds which usually blow about the end of September, the time of the equi- nox ; and av hen they desire to move to a new place, it should be done in the evening after the bees have 76 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF BEES. returned to llic hives, or at night, or early in the morning before the bees have gone out, other-ivise the bees that are abroad might have great diffi- culty in finding their hives. It' the bees are to be conveyed by land in wagons, the inconveniences ■which may result from the heat of the season should be obviated. Therefore, a cool evening should be chosen ; the cloths which envelop the hives should be wetted, the straw also in which they are placed must be wet, to render it cooler, more supple, and less slippery. The wagons should be covered with cloths, tied loosely to allow the wind to agitate them on their passage, or boughs with their leaves may be fixed over the wagons so as not to touch the hives. In this condition, they should set out after sunset and travel all niglit so as to reach their destination by seven or eight o'clock in the morning, stopping only long enough to teed the horses; in this way a distance of tenor twelve leagues may be accomplished. Individuals may readily be ibund willing to re- ceive the bees, and who, for a recompense of eight or ten sous per hive, will attend to their preserva- tion; this, at least, is the case in the neighborhood of the forest of Orleans. A small gratification is added besides, proportioned lo the care bestowed by tlie keeper, who is responsible for no accident, not even for the loss of the hives by robbery. Nei- ther posts for the stands, nor stands themselves are now required to support the hives, as the humidity of the earth is but little felt at this season. The hives may be set in the fields, near some shelter or arbour, upon small pieces of plank a little raised by stones placed under them : the bees will defend themselves from all creatures that attempt to enter the hives. yfugust. 41. The death of the queens generally occur in this and the following month. We should occa- sionally take a look at the hives, and if in any the bees are observed to be in commotion while those in the other hives are quiet, the queens of the first are dead, and the hives suffering from pillage; they should be set aside for examination. If there is any grated wax, that is, parcels of wax reduced to the size of coarse bran upon the stands, and if the hives are not defended by the working bees, they should be immediately removed to save the rernnant, or to supply them with queens, as in No. 39. 42. At the end of this month those persons who are not in a situation to send their bees to ncv/ feeding grounds, should sound their hives, and judg- ing thus of their weight, should take the lids sup- posed to be full. (See No. 24.) September. 43. The last robbing of the lids may now be made, as directed in No. 24. 44. In the course of this month we should ex- amine the village hives, prepared as in No. 20, for the transferring of the bees; and if there is a sufficient quantity of comb in the new hives, the transfer should be completed. For this purpose, on some clear day, about ten o'clock in the morn- ing, strike, with a rod, some slight blows on the new hive to attract the queen to it. Then, leav- ing the new hive upon the stand, separate from it the old one and place it upon the rounds of a chair turned upon its side. Put an empty lid upon the new hive, loosen the lid which is on the old hive, and then smoke it from below; the bees will im- mediately take refuge in the lid, which must be raised from time to time to see if they have ascend- ed. If they have, take off the lid which is upon the new hive iind replace it by tliat which is upon the old one ; carry the old hive into a room at some distance from the apiary, leaving the door and v/indows open that tlie bees still remaining in the hive may go to seek their queen. Some days after, these new hives must be covered with full lids, which should be taken off other hives with the bees that are in them. These hives will, in all proba- bility, flourish. If there is but little comb in the new hives the two must be left untouched, and the transfer postponed till the succeeding year. 45. To complete the transfer from the hives of tlie old form, several holes should be made in the top of the hive, so that the bees may pass through them easily. A lid must be placed upon each, the old hives must be taken off the new ones and smoked, and the transferring of the bees completed as in No. 44. For the Farmers' Register. SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER TO « AN ESSAY ON CAI.CAREOUS MANURES." The use of calcareous earth recommended to pre- serve putrescent raanures, and to promote clean- liness and health. The operation of calcareous earth in enriching barren soils, has been traced, in a former part of this essay, to the chemical power possessed by that earth of combining with putrescent matters, or with the products of their fermentation — and in that m.anner, preserving them from waste, for the use of the soil, and for the food of growing plants. That power was exemplified by the details of an experiment, (page 91,) in which the carcass of an animal was so acted on, and its enriching proper- ties secured. That trial of the putrefaction of ani- mal matter in contact with calcareous earth, was commenced with a view to results very different from those which were obtained. Darwin says that nitrous acid is produced in the process of fer- mentation, and he supposes the nitrate of lime to be very serviceable to vegetation.* As the ni- trous acid is a gas, it must pass off into the air, under ordinary circumstances, as fast as it is form- ed, and be entirely lost. But as it is strongly at- tracted by lime, it was supposed that a cover of calcareous earth would arrest it, and form a new combination, v.hich, if not precisely nitrate of lime, would at least be composed of the same elements, though in diflferent proportions. To ascertain whether any such combination had taken place, when the manure was used, a handful of the marl was taken, which had been in immediate contact with the carcass, and thrown into a glass of hot water. After remaining half an hour, the fluid was poured off, filtered, and evaporated, and left a considerable proportion of a white soluble salt (sup- posed eight or ten grains.) I could not ascertain its kind — but it Avas not deliquescent, and there- fore could not have been the nitrate of lime. The spot on which the carcass lay, was so strongly im- pregnated by this salt, that it remained bare of ve-. getation for several years. * Darwin's Phytologia, pp. 210 and 224, Dublin Edi- tion. FARMERS- REGISTER— ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. Uut whatever were the products of fermenta- tion saved by this experiment, tlio absence of all offensive effluvia throup,hout tlie process sufficient- ly proved that little or notliing was lost — as every atom must be, when ilesh putrefies in the open air : and I presume that a cover of equal thick- ness, of clay, or sand, or of any mixture of both, without calcareous earth, would have had very lit- tle effect in arresting and retaining the aeriform products of putrefaction. All the circumstances of this experiment, and particularly the g-ood ef- fect exhibited by the manure when put to use, prove the propriety of extending; a similar prac- tice. In the neighborhood of towns, or where- ever else the cai'casses of animals, or any otlier animal substances subject to rapid and wasteful fermentation, can be obtained in great quantity, all their enriching powers might be secui-ed, by depositing them between layers of marl, or calca- reous earth in any other form. On the borders of the Chowan, immense quantities of herrings are often used as manure, when purchasers cannot take off the myriads supplied by the seines. A herring is buried under each corn-hill, and fine crops are thus made as far as this singular mode of manuring is extended. Eut whatever benefits may have been thus derived, the sense of smell- ing, as well as the known chemical products of the process of putrefaction, make it certain that nine tenths of all this rich manure when so applied must be wasted in the air. If those who fortu- nately possess this supply of animal manure, would cause the fermentation to take place and be com- pleted, mixed with and enclosed by marl, in pits of suitable size, they would increase prodigiously botli the amount and permanency of their acting- animal manure, besides obtaining the benefit of the calcareous earth mixed v.ith it. But without regai'ding such uncommon, or abundant sources for supplying animal matter, every farmer may considerably increase his stock of putrescent manure, by using the preservative power of marl : and all the substances that migh.t be so saved, are not only no\w lost to the land, but serve to contaminate tlieair while putrefying, and perhaps to engender diseases. The last conside- ration is of most importance to towns, though worthy of attention every wi^.ere. Wiiocver Avill make the trial will be surj)rised to find how much putrescent matter may be collected from the dwel- ling house, kitclien, and laundry of a family ; and which if accumulated (witliout any calcareous earth,) will soon become so offensive as to prove the necessity of putting an end to the practice. — Yet it must be admitted that when all such matters are scattered about (as is usual both in town and country,) over an extended surface, the same putre- faction must ensue, and the same noxious effluvia be evolved, though not enough concentrated to be very offensive, or even always perceptible. The same amount is inhaled — Init in a very diluted state, and in small, though incessantly repeated doses. But if mild calcareous earth in any form (and fossil shells present much the cheapest,) is used to cover and mix with the putrescent matters so collected, they will be prevented from discliarging offensive effluvia, and preserved to enrich thesoii. A malignant and ever acting enemy will be con- verted to a friend and benefactor. The usual dispersion and waste of such putres- cent and excremenlitious matters about a furm house, though a considerable loss to agriculture, may take place without being very offensive to the senses, or injurious to health. I3ut the case is widely different in towns. There, unless great care is continually used to remove or destroy filth of every kind, ii, soon becomes offensive, if not pestilential. During the last summer, when that most horrible scourge of the human race, the Asiatic cholera, was desolating some of the towns of the United States, and all expected to be visit- ed by its fatal ravages, great and unusual exer- tions were every where used to remove and pre- vent the accumulation of filth, which if alIov,ed to remain, it was supposed Vv'ould invite the approach, and aid the effects of the pestilence. The efforts made for that purpose served to shov/ what a vast amount of putrescent matter existed in every town, and which v.as so rapidly reproduced, that its complete riddance was impossible. Immense quantities of the richest-manures, or materials for them, were washed away into the rivers — caustic lime was used to destroy tlicm — and the chloride of lime to decompose the offensive products of Iheir fermentation, when that had already occurred. All this amount of labor and expense was directed to the complete destruction of what might have given iertility to many adjacent fields, and yet served to cleanse the towns but imperfectly, and for a very short time. Yet the object in view might have been better attained by the previous adoption of the proper means for preserving these putrescent matters instead of destroying them. These means v/ouldbe to mix or cover all accumulations of such matters with rich marl, (which v/ouid be the bet- ter for tlie purpose if its shells Avere in small par- ticles,) and in such quantity as the effect would show to be sufficient. Eut much the greater part of the filth of a town is not, and cannot be accu- mulated ; and from being dispersed, is the most difficult to remove, and is probably the most nox- ious in its usual course of fermentation. This would be guarded against by covering thickly v/ith marl the floor of every cellar and stable, back yard and stable lot. Every other vacant space should be lightly covered. The same course pursued on the gardens and other cultivated grounds, would be sufficiently compensated by tiie increas- ed product that would be obtained : but indepen- dent of that consideration, the manures there ap- plied would be prevented from escaping nito the air — and being wholly retained by the soil, much smaller applications would serve. Tlie streets ought also to be sprinkled with marl, and as often as circumstances miglit require. The various pu- trescent matters usually left in the streets of a town alone serve to make the mud scraped from them a valuable manure ; for the piincipal part of the bulk of street mud is composed merely of the barren clay, brought in upon the wheels of v/agons " from the country. Such a cover of calcareous earth Avould be the most effectual absorbent and preserver of putrescent matter, as well as the cheapest mode of keeping a town always clean. There would be less noxious or offensive effluvia, tlian is genei-atedin spite of all the ordinary means of prevention ; and by scraping up and removing the marl after it had combined v/ith and secured enough of putrescent matter, a compost would be obtained for the use of the surrounding country, so rich and so abundant, that its use would repay a large part, if not the vrholc of the expense in- 78 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. curred in its production. Prol)ably one covering of marl for each year would serve for most yards, &c. but if required oftener, it would only prove the necessity for the operation, and sliow the great- er value in the results. The compost that might be obtained from spaces equal to five hundred acres in a populous town, would durably eni'ich tlirice as many acres of the adjacent country : and after twenty years of such a course, the surrounding farms might be capalde of returning to the town a ten fold increased surplus product. After the qualities and value of the manure so formed were properly estimated, it would be used for farms that Avould be out of the reach of all other calcareous manures. Carts bringing country produce to mar- ■ ket might with profit carry back loads of this compost six or eight miles. The annual supply that the country might be furnished with, would produce very different effects from the putrescent and fleeting manure now obtained from the town stables. Of tlie little durable benefit heretofore derived from sucli means, the appearance of the country oilers sufficient testimony. At three miles distance from some of the principal towns in Vir- ginia, more than half the cultivated land is too poor to yield any farming profit. The surplus grain sent to market is very inconsiderable — and the coarse hay from the wet meadows can only be sold to those who feed horses belonging to other persons. But even if the waste and destruction of ma- nure in towns was counted as nothing, and the pre- servation of health by keeping t!ie air pure was the only object sought, still calcareous earth; as presented by rich marl, would serve the purpose far better than quick lime. It is true, that the latter substance acts })Owerfully in decomposing putrescent animal matter, and destroys its texture and qualities so completely, that the operation is commonly and expressively called" burning" the substances acted on. Eut to use a sufficient quan- tity of quick lime to meet and decompose all pu- trescent animal matters in a town, would be into- lerably expensive and still more objectionable in other respects. If a cover of dry quick lime in powder was spread over all the surfaces requiring it for this purpose, the town would be unfit to live in ; and the nuisance would be scarcely less, when rain had changed the suffocating dust to an adhe- sive mortar. Woollen clothing, carpets, and even living flesh would be continually sustaining injury from the contact. No such objections would at- tend the use of mild calcareous earth : and this could be obtained probably for less than one fifth of the cost of quick lime, supposing an equal quantity of pure calcareous matter to be obtained in each case. At this time the richest marl on James River may be obtained at merely the cost of digging, and its carriage by water, which if undertaken on a large scale, could not exceed, and probably would not equal three cents the bushel. The putrescent animal matters that would be preserved and rendered innoxious by the general marling of the scite of a town, would be mostly such as are so dispersed and imperceptible that they would otherwise be entirely lost. But all such as are usually saved in part, would be dou- bled in quantity and value, and deprived of their offensive and noxious qiralitics by being kept mix- ed with calcareous earth. The importance of this plan being adopted with the products of privies, &c. is still greater in town than country. The vari- ous matters so collected and combined should ne- ver be applied to the soil alone, as the salt derived from the kitchen, and the potash and soap from the laundry, might be injurious in so concentrated a form. When the pit for receiving this compound is emptied, the contents should be spread over other and weaker manure, before being applied to the field. Towns might furnish many other kinds of rich manure, which are now lost entirely. Some of these particularly require the aid of calcareous earth to he secured from destruction by putrefaction, and others, though not putrescent, are equally wasted. The blood of slaughtered animals, and the waste and rejected articles of wool, hair, feathers, skin, horn and bones, all are manures of great richness. We not only give the flesli of dead animals to in- fect the air, instead of using it to fertilize the land, but their bones which might be so easily saved, are as completely thrown away. Bones are com- posed of phosphate of lime, and gelatinous ani- mal matter, and when crushed, form one of the richest and most convenient manures in the world. They are shipped in quantities from the continent of Europe to he sold for manure in England. The fields of battle have been gleaned, and their shal- low graves emptied for this purpose : and the bones of the ten thousand British heroes who fell on the field of Waterloo, are now performing the less glorious, but more useful purpose of producing wheat for their brothers at home. There prevails a vulgar but useful superstition, that there is " bad luck" in throwing into the fire any thing, however small may be its amount or value, that can serve for the food of any living ani- mal. It is a pity that the same belief does not ex- tend to every thing that as manure can serve to feed growing plants — and that even the parings of nails, and clippings of beards are not used (as in China) in aid of this object. However small each particular source might be, the amount of all the manures that might be saved, and which are now wasted, would add incalculably to the usual means for fertilization. Human excrement, which is scarcely used at all in this country, is stated to be even richer than that of birds ; and if all the en- riching matters were preserved that are derived not only from the food, but from all the habits of man, there can be no question but that a town of ten thousand inhabitants, from those sources alone, might enrich more land than could be done from as many cattle. The opinions here presented are principally founded on the theory of the operation of calca- reous manures, as maintained in the foregoing part of this essay : but they are also sustained to con- siderable extent by facts and experience. The most undeniable practical proof of one of my po- sitions, is the power of a cover of marl to pre- vent the escape of all offensive effluvia from the most putrescent animal matters. Of this pow- er I have made continued use for about eighteen months, and know it to be more effectual than quick lime, even if the destructive action of the latter was not objectionable. Quick lime forms new combinations with putrescent substances, and in thus combining, throws off effluvia, which though different from the products of putrescent matter alone, are still disagreeable and offensive. Mild lime on Ihe contrary absorbs and preserves FARMERS' REGISTER— DAIRY STOCK. every thing — or at least prevents the escape of any offensive odour being perceived. Whether pu- trescent vegetable matter is acted on in like man- ner by calcareous earth, cannot be as well tested by our senses, and therefore tlie proof is less satis- factory. But if it is true that calcareous eartli acts by combining putrescent matters with the soil, and thus preventing their loss, (as I have en- deavored to prove in chapter viii.) it must follow that to the extent of such combination, the forma- tion and escape of all volatile products of putrefac- tion will also be prevented. But it will be considered that the most impor- tant inquiry remains to be answered : Has the ap- plication of calcareous manures been found in prac- tice decidedly beneficial to the health of the resi- dents on the land ? Long experience, and the col- lection and comparison of numerous facts, derived from various sources, will be required to remove all doubts from this question ; and it would be pre- sumptuous in any individual to offer as sufiicient proof, the experience of only ten or twelve years on any one farm. But while admitting the insuf- ficiency of such testimony, I assert that so far my experience decidedly supports my j)osition. My principal farm until within some four or five years, was subject in a remarkable degree to the com- mon mild autumnal diseases of our low country. Whether it is owing to marling, or otlier unknown causes, these bilious diseases have since become comparatively very rare. Neither does my opi- nion in this respect, nor the facts that have occur- red on my farm, stand alone. Some other persons are equally convinced of this change on other land as well on mine. But in most cases where I have made inquiries as to such results, nothing decisive had been observed. The hope that other persons may be induced to observe and report facts bear- ing on this important point, has in part caused the appearance of these crude and perhaps premature views. Even if my opinions and reasoning sliould ap- pear sound, I am aware that the practical appli- cation is not to be looked lor soon ; and that the scheme of using marl in towns is more likely to be met by ridicule, than to receive a serious and attentive examination. Notwithstanding this an- ticipation, and however hopeless of making con- verts either of individuals or corporations, I will offer a few concluding remarks on the most ob- vious objections to, and benefits of the plan. The objections will all be resolved into one — namely the expense to be encountered. The expense cer- tainly would be considerable ; but it would be am- ply compensated by the gains and benefits. The general use of marl as proposed for towns, would serve to insure cleanliness, and purity of the air, more than all the labors of boards of health and their scavengers, even when acting under the dread of approaching pestilence. Secondly, the putrescent manures produced in towns, by beino- merely preserved from waste, would be increased ten fold in quantity and value. Thirdly, all exist- ing nuisances and abominations of filth would be at an end, and the beautiful city of Richmond (for ex- ample) would not giveoffence to our nostrils, almost as often as it offers gratification to our eyes. Lastly, the marl after being used until saturated with pu- trescent matter, would retain all its first value as calcareous earth, and be well worth purchasing and removing to the adjacent farms, independent of the enriching manure with which it would be loaded. If these advantaa;es could indeed be ob- tained, they woidd be cheaply bought at any price likely to be encounlcred lor the purpose. On Breeding' for a, Dairy Stocli:. From the Kew Eiu'land Farmer. The subject of breeding for a Dairy Stock, is one of a good deal of interest at this time. Inqui- ries are frequently made in conversation which show this to be the case. In the present state of our knov.ledge such questions as the following ap- pear to the writer not at all too elementary. ( 1. What is meant by a particular breed of cattle ? 2. Are there one or more l)reeds of cows known, by long trial, to be deep milkers.'' 3. To what extent is breed to be relied upon in the selection of a stock for milk.' I propose to make a few suggestions by way of answer to these questions. There is another Avliich I shall say something upon in another paper with your permission, viz. On what else, besides breed, depends dcej) milk- It is nothing new to say that the object of breed- ing (in a technical sense,) is to perpetuate in the progeny, the form, constitution, and particular qualities of one or both the parents. But what I wish to ask attention to, and to enforce in this communication, is the very important fact — that the longer any distinguishing quality, mark, or peculiarity, can be traced back in the ancestry, the more deeply will it be fixed in the descendants-; predominating, or taking the place of other quali- ties, of more recent standing in either of the pa- rents. A particular cow may chance to be a fine milk- er, but if the parents, for some. generations, were not remarkable in the same way, her heifer calves will not probably be good milkers — at least no dependence can be placed upon them. If the sire is of a pure milk stock the chances arc very much increased of course. It is not too much to say from experience, here and in England, that of all the varieties of cows, designated by the terms, Short Horns, Long Horns, and Hornless — or by the names, more lim- ited in their application, as Devon, Hereford, Holderness, Suffolk, Denton, Bakewell, Aklerny, &c. — no one of them has been found to give tmi- formly or generally, more or better milk than any other. — The evidence before the public, abroad and at home, is contradictory. There have been individual instances of extra- ordinary milkers among all — and I may go so far as tosay/am!7ies,of extraordinary milkers, among It has been too often taken for granted, that a good cow will produce good calves without inqui- ry into her parentage or that of the bull to which she is sent — and prejudices have been raised in favor of marks and certain appearances, in such an animal, which have no necessary connexion, or none at all, with lier faculty as a milker— and such marks have been alloAved to determine the choice of another cow as infiillible signs of a good one. The most prevalent popular token now is the small head and shorthorns. — This is so far a good sign, as that the smaller the refuse parts, the 80 FAIIMERS' REGISTER— DRAINING LAKES. nearer v/ill be (lie approximation to perfection in the more valuable parts, Avlictlier for beef or milk — and this is all. So much has been most satisfac- torily proved by the conclusive reasonings of Mr. Cline, the eminent anatomist, in an essay published by him a long time siiice.* The Ilolderness Breed have the small head and short horns, but they ai-e esfcemed in England much better fitted, in general, for tlie shambles than for the dairy. An established dairy stock might, no doubt, be raised from them by a careful selection of individuals, 7nalc and female, from a viilkfaviihj. Eut it v.ould be too much to say of so large a class as the Durham, Denton or Here- ford, though all short horns, that bearing either of those names, they may be relied upon as good milk- ers, and to produce unifbrndy good milkers. If the experience of the country Avill not bear the writer out in this remark he will be glad to find the dairy stock so much in advance of his opi- nion. The Devon Cov,'s are not considered im England to be so good for milk as some other kinds. And yet Mr. Coke, the great' Norfolk farmer, sent to a friend in Maryland, several years ago, a num- ber of Devonshire cows, bred by himself, which were remarkable for quantify and quality of milk. They were bred on the side of both male and fe- male, we presume, from animals whose progeni- tors were distinguished for this same quality T had he frequently crossed the blood of the Devons v.itli any of the several kinds of Sliort Horns, whose descent, from an equally good stock for milk, had not been so well guarded, this same family would in a few generations have given evidences of mate- rial depreciation. The truth really is, that we have yet the work to do to establish a pure milk breed. To accomplish this, we must have a class of far- mers who shall be professed breeders of a dairy stock — they will employ no bulls but such as come of good cows, they will I'aise no calves but from first rate cows. They will keep the heifers for some generations, sending olTto the butchers such as turn out indifferent milkers ; as some there will be, in whom the faults of remote parentage will be found fo linger. — A herd thus carefully purged, and finally, after a few years, exhibiting a uniform character,jryr milk in the young, as they come in, will prove a lasting and sure source of increasing- profit to the skilful, intelligent breeder, and an im- mense gain to the country. The writer Vv'ould ask, suppose a young farmer at the present moment is about to stock a milk- farm and is willing to pay the full value of good cows — good, we mean as breeders — where sliall he go for them, in New England.'' Wliere shall he be sure to find an cstaldished milk breed that will not disappoint him .' He will find improved breeds enough — but who will venture to insure him that the improvement will not be found to consist as often in adaptation to the shambles as to the dairy } The idea suggested, whether well or ill founded, let others judge, is that we have not yet a pure jnilk-siock, tliat is, a stock descended for many gen- erations from none but fine milkers. Some may think that the art of breeding cannot be carried so far as to secure a uniformity of excellence in this particular quality in the progeny. The answer *MassacluiscUs Agricultural Repository. can only be that they liave attained to that degree of perfection in England — that for half a century thorough breeders, have been successful in this par- ticular as in others. It is gratifying to be able to state any one thing on this most important subject, entitled to rank as an axiom and of a truly scienti- fic character. Vie say that thorough breeders have been en- tirely successful in England. Not that the far- mers, generally in England have reached that de- gree of excellence. This would be far from the truth. All that is true even there, is the invalua- ble fact that particular families of milch cows are there known to transmit their peculiarity, as great milkers, with uniform certainty, to their progeny. This fact is as valuable, for our instruction and example, as if tlie same thing were true of all the milch cows in England. On the other hand, let tlie following statement have its due weight, going to show, as it does, that it is of some consequence for breeding from what family an animal derives its descent. "Mr. Woodward of Birlingham, Worcestershire, England, purchased twelve deep milking Yorkshire cows without pretensions to breed, or disposition to fatten — with these cows he used a high-bred Hereford Bull — and in the pro- geny lost the disposition to milk which the mo- thers had ; acquiring that of laying on fat, which was the distinguishin"' merit of the fiimily to which the bull belonged. * Here is a striking case, where high blood enabled one of the parents to propagate his own peculiar excellence, and to prevent the transmission of the peculiar excellence of the mo- thers— viz. their tendency to be great milkers ; because this quality was accidental in them and not derived from a select ancestry, and therefore not firmly established in the constitution. ■Draiiiiiig- li^kes in Holland. The slates of the provinces of Holland opened their session en the 7th instant. The Governor, in his speech, informed the assembly, that a plan for draining the Lake of Haarlem and the Eyl- meer was under consideration. He concluded by holding out a confident expectation of this great undertaking being accomplished. The lake of Haarlem, which communicates with the Zuyder- Zee by the river Y, is extensive, but not deep ; it is about 14 miles long, and from 7 to 10 broad. According to tradition, it was formed in the year 8G0, at the same time tliat the Rhine v/as intercep- ted by the formation of sandbanks near Catwyck ; but some persons who have investigated the sub- ject, are of opinion that this event must have taken place at a period considerably more recent. It is stated in old chronicles, that an irruption of the sea destroyed at once 17 villages and according to accounts published not many years ago, vestiges of habitations were still to be seen. There is a popular story of a nobleman who resided in this part of Holland escaping from the great inundation, in consequence of observing a marine fish in one of the lakes of his estate. He hence concluded, that the sea was undermining part of the coast which served as a bulwark against it; and imme- diately removed with his family. A contract is concluded with regard to the Bylmeer, and the works are to commence next spring. *Pnze Essay cf the Rev. Henry Berry. FARMERS' REGISTER— SOILS AND SUBSOILS— WORKING HORSES, &c. 81 Q^ualities of Soils and Subsoils. Extract from Marshall's Rui-al Economy of Norfolk, (England.) A singular uniformity of soil prevails through- out this country : there is not, perhaps, an acre in it, which does not come under the idea of a sandy LOAM. Its quality, however, varies widely, both as to texture and productiveness. The northern part of the district abounds with barren heaths and unfertile enclosures ; v,hile the southern Hundreds are principally covered with a richer, deeper, high- ly productive soil. The soil, in general, however, may be termed shallow: perhaps six, perhaps five, inches may be taken as the medium depth. Immediately under the cultivated soil, a hard crust — provincially " the pan" — occurs univer- sally ; and, under this, substrata of various quali- ties : an unfathomable ocean of sai^d may be con- sidered as the prevailing substratum. In some places a hungry gravel, but more frequently an absorbent 6r(c^- ear/A, is the immediate subsoil. 3Idrl sometimes rises to near the surface, but sel- dom so high as the pan. This seems to be universally considered as a distinct something, poisonous in its nature, and partaking neither of the soil nor the subsoil. It is not my intention to ridicule this received opi- nion ; it may be well founded ; but, to me, the pan appears to be a production not of nature, but of art ; or, to speak more accurately, a consequence of the Norfolk culture carried on, time immemo- rial, with the Norfolk plough ; — whose broad flat share being held invariably in a horizontal posi- tion, and (unless in fallowing,) invariably at the same depth, the surface of the subsoil becomes formed, by the action of the share, the pressure and sliding of the heel of the plough, and the tramp- ling of the horse into a firm even floor, upon which the soil is turned and returned, in the same man- ner it would be, if spread on a floor of stone, or other material. But be this as it may, and whether the pan be a natural or a factitious production, — it is a fact well established, that breaking it up by ploughing be- low the accustomed depth, is very injurious to succeeding crops. Two reasons may be offered in explanation of this effect ; the pan, year after year, and, perhaps, century after century, has been a receptacle of the seeds of weeds; which, by being trodden or other- wise pressed into it, have remained there, locked up from the sun and air, and thereby deprived of the power of vegetation. But no sooner are these seeds released from their confinement by being brought to the surface v/ith the plough, than they vegetate in myriads, to the annoyance of the crop. The other reason is this : — the firm close con- texture of the pan renders it in a degree water- tight; it is, at least, a check to the rain-water, Avhich sinks through the soil ; prolonging its stay in the sphere of vegetation. But the pan being- broken, the filter is no more; and the rain, which is not immediately retained by the soil, escapes ir- retrievably info an insatiable bed of sand, — or some other absorbent subsoil. For, if we except a few quicksands, which oc- cur on the margins of meadows, and the peat bogs which occupy their areas, there is not, in the dis- trict, an acre of retentive subsoil. Vol. I.— II "^Vorking^ asicl Feeding Horses, Five horses are here called " a teamer," and are usually placed under the care of one " teamer- man ;" who, in more leisure times, ploughs with two of them in the morning, and with other two in the afternoon ; but, in general, a laborer, or^a boy, works one pair of them while the teamerman works the other pair, two journeys a day ; having always, in this case, one horse at rest. But in seed time, moi'e particularly in " barley feel," the fifth horse goes to harrow ; every horse upon the farm going to work at six or seven in the morning, and stays till twelve ; goes out again at one or two, and remains at work till six or se- ven. In a wagon upon the road five horses are uni- versally in use. "Whether upon the road or on the farm, the common practice is for the horses to trot with emp- ty carriages. The keep of horses in Norfolk, notwithstanding the work they go through, is less expensive than that of other places, where large unwieldy horses seem to be kept for state, rather than for labor. This, though prevalent in many well cultivated districts, is an evident absurdity. There may be cases, in which heavy loads are to be drawn short distances, and where the number of horses is limited, as in London ; in which cases, heavy powerful horses may be eligible ; but, from the observations I have been able to make, a compact horse is much fitter for the ^•aried employments upon a farm ; and, with respect to keep, a main consideration in the choice of a farm horse, the advantage is great- ly in favor of small horses. The present breed in Norfolk, still retaining a considerable portion of the original blood, is kept at half the expense at which many farm horses in different parts of the kingdom, are supported. In the leisure months of winter, barley straw is, in general, their only rack meat ; and through winter emd spring, they are suppered up with it ; except, perhaps, m the hurry of barley seedtime; against Avhich a reserve of clover hay is made ; provided the teamerman does not make away with it before that time. A Norfolk farmer has a si- milar difficulty in preventing his men from steal- ing hay, as those of other countries have to keep them from pilfering more than their allowance of corn. I met with one instance, in which a judicious re- fulation was made, with respect to horse hay. At lichaelmas, the master sets apart what he consi- ders as a sufficient quantity to last to the close of barley seedtime. This allowance he consigns wholly to the care of his men ; who never fail to husband it in such a manner as to have the neces- sary reserve at barley feel ; whereas before he fell upon this regulation, his horses were either work- ed down to skeletons, or he was obliged to buy hay for them at that season. With respect to corn, a bushel each horse, a week, is, hi the busiest season, considered as an am- ple allowance ; in more leisure times, a much less quantity suffices. Oats are the usual horse corn ; but barley, when cheap or unsaleable, is sometimes given to horses. In this case it is generally " malted;'' that is, steeped, and afterAviuxls spread abroad, for a few 82 FARMERS' REGISTER— BUCKWHEAT— DECOYS FOR WILD DUCKS. days, until it beo;in to vegetate ; and, in this cri- sis, is given to the horses. It is thought to be less heating in this state, than it is when given to the horses in its natural state. Chaff is universally mixed with horse corn ; the great quantities of corn grown in this country, af- ford, in general, a sufficiency of natural chatf; so that cut chaff is not much in use : the chaif, or rather the awns, of barley, which in some places, are thrown as useless to the dung hill, are here in good esteem as horse provender. Oat chaff is de- servedly considered as being of a much inferior quality. The summer keep of horses, is, almost wholly, clover : — some few tares are grown, but the quan- tity is inconsiderable. Soiling horses, in the stable, is not here a prac- tice ; except for baiting in the day time ; the hor- ses being universally kept out at night ; and, gene- rally, in clover lays. — [Ibid. JBuckwlieat, Buck is an object of the Norfolk culture, in a twofold light. It is propagated as grain and as MANURE : and it will be proper to view it in these two lights. However, tiie main intention of its propagation, Avhether as a crop, or as a meliora- tion of the soil, being the same ; namely, the cleansing of foul land ; it will be convenient to keep the two objects in nearly the same point of view. 1. With respect to speciks, there is only one ; this grain having not yet, I believe, run into any varieties, sufficiently striking to have distinguish- ing names appropriated to them. 2. It is sown almost indiscriminately on all spe- cies of soils ; except that li":ht poor land has the preference ; indeed, it is to this species of soil that buck seems most especially adapted. 3. It likewise succeeds every species of crop; the state of the soil, as to foulness and poverty, be- ing generally more attended to than either the na- ture of the soil or the crop it bore last. 4. The soil process depends upon the state of the soil, and the intention, jointly : if the soil be tole- rably clean, and the buck be intended to be plough- ed under as a manure, it is sown on one ploughing ; but, in general, the ground is broken, as for bar- ley or peas, to forward the falloAV, and secure a crop. 5. The seed process is the same for both inten- tions ; excepting that, for a crop, the seed is soAvn first; namely, immediately after barley feel : and that intended to be ploughed under, is sown as soon afterwards as the ground is in a state fit to receive the seed. It is universally sown above furroAV. The quantity of seed six pecks to two bushels an acre. 6. No vegetating process takes place; the growth of buck is so rapid as to outstrip and smother al- most every species of weeds ; an excellency pecu- liar to this crop. Notwithstanding it is highly pi-obable that there is more buck grown annually in Norfolk, than in the other tliirty-nine counties of the kingdom, it is all consumed in tlic neighborhood of its growth. It is the universal food of swine and poultry; both of which it fots quickly and well. It is sometimes crushed for Jiigs, and sometimes given to them whole : in this case, however, some judicious hus- bandmen mix a few oats or peas with it, in order that the swine may grind it down the more effectu- ally, and thereby prevent its passing through them whole. Wheat after Buck ploughed vnder. — This is a Aivorite practice among good farmers; and the Norfolk ploughmen perform the operation of ploughing the crop under, in a masterly style. — They sweep it down by means of a brush or broom, made of rough bushes fixed to the front of the " fickle tow ;" or fore tackle of the plough, be- tween the wheels; so as to bear down the buck without lifting the wheels of the plough from the ground. To prevent this, when tlie buck is stout, it is first broken down by a roller, going the same way as the plough is intended to go. This opera- tion is performed when the plants are in their fullest bloom. The surface is, sometimes, harrowed and rolled after ploughing : sometimes left rough : the former is perhaps the most eligible management. In either case, the soil remains in that state until after harvest, v/hen it is harrowed and taken up a full pitch, across the v/arps. At seedtime, it is harrowed, — rolled, — soAved, — and usually gathered up into " narrow work," in the manner above described. — {Ibid. Decoys for WiM Ducks. The lakes, and large pools, which abound in the southern Hundreds of East Norfolk, are the nur- series of innumerable flights of " wild fowl," of various species, but principally ducks; which are taken in great numbers in decoys, formed on the margins of these Avaters; and Avhich, in eligible situations, may Avell be considered as objects of ru- ral economy. Much judgment is requisite in forming and ma- naging a decoy. A gent'eman in this neighbor- hood had a person out of Lincolnshire to make one for him. But, after a great expense of cutting pipes, fixing skreens, nets, &c. it proved un- successful. The pipes Avere too straight, too close and confined, and too narrow at the mouth; without any banks for the Avild foAvl to bask upon. Upon the whole, it was too much like a trap to be taken. The leading principles of a decoy are these : The wild duck is a very shy bird, and delights in retirement. The first step, therefore, is to endea- vor to make the given Avater a peaceful asylum, by suffering the ducks to rest on it undisturbed. The same love of concealment leads them to be partial to waters Avhose margins abound with un- derAVOod and aquatic plants : hence, if the given Avater is not already furnished Avith these appenda- ges, they must be provided; for it is not retire- ment, alone, Avhich leads them into these recesses, but a search after food, also. Nevertheless, at certain times of the day, Avhen Avild foAvl are off their feed, they are equally de- lighted with a smooth, grassy margin, to adjust and oil their plumage upon. On the close pastur- ed margins of large waters frequented by wild foAvl, hundreds may be seen amusing themselves in this Avay: and, perhaps, nothing draAVS them sooner to a Avater than a conveniency of this kind: hence it becomes essentially necessary to success to provide a grassy, shelving, smooth-shaven bank at the mouth of the pipe, in order to draAV the FARMERS' REGISTER— WHEAT DEGENERATING INTO CHEAT. 83 fowl, not only to the water at large, but to the de- sired part of it. Having, by tliese means, allured them to the mouth of the pipe, or canal, leading from the wa- ter to a tunnel net, fixed at the head of it; but hid from the sight among trees and aquatic plants ; the difficulties now remaining, are those of gettingthem off the bank into the water, without taking wing; and of leading them up the pipe to the snare which is set for them. To get them off the bank into the water, a dog, (the more he is like a fox the better,) steals from behind a skreen of reeds, which is placed by the side of the pipe, to hide the decoy man, as well as his dog, until the signal be given. On seeing the dog, tlie ducks rush into the water ; where the loild fowl consider themselves as safe from the enemy which had assailed them. But among tlie wild fowl, a parcel, (perhaps eight or ten) of decoy ducks have mixed, and were, probably, instrumental in bringing them, with greater confidence, to the bank. As soon as these are in the water, they make for the pipe, at the head of which they have been constantly fed ; and in which they have always found an asylum from the dog. The wild ducks follow ; while the dog keeps driving behind ; and, by that means, takes off their attention from the trap they are enter- ing. As soon as the decoyraan, who is all the while observing the operation through peep-holes in the reed ski-een, sees the entire shoal under a canopy net which covers and encloses the upper part of the pipe, he shews himself; wlien the wild fowl instantly take wing ; but their wings meeting with an imper- vious net, instead of a natural canopy formed of reeds and bulrushes, they fall again into tlie wa- ter, and, being afraid to recede, the man being close behind them, push forward into the tail ot the tunnel net which terminates the pipe.* This being the use of the pipe, its form becomes obvious. It ought to resemble the outlet of a natu- ral brook, or, a natural inlet or creek of the prin- cipal water. The mouth ought to be spacious, and free from confinement, that the wild foAvl, on their first rusliing into the water, and while they have yet the power of recollection, may be induced to begin to follow the tame ducks ; and for the same purpose it ought to be crooked, that its inward narrowness, and nets, may not, in the first instance, be perceived. The lower part of a French horn is considered as the best form of the pipe of a decoy. One material circumstance remains yet to be explained. It is the invariable nature of wild fowl to take wing witli their heads toward the wind ; and it is always imprudent to attempt to take them in a decoy, vniless the wind blow down the pipe : for, while their enemy is to leeward of them, they have less scruple to go up the pipe, making sure of an escape by their wings. But, what is of still more consequence, if the wind set up the pipe, when they take wing under the cano- py net, some of tliem would proliably escape, (a circumstance always to be dreaded,) and those which fell again into the water, would fall, of course, with their heads toward the wind, and would, with greater difficulty, be driven into the tunnel. This circumstance is so well known, by decoy- men in general, that every decoy is, when circum- stances will admit of it, furnished with three or four different pipes, pointing to distinct quarters of the horizon, that no opportunity may be lost on account of the wind. * I was tokl by the proprietor of a decoy, who is liimscif fond of the diversion, and whose veracity I have no reason to doubt, that he has, in this way, caught "nine dozen nt a push." For the Farmers' Register. EXPERIMENT TO TEST THE POSSIBILITY OF WHEAT DEGENERATING INTO CHE AT. October 20th, 1832. A spot about twenty feet^ square, on one side of a field of corn, was left out when all the adjacent ground was ploughed and sowed in wheat three days before. Soil, a silicious loam, (which had been marled in 1820,) on a re- tentive subsoil, which by preventing the sinking of the water from rauis, keeps the surface very wet through winter and spring. The surface of this part of the field is a very gentle slope, decli- ning towards the north, and the lowest spot of the whole (and therefore the most exposed to water) is where the space was marked for this experi- ment. There the surface becomes level. The whole field, including this spot, had been ploughed five or six inches deep last winter, for corn, and well cultivated, but not later than the beginning of July. All remained very clear of weeds. The space was slightly smoothed by the broad hoe, merely to level the clods, but not broken any where an inch deep, and generally not cut at all. As the corn had been tilled level, and not hilled, the surface required but little smoothing. Wheat was selected for the trial which had passed through a cockle-sieve, and of course was all either shrivel- led, or very small grains if plump. Lines were slightly traced along the edge of a straight rod, (not more than half an inch deep,) and a few seeds, varying from three to seven, were placed accurately at every six inches of the line, by notclies on the rod made at those distances. The seed was carefully cleaned of every grain of cheat, spelt, and cockle. Half the square was thus plant- ed in such rows six inches apart, and the remain- der in similar rows twelve inches apart. For fear that even this very defective seed might not be bad enough to insure the change to cheat, one of the subscribers picked out a number of the most shrivelled and imperfect grains, all of which he is confident will bring cheat, if they are capable of produchig any thing, which is very doubtful from their appearance. One of the rows was planted with these grains, four being carefully deposited at each distance of six inches. All the seeds were covered with about half an inch of mould taken by the hand from the intervals between tlie lines ; and the wliole space was then slightly beaten over with the flat of the broad hoe. About four feet Avidth adjohiing the square, and of similar unbroken corn land, was strewed broad- cast with similar defective seed, and covered as shallow as possible. The earth dry at this time, and in fine order for plougliing. The weather uncommonly warm for the last three days. Present and assisting at the making of this ex- periment the undersigned Thomas Cocke and Ed- mund KufFin of Prince George county, and Wil- liam J. Cocke of Sussex — the first a believer and the second an unbeliever in the change of wheat 84 FARMEERS' REGISTER— MAIL COACHES AND HORSES IN ENGLAND. to cheat, and the third undecided. It was our de- sign in this experiment to bring into operation eve- ry cause to which this change is usually ascribed by different persons, namely, 1. imperfect seed — 2. thick sowing — 3. a wet soil — 4. hard or unbro- ken soil — 5. grazing or mowing, which is to be done next spring. If any cheat or spelt, should grow in this square from any other seed, it cannot be mistaken for the product of the wheat we have planted, unless the plants sliould stand in one or more of the positions so accurately fixed by measured distances. THOMAS COCKE. ED3IUND RUFFIK. AVILLIAM J. COCKE. October 20th, 1832. j^pril I5th, 1833. The growth of plants on the square is very mean, (generally six or seven inches in height,) and but few are living compared to the number of grains sown. Every row however has some plants living. Half the marked row w^here the worst seed was used, and as much of the one ad- joining, was cut down this day within an inch of the ground, and the parts so treated were also marked. June 2d. We again carefully examined the ex- periment together, to know and report the final result. Not a single head of cheat or spelt is in the whole space. The cut plants have grown as tall, and are not perceptibly worse than the ba- lance in the same rows. The row sown with the very imperfect grains, has a still more scanty growth than the others, but had twenty four heads of wheat in its whole length ; a few of these heads had not come out of the Boot, and perhaps will not produce grain — but they were opened and found to be Avheat, like all the rest which were out. The adjacent parts of the field of wheat contain a few scattering stalks of cheat, and still fewer of spelt. The seed had been well cleaned, (though probably not perfectly,) by the hand-sieve. THOMAS COCKE. EDMUND RUFFIX. Prince George Co. June 4, 1833. Speed of Mail Cor»c3ies AND KEEP OP THEIR HORSES IN ENGLAND. Extract from the Quarterly Review. But to return to fast work : the Edinburgh mail runs the distance, 400 miles, in forty hours, and we may set our vv'atches by it at any point of her jour- ney. Stoppages included, this approaches eleven miles in tlie hour, and much the greater part of it by lamplight. The Exeter day coach, the Herald, from the Saracen's Head, Snow Hill, runs over her ground, 173 miles,* in tv»'enty hours — admira- ble performance, considering the natural inieven- ness of the country through which it has to pass. The Devonport mail does her work in first-i'ate style, 227 miles in twenty-two hours. In short, from London to Cheltenham, Gloucester, Worces- ter, Birmingham, Norwich, or any other place, whose distance does not much exceed one hun- * From Calais to Paris is the same distance ; the Dili- gence takes at least 48 hours in summer, and from 50 to 60 in the winter. The Exeter mail is allowed 18 hours from London to Exeter, the Paris mail from 28 to 30 hours from Calais to Paris, and this is reckoned quick worlc. dred miles, is now little more than a pleasant morn- ing drive. We say pleasant, for this extraordi- nary speed is not attained, generally speaking, by putting animals to any thing like cruel exertion. A fast coach has nearly a horse to every mile of ground it runs — reckoning one way, or 'one side of the ground.'* Proprietors of coaches have at length ibund out — though they were a long time before they did discover it — that the hay and corn market is not so expensive as the horse market. They have, therefore, one horse in four always at rest; or, in other words, each horse lies still on the fourth day, thus having the advantage of man. For example, if ever we turn coach proprietors, or 'get into harness,' as the proper term is — which, as we have become fox-hunters, is by no means impossible — we shall keep ten horses for every ten miles stage we engage to cover. In this case, eight horses only will be at work, four up and four down. If the stage be under seven miles, nine horses may do the work ; but no horse in a fast coach can contmue to run every day, the excite- ment of high keep and profuse sweating producing disease. In practice, perhaps no animal toiling for man, solely for his profit, leads so easy and so comfortable a life as the English coach-horse. He is sumptuously fed, kindly treated, and if he do suffer a little in his work, he has twenty-three hours in the twenty-four of luxurious ease. He is now almost a stranger to the lash, nor do we ever see him with a broken skin; hut we often see him kick up his heels when taken from his coach, af- ter having performed his stage often miles in five minutes under the hour. So Jiiuch for condition. No horse lives so high as a coach-horse. In the language of the road, his stomach is the measure of his corn ; — he is i'ed ad libitum. The effect of this is visible in two wajs — first, it is surprising to see how soon horses gather flesh in this severe work — for there is none more severe whilst it lasts ; and, secondly, proprietors find that good flesh is no obstacle to their speed, but, on the contrary, ope- rates to their advantage. Horses draw by their weight and not by the force of their muscles, which merely assist the application of that weight : the heavier a horse is then, the more po\verful is he in his harness ; in short, it is the weight of the animal which produces the draught, and the play and force of his muscles serve to continue it. Light horses, therefore, how good soever their action, ought not to be put to draw a heavy load, as muscular force cannot act against it for any length of time. The average price of horses for fast coaches may be about £23. Fancy teams, and those working out of London, may be rated considerably higher than this ; but taking a hundred miles of ground, loell horsed, this is about the mark. The average period of each horses's service does not exceed four years in a fast coach — perhaps scarcely so much. In a slow one Ave may allow seven ; but in both ca- ses we arc alluding to horses put to work at five or six years old. Considerable judgment is necessa- r}^ to the election of horses for fast work in harness ; for if they have not action which will command the pace tliey are timed at, they soon destroy them- selves. For a wheel horse he should have sound fore legs, or h.e cannot be depended upon down hill. * For example, from London to Shrewsbury is 158 miles, and the number of horses kept for the Wonder coach is 1 50. FARMERS' REGISTER-MAIL COACHES AND HORSES IN ENGLAND. 85 Good hind legs and well spread guskins are also essential points in a coach-horse— tlie Aveight or force applied proceeding from the fulcrum iormed by the hinder leet. The price we liavc named as the average one for such animals may appear a very low one : but we must remember that to be a hunter, a horse must have length of shoulder, length of frame, well placed hinder legs, and a well-bitted mouth — whereas, without any of these qualities he may make an excellent coach-horse — and hence the value of the coach market to our breeders. Blemished horses also find their way into coaches, as do those whose tempers are bad ; neither is a blind horse, with good courage, altogether objec- tionable now the roads are so level. It may not be uninteresting to the uninitatcd to learn how a coach is loorked. We will then as- sume that A, B, C, and D, enter into a contract to horse a coacli eighty miles — each proprietor having twenty miles; in which case, he is s?.id to cover both sides of the ground, or to and fro. At the expiration of tv.cnty-eiglit days, the lunar month, a settlemcrit takes place, and if tlie gross earnings of the coach should be £\0 per mile, there will be £800 to divide between the four pro- prietors, after the following charges have b?en de- ducted, viz: tolls, duty to government, iriileage, (or hire of the coach, to the coachmaker,) two coachmen's wages, porter's v/ages, rent or charge of booking-offices at each end, and washing the coaches. These charges may amount to £1.30, which leaves £650 to keep eighty horses and to pay the horse-keepers, for a period twenty -eight days ; or nearly £160 to each proprietor for the expenses of his twenty horses, bcinj £2 per v/eek, per horse. Thus it appears, that a fast coach, pro- perly appointed, cannot pav unless its gross re- ceipts amount to £10 per double mile ; and that, even then, the horscr's profits depend on the luck he haswitli his stock. In the present age, the art of mechanism is emi- nently reduced to the prai-tical purposes of life, and the modern form of the stage-coacli seems to have arrived at perfection. It combines prodigious incredible lightness, not about eighteen hundred ept so much nearer the ground than formerly, is of course considerablv sa- ier. Accidents, no doubt, occur, and a gi-eat many more than meet the puldiceye; but how should this be otherwise, when v,e take into ac- count the immense number of coaches on the road, a great portion of which travel through the night, and have all the varieties of our climate to contend with.'' No one will assert that the jiroprietors guard against accidents to the utmost of their pow- er— but the great competition tliey have to encoun- ter is a strong stimulant to their exertions on this score. Indeed, in some respects, the increase of pace has become the traveller's securitv-* Coaches and harness must be of the best quality ; horses must be fresh and sound, and coachmen of science and respectability can only be employed. In fact, to the increased pace of their coaches is the improve- ment in these men's moral character to be attribu- ted. Thej' have not time nov/ for drinking, and * To give one iiistarice — the Worcester mnil was one of the slowest on the road and the oftenest overturned. She is nov/ fast, and reckoned onn of the .safest in Eng- land. strength with almos Aveighing more than ■weight ; and beinc: \< they come in collision with a class of persons su- perior to those who formerly were stage-coach passengers, by whose example it has been impos- sible for them not to profit in all respects. A coachman drunk on his box is now a rarity. A coachman, quite sober, was even within our mem- ory still more so. But let us press this question a little further : do the proprietors guard against accidents to the very extent of their abilitij? We fear, not: too many of them to touch only one point, allow their coachmen to omit the use of the hand or end-lnickle to their reins, which, to our own knowledtje, has lately been productive of innumer- a})le accidents. This is new, and it is a mere piece of atlx3Ctation, and sliould bo put a stop to ; for surely, if a coachman fancies he has not time to ' pin his ribbons' before mountnig the box, he can do so after having proceeded a short distance on his stance ; and he cannot say he has not time to un- buckle them before he come to the end of it. It is evident, that v/ith reins vmbuckled at the ends, siiould either of them drop out of his hand, all com- mand over his team is gone. Moreover, in the hands of the best coachman, a wheel-horse will now and then drop, and should he not, fortunately in this case, be dragged on the ground, so as to stop the coach, up he jumps, and, expectnig the whip, rushes forward with his head loose, his rein having been drawn through the coachman's hand. Had Ft been buckled at the end, such an occur- rence could not have happened ; and if, after our warning, damages are sought for on this score, coach p'i-oprietoi"s may depend on it they must be prepared to smart. That, in fact, nineteen accidents in twenty arc the effect of want of proper precaution, cannot be ilcj^ied. — Coachmen, it is true, are not theoretical philosophers, but experience teaches them, that if they drive fast round corners, the centre of gravi- ty must he more or less disturbed by thus diver- o-ing from the right line; and if lost, over she goes, yet^SL great number of the overturns that occur happen exactly in this way. Why then are not coaclinien strictly enjoined by their employers to avoid so gross an error ? But it is in the act of descending hills that the majority of catastrophes take place ; and the coachman needs not book learn- ing to enlighten him so as to the loherefore. Let him only throw up a stone, and watch its descent. If it tails sixteen feet in the first second, it will fall three times that distance in the next, and so on. Tims it is with his coach; the continued impulse it acquires in descending a hill, presses upon the wheel-horses, until at last it exceeds their powers of resistance. — In short, they have a new force to contend with at every step they take. But this is not all. Instead of checking the active force of his coach before she begins to move downward, he too often adds that to the fresh impulse she acquires on her descent. Every coachman, who has a re- gard to the safety of his own neck, should check tiie velocity of his coach at the top of every hill ; v/hich to use the language of tlie road, is termed ' taking a hill in time.' He may, in that case, if his harness be sound, drive his coach down any hill, novvf found in our roads, with ease; and, when a certain way down it, may increase his pace, with perfect safety, to meet the opposing ground at the bottom. With heavily-laden coaches, we prefer this to the drag-chain — by which hundreds of them have been pidled over — and which is a great check 86 FARMERS' REGISTER— MAIL COACHES AND HORSES IN ENGLAND. to speed, too, as the mmnent am ca.nnot betaken ad- vantage of, in contimiing; tlie motion of the coach when she brings the horses to their collars again. The question often arises, — is tiicre any danger ill galloping horses in a coach, on perfectly level ground? Under certain circumstances there is. For instance, if" there happen to be two horses at wheel, which take unequal strides in their gallop, their action will be felt by tiie coach — they being so near to her — and lateral motion may be pro- duced, by which her equilibrium may be destroy- ed. Wiien a coach once begins to swing, a little thing will upset her — even passing over a small stone — as the faster she goes on level ground, the more weight is tlkvown upon her fore wheels. Nei- ther is a good road a security to her; on the con- trary, the harder tlie surface of it, the more dan- ger, there being nolljing to hold the wheels to the ground. If, however, it were possible to make the stride and draught of four horses quite equal, their increased speed would have but little eiiect on a coach, upon tolerably lev*?! ground; which is proved by her being quite steady in ascending a hill, at ever so quick a rate, when every horse is at woi'k. This shows the necessity of putting horses well together. The worst of accidents, and one which, with the present structure of coaches, can never be entirely provided against, arises from broken axletrccs and wheels coming oiF on the road. It was but the other day that a passenger's leg was fractured by the upsetting of the Dart, Brighton coach ; driven by William Snow, (a proprietor) one of the stea- diest and most experienced coachmen of the pre- sent day, owing to the snapping of the axletree. — There is certainly something startling in the re- flection, that whenever we travel by a coach, we are liable to this occurrence, which must happen if the weight above be too great for the sustaining power below; and for this reason, the mails are safer than stage-coaches, as not loading so heavily. Every thing that can be dojie to prevent the snap- ping of the axletree has now been adopted, we think, by our coach-builders. In case it does break, what is called the idle wheel, in addition to the active wheel, is the only securit}^ against an upset; but as this somewhat adds to the weight of a coach, the use of it has been abandoned. Acci- dents, then, are always to be apprehended by tra- vellers from this cause; — the loss of wheels is an- other; and until an act of parliament enforces the use of the patent box, or the screw nut, so as to trust no longer to the common linchpin, it will re- main a third.* On the whole, however, travelling by public conveyances was never so secure as it is at the present time. Nothing can be more favorable to it than the build of tlie modern coaches. The boots being let down l)etween the springs, keep the load, consequently the centre of gravity, low; the wheels of many of them are secured by patent boxes; and in every part of them the best materi- * The only hnchpin that can be relied on, is the wooden one ; which, together with the screw nut, is used in the French dihgences. It is made of heart of oak ; and being once driven through the eye of the arm, can- not be drawn out again, without cutting off the bottom of it, as it swells to a size whlcli prevents its returning the way it went in. Tliere is no dependence on iron linch- pins. als are used. The cost of coaches of this descrip- tion is from £130 to £150, but they are general- ly hired from the maker at Irom 2^d. to 3d. per mile. The common height of the stage coach wheels of the present day, is as follows: — the fore wheels three feet four inches, the hinder four feet eight inches. As the former turn round so much often- er than the latter, and also bearing more weight, they require to have their fellies fresh wrung about every five weeks ; whereas, the latter will stand good for two months, or more. The strength of a wheel depends greatly on the attention paid to the arrangement and framing of the spokes. In com- mon wheels, they are framed regularly and equal- ly all round the thickest part of the nave, the tenons of the spokes being so levelled as to stand about three inches out of perpendicular, by which is produced the dishing wheel. This dishing, or concave wheel, is not essential on our present rutless road, and perpendicular wheels are pre- ferable on level ground. The best wheels we know of, are those under our mail-coaches. The spokes are framed somewhat differently into the nave, which is made rather larger than is usual for common coach wheels, and every other spoke is framed perpendicular to the nave. Hence, the mortises to receive them in it are not made in a parallel line round it, but stand as it were in two different parallels — one Avithout the other — by which means greater solidity is given to the nave, and an immense addition of strength to the wheel. What is called the patent hoop, always used in stage-coaches, having the iron tire drawn into one complete ring, — is not put on these wheels, but the common strokes, as they arc called, forged and hammered to the sweep of the rings, and in length equal to those of the fellies, are put on red hot, and well secured by rivetted nails. The mail fbre- whecl is somewhat higher than that of the stage- coach, which is an advantage. Low fore-wheels place the axle so much below the level of the wheel-horses' breast, that they have not only the carriage to draw, but also part of its weight to bear. This weight distresses their hams, stifles, and hocks, and accounts for coach-horses being soon unfit for the saddle. It is evident that atten- tion to these points is necessary in putting horses to a coach; and when the fore-wheels are low, the wheel-horses should have as much length of trace as can be given them, for the line of traction should be as nearly even with the draught of the horse as we can make it.* It requii-es, also, some art to load a coach pro- * Thus it is with a farmer's wagon. When tlie ' shaft-horse is standing at rest — allowing two degrees of] an angle for that position — the point of the shaft is ' nearly even willi the top of the lore-wheel, but wheni the horse exerts his strength to move a load, he brings i his breast so much nearer the ground that the lino of-j draught is almost horizontal, and in a line with its cen- tre. The trcLce of a coach-horse, when he stands at rest, i is also oblique to the horizon, and must be so with low ' fiire-wheels; but it approaches the horizontal when hei is at work, and the nearer it approaclies to it the better, i l^orses draw by their weight, and not by the force of tlieir muscles: the hinder feet, then, being the fulcrum of the lever by which their weight acts against a load, wlien they pull hard it depresses theii- chests — thus in- creasing tlie lever of its weight and diminishing the le- ver by which the load resists its efforts. FARMERS' REGISTBR— BERWICKSHIRE SYSTEM OF FARMING. 87 perly. A wagoner on country roads always puts the greater weight over his hinder wheels, being the highest, — and he is right, for he has obstacles to meet, and the power necessary to overcome them diminishes with the increased diameter of the wheel. On our turnpike roads, however, where there is now no obstacle, the load on a coach should be condensed as much as possible, and the heaviest packages placed in the fore-boot. Indeed, all the heavier packages should be put into the boots, and the lighter ones only on the roof. A well loaded coach is sure to follow well, and is always pleasant to ride in ; and as a Aveak child totters less when it has a weight on its head, coach-springs break less frequently with a heavy load than with a light one. Allowance is made for the retarding power of friction in all kinds of machinery, and of course it is not overlooked in carriages. The coachman sees its effect every time he passes the drag-chain on his wheel, which merely decreases the velocity of his coach, by increasing the quantity of friction. Common sense must likewise instruct him, that, when two bodies are rubbing against each other in opposite directions— as the arm of an axletree and the iron box of a wheel — the smoother these bodies can be made, the less of course is the fric- tion. As economy in the expense of power is one of the chief objects of a mechanic, it is not to be wondered at that great pains have been taken in the construction of the axles and boxes of car- riages. To Mr. Collinge are we chiefly indeljted for his pa- tent cylindrical axletree and box, which have stood the test of many years, and given universal satisfac- tion— for the silent and steady motion they impart to the wheel — for their great strengtii and durability — and for carrying oil several thousand miles williout the necessity of replenishing it. They are turned upon a lathe, case-hardened, and rendered as smooth on the surface as it is possible, in the existing state of the art, to render them. But as the expense of these boxes is too great for stage-coaches, patents have been taken out for others of a less costly na- ture, which ansAver extremely well, and have long since been in use on all coaches that run from the Bull and Mouth and many others besides. N'o stage-coach can be safe without the patent boxes, as they are termed, but there is a prejudice amongst proprietors against them. They certainly add to the cost, and also to the weight of the coach, and by preventing the wheels from escaping any ob- stacle that may present itself— the consequence of their being air-tight — they wear out rather sooner than when used with the common axle. Their general adoption, however, would be a great sale- g-uard to the public, as well as of considerable as- sistance to trade. In the mail-coaches, the boxes are of a dilTerent construction, and owe their safety to four bolts, which pass completely through the nave of the wheel, having a square slioulder on the back of the nave, with screws and nuts on its front. We have no hesitation in saying, this is the best wheel ever put under a coach; and of course, Mr. Vidler, the contractor for the mails, has a patent for it. The mails could never do their work with the common axle and box.* *An improvement on all the patents yet brought forth, was some time since attempted by two spirited coach-makers in London, but we have not heard of its success. Its object is to diminish draught in two distinct BEnwiCKSIIIRE, UNDER THE Old and I^ew Systems of Fannin g^. From the (Edinburgh) Farmers' Magazine. I will here, sir, quote an example with which you are well acquainted, and which is both a de- cisive and instructive one. It is that of Berwick- sliire, which is a merely agricultural district. — This county, now so eminent in the history of im- proved cultivation, was, about seventy or eighty years ago, farmed chiefly by petty tenants, whose farms were cultivated "by themselves and their children ; what was tlicn the state of the country.' Its fine soil was miserably managed. Its crops, of course, were poor, except on some infield lands, on which all the manure and mostof tiie care were bestowed. Its cattle and its instruments of culture were alike wretched. The farmers' houses were in general hovels, which too frequently displayed little more than dirt and poverty ; and amid much liealth, there was mucli that was uncomfortable. Ten or a dozen stout cliildren, with little or no- thing to do except in seed-time and harvest, (the lasses, during the rest of the year, idling away their time at the spinning wheel, and the lads spending the greater part of the day at the smithy and other places of resort for rustic idlers,) lived upon the poor tenant and kept him in poverty. In sliort, whatever the patriotic reminiscences of the older folks of those happy times of little farms may be, the whole was in reality, a scene of misem- ployment, unproduction, and poverty, with much discomfort. But the improved system began. Farms in- stantly grew larger, — farmers with capital were selected, — cultivation was now carried on with skill, vigor, and spirit not before known, and proved a copious source of wealth both to farmer and land-holder. The persons not necessary to carry on the business were forced to migrate from the country to towns, and as there are no large towns in the county, to those out of it.f Thus, instead of accumulating where they were not wanted, tliey accumulated w here they were want- ed, and jiroduccd wealth to themselves as well as ways — first, by reducing the bearing parts, and thereby lessening friction; and secondly, by diminishing the "dead hug," as it is termed, which is always an attend- ant on the cylindrical arm and box. It substitutes a square, instead of a cylindrical box, in which the cy- lindrical axle or arm works. This is^made to fit on each of the four sides as true and as air-tight as if it were a complete circle ; and if the four different bear- ings are but one-eighth of an inch each, it is apparent that there is but half an inch of surface for the arm to oppose or work against, in each axle — and so on in pro- portion to the size of the bearing. Nor is this all ; those parts or angles, not touched by the arm — as may be seen when the box is revolving, — serve as reservoirs for oil, affording a constant supply. The nose of the arm is protected by a circular end, ground on to form the nicest fit, and prevent the possibility of the smallest par- ticle of gravel finding its way into the box. t This is the cause why Berwickshire, though, under the improved system of farming, produces as much, if not more food in proportion to its resident population, than perhaps any other county in the island, makes such slow progress in population. Between 1801 and 1811, its increase Avas nearly the slowest in the island, being not quite 1 per cent. Between 1811 and 1821, it how- ever increased 8 per cent; but even tliis is loss than half the average rate of the island. 88 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON THE CULTURE OF CORN. lo the comnuinify. By this niifjrntioiijboth the county -tthicii they left and the county which they joined Averc enriched under their respective cir- cumstances. Tlie larniers are now men of wealth, spirit, and ac^ricultural science, and in every point among the lirst in Europe; Avhile, for the care- worn petty farmers of ibrmer days, who v/cre kept g;rovel!ino; in poverty and dirt, we find cotters em- ployed by the former, contented, tidy, respectable, and well to do. The subdivision of jAinds and Cabin System in Ireland^. If the same chani;-e, sir, were to take place in Ireland, why should not the same results follow.' While the supernumeraries would augment the towns, and thus keep creating an additional quan- tum of emplo3'mcnt according to a constantly in- creasing average; the cultivators left beiiind, Irom having a full quantum of employment, witli the increase of the means, would gradually imbibe the spirit of saving, and with an insreasing capital would become vigorous and scientific farmers, while the persons employed by them would be either house-servants properly fed and paid, or re- spectable cotters, wlio would feel they had a stake in the tranquillity of the countiy. In that infinite subdivision of lands, which ob- tains in most parts of Ireland, Ave have the great source of her poverty and of the disorderliness of so large a portion of her loAver ranks. There are no doubt assisting sources, but this is the princi- pal one; indeed, that to Avhich most of the others OAve their existence. And were it removed, all the rest Avould be found lobe softened or diminish.- ed greatly. The lands are divided and subdivided into portions, that are utterly incapable of sup- porting an individual and his family. lie is thus kept in a state of the most abject poverty. He gets into debt. His scanty furniture and clothes are seized, and he is turned out of his hovel a beg- gar. Where can he go to.' His relations and friends can give him no assistance. They are most of them in as wretched circumstances as him- self. Thus, in a state of misery and exasperation, and in his desperate condition reckless of conse- quences, as no cliange can be worse, he is ready to listen to the most atrocious suggestions. The grand object Avhich he noAv cherishes, is revenge on those who have made his distress greater than it Avas be- fore. In such a state of society, how is it possible that an increase of population can produce its usual and natural effect.' It tends only to subdivide the lands and the means of employment still further, Avith- out augmenting them. Increasing poverty must be the necessary results of such an unnatural state of things. Even the potato, Avhich is so admirable a root to a belter organized popiuation, becomes, from its estimable qualities lo Irishmen, an additional source of poverty and distress, llcing so productive, and of course so cheap a food, it diminishes the stimulus on the caljin-man to exert himself to get out of his wretched condition. And further, cheap as it is, instead of enabling him to save in his circum- stances, it really diminishes his means of income, for it diminishes his power to charge. It enables him to subsist by tlie smallest quantum of emi)loy- ment; and thus he both inipoverislics himself and his neighbors. The greater the variety of articles any individual, class, or nation uses, the higher must they ch.arge; but then by creating more em- ployment, tlie more capable are all the individuals rendered of paying the higher charge. Oil tlic Culture of Corn. From tlie Somheni Asricullui-alist. Dear Sir., — When I saAV the annexed para- graph in a ncAvspaper, I Avas induced to Avrite to Mr. Megginson, and inquire his mode of cultiva- ting a corn crop. I received, in ansAver, the sub- joined letter, Avhich I place at your disposal ; Avith my best Avishes for the success of your very useful journal. Respectfully, your obedient servant, J. CLARKE. "Mr. A. B. Megginson, manager upon a plan- tation in the county of Amherst, (Va.) raised the present season, on one acre of land, one hundred and eight and an half bushels of sound corn, and two oif' inferior quality. This acre received no other cultivation than the rest of the field. The same manager had frequently made one hundred bushels of sound corn, and some of inferior, upon an acre of land on Pleasants' Island, in the county of Goochland." Buckingham, Va. March 24, 1832. Mr. J. Clarke : Sir, — Your favor of the 24th of January, I have just received, and am sorry it Avas so long reaching m.e ; I, lioAvever, lose no time now, in giving you the information asked for, Avhich I do with great pleasure in my lame manner. I prepare my land for corn in the fall, if I can, Avith a tAvo horse plough, by throAving it up into beds of five feet, (Avhich is the distance I cultivate my corn rows apart, either upon high or flat land ;) but, if out of my power to do it then, at any time before I commence planting. I drill altogether with a machine, or what Ave call a "corn planter," made for that purpose, and leave the corn thin or thick, according to the strength and moisture of the land. If remarkably rich, and sufficiently moist, I leave a stalk every six or eight inchest apart; if less rich, but still of good quality, about] tAvelve ; and I think, two feet to one stalk, far! enough apart for any land that Avill produce at all.' In moist land I plant on the bed, and in dry thirs- ty land, in the sink or finishing furroAv, by throAV- ing doAvn a little of each bed into the sink with a small plough, for the purpose of getting a bed to plant in. I plough our broken land horizontally, in order to hold as much moisture as possible for the crop, and also, to preserve it from Avaslung rains. If I break it up in the fall, I plough it again just before I plant it, by reversing the beds, as I think it A'ery important to prepare the land before Ave plant it. After planting, I keep it Avell stirred Avith a Coulter plough; (three fixed in a frame,) for one horse to pull, that Avill always finish a roAV at the third, and very generally the second furroAV, imliis it gets large enough to bear the dirt from the mould-board, I then commence giving it my last ploughing Avitli a small turning-plough, by running two furroAvs on each side of the corn, first, and then commencing again, and finishing out the middle of the roAV. As soon as it Avill do to thin, hoe it, and then thin it, and if it should require it, hoe it again. I think avc should stop Avorking corn, as soon as it avUI shade the earth enough to keep FARMERS' REGISTER— NATIVE GRAPES. 89 other growth down, as I think it injurious to break the roots after the stalk is generally jointing. I commence planting about the 10th of April, or as soon as I think the earth sufficiently warm to bring the seed up regularly, that it may all grow up together, as replanted corn is so much shaded by the first (upon my thick plan) that it seldom pro- duces any thing. For corn, we generally manure in the drill, owing to the scarcity of the article, or I should prefer its being spread over the land regularly ; stable ma- nure, or litter irom a farm yard, well rotted, is very strong, and should not be put in the drill too plenti- fully, as it has a tendency to fire the crop. I put a great or small quantity, according to the strength of'the manure. I am very little acquainted with lime or plaster, as a manure. I conclude my remarks, by wishing you suc- cess, upon the mode of cultivation. Very respect- fully, your obedient servant, A. B. MEGGIXSON. N. B. I use the Farmer Plough altogether, No. 3^, for two horses; No. 1, for one horse. Native Grapes, Woodson and Cunningham. From the American Farmer. F'armville, Prinze Edward, Co. Va. ) December 11, 1832. 5 Mr. Smith : — While in this place to-day, I was looking over some of the late numbers of the Farmer, my attention was arrested by your edito- rial remarks on " Native Grapes," in No. 33. — The information there sought with respect to the " Woodson" and " Cunningham" grapes was re- quested at the hands of Dr. Norton, of Richmond, from whom you received specimens of those varie- ties. As I do not find any published reply to your queries in your subsequent papers, I hope you will not deem it intrusive, if I communicate what I have gathered on the subject. I shewed your ar- ticle to Mr. Samuel W. Venable, a gentleman of this vicinity, who for several years past, has paid much attention jto the subject of grapes, — having made a considerable collection of foreign and native varieties — and who has tried numerous experi- ments with those in question. I remember to have Been some time since in Prince, some general ac- count of them, to whose Avork you can refer, as I have it not at hand ; but from Mr. V. I learnt minutely their respective histories. They are both, as far as has been ascertained, natives of this country, — both supposed to be seed- lings of the "Bland ;" and the original stock of each is still standing and alive. Some of the reasons for this supposed origin are : — that the " Bland" was generally and almost alone cultivated in the gar- den, and trained on trees in the yards of old set- tlements in this county — that no grape similar to them has been found in this region ; that all the most valuable native varieties have been discover- ed in the vicinity of those farms where the Bland has been known to grow, — -and these too are con- jectured to have sprung from seed dropped by birds, or in some such manner. The " Woodson" grape received its name from Col. Charles Woodson, a citizen of this county, who was its first cultivator, and who has long been an amateur and spirited raiser of vines and other fruits. The parent vine, supposed to be more than Vol. I.— 12 fifty years old, is still growing on the farm of Mr. Isaac Read, near an old family mansion; in the garden attached to which. Bland grapes are re- membered to have been raised at a very early peri- od. The leaf resembles that of the " Bland" in form, and in almost every other particular, ex- cept that the furze on the under side is of a dark color. It stands on a high, dry soil — climbing and turning itself about the branches of an oak, which is situated on the side of a hill. It is said to have been formerly very thrifty and prolific, although it has much declined in these respects from age and want of cultui-e. The vine and fruit are both much improved by cultivation. Mr. V. informs me that he has about forty stocks in his vineyard ; which are fine growers and highly prolific, — having produced more abundantly than any grape which he cultivates — some of the bunches of the last sea- son weighing three pounds. It buds late in the spring, is rarely injured by frost, is hardy if plant- ed on a dry soil, will bear heavy pruning. The grapes ripen from the 10th to the 15th of October, and are not subject to rot. A little " domestic wine" has been made of them after the receipts of some of the old fashioned housekeepers in this county, which was pronounced quite good by those who, perhaps, do not plume themselves on being critical judges in such matters. The " Cunningham grape," is so called from Mr. Jacob Cunningham, on whose farm it was first discovered. The parent vine, (about twenty years old) whose leaf is like tliat of the Bland, ex- cept that the furze is of a yellow color, stands in a dry part of his garden, and at this time covers thickly both sides and the top of an arched frame about 50 feet in length, by 12 in height.* It was never pruned save of the slips which liave been dis- tributed for propagation, (of which those sent to Dr. Norton were a part,) and yet is very prolific. The stocks in Mr. Venable's vineyard are more so than those of any other grape which he culti- vates, except the Woodson. Like the latter, it buds late in the spring, and of course but occasion- ally subject to frost — is thrifty and prolific, and ripens from the 20th of September to the 10th of October, much improved by cultivation and pru- ning. Wine has been made from it more fre- quently than from the Woodson — in body, smell and flavor nearly resembling Madeira. It was first attempted here to propagate it by slips, though frequently without effect, — then by grafting with some better success — and with lay- ers easily. Mr. Venable succeeded with the slips as well here as with other native varieties, as he thinks, by setting them out in November, — those planted in the spring having failed. Another mode which proved successful in forty nine cases out of fifty, was setting out slips with but one bud, hav- ing both their ends hermetically sealed with tar. He has about eighty stocks in his vineyard. In the years 1828-9-30, a number were distributed in different parts of this state to ascertain the effect on them of different climates, situation and soil, from which intelligence will probably be received in the course of the next season. Perhaps it might not be entirely irrelevant, were I to give a slight sketch of Mr. Venable's vine- yard. About the year 1827 he determined on making an experiment, to ascertain the practica- * A 1 jllared shade. Q,r, 90 FARMERS' REGISTER— HINTS TO FARMERS, &c. bility of raising: grapes in sufficient abundance and of suitable quality for making wine in this cliiriate. For this purpose he selected two acres with a soutliern exposure on a slightly declining hill side. The holes in which the vines were planted were twelve feet apart, each way, — a sassafras pole, about seven feet in height, standing by each vine, with latlis extending from one to the other, on Avhich they are trained from northeast to south- Avest. There are in all, about one thousand stocks, chiefly procured of Messrs. Parmentier and Ad- limi, of which the most numerous are the Catawba, Constantia, Isabella, Schuylkill, Muscadel, Wood- son and Cunningham, all of which have succeeded admii"ably, besides nearly forty foreign varieties, most of which have failed, either from the fi-osts of spring, or sun or rain in summer, burning or rot- ting the fruit. The experiment was an economi- cal one, as tobacco or some other crop was planted in the intervals, and the ploughing required by that, also cultivated the vines. The holes were tilled with compost, made of a mixture of stable ma- nure, leached ashes and decayed wood. The vines from the first v.'ere thrifty, to the admiration of all who saw them, with scarce a failure, — and for three years past have been very productive. Should the next season prove favorable, he hopes to gather enough grapes to make from five hundred to one thousand gallons of Avine — besides those for table use. I may hereafter give you some account of an experiment of his in Avine making. He has also about a dozen other varieties of na- tive grapes, some of Avhich he hopes will prove valuable, Avhen cultivated. Your obed't serv't, N. FRANCIS CABELL. Hints to Farmers. From tlie Alljany Argus. December 19, 1832. — Tlie garden is at once a source of profit, of substantial comfort, and of high inlellectual gratification. Its fruits and its vege- tables constitute the most grateful delicacies of our tables. Its floAvers exhibit the exquisite pencilings of nature, calculated to gratify our senses, and to aAvaken the finer feelings of our nature. Its em- ployments elevate the mind, reveal to it neAv sources of delight, and give health and A'igor to the body. Its charms are alike calculated to tem- per the passions of youth, and to solace the infir- mities of age. In fine, its pleasures afford one of the best illustrations Ave can possess, of the happi- ness of our first parents in their primeval abode. So apt am I to couple in my mind the culture of the garden with Avhatever is commendable in life, that I never, in travelling from home, see a neatly cultivated spot of this kind, Avithout intuitively im- putmg to its cultivator the active exercise of the social and relatiAe virtues. Half an acre of Avell cultivated garden, Avill go farther towards subsisting a farmer's family, than perhaps any three acres upon his farm, with the further advantage that Avhile its products serve to gratify a diversity of tastes, they materially con- tribute to secure the blessings of health. Its la- bors may be managed by those Avho are too young or too old to share "in the heavier toils of the field, by the female inmates of the family and the occa- sional aid of tlie Avorkmen, Avithout impeding the operations on the farm. My first essays at gar- dening Avere made during a period of comparative indigence and of active merhahlca! .^"iployrtfCnt, Avhich left me little but the usual hours of rest to devote to my garden. My rural labor did not in- fringe upon my ordinary business ; and yet I managed to raise, Avith a trifling expense, all the garden productions necessary for my family. My zeal for improvement in this new business, attract- ed the attention of that excellent philanthropist, the late Chancellor Livingston, Avho encouraged my efforts, by presenting me trees and scions of new fi-uits, Avhich he had recently brought from France. I budded and grafted, and though my first efforts Avere bungling, yet I nevertheless suc- ceeded, Avith the occasional purchase of plants from' the nurseries, in establishing in my grounds an excellent assortment of garden and orcliard fruit. Thirty years experience has fully satisfied me, that a garden is not only profitable, but that it af- fords comforts and pleasures Avhich Avealth cannot purchase. The passion for rural culture has in- creased Avith my years ; and I look forAvard to its employments, should my life be mercifully spared, as the best conservator of health, and the prolific source of future enjoyments. In many parts of Europe, the garden is not on- ly a common appendage of the farm, but even of the humble cottage ; and Avhile these little im- provements effect a great economy of labor in fur- nishing human subsistence, their floral decorations excite peculiar interest and admiration in the tra- veller, and are the theme of high commendation. In Wirtemburg, Baden, and some other of the Ger- man states, this branch of labor has particularly en- gaged tlie attention of the governments, and foi'ms a branch of education in the primary schools. A knoAvledge of gardening is made an indispensable qualification in teachers of schools, avIio are requir- ed to instruct their pupils, in the hours of vacation, in a garden Avhich is attached to ever)' district school. Peat Mosses and SIicll Marl. Jlccoiint nf t/ie Peat Mosses and Shell M'trlim Ihc estate of Dun- niche?!, in the county of Forfar. Kxtracled, by permission, from a Manuscript History of Peat Moss, by jlnd. Steele, Esq. From the (London) Farmers' Magazine- The changes that have occurred, and the revo- lutions that have taken place during ages, and are still in their progress, in the filling up of the val- lies of the earth, cannot perhaps be more beauti- fully displayed to the philosophic eye, than by ex- amining Resteneth peat-moss, the property of Geo. Dempster, Esq. , in the parish of Forfar. Situated 200 feet above the level of the sea, in a holloAV from Avhich the Avater of a copious spring.hath had no clear and sufficient issue, this peat-bog, consist- ing of about 70 acres, must have been once a lake. Indeed, that is sufficiently obvious, not only from its connexion Avith a A^ery considerable lake, call- ed Resteneth Loch, almost a mile in length, but especially from a bed of shell marl found beneath the peat, and situated immediately above the solid ground. The bed of marl (of Avhich substance there is also a great quantity found in Resteneth Loch) is in some places 15 feet in thickness, gent- ly diminishing tOAvards the margin of the moss. — Its average thickness is about five feet ; but the layer is very irregular. On dissolving a portion of this marl in the muriatic acid, I found it a very pure calcareous matter, containing only about a tenth part of its Aveight of peaty and other sub- stances. The shells composing the marl, many of Avhich are quite entire, are of the Avater snail or cochlea kind. (Helix Piitris , Lin.) FARMERS' REGISTER— PEET MOSSES AND SHELL MARL. 91 The great value of such a bed of marl ought to be a powerful inducement to every one that posses- ses any moss grounds to search them carefully, and particularly in their deepest recesses, and even be- neath their immediate subsoil, for this important article of manure. Mr. Dempster hath sold from the bottom of this moss, marl to the extent of upwards of £12,000 sterling, or at the rate of £1000 per annum, ever since the period it was drained, which is about twelve years ago : and the quantity that remains is yet very great. The immensity of time that I apprehend it would take to form so vast a collection oi^such minute shell animals is beyond our conception, if we might be permitted to judge from natural causes and effects. This valley, when it ceased to be a lake, from circumstances now to us incomprehensible, unless the vast accumulation of shells can be deemed a sufficient cause, seems to have acquii-ed a surface fit for the production of trees : for all the under layers of the moss, next to tlie marl, are composed of roots, stems and branches of alder, birch, hazel (with the nuts of this last tree externally entire,) and some oaks of considerable size. It hath been supposed possilsle that this collec- tion of trees may have been floated from the high- er grounds ; but it is not probable that all these trees could be deposited in this manner, as there is no appearance of any rivulet having ever run into the valley. It may rather be presumed that the sediment of water, percolating from the adjacent grounds, may have formed above the marl a soil proper for the growth of trees. From a wood, the valley must have been trans- formed into a peat bog or moss, probably by a stagnation of water which would naturally occa- sion the destruction of the trees and the growth of aquatic plants, which, in such situations, accumu- late and never fall into a state of total decomposi- tion. The peat matter is found about six feet thick above the marl, and at the time of the drainage its surface Avas covered over with heath. By drainage and the consequent alteration of the nature of the soil, the heath has been entirely obliterated, and the moss, even at the surface, formed into a fine light mould, and covered with grass, coarse indeed in general ; but where it hath been gravelled for a road, it is not unworthy of notice, that it is swarded at the sides Avith the finest pasture grasses and clovers : Couch grass or twitch (triticum repeiis) was there also particu- larly observable. This moss hath been drained by one deep cut through the middle of it, and through a sand bank of the depth of thirty feet Avhich obstructed the is- sue of the water. The drainage, however, having been intended for the purpose only of obtaining the marl, no artificial general improvement of the surface of the ground has yet taken place ; but by every appearance, Avhen it shall be done, the crops artbrded will be uncommonly luxuriant, from the decomposed nature of the moss, caused by its be- ing so long in a drained state. Mr. Dempster hath enclosed, levelled and dug over with the spade about six acres of it, which he means to sow with grass seeds next spring, withoutany corn crop. Here are observable some holes Avhich had been dug to the bottom of the moss, containing stagna- ted water, but now almost filled up again, to the level of the general surface, by bog moss or fog (sphagnum palustre) not yet solid ; a plain exam- ple of the quick reproduction of peat matter by the growth of vegetables of the moss or musci tribe. It is also to be remarked, that the peat earth at the bottom of this moss, which appears to have a small mixture of clay, is very solid, and, when cut into peats and dried, makes excellent fuel; and Mr. Dempster observes that firm peats of this sort, and particularly what is found on some of the Highland grounds of Scotland is very little infe- rior to coal. He burns such peats commonly himself, and has sold many hundred pounds worth to his neighbors from this moss. Their ashes also arc valuable for manure, and, by slow and con- fined combustion, may be produced from the peat in considerable quantity. Tlie moss of Dunnichen in the parish of the same name, now partly under culture, is situated near four hundred feet above the level of the sea in a small valley kept wet, like that of Resteneth, by a copious spring of water, and also by sui'face waters descending in rainy seasons from the high- er grounds. It consisted of fifty nine acres, mostly of peat soil, shallow at the margin, but deepening to 15 feet towards the middle. The drainage of it, which was accomplished forty years ago, at the expense of £50, was orignially intended merely for the purpose of procuring, more easily, peats for fuel, of which the country stood in great need. Be- neath tlie peat soil was found, on cutting a deep level, a layer of sand mixed with a little mud, six feet thick, and immediately under the sand, in some places, beds of marl, mixed, howe;v^er, considerably with sand. On the subject of marl as connected with moss, it may not be improper to observe, that though the common practice of searching for marl is by the boring irons used in trying for coal and other hard mineral substances, yet Mr. Dempster very judi- ciously r.dvises rather to make use of a long wood- en pole for this purpose, with an iron auger fixed to its end. This makes the operation of boring for marl both cheap and easy. A pole of twenty five feet, he thinks, will, in general, be of sufficient length. If the moss be found to be deeper than this, it is easy to join another pole to the first, or to obtain a new one of a greater length. Shell marl is found in the bottom of the gene- rality of lakes, and of meadows and mosses which have once been lakes, throughout Great Britain and Ireland. It is the remains of myriads of those sorts of small testaceous animals which commonly inhabit pools of water, and have lived and died in those situations. Some of those shells are univalves, (generally Helix, animal L,imax, Lin.) others are bivalves, (generally Tellina, animal Tethys, Lin.) and are frequently very entire when taken up ; but after a short exposure to the atmosphere, they crumble into a fine whitish powder which efTervesces with acids, and is, in fact, no way different from pow- dered limestone. It is commonly more pure from foreign and useless ingredients than most lime- stones. Some moss marl, examined by Dr. Co- ventry, Professor of Agriculture at Edinburgh, Avas found to contain 84 per cent, of pure chalk or carbonate of lime, which is more than lime gene- rally possesses, and the refuse of the marl was chiefly peaty substance, which makes the refuse 92 FARMER'S REGISTER— MOVEMENT UPON CANALS— RAIL ROAD. of such marl of more use as a manure, than that of limestone, which is generally sand or clay. Shell marl may be converted into quicklime by burning. Its solution changes vegetal)le colors to green, and it possesses all the other properties of quicklime, and, as such, is used for building in many places of England. De Pages, in his travels, mentions that the in- habitants of the South Banks of the INIississippi make oyster shells serve all the purposes of hme- stone. And lands that receive manure from towns where much shell-fish is used, or that have shells in their soil, naturally, or by being brought to them from a shelly seashore, stand in no need of lime for their culture, and are not at all benefitted by it. Some naturalists, indeed, believe that all lime- stones, marbles, and other masses of calcareous substances, are derived from the remains of ani- mals, and consolidated either in consequence of fusion by heat, or solution in water ; and some of the finest limestones and marbles show, unequivo- cally, that they are a congeries of shells of the ocean. Beds of these materials are frequently found near the summits of mountains, in which the shells that compose them can be distinctly traced and enumerated by the naturalist. As a manure, shell marl uncalcined is therefore to be used as lime ; but in that state, it is not so minutely divisible, nor so soluble in water, and of course more tardy in its operation ; of consequence, however, it remains much longer in the soil than quicklime. On the comparative value of shell marl and lime, Mr. Lummis, in an essay quoted in Maxwell's Husbandry, remarks, ' Notwith- standing that lime is so very good manure, yet I f)refer marl to it; because, lasting five times as ong, it is in the end much cheaper, although some- times it is more chargeable at first than the other.' Likewise, it is obvious that the quantity of calca- reous matter in a boll of shell marl is more than double that in a boll of powdered quicklime. — The price ought therefore to be more tha;; double, Interest i Hg £x per intent. ACCELERATED MOVEMENT UPON CANALS. On Saturday afternoon a trial was made upon the Paddington canal, of the new canal-boat. — The object of the trial was, to show that a boat built in a different form, and constructed of other materials than the ordinary canal-boat, might, by using superior horses, be drawn along the water at the rate of ten miles or more in an hour, in- stead of two miles an hour, the pace of the boats now in use. The day was i-emarkably fine. The portion of the CEUial more particularly appropriated to the experiment was from the third to the seventli mile from Paddington. The boat was constructed of sheet-iron, riveted hot. It was 70 feet long by 5^ feet wide ; and painted green and white. The boat was provided with an awning made of white twilled cotton cloth, which had been rendered semi-transparent with oil. The awning was so set up that the top was extended over light wooden arches, which rested upon a thin upright frame of rod iron ; and the sides, in the form of curtains, were made to slide at pleasure upon parallel rods placed at the upper and lower ends of the curtains. The rudder was of a single sheet of iron, of about a yard in length, and it was moved by a tiller made of about two yards of stout rod iron. Two (Steady hunting horses, each mounted by a lad, and the two harnessed to a towing rope of about 150 feet in length, constituted the moving power. The number oi' persons on board the boat was 48, in- cluding the crew, the gentleman making the ex- periment, some of the principal members of the Grand Junction Company, and the visiters, among whom were Mr. Telford, Mr. Babbage, Captain Basil Hall, Mr. Hellyer, and Mr. Gill ; a lady also made one of the party on this interesting oc- casion. Certain distances were measured on the canal bank, and marks set up at the ends of them. At each of these places also, a man was stationed, with a guaged rod in his hand, which he so held, as that, upon the boat's passing, he might instantly read off the height of the wave caused by the dis- turbance of the water. When all things were ready on the shore, and the party had embarked, the boat was put in motion. The speed from one station to another, taken by seconds watches, show- ed, for some time, a progress at the rate of thirteen miles an hour. The horses, however, soon began to tire, and the speed fell to eleven, and ultimately, in returning lor the third time, to ten and quarter miles in the" hour. The experiment, as far as it goes, was attended with complete success. The motion is the easiest imaginable. The boat glides along the water so smoothly and noiselessly, that its progress is all but imperceptible to those on board, whose atten- tion is not extended to external objects. A relay of horses w ill be required at the end of every four or five miles. The banks of the canal will have to be edged for nine or ten inches above the ordi- nary level of the water with hai'd materials, and the towing path to be slightly sloped outwards. — Improvements, no doubt, will also be made to fa- cilitate the passing of locks, and in the mode of attaching the horses to the boat, so that the ani- mals may exert their power upon the boat, disem- barrassed of the awkwardness of the direction in which, in the present form of towing, they are made to put forth their strength. — ILondon jllbion. JVe^v Rail Road. The Compiler recommends the establishment of a rail road between tliis city and Potomac Creek. This suggestion presents itself under two points of view : — 1st. Is the scheme an useful one ! 2d, Is this the time for us to undertake it ,'' Its utility seems to be unquestioned. In conver- sation on Monday last with our accomplished En- gineer, Moncure Robinson, Esq., he specified this road among the most useful to the public, and the most profitable to the stockholders, which could be undertaken in Virginia. Among the articles of transportation, he pointed out our coal — which might be conveyed cheaply, and without much handling and risk of breaking, to Fredericksburg — and by way of the -Potomac, to Washington, Alex- andria, &c. But he particularly mentioned the carrying of passengers, along the great thorough- fare from South to North, as one the great sources of emolument to the road. The experience of the Petersburg rail road, so far, shows us, thatpasseyi- gers are a greater source of profit than even arti- cles of transportation — and in this respect, he con- tends that the Petersburg rail road will always have the advantage of the Portsmouth road. For example — the following are the receipts of trans- portation on the Petersburg road from its opening on the 28th October 1832, down to June 1st, 1833: FARMER'S REGISTER— AGRICULTURE OF VIRGINIA. 93 Months. November, December, January, February, March, April, May, Passengers. ^747 48 585 74 1026 61 1144 79 1360 89 1515 72 1609 62 Freight. 8456 13 557 96 595 SO 881 87 1321 59 1835 92 1297 25 S8190 85 $6926 52 Thus, it appears that for the last seven months, the tolls from passengers are $1,264 more than the freight of produce and goods. Why should not the contemplated road equally enjoy this great and grow ing source of protit? The rapidity of the communication (in tive or six hours, perhaps, from Frederickburgto Richmond,) will invite more passengers, speed the mail, and multiply the tolls. That this enterprise, there- fore, will hereafter be completed, appears suffici- ently obvious. But then the next question occurs — Is this the time for us to undertake it.' Is it not best for MS to do one thing at a time? Jfe arc more deeply concerned in the Western Enterprise. Is it not better for us to devote all our energies to this great object first — and not distract our atten- tion or divide our capital ? — Complete tliat enter- prise, and every thing else will be easy to us. It is the battle of Arbela. — Win it, and the whole Persian Empire will be at our feet. Accomplisli this Western Work, and where is the enterprise that will be beyond our attainment.'' The spirit which overcomes this difficulty, will make light every other. — \_Richmond Enq. Agriculture of Virginia, To the Editors of the R.ichinond Enquirer. In inviting your attention, and that of the pub- lic to the agriculture of Virginia, I offer no apolo- gy other than the assurances of the very deep in- terest, which I (in common with others,) feel in the subject. Among the great diversity of topics presented to the human mind, none merits more attention, or is more worthy of a thorough inves- tigation, than agriculture. No country is better adapted to its study or practice than ours, and surely there is no occupation, which is more in ac- cordance with our free institutions, or more con- ducive to our permanent happiness. When we cast our eyes around, and behold the devastation and rain of large tracts of country, which in " by- gone times" were studded with the majestic oak, or carpeted with luxuriant verdure, we pause and in- voluntarily inquire of ourselves what has wrought the change. Is it to be attributed to the superfi- cial fertility of our lands, the impolicy of legisla- tion, or to an injudicious system of husbandry.' A discriminating and observing mind will very rea- dily answer, and properly ascribe the bulk of our misfortunes to a too long continuance in a reckless, slovenly, unwise system of farming. As a general proposition it will scarcely be doubt- ed, that the flourishing condition of any country, de- pends either upon its manufactures, commerce, or agriculture. Let either of these great departments of industry prosper in any country, and you will see the beneficial effects diffused in a greater or less degree, through all the ramifications of socie- ty ; but point to a country where neither of these is progressively improving, and you will there be- hold a corresponding languor pervading all the avocations of life, if it is true, that our state is not prosperous at this time, and that the above premises are correct, it would seem to follow as a consequence, that, if we desire to better its condi- tion, we must direct our attention more assiduous- ly, either to agriculture, commerce, or manufac- tures. Having arrived at this conclusion, when we look to our mixed population, as well as at the character of our staple productions, we would na- turally conclude, that the improvement of the state could be more certainly effected by amelio- rating its agricultural condition, than by the adop- tion of either of the other modes just suggested. Judging from recent indications given in your city and elsewhere, we have good reasons for be- lieving, that a new era is approaching, and it is to be hoped, that many a resource will be developed, which heretofore we thought this state neither had, and probably never was destined to possess. In our career as a community, we have doubtless omitted much, and " left undone those things which we ought to have done," thereby carelessly con- signing much to neglect and to ruin, which as good stewards, we should have nurtured, if for no other consideration than i)urely that of benefitting the com- monwealth. It is evident, that we are hourly becom- ing more sensible of our situation and of the great importance of making more vigorous efforts in the walks of internal improvement and of agriculture. The time has arrived wlien our middle-aged citi- zens should delight more in pointing toother mon- uments of their fame, than this or that speech or political disquisition, and for every young Vir""ini- an to say to himself, I will aid the land of my fathers in surmountnig her embarrassments, or we will sink together with her noble pendant nailed to the mast. It may with propriety be said, that the toast given by a distinguished individual, that " Farm- ers are the liberal supporters of every interest but their oivn," has remained with us too long uncon- tradicted. However, I can venture to say, that the laudable efforts of a few individuals in improv- the agricultural condition of the state, would ena- ble them conscientiously to repudiate the senti- ment. Having hinted this much, I will take the liberty of adverting to one fact — that is, the existence of one agricultural paper in Scottsville, Albemarle county, and the assurance of another being shortly edited in Richmond. This indicates a disposition, which I am in hopes will soon become general, as I am sure it must be the harbinger of a more flourishing period, and if cherished and sustained by our citizens, must greatly enhance their condi- tion, and make the " w ilderness blossom as the rose. " To urge reasons why the intelligent should pa- tronise our agricutural papers, or to exhort the other portions of society to imitate the example set by their countrymen to the North, as well as by the inhabitants of Europe, may be esteemed pre- sumption by the one and dictation by the other. — But whatever opinions may be entertained on tliose points, I am sure that nothing would be more gra- tifying to a fev/ (and perhaps many) individuals, than to see our intelligent citizens light the torch and lead the way. No one need doubt, but that the substantial yeomanry of our land would follow their example, and profit by their sagacity. The press, since its dawn in tljis hemisphere, has illu- 94 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF HAY. milled our horizon, and enabled us to make co- lossal strides, whether in science, in g-overnment, or in the arts. It is in fact nearly omnipotent — and there is no good reason to doubt, wliy it should not be as serviceable when made to stoop to the retired cottage, to amuse end enlighten its humble inmates, as when it ascends to more exalted re- gions. In concluding this suggestion relative to agricul- tural papers, I will only add, that " knoioledge is poiver," and that it matters not whether we ac- quire it by following the husliandman through his fields, or from tlie columns of a paper. " What but mind, cnliglitened and expanded, gives to civilized society the comforts and means of happiness, which is nowhere found in a savage life? And if the mind is beneficial to labor by its skill and contrivance, the more it is instructed in those laws, which nature has established for the government of matter, and in the experience and improvements of others, the more likely it is to prove beneficial to our physical powers." A BUCKINGHAM FARMER. June 8th, 1833. On the JWassageiueiit of Miuj, From the (Edinburgh) I^armei's Magazine. To the Conductors of the Formers'' Magazine. Ge]vtle»ien, — If you think the following ob- servations on the management of Hay deserving of notice, they may be inserted in your next num- ber. The treatment of Hay is a subject of high im- portance to the agricultural interest of Britain, not only as a valuable article of produce, but as constituting a bulky and essential part of the food of our domestic animals, upon which their health and usefulness in a great measure depend. Where such a valuable interest is at stake, we might naturally expect to sec experiments made, and a suitable degree of attention paid, to form a regular system of management. It is much to be re- gretted, that in many parts of the island, no such attention has been paid ; and the treatment, espe- cially in many parts of North Britain, is slovenly in the extreme, and very ill calculated to secure and preserve, in the highest degree of perfection, that flavor, and those nourishing qualities, without ■which, neither hay, nor indeed any description of herbage, can be valuable. The first consideration in llie treatment of hay, is, the period at which it should be cut, and the weather most proper for that operation. The time most proper for cutting the different kinds of grain, together with every step of tlie after-management, are points Avell understood, and for the most part strictly observed ; every farmer being sensible, that any neglect of, or deviation from these rules, will, by impairing the quality both of the grain and straw, be productive of mucli trouble and loss to himself. It is somewhat surprising, that the same kind of reasoning should not have been ap- plied to the management of hay; as any diminu- tion of its value, arising from improper treatment, must be equally prejudicial both to tlie grower and consumer of that article, as to the grower and con- sumer of grain. The practice of many farmers in North Britain is, to allow their hay, not only to attain its ulti- mate groAvthj but even to make some progress to- wai-ds decay, before it is cut : to obtain a bulky crop, being their chief olyect, every other con- sideration is disregarded ; and neither the period of growth at which the cutting ought to com- mence, the weather most proper for that operation, nor indeed any step of the ailer-management, are regulated by lirst rules. In place of cutting the crop during dry weather, and when it is free from every other but its own natural moisture, it is very often cut in a wet state, and on that account must remain in the swath a considerable time be- fore it is fit for being put into cocks, during which it requires to be frequently turned and exposed to tlie sun and atmosphere, for the purposeof drying- it : in that way, a considerable proportion of its natural juices are dissipated; and by the time it is dry cnougii for putting into the stack, it has lost not only its flavor, but a great part of its most valuable properties; an evil that is farther in- creased, if much rain happen to fall either imme- diately after the cutting, or at any period before it is put into cocks. In that case, a still greater loss of its nourishing properties, and a consequent di- minution of its value, must happen. The consequences of this management are felt in a variety of shapes, in every district where it prevails. In the lower districts, the mischief is comparatively small, owing to the mildness of the winters, the great quantity of rich foggage every where to be met with, and the abundance of corn straw, and other wholesome articles of food, Avitli which these parts abound. In the hilly and upland districts, however, the case is very different; and the loss arising from the neglect and mismanage- ment of their hay is great, almost beyond calcula- tion. In these elevated regions, the winters are, lor the most part, of uncommon length and se- verity; little straw is produced; sown grasses, turnips, and potatoes, are equally scarce. In that way, the chief dependence of the farmer, for win- ter food to his stock, falls upon the hay, which, when the quality is bad, and other articles scarce, induces debility and disease to such a degree, that a great part of the stock either die, or are reduced to a state of extreme weakness during the winter; and when the spring arrives, the green food has such an effect upon the bowels of those who have survived, that many of them die also. The greatest part of the hay grown in these parts, is the produce of the wet swampy grounds, and the plants of which it consists, are of a nature that requires much judgment and attention to cure, in such a manner as to unite every advan- tage that might be expected from their use. When cut at a certain period of their growth, there is perhaps no species of herbage sweeter, or more tender, or that contains more nourishing juices, or is more palatable to the animals fed with it, than meadow hay. It has already been observed, that, under the present system of management, the pe- riod most proper for cutting hay, is less an object of attention than it ought to be. Experience proves, that the greatest perfection of the herbage is met with, either immediately before it comes into flower, or as soon as the first flowers blow. At that period, it is in no shape exhausted, either by blowing a multitude of flowers, or forming seeds, anil contains all the useful qualities of which its nature is capable: after that period, it daily di- minishes in value, becomes tough, sapless, and unpalatable, and is not chewed Avithout considera- FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF HAY. 95 ble difficulty. This rule applies to every species of herbage that is meant to be dried for winter food; but to coarse hay, the produce of wet or marshy grounds, it is strongly applicable ; for, as we have already observed, most of the plants which grow in these situations, when they are in full vigor, are as tender, and contain perhaps as great a proportion of nourishing juices, as any other de- scription of hay ; and, wlien cut at that stage, and properly managed afterwards, form a valuable arti- cle of food both for sheep and cattle ; but \vhen tlie cutting is delayed, as indeed it very often is, till an advanced period of the season, when the plants have not only reached their ultimate growth, but begun to decay, this description of herbage be- comes at once the coarsest and least nourishing of all food. This opinion does not proceed upon theory, but upon the solid ground of experiments carefull)^ made upon many different kinds of herbage, at different periods of their growth, the result of which establishes a flict that cannot be too gene- rally known, viz. tliat plants of all sorts, if they are cut when in full vigor, and afterwards care- fully dried, without any waste of their natural juices, either by bleaching with rain, or exhala- tion, contain, weight for w-cight, a quantity of nourishing matter nearly double what they do, when allowed to attain their full growth, and make some progress towards decay. Hay of all kinds should certainly be cut at the period we have mentioned, and, if possible, during dry weather ; and, in place of being sufiered to remain in the swath for days, as is commonly done, women with forks or rakes should follow the cutters, and spread it in such a manner as to allow the sun and air free access to the whole. If this operation is properly performed, and the wea- ther favorable, the hay that was cut in the morn- ing will be ready to put into small cocks by mid- day, where it may remain for two or three days; at the end of which, if tlie weather is dry, they may be thrown down early in the morning, and, after being exposed to the sun and atmosphere for a few hours, put up into ricks of at least forty or fifty stones each, where it may remain with per- fect safety, till it is conveniejit to stack it. By such treatment, every valuable quality is pre- served, the hay is of a fine green color, and pos- sesses so agreeable a flavor, tliat the animals cat it with the greatest relish. Before stacking, some attention will be necessary to render the whole as uniformly dry as possible, especially if much rain has fallen, and the wind continued for any conside- rable time in one quarter after the hay has been put into ricks; when that is the case, one side will be found damp, while that which is exposed to the wind is perfectly dry; the remedy consists in turning the ricks round, which is done with great ease, by placing six or eight people, at equal dis- tances, round the rick, with directions to thrust their hands as far as they can under the bottom, at the same time grasping a handful of the hay ; — when the whole are ready, let them lift at once, and move round in the direction intended, till the damp side is opposed to theAvind: in that way, ricks of fifty or sixty stones may be turned with ease and expedition, and the whole rendered uni- formly dry in a short time. It has been contended by many, that there is no great necessity for being so solicitous to have hay thoroughly dry before it is put into the stack, as it will keep perfectly well even with a considera- ble proportion of moisture; and, should any ap- pi-ehension be entertained to tlie contrary, all danger will be prevented, by mixing it with salt; a practice strenuously recommended by many in- telligent writers. Trials carefully made, and upon a scale so ex- tensive as to occasion very considerable loss to those concerned, prove, beyond a doubt, that the addition of salt to damp hay is no preservative against its heating; on tlie contrary, if moist wea- ther follow immediately after it is put into the stack, the addition of salt, in place of being use- ful, will prove hurtful; it being a well established fact, that salt, and every thing impregnated there- with, greedily attracts the moisture of the atmos- phere, and occasions a degree of dampness that would not otherwise have taken place. The ex- perience of persons who build houses Avith stones taken from the bed of the sea, is an undeniable proof of this ; as the walls of such buildino-s are always damp and uncomfortable: even if they should stand for centuries, have we any reason to suppose that the case will be different w hen salt is mixed with hay.'' Either in a damp or dry state, if it is jjut into the stack damp, the salt will very effectu- ally prevent its faniier progress in drying, with this disagreeable addition, that if wet weather fol- low, the salt, by attracting an additional quantity of moisture, will increase the evil. The case is not materially different, when salt is mixed with even the driest hay, especially in situa- tions where the climate is moist, and the winters long ; for, if the quantity of salt employed is con- siderable, the continual attraction from the atmos- phere during the winter months, if it does not de- stroy it entirely, v/ill at least have the effect of rendering it musty and unpalatable. But though we thus disapprove the practice of salting hay Avhen it is put into the stack, whether in a moist or dry state, there is every reason to believe, that it will be highly salutary and useful, if applied with judgment at a subsequent period. The beneficial effects of meadows or marshes that have been overflowed with salt water, upon the health of sheep and cattle, and the high relish they have for such pastures, are well known ; the pre- ference given by the animals is strong and de- cided: is there any reason to sui>pose that an equal preference would not be given to hay tinged with salt.' In bad seasons, when hay has been much in- jured by the Aveather, it is not only tasteless, but disagreeable to the animals in the spring, Avho eat it only from necessity. When that is the case, it becomes an object to mix Avith it any article that can remedy these defects ; for that purpose, nothino- is better calculated than salt, Avhich, along Avith its giving the hay an agreeable taste, has a medicinal effect upon the bowels of the animals; a matter at present too much neglected, while they are feeding upon dry food. The most proper time for apply- ing the salt, seems to be a day or two before the hay is used. At that time, a quantity sufficient for two days consumption should be taken from the stack, and laid either in a shed or barn; a thin stratum should first be spread upon the floor, and lightly sprinkled Avith Avater from the rose of a Avatering-pan ; a small quantity of salt should tlien be equally scattered upon, it ; after Avhich another 06 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF HAY. stratum of hay should be added ; and the same operations of watering and salting repeated, till the whole quantity is gone through; it should then be well turned and mixed with a ibrk, and allowed to remain in a heap for one niglit; alter which, it •will be fit for use. It is necessary to observe, that the quantity of water applied should never exceed what is neces- sary to damp the hay; and the proportion of salt should be confined to what will give it an agreea- ble flavor : a superabundance of either, in place of being useful, defeats the purpose for which they are applied. If there is too much water, it runs off, carrying the salt along with it ; if too much salt, it renders the hay bitter. The salt made use of should be of the smallest kind, lor the purpose of sprinkling it equally ; and every possible means should be taken to prevent one part of the hay from getting more than anotlier. It is worthy of notice, that though the salting of hay a day or two before it is used, is in general attended with advantages, we beg leave to be un- derstood as meaning only the coarsest kinds, or such as may have been injured by the weather ; for, in every instance where it has been cut at the proper season, and well managed afterwards, the taste and flavor will be such as to recommend it to the animals, w ithout any addition whatever; but in unfavorable years, when the quality is much impaired by the weather, especially if the hay is coarse, and treated in the manner commonly prac- tised in the hilly and upland parts of the country, the operation of watering, Avith the addition of salt, will, by softening and giving it an agreeable taste, induce the animals to eat it with advantage, in many instances when it would otherwise be re- jected. It is perhaps in such cases only, that salt can be useful, unless it be meant as a medicine; and it is very apparent, that the hint of using salt at all, originated in the preference given to salt marshes over other pastures, by both sheep and cattle. In treating of an article of such value and im- portance as hay, it is worth while to inquire, what are the most advantageous and economical modes of using it. Every good farmer is now sensible, that when any considerable quantity either of hay or other fodder is given to horses, sheep, or cattle, at once, the effect of their breath blowing upon it, joined to other causes, renders it so disagreeable, that they soon loath and refuse to eat it ; in that way a considerable part of it is lost. On the contrary, when it is given frequently, and in small quantity, it contracts no disagreeable smell, and the animals eat up the whole. Farmers of a certain descrip- tion will no doubt object to tliis mode of feeding, on account of the trouble with which it is attend- ed. With them, it is a maxim, that if the ani- mals are fed once, or at most twice, in the twenty four hours, it is sutficient ; and that if they are hungry, they run no risk of starving, while they have food so near them. They do not, however, reflect upon the injury which the fodder thus used sustains by being breathed and trod upon, and im- pregnated Avith dung and urine. Let such men consider, for a moment, how they would relish the remains of their diimer served up for supper, after being kept within a yard of their nose during the interval, upon the same plates, with the same knives and forks, without any washing or clean- ing. There are few people, indeed, who would not nauseate and reject such a meal. The case cannot be very ditTerent with any of our domestic animals, when they have a quantity of hay or other fodder given them, sufficient for a whole day's consumption; having it constantly in their sight, and being blown and trod upon, im- pregnated with urine and otherwise injured, it be- comes loathsome beyond description ; and, in place of being eat up, which it always is when small quantities are given at a time, and frequently re- peated, a great part is rejected. It ought therefore to be a rule with all farmers, to give little at a time, and repeat it i'requently, always taking care that what was last given shall be consumed, before they receive an additional supply. By such man- agement, no part of the fodder will be lost, and the animals will at the same time derive more benefit from the use of it. Another economical practice remains to be men- tioned, namely, the mixing of straw with hay. From many trials in different parts of the country, it appears, that where good straw can be had in plenty, it may be mixed with hay to great advan- tage. Some farmers are in the habit of mixing straw with cutting grass, the benefit of which will be afterwards noticed. When straw is mixed with hay, the process of curing maybe accelerated, and the quality of the hay at the same time improved, by leading out the straw to the field, mixing it intimately with the hay immediately after it is cut, and putting the whole into small hand-cocks, as soon as it is mixed. It is well known, that when moist and dry bodies are brought into con- tact, the former begin to give out a part of their moisture, which is as greedily absorbed by the latter, and continues to be so till a balance is esta- blished between them; or, in other Avords, till both contain an equal proportion of humidity. This is precisely Avhat happens Avhen dry straAv is mixed Avith gi'een herbage. Immediately after they are laid together, the straAv begins to absorb a part of the juices, and continues to do so as long as the grass Avill part Avith any. In that Avay, every part of the natural juices is effectually preserved ; and the straAV, from the absorption of AA^hat Avould otherAvise have been cither evaporated by the sun, or Avashed aAvay by the rain, is rendered nearly equal in A^alue to the hay. Where this practice is followed, and due pains taken in the mixing, very little exposure to the sun or atmosphere is neces- sary, and the hay Avill be fit for putting into the stack in half the time that is required Avhere no straAV is used. In place of leading out the straAV to the field, it is customary, in some parts of the country, to mix it Avith the hay in the stack, by laying alternate stratums of each, a practice that ansAvers pretty Avell, but is much inferior to that above recom- mended. It may, hoAvever, be very useful in un- favorable seasons, and be the means of preserving hay that could not be cured otherAvise. When straAV is mixed Avith grass for present use, a quantity sutficient for several days consump- tion should be cut at once, and after mixing, laid up in pretty large heaps, and alloAved to remain in that state for a couple of days at least ; at the end of Avhich, the straAV will be found much softened and impregnated Avith the juices of the grass. When a fair trial is given to this practice, several advantages Avill be found to arise from it. The FARMERS' REGISTER— FLOATING OF LAND— PLOUGH AND HORSES. 97 first is, the conversion of a considerable quantity of straw, which would otherwise have been of little value, into a wholesome and nourishing article of food ; the second, that grass so mixed, has not that purgative quality it is known to possess in its sim- ple state, and seems to keep the bowels in a me- dium state, preventing alike the extremes of scour- ing and costiveness, circumstances of much im- portance to the health and strength of the animals. It has been recommended, and to a certain ex- tent practised by some farmers, to mix old and new hay. Upon this point, we have simply to observe, that if old hay has been well got, and properly secured in the stack, it will be found for many purposes superior to the new ; it certainly contains a firmer and more concentrated nourish- ment than new hay can possibly do; and for all animals that are employed in constant and severe exertion, it is infinitely preferable. There is a Eeriod, however, beyond which, even the best old ay will, by being excessively dried, begin to be •• impaired in its quality, and be eaten with much - less relish. In such cases, a mixture of new hay will be useful ; as the old, by the absorption of the new juices, will recover a part of the moisture and flavor it had lost by long keeping. The same thing will happen, if the hay of the former year has been of an inferior quality, owing either to its having been allowed to stand too long before cut- ting, or to its being bleached with rain after it is cut. In either of these cases, the defect will be in some degree repaired, by mixing it with new juicy well- flavored herbage. a. z. On tlie Floating^ of Land. From the (Edinburgh) Farmers' Magazine. To the Conductors. Gentlemen, — Amongst the many pertinent and sensible remarks in your review of Mr. Mid- dleton's Survey of Middlesex, I was surprised to find that the reviewer should think Mr. Middleton speaks in rather too high terms on the subject of irrigation, when he states, " that forty acres of good water meadow will support, in the greatest luxu- riance, 600 Wiltshire ewes and lambs for six weeks, from the middle of March to the first of May." On this quotation from Mr. Middleton, the re- viewer observes, " that it exceeds any thing he has met with respecting the produce of grass land ; for it is only the best meadow that will feed five ewes and lambs per acre, from the middle of March to the first of May ; and the greatest part of the pastures in the kingdom will not support near so many." As the produce of watered meadows certainly very far exceeds the produce of the best pasture land, or the best untvatered meadoio in the king- dom ; and as the floating or watering of land is one of the greatest improvements that can be in- troduced into any country, when the rearing or feeding of stock is an object; I would beg leave to point out to the attention of the reviewer, the following statements of the produce of watered meadows by different authors. Mr. Davies, in his agricultural survey of Wilt- shire, on the subject of watered meadows, states, " that one acre of good meadow will support 500 Wiltshire ewes and lambs for one day;" conse- quently forty acres will support the above stock Vol. 1—13 for forty days, which is only two days less than in the statement given by Mr. Middleton. Mr. Wright, in the second edition of his trea^ tise on watered meadows, gives the following in- stance of the produce of a meadow in the neigh- borhood of Cirencester. "It was one which had been watered longer than the oldest person in the parish could remember, but was by no means the best meadow upon the stream, nor was the pre- ceding winter favorable for watering. It contains six acres and a half The spring food was let for seven guineas, and well supported near 206 sheep, from the first of March till the beginning of May : the hay was sold at thirty two guineas, and the aftermath for six guineas. A meadow of seven acres, the whole crop of hay on which had been sold for £ 2 before it was watered, has, ever since it has been laid out as a watered meadow, been let at the annual rent of £3 per acre." In Mr. Wright's third edition, is the following account of the product of a meadow : " In order to make the most of the spring food, the proprietor kept the grass untouched till the 2d day of April ; from which time he let it to the neighboring farmers, to be eaten off in five weeks, by the undermentioned stock, at the following rates per head : A sheep, lOfZ. per week ; a cow, 3s. Qd. ; a colt, 4s. The quantity of land is eight acres, 107 wedder sheep, one week, £ 4 8 cows, ditto, 4 colts, ditto. Total of 5 weeks, 3 colts, 3 weeks, to be added. £35 1 10 Or £4 7s. Sf^d. per acre. After being fed as above, the hay crop was, as usual, about fifteen tons, and was six weeks in growing." Since such are the immense advantages to be derived from the floating of land, and that,where- ever there is a considerable stream of water, many acres may be thus highly improved, I think ex- tracts from the treatises of Mr. Wright, on the art of floating land, and from Mr. Davies's ac- count of the art, in his survey of Wiltshire, might be introduced with great propriety into your valua- ble magazine. Yours, &c. s. e. £4 1 0 9 2 8 0 16 0 £6 13 2 5 weeks; 33 1 5 10 16 0 ANNUAL CHARGE ATTENDING A PloiigSi and Two Horses. From the (Edinburgli) Farmers' Magazine. To the Coiiductors. Gentlemen, — Experimental agriculture be- ing an object of importance, I am glad to notice that you propose to pay it considerable attention. Having some reasons to believe that the expense attending experiments is seldom justly ascertained, I beg leave to send you a statement of the annual charge of a plough and two horses, which may serve a double purpose. It will show the immense increase which has taken place in the price of la- bor, and assist those Avho may transmit you the result of experiments, how to calculate the expense. 98 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF FARM DLING. uiiinual Charge attending a Plough and Two Horses. Servants wages and maintenance, £21 0 0 Corn for two liorses, from the 1st of October to the middle of June, 3 firlots per week, which, with odd feeds, may be taken at 30 bolls, at 16s. per boll - - _ 24 0 0 200 stones of hay, to be eaten when the horses are taken from green food, and betwixt yokings during seed-time, at 7rf. - - - 5 16 8 1| acre of clover and tares for sum- mer food _ - _ _ 9 0 0 Smith and wright work - - 5 0 0 Saddlery work . - - 10 0 Interest on capital stock at 5 per cent.* _ _ - - 6 0 10 12|^ per cent, on £70 perishable stock, for tear and wear - 8 15 0 Annual charge £80 12 6 Now let us endeavor to ascertain from the above, what is the charge per acre to the farmer for ploughing and harrowing his land. It will readily be granted, that 42 Scots acres per plough is as great a quantity as can be properly managed in ordinary cases. If this extent is ar- ranged agreeable to the common six-course shift, there will be 7 acres in summer fallow, 7 in wheat, 7 in beans, 7 in barley, 7 in clover, and 7 in oats ; and the number of ploughmgs and harrow ings during the course will be, 1. Fallow, 6 ploughings, 3 harrowings. 2. Wheat, 2 ditto. 3. Beans, 2 ditto. 3 ditto. 4. Barley, 2 ditto. 4 ditto. 5. Clover, 6. Oats, 1 ditto. 3 ditto. 11 15 Multiplying the above numbers by 35, the quan- tity of acres actually under tillage, and dividing the amount by 5, the number of breaks, the result will be, that two horses, during the year, plough 77 acres once over, and give 105 double times of harrowing to one acre of ground. As their ex- pense for that time is £80 12s. 6d. it may be classed as under : 77 acres once ploughed, at 18s. 3d. £ 70 4 3 105 harrowings, at 2s. - - 10 10 0 £80 14 3 It will no doubt be attended to, that all the other operations performed by the man and the two *The capital stock, so far as respects ploughing, may be reckoned as follows : 2 horses - - - - /.42 0 0 Plough, brake, and harrows - - 5 5 0 Long and close carts, with wheels and iron axle - . . . 15 0 0 Barrows, grapes, forks, &.C. - - 0 15 0 Saddlery - . - _ 7 0 0 Servant's wages - . . 21 0 0 Horse-corn - - - . 24 0 0 Hay - - - - - 5 16 8 horses, v^hen not engaged in ploughing and har- rowing, are included in these charges; but as they are paid from the produce of the above quantity of land, and as these incidental operations are, in fact, work required upon the premises, it is deemed un- necessary to state them separately, as this would not lessen the sum-total of the labor-account. It therefore ap{)ears, that 35 acres of land, in a pro- ductive state, and under a six-course shift, are la- bored by the farmer at the expense of £80 12s. 6d. or £2 6s. per acre, independent of seed corn, grass seeds, harvest work, thrashing, marketing, incidental expenses, and the support of the family. In debiting a particular field for farm labor, I know of no better method, than first to ascertain tl\e ordinary outlays, then to reckon up the num- ber of ploughings and harrowmgs given to each field, and, after finding how much that amounts to per acre, to proportion the expense accordingly. If these rules are adhered to, the expense and profit of the farmer's operations may be as minutely as- certained as the concerns of the merchant and manufacturer. I need scarcely add, that every article in the annual expense of a plough and two horses, is very moderately charged, being at least one third below what they will amount to this year. For instance, the servants wages and maintenance will be £ 30, and the value of^ corn given to the horses, in all probability three fifths more than the sum charged. I am, sir, yours, &c. a rural economist.* On iiiaiiageiuent of Farm Dung". From the (Edinburgh) Farmers Magazine. Sir — As the indispensable necessity of repeat- ed applications of dung — that is to sa)'^, putres- cent animal, and vegetable matters, for recruiting and preserving the fertility of the earth, is univer- sally admitted, every means by which the quanti- ty of this important substance may be enlarged, or its efficacy increased, must be a valuable ac- quisition. You have, therefore, done tlie public good service, in communicating the thoughts of so diligent and successful an inquirer into the se- crets of nature, as the illustrious Sir Humphrey 1.120 16 8 *The Scottish measures above namtd, as well as others of frequent use in English agricultural works, will require explanation. Scottish Gi'ain Measures. 4 lippies, or forpats = 1 peck, 4 pecks = 1 lirlot, 4 firlots = 1 boll. The firlot contains 2197J cubic inches, 47 more than the bushel of England which is used in Virginia. The bar- ley firlot of Scotland (according to the Gentleman Far- mer) contains half as much more as the common firlot, or as 3 to 2. Probalily this particulai- measure is no longer used, and that the firlot may be always counted as a bushel. The acre of England and America contains 43,360 square feet. The acre of Scotland contains 55,353 6-10 sqiiare feet — so that 4 of ihe latter are little less than 5 of the former — or the comparative extent is as 44 to 35 very nearly. 4 bushels (English) = 1 coomb. 2 coombs = 1 quarter. A stone is 14 Ib.'^. avoirdupois weight. The pound sterling and its parts arc used above. — [Ed. Far. Reg. FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF FARM DUNG. 99 Davy, on this subject. By a careful considera- tion of such scientitic principles, and applying them according to circumstances, the attentive husbandman may adjust his own practice — en- large the quantity, and improve the quality of his farm dung — and thus add to the fertility of the country. If you think the following remarks can tend any thing to that purpose, if you please you may publish them in your next number. Sir Humphrey begins with vegetable substan- ces, and shows that green succulent plants contain the largest proportion of easily soluble matter. — He recommends, therefore, that they be ploughed into the ground while they are sLill fresh and green, about the time of their flowering. But it must be remembered, that the generality of green plants can be used to greater advantage than that of plougliing them immediately into the ground as manure. Besides, if the plants are to be raised on the ground which they are destined to manure, tljat ground must either be possessed of a tolerable share of fertility, or tlie plants must be of a puny growth, and the quantity of manure thus obtained inconsiderable. Hence it is evident, that a great part of the substance of which those plants are com- posed, must be derived from the soil; and plough- ing in the plants is not a great deal more than re- storing to it that of which it had been recently robbed. Dry straio, that is, the stems of plants, dried and hardened in the air, is justly represented as widely diifering from tender green plants, being possessed of little easily soluble matter, and much woody fibre. To overcome the resistance to solu- tion, which this suL)stance lias acquired, it is com- monly submitted to some kind ol fermentation ; and Sir Humphrey expresses his doubt of the pro- priety of indiscriminatingly adopting this prac- tice, recommending rather to cut straw small, and keep it dry till it be ploughed into the ground.— So long as farmers must keep live slock, and not only supply them v.'itli a variety of ibod, but, for tlie sake of health and cleanliness, accommodate them with a comfortable bed of litter, it is not pro- bable that there will much straw remain, even of the worst quality, to be used in the manner here recommeniled. J3ut it may not be improper to take under consideration a prescription so directly opposite to ordinary practice. Sir Humphrey does not here give explicit rea- sons for prescribing the application of unferment- ed straw as manure, reserving these till he come to treat of composite manure. He only says, that ' though it would produce less effect at first, yet its influence would be much more lasting;' which no doubt would he the case. But the fiirmer ex- pects a prompt return. The soil, indeed, is conti- nually consuming all dead animal and vegetable substances committed to it: and, gradually reduc- ing them to total dissolution, absorbs the dissolved matter, and yields it again for the nourishment of growing plants. But when such substances are dry, they imbibe moisture partially, and the de- composition is languid and slow. If, however, a quantity of straw, steeped for some days in water, till it become soft and pliant, be put in the ground, two or three inches under the suriace, any plant, growing over, or contiguous to it, will in a short time assume a deep verdure ajid vigorous growth, and grow for some years with remarkable luxu- liance, after the conformation of t!ie straw is anni- hilated, and no traces of it left. Hence it would appear, that straw, soaked and suppled in water, would be preferable to dry straw : for though, by the force of fermentation, the component princi- ples of vegetables are disengaged ; and such as are capable of taking a gasceous form, are dissipat- ed in air, and lost to the husbandman, before they are committed to the ground: yet they would ferment more freely in the ground, by being first well soaked in water ; and Sir Humphrey ap- proves of a slight incipient fermentation, for which the presence of water is requisite. As straw alone, however, is seldom used as a manure, any farther consideration of the process of fermentation, and its effects, may be waved till we come to compo- site manure, which chiefly occupies the attention of the farmer. For the same reason, the judicious remarks of this celebrated autlior, on manures from animal substances, may be passed. I'he dung of horses, cattle, sheep, &c. is itself a composite, consisting of animal matter, mixed with the undigested fibres of their food ; and we are informed, that it yields nearly the same products as vegetable substances. This substance is always less or more moist when voided ; and if continued so, soon decomposes and disappears in the soil with which it is mixed ; but if suddenly dried, Avill keep in perfect preservation for a very long time, a:id almost lose its peculiar fetor ; it will even long preserve tlie same appearance, when afterwards buried in the moist earth. The dung of live stock is still more compounded by tlie straw and of&ls which have served for tlieir litter ; and this mix- ture forms the dunghill, on which the farmer de- pends for renovating the fertility of the soil. The management of this substance, in such a manner as to render it most efficient, is therefore of great importance ; and on this, we are favored with the opinion of this illustrious philosopher. ' A slight ' incipient fermentation,' says he, ' is undoubtedly ' of use in the dunghill ;' (tmd indeed it is una- ' voidable) ' for by means of it, a disposition is ' brought on, in the woody fibre, to decay and dis- ' solve, when jdoughed into the soil.' And again : ' Too great a degree of fermentation is very pre- ' judicial to the comjiosite manure of the dung- ' liill ; it is belter that there should be no fermen- ' talion at all before the manure is used, than that ' it should be carried too far.' To form a candid judgment of this opinion, it seems proper to take a view of the putrefactive fermentation, in those varieties whicli circumstances produce. The three great agents of fermentation — water, a warm temperature, and air, have each their peculiar effect ; as their presence is less or more abundant. If fermentable substances are immersed in water, the process goes on very slowly ; the parts of the subject are rather separating, than the component principles disengaging; and this is accelerated by heat. When the subject is exposed to the free ac- cess of the air, a hot fermentation quickly com- mences, which is most rapid in a warm tempera- ture, and when there is just moisture enough to keep it alive. Thus circumstanced, farm dung quickly consumes ; more than half perhaps of its bulk escapes in vapor and gas ; and what remains, by being rendered less soluble, must yield less support to vegetation. Our senses may convince us, that such is the case, if we -svill take tlie pains to make use of them, and should overcome the prejudice so generally prevalent, f.T wasting botli 100 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE OF THE NETHERLANDS. the bulk and value of fai-m dung by fermentation, before it is ploughed into the ground. It is in vain to attempt to check the rapidity of fermenta- tion in dung, thus exposed to the influence of that process, by watering, as Sir Humphrey justly ob- serves ; for when it is laid up open to the air on all sides, no more water will adhere to it, than serves to hasten its consumption. Some degree of fermentation will indeed be ever operating in this highly putrescible substance, be- fore it can be carried to the field ; but it is more economical to control, than to accelerate it. The component principles might then be preserved al- most entire, and turned into the ground in that state. As fermentation proceeded, a genial heat would be raised in the soil ; the volatile principles escaping, would go directly to the support of ve- getation ; and the more refractory pans would be gradually dissolving, and both yielding food to plants, and mending the construction of the soil. To allay the fermentation. Sir Humphrey pre- scribes covering dung with compact earth, so as to seal it up from the access of the air, having first di'ied it as much as possible. In this, he is per- haps not quite correct. Turning it over to be dried, would provoke fermentation; and it would be impossible to make it so dry as to be incapable of fermenting Besides, as the iei'mentation is most violent when water is present in a low propor- tion, the consumption would be rapid, and the re- sidue of little value. But the dunghill, which is daily augmenting, cannot be sealed up. His pre- scription for its site is more commendable. He directs that it be shaded as much as possible from the rays of the sun, and that it be an excavation, paved in the bottom, from which no water can spontaneous- ly escape. If all the dung litter, and every kind of refuse putrescible mattei, about a farm, be succes- sively collected into such a place, blended together, and regularly spread with a level surface over the whole space, the mass can then be duly compress- ed, to exclude the too free admission of air. Over this, any urine of the live stock, Avhich the litter has not absorbed, chamber-ley, and every kind of foul water, should from time to time be sprinkled; and when these are not sufficient, plain water should be added, to keep the surface always quite moist. When farm dung is managed in this man- ner, all its parts being brought nearly in contact by compression, and the small interstices filled with liquid, the fermentation is restrained, and the jnanure is suffering very little loss, either in bulk or fertilizing quality : — at the same time, it is undergoing a very important preparation. The fibres, soaked in putrid water, though not con- sumed, are much weakened ; the cohesion of the parts is relaxed : the elasticity destroyed; and the mass is fitted to dissolve in the soil, and yield abun- dant nourishment to growing vegetables, the vo- latile and most soluble parts not having been pre- viously dissipated by a powerful fermentation. If a quantity of farm-dung be taken out of a wet dungstead, and laid loosely up to the air, it will be cool at first; but heat will soon be generated; it will smoke violently, and emit very pungent ef- fluvia; which may convince any one, that the va- lue of the manure has been preserved by being kept in that situation. From a dungstead of this description, where all the different matters are blended together, closely compressed^ and equally soaked with putrid water, different sorts, to suit different soils or purposes, cannot be taken ; but one sort suitable lor all soils and crops, will be more valuable than all the pos- sible sorts or varieties. It is believed, that farm- dung, managed as above, may be successfully ap- plied to every kind of soil. Soils, indeed, which are dry and friable, and easily disposed to fall into fine mould, sooner operate the decomposition of un- fermented dung, than those which are cohesive, and more retentive of water ; but such dung, by fer- menting in the soil, has a powerful effect in mel- lowing soils of the latter description. Nor does it appear that such manure can be less proper for turnips. After the parts are become flaccid by compression and long steeping in putrid water, this manure, lying compact, and holding as much wa- ter as it can absorb and retain, one would think that turnips would be exposed to as little hazard over it as over highly fermented dung, and find much more nourishment. But if the turnip hus- bandman shall persist in dissipating one half of his manure, in order to get the use of the other, there seems to be no reason why others should follow such a wasteful example. These crude remark's, which other business has prevented me from putting in a better form, con- tain the judgment which I and a number of my neighbors have formed relating to the management of farm dung, founded on a pretty long tract of ex- perience; and we think it our duty, upon your in- vitation, to submit Ihem to the public. Here it may be added, that we find farm-dung, treated as above, well adapted for compounding with peat- moss, according to Lord Meadowbank's rule, of which we approve, and such of us as have access to that substance, practice. If you please, you may give this a place in your valuable publication. I am, sir, your humble servant, A. D. Clydesdale, 20th Oct. 1813. Agriciillvire of tlie I^etlicrlands. By the j^hbe Mann. Extracted from the 5th Vol. of Hunter's G ear gical Essays. From the (Edinburgh) Farmers' Magazine. The characteristic features of the Belgic peasants are, industry, great economy, and a strong attach- ment to the methods and customs of their prede- cessors. Few people are more attached to their customs and practices than the Belgic peasants. They sel- dom change their methods of agriculture, being persuaded that their forefathers were as vvise and knowing as themselves, and that what they did, is the best themselves can do. Whatever may be judged of their manner of living, and of the form of their dwellings (in which, however, they are as contented and happy as the most elegant English farmer,) it will easily be acknowledged by those thoroughly acquainted with the Flemish agricul- ture, that their practices are far from being either bad or irrational : on the contrary, it seems that long experience has so well succeeded in adapting these to the nature of the soil, that it would be hard to do any thing better. During the many years I was at the head of an establishment which had many farms in property, and desirous to have them cultivated to the best advantage, I tried what ex- periments I could for this purpose. The intelli- gent farmers ^vhom I often consulted on these FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE OF THE NETHERLANDS. 101 heads, gave me satisfactory reasons, why the methods they followed were preferable to what I proposed doing ; and also why this would not suc- ceed, as it proved in effect. Tlie general result which I have been able to form, from what I know of the Flemish agriculture, is, that they draw from their farms the best crops, and the most food for great and small cattle, fowl, &,c. w iiith the soil is capable of producing. The quantity there- of is certainly great, when compared to any ex- tent of land in Germany, France, Spain, Eng- land, or any other country I am acquainted witli. The comparison, if made with due knowledge and impartiality, will certainly turn in favor of Flemish agriculture, whatever may be said in preference of the neatness and elegance of the methods used elsewhere, and of the usefulness of the new-invented machines employed therein. What I have already said, is as much as this essay will admit of, on the general nature of Bel - gic agriculture. I shall now add a few words on the principles which the legislature follows with respect to it. These are chiefly confined to the following heads : 1st, Permission for exportation of corn in times of abundance, and restrictions in times oi scarcity : 2dly, Ordinances for bringing corn to be sold at the markets, and for preventing it to be bought on the field, or at the farmer's : 3dly, Or- dinances, in some provinces, lor restraining the extent of farms, and prescribing a division of those of too great extent ; also forbidding the destruction of farm houses without rebuilding them. The ordinances for bringing corn to be sold at market, are generally eluded : the corn is bought at the farmer's ; he brings it to market, exposes it, and his first answer is, that it is sold. This is often the cause of murmurs among the people ; but I know of no remedy found for it, except the prohi- bition of all exportation, which takes place as soon as a real scarcity is felt ; and this in its turn ex- cites the murmurs of the farmers, who have seldom any other view except their private interest, and who, always having corn enough for their own use, never see a scarcity ui the country. As to the methods of agriculture, or the nature of crops, the government of the Low Countries takes no cognizance of them, but leaves every one to do what he thinks best ; and certainly private interest and the love of gain are the best stimu- lants on this head, and seldom fail to excite each one to cultivate his ground in the manner, and with the productions, which he finds most' profita- ble. Experience thereon is his only rule and guide. The most universal land-measure in the Low Countries is the bunder or bonier. In Brabant and Hainault it contains 400 square perches or roods of 20 feet long ; so that the square rood con- tains 400 square feet, and the bunder 160,000. — The rood varies in different parts, as does also the foot, which in general is less than the English one. On an average the bunder may be reckoned three English acres. In Flanders, land is usually measured by what is called a ghemet, a measure .containing three hundred square roods ; the rood ibeing in some places twelve, in others fifteen, jFlemish feet long : but, in some parts of this pro- Ivince, a bunder or bonier is in use, containing [400 square roods, as in Brabant and Hainault : but Uhe rood varies in different cantons, from ten to twenty feet in length. The bonier contains four journals of land. In the rest of this essay, I shall treat briefly of the methods of agriculture in different parts of Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault, distinguishing them according to the different nature of the soil, and confining myself to such practices as are gene- rally established in each. As the difference of climate is insensible within these limits, I shall prefer the order which results from the soil, to that of locality, as tlie practices of husbandry, in an extent of flat country not exceeding one hun- dred miles any way, are determined in a great measure by the soil alone. The different soils I shall speak of are the fol- lowing: 1. The sandy heath of the Campine of Brabant. 2. The parts of Brabant contiguous to the Cam- pine. 3. The strong clayey soil of Walloon-Brabant, and the northern parts of Hainault. 4. The soil of the middle region of Brabant, being a mixture of sand and loam. 5. The light sandy soil about Bruges. 6. The rich loam of tiie districts of Ghent, Courtray, and Maritime Flanders. 7. The artificial soil of the Pays de Waes. TTie Cctinpim of Brabant. It is Avell known that the Campine of Brabant, which is the northern part of that province, con- sisted originally of sand covered with heath, in- terspersed with lakes and extensive marshes, and here and there with woods of fir. Tradition sup- poses it to have been once a part of the sea. To this day, where cultivation has not extended, the soil of itself produces nothing but heath and fir. — The sand is of the most barren and harsh kind, nor can it be rendered fertile, but by continued ma- nuring. As the property of this ground may be acquired for a trifle, many have been tlie attempts of private persons to bring tracts of it into culti- vation ; every means have been tried for that pur- pose, and government has given every possible en- couragement to it. But I have not heard of any one, however considerable might be his fortune, that has succeeded in it, and many have been ruined by the project. What is cultivated in the Campine, is ow'ing to the religious houses established in it, es- pecially to the two great abbeys of Tongerloo and Everbode. Their uninterrupted duration for five or six hundred years past, and their indefati- gable industry, have conquered these barren harsh sands, and rendered many parts of them highly productive. The method they follow is simple and uniform ; they never undertake to cultivate more of this barren soil at a time than they have sufficient manure for ; seldom more than five or six bunders in a year ; and when it is brought by labor and manuring into a state capable of pro- ducing sufficient for a family to live on, it is let out to farmers on easy terms, after having built them comfortable habitations. By these means, many extensive tracts of the Campine are well cul- tivated, and covered with villages, well built houses, and churches. The abbey of Tongerloo alone furnishes about seventy of its members as curates to these parishes, all of whom owe their existence to that original stock. I may add here, and that from the undoubted testimony of the his- torians of the Low Countries, that the cultivation 102 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE OF THE NETHERLANDS. of the greatest part of these rich provinces, look its rise from the self same means, eiglit hundred or a thousand years back, when they were in a man- ner one continued forest. A Campine farm of twenty bunders is stocked with two or three liorscs, seven or eight cows, some oxen, and is cultivated with coleseed, clover, rye, oats, and little or no wheat. It is hardly ne- cessary to add, that potatoes, turnips, and carrots are cultivated not only in the Campine, but throughout all the Low Countries. But tlie cul- ture of spergule (alfine spcrgula major) is more peculiar to the north of Jirabant, though not con- fined to that tract alone. It serves the cows for autumn food, and the butter of this season is called spergule butter, of which the Campine furnishes a great quantity, especially to Brussels, where it is employed for the use of the kitclien, as bein^- both cheaper and more profitable than any other lor that purpose. This plant is sown where corn has been reaped, after the ground has been lightly ploughed. Cows are tethered on it in October, and a space allowed to each one proportionable to the quantity of food which is proper for her. This pasture last's till the frosts come on. As spergule gives but little straw, and conse- quently little manure, the farmers supply the want thereof in the following manner: — The peat or sods which are cut from the heath, are placed in the stables and cow-stalls as litter ibr the cattle. The ground under them is dug to a certain depth, so as to admit a considerable quantity of these peat sods, and fresh ones are added as the feet of the cattle tread them down into less compass. These compose so many beds of manure, thoroughly im- pregnated with the urine and dun^ of tlie cattle. This litter- is renewed at proper times, and that which is removed from the stables and cow-stalls is laid up in heaps, till it be carried into the fields where it is to be spread. This mixture produces a compost of excellent quality for fertilizing ground where corn is to be sown. By these means a far greater quantity of manure is produced from the peat, than could be had by burning- it, as is done in some parts. In the Campine oi' Brabant, the main object which the farmers have in view, is to obtain a great quantity of manure, without which all attempts to cultivate that barren soil are in vain. Besides butter, the Campine furnishes the rest of Brabant, and Brussels particularly, with great quantities of fat fowl : the markets are constantly supplied with them, and they are preferred to any other of the same kind. They are not less sought for and esteemed in South Holland. The parts of Brabant contiguous to the Campine. There are no great farms in these parts, and hard- ly any such thing as tenants ; each farmer is a pro- prietor ; and as he cultivates his own ground, it is clear that he will do all he can to render it fertile, without impoverishing it : far different in this re- spect from the tenant, who only seeks his own temporary interest, by forcing the soil, during his lease, if he has no assurance of renewing it, indii- ferent how much he may impoverish the land for the future. There are many meadows in these districts, which give regularly twocroj)s of hay, one at mid- summer, the other towards the end of August. — It is not observed that ficquent mo^ving impover- ishes those meadows whose soil is deep and fat. If others of inferior soil appear spent, the custom is to sow them for three succeeding years with oats, and the last thereof mixing clover with the oats : by this means they become excellent meadows anew. In proportion as the ground rises from the mea- dows, it diminishes in goodness, becoming at last a rough brown sand, mixed with pebbles; and under this is a stratum of compact clay, through which water filtrates Avith difficulty. Such ground as this gives small crops of rye, but it is excellent for black or Turkey v/hcat {bled Sarrazin.y* The productions of this part of the country are, wheat, rye, barley, oats, and Turkey wheat ; and as food for cattle, spergule, clover, turnips and po- tatoes. They cultivate also, rape, coleseed and flax, chiefly lor their oils ; and also tobacco. I shall add a few observations on some of these. The good corn land of this canton never lies fal- low ; the only rest that is given it, is to let it lie a year in the clover that was sown on it with the corn the preceding year ; and then it returns again to corn, which is produced in its former abundance. It has been observed likewise, that the best crops are produced when the corn is sown thin. Turkey wheat, made into paste, and fried with fat bacon, is the ordinary food of the peasants of these parts, and also of the Campine. It serves tliem likewise for liUting their tbwl ; of which, as we said above of the Campine, they feed great quantities for the markets of the rest of Bx-abant and of Holland. Great quantities of spergule are likewise cultivat- ed in this district. It is sown immediately after the corn is reaped. This plant is excellent in the lat- ter season lor cows : it is wholesome, and increases the quantity and the goodness of their milk ; and the butter made from it is fatter, and keeps better, than that made from grass in INI ay and June. — Spergule serves likewise for manure, in liglit soils, on account of its succulent and fat nature : bemg ploughed down while it is still green, it serves as a partial amendment lor sowing wheat on the ground. Clover is sown along with rye, barley, oats, wheat, and even with flax. Clover seed is a great branch of commerce in this country. When they do not choose to let the clover grow up for seed, it is cut at least three times in a year. After the last cut, the plant is ploughed under, and makes a good manure; and, when a little dung is added to it, wheat or rj'e are profitably sown on the ground. Turnips and carrots are sown indifTerently with any sort of corn ; insomuch that in autumn, after the coi-n is reaped, the fields appear covered with them ; and it is observed, that those which grow in this manner, are better than those planted in gardens, and are an excellent and healthy food ibr both men and cattle. Potatoes are here likewise of great use for both. Their culture serves to amend ground newly broken up, by dividing and lightening its too com- pact parts, and rendering it thereby proper for sowing rye on, the following year. Coleseed (colza) and rape require a strong soil, and rather dry. Flax exhausts the ground, and is detrimental to the culture of corn on it. Tobacco produces a still worse effect of the same kind. + Buckwheat. FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE OF THE NETHERLANDS. 103 It has been found of o;reat use in tliis part of the countiy , to divide the land into small fields, enclosed with ditclies and quickset hedges, which sheltei- the vegetation from the dry winds and frosts of the spring; nor are they less useful in long droughts, for the same reason. The ditches are receptacles for the water which runs off in rainy seasons, and contribute also to the growth of tlie hedges, which are cut off for faggots every five or six years. Oak, beech, birch, poplar, hazel, &c. are planted for these hedges, the growth of which is kept down by frequent cutting. Walloon Brabant, and northern parts of Halnault. The soil I shall speak of under this head, is in general a cold compact clay, almost impenetrable to rain, and in droughts hard and full of cracks. — In ploughing, tlie furrows arc made from eight to twelve feet in distance. Lime and marl are found to be the best manures for this ground, which is manured one year in three. Long experience has shown, that the earth, after ploughing, must not be too much broken ; for if it be, the rain forms it into an even compact mass, wliich afterwards dries and hardens, so as to become like one of the barn floors of the country ; whereas, when the earth is left in clods, these crumble away insensibly during winter and spring, and thereby cover gradually the roots and young stalks of the corn. Culture of Wheat. — The ground whereon wlieat is to be sown, is completely dunged, and ploughed five times ; the first time in November, the second in March or April, the third at Midsummer, at which time the dung is spread on it, the fourth in August, the fifth and last in September. Four raziers, weighing 100 lib. each, are usually sown on a bunder, which gives in its turn fifty raziers, when the crop is good. When lime is used for manure, four wagon loads are usually laid on a bunder. Hye. — This is sown on land that has been dung- ed and sown with wheat the foregoing j^ear. Two ploughings suffice. The sowing is begun about the 20th of September, if the weather permits : and in the spring, clover is sown on it. The crop is usually ripe in July. Meteil. — Wheat and rye sown together are call- ed Meteil. This mixture is sown, like rye, on a ground that has borne wheat the preceding year, and which has been ploughed in the same manner. The sowing and reaping time of meteil are a little later than those of the rye. Oats. — They are sown preferably on land which has borne clover ; and in this case one ploughino- suffices. Clover. — Clover is sown along with wheat and rye ; 20 lib. of seed are used for a bunder. An artificial meadow of clover, remains good for two years ; but in the spring of the second year, forty tubs (cuvelles) of ashes, each weighing about 60 lib. are spread on a bunder : but this quantity va- ries according to the season and the nature of the ground. Potatoes and Carrots — Are great articles of cul- tivation in these parts,, and used for both men and cattle ; but the methods have notiiing peculiar. Turnips — Are sown on a well dunged ground, about the middle of July ; and before the end of September, if the season be favorable, they are fit to be given to tlie cattle, who feeil partly on them as long as they remain good. Horse-beans, Peas, Vetches. — All these are cul- tivated in these parts of the Low Countries, with- out any material difference in the manner from what is practised elsewhere. Colzat or Coleseed. — It is sown about the mid- dle of July, and the young planis are transplanted about the end of September. This is done with a narrow spade, sunk into the ground, and moved with the hand forwards and backwards, which simple motion makes a sufficient opening to re- ceive the plant : a boy or girl follows the laborer with plants, and, putting one of them into each hole, treads against it to close it up. If the plantation is done with the plough, the plants are placed at regular distances in the furrow, and are covered with the earth turned up by the succeeding fur- row. Sometime after the coleseed is planted, the foot of the stalks are covered by means of a com- mon spade, or hoe, with the earth near it, which furnishes nourishment for the plants during win- ter, by the crumbling of these little clods of earth over the roots. The coleseed is reaped about Midsummer, or later, according as the season is more or less advanced : it is left on the field for ten or twelve days after it is cut, and then thrash- ed on a kind of sail-cloth, spread on the ground for that purpose, and the seed carried in sacks to the farm. When the crop is good, a bunder pro- duces about forty raziers, of 80 lib. weight each It is to be observed, that the ground whereon cole- seed is to be planted, must be dunged, and twice ploughed, the same year it is put in use. Flax. — The land for sowing flax, must be care- fully cleaned from bad weeds, and well dunged. — Some farmers, for the sake of getting better crops of flax, sow it on clover ground, which they dung towards the end of September, and plough after- wards. One hundred and eighty pounds of seed are sown on a bunder as soon as spring comes on. When the flax is about four inches high it is carefully weeded, without which precaution the weeds would stifle the plants ; and this is repeated as often as the Aveeds get head anew. When the crop is good, a bunder yields about 400 lib. weight of flax. The flax of this part of the country, is much inferior in quality to that produced about Courlray and Menin. In these parts of the Low Countries, the farms are usually much greater than in Flanders, and in the middle region of Brabant, where the land is richer. In Hainault, all farms of above seventy bunders have been divided ; but this has not ex- tended to Walloon Brabant, where there are still many great farms. A farm of seventy bunders* is usually distribu- ted as follows: ten bunders of meadow, ten of wheat, twelve of rye, three of winter-barley, one of spring-barley, eight of oafs, four of horse-beans, peas, and vetches, and eight of clover; which to- gether makes fifty six bunder in cultivation, the other fourteen lying fallow, in all seventy bunders. For cultivating such a farm, eight horses are ne- cessary ; and it is stocked with sixteen cows, twelve oxen, and a flock of two hundred sheep; besides hogs and fowls in proportion. The Middle Region of Urabant. The land here is a mixture of sand and loam, * About 210 English acres. 104 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE OF THE NETHERLANDS. which makes an excellent light soil, but net so rich as thatof Flanders, though preieral)le perhaps for corn. The usual productions of this part of the country are wheat, rye, oats, barley, beans, peas, vetches, clover, turnips, carrots, and pota- toes. No ground here lies falloAV ; the tarms are seldom extensive : forty bunders may be taken for an average. The distribution of a farm of this size is usually into about six bunders of meadow, and thirty four of arable land. These last are manured almost yearly, with from twelve to sixteen wagon loads of manure to each bunder, those in clover excepted. On these it is usual to spread, in JMarch, turf-ashes brought in boats from Holland. From eighty to one hun- dred tubs of about sixty i)ounds weight each are employed for a bunder, one third of which is kept to be spread after the first cut. INIany of the Flemish farmers n)ake great use of these ashes, which being highly impregnated with salts, enrich the land so as to render it capable of producing ex- cellent crops of wheat, without any other manure, except turning under the clover it was sown with the preceding year. In most fiirm-yards, a deep ditch is dug near the cow-house, into which the urine of the cattle runs, and a suflicient quantity is gathered, for spreading over tv/o or three bunders, which proves an excel- lent manure. The arable part of such a farm as I am speak- ing of, is distributed as follows : five bunders of wheat, five of rye, two of meteil, two of barley, four of oats, two of beans, peas, and vetches, five of clover, four of turnips, carrots, and potatoes, and five of coleseed ; in all thirty four bunders, the other six being meadow. The following rotation is used in the culture of these parts. The ground being well manured, the first year coleseed is planted ; the second year it is sown with wheat; and the third with rye, with- out dunging. From two to three raziers of wheat, of 80 lib. each, are usually sown on a bunder ; and when the crop is good, it yields from thirty to for- ty raziers of the same weight. Some farmers spread turf-ashes on the ground where they have sown turnips and carrots, as well as on that sown with clover. Sic. and then pass the l)arrow over it. In a favorable year, a journal (a quarter of a bunder) of land well manured, will produce from fifty to sixty sacks of potatoes. Those that feed sheep in the districts where no land lies fallow, feed them, as well as their other cattle, with corn, beans, peas, vetches, turnips, and other roots. jfgriculture of Flanders ; and first in the envi- rons of Bruges. The quality of the soil varies greatly in dilVer- ent parts of the district of Bruges, although the main constituent of it be every where a light sand. In many parts, continual manuring and cultivation have rendered it extremely rich ; in some spots, for want of these, it is less so ; but a more exten- sive population would soon bring them into the same state as the rest. There are many large farms in this part of the country, belonging in general to the rich abbeys; those of lay proprietors are for the most part less ; and those of which the farmers themselves are pro- prietors, are still smaller. The culture in these cantons is regulated as follows : A ghemet, or measure of land, is manured the first year v/ith dung, or, near Bruges, with a boat load of street dirt from that city ; it is then sown with flax; the second year wheat is sown on it; the third year rye; the fourth year it is again slightly manured, and sown with oats or Turkey wheat, and sometimes with clover, turnips, car- rots, parsnips, or potatoes. Clover is sown along with oats, and only lasts a year; it is afterwards ploughed, manured, and sown with wheat and flax. Broom is sometimes sown as an amendment for bad land, and pulled up at the end of the second year, during winter. The ground is then dunged, ploughed, and cultivated with later crops, sown in the spring. Turnips, carrots, parsnips, and potatoes, supply in Uiese parts the want of meadows, and great care is taken to preserve them during winter for food for their cattle. Turnips, carrots, and parsnips are laid in the earth, in round heaps, of eight or ten feet in diameter at the bottom, and five or six -feet high; wlien the first layer is placed, it is covered with long straw ; and so on alternately to the top. These heaps are opened in the winter or spring, according as the farmer has need of them A for feeding his horses and cows ; they are given ^ likewise to early lambs, when young grass is wanting. Potatoes are kept in deep holes dug in sandy ground, where they are seldom hurt by ordinary frosts, and keep good till far on in the spring. In this tract of country, there are many little woods of oak, elm, beech, alder, and here and there fir of the maritime kind. Great quantities of willows are planted, and some are let grow up into trees, out of which are made windlasses for the boats and barges of the country: these sell dearer than oak. Lands on the Rivers Lysand Scheldt, from Menin and Courtray to Ghent and Dendermonde, and also of Maritime Flanders. The soil on the flat banks of the Lys and the Scheldt is reckoned among the best in Flanders : it is in general, a rich, sandy, moist loam, become almost black with a long and uninterrupted culti- vation. Hardly any great farms are found here; those of from sixty to eighty ghemets are counted the greatest, and they are generally less, as the land is richer. In the largest of these farms, there are seldom more than three or four horses, and ten or twelve cows. The ftu-mer employs from twenty to thirty wagon loads of dung for three ghemets of land, and only fifteen or sixteen loads, if it be street dirt from the great towns, or turf ashes brought by wafer from Holland. These lands produce grain of every sort in great abundance, as also every kind of esculent roots, which are given to the cattle in winter, along with their hay. The meadows along the rivers, and in other parts of this rich and moist soil, are superi- orly good, and the clover is the most luxuriant I ever saw. It is usual to spread, in the spring, sixty sacks of turf ashes on three ghemets of clover sown the preceding year, which proves an excel- lent manure to it. A great branch of culture in these parts, and FARMERS' REGISTER— SHIRLEY FARM. 105 particularly in the districts of Courtray and Men- in, is that of tlax, of which they produce an im- mense quantity, and of the finest kind. The ex- pense of this culture is great, the labor bestowed on it in weeding, is almost uninterrupted, and the damage it does to the soil in exhausting its vegeta- ble juices, is beyond measure; but in return, a good crop will almost buy the ground. To reco- ver the soil after a crop of flax, clover and sper- g uleare sown on it, and turned down for manure. The plough used for this fine light soil, has a little wheel and an immoveable sower: one horse serves to draw it, or two at most in the strongest of this ground. Lands uncultivated, and fields lying fallow, are here unknown. There are few woods in this part of the country ; but all the fields are enclosed Avith hedges, and thick set with trees, insomuch thattlic whole face of the country, seen from any little lieight, seems one continued wood. The agriculture in JMaritime Flanders is much the same with that now spoken of, as the soils of each bear a great resemblance ; only that near the sea is more moist, tlie meadows are more exten- sive, and little or no flax or spergule are there cultivated. If there be any material difference be- tween these soils, it consists m the greater quanti- ty of marine substances, which enter into the com- position of the soil of Maritime Flanders, than of that in the inner part of the country, and these add to it an additional degree of fertility. The castlery of Furns, and the environs of Dix- mude, abound more in excellent meadows than any other part of the low countries : the number of horned cattle fed there is immense, as is also the quantity of butter produced and sold, chiefly at JDixmude market; and it is of the best quality, both for richness and keeping. The Pays de JVaes. The land of Waes is the district lying on the north side of the Scheldt, between Ghent and Ant- werp ; it is a perfect flat, and is reckoned the rich- est part of Flanders. The original soil was pure sand, and its present state of fertility, is owing to the great number of its industrious inhabitants, who cultivate a few acres round their dwellings, of which, for the most part, they are proprietors. The natural meadows are rid), and the great num- ber of cows which the inhabitants keep, furnish manure in great abundance : But they ^re not content with this alone ; great quantities of turf- ashes are brought thither from Holland, as also a great part of the street-dirt and dung from Brus- sels, Antwerp, and Ghent, besides what is had from the many rich and populous towns and villa- ges, with which this district is covered. The farms being so very small, few horses are kept in the land of Waes ; the ground is chiefly worked with the spade and hoe, which the extreme lightness of the soil renders easy. If a jjlough be used, it is of the most simple kind, without v/heels, and drawn by one horse. All these contribute to- gether to give a richness and fertility to the soil of this tract, which surpasses almost what can be imagined. No spot lies uncultivated. The common method of culture is as follows : a bunder of land is manured, once in seven years, with from forty to fifty cart loads of dung, and town dirt. The first year it is sov/n with hemp; the second with flax; the third with wheat; the Vol. I.— 14 fourth and fifth M'ith rye ; the sixth with oats ; and the seventh with clover, Turkey wheat, turnips, or carrots. Fallow ground is unknown here. Spergule is sometimes sown about mid August, on land that has borne wheat; and in October the cows are put into it. The spergule which they culti- vate for seed is sown in March, and reaped in June, It is to be observed, that the riches of the land of Waes consist chiefly in the culture of flax and hemp ; the other crops being in general for their own use, and for home consumption, which indeed is ve- ry considerable, on account of the great population of this district. The produce of their flax and hemp is so considerable, that in a good year they are reck- oned to amount almost to the value of the ground. The agriculture of the land of Waes, passes, in- disputably, for the most complete and perfect in all the Netherlands. For the Farmers' Register. LEAVES from a TRAVEIiLERS' NOTE BOOK. ..4 Walk through Shirley Farm, J;''ov. 2BUi, 1832. * * * * # * One of the early steps taken by Mr. Carter for the improvement of Sliirley, Avas the reverse of our general practice of extended cultivation. — From about seven hundred acres, the previous ex- tent of the arable land, he reduced the whole space of highland subject to tillage to four hundred acres, divided into four fields, besides some twenty acres in lots which are mostly kept in grass. The re- maining body of three Imndred acres, the poorest of the farm, formed a standing pasture, until late- ly, when it was again brought under cultivation, and subjected to the general rotation of crops. — The purchase and substitution of two hundred acres of poor land for standing pasture, made this change practicable and expedient. A tide swamp of eighty five acres was also added to the extent for cultivation eight years ago, when it was first diked and drained. This has been under corn every year since, and by its abundant product of grain, and of forage and litter for manure, permits corn to be excluded altogetlier from the general rota- tion, which is as follows : 1st year — Wheat on clover lay — not mowed previously, and but partially grazed. 2d.— Oats. 3d. — W heat on oat stubble ploughed in, and clo- ver seed sowed. 4th. — Clover — to be turned in for wheat in au- tumn, as before. The ploughing of the clover land is begun in the first moist state of the soil in August, and con- tinued usually until October, before it is completed. The ploughing is as deep as can be done by three good horses to each plough. All the manure is given just before the latest of this deep ploughing, and usually serves for fifty acres, including the summer running cow-pens. This is the only deep ploughing given to prepare for the crop; but shaflow ploughing and repeated harrowings are given as required before and after sowing the wheat. ' I should suppose that but few soils could resist exhaustion under this severe rotation, even with all the aid here derived from manui-e and general good management : though Mr. Carter's observa- tion and experience have led him to form a very different opinion. He thinks that even on inferior soils, with proper attention to vegetable manures, 106 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHIRLEY FARM. three grain crops may be made in each rotation of four years, and yet the land be kept improving in product. The general soil of Shirley is a dark lirown clay loam, deep, and originally very rich, and pos- sesses in a high degree the valuable qualities of the low level tracts on the tide water of James river, which seem to have been originally formed l)y al- luvion. The higher part of the farm is of a diffe- rent and inferior soil. Mr. C. received the estate greatly impoverished by the usual management of overseers during his minority — and since, has restored it to nearly or quite its former fertility. The soils naturally the poorest, he supposes are now more productive than at first. Fortunately for the success of his labors, tlic surface was too level to be much hurt by being washed, (the most ef- fectual means for destroying land,) and yet it is suf- ficiently undulating to be kept perfectly drained — and great care is used for this purpose. The fields are kept in beds of fifteen feet — and that lately sowed in wheat has every Avater furrow well and neatly opened and cleaned out by the ploughs, and small shallow ditches (or grips, ^ cut across the beds in every depression of the surface, so as to draw all surface water from the furrows, and dis- charge it from the field. These grips" are opened by ploughs and spades after sowing and covering the wheat, and are so small as not to obstruct tlie future tillage. The most productive crop of wheat yet made by Mr. C. (though not the largest) was some years ago, before his present rotation Avas completely in operation. From 110 acres of wheat on clover lay, and 80 more succeeding oafs and corn, he reaped and examined 5322 bushels, or be- tween 27 and 28 of average product to the acre. Of this, the part succeeding clover Avas of course much the best, and some acres of it probably brought 40 bushels. The wlieat after clover in the present rotation is usually double as much as the same land will bring two years after, when succeeding oats. Besides the objection to this rotation of be- ing too exhausting for most lands, I should have supposed that it would keep the soil full of weeds — as there is no cleansing or horse-hoed crop intro- duced. But this evil docs not seem to exist here : for though Mr. C. complains loudly of his annoy- ance from blue-grass, and partridge peas, the ap- pearance of his fields when seen vuider grain, and the amount of crops reaped and sold, sufficiently prove that these pests must be kept from doing- much injury. The deep and effectual plougliing, rapid succession of crops, followed by a heavy smothering crop of clover, must be the means which serve to keep down the growth of weeds.* Gypsum acts here well on clover, and has been used extensively — but is not continued to be ap- plied to every crop of clover. It is used however whenever the young gi'owth is endangered by a dry season. Stone lime (from Maine,) to the amount of 500 casks Avas used a few years ago, (in such a mode of application as to be mostly carbo- nated, or made mild, before acting) — and Avith great benefit to the first crop, Avheal", Avhich I saAv when nearly ripe : of course the benefit Avill be * Since these notes Avere written, I liave learned from Mr. C. that I was mistaken in this respect. Tlie in- crease of blue grass is so great, and its growth is so destructive to the clover crop, and impedes so much the preparation of the land for Avlieat, that some horse-hoed crop, or cleansing tillage, must be adopted. permanent. The lime Avas bought at a price unu- sually low, (less than sgil the cask,) and the effects so Avell paid the cost, that like applications Avould have been made every year since, but for the liigher price of stone lime. The scarcity of fuel forbids the burning of oyster shells for manure, as is done so beneficially on some of the estates loAver doAvn the river. Mr. C. proposes now, as cheap- er tlian lime in any Avay, to give calcareous ma- nure to his fields, by bringing marl across the ri- ver, from the beds in Prince George county. The deep ploughing of the clover lay, and the sod not being turned back by a second ploughing, prevents most of the clover seed from coming up : and to avoid any risk of loss by relying on the vo- lunteer groAvth for a crop, a full alloAvance of seed is soAved at the proper time in every course of crops. The thicker the clover plants may stand, the more seed Avill be made to the acre : this Avas to me a ncAV fact — and is directly opposed to opi- nions that have been published. The partridge pea is one of the Avorst pesfs on such soils as that of Shirley, and I have found it to increase so much on sandy land after marling, that it seemed that Avheat culture Avould ultimately be rendered altogether unprofitable. These Avorst evils Avere experienced after early soAving. Any soil over Avhich this plant has once been spread, is so filled Avith its hard and almost indestructible seeds, that the most careful tillage Avill never remove them. Every deep ploughing brings to the sur- face a ncAV supply of dormant seeds, which Avill sprout as soon as the first cold Aveatlier in October begins, and not before. To keep this groAvth in check, IMr. C. harroAvs his clover lay after the deep ploughing, and does not soav the Avheat until the Avealher has been cold enough to sprout most of tlie plants near the surfli.ce. This may be ex- pected to take place from the 10th to the 20th, on , land ploughed not less than fifteen days before. — Then, a very shallow ploughing, or repeated har- roAvings, serve to cover the seed Avheat, and at the same time to destroy every plant of partridge pea in their then tender state — and not enough plants will again rise to materially hurt the crop ot' wheat. Thus the partridge pea makes still la- ter soAving necessary than the Hessian fly. My OAvn practice of ploughing (on corn land) deep and well, and then soAving and harroAving in the seed Avheat Avith as little delay as possible, is no safe- guard whatever against this Aveed — as every seed l^rought up by the plough, is left to spring up Avith the Avheat. At Curies' Neck, I Avas shoAvn a piece of excellent land under Avheat soAved early last month, and on Avhicii partridge pea had sprung in abundance, although in the course of the rotation, three previous successive groAvthsofthat plant had been brought up by the plough, sprouted, and then destroyed by tillage. The individual plants of partridge pea are as easily killed by the plough and harroAv, as any plant Avhatever — but the suc- cession of plants is endless. Mr. C. has usually kept 20 horses, about 100 head of horned cattle, and a sufficient stock of hogs for home consumption. He has also 200 sheep, but not here, they being kept on a poor firm a few miles distant, the cultivation of Avhich has been abandoned. With the stock above nam- ed, and the vegetable materials for litter fur- nished by the crops of grain and hay only, there are annually manured about fifty acres. Very little FARMERS' REGISTER— SHIRLEY FARM. 107 hay is made, because not needed for food since the marsh was reclaimed. No leaves are used, be- cause there are none sufficiently accessible and abundant. No roots or succulent crops (to any ex- tent) are used for feeding either lean cattle or beeves; it being supposed that an acre of land in corn will produce more aliment, than the same land and labor can bring in ruta baga, or mangel wurt- zel, &c. The winter cow -yard is now being prepared with enclosure and sheds to receive the cattle. They have not yet been moved from the summer pens, but will be as soon as the yard is littered. It is made every year in the field on which the manure is to be applied the succeeding autumn. Dry sheds, made of long rived slabs, stretch along the whole north side of the yard, and partly along the ad- joining east and west sides. The straw and other food is placed in different parts of the yard, in racks formed of fence-rails crossed over a low ho- rizontal pole : and tliese racks v/hen full, form addi- tional shelters for the cattle fi-om wind and driving- rains. The cattle never leave the pen except to be watered, and that not more than twice a day — and in the coldest weather, only once, which is thought sufficient, if done about 1 o'clock. The stock have never appeared to suffer injury from this long- confinement. In the spring, when the necessity for feeding has ceased, and the cattle are moved to the naked summer pens, the manure as it lies in the winter yard is usually about two feet thick, and is left in that compact state until September, being sheltered from the sun by a thick coat of straw. — It is carried out and spread just ahead of the ploughs that are turning in the clover lay for wheat. The harrowing that immediately follows the ploughs closes the seams, and less loss is sus- tained, (as Mr. C. thinks,) or more profit gained from the manure, than could be by other more usual modes of management. The manure is suf- ficiently, though not completely rotted, without the trouble of moving and heaping it to ferment in the spring; and the fermentation must be slow and gentle, from the compressed state of the mass. The unusual extent annually manured by Mr. C. and the unquestionable general and great in- crease of fertility which he has thus produced, are alone sufficient to command much respect for his opinions as to the proper application of manure. — Still, others are ascertain thai there is great loss in not using the manure for a spring crop to precede wheat, as well as from its being left exposed with so broad a surface in the pen through the summer, and in the earth after ploughing under, in Septem- ber. Its being buried beneath a good furi'ow- slice, while the temperature of the earth is so high, without excluding air or moisture, must serve (in my opinion,) to excite a new fermentation, and cause a great loss of products, as tliere would be no growing plants to absorb tliem. Reclaimed Marshes. The diked tide swamp of Shirley is so beautiful a piece of the most fertile land, and is kept in such perfect good order, that whenever I have seen it, my first feeling of admi- ration has almost compelled me for a time to yield all my objections to such improvements ; and in en- joying the view of the beauty and fertility thus created by enterprize and industry, to forget my conviction of its transient value, and certain fu- ture end. This piece, of eighty-five acres, was co- vered by the thick gro^wth of ash and gum, which is common on fresh water marshes of an elevation above ordinary tides. It has now been diked and drained seven years. If I may judge the soil by examinations of my own lands of like appearance, and of the embanked salt marsh of Hog Island, this contains fifty per cent, of its weight (when perfectly dried for examination,) of vegetable mat- ter, destructible by fire, and consequently by pu- ti-e faction, when exposed to the air, and the alter- nations of wet and dry weather. But this vegeta- ble part of the soil (composed of rotten roots, &c.) which is found at all known depths, is so porous and spongy, and so light when dried, that for it to form one half of the weight, it must constitute nine tenths of the bulk of the soil. My knowing these facts of the composition of our marsh soils, was enough to convince me that whenever drained and cultivated, they would as certainly roi away, as would a large dung-hill if left standing for a num- ber of years. The careful and excellent manage- ment of the Shirley swamp, will cause it to present the strongest confirmation of my opinion. Most of the embanked marshes on James River have, from neglect, been returned vuider the dominion of the tides so soon, that the cause I have mentioned was not permitted to be seen operating alone. In every such case, the final failure of the embankment has been attributed to some extraordinary high tide, or to the cutting through the bank by muskrats, or to the water penetrating under and " blowing up" the flood-gates or trunks. Here, there has been no neglect. Disasters have occurred indeed, of such magnitude and frequency, that there are not many persons who would not have abandoned the improvement in despair. But, whatever da- mage has been sustained, was speedily repaired — and the land has every successive year yielded a crop of corn, the best of which was more than fifty bushels the acre, and tiie whole making a general average of thirty five bushels of sound corn for ev- ery year and through every disaster and loss. The level of the land within the dike appeared to my eye, (and confirmed by Mr. Carter's opinion,) to be already eighteen inches lower than that with- out, which was still subject to the tides. The bank ^vas orighially six feet high. Every winter since it was built, a foot of additional earth has been laid on the bank, which was not enough to counterba- lance the loss of the ensuing summer : for after all these additions (which are exclusive of the repairs of extensive breaches made by hi^h tides,) the bank is now lov/er than at first. But what is most im- portant in the matter, the clear profit from the crops has already greatly overpaid the whole expense of making and preserving the embankment: and there- fore the usual loss attending such improvements will be avoided — unless the proprietor should too long endeavor to defend his work from its inevita- ble end, the water resuming possession of the whole space. Though I am no advocate for the embankment of our tide marshes (compared with other improvements,) yet if such works are un- dertaken, it is of the utmost importance that they should be well executed : and all who are unable to resist this most besetting temptation of tide- v/atcr proprietors, will do well to practice the same liberal expense of labor, the care and watchful- ness, and the perseverance through difficulties and disasters, that have concurred to secure the success and profit of the embankment and cultivation of the Shirley swamp. 108 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHIRLEY FARM. James City Soils, and Resources for their Iia- provement. December 7th, 1832. The highest land lying betv/ecn York river on one side, and James river and Chickahominy on the other, is generally a poor sandy soil of" very worthless qualities, except for abounding with beds of fossil shells, (or marl as it is miscalled,) of the richest kind. This ma- nure is now generally used, and though in such a manner as not to yield half its value, still it has done much for this part of the country, and pre- sents a remarkable contrast with all otiier parts of the usual farming practice. Contrary to what is found higher up the country, the beds of marl here arc plenty only under the highest (or ridge) land, where it is exposed in most of the ravines — and they appear but in very few places near either of the neighboring borders of the three rivers. Al- most every person who has marl, uses it to some extent — and it is accessible to almost all. The uncommon richness of most of the marl that I saw, makes its use as cheap at a mile from the pit, as at less than half that distance, under common cir- cumstances. Judging from my limited observa- tions, the beds of marl contain less of calcareous earth as we proceed from the sea coast to the falls of the rivers ; though there arc many and frequent exceptions to this general rule. Fortunately for those who here led the way in this improvement, their early progress was so slow, that they had full opportunity to observe the damage produced by marling too heavily, before any man had more than a few acres so injured; and as accident h.ad also shown that manure from the farm-yard, &c. was an effectual remedy, they were enabled soon to correct the evil. Thin dressings of marl, and using their putrescent manures always after marl, have prevented any late or considerable loss from using the latter manure. The usual rotation here among the best farrtiers, is the old " three field" course-^ or 1. corn — 2. Avheat or oats — 3. close grazing on the natural grass and weeds tliat succeed such til- lage. The marl commonly raises the product of corn to double, or more than double the previous crop — say from one, or one and a half barrels, to three barrels the acre. But no subsequent or great- er increase is usually obtained, (which the severe tillage sufiiciently accounts for,) and the soil re- mains of inferior quality, notwithstanding its great advance towards fertility. Whatever putrescent manures are applied, are found to be much more permanent than before marling, which aids in sus- taining the soil under so exhausting a rotation. — Some do not even allow as much rest to the land as the three shift course requires. The only farm seen that had no dividing fences, and therefore could not be grazed, was under a grain crop every year, viz: 1. corn — 2. wheat, or oats, according to the power of the soil. Wheat under such ge- neral management, and on so sandy a soil, is ne- cessarily a poor crop : but Mr. Archer Hankins usually obtains ten bushels from one of seed, and (as he supposes,) not much less than that quantity from the acre. Most of the facts here stated res- pecting this neighborhood were learned from Mr. Hankins, who first commenced marling in this part of the country, and indeed wasthe first, I be- lieve, who succeeded in all Virginia. How long ago was his first experiment he does not know ; but certainly before 181G. Yet the public re- mained ignorant of this improvement, and it is only within the last twelve years that the use of marl has slowly extended. My own practice began in 1818 — and at that time, and for two years after, I had not hoard of this improvement in James City or elsewhere. This is one of the many proofs of how much valuable information is lost, and how much the improvement of agriculture is retarded, by the want of means for communica- tion among farmers. Even after this mode of im- provement was commenced by perhaps twenty iso- lated individuals, each remained ignorant of the success or errors of his fellows, and had to grope alone and unaided through all the difficulties and losses that every experunenter must undergo. The price of land here is very low — from ^1.50 to .^5 the acre; the highest price being for farms already marled in part, or having good buildings. A large body of land, nearer to Williamsburg, very poor, but having marl-beds, sold a few years ago at only seventy-five cents. The land gene- rally, without marling, I should consider worth- less : but with the great means for improvement which are offered by nature, it seems to me that a purchaser might obtain here more agricultural pro- fit, than from any land within my previous obser- vation. The land that has been brought by marl to three barrels of corn, would by mild culture and not grazing, rise to five barrels per acre. — Clover has scarcely been tried. JMr. H. long ago sowed in clover a part of his marled land, which produced well; but the succeeding corn crop was so bad, that he abandoned clover on that account. — The land had been broken late, (say in February, as is usual here,) and by single horse ploughs. Not one man in his neighborhood uses a two horse plough. The introduction and judicious use of clover as an auxiliary means for improvement, would add as much additional value and profit to these lands, as the owners have already derived from marl alone. This marl region takes in parts of both York and James City counties above AVilliamsburg. — The surface is generally waving, and often hilly : but I have never seen poor and broken land so lit- tle subject to be Avashed and gullied by heavy rains. I infer that the very sandy and open tex- ture of both soil and subsoil serves to soak up the rain as fiist as it falls, so that the water seldom flows over the surfat«e. Near this part of York river the land becomes more stiff, and more hilly. No marl known, or considered accessible. Heard of it only on one place on Chickahominy, (near Edloe's ferry,) in James City, and no where on that side of James river, from Chickahominy to some miles below Jamestown island, where (at Martii>'s Hundred) it is again found, and in great abundance. This stretch along James river in which no marl is seen, is generally level land, and not high. On York river from below Queen's creek to York- town there is much and rich marl, but not all the way. Wherever it is found below the mouth of Chickahominy, v.ith very few exceptions, the marl is as rich and as abundant as could be de- sired. The bank from which most of Mr. Han- kins' land had been marled appeai-ed to vary be- tween 60 and 80 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and was opened more than fifteen feet perpendicu- lar, without reaching the bottom. FARMERS' REGISTER— SHIRLEY FARM. 100 The highlands around Williamsburg, are also of acid and light soil, and generally poor, and bro- ken by ravines. The land however is no where so light as that above. Marl of the best quality, and in abundance, is found about Williamsburg, and has been generally used for some years with good effect, and in some cases over extensive sur- iaces. Still, land near the town shows the same general and strange depression of price — notwith- standing valuable and profitable improvements having been made by some farmers, and similar means being at the command of all. # # ^ # # ^ Manure from Castor Beans. Dr. T. G. Peachy of Williamsburg carries on the manufacture of oil from the castor bean (palma christi) which is rais- ed for sale on many farms hereabout, and is culti- vated still more extensively lower down the coun- try. The " bean-pomace," or the solid parts of thebeans, remaining after the expression of the oil by a powerful hydraulic press, has been found to be one of the richest of manures. Dr. P. applies only fifty bushels to the acre, which he thinks in- sures to him twenty bushels of wheat (in good seasons) from the poorest land of his farm, which without the manure, would not bring more than fivebushels. Its effects however are soon at an end, and are not expected to last longer than on a sin- gle crop. But clover sowed on the wlieat so ma- nured is found to " stick well," which ought to show those who use this manure how to prolong its short lived effects. Dr. P. applies to his land all the bean pomace yielded by his press, and would not sell it at twenty-five cents the bushel, as he considers its use worth more. It could formerly be bought at the oil-works at Hampton and Nor- folk at five cents the bushel, then at ten cents, and now not at any price, all being engaged by con- tracts. Mr. D. Gait, (who though a new comer to Williamsburg and a novice in ii\rming, has al- ready made great improvements and {)rotits on his newly purchased land, by marl and other ma- nures,) brings from Norfolk to this place all the bean pomace which a manufactory of castor oil there yields. It is a pity that those who can ob- tain this very rich manure do not always use it on marled land, and sow clover afterwards. Even of those who use marl largely and value it highly, there are few who will attend to its quality of fix- ing putrescent manures — and by that neglect, fail to profit by its most important benefit. The use of bean manure must necessarily be confined to a small space, on account of the limited supply. But I am induced to believe, that the ex- perience of the introducers of this manure, will prove valuable to the very extensive district in which cotton is cultivated and the seeds used as manure. If cotton seeds were mashed, instead of being fermented for manure, as is usual, they pro- bably would be found riclier than the pressed beans. The oil alone must be the sole enrichnig property of both — and the beans, after being press- ed with such an enormous force, cannot retain as much oil as the cotton seed have, before losing any. I have heard the value of cotton seed estimated as high as twenty-five cents for manure, and wonder- ful products are stated to have been obtained by using them " in the hill" for corn. But without denying such effects, it is certain that they are not general — and there seems to be as much due to luck as judgment, when this manure is very pro- ductive. If the seeds are used without being fer- mented, they sprout, and I suppose that their oil is thereby changed to something else more fit for food for the young cotton plants, and is lost as manure for the soil. The plants so produced are tneeds to the crop intended to be manured, and as troublesome to destroy, as they are useless if left to remain. — To avoid this, the seeds are usually exposed in heaps to the \\ cather, and pass through a violent fermentation, which destroys the power of germi- nation, and leaves the mass a rich manure certain- ly— but much less so than the oil alone would have been without fermentation. I am ignorant as to what are the chemical changes thus produced — but doubtless they are considerable, and destructive of mvich value in a mass so rich in oil, and so pu- trescent. When at Mr. Hank ins' farm, I saw preparations to grind cotton seed in a common apple mill, to be used for manure. A GLEA3VER. Believing that such information will be both interest- ing and valuable to others who design similar improve- ments, we have asked, and expect soon to receive from Mr. Carter an account in detail of the embanking and draining of his marsh, the cost of the original work, and the difficulties of its preservation, together with a state- ment of the crops and probable profits secured. We also hope to obtain from Dr. Peachy the information he can furnish respecting the novel practice of manuring with the refuse parts of castor beans. Both these com- munications will be presented to our readers as soon as possible after their arrival — which we hope will be early enough for them to be included in this number of the Farmers' Register. — [Editor. Market for Cocoons. The public will no doubt be gratified with the information that a silk filature is to be established in Baltimore, and that a market for cocoons will thus be secured. Mr. Hitchcock, the proprietor of the American Farmer, is authorised to pur- chase cocoons for the filature, and to pay from twenty-five to fifty cents a pound for them, ac- cording to quality. This is the full value of co- coons, and editors in the interior will no doubt do the country and the cause essential service by giv- ing circulation to this paragraph through the me- dium of their papers. This may also be consid- ered an answer to numerous inquiries where a market for cocoons can be found, and the price they will command. — {^^merican Parmer. Siiii«Fiowcr Oil. This article is beginning to attract attention in the west. Messrs. Prouty & Co. of Whartons, Ohio, in a letter to the editor of the American Farmer, state that they are now engaged in the manufacture of sun-flower oil, and that they could forward to Baltimore eight or ten barrels immedi- ately, if there was a prospect of its meeting a ready sale. Sun-flower oil is used in York, Pennsyl- vania, in paints, in lamps, and as a sutjstitute for olive oil on the table. We use it, and prefer it on all occasions, instead of olive oil. We would recommend a 'air trial of it by the painters, and hope the manufacturers will not be discouraged by the want of a market. — llbid. no FARMERS' REGISTER— OPERATION OF POOR LAWS. Tlie Operation of Poor L-aivs ON AGIlICtlLTUIiAL INTERESTS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I send to you the last number of tlie Westmin- ster Review, containing a long and valuable arti- cle on the present effects of the poor laws, as ad- ministered in England, of which I have marked the most important passages for extraction and republication in the Farmers' Register. There is no political institution that promises to affect agri- cultural interests more deeply than the poor law system, and therefore no other deserves more at- tention from tliose wlio wish to guard and defend the interests of agriculture. The people of Virginia, as well as those of all our sister stales, have copied almost all the politi- cal and social institutions of our mother country England, except such as were manifestly and di- rectly opposed to our free government. From this source we have derived much evil, and still more of good; but we have refused to accept the great- est benefit which the example of England offers, namely, her experience of the evil consequences of some of those institutions which slie has fully tried, and which we have adopted without dread or hesitation. The system of poor laws presents a remarkable example of our total disregard of ex- perience and of consequences. Of all the oppres- sions that bear on the agriculture of England, none is so intolerable as the poor law system — and there is no other of which the removal or alleviation is so hopeless. Upon all other important features of the policy of that country, honest and intelligent men are found on both sides. But as to the evils produced by the poor laws, there is but one ophiion among enlightened men of all parties. That opi- nion, however, does not suffice to remove, and scarcely to lessen evils, which the operation of that system has created and nourished to a most alarm- ing magnitude. Millions of paupers have been brought into existence by the bounties held out by this system, and depend upon its continuance for their sustenance. These bounties cannot be withdrawn ; for, independent of the claims of hu- manity and of all other important considerations, the abled bodied paupers that would be thus con- demned to starvation, are sufficiently numerous to make the whole face of England one wide scene of pillage, conflagration, and massacre. Half a million of^ men having a common interest, and feeling a common wrong, will not, and cannot sub- mit to a sentence of speedy and certain death from starvation, which would be the effect of a repeal, or even of any considerable modification of the poor laws at this time. Yet with a full opportu- nity of knowing and profiting by these results, we have commenced in this country the same system, which in the fulness of time and of events, will surely lead to similar consequences. It may re- quire more than two centuries in Virginia, as in England, before the worst consequences of the poor laws will be felt; and because the burden is yet light, we pay no attention to its slowly pro- gressive, though sure inci-ease of weight. If cor- rect views on this subject pi-evailed, we still have the power to restrain the evil ; but such views will not be acted on, until we shall have lost all power of obtaining relief by proper regtdations. The tax imposed on us by the poor laws, may as yet be gcarcelv felt — but the working of the svstem has been already enough develojjed to shov/ that in Virginia as well as in England, a compulsory and unlimited legal provision for the poor, represses private and discriminating charity — offers rewards to idleness, wastefulness and debauchery — encou- rages the increase of unproductive and pauper population — and finally, will produce ten times as much of human misery among the professed ob- jects of its care, as the system can possibly relieve. The extracts which accompany these remarks offer, on unquestionable authority, a number of faci-s which speak more loudly than any general arguments against the poor law system. The whole body of evidence, of which this forms a very small part, constitutes the latest as well as the most full and authentic information of the effects of the system in England on agricultural and na- tional interests. Except the introductory remarks of the -reviewer, which will ser\e to explain the object and labors of the poor laws commission, all the extracts offered are from the evidence obtained and reported by the commission to the govern- ment. A. B. From the 'Westminster Review. In March last, a Board of Commissioners was appointed by the King to inquire into the pi-acti- cal operation of the poor laws. The specific ob- jects of this commission may be learned from the " Instructions from the Central Board to Assistant Commissioners," at the opening of which it is stated, that "the Central Commissioners are di- rected by his IMajesty's Commission to make a diligent and full inquiry into the practical opera- tion of the laws for the relief of the poor in Eng- land and Wales, and into the manner in which those laws are administered, and to report whether any, and what alterations, amendments, or im- provements, may be beneficially made in the said laws, or in the manner of administering them ; and how the same may be best carried into effect."* Since their appointment, these Commissioners, — the Central Board by printed queries circulated over the country, and the Assistant Commissioners by personal investigation, — have been actively employed in collecting evidence on the subject of the Commission. The result will be the most im- portant and comitlete body of evidence that was ever laid before a House of Commons, on the most vitally important question that ever engaged the attention of a government. The squabbles of foreign despots, tl>e intrigues of diplomacy, the various intei'ests of colonies, distant or near, sink into utter and almost ludicrous insignificance in the eyes of those who have not slirunk from the ungrateful task of watching the progress of a dis- ease that is feeding upon the very vitals of their country. Extracts from the Report of the Poor Laws Com- mission. "Mr. Nash, of Royston, is proprietor and occu- pier of a farm containing 150 acres, situate a mile and a half from his residence, and in about equal pi-oportions in tlie parishes of Barhway and Reed, in the county of Hertford. It is what is usually called an outfield farm, being at the extremity of these parislies, and nearly equidistant from Roys- ton, Therrield, Reed, Barhway, and Barley. Mr. Nash employed six men (to whom he gives through - * Instructions, p. 3. FARMERS' REGISTER— OPERATION OF POOR LAWS. Ill St the year 12s. a week,) two boys,^and six horses. th 1829, Mr. Clarke, the overseer of Reed, (a re- spectable man, who occupies half the parish, and has generally managed all its public concerns,) told Mr. Nash he could no longer collect tlie money for poor rates without resorting to coercive measures, which he would not do; and that the iniemployed poor must be apportioned amonj; the occupiers of land, in proportion to their respective quantities; and that he (Mr. Nash) must take two juore men. All Mr. Nash's laborers had been some jears in his service, and were steady, indus- trious men, and he regretted the necessity of part- ing with any of them. The two men displaced were those who came last into his service (and for that reason only.) One was a pai'ishioner of Roys- ton, an excellent workman at any kind of work. He lived near Mr. Nash's house (a great conve- nience,) and his wife superintended a small school Mrs. Nash had established for the benefit of her poor neighbors. The other was John Watford, a parishioner of Barley, a steady, industrious, trust- A'S'orthy, single man, who, by long and rigid econo- my, had saved about £ 100. Of the two men sent in their stead, one v/as a married man, Avith a family, sickly and not much inclined to work ; the other a single man, addicted to drinkuig. On being dismissed, Watford applied in vain to the farmers of Barley for employment. It teas well known that he had saved money, and could not come vpon the parish, although any of them would willingly have taken him had it been otherioise. Watford has a brother also, who, like himself, has saved money J and though he has a family, and has been laid aside from work for six years, has received no assistance from the parish. After living a lew months without being able to get any work, he bought a cart and two horses, and has ever since obtained a very precarious subsistence by carrying corn to London for one of the Cambridge mer- chants; but just now the current of corn is north- ward, and he has nothing to do, and at any time he would gladly have exchanged his employment for that of day labor, if he could have obtained work. No reilection is intended on the overseers of Bar- ley ; they only do what all others are expected to do; though the young men point at Watford, and call him a fool, for not spending his money at a public house, as they do, adding, that then he v.ould get work." " Since Mr. Senior was at Royston last w^eek, ajiother instance has occurred on this farm, illus- trative of the working of the poor laws. John Warren, an inhabitant of Therfield, has been house- keeper there for nine years. A few weeks ago, the bailiff told Mr. Nash he could not find em- ployment for so many men. Mr. Nash desired him to dismiss a bankwayman, who happened to have misconducted himself The bailiti's wife shortly afterwards told Mr. Nash that, if he pleased, John Warren would like to go, as he had a large lamily, and the justices (the magistrates of the Royston division) would give him as siiuch or more, without work, as he earned, and he should avoid the dirty walks from Therfield this winter. Mr. Nash (who is a proprietor, but not an occu- pier, in Therfield) has accordingly discharged him, and he will no doubt, next week, add 12s. or 15s. to the enormous eleemosynary payments riiade in this disorganized and demoralized parish, by the natural and inevitable operation of the poor laws. Previous to 1814, there were no unemployed poor, and they were remarkable for their industrious and orderly conduct, and all was satisfactory, libe- ral, and remunerative : now a large portion of the poor have no work, and many lands lie unploughed, covered with thistles, and spreading their seeds with every wind for miles around; and it is said the largest and most wealthy owner and occupier has seen his men steal his corn out of the barns, but would not prosecute, alleging that he must keep them, and that they would live on less if they had the trouble of carrying it away, than if he was to thrash and carry it to Hcrtfoi'd, and bring the produce back to them in money. One of the largest barns on this gentleman's farm has been pulled down piecemeal by the poor, and carried away for fuel. The only probable amelioration of the system may be, perhaps, in appointing itine- rant stipendiaries, who should execute the duties of both magistrate and overseer. It is unjust to compel a large occupier, whose business requires more personal attention than that of other men, to give his time and exertion gratuitously to a dis- gusting public duty, — the only rcAvard of which is either a broken head, or the chance of being burnt in his bed." " Royston, January 29th, 1833. " Dear Sir, — I write in answer to your in- quiry into the case alluded to in the return to your queries from Royston parish, of refusal of employ- ment to laborers on account of their having lega- cies bequeathed to them. There are obvious mo- tives for disinclination to state particulars, which might be considered to reflect on persons who have no opportunity of giving their own explanations as to the execution of the poor laws. The facts of the case, divested of reference to the locality of its occurrence, are the following: — "An individual who had risen from poverty, and accumulated considerable personal property, bequeathed legacies to a number of laborers, his relations. Circumstances delayed for several months the collecting in the testator's estate. The overseer's deputy of one parish, in which some of the legatees were laborers, urged to the agent of the executors the payment, on the ground that it tvould benefit the parishioners, as when the legacies were paid, they would not find employment for the legatees, because they tvould have property of their otvn. " The legatees afterwards applied for money on account of their legacies. It was then stated that some of them, ivho lived in a different parish, had been refused employment, because they ivcre entitled to property. " An occupier of land in another parish near this place told me. to-day, that in his parish they re- fused employment to laborers who had money left them. He said that he held 320 acres of light land of the value of 18s. an acre, subject to tithes. He pays £74 tithe composition, and £100 for poor-rates, and is compelled to employ fourteen men and six boys, and requires the labor of only ten men and three boys. Plis extra labor at 10s. a week (which is the current rate for men,) and half as much for boys, is £ 130. He pays, in ad- dition, surveyors' and churchwarden's rates. There are sometimes from fifteen to twenty laborers em- ployed in useless public work, besides boys. It is not surprising that, in such circumstances, Uie 112 FARMERS' REGISTER— OPERATION OF POOR LAWS. occupiers should refuse to employ laborers who have any properly. " Another occupier slated yesterday that he held 165 acres of land, of Avhich half was pasture, lie was compelled to employ twelve men and boys, and his farm required the labor of only five, lie is about to give notice that he Avill quit. Every useless laborer is calculated to add 5s. an acre to the rent of a farm of 100 acres. " The improvement in agricultural implements, the cultivation of artificial grasses, improved roads, and greater skill and agricultural knowledge, ena- ble an occupier to cultivate his land Avith less la- bor. All these would be sources of profit, but they are all counteracted and made causes of addi- tional perplexity by the redundant population, which the system of the poor laws has augmented. "It is common for young agricultural laborers to say, that they are treated worse as single men, than they would be as married men, and that they shall marry to better their conditions in this re- spect." LENHAM, KENT. Expended on Poor. £ . £ . 1468 I 1822 - 2618 1598 I 1823 - 2786 1824 - 3041 1825 - 3438 1826 - 2.531 1827 - 2731 2150 In 1816 - 1817 - 1818 ~ 1819 - 2016 1820 - 2154 1821 ~ 2348 £. 1828 - - 24S2 1829 - - 2611 1830 - - 3040 1831 - - 2679 1832 - - 4299 FOPCLATION. In 1801 i In 1811 1434 I 1509 Acres, - 6523 Rental, - 6423^. Value, - f Rates in the £ . 12s. Expected to rise to 14s. In 1821 I In 1831 1959 I 2197 Expenditure, March, 1S3-2. Casual relief, 1992/. 6s. Weekly pay, 1033Z.17s. Various bills, 1273/. 9s. Total £4299 12s. Labor and bills for work on the • highways, _ _ _ £561 Deduct money repaid by the com- missioners, _ _ _ 147 414 Total Expenditure of Poor and Sur- veyor's Rates, - - - £4713 12s. " This is an extensive agricultural parish ; much of the land is of poor quality, still there is a con- siderable quantity of land of a fair average ; some is out of cultivation ; a large estate has been seve- ral years in the hands of the proprietor, and a farm of 420 acres of good land, tithe iree, well situated, has been just thrown up by the tenant of another land owner : the poor rate on this farm amounts to nearly £ 300 per annum. Wages in summer are 2s. 3^. When laborers are out of employ, or only in partial employ, their wages ai'e made up accord- ing to tlie following scale: — Single man, from. 3s. 6d. to 7s. Od. Man and wife Do. with 1 or 2 children Do. 3 do. Do. 4 do. Do. 5 do. Do. 6 do. Do. 7 do. Do. 8 do. 10 0 12 0 13 0 14 0 15 6 17 0 18 6 20 0 " The laborers are sent to work on the roads if there is any thing to do, but they are paid accord- ing to this scale whether they work or not. On Saturday the 13th of October last, 27 men were paid from 12s. upwards each, though no work whatever had been done. There have been 70 men on the roads in one week, paid according to scale: the greater part of the work is unnecessa- ry; besides the wages, tools arc provided, and it is calculated that the value of the labor does not ex- ceed the expense of the tools and carting. The average number unemployed from November to May is from 60 to 70. During the harvest they are mostly in employ, but if a man loses a day's work, he comes to the parish to have it made up. Nearly 100 out-parishioners, living at Maidstone, receive occasional or constant relief There is a man who hires two cows and keeps several pigs, who, when out of work, receives from the parish 18s. per week. The population of this parish is beyond the demand for labor; but early marriages are constantly taking place without any conside- ration on that score: of six of these marriages con- tracted last Octol)er, it Avas expected that most of the parties would be on the parish pay-list in the month of November. A man lately married a girl, who left her place for that purpose on Wednesday ; they applied for relief on the Saturday. It will ap- pear from the scale that, on marriage, there is an immediate increase of 3s. per week.* The admin- istering rel ief to from 70 to 100 men on the pay night, in a district near the place where the riots first broke out, and Avhere one of the causes of dissatisfaction was the reduction of" allowances," isaduty requir- ing more firmness than belongs to many overseers; nor is the present state of the rural police adequate to the requisite protection." " In the year 1830, a considerable reduction of wages had taken place, many men were out of work, and the wages to single men on the parish did not exceed 7d. per day. A general spirit of discontent broke out. Incendiarism prevailed to a frightful extent; an eye-witness informed me, that on one night there were three fires burning at once, in the stack-yards of farmers within the parish ; and that for nearly a month, hardly a night passed without conilagrations in the neighborhood, and tumultuous assemblies of laborers demanding a rise of wages. Under these alarming circum- stances, a meeting was called, and an agreement made that the wages should be 2s. per day for an able-bodied married man, Is. 6d. for a single man of 18, and from 3s. 6d. to 5s. per week, for boys from 15 to 18. That the surplus laborers on the parish should be paid according to the following scale : — Single man, 18 years of age, 6s. per week. Man and wife, - - 9s. do. Do. with 1 child - - 10s. do. Do. 2 children - - 12s. do. Do. 3 do. - - 12s. do. and a gall. of flour, or 13s. 4d. Do. 4 do. - - 12s. do. and 2 gall. of flour. And so on till, for ten children, the pay might amount to IBs. 8d. per week. A discretion was * 'In Uie workhouse there are 35 imnales. Young men have been sometimes sent there, but they have said, "You put us in to punish us ; wc will only marry the sooner." FARMERS' REGISTER— OPERATION OF POOR LAWS. 113 given to the overseers to grant the flour, or place the children in the poor-house ; the latter measure is so unpopular that they dare not put it in prac- tice. The effect of this forced rise of parish pay was soon apparent : the sale of the farmer's pro- duce could not suffice for both wages and rates; a most injurious transfer took place of a portion of the sum expended on labor to the account of rates. The principal occupier in the parisli states the relative proportion on his farm to stand thus in round numbers : — . 1830. 1831. Labor - - £900 I Labor - - £700 Rates - - 300 I Rates - - 500 "This- scale of wages has been continued to those on parish pay to the present day. Being se- cure of good wages for mere nominal work, the ill-disposed and idle throv/ themselves wilfully on the parish ; the effect is most ruinous on the small householders, who being already on the verge of pauperism, may be converted, by a slight addition to their burthens, from payers to receivers of rates. They have no means of protection, but by uniting for the purpose of an expensive litigation; and have not the opportunity, like the formers who constitute the Select Vestry, and are principally tenants at will, to throw part of their burthen on their landlords. From a printed statement of the expenditure of the parish, are taken the following items of sums received by families of paiipers : — John Carter, bricklayer, aged 43, wife, and 5 children, at an allow- ance of 14s. Sd. per week, cost the parish last year - - - £ 42 12 4 Joseph Carter, 34, wife, and 7 chil- dren, 16s. Sd. per week - - 49 11 8 J. Mitchell, 40, wife and 2 children, I2s. do. _ - - - 35 4 0 G. Paul, 50, fisherman, do. do. 15s. 6d. do. - - - - - 25 8 91 " This lavish expenditure, which has been ex- torted by the violence of the able-bodied, is not extended to the aged and intii-m, the proper objects of the poor laws, as may be seen by the following items : — Mary Carter, widow, aged 76, at 2s. 0(Z. per week - - - £6 10 0 Lydia Collins, widow, aged 90, at 2s. per week - _ - - 5 4 0 Ann Chapman, widow, aged 75, at Is. Qd. per week - - - 3 18 0 " In the month of December 1832, four healthy young men, receiving from 12s. to 14s. per week from the parish, refused to v>'ork at threshing for a farmer at 2s. Q>d. and a quart of ale per day, and the only punishment inflicted on them by the parish officers, was taking off half a day's pay. Is. ; at the same time, a poor widow, aged 75, could ob- tain but Is. per week for her support from the Vestry. The fishermen being secure of pay with- out labor, refuse to go out to sea in winter: one has said, ' Why should I expose myself to fatigue and danger, when the parish supports my wife and pays my rent?' The masters in the fishery have in consequence been forced to send to Hastings for hands requisite to man their boats. Rent of cot- tages is generally paid for fomilies of three cliil- dren, to the annual amount of £ 307. Since the time of the riots, and the establishment of the pre- VoL. I.— 15 sent scale of parish wages, the Vestries held every fortnight for determining relief are very ill at- tended,— the parishioners seeming to despair of any improvement ; and anxious hopes are expressed of the interference of government." " In Dun's Tew, as in all the Oxfordshire pa- rishes, the early marriage of mere boys is frequent,, for the avowed purpose of increasing their income, by allowance for increase of children." "A debt of £700 was then due from putative fathers; sixty-seven bastards were on the books; one v/oman had borne seven, and had received pay for each. The parish itself was in debt to the amount of £500, the residue of a debt of £1100. "It has been the practice here to relieve men with families, Avithout inquiring into the amount of their earnings, and not to refuse relief unless they were shown to exceed 25s. a week. The people are chiefly engaged in the manufacture of nails. A large family is considered to be a source of profit. Women object to marry till they are pregnant." " The clieck to the circulation of agricultural labor is too notorious to be talked of. The case of a man v.-ho has worked for me, will show the effect of the parish system in preventing frugal habits. This is a hard-working, industrious man, named William Williams. He is married, and had saved some money to the amount of about seventy pounds, and had two covv's ; he had also a sow and ten pigs. He had got a cottage Avell furnished; he was the member of a benefit club, at Meopham, from which he received 8s. a week when he was ill. He was beginning to learn to read and write, and sent his children to the Sunday School. He had a legacy of about 46Z. but he got his other money together by saving from his fair wages as a wagoner. Some circumstances occurred which obliged me to part with him. The consequence of this laboring man having been frugal, and saved money, and got the cows, was, that no one would employ him, although his superior character as a workman was Avell known in the parish. He told me at the time I was obliged to part with him, — 'Whilst I have these things I shall get no work. I must part with them all. I must be reduced to a state of beggary before any one will employ me.' I was compelled to part Avith him at Michaelmas — he has not yet got work, and he has no chance of getting any until he has become a pauper ; for, until then, the paupers will be preferred to him. "Such an instance as that of William Williams is enough to demoralize a Avhole district. I say, myself, that the laboring man who saves where such an abominable system prevails, is foolish in doing so. What must 'be the natural effect of such a case on the mind of a laboring man.? Will he not say to himself, why should I save .? Why should I diminish my present scanty enjoyments, or lay by any thing on the chance of my continu- ing with my present master, when he may die, or the means of employment fail him, when my store will be scattered to waste, and I shall again be made a pauper like William Williams, before I can be allovved to work for my living. ^^ This system, so far as relates to the circulation of labor, I am firmly persuaded, can only be put an end to by utterly abolishing the law of settlement, and establishing a uniform national rate, so as to allow a man to be relieved at the place where he is in want, instead of his being pinned to the soil." 114 FARMERS' REGISTER— OPERATION OF POOR LAWS. IN-DOOR PAUPERS. St. Laivrence, Reading. " I began my inquiries of the governor [of the Eoor house] by asking him what quantity of food e gave to those under his charge? "Quantity! why, a bellyful. We never stint them. I stand by the children myself, and see that they have a bellyful three times a day." " What description of food do you give them?" " Good Avholesome victuals as any body would •wish to taste. You shall taste it yourself We give them all meat three times a week. The working men have a bellyful. We never weigh anything, and there is no stint, so as they do not waste any- thing. Then they have good table beer and good ale." " How many paupers have you generally in your workhouse?" " From forty to fifty." "And what is the quantity of meat usually con- sumed weekly by that number?" " Seldom less than 150 pounds meat." " Do you find them in tobacco or snuff?" " No, sir ; but if they get a few pence, or if their friends choose to give it to them, we do not debar them from anything, so long as they do not make beasts of themselves." " I requested to be shown the house. Every- thing appeared remarkably cleanly and in good order. He requested my particular attention to the goodness and cleanliness of the sheets and bed- ding, and the general comfort. He dilated on the quality of the bread, which he showed me. He also gave me some of the table beer and ale to taste. I must do him the justice to state that it was ex- cellent. The table beer was such as in the me- tropolis is called table ale. But besides these liquors for the use of the paupers, he produced a third spe- cimen, still superior, of which I tasted. This was a most potent beverage. It was two years old; and he said he generally reserved it for the over- seers after the performance of a dry day's work. The paupers themselves appeared to be very strong and healthy, and the children the most so of any that I had observed in the district. He pointed out to me one pauper, a remarkably hale-looking man of 63, who had, with his wife, been on the parish more than 40 years, and in all probability would live more than half that time longeron theircharge. The governor, it appeared, had been a farmer many years ago. I asked him — " Do you tliink the condition of these paupers better or worse than the condition of the agricul- tural laborers thirty or forty years ago?" " A great deal better off than the laborers forty years ago." " Than the agricultural laborers of any class?" " Yes, sir, I know they are a great deal better off." " And what is the present condition of the inde- pendent laborers, as compared with that of the la- borers at the time you mention?" " I think they are not quite so well off. To be sure, they got less wages, and clothing was dearer : they only got 7s. a week. But then on the other hand, they only paid 8d. for the gallon loaf I think they were better off. There are too many laborers now, and labor is more uncertain than it was then." " I may say, then, that not only is the condition of those under your care better, as regards food, clothing, lodging, and comfort, than the laborers who toil out of floors ; but that they are under no uncertainty, and have no anxiety about providing for themselves?" " Yes, sir, you may say that. You may say, too, that they are better off than one-half of the rate-payers out of the house. I know the rate- payers; I know what it is to be a rate-payer; and I know that a great many of them are worse off." " In the course of my inspection of the work- house, I observed that the men's rooms were cdl locked. I inquired the cause of this — " that they may not come in and lie down befoi'e bed time." " That is, I suppose, that they may not escape from their work ?" "No, sir, we have no work here, even for those that might work ; it is that they may not come up here and lollop about, and role about in their beds after dinner, or when they are tired of doing no- thing." " How does this sort of life agree with them on their first entrance?" " Wonderfully well in general. Sometimes when they come in very low, and on the brink of starva- tion, the great change in the way of living is too much for them ; but when they get over the change they go on surprisingly. Their friends, when they have any come in to see them, have sometimes been quite surprised at the change, and hardly knew them agahi, they were looking so well. We had an old woman brought in not long ago; she was so very low and feeble, that you would have thought it impossible she could live long; but now she IS one of the most active women of her age, and will live, I dare say, a great many years more ; they will say themselves they never were so well off before. There are some, it is true, who cannot bear even our regularity, and prefer the dog's life of hunger and liberty ; but in general they never leave us." " In answer to my interrogatives, as to the gene- ral character of the inmates he declared that the great majority of them were undeserving charac- ters, who had been reduced to poverty by impro- vidence or vice." " The male and female paupers were separated in the night, but in the day the young girls, and the mothers of bastard children, and all classes, might meet and converse together in the yard. " On examining the books containing the list of the out-paupers, I found the management equally characteristic; out-door paupers having nearly the same amount of wages allowed them without work, that could have been obtained by independent la- borers by hard work ; the pauper having, in addi- tion to the money payments, frequent allowances of clothes from the parish, and payments on ac- count of rent, and 'other advantages.' I made inquiry into the case of the persons by the same name first presented on opening the book, when I found them to consist of a pauper family of three generations, the whole of whom received upwards of lOOZ. per annum from the parish. The parents of the pauper stock were described as remarkably hale old people, in the workhouse, who had lived on the parish upwards of forty years. The father was the man who had been pointed out to me as an instance of the care taken of the inmates, he had lived so long and so well on the parish. I took down their names in the order which exhibits the genealogy of the living pauper family : — FARMERS' REGISTER— FRAGMENT OF CONVERSATION. 115 1 2 Brenn, Pater=BKEN]v, Mater. John Brenn. 4 5 Fran- Brenn et Uxor. Chas. Brenn et Uxor. Mary Brenn- 14 -Packer. 9 10 11 12 13 Brenn. Brenn. Brenn. Brenn. Brenn. 15 Packer. 16 Packer. 17 Packer. 18 Packer. 19 Packer. 20 Packer. 21 22 Packer. Packer. " I asked the governor how this last and most widely-spreading branch arose? ' That,' said he, ' was one of our overseer's doings. I warned him against it, but he would do it. Brenn's daughter became pregnant by a weaver named Packer, and the overseer made him marry her ; and see what the parish has got by it I — eight more mouths to feed already, and eight more backs to find clothes for.' " How many more paupers do you consider the parish may receive from this said stock:" " Two or three score, perhaps." For the Farmers' Register. Fragment of Conversation. A. Pray, sir, what caused the embarrassments of your former neighbor, and my old acquaintance N r I always thought him very industrious, and not addicted to expensive habits ; and was, there- fore, much surprised to hear that so little of his fine estate was left after paying his debts. B. Why, so he was industrious, and he spent as little in his housekeeping and manner of living as many prudent men of half his income. But notwithstanding his industry, his increasing atten- tion to his farm, and his frugal habits, (or what he considered such,) he was ruined by his extrava- gance in what you book-farmers are so fond of — making experiments. He was never satisfied with making his corn, or sowing his wheat, or putting out his manure, or feeding and keeping his live stock as other people did — and he kept changing his plans, and losing by almost every change, until if he had lived a few years longer, he would have had nothing more to lose. A. Your explanation serves to increase my surprise. It is very true, that as all agricultural experiments are trials of new and doubtful prac- tices, and made to establish facts, and not to make Erofit, it must be expected that they will generally e more expensive than profitable, immediately. But though N. might thus lose by his experiments while making them, he ought to have gained after- wards, by adapting his general practice to the truths which he had proved by his experiments. B. Aye — it is easy to talk finely and give plau- sible reasons for such doings ; but whoever takes to making experiments, will be very apt to suffer as poor N. did. A. But was he so obstinate as to adhere to a practice after his experiment had shown that it was wrong? If so, his experiments were made to but little purpose. B. No, no. He was ready enough to give up his notions as soon as they were tried in practice and failed. But he was scarcely out of one losing business, before he was over head in some other. He was always about to reap wonderful profits from some new scheme, which he rushed into as far as his means allowed. When he first began farming, he was full of making all his poor land rich, off hand, by the directions out of his books about clover and plaster. That scheme lasted until he had thrown away perhaps ^500 in money and labor, Avithout any return wortli naming. In. the mean time he was buying at enormous prices, English bulls and cows, and hogs and sheep, all of which turned out as badly as the fields of clover that they were to live upon. He afterwards built an expensive mill, with works for various kinds of machinery on an insufficient water course, expect- ing to bring a plentiful supply by a canal from another stream which was two miles distant. But after digging the canal, the source of the water was found to oe on a lower level than the mill ; and as it could not run up hill, all the labor was lost. And so he went on with experiments to the last. A. Now I begin to understand you ; and I differ with you altogether in the use of your terms. If such as these were the experiments that N. was in the habit of making, I should say that he lost his property not by makmg experimentSj but by not making them. B. How is that? A. Why, it seems that he made no experiment op a small scale to ascertain whether a practice was correct, but at once went as fully into it, as if he had already proved, and was certain of its value. This course is in fact rejecting all the lights of experiments as well as of experience, and instead of them, taking as a guide every Avild and untried speculation that can be conceived. But as you feel so much contempt for book-farmers and their experiments, tell me what guide do you follow, in cultivating your land ? B. Why, my experience, and the experience of my father and grand-iather ; and we have all pro- fited by pursuing the same general practice. A. Well — experience (both according to the dictionary cUid to common sense,) means simply 116 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. the knowledge gained from experiments and prac- tice. Every process you use in tilling and taking care of your corn or tobacco, was once a new ex- periment: and though it probal)ly was not con- ducted to the best advantage, its known or sup- posed beneficial result must have been tl.e founda- tion of what became the regular practice. So far as your practices are good, you are indebted alto- gether to experiment for the advantage ; and if any of them are wrong, it is either because the ex- periments were not fairly tried, or that a prac- tice is continued after the circumstances that re- quired it have ceased to operate. Means for Retliicliig' Sea Sliclls. From tlie (Edinburgli) Farmers' Magazine. Sir, — The following little improvement of a manure, already well known and very valuable, may, I hope, be deemed worthy of a place in the Farmers' Magazine. Along our sea-coasts, where tlie ebb tides leave tracts of dry sand, there are frequently found beds of sea shells in a more or less broken and decayed state. A gentleman, whose fi^rm is situated near some banks of shells of this description, has dis- covered a very ingenious method of hastening the dissolution of those shells, I need not add that shells operate the sooner by being pulverized. In order to reduce them to this state, he makes the quantit)^ he has occasion for, the lowest tier of his dunghills, upon which he throws tire dung of lys stables and byres; and when the time for applying these middens to his fields arrives, he finds the shells almost if not entirely reduced to powder. I have only to add that the discovery was, like many other valuable discoveries, the etfect of mere acci- dent. It happened to be most convenient to fetch the shells to tlie dung-court, just after it had been emptied of its winter contents ; of course it was also most convenient for his people to throw the dung of the offices over the shells. He was agreea- bly surprised to find this disposition of his office dung had produced the unexpected but happy ef- fect of pulverizing the shells. I shall leave more expert chemists to explain the reason of farm dung dissolving shelly sand. domesticus. For the Farmers' Register. A REBIEJDY FOR THE GAPES AND SNUFFLES IN YOUNG TURKEYS. As the Editor of the Register does not exclude from its pages the experience of the females in their department, but politely solicits their inte- rest and patronage, I will take the liberty of in- serting an article which (though it does, not come underthe head of marl, or practical farming,) may not be altogether disregarded by some of the house- wives who may have suffered in the same way. — This spring I had a most promising parcel of tur- keys, which grew off finely till they were about three Or four weeks old, (the time most general for them to take the above mentioned diseases,) Avben they all at once became sick, drooped and died four or five a day, till the number of 60 was reduced to 20. I Avas so discouraged and inditie- rent about the remaining few, as half to wish they too would gape and snuffle out their lives; but on the suggestion of one more experienced than my- self, I was induced to use sulphur, which did di- rectly and effectually stop all further mortality. I cannot pretend to discuss the medicinal qualities of the remedy prescribed, or reason on the matter, cither as to the nature and cause of those two dis- eases, or the operation of the brimstone on them ; but the trial has been so satisfactory, as to deter- mine me hereafter not to defer its use, but begin moderately from the first, and thereby lessen, if not wholly prevent, any such affection, and con- tinue it till they become large enough to require no feeding. The method of giving it is simple : once a day v/ill answer, — oftcner may be injuri- ous; if regularly observed for some time, once will be all sufficient. A tea spoonful to as much dough as they can eat at a meal, was the quantity given to 20; of course a larger number would re- quire an increased proportion. Should it be a fact with regard to turkeys, why may we not hope the same for other young fowls, — chickens particu- larly.? I do not lay it down as a thing certain, or unfailing, because my success has been so marked, but only recommend it to others as worth the trial, with the concluding assurance that not a single one died under the practice. A farmer's wife. Jione 22, 1833. A farmer's wife is doubly welcome, as being our eailiest female conttibutor. We request a continuation of her favors, and hope that her example, in this re- spect, will be followed by many other housewives. For the Farmers' Register. EXTRACTS FROM PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. Sorrel Growing on Marl. Williamsburg, Jan. 15, 1833. * * # * On a recent visit to my farm, one fact struck me with considerable surprise, as it seemed to be inconsistent with one of your leading principles respecting calcareous manures. The marl Avhich I am nov/ using is very strong, sup- posed to contain -^^f-^ of lime, and is in heaps of from four to five bushels. On these heaps I ob- served sorrel was growing in bunches of conside- rable size. Will you have the goodness to account for this fact.' It seems to me that I can never get clear of sorrel by the use of marl, since it grows on a marl bed. Your experience, however, may explain this effect, and assist my future use of the manure. ***** Answer. * # # * ]vjy own experience, more than ten years ago, furnished me with several opportu- nities of observing facts similar to those you de- scribe— and like yourself, I was alarmed at first, at what seemed to be a positive contradiction of my previous opinion, that calcareous manures in suffi- cient quantity rendered a soil incapable of sup- porting the growth of sorrel. But farther obser- vation served to remove these fears, and even af- forded additional proof of the general position be- fore assumed. Where I found sorrel growing on heaps of marl, it was under these circumstances : the loads had been dropped on acid soil (subject to produce sorrel) and had remained without being spi-ead, perhaps twelve months. By carefully re- moving the marl from the plants, I found that they had sprung, not from tlie marl, but from the acid soil below — and that the communication between the soil and the air, Avhere the leaves opened, was through a single tap-root, Avhich merely passed through the heap of marl, without drawing any FARMER'S REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. 117 sustenance from it. The plants were usiiallj^ where the marl was thin, near the edt^es of the heaps^ but one of the roots which I examined was of the remarkable length of nine inches: it had thrown out a few horizontal fibres of about an inch in length, as if in search of nourishment, but which were then (some time in June) quite dead. The tew plants then observed, though full of tlie cover- ings for seed, yet were quite destitute of the seeds which should have been within : but this remarka- ble abortion, though often to be seen under like circumstances, is not general. Calcareous earth alone is insoluble in water, and can in no way affect growing plants except v.'hen mixed with, and acted on by other substances in soils. A load of marl dropped on the surface of the land and left undisturbed, can have no more effect than so much silicious sand, or any other substance of like insolubility, weight and texture, though perfectly worthless and inactive as manure. Marl if thinly spread, though left on the surface, in the course of time would have all its finer parts carried down into the soil by tiie rains; and tlius, ultimately, would act as a manure. Bui even this slow effect Avould be prevented by the thick- ness of a cart-load of marl, which would shelter the covered soil from rain, except what it could imbibe slowly by absorption. By thus calling to your mind the existing circumstances, and the in- soluble quality of calcareous earth, you will see that m no way could your marl exert its chemical power of neutralizing the acid quality of the sni! ; by which means only, it destroys the growth of sorrel. The germination of the seeds at such depths, and the rising of the plant through such a layer of dead earth, (as marl is in sucli cases,) proves the remarkable hardiness of sorrel; bul its growth in such situations furnishes no proof what- ever, that marl when acting as a manure is not destructive of sorrel. To produce this effect, it only requires that a sufficient quantity shall be applied, and equally and thoroughly mixed with the soil by tillage. If plants of sorrel are found on a field that has been sufficiently marled, and the soil well stirred by cultivation, it only proves that from careless spreading, those spots were left with- out their share of the dressing. But should my reasoning be not entirely satisfactory, you may rely on the testimony of my experience, Avhich pronounces that sorrel will never be found plenty enough to be injurious after even a moderate marling, and that after a proper application, " the soil is found not only cleared of sorrel, but incapa- ble of producing it." Since answering your letter, I have examined many plants of sorrel growing in my heaps of marl which were dropped last year on a poor broom-sedge field. Contrary to my former opinion, I found that the slender horizontal roots stretched Ihi'ough the marl, sometimes eight or ten inches, and were alive early in the spring. But by the middle of June, they were either dying or dead. In one plant only, I found that a horizontal root, after passing nearly a foot through the marl, had struck the soil below, and had become nearly as large as the main tap-root. These roots, so long as they are altogether in the marl heap, instead of drawing support for the plant, are themselves sus- tained by its juices, drawn through the main root from the acid soil. In every case, the only im- portant fact is uniform — namely, the principal root of the sorrel being fixed in the soil below the heap of marl. Haivoveu, June 18, 1833. * * # j^/fay I suggest the propriety of call- ing the attention of j-our readers to the danger of suiicring servants to have hog pens, manure, and litter, about their houses.? About five years past, I had a very sickly family of negroes at a farm near Richmond, two of whom died ; ti)e hog pen was very near their dwelling — a subsequent event induced me to think the disease (which was typhus fever with sore throat,) was at least aggravated l)y the pen. This has always been considered as healthy a place as any in the neighborhood. Some few months after, tv.o white persons in this county died, as the attending physician thought, from ne- glecting a hog pen : a third was ill, but was re- moved, and recovered. Is it not probable that many farmers suffer accumulations to take place of what may render them unhealthy.' If you think so, a few lines from you might put some on the alert. We concur entirely in the opinion of our corresDon- dent, which we cannot exhibit better than by extract- ing his own words. He will see that the same subject has already been treated of in the earlier part of this number, (page 77.) Calcareous Iffanures of Central Virginia. Prikce Edward, June 20, 1833. I have spread marl on between tv/elve and fifteen acres in all — but, I apprehend, rather sparingly. Its effects are very perceivable on the corn — the cotton and tobacco are not yet sufficiently ad- vanced to show its efficacy. I think, however, the texture of the soil is manifestly improved. A small spot in clover was heavily covered on the third of April, and although there has been no opportunity for the marl to freeze, the crop, I think, at least doubles that on tlie adjoining land. I had no clover growing near the marl beds, or I would have tried it more extensively. The ex- treme v.etness of the season has put a" stop to that, and indeed to almost every other agricultural ope- ration. The wheat crop is deplorably damaged. The corn is yellow, from rain and smothered by gvass ; and on lov/ grounds, much of it entirely destroyed. ^ There is a prospect for a great oat crop. I intend to make arrangements for spread- ing marl much more extensively as soon as the weatlier becomes dry, should that occur at all this season. My other avocations have entirely forbidden any special researches on the subject, but I cannot help hoping that there will be marl found in many places where I had not hoped for it. I received, a day or two past, a large calcareous concretion fi'om the northv/estern part of Lunenburg, and I learn that Col. Asa Dupuy, of the southeastern part of this county, has found marl on his land. He lives about ten miles, I believe, to the east of the stripe of land before supposed to be the extent of the secondary formation. I learn, also, that there is. an abundance of it in the county of Mecklenburg. I think it highly probable that there is much land of secondary formation between this and the head of tide-Avatcr] and^ of coursCj that there may be 118 FARMERS' REGISTER— ADDRESS BY J. P. GUSHING. much marl found in it. I am much better ac- quainted with the country between here and the mountains, and am inclined to think it chiefly of primary formation. The resource for calcareous manure on which this latter country must rely, depends chiefly on some ranjijes of limestone rock, which pass through it. A few miles to the west of Liberty, in Bedford, some limestone quarries have been opened, and there are three strata pass- ing through Campbell and striking James river, near Lynchburg. # » * * * Could you sum up for the Register, some of the best reasons for the formation of agricultural socie- ties, it might, probably do much good. I believe that such institutions would greatly co-operate with a good periodical, in producing the best re- sults. Indeed, I doulst whether Avithout them, a true spirit of improvement can be diffused through the country. ***** THE IMPORTANCE OF INVESTIGATING THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF VIRGINIA, FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT AND NATIONAL WEALTH. Extract from an Jlddress delivered by J. P. dish- ing, A. M. President of Hampden Sydney Col- lege, before the Historical and Philosophical So- ciety of Virginia. " Geology, although it presents a most interest- ing field of inquiry, has received but little atten- tion until within a few years past. In former times, geology consisted of a series of visionary specula- tions, to account for the formation and changes of our globe; but within the last half century, it has assumed an entirely new character, and has now become a science reared upon numerous and accu- rate observations of facts; and, therefore, has as- sumed a rank among those sciences, which stand upon the basis of induction. It is not difficult, now, for a skilful geologist, from an examination of the exterior substances of the earth, to become ac- quainted with its interior structure. " In America, there were no combined efforts made for investigating the geology of our country, until 1820, when the men of science in different parts of the United States, assembled at New Ha- ven and formed the American Geological Society. Through the influence of that society many parts of our country have been explored, and a mass of geological facts and specimens collected together, and noticed by our scientific journals. Thus, an interest has been excited, which promises much for the future. " The science of mineralogy , which is intimately connected with that of geology, is also in its in- fancy in our country. This science has a very important and extensive range; its object is to describe and classify the different objects of inor- ganic matter, and to explain their peculiar proper- ties and uses. Every substance which is not the immediate product of some organized body, be- longs to the mineral kingdom; and all such sub- stances are divided by inineralogists, into four classes. (The first includes all earthy compounds, such as the topaz, quartz, diamond: the second, saline substances; tlie third, inflammable bodies, such as sulphur, coal, peat, &c. ; the fourth, metals or metal ic ores.) The importance of this science cannot be Avell overrated. Whether it be viewed as tending to increase individual wealth, to improve agriculture, and multiply arts and manufactures, and thus promote the public good; 'or as affording a pleasant subject of scientific research,' it re- commends itself to the attention of the citizen, and the scholar. " The mineralogy of the United Slates is now admitted to be as rich and as valuable as that of any other countiy. Our statesmen of enlarged views, as well as the devotees of science, have, for some time past, perceived the immense advantages that will be derived to our country from a thorough investigation of its mineral treasures. To secure this important object, geological and mineralogical societies have been formed in nearly all of the old, and in many of the new states. Within the last ten years, the legislatures of Massachusetts, New York, Kentucky, Tennessee, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and probably some others, per- ceiving that a correct knowledge of their mineral resources, and a proper application of them, would greatly increase their physical power and means of internal improvement, have appropriated from ■ time to time, funds, to secure accurate and minute geological and mineralogical surveys of their re- spective territories. In this way, all their citizens have it in their power to ascertain the properties and locations of the different species of rocks, ores, coal, natural soils, chymical manures, and mineral waters in each section of the country. Thus, the interests of individuals, and of the state, as well as of science, are promoted. " Thus far experience has proved, that the more the mineral treasures are explored, the more they abundantly repay the research ; and we trust that shortly, we shall no longer ignorantly tread under our feet or permit to remain unobserved minerals of great curiosity and value, and ' import from other countries, frequently at great expense, what we possess abundantly, at home.' " There can be no doubt, sir, but that Virginia is as rich in geological and mineralogical produc- tions as any of her sister states. The aspect of our country is marked by striking and prominent characteristics, indicating a great variety in its geological structure. Our mountains and valleys contam valuable minerals, and abound in medici- nal waters, and the middle and lower sections of the state, possess many highly important chymical and mineralogical formations. But, as yet, these subjects have been but little attended to, by our citizens. " Without attempting a complete enumeration of the various minerals which have already been discovered, in the state; we will mention some of them. Many of the rocks, belonging to the three great classes, viz. the primitive, secondary, and transition, have been found here. Among the number, are, granite, gneis, mica, quartz, soap- stone, shorl, asbestus, hornblende, garnet, and limestone. Also some of the more important metals have been discovered, viz. tin, zinc, lead, copper, silver, iron, gold, and barites. Besides the substances mentioned, chalk, salt wells and licks, coal, gypsum, and several species of marl, have been long known to exist in the state. " The limestone of the valley is of very good quality, and, as our internal improvements pro- gress, will increase in value. It is said there are different species of marble in the neighborhood of James river, which could be used in the arts to great advantage. The western mountains contain FARMERS' REGISTER— PRESERVING BEES IN WINTER. 119 inexhaustible mines of iron ore, of the richest quality; some of them are worked with conside- rable profit. The salt works in Washington county are, in time of peace, a source of great profit to the owners, and an extensive convenience to a large section of the western country, but in time of war, they will prove to be national blessings. Bituminous coal has been discovered in various parts of the state ; extensive mines of it, we all know, have been worked to great profit for many years. This coal possesses some valuable proper- ties, which will secure for it an increasing demand from abroad. The gypsum found in Washingtcn county, in great quantities, is said to be as valua- ble as that brought from Nova Scotia, and is now applied to similar purposes, by the farmers of west- ern Virginia and Tennessee. Plaster in small quantities, has been also found in many other parts of the state; and it is probable, that if proper search were made, valual^e beds of it would be discovered both in middle and lower Virginia. " In almost everj^ section of lower Virginia there are immense beds of marl, containing Irom sixty to eighty percent, of lime. Until lately this marl has been considered by the inhabitants of that coun- try rather a nuisance than a blessing. But, within a few years past, some of their more enlightened farmers have made many conclusive experiments with marl as a manure in cultivation, and have proved tliat their marl and other marine deposits constitute an invaluable treasure, and if properly applied, are capable of redeeming and greatly en- riching the whole tide-water country. " Permit me to observe, sir, in passing, that the spirit of inquiry on this subject has been excited principally by the successful experiments and ju- dicious observations on calcareous manures, which have been carried on for the last ten years by Ed- mund Ruffin, I^sq. of Prince George. From the work on calcareous manures, which he has lately given to the world, it is evident that he is not only a. practical operator, but a scientific cultivator. His book is a work of solid merit. All such efforts augur well for the agricultural interests of the state. " But to return. The mineral springs among our western mountains are not surpassed, in varie- ty or medicinal properties, by those of any other country in the world. Chalybeate springs are found in every section of the country. The hot and warm, the white, the salt, and the red sulphur springs, possess properties peculiar to themselves; but all of tliem have been found efficacious in the cure of those diseases incident to our cities and alluvial country. It is to be greatly regretted, sir, that these springs have not been accurately ana- lyzed, and their properties made known to the world. Such an analysis would be of incalcula- ble benefit to the public at large, but especially to physicians and patients, who reside at a distance. "This concise enumeration, includes nearly all the mineralogical facts, which have been disco- tVered in the state. But these facts, Avhen we take into consideration, that most of them were disco- vered by accident, are sufficient to prove, that, in 11 probability, the mineral resources of Virginia ire very extensive and valuable. It is believed, pat there but few subjects more worthy of public patronage, or that would be protluctive of more extensive benefits to our citizens, than a complete geological and mineral survey of the whole state, lut we have no reason to believe that this desira- ble object can be secured immediately. There is, however, no doubt, but that this society can, by its united effisrts, render important aid for its ac- complishment; by collecting and classifying the various minerals, geological facts, and natural cu- riosities, which may be obtained from all parts of our countr)^ In this way it will not be difficult to form an extensive cabinet of minerals and a museum of natural curiosities here at the capital of the state. Such an establishment Avill be not only an object of interest to all intelligent visitors, but a source of highly important information to the naturalist, agriculturist, and statesman. If our legislators will co-operate with us in this enter- prise, they can give us important assistance, by affording a medium of direct and easy communi- cation, annually, between this society and every citizen in this commonwealth. When it shall be generally known that there is established at the seat of government, a common place of deposife for minerals, and that those specimens which are fonvarded to it will be examined and perhaps ana- lyzed by competent persons, there will be no diffi- culty in rapidly increasing our cabinet. I appre- hend, sir, that, as we progress in collecting speci- mens, men of science, for the sake of their own improvement and that of others, will most willing- ly assist in examining and analyzing them. By these simple means, much valuable information can be distributed among our citizens, and great eood be done." Preserving- Bees in lYinter. From the Genessee Farmer. Bergen, Genessee Co. May 17, 1833. Mr. Tucker : — I have seen several articles on the subject of bees in your valuable paper, the Genessee Farmer, and being a subscriber, I wish to give to the public the fruits of my experience. I have kept bees for fifteen years. Last spring a friend of mine told me if I would bury my bees in the ground I could keep them through the win- ter in that manner ; accordingly I buried two hives that had but very little honey. 1 was confident that they would not winter for the want of food; I therefore thought I would fry the experiment. I took them from the ground the 18th day of April, and found them in good health. They had not made use of the honey, as there appeared to be as much honey in the spring as when I put them in the ground. They must be buried below the frost, and in such manner as to prevent the air from coming to them. H. D. GIFFORD. On this subject, we find the following para- graph in the newspapers — where it originated we know not : Preserving Bees in Winter. — Mr. Etheridge, of Montrose, Penn., who keeps a considerable quantity of bees, buried seven hives in the ground last fall by placing them in the ground, covering them first with straw, and then burying them in the earth to the depth of about ten inches. About the first of the month he took them out, and found them to be in excellent condition. Some of the hives when buried were poorly provided with ho- ney, and Mr. E. is of opinion that they could not have been preserved through the winter in the or- dinary way. 120 FARMERS' REGISTER— PINE LEAVES ON MARL— SILK, &c. &c. Pine liCaves on Marl. June 17, 1833. To the EiUlor of the Farmers^ Register. I give 3'ou the result of an applicatioa I made this year, of marl combined v/ith pine leaves ; I took a piece of land, of equal texture, and well adapted to the culture of wheat and corn, where the strength was as generally dilTused, as any I could find. A part I marled, and gave it a co- vering of leaves ; a piece adjoining, I did not marl, but gave it a coat of manure, principally from the stable, and fallowed the whole, which I put in corn. The difference at the present time, though the crop is not hall' matured, is very perceptible; that which was marled, in conjunction with leaves, is fifty per cent, better, in size and color, than (hat which was manured only. Hence I am of opi- nion, that in eastern Virginia, where pine is the spontaneous production, and very abundant, that a person cannot haAe a more economical or belter dressing for their land, v/hen united with marl. EXPERIMENT. Silk Ciiltiire. To the Edilor of the Farmers^ Register. Sir — I was much amused to-day in reading your intelligent correspondent's letter on the subject of grailing the White JMulberry. It reminded me of what I have often ridiculed in our Virginia cha- racter— our peculiar habits of splitting hairs, and controverting every assertion, however trivial the subject matter asserted. Of every species of tree that I know, the White Mulberry is the easiest to propagate ; and this is not only established by experience, but by every book that treats on the subject. The best method I have tried is by seed, if it is intended to feed the silk worm ; but for this purpose I should greatly prefer the common red : either are good and easily raised. In two years, I have been able to rear trees, both white and red, to feed, without injuring the trees, 1-5,000 silk worms; and if I chose to encounter the trouble of a second crop, Avould furnish leaves for double that number. I should however not regard the trouble of growing a second crop of silk this sea- son, if I could receive a willing support from my fa- mily and those around me. But this wantof support in my family will drive me from the culture of silk, after having laid the foundation of a small eslab- lishment, Avhich I had flattered myself might be made profitable through the agency of my three hearty, healthy and intelligent daughters. It is impossible sir, to resist the force of example and the habits of tliose with whom we associate. My girls are the very lifeofthe society with whom they associate, and might make any thing they would undertake popular; but as all Virginia people, want perseverance, the young ones cannot stand the prejudices of the old folks that are around them. — However, this spring I availed myself of having them athome with me alone ; we undertook to hatch 10 or 1.5,000 eggs, and in 36 days we succeeded in forming about two bushels of cocoons, which look as well after being cured as those considered of the best quality. After getting the cocoons, they bog- gled at reeling. I have the approved Piedmont reel — we have tried to use it. After (wo attempts we have failed ; and I shall now I fear, be obliged to tndallour cocoons to the north, for them to derive {profits 0 tour labor, as Virginia is obliged to do v/ith all her rough materials. We have the Ma- nual published by Congress, and understand, and can (alk learnedly on all (he principles — we can split hairs and make pleasing calculations, but want perseverance to do (he work. I think sir, you had better make an attempt to excite this sentiment among our young people. — While you are trying to improve our lands, you must try and improve the people. I have scratch- ed these lines hastily, and hope it will be in your power to improve them, and make them suitable to be published in your Register. I am pleased with (he first numl)er of your Re- gister, and shall do you all the good in my power to promote its circulation. AM OLD MAN. The letter of our unknown correspondent needs no editorial " improvement," and we are ]}leased tliat lie has made the desirable commencement of treating of small but useful matters ^1 an easy and familiar man- ner. Q,ueric3 Conceriiiiig- Field Peas. To the Editor of the Farmers'' Register. I have wished to make field peas a regular crop in my rotation, with the view of profiting by their meliorating qualities — but I have been deterred by the ill success of my former attempts, though in truth, none of them were fair experiments. My anxiety on this subject has been increased by reading in your first number, the esssay on " Ro- (a(ion of Crops," and the remarks on field peas, by " a Subscriber," (page 33.) I shall endeavor to make some careful experiments on peas next )"ear, and if they be v/orth it, shall send you a re- port of the results for publication. In the mean time, I shall be obliged to any of those among your readers ■who are more experienced, to answer the following queries : 1. What is the supposed difference in expense and labor in cultivating, and securing when ripe, the crops of corn and peas, each being planted alone, and on hind equal to that of the other.'' 2. What is (he usual comparative product of corn and peas, when planted separately, and also wlien growing (as is usual in some districts,) in alternate rows, in the same field ? The kind of peas, and the time for planting them among grow- ing corn, should be mentioned. 3. What is the supposed diminution of the corn crop caused by planting peas between the rows, and can that loss be prevented entirely by the peas be- ing planted late? 4. Has sowing peas broad-cast been found to be a safe and profitable practice, whether to obtain forage for stock, or, by being ploughed in, to im- prove the land for the succeeding crop of wheat? N. T, Plaiiliiig^^ Irisii Potatoes. From the Virginia Fanner. Buckingham, May 1833. 3Ir. Editor : — I planted a piece of ground in Irish Potatoes, some of Avhich I cut in pieces, leaving an eye to each ; the others I planted whole. Those planted whole produced more than those cut, though the same quantity in weight was put in each hill. «• g. FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA. 121 PRIZE ESSAY. ON AGIlICUt.TIIRE IN VIRGINIA* By C. W. Gooch, of Henrico county. From the Virginia Farmer. It has fallen to the lot of the present race of man- kind, to live in an age of improvement, unparalleled in the history of the world. The arts and sciences have been cultivated to a degree of perfection, and are developing results that had never entered into the imagination of the most sanguine enthusiast of any other period. The intellect and industry of man have made all nature subservient to his purposes. Steam has ahnost annihilated space; machinery has overcome most of the obstructions of nature, and promises to multiply, to an indefinite extent, articles of comfort and necessity. Revolutions in the moral and political, as well as physical condi- tion of our species, strike the attention in what- ever direction we turn our eyes. But, is it not remarkable, that, at such an era, we look in vain for corresponding improvements in agriculture , that first and noblest of human pur- suits ? In some of the old countries of Europe, surprising advances have been made. And, in several ot the northern and eastern states of our confederation, the people have become sensible ol' the importance of the subject, and are in " the full tide of successful experiment" of an improved system of culture. If, in Virginia, we may con- gratulate ourselves, that several counties, neigh- borhoods, and detached individuals are ibllowing these examples, it is questionable whether they are not counterbalanced by the retrogading and deso- late appearances that are so often met with in other parts of the state? Take the state altogether, it does not appear, to me, to improve at all ; cer- tainly, not pari passu with its population, morals or intelligence. For my own part, I cannot see how it should, under such an accumulation of re- tarding causes. The limits of such an essay as this, do not ad- mit of a full discussion of these causes. Some of them will, however, be briefly adverted to, since a knowledge of them may be necessarj' to the proper application of remedies. Ours is a neio country, originally of great fer- tility. To account for its exhaustion, it will be necessarry to look back to its settlement — leaving the intelligent reader to recollect many things which I must omit. The country below the head of tide-water, which now exhibits so many forests of young- pines, and so many deserted fields of broomsedge and briers, was the first settled part of the state, and bears more of the destroying works of man than any other portion. It has also given subsist- ence to more persons, and has been the hive whence proceeded the great majority of the settlers in the middle and western parts of the state. It gave birth to, and raised more than double its proportion of that swarm of Virginians, Avho have peopled an empire in the west and southwest; and it still fur- nishes more than its ratio of the emigrants who cross the mountains. Its soil was exceedingly fertile when first stripped of the primeval forests. The abo- rigines exterminated the first settlers, and nobly Avarred against their successors. After the settle- ments were considered secure, and emigration from the mother country had increased nearly to incon- venient numbers, the exasperated Indians kept them within narrow limits, and compelled them to Vol. I.— 16 cultivate their lands without rotation of crops or any ameliorating systen>. The settlements, never- theless, progressed with the increase and wants of the population, driving the Indians before them. In this way, parts of lower Virginia were nearly exhausted before the settlements reached the moun- tains. But, the tract of country above the head of tidewater, scarcely felt this Indian pressure ; for, when the Indians were driven into the hills, and found the tide of white men rolling upon their re- treating steps, they took refuge, at once, beyond the Blue Mountains. The advancing settlers then spread out, and located themselves wherever they pleased. The laws permitted them to acquire ownership over land at the price of a few shillings per hundred acres. The policy of these laws was to encourage emigration from abroad, and people the country as rapidly as possible. In one respect, these laws had a pernicious effect on the agricul- ture of the state. They enabled the aristocracy, then numerous and wealthy, to locate and appro- priate to themselves and their heirs, vast tracts of the most fertile lands , which, for several genera- tions, were left uncleared, or were rented out to persons by whose unsparjjig cultivation they were the sooner impoverished. And, after, as Avell as before the revolution, it had a tendency to keep up an inequality among the people. May not too great a reduction in the price of the public lands now held by the United States, ha.\e a similar ten- dency, and cause a still sti'onger stream of emi- grants to issue from the old states .'' This is an in- cidental question which cannot escape the solici- tude of a Virginian at this moment. But it be- longs to politics, with which this essay has but little connexion. Of all the causes which have produced the pre- sent dilapidated appearance of Virginia, and pre- vented agricultural improven:ients, the most ope- rative have been the cultivation of tobacco, and the existence of slavery : — I mean negro slavery, in contra-distinct ion to ioAi7e slavery! Whilst I shall speak freely of the disadvantages of the one sort of slavery, as coming within the proper sphere of my remarks, I cannot feel authorised to go out of my way, to comment on the other. All that I ask is, that improper inferences may not be drawn. It is probable that seven-tenths of the land that has been cleared east of the mountains, has under- gone the scourge of the tobacco crop. Tobacco has been the staple of Virginia from its settlement. Its culture was greatly encouraged by English and colonial legislation, and has not lost its im- portance on the statute book of later times. For- merly, it was a sort of cash medium of remittance to the mother countr}', and a circulating currency among our citizens. The Inspector's notes passed as readily as do the bank notes of the present day ; and individuals gave their bonds for tobacco, as often as for money. The exhausting effects of its culture, arise as well from its heavy drafts upon the soil, for the juices which contribute to its size and weight, and its oily narcotic qualities, as from the necessaiy process of tillage. The land is stript of every thing down to the cover of decaying leaves — the rich vegetable mould, that had been accumulating for centuries, is then scraped up into hills, mixed with a portion of the soil from below. For many years past, previous coultering has been found necessary in consequence of the injury done, and compactness given to the soil, by the long 122 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA. trampling of domestic animals. This mould, thus suddenly exposed to the atmosphere, the rain and the sun, is soon evaporated, or washed into the val- Bes. Being soluble in' a great degree, its evapo- ration is, in my opinion, as great as its consump- tion in every other way ; for it rarely washes oil under the tobacco crop except from steep hill sides. The elevation of the tobacco hills causes Ihcm, be- fore shaded by heavy plants, to dry quickly both by sun and wind. To this we may add the fre- quent stirring of the groud when the plant is young, by the process of weeding and hilling up. Here, by way of digression, I must be excused for a few remarks which would seem to have a more appropriate place elsewhere. But, as they apply to this mould — this young and tenderest part of all soils, I insert them in this place. The vegetable mould found on the top of all vir- gin land, varies in thickness, according to circum- stances. But these circumstances involve a phi- losophical inquiry, into which the limits of a fugi- tive essay do not permit me to enter. Why is it, that the leaves of the forest so rapidly decay in the rich woodlands of the western country, and that they are covered with grass? Is not this the case sometimes, in the forests of Virginia.' Why do the leaves of the walnut, and some other trees, de- compose so rapidly in all situations.-' and why is the ground about them richer than that adjacent.'' The mould on the top of new land ought never to fee broken up and exposed, if it can be avoided. On the contrary, it ought to be turned under and mixed with the under sod. This process will be a little difficult in new ground. But the benefits resulting from tlie mixture and fermentation, will more than compensate for the trouble. I would recommend that such land be prepared as well as possible, and planted in corn, without destroying the cover of leaves by the barbarous and common practice of i-aking and burning. Corn is a vigo- rous plant, and with the aid of hoe work, will be greatly benefitted by the half decayed twigs, leaves and wood, which cover our virgin land. Neither wheat nor tobacco will grow so well amidst the trash of a new ground. The working will intermix the whole mass of litter with the mould and a small part of the next stratum. And thus, when the corn crop comes off, the previous stirring and amalgamation of the mould, leaves, twigs, rotten wood, and a part of the sub-soil, vv'iH be a preparation for after crops. It is true, that the greater the quantity of litter, the less corn will the land yield. If we could spread lime, or marl, or, even the more common article of plaster, upon it, before coultering and working, the corn crop would be relieved from its pale-green, sickly appearance, and give more grain, and that riper. The frosts of the next winter will prepare this land for a crop of tobacco, or small graui. If the soil be good and the owner wishes to make tobac- co, he will get more the next year, and even the year following, than he could have made tlie first year, after the old plan of raking and burning. We have sought, as our ancestors did, every mode of destroying the vegetable mould upon our lands, and of the materials out of which it is produced. My idea is, that with a. fanner, or even the tobac- co maker, who has lots or flats, it would be best to put his hew land, managed as I have described, in small grain the second year, followed up by clover and plaster the third and fourth years. After this, it will have yielded him a fair return, be richer tlian when cleared, and be capable of pro- ducing a good crop of any thing he may wish to cultivate. And it may be, ])rogressively, im- proved by a proper rotation, if there be a clay foundation: if not, it can be kept productive, and comparatively rich. The chief difficulty in re- claiming exhausted land, arises from the absence of putrescent vegetable matter, which it origi- nally contained, and which has been destroyed by severe cropping, bad tillage, and close grazing. It is in vain tliat nature annually attempts to renew this essential food of plants, when the rapacity o€ man and beast unite to defeat her efforts. But to proceed. Tobacco leaves but little offal or manure; and it comes off the ground so late in the fall, that no sheltering or improving after crop follows it. No crop remains so long on the hands of the cultiva- tor, or requires sucli constant and fatiguing labor. It is generally from twelve to eighteen months from tlie sowing of the seed to its arrival at mar- ket. All this time it requires constant attention, if not the constant application of labor. The plan- ter formerly relied upon it as his only source of income; for he seldom made corn for sale, and often less than he Avanted; and the wheat crop went to make up deficiencies, pay taxes, &c. In this respect there has been a favorable change within the recollection of the writer. Woodlands adapted to tobacco have now become scarce, and it is, chiefly raised on manured lots, aiUl rich flats. Necessity has thus driven the planters to the new practice of taking care of manure ; but they de- vote nearly all of it to their tobacco lots. More attention is now paid to grain crops than formerly. The three shift system is the one conmionly pur- sued, by which each field is improperly said to rest one year in three; but under the kind atten- tion and constant presence of all the four-footed animals on the farm. - It, however, gets a little respite after harvest, when the stock are turned into the grain fields to glean them, and destroy the young after-growth of weeds and grass which pro- vident nature throws up as a protection from the sun, and as a fresh supply of" vegetable matter to sustain the growth of the next year. In the rota- tion of crops, she sets us a beautiful example. — Look to the various productions she sends forth on new land; and, especially when we destroy each production. The next is always different from the immediately preceding one. This land-de- stroying, Virginia system of husbandry has been practised by almost the whole community until within a few years, and a majority of our people still pursue it. And, is it to be wondered at, that after the destruction of so much of the soil by to- bacco, and such long perseverance in this system, our lands wear out and yield such scanty returns for the labor of the husbandman.' If you examine the plantation of the tobacco maker, you find every appearance of poverty or unpardonable neglect. The owner will acknow- ledge that things ought to be aral might be better ; but that he has no time to spare, owing to tlie pres- sure of his crops, particularly his tobacco crop, which interferes with all his other operations throughout the whole year. There is much truth in his excuses ; for, in January, February, and March, he is clearing new grounds; preparing and burning plant-beds; fencing; manuring, and fal- FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA. 123 lowing tobacco lots; sowing oats, ploughing, and prepai'ing com land; and either stripping or priz- ing tobacco; perhaps both. In April, May and June, his toils begin to assume more interest, and require more exertion : his whole crop ot corn is ,to plant, replant, thin, weed and cultivate; the tobacco hills are to be made, turned, cut off, and the first plantings made. The old crop oi' tobacco is yet to be finished prizing, and hauled to market, if not previously done; experience having proven that the longer it is kept before prizing, the sound- er and better cured it will be — especially for ship- ping. Harvest is now at hand; but that period of industry and festivity to tlie mere farmer, brings with it sleepless toil and accumulated cares to the planter. The replanting tobacco, the topjiing of that which stood well, and the most careful tillage of the wliole with the hand hoe, press him on the one hand; whilst en the other, his late corn is not 3"et laid by, and his grain requires cutting. From the pressure of the corn and tobacco, the grain is too often literally mowed down and shocked about the field in a still more hurried and slovenly man- ner, to be half destroyed by winds and rains. — Throughout the months of July, August and Sep- tembei', not a moment's respite is enjoyed. The tobacco crop lias to be gone over more than a do- zen times in the laborious operations of topping, succoring, v/orming, working, cutting, piling, re- moving ito tiic houses and curing. The siiiall grain must be hauled u\) and stacked, and ^\hen the depredations of the wevil leave no other alterna- tive, the wheat is gotten out and carried to market. The fodder soon has to be secured, and this comes on just with the cutting of tobacco. During the other three months of the year, the better secur- ing of the fodder, the gatliering and housing of tl)e XOirn, a!id the sov/ing of the next year's crop of winter grain, leave no leisure time to the poor planter. The tobacco, although housed, must be closely watched; the latter cuttings cured; and then commence the tedious operations of striking, stripping, assorting and bulking av,ay. Besides these conflicting objects of attention, there are many others that demand the care and attention of i\\e planter. The whole circle of the year is one scene of bustle and toil, in Avhich tobacco claims a constant and chief share. No time can be devoted to the planting of fruit and ornamental trees — to ditching — cleaning up waste and reclaiming galled spots — making and spreading manure on the grain jfields — deep and careful ploughing — sowing clover and plaster — or providing comfortable shelters lor stock in the winter. The dwelling house, yard and garden enclosures, and all the out buildings, loo often fall into decay for the want of some tri- fling repairs, which the crop hands iwight make, •i/'f/te]/ had time. The plantation soon looks tat- tered and almost desolate — galled and gullied hill sides and sedgy, briery fields show themselves in every direction. The profits from the destruction of one plantation, are applied to the purchase of another and of more negroes. The new one is put in charge of an overseer an shares, who soon brings it to greater sterility and desolation. It is in this way that most of the best lands in Virginia have been brought to their present condition, and have been, then, deserted by the destroyers. But the existence of negro slavery aniong us, has, in a great degree, influenced the mode of de- stroying our lands, and hastened its accomplish- ment. In former times the exactions of the mas- ter were only limited by his cupidity. In this re- spect, a favorable change has taken place. Our slaves are no\v as well led and clothed, and enjoy as many comforts as the laboring class in other countries ; and they have improved proportiona- bly in their appearance aad intelligence. It is not my purpose to touch the dark question which involves their future destiny. Its agitation has, already, on two occasions, roused a state of feeling wiiich verged to desperate extremes. Whatever evils may attend it, the right of property can never be permitted to be questioned by others. The possession of slaves has had too great a ten- dency to make the owner and his family unwilling to take upon themselves any part of the drudgery of out-door business; and too many of our people think it disreputable to labor. We have been ac-^ customed to be waited upon from our infancy, and consequently, keep about us loo many wasteful and almost idle domegtics. Exempted from labor and even from the common cares of business by the employment of agents, we imbibe habits and modes of thinking unfavorable to physical im- provement or successful agriculture. The un- finished houses, and projects half executed, Avliich are to be seen throughout the state, are evidences of the meaning and tr^th of this remai-k. That the ease in which wehave so long indulged, favors the attainment of literary and political knowledge and personal accomplishments, is manifest from the acknowledged proficiency of Virginians in these respects. But, whilst Ave are all politicians, to a man, it is to be regretted that our achievements in the arts and sciences bear no just proportion to the opportunities we have had. May not this arise from the ill-judged devotion of too much time to pleasure and dissipation ? It is unfashionable for a genteel or educated Virginian to apply himself to the details and cares of the humble, but useful vocations of life. And hence it is, that most of the sprightliness and genius of the state have been applied to one of tlie two learned professions. The pulpit is, of late, putting in its claim to the aspi- rations of our youth. Has not agriculture and the arts been too long robbed in this way, of their just share of talents — of men whose intellectual endow- ments might have given a more winning counter nance to the venerated mother of us all. '^ Of the legions of y-oung men who annually embark in the professions, how many are there who rise to emi- nence ? How many that, from disappointment and chagrine, betake themselves to dissipation.' How many linger out a brief life of listlessness and ex- pectation; almost a burden to themselves and an expense to their parents and relations.' How many, with consciousness of merit and a determi- nation not to become drones, reluctantly emigrate from the scenes of their boyhood and the bones of their ancestors.' JNIay not I ask, what portion of all these, if brought up to the habits and cares of business — to the quiet and healthful pursuits of rural life — or to the cultivation of the useful arts, would have been lost to the state either by self-de- stroying habits or emigration .' The efTects of sla- very upon our daughters, though not less striking and pernicious, are less seriously felt by agricul- ture j but it does not seem to accord Avith the ob- ject of this paper, to dAvell upon them. If these effects be seen in the lofty pride of our Avomen, in their admiration of genius, intellect and vaJor^ 124 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA. and a repugnance to domestic duties, they ai'c also to be seen in their virtues, and especially in Iheir chastity. The profligate cannot fail to see and leel the meaning" of this remark. The white man who hastohihor for his support, does it with an unwilling spirit. lie sees the ex- emption enjoyed by others; and, if he does not fancy himself equally entitled to it, is too apt to repine at his lot, or migrate to some new state, where he will be upon a looting of greater equality Avith his neiglibors. But, independent of the enervating and paralyz- ing etfects of slavery upon all our white popula- tion, there are pecuniary losses arising from it, that are heavy drawbacks to the agriculturist. — Most of the labors of agriculture have been con- fided to careless overseers, and still more careless operators. The slave feels no inducement to exe- cute his work with effect. He has a peculiar art of slighting it, and seeming to be busy, when, in fact, he is doing little or nothing. Nor can he be made to take proper care of stock, tools, or any thing else. He will rarely take care of his clothes, or his own health, much less of his companions, when sick and requiring his aid and kindness. — There is, perhaps, not in nature, a more heedless, thoughtless human being, than a Virginia tield negro. With no care upon his mind, with warm clothing and plenty of food, under a good master, he is far the happier man of the two. His maxim is, " Come day, go day, God send Sunday." His abhorrence of the poor white man is very great. He may, sometimes, feel a reflected respect for him, in consequence of the confidence and esteem of his master and others. But this trait is as re- markable in the white as in the black man. All despise poverty, and seem to worship wealth. To the losses w^hich arise from the dispositions of our slaves must be added those which are occasioned by their habits. There seems to be almost an en- tire absence of moral principle among the mass of our colored population. But details upon this sub- ject would be here misplaced. To steal and not be detected, is a merit among them ; as it was with certain people in ancient times, and is, at this day, with some unenlightened portions of mankind. — And the vice which they hold in the greatest ab- horrence, is that of telling upon one another. — There are many exceptions, it is true; though this description embraces more than the majority. The numerous free negroes, and worthless, dissipated whites, who have no visible means of support, and who are rarely seen at work, derive their chief subsistence from the thefts of the slaves. These thefts amount to a great deal in the course of the year, and operate like leeches on the fair income of agriculture. They vary, however, in every count}' and neighborhood, in the exact proportion as the markets for the plunder varies. In the vi- cinities of towns and vdlages, they are the most serious. Besides the actual loss of property occa- sioned by them, they involve the riding of our horses at night, the corruption of the habits and the injury of the health of the slaves ; for whiskey is the price generally received for them. These evils have been always felt ; but they have be- come so great of late, that the legislature ought to provide a more efficient remedy. The statute book w'ould seem to contain one. " " Whether the defect be in the law or in its execution," is not for me to decide. It sometimes happens that the head thief on a farm is in partnership with the over- seer ; and when this is tlie case, the husbandman h.as no chance for profit. Another great cause of the dilapidated appear- ance of '\'irginia, is the semi-annual wave ol' emi- gration, which has so long rolled from her bosom in a western and southwestern direction. It has not only swept oft' the most enterprising portion of our people, but also much of the capital and moveable property of the state. Nor is this all : the price of land has been kept down by the great quantities of it, brought into market by the emi- grants. Instead of improving those we held be- fore, we have been tempted to add to our posses- sions exhausted farms and plantations. It has been the custom to go in debt for two tliirds of such purchases. The emigrants, besides taking Avith them every thing they can, draw, annually, for three years, upon the earnings of their old neigh- bors. Thus, the land holders have not been able to accumulate a disposable cash fund, to be applied to improvements and the purchase of better im- plements, &c. On the contrary, tliey are too often forced to cultivate their lands with greater severi- ty, to meet these payments. The great fertility and cheapness of western lands, and the increased value given of late, to every thing in the west, by the use of steam on its noble rivers, have been inducements to emigration too strong to be resisted by a people who find it laborious to earn a mere subsistence in tlie land of their fathers. I need but advert to the wonderful, the magic growth of the " mighty west" — that fairy land of imagined manna, and of milk and honey. During the ten years, from 1S20 to 1830, the increase of population, and rate of increase, will be seen from the follow ins table : Rate of in- lacrease in crease per Present States. ten years. ct. in 10 yrs. riopulation. Alabama, 181,096 141,A 308,997 Mississippi, 61,358 80,1 136,806 Tennessee, 264,009 62,7 684,822 Kentucky, 124,.527 22,1 688,844 Ohio, 356,203 61,2 937,679 Indiana, 194,404 132,1 341,582 Illinois, 102,364 185,4 157,575 Missouri, 73,488 110,4 140,074 1,357,449 avr. 99,4 3,396,379 Tliese rich and flourishing states have grown up within a short time. It is not pretended that all the emigrants by whom they have been peo- pled v.ent from Virginia. But it must be conce- ded that this state furnished a very large propor- tion of them, to say nothing of the number of her sons who migrated to the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Michi- gan. The fact that so many of our friends and re- lations have left us and are prosperous and happy in the new states, has a tendency to make us rest- less and dissatisfied, and will continue to keep up, and perhaps, increase the spirit of emigration. I have given a rapid sketch of some of the great causes of the depressed condition of Virginia, and particularly of her agriculture. But, there are many others, some growing out of these, and others independent of them, which I must leave to suggest themselves to the mind of the intelligent reader. Now,, what is to be done to arrest these evils — FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINfA. 1-25 to give new hope and confidence to the despond- ing minds of our citizens, and retrieve tlie lidiing fortunes of Uie good okl inolher state ? This ques- tion addresses itself to the heart of every indivi- dual patriot — it solcnuily appeals to the hearts and the heads of our legislators and all others in autho- rity among us. The thing is practicable ; and only requires a small sacrifice of pride, individual interest and local feeling. Let us abandon and discountenance that aristocratic feeling which we have inherited from our ancestors, and have too long cherished — Let us attend more in person to ourbusiness, no jnattcr what that may be, instead of trusting to agents or deputies — retrench expen- ditures, particularly of living — bring up fewer of our sons to the learned professions, and more of them to industry in agriculture and the useful trades and arts. In this way we may dispense with many careless and costly overseers, with tlie number of artists, engineers, skilful mechanics, and even with the hosts of northern schoolmasters, who find annual employment along side of our idle sons. Let us al^andon the besetting sin of pro- crastination and making^ood resolutions that arc never executed — adopt an improved system of cul- tivation— make all the maure we can, and reclaim a given number of acres of land every year, ac- cording to our means, if it be but one or two — use better implements of husbandry — prepare for it, and take better care of our crops and stock — re- duce the latter to a number that can be v.cU fed and kept in high order, and one fourth will give more profit tlian the whole, and as much manure, without extensive and runious grazing of the fields. Ought we not, as soon as possible, get the best breeds of stock ; and, gradually, adopt the soiling system ; or, in other words, the plan of keeping our stock within limited bounds, and feed- ing them abundantly with food, cultivated and pre- pared for them, throughout the various seasons of the year.' One milch cow properly housed and fed throughout the winter, will give to a family more milk than half a dozen in our common way. But experiments and their results upon this, and almost all the branches of rural economy, have been made known to the public, and may be re- ferred to. The nature of this article prevents my go- ing into specific details; since almost every subject would be the ample groundwork of a little volume. But, why should we not get up agricultural so- cieties in different parts of the state, and keep them up, by zealously encountering some little trouble and expense for that purpose.' It is an old saying, that "what is every body's business is nobody's." This aphorism is not true in politics. And, why is it, that we cannot feel a kindred zeal in what is the foundation and life-spring of all other human vocations.'' In politics every man takes an interest — We are ready to attend public meetings — to discuss the topics of the day around our fire sides ; at cross roads, and all the sorts of shops and meet- ing places in every county. We cheerfully pay our money to support profligate and hired editors, who either gratify our taste for slander, or minis- ter to our bitter prejudices. And, yet, we are unwilling to pay a small sum for the support of an agricultural journal, or an agricultural society! Out civil and political riglits are very important. But, there are "matters and things" which address themselves to our next dearest, sublunary inter- ests, and which we ought to attend to ; because they involve so large a portion of our comfort, prosperity and happiness. The human race is struggling to get onward, in almost every thing else, but in the homely pursuit on which all others depend — agriculture — yes, every thing depends upon it at last ; lor it supplies the substantial com- forts of life What a host of men have we in this half-i)eopled world of ours, where there is so much land and such ample elbow-room, who literally live u})on the industry of the husbandman.' It is true that many of them are necessary auxiliaries. But how many of the various craftsmen, including the 6a//cr;i and s/tu///c, and other players j whe- ther in the forum ; the sick room ; the pulpit ; the necessary departments of public service ; in the various and ramified employments of commerce ; or in the circles of benevolent societies and other trades devoted to our instruction, and edification — how many, I ask, among ail these, are willing to Vvalk upon old mother earth, during half the year, without double and trible /oo<-cZo//u';ig: .' many of them alTord us necessary comforts and conveni- ences, and even the pretty things upon which we may serve up in style, the productions of the hus- bandman ; and, others live by their talent for offer- ing up to Heaven fervent thanks for the privilege extended to all, of consuming these savory viands. But, after all, do not the varied and indispensable vocations of human intellect and human industry mainly depend upon the agricultui'al community ? Upon that portion of our population, the least res- pected, and the least regarded by the law makers, and the patrons of other and less valuable pursuits? Is not husbandry the great preponderating in- terest in America.' Look at the happy varieties of our soil, climate and productions — look at the vast territory of unimproved and uncultivated land, inviting the hand of industry, and promising the slaw, but certain rewards of peace, health, abun- dance. And, with all these things staring us in the face, is it not preposterous in the federal gov- ernment fo wish to hurry things beyond their na- tural gait — to turn us into a nation of spinners and iceavers, and handicraftsmek ! The talents of the state have been too much devoted to some- thing other than our primary interest: And, that is tlie reason, as I have before suggested, that Vir- ginia has sunk to what she is. Is not the time for her renovation at hand.' — Many of us have been unwilling to run aivay, either from the increasing gloom and dilapidation, which annually thicken around us; or from the moral depreciation, inclu- ding our own faults, in which we find ourselves an- nually involved. I say that many have been in- fluenced by this consideration : We have expect- ed a sense of returning justice on the part of the federal and state governments — We have looked to better times, and suffered present evils, under the confident expectation, that, justice would be done to us by the federal government, in relation to the tariff, &c. ; and that, our own drones in the state legislature would be either removed, or awa- kened to a sense of their obligations to do some- thing for the farmers and planters ; instead of spend- ing their time in abstractions about federal poli- tics, or catering for the interests of deputy sher- iffs and clerks of courts. This remark, so far as federal politics are concerned at this time, may not be strictly just; for, I acknowledge that South Carolina has placed the union in jeopardy. But, my essay has nothing to do with that. 126 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA. If the farmers and planters of the United States choose to be made the pack-horses on which all other interests may ride up the hill of prosperitj' — be it so, in the name of God ! We have broad shoulders — brawny hands ; and very little ambi- tion, but to surpass the ban-box, and handicraft, and tongue-craft gentry in all the substantials oi honest dealing and warm-hearted, though blunt, hospitality. I am exclusively a farmer : 3'et, I have seen something beyond the scope of rural cares and country rusticity. And may I not ask, after all, v.ho, in the whole circle of human em- ployments, enjoys more substantial happiness and feels a loftier independence than the virtuous warm- hearted husbandman? AH that surrounds him is his, and, depends upon him. Every thing that he consumes is the product of liis own industry, ex- cept a few luxuries, which he readily procures in exchange for liis surplus articles or for the price of them. His necessary exercise in the pure air invigorates both body and mind. Who eats his meals with more zest, or sleeps sounder.'' Who is less annoyed with ennui — with dyspepsia— viith other fashionable diseases? Y/lio enjoys the com- pany of a friend or neighbor with more heart-felt pleasure — or is more willing to ofier the hospitali- ties of his roof to the stranger? But why should not the husbandman, witli these pre-eminent claims, receive some share of justice from the government ? Some little crumb of com- fort— and if not even a crumb, why should he not be exempted from the maintenance of speculation, cupidit}' and avarice ? We have no hope but in ourselves. Let us then determine upon a change. We cannot be worsted much. Why should we not instruct our Burgesses to make more ample provision for educating the people, and for carry- ing on a system of internal improvement commen- surate with the wants and the rich resources of the -State? — These subjects are intimately connected with the prosperity of agriculture. I will not in- ■sult the public understanding by supposing that any thing is necessary to be said in behalf of edu- cation. The only dilliculty is, that the men of property are too unwilling to pay a small tax to enlighten the minds of the children of their poor- er neighbors. They seem to have forgotten that the law of entails is abolished ; and that in the re- volutions of fortune their own children and grand- . children may stand in need of a similar mite from the very persons whom they seem now so unwil- ling to aid. They also seem not to perceive that by some trifling contribution they may dispel some of the clouds of ignorance by which they are sur- rounded, and improve the morals and habits of their neighbors. A judicious system of internalimprovement pro- jected upon a liberal scale, and prosecuted with adequate means and becoming energy, cannot fail to put a new face upon the atlairs oi" the whole state. In its prosecution it must increase the va- lue of labor and give employment to the restless part of our population; giving, at the same time, fresh expectations and hopes to all desponding minds. If it does not at once arrest the destroy- ing tide of emigration, it cannot fail to do it in a few years. Need I dwell upon the rich and va- ried resources of this great state.' — resources which would be soon developed, if the means of trans- portation and intercommunication were only af- forded ? In consequence of the great expense of transportation to market, the ))roductions of the interior are confined to such articles as will bear the expense. But if we had the necessary roads and canals, an immediate change Avould take place in the pursuits of the planters and farmers. Their industry and economy would be stimulated, and cause the production of a variety of articles which would add new wealth to the state, new comforts to the producers, and materially change the blight- ed aspect of the country. There is nothing to be alarmed at in the expense of a well planned road or canal, although the amount may at first seem to be large; for the income -will soon pay it off. In the mean time, the advantages to be derived from the increase in the value of projierty, the new ar- ticles that may I e carried to market, and the sa- ving in the expense of carriage, will all more than compensate for the cost of the Avork. But it is the misfortune of Virginia, that on this, as on many other subjects, lier local interests are not homogeneous. We have a lowland, a south-side, a middle, a valley, a northwestern and southv/es- tern interest. Some of tliese either in the whole or in part, harmonize on improvements. But has not the tune arrived wh^these jeolousies and con- flicting pretensions should give way to the com- mon good? It is impossible to undertake at once, all the needed improvements in every section of the state. Ought they not to be executed, if the state is to participate as she ought, according to the scale of their value and importance? If local feeling and contrariety of views in the legislature disqualify that body from arranging the order in which such improvements ought to be made, what objection can there be, to the employment of com- missioners and engineers from other states, to fix the scale of importance and ordej- of time for their construction ? It is due to candor to acknowledge that no part of the stale has received less public bounty in the way of improvement than the country below the head of tidewater, whilst they have contributed their full share to the internal improvement fund. But, prospectively, they are deeply interested in the improvement of the whole state. Altho' they have level roads and navigable Avaters, there is scarcely a county in lov.er Virginia, in which some valuable improvement "may not be made, fully equal to its share of general contribution. Jus- tice would seem to require that these should not be overlooked. But, to return from this digres- sion. The defects of our police laws ; the complication of our whole code; and, especially, the vexatious and expensive delays of litigation bear upon all classes of productive industry, for the benefit of the non producers and inetTicients. It was not my intention, in the commencement of this paper, to dwell on the several ci'ops cultiva- ted in Virginia ; or on the best modes of tilling each. Such a range of inquiry is beyond my ability : and, if it were not, it would require a ponderous volume to embrace it. We must re- collect that our state is divided into three great territorial divisions, in each of Avhich the staples, the soil, and the climate, differ essentially. Below tlie head of tidewater, corn, cotton, oats, peas, po- tatoes, &c. are the chief objects of culture — Above the head of tidewater and to the north mountain, tobacco and wheat; and, in the valley, may be ad- ded liemp, live stock, &c. Beyond the norib FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA. 127 mountain, grazing, and fattening stock for mar- ket may be considered as the preponderating inter- est. Systems of tillage and management, quite different in many respects, apply to each portion of tiie state. The single subject of the manage- )nent of manure, both in regard to the making and application of it, presents an illustration of my idea. In the lower country, we have an abun- dance of shell-marl, sea, swamp, creek and river mud ; pine beards, kel[), and exhaustless quanti- ties of vegetable matter on the swamps and mar- shes ; we only want the industry to collect and use them. The newly discovered quantity and value of our marl resources seem to favor the hope, that, from this source alone, a market change will soon take place in the appearance of this, most tattered, and desolate-looking portion of Virginia. Albe- marle is the native county of the writer ; yet, lie is not blind to the beauties, the advantages and va- lue of lower Virginia. — Its great misfortune has been, the facility with which a subsistence could be procured, without much labor. The palatable productions of the air, the land, and the water, have too much enervated, may I not say, paralyzed, the energies of the people. At one time, the mon- opoly of property and the proud aristocratic feeling of the Dons, kept every thing subservient to them; and, to them, and their pride, and anti-republican- ism, lower Virginia is more indebted for her droop- ing ajjpearance, both in the general aspect of the country, and the general mind, than to any thing else ! The effects of emigration would not have been so serious in loAver Virginia, but for the pride of "untitled nobility." Thank God, that there is now some hope for a change ! The revolutions of fortune have left but few of the old gentry who are not, more or less, disposed to mingle without con- scious disgrace, among the common people : and, al- ways, when they want ofHce or public favor: And those who do remain, of that caste, whilst they may justly feel the pride oi'pcdigree, must feel also a con- viction, that their ancestors have a little overstepped the mark, on this subject. Eut, things are getting right; and, it is unseemly to talk too much about a departing shade ! We ought to let it pass ; because we have more recent, and now, more formidable pretensions to combat. The other parts of the state are less amply sup- plied by nature with materials that m.ay be employ- ed in fertilizing the soil. From the operation of this remark, ought to be exempted all that region of country in which limestone is found in abun- dance. This exemption, would embrace a large, and, perhaps, the most desirable portion of coun- try, beyond the Blue Ridge. In that section of the state the abundance of limestone and calca- reous earth or marl, leave those who reside among these advantages, no excuse for not enriching their land. A narrow vein of limestone commen- ces at the Potomac on the east of the Ridge, and runs parallel to the mountain at about an average distance of twenty-five miles from it, quite to the North Carolina line. This vein, is, in many pla- ces, a considerable depth belcwv the surface. But where it does appear is of good quality and might be usefully employed in fertilizing the adjacent lands. In the line of this vein, the v/riter has seen immense quantities of blue clay marl, resem- bling limestone in the vt^ater courses, and where the top soil has been washed off on hill sides. This substance is of the consistency of Fuller's earth; but effervesces powerfully in acids. When ap- plied as a manure he has seen the most surprising results. And, yet is it not strange, that neither this substance nor the limestone, is any where used to much extent.' The marl of the lower country is becoming an article of commerce. It is most abundant on the navigable rivers and bays, and vessels have been some time employed in trans- porting it to the cities north of us, where it sells ti-om iO to 12i cents per bushel. We have too long trod in the old and beaten track of our ancestors. Has notthe time arrived when the agricultural community ought to rouse from this lethargy — avail themselves of tlie won- derful improvements of the age — at any rate show a disposition to avail themselves of all new disco- veries, and to better their condition.? W'hy should we permit every thing else to get so far the start of us? Our neighbors to the north, and even to the west deride and shame us, by their superior skill and industry, — and the consequent superior advan- ta.educing Sea Shells — Gap^esand Snuflles in Young Turkeys— Private Correspondence —Mineral Resources of Virginia (from Address of J. P. Gushing, A. M.)— Preserving Bees in Winter — Pine Leaves on Marl — Silk Culture— Field Peas— Planting Potatoes— Agriculture in Virginia (Prize Essay)— Pedigrees of Cattle imported by Corbin Warwick, Esq.— To" Correspondents and Readers— Extract from the Virezinia Farmer. Erratum, in the heading of the first article of No. 2. For 'Raoier" read "Rozier.^' THE FARMERS' REGISTER. VOL. I. Siu^iMsacD^^s) iiwtii'WQS a©^Qa NO. 3. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. T. W. WHITE, PRINTER. ACCOUNT OF THE EMBANKMENT AND CUL- TIVATION OF THE SHIRLEY SWAMP. To the Edilor of the Fanners^ Register. Shirley, June 26th, 1S33. Agreeable to your request I have examined my journal, and find the foUov/ing results froni re- claiming eighty -five acres of swamp land at Shir- ley. The swamp was heavily covered with gum and ash trees, and overflowed twice every day by the tide water at the flood, but left free from water at the ebb tide. The land was reclaimed in the year 1825, by contract, at the expense of .^1.25 per running yard, for the dike, in the following manner. In the first place, a way about fifty feet wide was cleared on the line or route for tlie dike, and then a ditch about three feet wide and two feet deep, was dug throughout the course, for the ,dike to be run upon, to keep it from leaking underneath. The dike was then commenced at low tides, by digging pits in the most convenient places on the outside of the line of the dike, (and only on the outside, and never nearer the dike than twenty feet,) and loading v.'heelbarrows with the mud from the pits, which were rolled up to the dike on tliick planks, and tlien deposited in a rougli shape, until the whole line or course of dike was gone around, so as to give the mud time to settle and dry. The dike being seventeen hundred yards long, sixteen feet at base, four feet at top, and six feet high, it took about five months to go around it the first time, by which time it had settled so much as to require nearly as much mud the second time of going around as the first, to get- it to its required size. On going around it the second time, the creeks (three in number,) were stopped out as they came to them, by driving down four rows of large piles, or poles pointed at one end, and placed close together, quite across the creeks, so as to keep the mud from washing away as it was thrown in. The base of the dike at the creeks was fifty feet, and the dike made much higher and wider at the top than the other parts, to allow for the greater settling. After all the creeks were stopped, and the dilce complet- ed, a trunk, with a floating valve, (JVote i1,) made of very thick pine plank, was put down at the highest side of each creek, about twenty feet from the creek, with a ditch leading to the creek, to let off the water at low tide, but exclude it at high tide. The cost of dike, trunks and all, was ^2167.50. The winter of 1825-26, 1 cleared fifty acres of the reclaimed land, by cutting down the trees, and burning them in heaps, but did not grub up the stumps. (^NoU B.) The spring of 1826, I merely listed up (very imperfectly) rows six feet apart, Avith the grubbing hoes, just wide enough to get earth to cover the corn, but did not pretend to grub up the large stumps or roots, even in this list. From the 12th to the 20th May, I plant- ed the fifty acres in corn on the six feet lists, two feet apart, as near as we could come at it, con- sidering the rough state of the land : and on thin- ning out the corn, left three stalks in the hill. It Vol. I.— 17 produced a very heavy crop of stalks, and a good crop of corn, considering the rough state of the land ; the fodder fired before we could gather it all. The crop produced, as by journal, three hundred and eighty barrelsof merchantable corn, and sixty five of short corn fed to hogs. This crop was sold in the spring of 1827, at S3 per barrel, being $1140, besides the hog corn and some fodder. The winter of 1826 and '27, 1 cleared the balance of reclaimed land, and in the spring of 1827 listed it in the same manner as last year, and planted the whole 80 acres* in corn, about the same time in May as last year — and had the promise of a very heavy crop of corn, until the storm of August 26th broke the dike in three places, and overflowed the reclaimed land, and apparently destroyed the crop of corn. I was at the mountains, and my over- seer despairing of saving any part of the crop, did not pretend to repair the damages. But as soon as 1 iieard it, I hastened home ; and when I arrived, the tide had been flowing in and out for ten or fif- teen days, and it required twenty days to repair the damages, (which was done with the plantation hands,) so that the corn had been sulyect to the tides for thirty days at least, and I was afraid was ruined ; but fortunately the crop was matured be- fore the storm, and all that stood up was saved — ■ and I made about half a crop. Crop made this year, as per journal — merchant- able corn four hundred and eight barrels, and so much unsound corn that we did not pretend to measure it ; fed some of the best of it to hogs ; balance made manure of. Crop sold for '^2 per barrel — amount .^816. I nov,^ found that the dike had settled, or sunk so much that it would not do to risk another crop of corn upon the reclaimed land without raising it; and with my plantation hands, I raised the dike one foot higher during the winter of 1827 and '28. In tiie spring of 1828, planted in the same way, and about the same time in May as last year, se- venty acres of the reclaimed land in corn, and ten acres of the dryest part in cotton. We had a very wet summer throughout, and made a short crop of corn on the reclaimed land, in consequence; and neaily a total fiiilure in cotton. Crop as by jour- nal, made on tliis land this year, four hundred and fifty four barrels merchantable corn, fifty four good short corn fed to hogs, and a great deal of rotten corn. Cotton made-^only six hundred and twenty pounds, picked or nett cotton. This crop of corn sold for i^2.40 per barrel, making $ 1089.60 ; and cotton was worth, I suppose, ten cents the pound, (though that was used on the plantation) which, ad- ded tothe corn, amounted to i$ 1151.60. The dike now had so much sunk or settled, that we had to raise it again this winter a foot higher all around. The reclaimed land had also sunk a little, and the stumps were disappearing by rotting. * Five acres of the area was at all times lost by being covered, or kept too wet, by the small creeks — so as to leave the whole quantity fit for cultivation, eighty acres onlv. 130 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHIRLEY SWAMP. In the year 1829, cultivated reclaimed land as usual in corn, except that we only left two stalks in the hill to try to prevent the fodder from firing, which has always taken place before vv^e could ga- ther it all, but still it tires too soon for us. Made a very good crop of corn this year, seven hundred and sixty three barrels merchantable corn ; se- venty barrels short, but sound, fed to hogs; some twenty or thirty barrels of rotten corn, besides the above — price of corn this year -9 1.80 per barrel ; value of swamp corn ^1373.40. As I have ne- glected to mention tlie mode of cultivation, I will noAv do it. My reclaimed land is too low and wet to plough, except ten acres on the margin of the highland, so that we have to cultivate all of it ex- cept the above ten acres, entirely with hoes, which is done in the following way : The land is laid up every Avinter in six feet beds, \vith hoes, and well ditched and water-furrowed from one end to the other, so as to make it as dry as possible. We plant it as soon as possible in tlic spring, (which is generally the last of April or first of May,) two feet between every hill on the six feet beds, thin- ning out to two and three stalks to the hill. We begin to weed the corn broad-cast as soon as any grass or v.eeds appear. We generally get over it twice before harvest, and then the growth of corn is so rapid that it overshades the land, and keeps the grass and weeds under, so tl;at the cultivation of this sort of land is much less laborious than any one would suppose from not being able to use the .plough, provided you begin to weed as soon as any grass or weeds appear : but if you let them get ■flie start of you, you may bid adieu to your corn, lor all the hoes in Virginia would not save it. In 1830, began to plant corn on reclaimed land on 20th April, and finished on 30th; cultivated as usual ; we had a wet season, and bad for swamp land. Crop made this year, by journal, five hun- dred and fifty barrels of merchantable corn ; se- venty barrels of short corn fed to hogs, and fifty of rotten corn. I will here remark that this kind of land always has much more short and rotten corn than higidand, and never turns out so Avell as the appearance of the crop, while growing, would induce you to suppose. 1 have often been told by persons who saw the crop while in the tassel, that it must make eighteen or twenty barrels to the acre, so luxuriant was the growth; but the best crop I ever made, was ten barrels and a half to the acre. But the beauty of this land is, that it will last for ever without manure, provided you keep the water off; and if ever it sinks to low wa- ter mark, which I believe it will, after a long while, why we can but use the pump as they do in Holland. It has now sunk about eighteen inches. Price of corn in 1830, Sg3.70 per barrel, and value of sv/amp corn ^2035. In the year 1831, cultivated reclaimed land as usual, except that we planted the corn earlier in April than before — and just as it was all up, on the 27th April, we had a violent N. E. storm, with high tides, v/hich broke over the dike, and swept every thing; corn all destroyed — dike made a wreck of^ — and I was very near giving it up in despair, and in fact did give orders to break up some high land instead of it, but after awhile thought I would make another trial. Went to work on the dike, and by the 17th May stopped out the water again, and began to plant corn a second time. The corn came up, and stood ve- ry well, and I thought we h.id as good a pros- pect for a full crop as before the storm ; for, by 30th May, we had completed the repairs to the dike, and began to weed the corn, at which time it looked beautiful. The second day after we began to weed, the corn began to disappear, and by the fourth day every plant was gone. The caterpillars, or a worm very like them, (somewhat smaller,) had eaten up every plant in the eighty acres, except a small corner of tlie reclaimed land, about two acres, where, on the subsiding of the flood, all the trash had floated to the thickness of four feet, and we had to burn it off before we could plant that cor- ner. That part escaped the caterpillars entirely, their eggs being burnt, I suppose. I cannot ac- count for the caterpillars, as we never had them before nor since in our corn, though we have had a few once or twice in our wheat, but not to do much injury. As I was pretty well tired of plant- ing for one year, I waited until the glut of worms as I thought was over, and two days before har- vest, the 14th and 15th June, I made a great push, working night and day, and planted tlie reclaimed land the third time. But it would not all do : the glut of caterpillars was not over; they were only concealed in the ground — and as soon as the corn came up, they again swept it off the face of the earth. After harvest, I thought it was too late to make corn in our climate, but determined to make the fourth trial, and began to plant on 30th June. The caterpillars had turned into a kind of fly and disappeared, and we made about half a crop. Crop made this year on reclaimed land, as by journal, of merchantable corn, three hundred and ten barrels ; fifty two barrels of short, or hog corn, and thirty barrels of rotten corn, caught by frost. Price of corn this year, ^2.25 per barrel ; value of swamp corn 8697.50. 1832, cultivated reclaimed land as usual in corn, and had no rain from June Sd until 24ih Septem- ber, the most unprecedented drought ever known in this climate. The swamj) land corn suffered from the drought, yet we made there two-thirds of a crop : four hundred and sixty four barrels mer- chantable corn ; forty five barrels of short corn fed to hogs, and some rotten corn as usual. Price of corn this year, ^3.25 per barrel ; value of swamp corn, S 1508. Recapitulation of Products and Expense. Years. Product. Sales. Price per bbl. When sold. 1826 bis. 380 1827 40SJ 1S28 454 1829 763 1830 550 1831 310 1332 464 vhich was left in the farm yard until the fall, the next — and that which was ploughed under in April, the worst. But in the ciops since tliat time, there has been no dilference visil)Ie ; and all tlie pieces of land are very much improved, so that 1 am of the opinion stated before, that it is of little conse- quence how you use manure, so that it is really used — and that it is spread well over the surface, which is very important. There is one exception to the above opinion, if it could be practised — but I have never seen the farmer in our climate in the lower country who could. I allude to the winter top dressing of wheat, which is certainly the quick- est in its effect, and the most permanent in dura- tion ; but we can never use it in that way to any extent in our climate, for several reasons. Our winters are so short, and the ground so rarely hard frozen enough to haul upon, that it is impossible to do much at this kind of work. We are compelled to bed and furrow our land from one end to the other, and if heavy wagons were to run upon it in our wet winters, (and iliey are always wet,) both the land and wheat would be ruined. But I have not the least doubt, if it could be effected, th^t it is the very best way of using manure. If done early after sowing wheat, it improves the wheat ve- ry much, and it insures a heavy crop of clover after wheat, for it protects the clover from the spring frosts, and enables you to sow your clover seed early, which is very important on weak land ; and then in the summer, it protects the young clo- ver from our hot sun and great droughts which we frequently have. I consider a good crop of clover as equal to two manurings, and it is that which makes the top dressing in winter so durable, because it secures the clover. I top dress a little, though very little, every winter, as much as we have hard frozen ground to do it on : and I am sure that I can go now and i)oint out every spot that has been done so for the last ten years, so per- manent is this way of manuring. 'There is fre- quently great waste of manure from applying too much to the acre. The object of a farmer should be to cover a large surface with his manure, just applying enough to make the clover take well, and by plastering his clover he will have the best pos- sible manure in a good clover lay. My practice is to put twenty two good wagon loads of stable manure to the acre, and tliirty very heavy wagon loads of farm-pen manure to the acre ; (as that is very inferior to the stal)le manure,) and in that manner I get over about 50 acres of land per annum. I will now return to the reasoning on the four shift system. In the fourth place, our lands are very liable to weeds of every kind, to onions, blue grass, wire grass, partridge pea, and many others, so that they require a spring hoe crop very fre- quently to keep them clean ; the four shift sys- tem with corn every fourth year, will do that very effectually. I have tried the oat crop instead of the corn crop as a cleanser, but it will not an- swer. The oat crop is an effectual cleanser of onions for the time being, that is to say your crop of wheat for two or three years after the oats will be perfectly free from onions, but they will return after a while if you stop the oat system. But the oats do not in the least prevent the growth of blue grass, wire grass, or partridge pea, and a hoe crop is the only remedy. I shall now be compell- ed to my sorrow to abandon oats as a cleanser, and substitute the corn crop, so foul has my land be- come of every thing except the onion, which the oat crop has kept under. I have this year lost one tiiird of my wheat by blue grass. I consider the oat crop if a heavy one, fully as exhausting as the corn crop ; and I do not regret being obliged to abandon it and take up the corn crop, on that ac- count, but I regret it on account of the onion, of which tlie corn crop is not half so good a cleanser ; and besides, I shall find it too laborious to cultivate one fourth of my land in corn, in addition to my swamp land : but it must be done — there is no al- ternative, for the blue grass must be checked. Thefii'th and last reason in favor of the four shift system, with standing pasture, is, that it requires less fencing than any other. You may have your four fields either under one fence, or divided into two equal divisions, with a fence to each, which is the most convenient, as you may then occasionally graze your fields, when it will be least injurious.* It will be found that the non-grazing system will not do altogether ; for after a while the land be- comes too much puffed up, and too full of vegeta- ble matter, to make a good crop of wheat. That may be remedied though, by grazing immediately after hauling off your wheat every year : and pro- vided you take your cattle off when ever the ground is too wet it does not injure the young clover in the least, but rather benefits it ; for clover like wheat, requires tlie hoof on the land occasionally, or the land becomes too porous and puffed up by the ve- getable matter ; and besides, the young clover is very mucli protected by the growth of weeds, wliich require breaking and trampling down. — You may graze your fields from which you have taken your wheat, until you put your cattle up into winter quarters, with the foregoing precaution in wet weather. But never suffer any thing to run on your clover field the year you expect to fallow it. It is that which I have heretofore spo- ken of as so objectionable. * By the following diagram it may be seen, that if the four fields can be laid ofT by two lines intersecting near the middle of the cultivated land, the half on the left, and that on the right, will alternately be in wheat, and therefore that a single dividing fence, {a, b,) will suffice fo permit half the land to be grazed, after it is cleared of the crop of wheat. Standing Pasture. a First Field, in Wheat after Clover. Second Field, in Corn. Road or « turn-row. Third, in Wheat, after Corn. s Fourth, in Clover. FARMERS' REGISTER— MODE OF REARING ASPARAGUS. 135 I have frequently remarked that a field of clo- ver which was grazed moderately while young (from the time the wheat was taken off until the time to put cattle up into winter quarters,) would take a much earlier start the next spring than one which had not been grazed, owing to the weeds in the latter case choking up and keeping back the young clover. The standing pasture may be made of the most inferior land on the farm, which will, in the course of some years, be very much improved by it ; or you may convtXrt your woods into a standing pas- ture by enclosing them, and clearing up the under- growth, &c.; and frequently on farms, there are swamps, marshes, or strips of land that cannot be cultivated, which inake very good standing pas- tures ; so that, in the two last cases, you have all your cleared land to cultivate. One of the strong- est proofs of the superiority of the four shift sys- tems is, that my friend Selden of Westover, who lias adopted it, now makes double as large crops as his predecessors did, and has put entirely a different face on the land : though he would make good crops under any system, for he is a first rate far- mer. ' HILL CARTilR. A NEW MODE OP REARIICG ASPARAGUS. JuxE 17th, 1833. To the Editor of the Farmers^ Register. Yours of 31st ultimo was received, and with great pleasure I now comply with your request to furnish you with my plan for making asparagus, which you are at liberty to publish in any form you may think suitable, provided you do not men- lion my name. The asparagus seed should be sown from the middle of March to the last of April, in a rich spot, (not too much exposed to the mid-day sun,) one inch deep, and the seed one inch apart ; after tliey come up, to be kept clear of grass and weeds during the summer, by hand weeding ; to be dug up the next fall or spring — (I prefer the spring, as the roots do not grow during the winter, if set out in the fall, and are liable to be killed by a severe winter,) and set in beds prepared as follows : Dig out the size of the beds nine inches deep — cover the bottom three inches deep v/ith rich marl, (which has been my practice,) though I believe that oyster shells half burned will be as good, as it is intended as a lasting heating manure to protect the roots in winter, and force the vegetable early in the spring : then put three inches deep of coarse stable manure, then three inches of rich earth. This brings the beds on a level with the surface of the earth. Next lay off the beds in rows eighteen by twelve inches apart, and put a single eye or spire in each spot where the lines intersect, and cover them three inches deep with rich earth. Plank the sides of the beds, as this prevents grass and other roots from running into the beds, and also keeps the outside roots from being exposed, by the sides of the beds washing away. The beds should be kept clean by hand weeding, and all the earth and manure used in making them, should be ferfectly free from grass roots and noxious weeds. n the fall of the year after the seeds have matur- ed, cut the tops off close to the beds, (being care- ful that not a single seed is left to vegetate on the beds,) as they have already as many roots as the space they occupy should containj and if addition- al roots are suffered to form from year to year from the falling of the seed every fall, the beds will soon be so much clustered with roots that the vegetable must degenerate, at least in size and length, as the new roots form near, or on the sur- face. Some prevent this by burning, but I think the best v/ay is to pick them off by hand, bcibre the ball that contains the seed breaks. You then top dress the beds with coarse stable manure, let it lie on all winter, and in the following spring rake off the coarsest part, and fork in the remainder, being careful that the fork does not touch the roots. Pursue tliis course two falls, and early in the third spring, before the beds are forked up, put on two inches of light well rotted manure — fork it in with the stable manure, then put on from three to four inches deep of clean sand from the river shore, and you will cut in tlie month of April the best vegetable we have in Virginia. I would not give my beds for the balance of my garden. I think there is much in the kind of seed. I have a gallon, and if you will say how they must be con- veyed, I will with pleasure send you some. I ob- tained my seed from New York ; they were mark- ed " giant asparagus." The cover of sand is important on several ac- counts : its being a great absorber of heat and moisture, so soon as the vegetable gets through the soil, it is hastily thrown through the sand to the suriace in a bleached tender state, and the cut- ting from day to day is more uniformly of the same tender delicious vegetable. The sand also prevents grass from growing on the beds, which obviates the necessity of so much hand weeding during the season for cutting, by which the beds frequently become trampled, and the vegetable that is about to come through the surface mashed down, which not only destroys the spires that are so trampled on by the gardener in tiie process of hand weeding, but (I think) injures the root. — The sand should be laid in the alleys between the beds, in the fall, when the beds are about to receive the top-dressing of stable litter to keep them warm through the winter ; and when the sand is about to be replaced in the spring, it should be passed through a sieve of such size as will not let the balls (that contain the seed) pass through. This will be another means of prevent- ing the seed from vegetating on the beds. There is a practice very prevalent with gardeners to plant lettuce, radishes, and other early vegetables on the beds; this should never be done, and parti- cularly with radishes, as they have a long root that extends to the roots of the asparagus, and must se- riously interfere with them. I frequently cut asparagus from three to five and a half, and once I cut a spire six inches in cir- cumference, and from five to eight inches long ; it could have been cut longer, but it is never tender near the root. We have complied -^vith the command of our esteem- ed correspondeni by v.-itliholding from the foregoing let- ter a signature, than which no better can be offered as authority for any statement of facts. But in any form that may be most agreeable to himself, we shall be al- ways pleased to receive and publish any result of his practical and successful operations in improving and cul- tivating the soil. Until we can make permanent ar- rangements for such purposes, the seed which he offers may be left with Mr. White, t!ie printer of the Far- mers' Register, who will distribute them among any of our patrons who will make application. — [Editor. 136 FARMERS' REGISTER— SPLITTING ROCKS. For the Farmers' Register. SPLITTING ROCKS WITHOUT GUNVOAVnER. Ill the early periods of civilized life, in several parts of Asia and Africa, when architecture be- came an object of special study and practice, the mode of procuring- the most durable materials be- came desirable. It is natural to suppose tliat va- rious expedients had been resorted to, for splitting blocks of stone from the solid rock. The idea, however, occurred of applying intense heat, by laying the fuel, on tire, in a longitudinal direction; and in the case of the rock being limestone, the part burnt being scraped away, a hollow was form- ed, and the heating resumed. This operation con- tinued a certain length of time, say a few hours, the embers and ashes were moved aside, and water poured into the channel, the splitting of a conside- rable portion of I'ock proved, generally, the result. From the remains of some ancient fortifications in Europe, particularly those in Scotland, it ap- pears evident that the blocks of stone of such im- mense size, could not have been split by any other means than by fire and water. Those castles situ- ated in several parts of the highlands of Scotland, bear evident marks of such a process as here al- luded to. The blocks are square, but show no mark of a hammer or chissel upon them. The particular sort of stone (basalt) in some of the castles on the north and w estern coast of Scotland, seem to agree in quality to that of some mountains situated several miles off; and tlie rocks, to this day, bear evidence of having been broken off b)^ this process of splitting. Though abundant evi- dence seem to support this practice in ancient times. The introduction of gunpowder in Europe, most probably superseded this ancient practice of contracting matter by heat and expanding the same by cold water, so the practice has been, for ages, forgotten, until some accident or expedient revived it lately. It seems that in some instances, if the fire train be judiciously managed, the rock will split to an amazing extent. The success of the split might be further ensured by forming a longitudinal ridge, hollowed out by picking in the intended direction. This ridge sulliciently heated, say for a few hours, then the water poui'ed into it will accomplish the desired oliject. Contractors of public works will find it advan- tag'eous to try the experiment; a few trials will enable the workmen to become adepts in this new art. The result will generally prove more exten- sive than that produced by gunpowder; besides, the operation of boring is very tedious and ex- pensive. It is a frequent occurrence, when stone of any sort is heated and accidentally wetted, the mass in- stantly cracks. Whatever direction can be given to the heat and the pouring of the water, the crack is sure to follow, and extends in proportion to the intenseness of the heat. This practice bears some analogy to that adopt- ed in some parts of Europe, in hewing mill stones. A block of stone is hewn in the form of a colunm, and about five feet in diameter, out of the solid rock. At about the usual thickness of a mill stone several tiers of dents are dug all around this co- lumn; the tiers, dents, or ridges, are at regular intervals, corresponding with the required thick- ness of the mill stone. These dents being com- pleted, a set of wedges are made of poplar, or any other soft wood, ajid' dried in an oren. These are then rammed into the dents, at regular distances around the block. After the wedges are fixed, their projecting ends are wetted. 'To ensure the expansion of the wedges by the moisture, it is de- sirable to have a hollow scooped out of the upper surface of the wedge in the fixed state, so as to receive a small portion of water. The water thus penetrating through the dried and contracted pores of the wood, will soon expand to such a degree as to split the block at every tier of wedges. It frequently happens that this operation of wedging is the last. When the men cease their la- bors in the evening, the wedges remaining fix- ed over night, the workmen invariably find, on their return in the morning, the tiers of stone split through. By this simple means immense labor is abridged to a mere fraction ; the force of expan- sion is here exerted to an amazing extent. The principle, too, is exhibited with advantage. Were men of public spirit and enterprise to give this plan a fair trial, the result would amply reward them. Canals and rail roads can, by these means, be constructed through hills and vallies, at a fraction of the usual expense. a traveller. For the Farmers' Register. EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE FER31ENTATTON OF JIANL'RES. It has been often said that the experiments in agriculture which result in failure and loss, if cor- rectly reported, would be scarcely less instructive than the smaller number which prove successful and profitable. All will assent to the truth of this opinion, but few are willing to act in accordance. I propose submittino; a report of this character to the readers of the Farmers' Register, in which errors, caused by ignorance and inexperience, are at least as conspicuous as correct views ; and as much of value was lost, as secured by my opera- tions. Still, I am persuaded that even from my erroneous management and mistakes, I have re- ceived profitable lessons, and that my facts and observations may also be useful to other farmers, even if my deductions are not altogether correct. Circumstances enabled me last winter, for the first time, to devote a considerable amount of labor to the collection and preparation of vegetable mat- ters for manures. Having but little confidence in the truth of my own opinions as to the best management of manures, and not more in any or all of the innumerable writers on this subject, I determined to test my opinions by experiments, and to record my observations minutely for my future use. This journal of my operations, with but few alterations in form only, will constitute the present communication. Entertaining the opinion that the fermentation of coarse manures is necessary, but that great and needless loss is caused usually by that process, it was my aim so to con- duct the fermentation as to avoid as much as pos- sible the usual loss of its products. A new site was chosen for the barn and thresh- ing machine, the most convenient for making ma- nure, as Avell as for storing the grain crops. Be- tween the barn on one side, and the place intended lor the stables and corn cribs on the other, a space of fifty yards square was marked off for the win- ter cow yard. In October 1832, the middle of this space was dug out to the depth of fifteen inches, and the earth moved in carts and deposited on the outer twelve feet of the square, so as-to form, when FARMERS' REGISTER— FERMENTATION OF MANURES. 137 completed, a basin, the middle of v/hich was two and a half feet deeper than the raised surrounding border. This border was intended to form a dry resting place for the cattle, and also to keep in the fluid parts of the manure, and to keep out rain water from the adjacent higher ground, which (it was feared) might otherwise have made the litter too wet for the comfort and health of the cattle. The soil was a sandy loam, about six inches deep, and the subsoil becoming a sandy clay about eight or ten inches Irom the surface — not quite close enough to keep water from sinking, but would be- come so by being trampled. The middle of the basin was of this subsoil, while the outer edges and the raised borders ^vere mostly of the lighter soil. The yard was enclosed by a straight fence, — and along the north side and partly on the adjoining east and west sides, a sloping slab slielter v/as made to protect the cattle in bad weather. All the cattle, except working oxen, grass beeves intendecl for early slaughter, and milch cows, were penned here at night from October 15th, and a slight littering was given at first of straw and leaves, (heaped in the woods the pre- ceding winter) and which was increased some- what every day, by similar materials, and soon after by the stalks of the first gathered corn. As the cattle were turned, during the jjreater part of the day, into a clover field, they eat little or no dry food for some weeks, and during that time no more litter was given than enough to absorb the animal manure. Afterwards corn-stalks and straw were added rapidly, and leaves as often as the other la- bors of the farm permitted them to be hauled. The raking of the new crop of leaves for litter, was begun October 29th, on a few acres of land covered exclusively by pines of the second growth. Pine leaves, which are considered the best for ma- nure (and certainly are the heaviest and easiest to manage) begin to fall early in October, and by the 29th had nearly all fallen, when the leaves of deciduous forest trees were just beginning to drop. Being satisfied that every rain which falls on them afterwards, extracts some of their enriching prin- ciples, I wished to have them heaped as soon as possible after falling. At any time, leaves must furnish a poor material for manure, and much more so as usually gathered after exposure to a winter's rains. My later raking (as leisure per- mitted through the winter) was in woods of mixed pine and oak, part of which liad been raked over the winter before, and the balance never, so that old as well as new leaves were brought in. Ee- sides the leaves, the materials for manure were, the stalks and other forage of a crop of 560 barrrels of corn, and the straw of 2000 bushels of wiieat — and perhaps 9000 pounds of clover hay. These were for the stable and other pens hereafter to be described, as well as this, on which no food was used except straw, cornstalks, shucks and tops. The number of cattle from October 15th to De- cember 22d, on this large pen, was thirty-five on an average; and forty-five after that time. Niiie mules were kept in a littered, unsheltered pen, and three horses in covered stalls in the same enclosure. The manure there made before the 12th of October, had been moved out and ploughed in for wheat, and the yard and stalls were then littered again with old leaves and straw, and (from neglect) not enough was given eitlier for making manure, or for the comfort of the animals, until Vol. I.— 18 December 22d, when the litter was found to be only from four to six inches deep, compactly trod- den, and wet throughout — enough so in some places for fluid to trickle from it, when dug into for examinatioii. The horses and mules were re- gularly worked, and fed plentifully with corn as well as fodder or clover hay. A third pen was for eleven working oxen, in which they had been penned on litter and fed with hay or other long forage, since October 4th. They were generally kept at work. December 24th. — After sixty hours continu- ance of temperature below the freezing point in the shade, (and the nights much colder) examined the warmth of the litter in the three pens, between 9 and 10 o'clock, A. M. The litter of the ox pen (Avhich for distinction will be called No. 1,) was 14 inches thick in the middle, and lessened to 8 near the edges — compact and moist, but dryer than the mule litter. Two different places shewed the following degrees of temperature. 1st place, at 6 inches deep - - - 47° _ _ 10 __ - - - 49° _ _ 14 _ _ (the bottom) 56* 2d place, where thinner. At 6 inches .- - - - - 47'' 9 — _ - . - - 520 The mule pen (No. 2,) wlien in the wet stats above described, had two days before been well covered with dry leaves. In three places at the bottom of the litter and touching the earth, the temperature was 48°, 49° and 47° — and at a less depth immediately over the two first, the ther- mometer showed 46° and 44°. In the farm yard (No. 3,) owing to the small number of cattle compared to the space, the litter was not made compact as in the other pens, and several inches of the fop, which had been laid on since the last rain, (two weeks before) was loose and dry. The moist and more compact, v/as ten inches thick in the middle, the deepest part of the yard, and not more than four on the outer parts. Temperature of three diiierent places, in com- pact litter, where thickest, 6 inches deep - 55° 58° 67'^ 10 — — - 47° 58° 65° In thinner parts of the litter. At 3 inches deep 50° *52° *50^« The two last (marked *) were under the shed on the raised border, and v/ere most exposed to the sun from the south. In this yard, the thickest part of the litter was the warmest — and the mid- dle of the bed was generally warmer than the bottom. In the ox pen the litter was evidently best rotted (or the texture most weakened by commencing fermentation) though this effect was very slight. The mule pen litter, which is much the richest, but is also the thinnest and wettest, had the lowest temperature. Query: Had not the recent cold weather lowered the warmth pre- viously acquired from fermentation.' The litter of the fattening hog pen, which was mixed with a large pro{>ortion of earth, was 42° — and the inside of a dry stack of fodder (examined for compari- son) at 18 inches from the outside, and 6 inches from the bottom, was at 40°. The lowest tempe- rature of the manure being 7° higher, showed that fermentation was going on. January 1, 1833. A heavy soaking rain, and 138 FARMERS' REGISTER— FERMENTATION OF MANURES. the weather very warm for the season. As soon as the rain ceased, began to dig up and lieap the manure of the ox pen, (No. 1.) The oxen had not been on it since December 22d, when they had been moved to a part of the farm yard (No. 3.) January 2d, at 9 o'clock A. M., tlie tenij)erature of the air in the shade was 51° — and at the same time the manure not yet heaped (though it had been somewhat loosened by the hoes the evening be- fore, and possibly fermentation might have been thereby excited,) was 65° to 71°, in different E laces. The heap made between 16 and 18 hours efore, was already throwing out warm vapor, smelling of ammonia, and within the bulk was found to be 99°. This unexpected heat and the ammoniacal smell was unexplained then; but afterwards, when using the manure, I learned from my overseer that when he began the heap in my absence, 20 or 30 hand-barrow loads had been brought and thrown on of the rich litter of the covered horse stalls — but finding it too dry for heaping, he had stopped any further addition. The heaping which had ceased since the preced- ing night, was now resumed and finislied. The whole heap, thrown up lightly by forks and sho- vels, and not trodden, (except a little at the last to shape the top,) was raised to seven, and in part to eight feet high, the sides cut down as steep as they would stand, and the top left depressed in the mid- dle. A cover of wet leaves (which had been laid in the adjacent road to be ti'odden and absorb wa- ter, but contained no dung,) was thrown over the top to the depth of twelve inches, lying as they fell from the shovels. Over the leaves, soil was thrown about four inches deep, and then sowed thickly with oats. This cover of earth was given, first, to keep the v, hole surface of the manure moist, instead of its dry in g and remaining unchanged six or eight inches in, as when left uncovered; second, to cause all the seeds of cheat and other weeds to sprout, and by that means to perish; third, to ab- sorb the escaping gasses, if that is possible ; and fourthly, to use those gasses in feeding the gi'owth of oats, both to add to the bulk of manure, and to furnish a test or measure of the escape of rich aeri- form fluids. The escape of visible vapor ceased with the adding to the heap. No fluid trickled from the heap, which showed it was not wet enough. The litter of the other yards having been recent- ly added to largely, was not wet enough to heap. No. 3, tried in different places, was at 60°, 61° and 62°. I had never heaped manure before, earlier than the beginning of spring weather. My object now, was to have the fermentation completed with as little excess of heat as possible, and to avoid the great loss usually incurred from violent fermenta- tion. If fermentation would go on, it seemed that cold weather would be the best to keep it mode- rate. From January 1st to 4th, warmer than usual for the season, and much more so from the 4th to the 7th. Rain on the 7th, and at night the first snow that had fallen during the winter, and a change to cold weather. Several rains and more snow by the 10th, when it became excessively cold, and continued so until the 12th. Thermo- meter not observed out of doors, but was at 20° between 8 and 9 o'clock A. M. on the 11th, in my passage, which is between two rooms with good fires, and in one of which a fire was kept up through the night as well as day. On the 10th, the litter of mule pen (No. 2,) was heaped when very wet, and mixed with the litter of the covered stalls. Keing absent at the time, no observation was made by the thermometer ; but from the ex- treme coldness of the weather, I suppose that eve- ry part of the manure must have been reduced nearly to the freezing point by exposure to the air, as it was thrown on the heap. To have as little of surface as possible, and to prevent the mules treading on the manure, the heap was made to fill a round pen of six feet high, and raised above four feet still higher in the middle, or ten feet in all. — No cover of earth or leaves had been laid on. When I first saw the heap, on the 12th, there weis no outward sign of fermentation having commenc- ed ; and, at eighteen inches depth from the side, the temperature was 42°. I feared that it would not begin to ferment, without a complete opening, and second heaping. Dark colored fluid had ex- uded from the heap, and continued to do so for some days later, forming puddles around the base. The heap No. 1, by January r2th, had sunk to five and a half feet high. Most of this loss of height must have been caused merely by the com- pression of the loose litter. No vapor had been seen to escape since it was finished, whence I sup- posed that the cover of earth, by its pressure, had stopped the fermentation. But on striking into the heap with a grubbing hoe, warm steam came out. Before this, there was no outward indication of the slightest warmth, except that the outside was thaw- ed in a few spots, and snow was but thinly sprin- kled on a few other places, though the ground was covered more than an inch deep. The fermenta- tion however had been sufficient to rot the ma- nure enough for me to thrust the helve of a hoe two and a half feet in the side, without much effort. The thermometer put into holes so made in differ- ent places, and about eighteen inches from the sur- face, showed the following degrees of temperature : 1 18° on the north side, three feet from the ground, and where the mixture of stable manure was made. 100° south side, at the same height. 78° another place. 68° — — one foot from the ground. 64° — — — — — 62° deeper in the same hole. Poles had been placed in the heap to show the temperature by drawing them out and feeling them. This had been done on the 10th, and it appeared that the heat was greatest about two feet from the outside. But few of the oats had yet come up, and those mostly on the south side, showing that the heat of the sun, more than of the manure had caused them to sprout. On the 14th was the first thawing in the shade, and indeed there had been but little in the sun. — Observed a barely perceptible escape of vapor from a fissure in the crust near the top of the oldest heap, (No. 1.) Began to cutaway theouter part of one side of the heap, (where the greatest heat had been found,) for the purpose of examina- tion, and to use some of the manure in an experi- ment. A perpendicular section being made, show- ed that the manure was enough rottetl for use, (about half rotted,) from the outside cover of leaves, to two, or two and a half feet deeper in. — This best rotted part was still very warm, and in FARMERS' REGISTER— FERMENTATION OF MANURES. 139 different places showed the following degrees of tem- perature—118°, 110°, 110°, and 100°. Some spots were "fire-fanged" or mouldy — and these were evi- dently caused in most cases by the mixture of stalile manure, which I then iirst learned had been made. In some of these mouldy spots, the heat was 142° and 146°. The interior and lower part of the heap, from the earth to two and a half feet high, was 116°, quite moist, and more sothan the upper part, but was very little reduced by rotting, from being so much compressed. The vapor poured from all this digging as from a kettle of boiling water. By the next day all visible escape of vapor had ceas- ed, except a barely perceptible issue at a fire- fanged spot — but it again poured out, though in less quantity, upon cutting in with a lioe, for in- spection. At eighteen to twenty-four inches with- in the perpendicular cut, in the upper and most rotted part, the temperature had fallen to 96° — and to 90° and 92°, at the same distance within the lower and unrotted part. In a fire-fanged spot it was 112°. Dug into the opposite (south) side of the heap, and discovered no mouldiness, except a spot so small that it would have escaped common observation. On this side, tlie unrotted manure came nearer to the surface. Temperature two or two and a half feet in, was 93° in the most rotted, and 92° in the least. The weather had become much warmer within the preceding twenty four hours. The observations made on this body of manure seemed to justify the following inferences : 1st. That the heap was made too high, to allow the lower part to rot speedily ; 2d. that the heat and moisture remaining in that bottom, proved that the fermentation, though retarded, was still going on, and in time, would be effectual ; 3d. that as no perceptible vapor had escaped (with the single slight exception stated before,) after the heap was finished and while covered, there could not have been any material loss of fertilizing matter, from the process of ferinenfation. A paper moistened with diluted muriatic acid was exposed this day (January 15th,) to the vapor, as was also the open vial containin^it, and no dense fumes were pro- duced, which Davy tells us woidd indicate a loss. On the 14th, began to heap the litter of the farm- yard (No. 3,) making the heap in the middle and lowest part. The litter there was eighteen to twenty inches thick. The part which remained to form the foundation of the heap, (as was done in the other cases,) was first dug and well loosen- ed before throwing more on. The temperature was highest in the thickest part of the bed, and in different parts of the yard was 66°, 64°, 55°, 62°. To my surprise, after so much rain and snow, the litter was not saturated with water, nor indeed was every spot moist. Fearing that this would make fermentation imperfect or irregular, stopped the work, after making the heap about seven feet high, on a circular base of twenty to twenty two feet across. Fenced it around, to prevent its being trodden by the cattle, and filled the space on the yard just cleared, with fresh litter. Notwithstanding the change to warmer v/eath- er, this heap (No. 3,) was, on the morning of the 17tli, still so much frozen on the surface general- ly, that on walking on it, my weight did not al- ways break the crust of frozen litter, though the lightness of the mass caused the surface to be de- pressed where trodden upon. Vapor (which seem- ed altogether watery, from its want of odor,) was issuing from one point, the highest of the heap. — The tliermometer sunk two feet in that place, showed 74°. No where else did the heap exhibit any evidence of fermentation being excited. In the side, one foot in, it was 50°. No vapor was issuing from either of the two older heaps. No. 2 showed a slight internal warmth, (not measured,) but no vapor from pull- ing out a stick thrust in three feet deep. The heat had increased somewhat by the 19th, but still no vapor perceptible, until the heap was dug into for examination, when it issued, but as from a very moderate internal heat. The thermometer at a foot, and a half below tlie top showed 66° only — and on the slope and something deeper in the body, 77°. The oldestheap (No. 1,) wasexamined also.on thie 19th on the south side, and deeper in the sapai? place tried last. The rotting had gone still lower^ not jiiore. than a foot of the bottom now remaining quite unrot-- ted. The general temperature was much lower, (which was very desirable,) except in the unrotted, bottom. This part was at 74° near the junction with the more reduced body above, and 60° in a mass of wet straw, which had not even changed to a dark color. The upper and more rotted part was, in diiferent places, 72°, 80°, and 94°— the last in the only visible fii-e-fanged spot, and where most vapor showed, upon digging in the mass. From the heap commenced in the cow-yard, (No. 3,) vapor was now issuing at most parts of the top — and on thrusting a stick down two and a half feet through the loose and open materials, where most vapor came out, the heat was found to be 128° — and 106° at another place. The sloping sides slightly frozen, and at one foot and a half in, showed 50° only. The vapor, from its want of odor, seemed still to carry off little or nothing ex- cept moisture. On the 21st, it issued still more abundantly from the top, and conveyed a scent of rotting vegetable matter — not ammoniacal. Tem- perature 124° at one foot and a half deep. This heap was not only too dry, but was certainly of very poor materials, and its rapid and violent fermenta- tion was quite unexpected. Was it caused by the loose and open texture of the mass, and the quan- tity of air consequently enclosed ? Threw a cover of a foot's thickness of litter (cut from the edges of the heap) over the top, to arrest and save the vapor. By thus cutting into the sides, it was found that fermentation was going on throughout. At different places, from five to seven feet within the first circumference, and from eighteen to twen- ty-four inches from the earth, the following vari- ous degrees of temperature were exhibited — 60°, 65°, 85°, 76°, 91°, and 94°. The greatest heat of the sides was generally near the bottom. On the 22d, again covered tlie top with a coat of cold lit- ter from the sides, as vapor was pouring out in greater quantity than before. Where most issued, a hole was opened for the thermometer to the depth of two feet, and the heat found to be 148°, the highest yet known. Another place from which less issued was only 76°. The weather Avarm then, and for several days previous. This day the first vapor was seen to rise from the mule pen heap, (N o. 2.) On Jan. 24th, a heavy rain, which however did not make the litter of the farm-yard wet enough ; but as no better state could be expected soon, we proceeded to heap it around the first part of No. 3.' The heat of tbi§ 140 FARMERS' REGISTER— FERMENTATION OF MANURES. on opening the top, was found by my overseer too hot to be borne by his hand at tlie depth of eigh- teen inches, and the top was then covered over with three inches of earth, whicii had not been done earlier, from thc^ fear of its preventing fer- mentation in so poor a mass. This served to stop the visible escape of vapor, though not to check the fermentation too much, (if at all,) as I found it on the 2Sth, at eighteen inches below tlie earth, to be 102^ — and in another place, 90°. The heapino: was stopped on the 28lh, about one fourth of the yard being still left. On this, where the litter was thickest, (about twenty inches,) it ■was fermenting as it lay, and vapor rose from it as it was dug mto for heapine;. Its temperature in different places, was 80^ 70°, 89°. The fer- mentation hov.ever was very unequal : some spots were fire-fanged, and others stillclry and unchang- ed. The heap (built around the lirst work,) v/as raised generally to six and a half or seven feet, on a circular base, twenty two yards across. The heap was fenced in, and fresh litter thrown over the uncovered part of the yard. Earth three inches thick was throv.n over only a small part of the top to try the effect. The first of the latest leaping was 'already smoking (on the 28th,) in some places, and there the heat was found to be 90°. 30th. A steady slow rain nearly through the day. The out-spreading edges of No. 3 cut down and throv.-n upon the top. The weather generally warm latterly. ~31sl. The "rain had served to lessen greatly the issuing of vapor from the heap No. 3. Proceeded to add the balance left on the yard to the sanie heap, raising the part now thrown up to eight feet high. The^oldest central part had shown no va- por since being covered v>ith earth, (on the 25th,) but, on running a pole perpendicularly through the crust, and "about eighteen inches lower, the heat was found to be 134°. In a part of the later heaping (of the 25th,) where most vapor issued, it was "l05° — and where none was visible, only 66°. Slowly raininir again. Februarv 1st. F'inished henpingall the old lit- ter to No. 3, which then occupied'so large a por- tion of the yard, that there was not enough room left for the cattle, though they were still confined to tlie surrounding space. The heap was thirty yards across the base, and seven and a half feet high when first built. Earth was throvrnover the great- er part of the top, (wliere not done before,) but very irregularly, as the laborers could not see how to aim the cas"ts from their shovels. jNIuch Ln- crease of vapor before this operation. 2d. Found that the covering of earth was gene- rally too thin. Though no vapor was visible (at 9 o'clock A. M.) the loss of effluvia was evident by the earth being thawed and moist, and the surface of the lumps "being colored brownish, as if they had been soaked in the trainings from a dung heap. This vras on earth dug and thrown on only twenty four hours before. This appearance is enough to prove that more loss would take place ■without the covering of earth being used to arrest it. This deposit of solid matter is not found be- low, nor v.ithin the cover of earth, but on its new surface — and as much on the clods, as on the pulve- rized parts : therefore, it must first pass through, and then (on meeting cold air and being condens- ed,) is precipitated on the earth, and probably fixed there by some chemical pov.-er. W here the earth had been laid en more thickly, it was generally slightly frozen, and the escape of vapor was limit- edto different spots where there was either no co- ver of earth, or where the materials below the co- ver were very coarse and open. INIore earth was thrown on all such places that could be reached, and the remainder that were too distant from the outside to be covered, were trodden, to make the surface more close. The yard v.as again well covered with new lit- ter. Two pigs were brought to the yard to get their living out of the grain left in the straw, and to m-ix the rich with the poor materials, by rooting about and separating the dung. This step was susrgested by the appearance of the last heaped litter ; and I believe that if suchlaborers had been employed from the beginning, the deep litter \\ ould (in time) have been sufficiently and equally rot- ted, without heaping, and no fire-fanging would have been produced. If such would be the case, heaping is unnecessary, except to hasten the fer- mentation of the manure for early use. The stable-pen heap (No. 2,) had thrown out no visible vapor, except on parts of two days, and then but little. On January 31st, the second of two very warm days, many plants sprung up on the top of this heap, from grain left from the food of the horses, and the seeds of weeds in the litter. As the heat is never sufficient to kill seeds in the outer six inches of a manure heap, and as it is also generally too dry there for them to sprout, (at the usual time'of heaping in the spring,) it is not sur- prising that so much cheat and spelt, always spring up on manured land, when those weeds were plen- ty in the ciop of wheat from which the straw for litter had been obtained. This same warm day first brought up the oats on the flat top of No. 1, they having before sprouted only on the sloping sides, where the cover of earth was thinner. February 3d. Vapor was still issuing generally from No. 3, and conveying enriching matter, as appeared from the scent. The earth last thrown on had not served to cover all the surface. If I had foreseen that so much earth would have been wanting, the labor of digging out the centre of the yard might have been saved, as a few years use in this way will lower it sufficiently. 9th. No escape of vapor visible for some days preceding, (atleast as late as 9 o'clock A. M.) ex- cept at one spot v/hich had not been covered. But many places show by the brown color, and some- times by the moisture of the covering earth, that something is, or has been lately passing through. In warm "weather, the steam is not made visible { by condensation, and therefore its escape is less easy to detect. The temperature of different places one' foot and a half below the top, was as follows : 112°, 96°, 73°, 155°, 98°, 90°, 150°, 98°, 113°. The last named was the temperature of the old- est central part, and the preceding number (98°) shows the heat of a part of'the new heaping, which on Feb. 2d, had been Avell covered whh earth, and pressed close by being trampled on. The hottest places were found where most effluvia appeared to have escaped — and where least warm,^ there was no mark of such loss. The average temperature of the Avhole would have been much lower than of these numbers — probably between 90° and 100°. Carted away for use the balance of No. 1. The interior of the' bulk seemed no more rotted than it had been two weeks before, though it was still FARMERS' REGISTER— FERMENTATION OF MANURES. 141 ■warm. The heat had entirely subsided in all parts near the suri'ace, and in some cases, as far as two feet inward. The temperature in different places was found to be 76=, 77 ^ 88=, S2=, 88=, and 94=— the two last being in the part least rotted. The cold pait of the heap was as much reduced as I supposed desirable. Began to carry out No. 2. This heap Avas still the wettest, and showed mouldiness in only a few spots. Its general temperature was low, and it was less rotted than No. 1, though the fermenta- tion was still in progress. The hottest places found were 96° and 94= — elsewhere 80°. These mea- surements were made at two and a half leet within the bulk. Nearer the surface the heat became less. This heap, though much the richest, and not protected by any covering of earth, had passed through a more gentle fermentation, and seemed to have sustained less loss than either of the others March 2d. Dug into No. 3 for examination. — The heat much abated, and much damage found from tire-fanging. 8th. Had been some days carting manure from No. 3 to the field intended for corn, and spreading and ploughing it in. The heap had sunk to about four feet : but much the greater part of its loss of height (as in all other cases of dunghills lightly heaped,) was from the mere subsidence and com- pression of the materials. The upper half seemed enough reduced by fermentation, (or was in a more than half rotten state,) but the lower part w^as not much changed. Fire-fanged places were frequent, and most so where the manure was best rolted. — An empty barrel, open at both ends, had been set on the yard, and covered over by the oldest part of this heap, to try what effect would be produced by that bulk of air surrounded and enclosed by the fermenting manure. The barrel was reached this day, and the surrounding manure was found to be somewhat better rotted, and having more fire- fanged spots, than elsewhere. JSly thermometer having been broken, prevented any observations of temperature. In the first week of March, a large part of this heap had been moved to a distant part of the field, and there heaped again about six feet high. The earth was then too wet for the ma- nure to be distributed over the field, and this mov- ing and second heaping was done to lighten the fu- ture labor of carting, and also to try the effect of a second fermentation being excited. It recom- menced, but very slowly ; vapor did not show ge- nerally over the heap until the 18th of March, when a thin sprinkling of earth Avas thrown over part of the top. The vapor was still visible on the 28th, when the weather-was very cold. It should have been stated that the cattle were confined generally through the day to the pen, (except v/hen driven to water,) during the depth of winter. After the clover began to spring, they were allowed to pick a little of it every day, and about the 20th of iMarch, all were moved to another pen more convenient to their pasture. It vi'as evident that their litter given since February 1st, was too dry and too poor of itself, and too little mixed with animal matter, to be fitted for spring use by heaphig. May 4th. Carting on the corn land (just ahead of the first liorse-hoeing of the young plants,) the manure drawn from No. 3, and heaped a second time. It was still quite warm, between 110= and 120°, as was supposed from the touch — and more rotten and better reduced than any of the other heaps — the lower half less rotted than the upper. Not much fire-fanging perceptible — though some- thing of it seen in every part. The portion that had been slightly covered with earth was least rot- ted, but the difference was inconsiderable. Vapor still poured out where the heap was opened, and was the more easily observed as the weather was cold and damp. No. 1 — The ox-pen manure made 165 mule loads. No. 2— The stable-pen— — 234 — — No. 3— The cow -pen — — 1365 — — The last quantity includes that heaped a second time in the field, 344 loads. From all the observations which have been de- tailed, (I fear at tiresome length,) and from all the ei-rors committed, 1 think the following inferences may be relied on. 1. The greatest error was not making the ma- nure of No. 3 wet enough. This deficiency might have been easily prevented by turning streams of rain water into the yard. The w ettcr the heap, provided it does not stand in a pool of water, the more gentle, regular, and the less wasteful will be the fermentation. 2. The heaps in every case were made too high, and the fermentation of the lower part of the mass retarded or prevented by the compression caused by the weight of the upper part. 3. The want of sufficient moisture instead of preventing fermentation, makes it more rapid and violent — and with sufficient access of air, produces fire-fanging, Avhich destroys much of the value of manure so affected. The richer manures (as sta- ble litter alone) are most liable to this disaster : but the very wet rich manure (No. 2,) heaped in cold weather suffered but little, and much less than the very poor but dryer and more open heap. No. 3. 4. Manure v/ijl ferment in our coldest weather, and therefore we lose time by wailing for the be- ginning of spring to construct our heaps, and cause damage by the increased violence of fermen- tation. 5. We need not fear, by using the greatest quantity of vegetable matter to make our manure too poor to ferment properly and in good time. 6. If enough water had been introduced previ- ously. No. 3 might have been heaped by January 1st — and the second littering also before the win- ter was over. 7. The fermentation of all the heaps would have been more complete, and probably without farther waste, if they had been left undisturbed until just before planting corn. But this was one of the many cases in which convenience directed more than reasoning. If the carrying out had been de- layed until the manures were in the best state for use, the occurrence of wet weather and the pres- sure of other farm labors, might have prevented the application being made early enough for the crop of corn. The weather through the winter was generally milder than usual, but there were three short ex- cessively cold spells. The last of these was after the beginning of planting corn, and on the morn- ing of March 30th, the earth was too hard frozen to plough. The effects on manures of the important and mysterious process of fermentation, will never be understood until cliemists shall undertake the in- 142 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTIVATION AND WASTE LANDS, &c. vestisration — and not in tlie study and lalioratory altogether, but also in stables and amidst dunghills. I fear that we shall never see one Jiiake the attempt in any way — though the investigation offers and promises results that would be most honorable to the discoverer, and of incalculable value to agri- culture, and indeed to the human race. Chemists neglect agricultural investigations, and seem to consider them as unworthy of scientilic research. Yet, if a discovery was announced of some new metal, or new acid, found so rarely and in such small quantities, that the whole globe would never furnish a pound together, and of which no man could conceive any possible use — every chemist would feel interested in the suliject, and more would be done for its investigation than agriculture has ever owed to their whole body. J. B. ONTPIECULTIVATIOIV AND WASTE LANDS, AND SOME ACCOUNT OF THE PAUPER COLO- NIES OF HOLLAND. From the Quarterly Review. Amidst the party violence necessarily attend- ing the unsettled state of the great question which renders Ireland the weakness instead of the strength of the empire, we are more than ever bound to turn our thougiits to those measures for ameliorating the condition of her people, which wise and bene- volent men from time to time propose. We wish to avoid emigration ; and had much rather do some- thing at home — something that shall keep the peo- ple and make them useful. The experiment of cultivation at home has been tried, and tried with very great success by the Dutch — a people who have always been famed for their prudence, the judicious way in which they conducted their internal management, and the care that they have taken of their poor. There are at present lying before us, three separate ac- counts of the "Pauper Colonies of Holland" — svhich are established upon lands naturally far worse than the average of the five millions of acres in Ireland. One of tliese accounts is in a volume by Mr. Sadler, entitled "Ireland, its Evils, and their Remedies :" another is by a member of "the Highland Society of Scotland;" and the third is 'by Mr. Jacob, the well-known reporter on the .corn trade. Without meaning to throw any doubt upon the others, we shall abridge what we have to say from Mr. Jacob, because he gives his name, and because his account is shorter, and in our opinion, clearer than any of the others. Mr. Jacob's observations have been published by "the society for improving the condition of the lower order of tenantry, and of the laboring po- pulation of Ireland;" and though the committee of that society have not yet published their report, or even matured their plan, it is probatile that they may suggest, if not attempt, something similar to what has been effected in Holland. In the observation prefatory to the account of the Dutch colonies, Mr. Jacob very successfully com- bats the objections that are usually made to the im- provement of the poorer soils, both from general principles, and from practical cases. Of late there have sprung up some very invete- rate prejudices upon this subject. They mainly originated with the late Mr. Ricardo. But he looked only at the money value, the artificial value, of things; and was not aware of that natural value which costs society nothing. Adam Smith set down the "land and labor" as the primary sour- ces of wealth; the moderns threw out the land al- together, and confined the value to the labor. Among other false conclusions to which this led them, was the doctrine that the cultivation of cer- tain lands — that is, of lands that will not yield a certain return for the labor, and not bestowed upon them, is a loss, ntjt comparatively, as measured by the other occupations in which they who cultivate the land might be employed, but absolutely and in itself Now, if people can do better, it is not prudent for them to cultivate bad land, or even good land; or in fact to do any thing but that which is better; hut if they can do no better, then the ploughing of the most arid waste in the kingdom, or even the scratching of it with their hands, if it will thereby yield them any produce, is not only advisable, but absolutely necessary. Some por- tions of almost every country, and some whole countries that are now the most productive and profitable, v/erc at one time complete deserts. In spite of the rights of commonage, and the bad ef- fect of tithes, there are many acres of this descrip- tion in England ; there are many more in Scotland ; and the whole of Holland, and much of the north of Germany and the peninsula of Jutland, were originally barren sands, and have been brought to their present state by repeated cultivation, the first efforts of which were what these persons would have called unproductive. If there be any vegetable mould, however poor ; if there be any stony matter in a state of divison like sand; if there even be the bare rock as a flooring to lay soil upon — that is one element of fertility and pro- duction that costs nothing. One of the finest crops of potatoes, both as to quantity and quality, that ever we saw, was beside the huts of some fisher- men on the coast of Loch Ailsh, on the west coast of Ross-shire ; they had been planted on the bare rock, and merely supplied with two layers of turf from a bog at some distance, one below the seed- sets, another over. The air is another important element of fertility — so very important that not one of the vegetable functions can be performed without it; and the air costs nothing. The rain and the dew, even the snow of winter, and the frost that pulverizes the clods, are all elements of fertility ; and they cost nothing. So also is the genial influence of the sun. In fact, if there be but room and climate, (and the latter may be won- derfully improved by cultivation,) we are in pos- session of all the essential natural elements of plenty, and human industry can supply the rest. Cultivation l)y cottagers has been very success- fully employed in many parts of Scotland, not for the mere support of a local population, but with a view of bringing a large surplus ultimately into the market. In some places, where the moor or waste is of superior quality, and the climate good, the cottagers pay a rent from the beginning of their operations; and, in some places, they are allowed something annually to commence with, and are bound to bring so much soil into cultivation every year, till, at the expiration of a stipulated time, they pay rent. In one place in the north, this mode of cultivation was begun many years ago close by the shore ; and the cottages have moved gradually up the hill, leaving land behind them fit for being converted into large farms, while they FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTIVATION AND WASTE LANDS, &c. 143 have not only submitted to the removals, but con- sidered them as advantao;eous. The same system has been tried in Ireland, amon liie contributions of their numerous aCTicultu- f j>l s6«:ieties, and devoted to premiums. No where hwe they produced so many competitors, or great- er exertions for success. Had the plan really tend- ed to extend agricultural knowledge, Ave might have expected as fruits, from so many societies, a mass of agricultural papers. Yet Ave have lately seen published, a circular letter from the Board of Agriculture, Avhich draAvs together all the corres- pondence of the societies, requesting from private individuals, such communications as may enable the board to print a volume. We mean to cast no reilection on tlie iarmers Avho compose these so- cieties; Ave doubt not their ability to have supplied the deficiency, Avhich the circular letter admits to exist. We see too much of this deplorable inert- ness in our oAvn members to be surprised at the same fault in others. Nor do we mention these facts in triumph, or Avith the vieAV of affecting a superiority, to Avhich, in this respect, Ave have no pretensions. We revicAV the course of our res- pected ielloAV laborers to shoAv, that all the stimu- lus afforded by their premiums, has not at all ad- vanced their. knoAvledge of agriculture, nor in any way promoted its interest or improvement. Though our opinions Avouldtend greatly to limit the range of premiums, there still remain enough objects, for Avhich they Avould be highly useful. All these Avill be found in what Ave have called the third class, i. c. practices, of Avhich the actual or comparative profits are doubtful, or disputed; and Avhich, therefore, are proper subjects for in- vestigation by experiments. But premiums are as often throAvn away on this class as on the other two. This must be the case, Avhenever a premium is given for obtaining some specified result, as for example, for the heaviest crop of Avoad or madder, instead of for making such experiments as Avould sheAv the degree of profit, or loss, attending those ncAV crops. Many of the premiums usually given are of this class, and courtesy^ requires that all should be considered as such, according to the opinions of the societies conferring them; for no- thing could be more absurd than proposing pre- miums for practices, Avhich they themselves knew to be unprofitable. Premiums may produce fine acres of wheat in Massachusetts, or of clover in Lower Virginia, and yet leaA'e the profit or loss as uncertain as before.* Accurate experiments on any doubtful points are ahvays valuable to agriculturists in general, but in far the greater number of cases, cause loss to their conductor. Hence the peculiar propriety of encouraging experiments by premiums. An agricultural experimenter may, possibly, by some fortunate discovery, compensate himself for his previous losses ; but such good fortune is rare, and most persons, Avho in this Avay have rendered sig- nal services to farmers, have done so by great in- dividual sacrifices. This great obstacle is not the only one Avhich opposes the correct method of in- vestigation, and the advancement of the science of agriculture. NotAvilhstanding the certain atten- dant loss, every zealous farmer is, to some extent, an experimenter. But the results of his experiments are not known except to himself, and even to him many appear useless, Avhich if compared Avith those of others, Avould lead to important consequences. *Wlien this report Avas made, the use of calcareous manures Avas but httle knoAvn in lower Virginia, and still less Avas their effect of making clover profitable on soils, Avhich before Avere incapable of sustaining its most feeble existence. — [F,d. Far. Eeg. FARMERS' REGISTER— SULPHUR IN TREES. 149 To prove by experiment that a doubtful practice is wrong', would be as valuable to agriculture, as if the result should shew that it is right: but on many such points, proof has perhaps been obtained fifty different times, by as many farmers having no comnmnication with each other, and still the results may be unknown to all but the several ex- perimenters. Premiums for experiments, conducted with care and accuracy, and repeated under differ- ent circumstances, until the point in question was clearly settled, could not fail greatly to promote the improvement of agriculture. The advantage derived would not be inconsiderable, even if such premiums had merely the effect of giving publici- ty to the numerous experiments which are made with other views, and which would otherwise ne- ver be known. But we can scarcely doubt that their number could be greatly increased, be direc- ted to the most important objects, and conducted with far more care and attention, when, in addi- tion to the hope of beinghonored with a premium, the experimenter would expect to profit by the la- bors of many others, engaged in similar researches. Agriculture remains in the same situation in which formerly all sciences were, that required ex- periment for their proper investigation. From the time of Aristotle to that of Lord Bacon, philoso- phy made scarcely any progress. During this long period, e\ ery philosopher who reached cele- brity, distinguished himself by pi'oducing some baseless hypothesis, which was received as true, until overthrown by one more plausible, but which was alike destined to yield in its turn. The profound Bacon first pointed out the tedious, but sure road to escape from this labyrinth of error, and Newton by pursuing tliat course, and testing every proposition by experiment, was enabled to 2:0 farther than all his predecessors. Since then. The old mode of theorising has given way to actual experiment, in every branch of knov.iedge to which it was applicable, except agriculture, the most important of all; and it is therefore not sur- prising that agriculture has remained almost sta- tionary, while other sciences have advanced with such rapidity, as scarcely to alloAv the Avorld to mark their progress. Agriculturists alone con- tinue to grope through theories, unfounded opin- ions and prejudices. Some one proposes a new theory or system of cultivation — every speculative farmer immediately becomes its advocate or oppo- nent— volumes may be writlen for and against, and perhaps a century spent before it is decided whether the opinion was right or wrong. Such is the course we regularly pursue; and as in every contested point, one party must be wrong, and in consequence, pursue an unprofitable practice, the loss of money, labor and time may exceed a hun- dred times the cost of all the. experiments necessa- ry to remove the difficulty. They who lose most by this improper course, are always the last to see the want of a guide more sure than theory. Far- mers are generally much too easy of belief; they take sides with the feelings of partisans, and whe- ther they support an antiquated prejudice, or the wildest modern hypothesis, are equally sure that they are right. As examples of the chance for success in this method of searching for truth, in England, the merits of TuH's Drill system is scarcely yet settled, and the war between" the Fal- lowists and the Anti-Fallowists, will probablv continue another thirty vears. The advocates for rotted and unrotted manure, still contend in this country and in Europe, without appearing to ap- proach a decision, and in this district we are as much divided in comparing the advantages of gra- zing and inclosing, natural and artificial grass, green and dry, for improving the soil, and in esti- mating the value of every other kind of manure within our reach. Yet the knowledge which we seek can only be attained through experiment; and all we now possess was derived from experi- ments, though mostly made by accident, and their results forced on our observation. To such chance discoveries, made at long intervals, and separated by errors and absurdities innumerable, we are in- debted for almost every thing that deserves the name of agricultural knowledge. When, in addition to the obstacles already men- tioned, to experiments being made by separate in- dividuals, urged only by zeal for research, we con- sider the time and labor, the unremitting attention and perfect accuracy required, the sacrifice is evi- dently too great to expect from any one unaided farmer. To fix beyond doubt the most inconsi- derable fact, requires many experiments, to be made on different soils, in different seasons, and by different persons. When results are intended to be compared, the slightest difference in the pro- cess may sometimes make a false conclusion appear true. Hence all private experiments are made with so little care as to be scarcely satisfactory to their conductor, and of no value to other persons. Societies by premiun^.s, may affect whatever in this respect is wanting. They can point out the most important subjects for experiments, require atten- tion to every thing which can affect results, and unite the labors of many, for the attainment of a single object. The meiiibers of the society which shall commence this course, can in no other way, draw more honour on themselves, or render more benefit to agriculture. We are ignorant on so ma- ny points in husbandry, that the only difficulty would be in selecting subjects for experiments. However little might be done by a single society, yet every premium conferred would mark some progress towards true knowledge. We doubt whether as much could be said for every score of premiums heretofore bestowed. \_Extract from the 3/mutes.] EDJM. RUFrix, Secretary. Sulphur iii Trees, TO DESTROY ALLIXSECTS PREYIIVG OX THEM. From the Atlantic Journal. Farmers and gardeners ought to hail with rap- ture a safe, certain, easy and unfiiiling mode of dri- ving away or destroying all the insects, bugs, cat- erpillars, lice, ants, M'hicli prey upon trees and often kill them. Numberless have been the means proposed or devised to get rid of these troublesome guests, most of which are dirty, costly, or unavailing. — Our farmers appear to liave given up in despair the hope of preventing the deadly attacks of cur- cidios on the roofs of peach trees, and the fruits of the plumb tree. Yet an efficacious mode is said to have been found several years ago in France perfectly efficacious and applicable to all cases and all trees. The man who discovered it, deserved a splendid reward, yet his name has not even reached us. But we claim the. honor to have been 150 FARMERS' REGISTER— SYSTEM OF FARMING. the first to make known tlic process in America, in 1823 in Kentucky, and in 1827 in Philadel- phia. Yet the most useful knowledge is so slow to spread, that the fact is hardly known yet, or doubted by those who know of it. We are ha})py to lie able to publish two direct experiments in support of the fact and discovery. 1st. We bored and plu<.^g"ed with sulphur in the usual way, a plumb tree which commonly drop- ped every year all the plumbs before becoming ripe, the curculios lodging eggs in their germs. — This A\'asdone when the tree was in blossom. On that year hardly any fruit fell, and the tree pro- duced quite well. 2d. We find in the Genesee Farmer, of Janu- ary 28, 1832, that a young willow nearly killed by aphis or lice, and pismires feeding on their honej', was quite revived in three days, and all the lice and ants driven off, by boring the tree with an au- ger five feet from the ground and three-fourths through the diameter, filling w ith brimstone and plugging tight. The tree has thrived ever since. The modus operandi of this singular process is very easy to explain. The vital energy of the tree and sap, dissolves the sulphur, carries it into circulation, and involves it in sulphuric gas evaporating through all the pores of branches, leaves and fruits. This gas is a deadly poison to in- sects and all animals, it suffocates them or drives them away as soon as they beoin to smell it ; but no injury whatever results to the tree. We have never heard yet of any direct experi- ment on peach trees ; but we are sure it Vvill an- swer quite as well. If the sulphuric emanation could not reach cjuick enough the roots of the trees which are commonly attacked, the plugging must be done near the root or at the time of the descend- ing sap, when it will sooner reach the roots. Let }t be tried and the results made known. c. s. r. System of Fariiiing'. From the American Farmer. Penpark, Va. June 12, 1833. Mr. Smith, — Agreeably to my promise, I have sat down to give you the result of my experience jn farming for forty years. I removed irom the county of Loudoun, to Albemarle, in the fall of 1799, with but little experience in farming gener- ally, and much less in improving worn out land. At that time the whole face of the country present- ed a scene of desolation that baflles description — farm after farm had been worn out, and washed and gullied, so that scarcely an acre could be found in a place fit for cultivation. It will he well to observe here, that there is a ridge of red land pas- sing through the counties of Albemarle and Orange, whose soil v/as of the very best quality, and sus- ceptible of the highest degree of improvement, but which had at thesame time been butchered by that most horrible mode of culture adopted by the first settlers of this country. The practice then was to clear the land, to put it in tobacco for three or four years in succession, according to the strength of the soil, afterwards in corn and wheat alternate- ly, or corn and oats so long as it was capable of producing any thing. They never ploughed in those days, but simply scratched the ground, and this too, right up and down the steepest hills, in- stead of horizontally, with those little one horse half share or shovel ploughs, until the whole of the virgin soil was washed and carried off from the ridges into the valleys. This is a very imperfect description of the lace of the country at the time of my settlement here; I believe it would not be say- ing too much, if I Avere to affirm, that there had not lieen before that period, one good plough in the county. Col. Thomas Mann Randolph, had com- menced the horizontal ploughing on his (lirm; but, for the want of good ploughs, it was a long time be- Ibre he could succeed sufficiently well to induce others to adopt the same plan. Indeed, there were many w ho, though considered at that time good practical farmers, were disposed to ridicule it for years after Col. Randolph had adopted it. And here, since there has been some little discussion of late in regard to the question, who first introduced this mode of ploughing, I will take the liberty of saying, that there is no person in Albemarle who ever doubted, nor do I myself doubt, that although some considerable improvement may have been made by others since that gentleman adopted it, yet he is entitled to the whole credit of its original introduction, and for which he deserves a monu- ment to his memory. Suffice it to say, in regard to the condition of the country at the time I speak of, that it wore the most haggard, frightful, poverty-stricken appear- ance imaginable, never having had upon it either plaster or clover, or, as one might naturally judge from its looks, vegetation of any kind. We had but one alternative in this state of things, either to improve and restore the soil, or to remove to some new and better country ; which latter course w-as the most common — the majority of farmers, after they had impoverished their lands, preferring to leave the improvement of them to others, rather than undertake it themselves. There is here, as in all other places, a great variety of opinions in regard to the best mode of improvement — the ma- ner of ploughing, whether deep or shallow — the time of ploughing — the time and manner of apply- ing manure — questions which must be decided ac- cording to circumstances, and not by a single in- variable rule. There are some things, however, which may be considered as all important — such as a rotation of crops, a rigid and scrupulous at- tention to the collection and preservation of all the manure that can be obtained, and great care in ploughing; for good ploughing, in my estimation, is the first step towards the improvement of an ex- hausted farm. I will now proceed to give you a more particu- lar account, both of my practice and success in the business of reclaiming exhausted land. The farm, which it is my lot to possess, lies near the town of Charlottesville, has been obtained by small pur- chases at different times, and now contains from two to three thousand acres. This tract of land is ac- knowledged l)y all to have been more completely galled and butchered than any other of the same size in this neighborhood. ]My practice has al- ways been to plough as deep as possible, and ac- cordingly, my constant direction to my ploughmen (^nien, not boys, for I do not suffer boys to plough) is not to be afraid of ploughing too deep, provided, the horses can pull the plough. For some years past I have made use of four horses in flushing the land, but from the great disadvantage they have labored under, in consequence of the very undu- lating surface of my farm, sometimes ploughing too deep, and at others too shallow — as for instance, in asceixding a hill, the lead horses would draw the FARMERS' REGISTER— SYSTEM OF FARMING. 151 plough out of the ground, while in descending, they would plunge it so deep as to be unable to pull it at all — I have been compelled to use three horses abreast; which is as small a force as any farmer should think of applying; notwitlistanding even this mode has its objections, principally ari- sing from the danger there is, that the horses when turning, unless great care be taken, will cork themselves. Mine have been frequently injured in tliis v/ay. The plough Avhich 1 preler to all others, is the bar-share, called here the Loudoun bar-share, which was first introduced into this neighborhood by myself. I do not mean to say, that there are not other ploughs equally good, but this in the end is the cheapest. For notwithstand- ing it costs something more than the McCormick, wliich is our next best plough, though not suffi- ciently strong for three horses in our rough soil, yet it will last three times as long. The bar-share is now in much greater demand than any other, but unfortunately for us, there are very few to be had, not having any person in the county who un- derstands the manner of making it. This plough not only docs the best work, but does its work with more ease to man and horse than any oilier with which I am acquainted. And here, permit me to say a word in relation to the question of deep or shallow ploughing, which I have seen recently discussed in the Farmer. My opinion, which is founded entirely upon experience, is decidedly in favor of the superior utility and va- lue of deep ploughing. For about twenty years, I have been ploughing as deep as I could on the farm where I now reside, without having in a sin- gle instance injured the crop; and more than this, 1 have, in the mean time, restored the land from the most extreme state of poverty to that of at least good farming land; indeed, a great deal of it is as rich as is necessary for a wheat crop. The rota- tion of my crops hasbeen once in corn, and twice in wheat, rye or oats in five years, giving tv.o full years in five for clover, and in the mean time dres- sing the land twice with plaster, (or at least roll- ing all my seed of every description in plaster,) with from one bushel to one and a half the acre. By putting this quantity upon the clover, tlie spring after it is sown, insures me a crop on al- most all my land, sufficiently large to mow. Eve- ry acre of my farm not under cultivation is kept in clover. With respect to the production and the appli- cation of manure, I have never pursued any uni- form course, but have been frequently making experiments. I was once inclined to believe, that no other way was right, but to haul it out and plough it under as soon as possible, not allowing the sun to shine on it more than could be avoided, and so strong liad been the force of habit aiid of education, that I pursued this course for several years, without ever supposing for a moment that any other course was or could be right. But, as a large portion of my land had been so completely exhausted, and galled and ribbed by rains and bad treatment, that to put upon it manure in its rotten state would be worse than folly, I came to the con- clusion, that it would be a better mode to cover all its deep sores with thick plasters of unrotted straw, carried directly from the machine. In order to save labor and time, this straw Avas carried out as a return load while engaged in threshing the wheat ; for our practice in this county differs from the com- mon practice in many other places, especially at the north, in not stacking our wheat, but in taking- it directly from the field to the machine. This mode has been forced upon us by the apprehension, that if it Avere allowed to remain for a long time unthreshed, say till the month of August, it would be destroyed, or at least materiallj^ injured by the weevil. But, to the point — I am fully of the opin- ion, that this description of land cannot be so well improved in any other way as in the one just men- tioned, for by the time the coat ol straw is com- pletely rotten the land will possess sufficient life and strength to manufacture or produce its OAvn covering. A few other experiments, which I have made in regard to manure, may be worth your attention. In the fall of 182S, I commenced fallowing my land, and carrying out my manure at the same time. The manure was spread and ploughed in with my large ploughs ; but as I had a considerable quantity to haul, and some distance to haul it, I did not finish until some time after I had sowed my crop. I made, therefore, four dif- ferent experiments— a part of the manure was ploughed in with the large ploughs — a part spread on the broken up land and hari-owed in — a part spread on the surfoce after the wheat was sowed — and a part spread upon the snow, according to the practice which, as 1 am told, exists in Pennsylva- nia. The first experiment succeeded the best, and contributed most to the permanent improvement of the land — the second did not vary much in its results from the_ first— the third produced the greatest crop the first year — the fourth did not suc- ceed at all, as it killed a great portion of the wheat. In regard to such a valuable article as that of manure, it may be well to remark, that very few of us make more than half of what we really might make; and after all, suffer a great deal of what we do make to be wasted, for the want of a little care. All that even our best farmers in Albemarle have attempted to do, is to collect all their corn stalks in some convenient place, to be used as litter for the larm pen during the winter, which, together w ith a few leaves from the woods, and a little re- fuse from the farm, is converted into manure. This is about all that we have done yet. Before I conclude this letter I wish to add ano- ther remark, in regard to the subject of deep and shallow ploughing. This seems to be the more necessary, not only because public discussion is now awake, but because I have a fact to commu- nicate, about which I am greatly astonished that so little has been said, and Avhich may afford us some light. It is this — if you plough your land ever so deep, so much so as to hide every particle of the soil, by the next season it will have all fe- turned to the surface without any subsequent deep ploughing — a fact, which I do hope some of your more experienced correspondents will explain for me. In whatever way it may be explained, it does seem to me to speak most powerfully in favor of deep, instead of shallow ploughing. In my view it is reduced to a certainty, that just so deep as the plouo-h goes, just so deep the soil goes and no deep- er. "The question then comes to this, which is preferable a deep or shallow soil.^ about which there can be no dispute. When I first commenced the practice of deep ploughing on my farm, the people who passed along the road would stop and inquire, with great earnestness, whether I was not afraid of ruining my land. After expressing my con- 152 FARiMEilS' REGISTER— STREETS PAVED WITH SHELLS. viction of its utility, they would most generally re- ply, tliat it might do for your wheat, but it would not for corn. l>ut I can only say, that I have found it best for every crop. I wouM pursue this sub- ject further, but I find ijry paper giving out. If what I have advanceil will aid the interests of agriculture in any resp6ct, I shall be happy. Yours, respectfully, and sincerely, JOHN H. CRAVEX. P. S. Our harvest has just commenced. In this county, Avhile we shall have more than an average crop of straw, we shall not have a half a crop of grain, and even that will be more indifferent than any that I have ever seen, being infested with eve- ry thing that is bad — rot, scab, smut and rust. J. II. c. Krom the Abbeville "VVhij. DOBIESTIC SILK IN SOUTH CAROLINA. When on an excursion to the country a few days since, we found, much to our surprise and gratifi- cation, that some of our female friends had turned their attention to tlie culture of silk ; and that many of them had made such progress in this lauda- ble experiment, as already to have realized con- siderable profit from the production of the raw material, and manufacturing it into cloth. IMrs. Patrick Calhoun, of this district, who, among her other many excellent virtues, is remarkable for her industry and attention to her matters of do- mestic concernment, sliowed us in a house which she had fitted up for the purpose, at least, wo would say, one hundred thousand silk worms, all healthy and busily engaged, some of them in forming the cocoon and others fitting themselves for the pro- duction of that valuable material. Mrs. Calhoun, who had tried the experiment last year on a smal- ler scale than she is doing the present, assured us that she had no doubt, should no unforeseen acci- dent occur, she would be able to raise silk enough by the latter part of August, to manufixcture more than a hundred yards of cloth. We know of two other ladies in this district, Mrs. Covington and Mrs. Baskin, who have been similarly engaged for several years, and we have seen some pieces of silk cloth manufactured by them, which, when worked up into clothes, makes a beautiful and lasting dress. The cloth manufac- tured by them has sold at this place for $3 per yard, and it is sought for with avidity, not only on account of its rarity, but also for its beauty, dui-a- bility and cheapness. We hope that our ladies will turn their attention to this interesting, profi- table, and laudable employment, and that we will be pardoned by those whose names we have given to the public, for having done so without their per- mission. Streets Paved witli Shells. To the Editor of the Farmers'' Register. The perusal of the " Supplementary Chapter" to the Essay on Calcareous Manures, (in No. 2 of the Farmers' Register,) and the inquiry with which it closes, as to the effects of marl in purify- ing the air and contributing to healthfulncss, in- duces me to mention a case somewhat in point. — If I can give you no very satisfactory information, I may be the cause of eliciting it from others. The streets of Mobile are generally unpaved, and as a substitute for stone or gravel, which are not to be obtained, shells (which have long been untenanted,) are strown over the carriage ways and side walks to the depth of several inches. — These soon become a firm mass, and form a smooth surfltce, so as to resemble a Macadamised road. — The streets have a remarkably neat and clean ap- pearance, and are much more pleasant than the paved ones. The shells, which are of various kinds, gene- rally small, are raked up in great quantities in the shallow lakes, and brought to the city in large lighters. Mobile is much moi^e healthy now than it was before this plan of improving its streets was adopt- ed. It was proposed to " shell" some of the streets of New Orleans, but whether it was carried into eficct, I am unable to inform you. The sugges- tion you have made may call the attention of its citizens to the subject. M. We thank our correspondent M. for the prompt com- munication of the fact of streets being paved with cal- careous materials : and we shall be still more obliged to him, or toothers, for a more minute examination of the effects on the health of the inhabitants of Mobile. The favorable change, in this respect, which he states has taken place, is certainly some confirmation of the opinion maintained in the " Supplementary Chapter, &c.": but as the effect was probably never before ascribed to such a cause, all the circumstances will require to be known, and carefully considered. Roads have been made in some part of Ireland of broken limestone ; and i^robably the same material (for want of harder,) may have been used there or elsewhere for pavement in towns. If any such fact exists in a warm or unhealthy climate, information of the circum- stances might throw much light on this subject. — \Ed, Farm. Re"-. Sumacli L-eaves. To the Editor of the Farmers'' Register. Having heard that Sumach Leaves were pur- chased by the tanners of morocco leather in Nor- folk, and thinking that the article might be worth collecting for market, I requested a friend to make inquiries on the subject, and from him have re- ceived the following information. " The leaves are the only parts of the plant which are used for tanning. They are cured as hay is, and cleaned of twigs, &c. by being beaten with sticks, as grain is sometimes threshed out of the straw. This is no doubt very tedious — but where there is a good growth of Sumach, as it costs nothing but the labor, I think the farm- ers in your neighborhood may find it to their advantage to gather and send it to market. Mr. , of Norfolk, uses a good deal, and pays for it ^1 per hundred pounds." Sumach bushes grow very thick on light soil of only middling quality, and if once in possession of the ground, would doubtless keep it, without fur- ther trouble. The seed we know are very abun- dant, and easy to collect — and it may possibly be worth sowing them over a few acres of hilly land, of small value under cultivation. The red skin, or pulp, which incloses every seed, contains a large proportion of strong acid, of a pleasant taste. Query — Could not this be put to some economical use ? Dispersed as the bushes are generally, the FARMERS' REGISTER— TURNIPS— GEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE, &c. 153 fathering of tlieir leaves would not be compensated y the price which they command : but the result might be very difterent on several acres yielding an unmixed and heavy product every year. G. For the Fanners' Register. Turnips. T^xtract of a Itiicr ft'om a Correspondcnl in England, to Wi'liam Prince ^ Sons, of the Lin. Bot. Garden, res- pecting the Turnip Culture in that country. " The diiTerent sorts of Turnips aresown thus : The Swedish at tlie end of JMay or iirst of June ; a few of the Tankard are sovvn about the same time; and about tlie midflle of June to the end of that month, the Globe is sown ; and after these, the yellov/ sorts. Some flirmers sow tlie yellow varieties before the Globe— but, as they are very early turnips, and apt to mildew when a drought sets in, we recommend them always to be sov/n last. The Tankard is not generally sown, except for very early eating by cattle, in the month of Sep- tember ; and, in mostcases, the White Globe is pre- ferred, it being a much more solid root — and, if sown equally early, superior to the Tankard. 'Ihe later sown Globe follows in succession; about the month of January the Yellows come in ; and after them, for spring feeding, the Swedish, which, when pitted before the frost sets in, and kept dry, will remain perfectly fresh and good till the month of June, if that is desired. But here, our cattle are, before that period, either sold fat, or put out to grass. The Swedish Turnip stands a great deal of frost ; indeed, there are few winters in which they are injured by it. But there ought always to be a quantity stored, to be used for food during snow storms. Horses are here fed during the win- ter, with a few of them daily, along with their other food." N. B. William Prince & Sons have imported above a thousand pounds of the at>ove turnip seeds. or, THE I3IPORTAXCE OF GEOLOGICAL KXCW- LEDGE TO AGRICULTURISTS. To the Editor of the Fanners^ Register- I have read with pleasure the article in the first number of the Farmers' Register, entitled " Ge- neral Description of Virginia." It is pleasingly and intelligently drawn up, and I trust, at some future day, the writer may be induced to furnisii you with further details connected with the physi- cal geography of Virginia. Thesfe, as they are more or less connected with the mineral resources of the state, are very interesting to your agricultu- ral readers. In whatever direction the traveller turns himself, but especially in the tide-water districts, a steady spirit of inquiry seems to have set in con- cerning improvements in agriculture. The great importance of fossil manures, or marls, as they are commonly called in Virginia, is fully acknowl- edged. The intrinsic value of landed property in the lower part of the state, is very much governed by the presence or absence of those marls. Where they do not appear near the surface, cither crop- ping out naturally, or exposed in ravines or the the banks of rivers, by the alorading action of water, it becomes essential to inquire by investi- gations of another character, whether those marls are not found at depths whence they may be drawn Vol. 1-20 at a cost which may justify their application as fossil manures. The most ready way of acquir- ing just information on tliis branch of the subject, is by actual borings inditlerent parts of an estate, and by inquiring into the history of the various wells, if there are any, which have been dug in it. It is impossible for an intelligent mind to en- gage in investigations of this character, without indulging moderately in speculations concerning the origin of these fossil deposits; whetlier they are accidentally and irregularly distributed in the places where they are found, or whether they owe their existence to laws as unchangeable as any other natural laws. If investigations practically conducted, result in this last opinion, the improv- ing farmer, before he is aware of it, becomes a student in the principles of geology — principles which will go far to explain to him, without the trouble of boring, whether shells are to be found beneath the surface, and indeed of coming by a fair approximation to the depth at which they lie. It is by so gentle a transition, the cultivator be- comes, in the truest sense of the word, a philoso- I)her, since knov.ledge can only be dignified with the name of philo?ophy, when it can be made use- ful to mankind. The most important science per- haps which has hitherto fixed the attention of men is geology, since it comprehends all the branches of natural science, and obliges us to go inductively into all the details of natural history, with the ultimate View of tracing out all the harmonics of creation, and applying our acquaintance with the laws of nature to purposes conducive to the prosperity of the human race. It appears to me that no condi- tion promises so much unwithering happiness, as that of the farmer, who knows how to enjoy life in so refined and profitable a manner. Such a man's life is a constant act of devotion in the temple of na- ture. The Viinds may blow, the rains may fall, but he is not long fretted ; he knov.s such things must be, since they are necessary to the economy of na- ture; and indeed, he can bring hismindtothe be- lief, Avithout seeing exactly how it is, that they are even incidental to his own prosperity. I have been insensibly led into the remarks I have made, by a conviction that nothing embel- lishes life so much as the love and knov.ledge of nature. A Farmers' Register, is— and I think I may fairly beg the question — a proper repository for communications connected with any of the branches of natural history, and it cannot he doubted that any papers connected with the physical geography of Virginia, will be very much relished by your readers. We all love variety, for even farmers ^ei tired of reading about barn-yard manure.— The writer of the " General Description of Virgi- nia," no doubt has it in his power to enrich your pages v.'ith many interesting details, that otherwise we may for a long time remain ignorant of. The state of Virginia has not yet engaged in the exe- cution of a project of incalculable importance to her prosperity . I m.ean a geological map of her whole territory, upon vi'hich, of a commensurate scale, all her metallic and mineral deposits, her iron, her lead, her copper, her gold, &c. &c. should be accurately laid down, with their localities, di- rection, elevation, extent and qualities. A map of this cliaracter with a detailed report, constructed from personal investigation, by competent persons, Vt'ould be invaluable. It never can l3e sufliciently appreciated until it is executed. ■ Men would then 164 FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE, &c. wonder why it had been neglected so long. The state of Maryland has perceived the importance of such an undertaking', and authorised during the session of her last legislature, a geological reconnoisance, and a report to be made to the next legislature, upon the expediency of ordering a geological sur- vey of the state. If such a measure is important to Maryland, what must it be to Virginia, v>'hich is unquestionably — and I assert this, confident that it can be proved — the richest metallic state in the union, to say nothing of the fields of bituminous coal, and the inexhaustible beds of fossil manure in the lower parts of the state ? The friends of the state will soon turn their attention to this project, which indeed ought to have preceded internal im- provements, it being of the last importance that the direction given to the routes of canals and rail roads, should be much influenced by the local po- sition of mineral and metallic beds, and not alto- gether— as they continue to be — by the physical geography of particular lines of direction. Until something of this kind is done, since the elas^s of scientific tourists remains yet to be formed in this country, we shall have to tlepend, for inte- resting details connected with the natural features of the interior, upon the communications of intel- ligent persons respecting their own vicinities. — These will always be valuable in proportion to their accuracy, and they cannot be accurate unless they have been personally examined. It is better therefore to describe with great minuteness what has been seen, rather than to assert any thing upon the authority of others. All the conclusions that are ultimately to be arrived at, concerning the scheme of nature, depend for their soundness upon the precise justness of the facts out of which these conclusions must grow. This is the inductive pro- cess, to go from the known to tlie unknown, and no other can be depended upon. Facts— rigidly so — when concentrated, procluce a steady light by which we can walk intelligently amidst the appa- rent mysteries of nature. We have then some hope of detecting her laws, of finding her out as it were, and making her the constant hand-maid of our wants. A departure from facts is destruc- tive of all useful results : it perplexes tlie chemist, disturbs the philosopher, and disappoints and mor- tifies the lover of nature. It is better therefore to say nothing, if nothing has been seen. An expe- rienced naturalist, when he hears of a natural phe- nomenon, goes to the place, examines, and brings the phenomenon within the regular operation, of the laws of nature. He is one of the Caesars of nature, and is entitled to say his Veni, Vidi, Vici. Naturalists and tourists are exposed to disappoint- ments from two species of writers who belong to the genus non-vidi. One of these exaggerates, the other depreciates. The first leads us to see a mountain in labor, the second prevents us going to see a real mountain. I have been led into this observation by a passage in the paper I have al- ready spoken of, the " General Description of Vir- ginia." I imagine the intelligent v/riter of that paper, in the reading of whicli I have received much pleasure, has some of his information upon hearsay. I must conceive it to be so, from the fol- lowing passage, where one of the finest natural phenomena of the state of Mrginia, is so slightly and so disparagingly spoken of, although I am sure quite unintentionally. " - " There is also a natural bridge in the south- west part of the state, which be-i-s no compari- son, in grace of proportion, or grandeur of effect, to the one in Rockbridge." It may be that the writer has seen both these natural bridges, and that he means merely to ex- press the diflerent manner in which his own taste has been affected by them. I shall therefore mere- ly say that he has expressed himself in very strong terms, and in a manner tliat might induce many to neglect seeing the first, by reason of its being very interior to tjie second, and of the same character. Now they are very dissimilar in character, whilst the dimensions of the one spoken so slightingly of, will one day — when that at Rockbridge has pe- risiied, a day perhaps not very distant — far sur- pass in grandeur of eifect, the other. I take it for granted that this last, spoken of as " in the south- west part of the state," is that very singular and unrivalled nutural tunnel, on Stock Creek, in Scott County, of which there is an excellent draw- ing and an admirable descri})tion in Featherston- haugh's Journal of Geology, vol. 1. pp. 347, 414, by Lieut. Col. Long, of the U. S. Topographical Corps. Both this and the one in Rockbridge County, have been originally naturtd cavities in two limestone ridges, which have been unequally enlarged by tlie action of the streams running through them, and by the disintegration brought about in long periods of time. At Rockbridge, the cavity has been enlarged to a height, from the stream to the arch, of 240 feet, the mass of rock which forms the bridge being 40 feet thick, the length of the cavity is 60 feet, and the width at bottom 45 feet. The total height of this ridge, in- cluding the arch and the bridge, to the stream, is 280 feet. Time is gradually dilapidating this ma- jestic structure, the bridge at length must give way, and will leave behind it a chasm of 280 feet higli. Whilst this is accomplishing, the cavity of the natural tunnel on Stock Creek, will be en- larging. It now measures from the slrcam to the root' of the arch SO feet, having thence to the sur- face 160 feet of solid limestone. Tlie total height of the ridge, including tl;e arch and the bridge, to the stream, is 240 feet, being 40 feet less than that at Rockbridge. On the other hand, the length of the tunnel is 450 feet, being 390 more than that of its rival, whilst the Avidth at bottom varies from 50 to 100 feet. Having no object in view but attracting the at- tention of tourists to tl'.is remarkable locality, I shall venture to transcribe part of Col. Long's de- scription of it, from the Journal I have spoken of* " To form an adequate idea of this remarkable and truly sublime object, we have only to imagine the creek to which it gives a passage, meandering through a deep narrow valley, here and there bountled on both sides by walls or revctemen ts of the character above intimated, and rising to the height of two or three hundred feet above the stream; and that a portion of one of these chasms, instead of presenting an open thorough cut, from the summit to the base of the high grounds, is intercepted by a continuous unbroken ridge more than three hun- dred feet liigh, extending entirely across the val- ley, and perforated transversely at its base, after the manner of an artificial tunnel, and thus afFord- * Featherstonhaiigh's Journal of Geolosv, vol. 1. j'p. 347, 414. FARMERS' REGISTER— TIDE WATER DISTRICT OF VIRGINIA. 155 ing a spacious subterranean channel for the passage of the stream. " The entrance to tlie natural tunnel on the up- per side of tlie ridge, is imposing and picturesque in a high degree; but on the lower side, the gran- deur of the scene is greatly heightened by the su- perior magnitude of the clills, which exceed in loftiness, and which rise perpendicularly — and in some instances in an impending manner — two or three hundred feet ; and by Avhich the entrance on this side is almost environed, as it were, by an am- phitheatre of rude and frightful precipices. " The observer standing on the brink of the stream, at the distance of about one hundred yards below the debouchure of the natural tunnel, has, in front, a view of its arched entrance, rising se- venty or eighty feet above the water, and sur- mounted by horizontal stratifications of yellowish, white and grey rocks, in dej)th nearly twice the height of the arch. On his left, a view of the same mural precipice, deflected from the spring- ing of the arch, in a manner to pass thence in a continuous curve quite to his rear, and lowering in a very impressive manner above his head. On his right, a sapling growth of buck-eye, poplar, linden, &c. skirting the margin of tile creek, and ex- tending obliquely to the right, and upward, through a narrow abrupt ravine, to the summit of the ridge, which is here and elsewhere crowned with a tim- ber growth of pines, cedars, oaks, and shrubberies of various kinds. On his extreme right, is a gi- gantic clilF lifting itself up perpendicularly from the water's edge, to the height of about three hun- dred feet, and accompanied by an insulated clifl", called the chimney, of al)Out the same altitude, rising in the form of a turret, at least sixty feet above its basement, which is a portion of the im- posing cliff just before mentioned. " The extent of the tunnel from its upper to its lower extremity, following its meanders, is about 150 yards, in which distance the stream falls about ten feet, emitting, in its passage over a rocky bed, an agreeable murmur, Avhich is rendered more grateful by its reverberations upon the roof and sides of the grotto. Tlie discharge of a musket produces a crash-like report, succeeded by a roar in the tunnel, which has a deafening effect upon the ear." When time shall have worn the arch of this na- tural tunnel to within forty feet of the top, it will present the spectacle of an arch 200 feet high, and a bridge 450 feet broad ; a spectacle that will cer- tainly rival any thing that is now even to be seen at Rockbridge. g. w, f. James River, July 4th, 1833. ON THE TIDE WATER DISTRICT OF VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers'' Register. An article entitled " General Description of Virginia," placed at the head of your first No. has attracted my attention. It is extracted from the Encyclopedia Americana, a work v/hose title would seem to promise much. How far this promise has been redeemed, it is not my purpose to inquire. — My business is with this particular article, and I take notice of it, because it has gained a place in your paper, and derived a currency from your name, that may give it a potency, which, from its own merit, it could scarcely have wielded. The first part of this essay to which I shall call your attention, i.s in that division of the general description styled " Face of the Country." We are there informed that " the tidewater, or eastern section, is, in general, low, level, sandy and un- productive, and parts of it exhibit almost as deso- late an aspect, as the pine barrens of Jersey." — Any one acquainted with the country of which this is offered as a description, will be disposed to wonder at the perusal of this sentence. But to de- velope more clearly the notion that our author has formed of eastern Virginia, it is necessary to fol- lovt^ him a little farther. In the paragraph enti- tled "Agriculture, Manufactures, &c." he pro- ceeds, " The old pi-actice of clearing and cultivat- ing land every year until exhausted, then turning it out to recover from its own resources, still conti- nues in majiy places. In others, the three shift system still prevails; that is, 1, a crop of Indian corn ; 2, wheat, rye, or oats ; 3, the year of rest, as it is called, in which the spontaneous vegetation furnishes a scanty subsistence to stock ; after which the soil is again subjected to the scourging process of cropping, while little attention is paid to the application of manures, or the culture of artificial grasses. This destructive system, for the most part, prevails from the sea-board to the head of tidewater, and on the south side of James river as high as the Blue Ridge." It is but charitable to suppose that the writer of the sentences that I have quoted, has never seen the country that he describes. And it is unfortu- nate tiiat he did not know where to look for correct information. His ideas seem to have been taken from the American Quarterly Review for March 1829. In pages 154-5, the Reviewer says — " It is a curious geological feature, that the tertiary with its covering of sea-sand through Georgia, the Ca- rolinas, Virginia, JNIaryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, should rest immediately upon the primitive, without the intervention of the transi- tive or secondary forms. The coat of sea-sand throughout this whole space is sufficiently entire to give the character of sterility to the soil, when compared with our primitive and secondary re- gions. And where the river basins do excavate it, such is the low level of its plain, that the allu- vions of these rivers and bays of the sea do but deform it with swamps and marshes, instead of imparting fertility to its lands. The swamps and marshes thus created, generate annual diseases ; bilious and intermittent fevers recur as regularly as the seasons, and render this region scarcely habitable, and its population enervated and ineffi- cient. There seems to be no reclamation of these wet and swampy grounds ; they lie too low to be relieved by any natural means. This sandy region is a great deformity upon our fine continent, and affects it like a wretched foreground which de- grades a picture. If j)ushes the population away from the comforts and facilities of the sea, and obliges commerce to wind its way up our crooked rivers, to meet this population at their falls, where it finds health and terra firma. Our foreign com- merce, therefore, sustains much delay, and is bur- thened with many expenses in encountering the river navigation." This is, indeed, a Avorse picture than the other, and is, thus far, wider of the truth. But as I find it impossible to believe the author of the article from the Encyclopedia knew any thing of the country that he was describing, I ascribed his opi- nion to a belief in Mr, Walsh's statement. His 156 FARMERS' REGISTER— YELLOW LOCUST. love for Virginia may have induced him to soften bis denunciations as he has done. There is, perhaps, no country in the'world which contains a larger proportion of land tliat will re- pay the expense of cultivation than eastern Virgi- nia. Some portions of it are poor — and so are some portions of Egypt and Mexico — but I rather think that the whole country included between the me- ridian of Richmond, (extended to Maryland and North Carolina,) and the Atlantic ocean, would be found, on experiment, to produce much more than the same number ofacres included in one body , in any other region of the slate. And so v,'Ould the writer of your article have thought if he had consulted some public documents, and taken the trouble to drav/ correct inferences. What opportunities of information this writer possessed, I do not know. But he could not have been ignorant of the sources from which an accu- rate acquaintance v/ith some statistics, essential to a knowledge of this subject, could be derived. The auditor's office would furnish an account of the taxes paid by the diilerent sections of the state into the public treasury — the census would show the amount of population — and it would not be dif- ficult to ascertain the superficial measurement of every county in the state. Even Mr. Boye's small map supplies this — and the rule of three would do all the reasoning that would be needful. Thus, by consulting the census of 1831, we find the population of the state distributed in the pro- portions of the following table. [The sections are taken according io their boundaries as fixed by the constitution.] Free Negroea, 4745 120-26 28y£0 Slaves. Total. 186fi5 204117 34772 174308 230SC1 451542 135457 3S1433 Whites. Western Section, 183854 Valley Section, 134791 Front Blue Ridge to head of tideioater, 208656 Tidewater, 167001 And the follov/ing table exhibits the number of square miles, and the amount of taxes paid in 1831, when the census was taken. Square Miles. Taxes paid in 1S31. Westerr\,, • - 20006 $^;"'S49 09 Valley, . - 10294 46654 48 Middle, ■ • 15160 l!5-cOO 43 Tidewater, - - 11534 85311 33 Now, let comparison be instituted on the num- bers furnished by these tables, and some certain conclusions may be arrived at, to take precedence, I trust, in the minds of the candid, of the indefi- nite conjectures set afloat by the prejudices of such writers as the contributor to the Encyclopedia. — Thus it will be found that the w^estern section con- tains 689^ inhabitants on every hundred square miles — the valley 1596 — the middle section 2978 — and the tidewater district 3292 on the same sur- face. Next, that the western section pays of taxes into the public treasury 12^ cents per head for the whites and slaves — the valley 27^ — the middle section 26^ — and the eastern 24;^. I leave out the free negroes, because nominally tliey pay very lit- tle, and, I rather think, that really, the treasury loses by their presence in the country. Again, for every hundred square miles, the western section pays into the treasury ,^87 90 — valley $438 90— the middle district .^784 21— and the tidewater $798 31. I have thus instituted three proportions — my statistical references do not finable me to institute any others that would be valuable pn this subject. And in two of tliem the tidewater country — that ledge of sea-sand, inter- spersed with swamps and miarshes, whose soil re- fuses sustenance to man or beast, and whose at- mosphere, charged with malaria, and the vapors of the gulf stream, (according to Mr. Walsh,) is deadly as the brcalli of the Anaconda, exhibits greater resources than any other section of Virginia ! And it is ouv legislation a.nd not nature, that places us in the rear of the valley and the middle section, in the third. A large ])ortion of the taxes of the tidewater country is paid on slaves. Those under twelve years of age are not taxed ; if they were, and the taxes were laid in other respects as they novr are, 1 believe that v.'e should be placed fore- most in every proportion that 1 have stated. — Others may make the calculation from the census, the law imposing taxes, and the returns of the she- riffs to the auditor. 1 have not done it, because, for my purpose, it was unnecessary. I may follow out this subject in another num- ber, by giving you some account of the farming of the lower country. mockjack. Ycllo-^v Laociist. Oak Forest, Rockbridge County, Va. > 4th July, 1833. 5 To the Editor of the Farmers' P.,egi.';tcr. Dear Siu, — 1 received yesterday the first No. of the " Farmers' Jlcgister," and am gratified to find that it fully deserves all the praise that I had heard or seen bcstov/ed on it. And I beg leave, on a day so suited as this for thanksgiving, to offer you my sincere thanks for thus devoting your time and efforts " to the improvement of the practice, and support of the interests of agriculture." With this tribute to your v/ork and your mo- tive, permit me to invite your attention to a sub- ject connected with the " interestsof agriculture," which has lately attracted mine — namely, tho growing of the Yellow Locust in our fields, if not by culture, at least, as tenants at sufferance. A computation of the profit of rearing the Yel- low Locust, by culture, is made in the last March No. of the " New York Farmer and American Gardeners' Magazine," as follows : It is supposed that an acre of land would easily sustain four trees to the rod, and at that rate ten acres would sustain six thousand four hundred trees, each of which it is said, would be v/orth at a ship-yard, when twelve years old, five dollars — but estimated at three dollars each, makes the sum of $19,200 From which deduct for ten years in- terest on the value of ten acres of land, ----- $250 For labor of cultivating by occasion- al manuring, &c. $40 per annum, 400 Seed, and two years in nurserj^, - 100 750 Leaving nett profit for ten years, $18,450 However astonishing this result may be, it seems to be fairly made, except that there is nothing al- lowed for carriage to the ship-yard, ov/'mg perhaps, to the fact, that v/here there is easy water convey- ance, as is the case in New York, the carriage of lumber is a trifle not worth notice ; as it Avould be in Virginia, if she had canals extending to and through her ample forests. But canalling and culture aside — let us inquire FARMERS" REGISTER— FARMING IN YORK COUxXTY. 157 whether, without either, much might not be gain- ed from the Locust as a " tenant at stifferance." I use the phrase just quoted in reference to the state of my own form, much of which having been cleared within the hist eight to twelve or fii'tecn years, continued, for half those periods, to produce a considerable number of sprouts from the roots of defectivelocustSjWhich were felled in clearing; or, perhaps, from seed pi-omiscuously and accidentally scattcredover the ground. Many of these I suffered to grow where they came up, partly for ornament, partly for shade for stock, but mainly with a viev/ to future use, for posts, scantling, &c. They require no culture nor attention of any kind, except an occasional pruning to lengthen the stem ; they do not injure the crop growing about or under them ; and I think I may say that every Locust suffered to grow, in good farm land, for ten or tuelve 5'ears, is worth, where grown, for various uses, from one to two dollars. But I will specify an in- stance, and let you judge of the value of one of my tenants at sufferance. 1 wanted lately three pieces of good Locust scantling three and a half by nine or ten inches, and twelve ket long — to have found with certainty, a stock for this small quantity of scantling, I must have gone some eight or ten miles to some rich mountain holloAv, except for the trees in my own fields — one of which was se- lected. It made the scantling wanted, of first rate quality ; and there was left of it, what for other smaller scantling and posts, was of equal value to the stock used. This stock was cut down, sawed off, and put on the wagon in less than two hours ; whilst to have procured such a one at the distance of eight or ten miles, would have consumed a day, with wagon and team, and two or three hands.! Now, as " money saved is money made," I sub- mit to you to fix the value of the locust specified. Very little attention will insure an endless suc- cession to the trees that may be occasionally used on, or spared from a farm ; nothing more being necessary than to leave in their stead one of the many sprouts springing up from the roots of the parent stock ; the supernumeraries might be set where wanted. And if, as I suppose. Locusts do not materially impede the culture or lessen the product in other things of the land growing them, would it not be well for all farmers to have their outside and other permanent lines of fencing pret- ty thickly set with them, (say two to the rod,) be- sides some three or four to each acre enclosed : Perhaps farmers would answer this query them- selves, were you to tell them the number of lo- custs that would be grown, in the way the ques- tion supposes — on a farm of two hundred and forty acres, laid off in six fields of forty acres each ; telling them also, the value you afifix to the Locust specified, by Y'our most ob't. serv't. REUBE?f GRIGSBY. FARMING IN YORK C0U?;TY. Bellfield, York Co. July 11, 1833. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I regretted that it was impracticable for me to see you and show you my farm when you visited this region some time since. As you well knov/ * The locusts of our common forest land are e:erieral- ly defective — not so when grown in cultivated fields. t With us, a wagon, team and driver, is usually csii- ,mated at $3 by the day. that my farm when I purchased it was poor, and continued poor for several years, you would have been gratified in finding that it Avas now tolerably productive; and it would have been interesting to you to have understood tlic process by which it liad been improved. My object now in writing to you is, first, to give you some idea of the man- ner in which I have managed it, with the results — and to ask you to send me the first No. of your Register, and to consider me a subscriber for one year : on the other side you have a checlc for .$5. As soon almost as I purchased this farm, I dis- covered that it furnished an abundant supply of marl. I began to carry it out, but found that it involved a great deal of labor ; and my force being limited, I determined to ascertain w hether marl was equally beneficial in each of my fields, and then to wait until I could be certain whether its effects were lasting or not ; devoting much of my labor to making manure, and in hauling out ma- nure from town, where I could then procure it in large quantities, whilst I waited to see the result of the experiments made on the marl I carried out. I followed this course steadily for six or eight years. ]My fields improved every year. — Manure in the meantime became scarcer, as others came into competition with me, and the price increased. I found that the improvement from the marl was lasting, and that every soil was greatly benefitted by it, but that the stiffer the land, the larger the quantity which was re- quired, to give it equal improvement. I then set to work in carrying out marl, with the design to marl all the land which I cultivated, and have now- covered two hundred and thirty four acres with this valuable manure I did not relax in my efforts to raise, and to haul out from town all the manure that I could make, and all that I could procure ; and it has become a fixed rule not to cultivate a hill of corn that has not been manured in the course of the winter and spring. I begin by manuring broad cast, then I come down to manuring in the drill, faking care to reserve a sufficiency of manure to give a double handful of well rotted manure to each hill, which I put around the corn after the first weeding, and immediately cover with a small Freeboi-n plough, running one furrow on each side, with the mould board next the corn. The corn manured in the hill produces almost as well as in either of the other methods; but of course the small grain which follows the corn is much less benefitted'than by the other manuring. My experience satisfies me that neither the four or five field system will answer on my lands. They are subject to wire-grass, and unless a cleansing crop is raised once in three years, they become so foul, that the labor of raising a corn crop is scarce- ly compensated by the produce : and moreover, the fields grow up in bushes, and briers, and other things, so extensively, that every fourth year great labor is necessarily expended in clearing them. — The small grain crop too, after a fallow, is al- most always very much injured by the fly, even when the small grain after the corn escapes en- tirely. Hence I have given up fallowing, and have returned to the three field system, and the rather because I have found the corn crop by far the most certain, and indeed more valuable than the wheat crop. Marl in the proper quantity! regard as very 158 FARMERS' REGISTER— SASSAFRAS BUSHES. important, more especially for the corn crop. I have used it very liberally on some parts of my land, and I have not found eight hunth-ed bushels to the acre too much for my stifi'est land ; but I have used about four hundred bushels generally to the acre. On small portions of my fields which are light with considerable sand, two hundred and fifty bushels have been used, and found to be equal to six hundred on stiff lands. I scatter it when- ever I can do so, on the surface, after the land is fallowed, having ascertained that the first corn crop is but little benefitted by the application of the marl before the land is plouglied. I may not be able to give the true reason, but the fact is clear- ly established as well as the other, that when the marl is scattered on the surface of the land after it is fallowed, the first ciop is as much benefitted as the second. I suppose, that when applied before the land is fallowed, the marl, in fallowing stiff land with a sward on it, is deposited in rows below the furrow slice, by the operation of the plough ; and is not, during the whole season, brought up and mixed with the soil. It is different, when the land is light, since the furrow slice does not adhere as in stiff land, and the marl is mixed with the soil to a considerable extent in the fallowing, and pretty well mixed afterv.ards during the cul- tivation of the corn. I have found it necessary to lay off the land in depositing the marl, that the same quantit)' nearly may be used on each acre, and the best method that I have been able to devise, is to make a chop where the marl is to be deposited from the cart. — Many of my acquaintances run furrows each way at the distance of eight or ten yards, and drop a heap nearly in the middle. INIy foreman takes poles 10-^ feet in length, which he sets up in a row. He then steps off seven yards along the row thus indicated by the poles, and makes a chop ; and so he proceeds along the row, making a chop at the end of each seven yards, and moving the sticks or poles as he comes to them. Thus the plough is ^dispensed with, and the places are marked out with considerable accuracy ; although the distance but one way is measured, yet after a little expe- rience, the chops even the other way are made with sufficient accuracy, and much time is saved. I adopt twenty one feet, because it is the distance best suited to scattering with ease and despatch ; and because, as you perceive, each bushel of marl for the square of twenty one feet, will give as near- ly as may be, one hundred bushels to the acre. If then the load be ascertained, there is but little dif- ficulty in putting out the marl so as to give the quantity desired to each acre. The marl being carried out before the land is fallowed, the interval between each row of heaps may be ploughed be- fore the marl is scattered, and thus the carting- over fallowed land is avoided, and the marl is scat- tered over the land ploughed, save the rows of marl heaps ; and when they are ploughed up, an additional quantity might be given to them, and if not, only a small part of the land will be marled before it is ploughed. It is of great importance that vegetable matter should be given to the marled land; but as a gen- tleman in my neighborhood, of much experience on this subject, has often remarked to me, " any trash will be of high advantage, when the same would produce no good if used without the marl." I observed before, that corn Avas by far the most certain crop with me, and as is believed, for all our lands below the falls and off the rivers ; and pro- bablj^, the most certain also on the rivers. Hence I am persuaded, that it ought more to be relied on than it is by the farmers, for their sale crop. Some disaster blasts the hopes of the farmer Irom his wheat crop almost every year ; whereas, the corn crop does not often fail. And it is a mistake to suppose that the labor and expense of the corn crop exceeds that of the wheat crop much, if at all. Be- ing convinced of this from the closest observation, so far as my own experience goes; and this opinion being confirmed by the superior success of the far- mei-s in the corn districts over those of the Avheat districts, as far as my observations extend, I have determined to make my corn crop my principal object ; and to that end, I shall raise oats lor feed- ing, to save the corn, which will enable me to put in my wheat crop with more ease, and during the period in the fall best suited for it. I know that but little credit is due to the theo- ries and views of those who are not successful in farming; and that I may remove this oiijection to my notions of the management of a farm, I add that my fields now produce at least twice as much as formerly, and that my field of corn last year, (every hill of which was manured for the crop, and only about three fifths of it marled,) averaged me a little above thirty bushels to the acre. JAMES SEMPLE. For tlie Farmers' Register. QUERIES RESPECTIKG SASSAFRAS BUSHES. 1. Can any reader of the Farmers' Register di- rect how to eradicate the growth of sassafras in cultivated land.^ 2. Can any medical reader say what are the pro- perties of the mucilage which the leaves of sassafras contain in such abundance, and whether, if ex- tracted, it might be put to any valuable use.'' For twenty years I have been trying to destroy this growth on a part of my farm, and to such lit- tle purpose, that 1 verily believe there are now as many plants growing as at first. It has not only been subjected to all the assaults from ploughs and hoes, incidental to good tillage of corn and wheat, but for several successive years, I had the plants grub- bed up in August, Avhether the land on which they grew was at rest, or under a crop. The land so infested is sandy, and was Ibrmerly very poor, and is now only of middling productiveness : but it docs not appear that any i^nprovement, or injury to the soil, materially affects this abominable plant. Except for the trouble of grubbing wlrich it causes, I do not know that it is injurious to the cul- tivation and product of corn : but the young shoots greatly hurt the growth of wheat, and make the reaping as wasteful as it is troublesome. If this should be read by any farmer who is so lucky as not to be acquainted with sassafras bush- es, he will wonder why grubbing up by the roots does not effectually destroy each plant so treated. But the truth is, that the root can only be cut be- low the surface of the earth, and never is (and perhaps cannot be) completely taken up. So deep as the grubbing of small shrubs usually goes, (say six inches,) the smallest, as well as the larger sassafras bushes have only one perpendicular main root, Avhich does not diminish in size as low as it is seen. When cut off by the grubbing hoe be- low the usual track of the plough, several young FARMERS' REGISTER— DISTEMPER AMONG CATTLE. 159 shoots soon start from below the wound, and if then let alone the grubbing would serve to increase the number of stems three-fold at least. The suc- ceeding tillage at ever^^ operation again breaks off these young and tender sprouts; but av hen left undisturbed, by the field being laid down in wheat, the sassafras starts with new vigor the following spring, and rises as fast as the crop. I admit that this growth has been generally the larger on my land, because (from neglect) the last shoots of the previous autumnal growth were seldom effectually grubbed at the time of sowing wheat — but the most careful and thorough grubbing at that time, would not lessen the number of sprouts that would be ibund the next harvest, though it would make their size less. My next neighbor, who is not less annoyed with these shrubs, tried a plan for their destruction which at first I thought would be effectual — but the event showed that he had gained nothing by his great additional labor. His method of grubbing was as follows. The la- borer dug away the earth from around the per- pendicular tap root until he came to its origin ; and it was always found to proceed from a larger horizontal root which extended to unknown dis- tances, so that one of these roots might perhaps throw up sprouts from various places for an extent of twenty yards or more. These horizontal roots were generally ten or twelve inches below the sur- face, and confined to the very sterile subsoil. As it was impossible to get up the whole of these long roots, (which probably form a sort of open net- work under a whole field,) a piece was cut out wherever a sprout (even the smallest) grew from. This was in August. The large holes dug for this purpose were left open, and soon new sprouts could be seen putting out from both ends of the se- parated roots. Thus my neighbor's work served (like the cutting up of the polypus,) to cause two to live where there was only one before. But as I almost despair of destroying sassafras, I rest my hope for relief on its being discovered to be a valuable crop. Upon chewing the leaves, at any time from their most tender and succulent state to their full maturity, they v.ill be found full of mucilage, which it seems likely may be of use in medicine, or the arts. It is well known tliat every part of the sassafras tree has a deliglitful smell, and a pleasant taste. The blossoms dried, and the bark of the root, make a tea which is so agreeable, that I think nothing but the abundance and cheapness of the material has prevented its being generally used for this purpose. About twenty years ago a trade in the roots of sassafras was commenced by sending it from James river to England, where the use of the tea was extending among the lower classes. The roots commanded a good price, and the trade promised to be profita- ble to us : but the jealousy of the East India Com- pany (as it was said,) caused this new trade to be quickly destroyed, by new and prohibitorjr-duties on the article. During the few years that the ex- portation continued, the large roots of nearly all the sassafras trees in my neighborhood were dug up for that purpose; but as there Avas no difference of price offered, the roots of small shrubs, (though vastly superior in delicacy and strength of flavor,) were never used for sale, as they were much more troublesome to collect. If the purchasers had known the difference of value, a ton of small roots would have been sold for as much as twenty tons of whole stumps and large roots of trees, which formed nearly the whole amount of the commodi- ty exported. I should have stated that the field which is so full of sassafras shrubs, has not been grazed for more than fifteen years — which protection of course has given them the better opportunity to thrive. Grazing, however, would have checked the evil l)ut very little. What makes this growth the more strange, is that the land liefore being cleared had but very little on it. I have cleared a considera- ble extent of poor woodland, where there were so few sassafras trees, (and most all of these small enough to be grubbed up,) that a slight observer would have pronounced tliat there were none. — Yet in these fields, and on very stiff, as well as on light soil, their growth has since so increased, in spite of the usual cultivation, as to threaten the most serious injury to the future crop of wheat. ANTI-SASSAFRAS. ON DISTE3IPER AMONG CATTLE. Tel the EdUor of the Farmers^ Register. The objects of husbandry are so numerous, and many of them involved in so much mystery, that no one man can attain to great success, without the aid of others. This noble art requires that its votaries should be extremely liberal, if they would become prosperous. A free interchange of opin- ion may often serve to elicit truth, even in mat- ters the most intricate. With such views, I lay before you some suggestions on the disease among cattle, usually called the "Distemper," which though far irom satisfactory to myself, may lead to a full investigation in the Register and to impor- tant results among our farmers. That this disease is propagated by those cattle which are, or have been the subjects of it, forms the basis of the opinions which I would now pre- sent. I believe the opinion has heretofore most gener- ally prevailed, that the disease has spread from the effluvia produced by the carcasses of animals dying of. it, and from their bones. This belief, I suppose, gave origin to the law requiring that such carcasses should be effectually buried, or burned, and forbidding even the preservation and tanning of their skins. This law was, for a long time, ri- gidly enforced, in my neighborhood, but so tho- roughly are we convinced of its inefficacy, that it has nov/ become a dead letter, except with such persons as conscientiously obey every law of the land — as such — however burthensome they may esteem it. Every one familiar with the disease, must have seen cattle, not infected, bellowing the funeral ob- sequies of its victims with impunity, while nothing but a line-fence debarred them from absolute contact with the carcass. Nay, I have often seen my dogs bring the bones of cattle dead from dis- temper, among mine which had not been exposed ; and I was at first alarmed for the consequences — but none bad ensued. Having an extensive com- mon near me, I have permitted the greater part of my cattle to range at large, and have retained, in an enclosure, a few favourites, together with my working oxen, and those intended for such. These two portions of stock have been very cautiously kept asunder. The disease for several years des- troyed some of the first, wliile the latter were en- 160 FARMERS' FiEGISTER— DISTEMPER AMONG CATTLE. ttrel_y exempt from it, until one of tlie oxen broke the ience and grazed for a short time, amont^ the exposed cattle. lie died in a few days of distem- per. It may be said, that all admit cattle may take the disease from g;razing with the infected, but that this does not imply that they cannot take it in any other way. Nature, though rich in means, is economical in using; them, and we generally find but one cause used in the production of an effect. This cause, in the propagation of infectious disease, is usually something generated in the sick, and applied either by actual contact, or in the form of effluvia, to some secreting surface of the well. From what v.-as said above, it appears probable, that the distemper of cattle is hardly produced by effluvia, audi infer that a sufficient cause may be sought, in tJie application of the saliva of one cow, to the mouth of another, from her eating food pre- viously besmeared with it. In confirmation of this opinion I will stale a few facts, whose bearing on the subject, you will rea- dily infer. I have been credibly informed of a wealthy gentleman, who more than twenty years ago, on finding that distemper had invaded liis herd of cattle, ordered that every animal seized with it, should be confined in a particular lot, ne- ver to come out alive. Those that died of the dis- ease Vifere deeply buried, and such as recovered v;ere fattened and slaughtered lor beef. This Erompt measure, is said to have been succeeded y a perfect exemption from the disease. Two other gentlemen, within my own knowl- edge have enclosed extensive parcels of land, al- most literally whitened with the bones of cattle which died of distemper, and made pasture of the very lands thus included. One of tljese has enjoy- ed perfect exemption from the disease, for ten or twelve years. The other had his cattle infected, by getting on a common, after total exemption for about the same term. In districts where this disease prevails, it is gene- rally known, that there is no danger to oxen of receiving it, in however exposed situations they may be driven, provided they are kept well muz- zled. This precaution was much observed in this section some years ago, but the terrors of the dis- ease wore av.'ay with its novelty, and we have be- come more careless. It may be thought singular, that an animal, af- ter an apparently perfect recovery from a mala- dy, should be capable of communicating it to others. There is no analogous case, in our own species, but there is one in the horse, which, I think, is just in point. The matter, I believe, is well settled among farriers, that a horse may apparently re- cover from the glanders, and still communicate it to every other horse, that wears the same bridle, or eats out of the same manger. I believe, however, that the cow which has once suffered from distemper, is liable to slight annual returns of it. And it may possibly be, tliat she is only capable of communicating it during these re- turns. I have known two cows that appeared to have distemper slightly every summer. One of these was my property. This cow though appar- ently healthy, had a yellow liquid continually drib- bling from her nose, and her hair had a dead ap- pearance, even when she was fat. Suspicion of keeping up the disease among the stock, fell so heavily on her, that I caused her to be killed about four years ago; since which time I have known l)ut one case of distemper among my cattle, and that occurred a few days ago to a cow running on the exposed commons. Sonic think this whole subject so deeply myste • rious, that it is utterly useless to attempt its inves- tigation ; and others, that the land on wluch cattle have the disease, in some strange way, becomes poisoned and remains so for an indefinite period, and that there is no hope that it ever can be disin- fected. We would remind the first of these, that the small pox — v/hich has, perhaps, destroyed more of our race than any other disease — existed for two centuries in England, before any idea was formed of its laws of infection, or any rational mode of treatment discovered. The opinion of the latter is so nru^h opposed by all the operations of nature, that we could never adopt it, while any other mode of accounting for the facts could possibly be found. On the treatment of this disease I have but little to say. Some very active remedies have been re- commended, and many very trivial nostrums with the utmost confidence urged; but I have ne- ver known one of the worst cases cured by any thing When the disease appears in a mild form, the animal is disposed to eat a little, and shews no particular indisjjosition to motion. Eut the symp- tom, on which I have chiefly placed my hopes of recovery, is the character of the urine ; whenever this assumes the appearance of a solution of coppe- ras, although sometimes nearly black, I expect recovery, whether the animal is physicked or not. But when the urine is bloody, I forebode speedy death, for, with this symptom, I have known no cure effected. The same symptom occurs among the cattle in Scotland, afl'ecled with the disease there called the bloody murrain, and I have from that circumstance suspected the identity of the two diseases. It is said, that the distemper among our cattle was brought here, by droves from North Carolina. Some parts of that state were settled almost entirely by a Scottish population. Is it not possil)!e, that the disease was originally imported from Scotland.'' If so let us call it the murrain — for I have long disliked to hear it called the Caro- lina distemper, as the use of that name seemed to imply a reproach on our very respectable sister state. In Scotland, for the murrain, they recom- mend strong saline drenches, boiled milk, and other articles calculated to produce great thirst, hoping, by afterwards allowing copious draught of water, so to attenuate the blood, as to change the character of the urine. From such remedies, how- ever, I would expect nothing in the distemper of our cattle. Were I to recommend any thing with this indication, it would be some cheap diu- retic, in copious drenches, such as melon seed or parsley root tea. But the disease seems to take deeper hold than merely on the blood. There is derangement in all the secreting organs, the stom- ach— the liver — the kidneys, and indeed every im- portant organ is frequently gangrenous, and in one instance, I saw blood oozing through the skin, like drops of sweat, before the death of the animal. If any effectual remedies are ever discovered, they must be such as will act upon the solids. The means for prevention, promise little more than those for cure. I would judge, however, that such treatment as would contribute to the health and comfort of an animal, might enable it better to resist the contagion of disease. To this purpose. FARMERS' REGISTER— YELLOW LAMMAS WHEAT— HAY MAKING. 161 besides a sunTicicncy of wliolesome food, nothine noticed. Cows have been known lo die with syn)ptoms of distem- ()er in tiie heart of cities, while confined in close ots, and secluded from nil intercourse with other cattle. I admit this to be a fad, and feel the force of the difficulty arising from it. The solution, however, may depend on minute circumstances with which I am unacquainted. The only case of the kind, which has come under my personal ob- servation, was that of a cow, which died in three weeks after being closely confined in a lot in Rich- mond. Being ignorant of the time which may elapse between the period of exposure and of at- tack, we cannot determine that this animal did not contract the disease on her way to Richmond. Hut admitting that she took the disease after ar- riving in her lot, I know no more probable suppo- sition of the mode, than that her hay or other food had been accidentally besmeared with the saliva of some distempered animal. This, in a country, like that around Richmond, filled up with infected cattle, would appear not at all improbable. Very possibly, she was fed on food hauled to town by oxen of this description, and their driver would be apt to permit them to have access to their load. The distemper may be called a summer disease, occurring according to my observation, between the first of June and the first of December. Much the larger number of cases occur in the heat of summer, and very few, as the cold season ad- vances. This may possibly be, because there is less grazing in cold weather, and the herd of each owner is confined to itself, so that there is less op- portunity of spreading thedi.sease in winter. But, a tendency to peculiar prevalence at some particu- lar season of the year, is a characteristic of, per- haps, every infectious disease, in man or beast. Whether the period between exposure and attack is limited as in most infectious diseases, or without limit, as in hydrophobia, is a question unsettled. It is very certain, that hot weather operates pow- erfully in exciting the virus to action. From my observation, I would judge the period, between ex- posure and attack, to be, within the limit of three or four weeks, and that an animal having escaped for this length of time, is in no danger until a fresh exposure. A large number, howevej-, of those exposed, escape entirely, or have the disease so mildly that it is not perceived. The object of this communication is chiefly to excite inquiry. If it should be found on farther investigation that the disease owes its continued existence to those animals solely, which have been subjects of it — then there would he hope of exter- minating it, liy removing from our farms, every one on which suspicion could possiiily rest, and supplying their places, by an entirely new stock. The custom now is, to place a higher value on those cattle which ha^■e recovered from the disease. Vol. 1—21 under the inqnession that such will enjoy a future immunity from its attacks. This may long be the case, in cities and villages, where a family rarely keeps more than one cow. But surely no farmer would desire to keep an animal, whatever might be its intrinsic value, couki he once clearly ascertain, that it carried about it, a poison capable of perpetuating such a disca.sc among his stock. A. B. Oi VRI.LOW LABIMAS WHEAT, AND HAYMAKING; To the Editor of the Farmers^ Res^isltr. Sin, — I hail the appearance of your neat and well filled journal, as one of the cheap and effi- cient means of disseminating information, and, of gradually correcting the unprofital)lo management and slovenly culture among us Farmers. It liaS [jiobably been owing to the wantof such journals, that attempts to get up and keep alive Agricultu- ral Societies have proved abortive, in so many in- stan(es in this state. It seems to me, that a perio- dical destined to be as deservedly popular as yours, could not fail in efforts to revive and keep up one Common, and sundry Auxiliary Societies. And would they not have as salutary an effect up- on your paper, as it would have upon them.'' Of the advantages of this reciprocal action, you are better qualified to speak than I am. In the pr'^sent comparatively low slate of Agri- culture in Virginia, it is proper that we should seek a knowledge of the improvements that have been made both at home and abroad — and commu- ni( ate, for the public benefit, whatever, in oui* own practice, may be thought usefiil. I trust that your call for communications, and for a free and generous interchange of o[)inions, will not be un- heeded. I avail myself of your invitation to do so, and ask of some of your readers to inform me where I can procure about fifty bushels of seed wheat, of the kind cultivated in Virginia some thirty years ago, and called YELLOW LAMMAS WHEAT. It was a favorite with many persons. Mr. Richards who hiid long experience in the mil- ling business in Richmond, thought it greatly preferable to any of the new sorts to which it has so generally given place, — the cultivation of it has been abandoned probably by many persons, more from the love of change and of new Ihinga, than from a careful comparison with other varieties. — » All that I know of it myself, is, that a judicious Farmer in Amherst never could be persuaded to try any other kind, and that his crops were better than his neighbors'. But he has been dead more than twenty years, and I have not ascertained whether or not the family have " kept in tiie seed.'* It is a bad practice, too hastily to give up old things for new ones, without properly testing their comparative merits. Among the wheats of " oldea time," the purple straw has retained so much favor as not to have been discarded. I am a young Farmer ; but I am old enough in the business to know, that, the best and the wor- thiest men, and some of the most intelligent minds, are frequently deceived by false theories and ar-* (lent sanguine temperaments. If this remark should i)e thoiigiit more ])eculiariy applicable {o Politicians, Pliysicians and Metaphysicians; yet, it may ho. too f)ftcn justly applied to Farmers. — Hence it is, that scientific researches and de- 162 FARMERS' REGISTER— INFLUENCE OF THE MOON. velopements in rural economy, are received with so much jealousy by the mass of cultivators. And hence, my dear sir, the propriety, (if tlie general good be the object,) of writers for such a journal as yours, signing their names to what they reconi ■ mend to others. I speak generally ; for, in some cases, it may be both improper and unnecessary fo do so. Tuition in the school of experience is much dearer than in the school of books — still they mutually aid each other ; for, the lessons of the one are learned as soon again with, as without, those of the other. Every one will acknowledge the aptness and truth of your remark, tliat "spec- ulative opinions, or pieces merely argumentative, require not the authority of names to give them character : they carry with them their own truth and force, or their fallacy and weakness." The article you have copied from the London Farmers' Journal, and your own remarks ON HAY MAKING, induce me to offer to your readers a suggestion on that subject which is the result of costly experi- ence. 1 lost two fine crops of clover hay, by at- tempting to cure it up too green ; and I have had some herds grass injured in the same way. To avoid similar losses I now put up the hay in very tall cocks, and as small at the bottom as they can be made. In the commencement of this practice I found that the wind, when strong, blew off near- ly one third of the hay, and that it was, conse- quently, much damaged by rain or by too much sun — to remedy this, I now use skewers, about the size of the Avrist, and from five to seven feet long, sharpened at both ends. The hay ought to be put into cocks the same day it is cut, and as soon as it falls, or becomes limber and tough. — If the weather be warm and the atmosphere dry, they may be doubled the same day. When the cocks rise five feet high, the skewer may be run into the top and pressed down eighteen inches or two feet. Around the part of the skewer which rises above the cock, more hay may be put in the manner of stacking ; and in finishing off the cock, the masses of hay delivered by the fork should be put on the top of the skewer and be pressed down, as long as any can be made to stay. The little stack will then be in the form of a sugar loaf; and its diameter so small that no injury need be ap- prehended from over heating. Tlie most conve- nient fork to be used is that which has four crook- ed steel prongs and a spadelike handle. It is en- tirely unnecessary to scatter the hay about the f round to cure it, as is the common practice. — V"hen the crop is very heavy, the swaths may be doubled or trebled after a few hours sun, and somewhat loosened up by the fork in doing it. Herds grass ought not to be cut until the seed are nearly ripe — say when the heads begin to turn brown. The same remark applies to clo- ver— allowing only a third (or the old heads) to get brown. The cocks of any grass, except clover, put up in the manner I have described will remain unin- jured until the heavy rains of the lidl set in ; and then they only become damaged at the bottom. It is a great convenience, at so busy a season of the year, to cure a crop of hay so expeditiously ; and then, to be enabled to leave it in the field without risk until other crops are disposed of — The skewers may be eitlier of split timber or of the young growth in the woods. They ought to be preserved from year to year. The great ad- vantage of using them cannot fail to strike the mind of every reflecting, practical Farmer. — A little experience will teach him how to make his cocks so as to prevent their capsizing or lean- ing one way or another. Clover hay may be cured in this way ; but it cannot be safely trusted out too long ; for, when cured, the rain passes through it readily and de- stroys it. Yet, when raised into very tall cocks, by means of the skewer, it may be brought to so sharp an apex, that it will turn rain pretty well. This mite of practice is cheerfully offered ; and I shall thank any gentleman for a similar one, that will be as useful to me. After my personal respects, I offer you my hearty wishes for the success of the Farmers' Re- gister. C. "W. GOOCH. Airfield , Henrico, July 6, 1833. From the Genesee Farmer. Infiiieiice of tlie Moon, On the influence of the Moon upon the Seasons, BY M. OLBERS. The Moon acts upon the Earth in a manner cer- tain and demonstrable; for it enlightens our nights, it draws the Earth a little from its elliptic orbit, it occasions a small oscillation in the Earth's axis, it produces the flux and reflux of the sea, and an analogous but less motion in the atmos- phere. But it has been the general opinion of mankind, from time immemorial, that beside these demonstrable effects, the Moon, according to its different phases, exercises a considerable influ- ence upon the weather, upon the health of man- kind, upon animals, upon vegetation, and on che- mical operations. Experience alone can throw light upon this subject ; for it is possible that the Moon may have an influence upon our atmosphere, produced by the different forces of attraction which it exercises at different times — and also by its liglit. Long and well conducted experiments have completely refuted such hypotheses; they have proved, that neither the lunar phases nor the situation of the Moon with respect to the Sun and Earth, have scarcely any influence upon the wea- ther, for no fixed relation whatever can be disco- vered between them, notwithstanding the vast number of trials and observations which have been made for a great number of years. The re- sults deduced from one series of meteorological ob- servations, are always contradicted by another se- ries ; we cite for example, Howard, who believed he had discovered that the barometer rose most frequently in the quadratures, and that its fall was most common in the syzigies. Cotte, on the con- trary, to whom meteorology is much indebted, and who commenced in order to confirm the re- mark of Howard, afterwards found by twenty years observation, that the barometer was the highest at the time of the new Moons, and lowest at the time of the full Moons. Lalande and La- mark have drawn from their observations the most opposite results, respecting the effects of the Moon in her passage by the plane of the equator. But a decisive proof of the small influence of the Moon appears to me to result from this circum- stance, that this influence by whatever forces it may be produced, known or unknown, ought to be the greatest possible between the tropics ; how- FARMERS' REGISTER— INFLUENCE OF THE MOON. 168 ever, in the equatorial regions, not a trace of it can be found. In these countries, the heat, the rain, the winds, &c., all depend on the distance of the Sun from the zenith of the place, without any regard to the situation or the phases of the Moon. We may be yet more convinced of the smallness of this influence, if we reflect that the most op- posite weather, in different parts, takes place at the same instant of time, and consequently, under the same lunar phase. This fact is determined, with the greatest evidence, by the accounts of the Aveather Avhich we receive from different places during the time of our eclipse. 31. Bode, for ex- ample, has collected the remarks made during the time of the solar eclipse which happened on the 18th November, 1816 ; where we perceive a strange mixture of good and bad weather, with- out any respect to order, spread during this day, through a great part of Europe. Professor Bran- des having compared with great lal)or, but in a very instructive manner, the variation of the wea- ther which took place over a great part of the Earth's surface in 1783, found no relation between it and the lunar phases ; and if a variation in the wea- ther appeared to coincide with these phases in any one country, no variations, or opposite variations, took place in other countries. Tiie periods of eighteen and of nineteen years, make no discoveiy of any sensible analogy in the variations of the wea- ther, during the years equally distant from these intervals. Some have pretended to have remarked sensible effects j)roduced by the rising of the Moon, and by her culmination ; l)ut the phenomena cited by them, either do not prove this influence, or are not accurate. Several of our mariners also hold that the full Moon, when rising, dissipates the clouds; but this prejudice owes its origin to the circum- stance, that the clouds commonly disappear during a tranquil evening, and consequently also at the rising of the Moon, according to a very just re- mark of M. Brandes. The pretended observa- tion that a storm cannot approach from the zenith at the time of full Moon, contradicts itself; for tlie electric cloud which is at the horizon of one place, is at the zenith of another place not many miles distant. But in asserting that the lunar influence upon the season is extremely weak, and that it is nearly lost among the other causes which produce a variation in the weather, we are not certain that the Moon does not produce some little effect. Let us see what the theory seems to indicate. The Moon and Sun produce, twice in twenty four hours iifty minutes, a flux and reflux, both in the ocean and in the atmosphere : these motions vary with the phases of the Moon ; they are the strongest in the new and full Moons, and the weakest in the first and last quarters. Let us suppose, for exam- ple, that the tides of the atmosphere produce a change of .0354 of an inch in the height of the barometer, in syzigies ; it will produce only half that variation in the quadratui-es. Now, though these effects are so weak, it is not impossible but that the strong tides at the new and full Moon may dispose the atmosphere to receive considerable mo- tion. We dare not therefore, declare as absolute- ly false, the observations which some philosophers pretend to have made, namely, that more storms happen at the time of new and full Moon, than at the time of the quadratures. It is the same with respect to the passage of the Moon through the equator, and through the perigee ; at these times it may act as an exciting cause, although no vio- lent motion be produced by it in the atmosphere. The Moon may also have an influence upon the variation of the weather, in an indirect manner ; that is, by the motion of the waters of the ocean, at least upon some coasts. It is true that in the open sea, the height of the tides never exceeds three or four feet ; but upon the coasts, in bays, and narrow channels, the rise of the tides is much more considerable. At Brest, for example, it rises more than twenty feet, and at Bristol more than fifty. Ought not the motion of these large masses of water to occasion some variations in the atmos- phere, especially as they appear to have a small influence on the electricity of the air? The inha- bitants of the sea coast believe it to be a fact, that the changes in the weather, and the force and di- rection of the wind and clouds, depend on the tides. We may here observe, that the tides of the ocean, and those of the atmosphere, do not happen at the same instant, tliough both are produced by the Sun and Moon, and both have the same period. The air being easily moved, and not being hinder- ed by any obstacle, instantly obeys the attractive force of the IMoon ; but the w'aters of the ocean are more taidy in obeying this force. On this ac- count, the atmosplieric tides immediately follow the passage of the Moon over the meridian ; but high water in the open sea, does not take place till three hours afterwards; and on coasts and in bays, it happens still later. It is possible then, that the mediate and immediate effects of the Moon upon the atmosphere, in some places, mutually destroy each other ; and this is perhaps the cause why the as- tronomer Horsehy at Oxford could not perceive in the English observations any relation between the weather and the phases of tlie Moon ; while Toal- do at Padua believed that he could distinguish the IMoon's influence in the observations made during fifty years by Poleni. Now though I w'ould not deny but that the results deduced from observa- tions by Toaldo might be partly true for the cli- mate of Italy, I must still observe that from the great number of exceptions to his rules, he was himself convinced that the lunar influence was extremely small. A series of experiments for many years has convinced me, that in our climate, where the weather is subject to xnore considerable and more numerous variations, the rules of Toaldo are entirely wrong. For example, on the 7th of December, 1813, the full Moon coincided with the perigee, and two days after the Moon had its greatest northern declination ; so that from the principles of Toaldo, the lunar influence ought to have been the greatest possible ; but notwith- standing all this, there was not any sensible change in the weatlier. I believe then that I have demon- strated that the influence of the Moon upon the weather is so small that it is totally lost among the infinite number of other forces and causes which change the equilibrium of our very moveable at- mosphere. The influence of the Moon upon the weather, and upon the atmosphere, being so in- sensible, we are entitled very much to suspect its pretended influence either upon men, animals, or plants. In fact, it is all of it due to illusion and prejudice. It is evident that the duration of the period of some phenomena exhibited by man in health, agree only nearly, and never exactly, with tlie lunai'. revolutions; and that these pheuomeoa 154 FARMERS' REGISTER— EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. show themselves under every phase of the Moon, not only in persons of the same age and of the same constitution, but also in the same individual. This alone is sufficient to show that the Moon has no influence, and all modern physicians are agreed on this point. I have little faith in the observation of Sandori- us, namely : that men in health gain one or two pounds in weight at the commencement of the month, and that they lose as much towards the end. In the same manner, observations made with the greatest care have induced me to doubt very much the remark cited by the poet LuciLius, and often since repeated, namely : that lobsters, oysters, and other shell fish, are fatter while the Moon is on the increase, than when she is decreas- ing. A very little attention will convince us of the nullity of this assertion ; especially if we can but credit the remarks made by tlie able physi- cian, Mohaidt. I have the greatest confidence in the very careful experiments made by the celebra- ted agriculturists, Laquinierie, Nardmann, Reich- ard and Hartenfds ; also by the great naturalists Suffon and Reaumur ; who proved distinctly that the increase or decrease of the Moon had no influ- ence, either upon the germination of seeds, or up- on the increase of plants, or upon the rapidity of their developement, or upon their quality. I have also much dilficulty in believing that the light of the Moon produces a particular effect different from that of any other light. The experiments made in Rome in 1783 by jithan. Cavallon, and repeated by Bertholon de Saint-Lazare, prove nothing respecting lunar light augmenting evapo- ration ; in the same manner I assert that those of Weitz made Avith potash at Lautenberg, prove nothing respecting the lunar rays drawing forth humidity. If in South America and Batavia, they Lave such a dread of Moonlight, I should attribute the pretended pernicious effects said to be produc- ed, more to the humidity of the air, and to the coldness of the nights, than to the effect of any in- fluence of the Moon. Bontius observed the teta- nus to take place at Java most frequently during* the night, in the rainy season ; and he expressly remarked, that the two terrible diseases so fre- quent in the East Indies, namely, the cholera morbus and the dysentery, most frequently took place during the rainy months of summer. The celebrated Reil observes that sailors have become incapable of supporting day-light from having slept exposed to the light of the Moon. I have however never heard from our sailors any complaint of this kind. M. Reil also asserts that children sleep less tranquilly when the Moon is on the increase. Having had no experience on this subject, I can- not speak decidedly as to the truth of it ; but in any case we could explain it without having re- course to the influence of the Moon. I should be glad to know if painters have really remarked that the feeble light of the moon has an effect upon their colors, as they have pretended it has.* In a word, experience does not prove any particular in- fluence of the Moon's phases upon animal organi- zation ; and the theory given by R. Mead is ab- * JsTote by Ihe French Translator. — Experiments made at the Royal Observatory at Paris, have proved that the light of the Moon, condensed by a very poweriul lens, had no effect whatever in altering chemical products, though very sensibly and easily alTected by the light of ihe sun. soliitely false. I can positively assert that I have always been attentive to this subject, Avith respect to sick persons, during the long time that I have practiced Medicine, and that I never perceived any relation between the courses of the Moon and my patients, or between their symptoms and the means of effecting cures. Neither have I remarked any influence of the lunar phases, either on dis- eases caused by worms, or dropsy, tumors, or even on epileptic diseases; I will not however, deny, contrary to so many ancient observations, but that the Moon may have some influence in parti' cular diseases. Among all the instruments we can employ in order to detect natural agents otherwise impercep- tible, the most sensible, as Laplace has very pro- perly observed, are the nerves, the sensibility of which is often increased by disease. It is by means of the nerves that some sick persons are able to perceive the influence of the Moon in par- ticular situations, that influence being so extreme- ly small. It may also be this circumstance, perhaps, which has discovered to physicians that there is a relation between the lunar phases and the access of epilepsy and insanity. I dare not decide wheth- er we are to explain in this manner the remarks made by Diemcrhrceck and Remuzzini, respecting the pestilential fevers which raged in the years 1636, 1692, 1693 and 1694. It coidd however be owing to nothing but accident that so many per- sons affected with fever died during the time of lunar eclipse which happened on the 21st of Janu- ary, 1693. The influence of the moon upon the crisis of diseases taught by Galen, and defended so long in the schools of medicine, is contradicted by experieiace, at least in Europe; and if Balfour be right in asserting that there is a connection be- tween the tides and the access of endemic fevers in India, and that the crisis of fevers happens but at the moment when the luni-solar action begins to decrease, we can only so far agree with him, that this effect only takes place near the sea-coast. In general, we must read those authors who refer so many things to the effects of the IMoon on diseases, with considerable distrust. It is here, as in many cases of reverie — we only see it when webelieve it. A belief in this influence can only deceive the ob-^ server, who, otherwise fond of truth, shares this belief with the sick person; and thus it is that hope and fear excite in the imagination, effects to which the Moon does not in any way contribute. Thus also it was in fbrmer times. People in gene- ral, were afraid of eclipses of the Sun and Moon, and believed that these phenomena exercised cer- tain pernicious influences over sick persons and persons possessed of weak nerves; now absolutely no sick person perceives the effect, and the phy- sicians pay no attention to it. Experiments in Feeding". From the Transactions of the High)and Society. Report of Experiments on the comparative advan- tages of deeding Stock with Mangel- Wurtzel, Turnips and Potatoes. By Mr. Andrew HowDicN, Lawhead, East Lothian. In compliance with your wish, I now send you the results of an experiment which I have been con- ducting during the past winter, and in which nian- gel-wurtzel has been used to the extent of two FARMERS' REGISTER— EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 165 acres — partly by itself, and more extensively as a mixture with ruta baga and potatoes, in feeding- cattle. Having been in the practice of cultivating annually from one to three acres of mangel-wurtzel for ten or twelve years past, during which I had read and heard much on the subject of its value, compared with turnips and potatoes, and observing that the Highland Society were making this an object of interest, I resolved to attempt something Avhich would satisly myself upon a subject which I considered of importance ; and with the intention also of communicating to the Highland Society the results of my experiment, should I be able to de- duce any thing seemingly useful from it. With this end in view, I set about planting three Scotch acres of good, dry, free land, with mangel-wurtzel of the red sort, six pounds to the acre. The land had been previously occupied by a crop of oats after hay, upon which a full dressing of sea-weed was laid. It was deeply ploughed in autumn, and got two spring furrows, the last across. On the after- noon of the 16th of May, I began planting the seed in the following manner : — I'he land was ridged in the same way as for turnip, and in the drills were spread from eighteen to twenty tons of good farm yard dung. Immediately upon the dung be- ing covered by the plough, the drill barrow was regulated so that its coulters should leave an open cut of about two and a half inches deep. Into this the seed (which had been steeped in lime water a week before) was put, at a foot distance. Much attention ought to be paid to putting in the seed. The length of the drill being measured, the women who are to plant should have equal shares of the distance laid otf, the shorter the stretches the bet- ter, as a plain roller should instantly follow to close in the earth above the seed, which ought to have been pressed into the bottom of the cut by the thumb of the planter. I repeat, that without strict attention to this, there is much chance of having an unequal braird. It is true the roots transplant like a cabbage, but I prefer the plants found in the seed row at first ; indeed a complete justification of this opinion was afforded in the pre- sent instance. On the 16th, while the laborers were engaged in the work, I attended closely to them, but business calling me from home on the morning of the 17th, I gave strict charge to a con- fidential man that he should see the work perform- ed with the same precision. Notwithstanding this injunction, there were many more blanks in the one acre planted by him, than were in the two others. Upon these blanks being filled up, the plants put in were watered with about fifteen puncheons from a cess-pool into which the wash- ings of the dung-pits run. It was applied in about equal shares two separate afternoons, and a hole having been first made by the dibble near to the plant, it received and retained a quantity of the liquid until it was gradually absorbed. Having so minutely observed upon this part of the process, I shall only mention, that the crop should be ploughed and hoed in a manner very similar to a drilled crop of turnips, — and this is now generally understood throughout Scotland. In this way did I proceed, and with such management the crop was distinguished by uncommon luxuriance. Seeing about the beginning of August that a food many of the plants were running to seed, I ad them drawn and given daily as the food of two bulls which were confined in the house. To- wards the end of harvest I began to take off the outside leaves and give them to the milch cows, by which I rather think the growth of the roots was checked. The leaves beginning to fade about the 1st of October, I daily cut completely over a regular portion of them, which were given to cows and young sheep promiscuously. On the 2nd of November, I sent a portion of the leaves to be weighed, and the land having been previously measured, I found the weight of leaves per acre, to be 10^ tons. We next proceeded to weigh a por- tion of the roots, which gave a return of twenty five tons 1 cwt. The crop was now taken up by the plough, and stored in separate acres with per- fect exactness. But I must here attempt more distinctly to bring into view the object sought for, and the manner of obtahiing it, although I am aware that a detail of facts and circumstances, drawn up by one so little accustomed to write as 1 am, is not likely to be satisfactory. The object sought for by me, then, was the knowledge whether three acres of land produce in beef would be the greatest from a crop of Swedish turnips, of mangel-wurtzel, or of potatoes. To attain this knowledge, I caused a surveyor to lay off five acres of Swedish turnips, two acres of mangel-wurtzel, and two of potatoes. It has been already slated that the mangel-wurtzel produced twenty five tons; and by the same steel- yard, the weight per acre of Swedish turnips was twenty eight tons ; while the produce of potatoes per acre was 73 balls of 4 cwt. each, or fourteen tons twelve cwt : all of which I think very full crops. The produce being stored in three separate lots, I tied up twenty one cattle of six quarters old, bred by myself, seven of which, designated No. 1, were put to consume one acre of Swedish turnips, one acre of mangel-wurtzel, and one acre of pota- toes. [The next seven, (forming lot No. 2) were( to consume one acre of potatoes and two of Swedish turnips.*] The remaining seven designated as No. 3, were to consume two acres of Swedish tur-^ nips, and one acre of mangel-wurtzel. The whole of the lots were at first allowed a few distiller's grains, and a little straw throughout. I should here remark, that only about one half of the ruta baga was taken up and stored at first; and the whole of tiie mangel-wuftzel was stored in an un-r trimmed state. It is worthy of notice, that the situation to be chosen for storing is of great consequence. I had the mangel-wurtzel intended for the feeding stock put up in separate acres, about forty feet from the feeding shed, which protected the store from the prevailing west wind. The other acre's produce, set apart for the milch cows, was built up in a separate heap, the same width at bottom as the other lots (seven feet ;) but from exposure, having only a moderate covering of straw or thatch, the roots upon the west side, towards the month of March, lost their juices, and I think their feeding quality. In other years, I have seen loss occasion- ed by too great a body of roots being heaped to- gether, when they fermented and spoiled. In following out this experiment, I have taken up an opinion, that upon good land, in an early * The sentence in brackets is not in our copy, (for which we are indebted to the Genesee Farmer,) but is required evidently by the context. — [Ed. Farm. Reg. 166 FARMERS' REGISTER— EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. situation, mangel-wurtzel can be ^rown to advan- tage, and given as a mixture of food in fattening cattle. In its use, a circumstance occurred which I shall mention. In the lot of cattle No. 2, the food of which consisted of Swedish turnips and potatoes, one of the number was often swelled to such a degree, as to make nie fear I should lose the animal. Salt and water, oil, &c., were re- peatedly used, but by no means with speedy re- lief. I directed the feeder to introduce among his food four roots of mangel-wurtzel daily. While this was continued the beast never swelled. I withdrew it and the animal became tumefied as before. I again gave back the mangel-wurtzel, and for a month there has been no appearance of swelling. Variety seems gratifying to the appe- tite of even the inferior animals, and for this rea- son a mixture of food seems preferable. The effect in the present case may not be alto- gether satisfactory, because the cattle taken to show it were not all bred from the same stock. — I must now explain, that on a measurement taken on the 30th of January, I immediately took a pair of cattle out of every seven, and confined them to one particular species of food. To one pair, lot No. 1,1 gave potatoes and water, to another j)air of lot No. 2, I gave Swedish turnips; and to an- other pair, of lot No. 3, I gave mangel-wurtzel. — I refer to the tabular statement of the monthly increase of girth, which does not indicate any great superiority ; but some good judges say the mixtures have a decided prefijrence, and, next to a mixture, the particular food of Swedish turnips is preferable. So much for fattening, and now for the dairy. I have mentioned that one acre of mangel-wurtzel was put in store for the milch cows, of which I have seven ; live of these got a very small quanti- ty to keep them fresh — the other two were allow- ed as much as they were disposed to eat. This, however, was not the case for the first ten days — as mangel-wurtzel and potatoes ought to be given at first in small quantities, for they both operate too powerfully as a purgative, and the mangel- wurtzel as a diuretic. Tiie two cows put to a full allowance, had calved at midsummer, and weie not again in calf. I wished to try if they could be fed and milked at the same time. One of them has been sold fat, and the other, I may say, is fat also — but they had draff along with the mangel-wurtzel. Their produce throughout the time lias been four Scotch pints each, per day ; this was sold at three pence per pint;* and as I have seen that without draff each cow will produce one shilling's worth of milk for every hundred weight of roots (and per- haps of leaves) consumed, in this way the milk from such a crop would realize £35 per .Scotch acre. This to me seems a startling sum — but I give the facts, as I have repeatedly seen the cows milked. As a summary of this lengthened detail, it seems to me that the food for cattle, Avhether rais- ed from the kind in the shape of Swedish turnips, potatoes or mangel-wurtzel, is not materially differ- ent, provided the crops are alike good of their kind. A less quantity and inferior quality of manure, will produce the potatoes even on land where the soil and climate are not so favorable ; but I have * A Scotch pint is equal to four English or American pints. — [Ed. Far, Reg. ever seen at the end of a rotation, the land upon which potatoes had been grown, in the worst con- dition, and to obviate this, it is of use, I think, to cultivate a variety which covers well in a drill. This is a subject to which I mean to give my at- tention this season, seeing the Society's premium offered. I now subjoin a table of the monthly increase of the several lots of cattle, and shall be glad if it is thought to contain any thing in the least useful. Table of the monthly girth of three lots — each lot amsistii gof seven beasts. o to K-J y^ Date. a:3 S ^ S o p . No re of Swe i^9 I—" I'- o i;3 &^5 05 1831-2. ^ 1. S" 1 3-S- -Food, -wurtzel h turnip toes vurtzel turnip I Food. toes, turnip Nov. 30. 35 feet 8 inches 35 feet 9 in. •65 feet 8 in. Dec. 30. 36 " 6 36 " 7 in. 36 " 6 in. Jan'y 30. 38 " 2 38 " 4 in. 38 "■ 2 in. March 1. 39 " 7 39 " 8 in. ■39 " 6 in. " 30. 40 " S 40 " lOin. 40 " 6 in. April 30. 41 " 4 41 " 7 in. 41 " 3 in. Twenty-eight tons of Swedish turnips and man- gel wurtzel withdrawn, and used for other cattle, having still in store one month's provision for tvfen- ty-one cattle, Girth of pairs of each of the above lots, put upon different food 30th of January. Date. 1832. Jan. 30. April 30. Lot No. 1. Potatoes. 10 feet 8 inc. 11 "6 inc. Lot No. 2. Swed. turnip 10 feet 5 inc. 11 feet 3 inc. Lot No. 3. mane: wurtzel 10 feet 4 inch. 11 feet 2 inch. The cattle have been sold, and the purchasers agree in opinion, that the lot of seven fed on Swe- dish turnips are from 7s. to 10s. a head better than the other lots. The average advance upon the original value of each is £6 12s. ; and the cost of grain being deducted, there remain £ 120 in re- turn for the eight acre's produce consumed. I am aware that this is liable to be doubted, in such a year ; and the produce is certainly much be- yond that of any other part of the lands possessed by me. It ought to be stated that the mangel-wurtzel was stored in an untrimmed state. When the roots and earth which adhere are taken away, the loss of weight may be greater than I imagined. In hazarding an opinion of the return which it would make in milk, I made no allowance for this, I am inclined to think, that less attention has been paid to selecting a good kind of mangel-wurt- zel than has been bestowed on either turnips or potatoes, as I noticed in the crop under this ex- periment a very striking disproportion in the weight, two or three roots weighing 10 lbs. or 12 lbs. standing together, while those adjoining could scarcelj'^ be said to have roots at all. JVote by the transcriber. — Mr. How den has omitted to state the expense of cultivating the dif- ferent crops. Although I have no correct data to supply the defect, I will state why I consider the FARMERS' REGISTER— RECLAIMING MARSH OR RUSH LAND, &c. 16? advantage decidedly in favor of the Swedish tur- nips. 1. The mangel-wurtzel and potatoes occu- py the ground the entire season ; the ruta baga does not, but may be grown upon a clover lay, af- ter the grass has been cut. 2. The mangel-wurt- zel, being sown in the spring, Avhen vegetation is tardy, does not germinate with the certainty, or grow with the same vigor that ruta baga does wlien sown at midsummer; and consequently it requires much more labor in hand weeding, and is liable to more vacancies in the drills, than the turnip : and compared with the potato, the turnip is gathered "with a fourth of the expense of the potato. Hence the turnip has the advantage of gaining a crop from the soil, and saving, in my opinion, one hall the expense of cultivation. The tops are as abun- dant and as nutritious as those of the mangel-wurt- zel, and the roots may be kept as late as either in the spring. The ruta baga has been consider- ed inferior in product in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, to mangel-wurtzel; but this I ascribe to climate. Here it is, however, a certain and abun- dant crop, on soils adapted to its culture, and with proper management. — [Gen. Far. B. Yankee Manag^cnieiit. From the Portland Advertiser. Our southern brethren are perplexed to know how it is, that they, with rich land, a warm sun, and staple productions giving an income of from four to twenty per cent., are becoming poor and cashless, while we Yankees are becoming rich, and are having money, if not in abundance, at least as much as is necessary. If they would come among us, and study our economy, the aiiswer would soon strike them. One little instance is no bad example of that Yankee economy and skill that turns all things, even the worst to advantage. It may not be generally known that in many parts of our state, our schoolmasters are not only 'boarded round,' so as to save the drawing of the pay of the schoolmaster's board fi'om the school fund — that is, the schoolmaster is boarded a week here, and three days there, according to the num- ber of children — but that the schoolmaster is of- ten 'bid off' or 'put up at auction,' as are our pau- pers— and the lowest bidder in the district takes him, as the highest bidder takes an article at a re- gular auction. The writer of this article, when preparing to be a college boy, being short of funds, and with no other means of getting money than by keeping school, hired out as schoolmaster for ten dollars a month. This was all the school district could af- ford to give, as their fund was small ; and even with this small sum given, it was necessary to board the schoolmaster as cheap as possible. The school committee, therefore called the district to- gether into a new, neat, convenient and comforta- ble school-house, and in his presence, a scene of this sort took place. Jluctioneer. — 'What will you take him for.? ' \st Bidder. — 'One dollar and twenty five cents a week.' .Auctioneer. — 'One dollar twenty five, one dol- lar twenty five.' M. Bidder. — 'One dollar twelve cents and a half 3d Bidder.— 'One dollar.' Auctioneer. — 'One dollar, who'll take him for less than one dollar.? One dollar, one dollar, any body less.? — Who speaks.?' Ath Bidder. — 'Seventy five cents.' 5th Bidder. — 'Seventy cents.' And thus the bids went on, the auctioneer ex- clamiing as usual in the mean time, till the school- master was bid off at forty cents per week ! Yes, the lov/est bidder took him on board for forty cents per week. On going home with this bidder, a sociable, happy man, whose house had more com- forts and luxuries than nine-tenths of the houses of the rich planters in the interior of the southern country, and whose table was as good as many sit down at, paying fourteen dollars a week for board, the writer held the following dialogue: • How on earth can you afford to board me for forty cents a weekr' j^ns. — 'I make money by it, and have your company in the bargain.' 'How so.?' 'Why, you will board with me fourteen weeks. The whole pay for board will be %5 60. My tax- es are a little over six dollars. Now, I have bread enough, moat enough, poultry enough, ci- der enough — in short, enough and more than enough of every thing necessary to eat and drink. I have enough of every thing but money. All I want of money is to pay my taxes. But, in order to raise these six dollars, if I do not get a town order for your board, I must nmke a journey to Portland or Bath, Avith three times the produce you will eat, and from all this I find it difficult to raise six dollars in cash. Therefore, I make mo- ney by keeping you to eat this produce, and have your company these long winter evenings in the bargain. Thus you see I am interested m board- ing you even at forty cents a week.' Now, we give this to all our southern brethren, as a specimen of the manner in which we Yan- kees live and thrive. Let them do likewise, and their country will be the richest and happiest on the globe. Here we are shivering in summer, with corn but three inches high to the most, while they are enjoying the blessings of mid-summer, and have corn almost ready for harvest. From the Southern Agriculturist. PRACTICAI. OBSERVATIONS ON THE RECLAIM- ING OF MARSH OR RUSH LAND, PUTTING DOWN TRUNKS IN THESE LANDS AND PRE- PARING THE LAND FOR THE SEED I hv Q. Mr. Editor, — It is one of those gloomy depres- sing days, which induce Englishmen to throw themselves into the Thames, and Frenchmen to re- sort to the gambling table, but as neither of these resources suit my taste, I have determined to kill the day, and not myself, by asking you a question or two, and communicating to you a few facts, the result of my own observation. How does it happen, sir, that the subjects which head this article, so important in themselves, and so essential to the success of those who begin their agricultural life in new lands, are so seldom no- ticed and so little understood.? Is there a lack of intelligence among our rice planters which prevents them from communicating to you the result of their experience, or is it an un- willingness t})at others should profit by their labor? Is there no new land to be brought under culti- vation.? or is the subject, one of so little importance as not to need elucidation .? It will not be assuming any vpry great respon- 168 FARMERS' REGISTER— RECLAIMING MARSH OR RUSH LAND. sibility to answer tliese questions in the negative. Among no class of our citizens, is there more ur- banity and refinement, more talent and informa- tion, a less disposition to serrccy and mystery in their avocations; it is needless to add, that there is no scarcity or deficiency of land to be reclaimed. Within a few years, several hundred acres have been subdued and made productive on Cooper ri- ver. Mt. Myrick, (on tlio estate of Col. Harles- ton,) Mr. Carson and Mr. John Huger, have each added largely to the arable land on that river. Have not the community a claim ujwn each and every one of these gentlemen for inlbrmation on this subject.' A detailed account of the process by which they have made fertile and productive, lands •which were barren and unproductive, will be val- uable to their successors, and posterity certainly have some claim upon us to repay in part the ob- ligations imposed by our ancestors. Each of these gentlemen have embanked large quantities of land, and the information they could communicate would be valuable in proportion to the extent of their ope- rations, for errors are more easily detected, and improvements more easily suggested, under these circumstances than v^hen we are limited and con- fined in our movements. I have reclaimed two fields, Ml". Editor, and although my experience and information is much more limited than that possessed by the gentlemen already named, yet, I will give you an account of the means adopted, and hope to correct the errors which no doubt I have committed, when others better qualified than myself shall communicate with you on the subject. The first stop in the pro- cess was, to clean up on tlie margin of the river, a space about twenty feet wide around the whole field, so that at low water 1 could walk over the ground, and select the site or foundation upon which the bank was to be raised. To determine upon the spot would not appear dilficult, yet upon no point has there been a greater diversity of opinion, than upon the best position for the bank. Our fathers thought a wide margin essential to a good bank ; some that the width of the margin gave strength and stability to it; others that it only afforded an ample supply of materials to keep the bank in or- der after it was made, thus differing as to 'how,' 'why,' or 'wherefore,' but all agreeing as to the fact that wide margins were essential. This theo- ry, (for it is nothing more) was in practice carried to a great extreme ; thirty acres and more of a plantation of two hundred acres being frequently left in marsh for the purpose of repairing banks. But, Mr. Editor, our fathers lived in times of large crops and high prices and little expenditure ; carriages were not so essential to the wives of those days, and King-street did not present so many at- tractions to the daughters of those excellent old gentlemen. Necessity has sharpened the wits of jeir sons, and they Qifter much reflection and nu- merous experiments) have determined that nar- row margins make tighter banks than wide ones, and that thirty or forty acres of river-swamp is more valuable under bank and ditch, than as re- ceptacles for black-birds and their broods. That banks made near the river are more tight and com- pact than those erected at a distance from it, is an opinion, daily becoming more prevalent, and the reasonableness of the thing is so evident, that we are surprised it should have remained to be disco- vered in our day and generation. The rice lands, (I allude to those on Cooper ri- ver) are for the most part light, and composed of vegetable matter, Avhich has for ages been accu- mulating, and is now entirely decayed. Tiie foun- dation of these lands is clay, but it will take a long course of cultivation to bring us to the foun- dation, if (as we all believe) the deposits from the river return nearly as much both to the quality and quantity of the soil as is taken from it by cul- ture. So very light are these lands when first re- claimed, that they yield, to the pressure of any con- siderable weight, and will form hollows or low spots where such pressure is continued. The weight of a river bank, (such as are made on Coop- er river) is very great, and place it where you will the eartli settles, and the tendency of the wa- ter is to lay at the bottom or foundation of it. If this is allowed to continue, both the bank and the foundation upon which it stands becomes sobbed and rotten, and the bank, of course, is liable to all the casualties which necessarily attend weak bar- riers opposed to strong forces. Under these cir- cumstances, there are many advantages resulting from narrow margins, which will present them- selves to the experienced planter. The land is al- ways more firhi and strong as you approach the river than as you recede from it, irt'consequence of the drain which the ebbing of the tide affords that portion of the land. But if the water does accu- mulate (or pond, to use a plantation phrase) about the base of the bank, it is, with great facility drained off. I have heard it urged by those who prefer wide margins, that it is easy to ditch the margin and thus rid ourselves of the evil while we retain the good. If this was true, it would be an answer to my objections only on one point: it would still remain to be proved, that the increased security which the planter enjoys, is such as to compensate him for the abandonment of a sixth or eighth of his rice-land. But it is not easy to ditch a wide margin and keep the ditches open; no man who has attempted it will contradict me, the con- tinual ebb and flow of the tide, the deposits of the river added to the trash always found on the mar- gin, fill up these ditches almost as fast as they can be cleaned, and no attention, (shoi-t of the daily use of the spade) will prevent their filling up. I might exemplify this remark in a variety of ways and by numberless instances, but one will be sufficient. Remove a trunk from your river bank, and fill up the gap in the bank, leaving the outside dock open; in a short time deposits commence, and before much time has elapsed, the margin is formed and the excavation is obliterated. But it is useless for me to say more on this subject ; it is folly to reason against established facts. Let me not be misunder- stood; I speak of banks with narrow margins, not of banks without margins, though I do acknowl- edge that one of the best banks I have ever seen had little or no margin to it. A margin of ten, fifteen or twenty feet will prove ample for all the purposes of security , and the mud found between this and low water mark, will afford abundant materials for keeping up the banks after it is once made. In addition to all this, we may add, that every field will present irregulari- ties and corners, which (the bank being kept straight) will be left out, and thus add to the means of repairing damages and accidents. Having sa- tisfied myself that a narrow margin is to be prefer- red and made a careful examination of the site FARMERS' REGISTER— CLOVER HAY. 169 upon which the bank is to be raised, and placed stakes at a width of twelve feet from each other, around the whole space which had been cleared ol marsh, rush, &c. the earth within the range of these sticks, including marsh and rush roots, logs, stumps, &c. to the depth of a foot, was carefully taken out and removed to a distance, leaving me an excavation composed of mud remarkable lor its adhesiveness and tenacity. This excavation is a substitute for the "centre ditch," which our pre- decessors thought so essential to a good bank, and it is found to answer quite as well, and is accom- plished with comparatively little labor. IMud from below the margin free from all roots, was now brought, and the excavation made as the bottom of the bank was filled up to a level with the surface of the field. So soon as this was accomplished around the whole track, the process was repeated and the bank was raised about a foot, which is higher than common tides will rise on new land ; a third course of a foot more Avill put the bank in a safe condition for a time. But new banks settle very much, and it will be necessary to raise them frequently ; this was soon evident in my own, and I put down a small temporary trunk to enable the water to drain and the river ditch to be cut, for from this source the dirt to complete the bank is derived. From the foot of the bank at the distance of thirty feet, I laid out my river ditch five feet wide and four deep, and proceeded to cut it, each man throw- ing out with ease six hundred square feet of earth, or thirty feet in length of this ditch. The addition of this earth to my bank put it, (to use a homely expression) out of harm's way, and left me quite at ease on the subject, under all circumstances, and times, and tides. I omitted to state that in the raising of my bank, two women with a hand-barrow will raise thirty feet of bank in length, one foot high in the tide ; at least, this was the task allotted, and it seldom failed to be accomplished. The field was now laid out in half acres, begin- ning at one end and proceeding to the other length- ways, and at each half acre a ditch, three feet wide and thr^e deep was cut; the ditch was not included in the half acre, but was purposely excluded from it. This is a convenient mode of laying out the land, as it enables you to apportion the task to the laborer with facility and exactness. The ditches Avere cut running with the width and not with the length of the field, as land always drains better, the shorter the distance the water has to travel. The earth from these ditches was used to fill up creeks, low places, &c. and the land was now rea- dy for cultivation so far as banks and ditches could prepare it. But I have occupied so much more of your time and patience, Mr. Editor, on one part of my sub- ject than I had anticipated, that it will be best to postpone what I have to say of trunks, and the pre- paration of land, for another paper. I remain your well wisher, Q. E. D. Clover Hay. From the Genesee Farmer. As the season for making clover hay has arrived, we would respectfully recommend, to those who follow the old method of spreading the swath, a fair trial, though it be on a small scale, of the me- thod of curmg this grass altogether in swath and Vol. 1—22 cock. We can assure those who distrust this prac- tice, that they will not only find in it a manifest saving of lal:or, but a great improvement in their fodder. And in speaking of clover, we include all grass in which red clover constitutes a third or more of the crop. Wc will briefly state our pro- cess, and then the reasons, which we think, nay, which we know, entitle it to a preference over the old method. The mowers commence cutting, if convenient, when the dew is off the grass, in the morning, of a fair day, and may continue till sundown. At two or three P. M. one or more laborers proceed to cock the grass from the swatli. For this purpose tliree swaths are assigned for a row of grass cocks. The grass is collected with the forks, and placed on dry ground, in as small a compass as convenient at the base, say two to three feet in diameter, and to the height of four or five fiset, terminating in a cone or point. In good weatlier all that is cut be- fore twelve, or two o'clock, is fit to put into grass cocks the same day. That which is cut later in the day, may lay in the swath till eleven or two the next day, when it may also be cocked. The grass may stmd in these cocks till the third day, when, if the weather is fair, the cocks may be opened at nine or ten, and, when necessary, the hay turned over about mid-day, and at three or four thrown into piles for the cart. The hay is then made J and there is scarcely a leaf or blossom wasted. The advantages of this over the old method, are, 1. The labor of spreading from the swath, is saved. 2. The use of the hand rake may be dispensed with, if the horse rake is used to glean the field when the hay is taken off — tlie forks sufficing to collect it tolerably clean in the cocking process. 3. It is not liable to be seriously injured by rains — for these cocks, if rightly constructed, — (not by rolling) will sustain a rain of several days, that is, they have done this repeatedly, without material injury from heating or becoming wet. And if the grass is in swath, it is too green to sustain damage. Though in the latter case, it is our practice, when wet in the swath, to shake and spread the grass, to free it from the water, and to put it in grass cocks as soon as it will do. 4. The hay made in this way may be almost in- variably housed in good condition; and if rains in- tervene after the grass is cut, its quality is infinite- ly superior to what it would be under the old pro- cess of curing. The rationale is simply this ; to convert grass in- to hay, it is only necessary to get rid of the surplus moisture, which can only be effected by evapora- tion. Exposed to a fervid sun the leaves and blos- soms of clover dry and crumble to powder ere the stem is sufBciently cured; hence, to preserve the first, which are the finer parts of the hay, all the parts must dry alike. This is effected in the cock ; where an equalization of moisture takes place, as in a pile of wetted paper, for the printing press, and where evaporation progresses. The exterior of the stem and the leaves, are partially dried in the swath; and what is called sweating, is merely the passage of the excess of moisture in the sucu- lent stems, to restore the equilibrium to the sur- face. When this has taken place, evaporation is greatly facilitated on exposure to the sun and winds. Too long an exposure, when the cocks are 170 FARMERS' REGISTER— VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. opened, should be guarded against. The drying process is continued after the hay is gathered lor the cart, and until it is deposited in the barn. Fine Stock. The public are under many obligations to Mr. Corbin Warwick of this city for his several exer- tions, to improve the breed of our stock. Exclu- sive of the cattle and sheep, which he purchased at Mr. Meade's sale in Frederick, he has just re- ceived from England by the Lady Anne Ellis at Norfolk — two bulls and a cow, of the best British breeds. The bulls are yearlings, and noble look- ing animals they are of that age — one is the sliort- horned, Durham stock, roan color, excellent for the dairy and for beef The other is of the Here- ford breed, titted for the draft as well as for beef The latter is larger with a remarkable dewlap and breast, and big head with his curling hair, red with white face, &c. The heifer is a two year old, a beautiful creature of the Durban stock — and she is alieady with calf — she was bulled on the 21st October last, by Maggot of famous lineage — his pedigrees are before us, prepared by the Rev. Henry Berry — and one of the dams was a 14quai"t cow. In truth, Mr. W. has been supplied with the genealogy of all the cattle* — and it appears they are all of the best blood. They arrived in this ci- t}' in the Patrick Henry on Thursday night — and will be removed to his farm on the James River. When we consider the high reputation, wliich the Durham and the Hereford breeds bear — and the great expense of bringing them to this country — the three estimated at near ^2000, we cannot "but ofFeT our thanks to Mr. AV. for the enterprising spirit which he displays in these attempts to im- prove our stock. — {^Richmond Enquirer, July 2. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Extract from the Foreign Quarterly Review, for 1833. First period of nutrition. — This comprises the introfluction of the food into the plant. As vege- tables do not possess the power of locomotion, it is necessary that their food siiould be so generally dif- fused in nature, that they shall run no risk of pe- rishing from their inability to search for it. Now it is a fundamental principle in vegetable physio- logy, that every thing capable of being imbibed into the tissue must previously be brought to a state of solution ; but water is present every where in the earth, and in the atmosphere, and the ma- terial which constitutes the chief food of plants is carbonic acid, which is almost constantly to be found dissolved in all water. The root is the only true absorbing organ of this nourishment; for al- though, under certain circumstances, the leaf and some other organs may be made to absorb mois- ture, these are not to be considered as the organs originally destined for the introduction of food, any more than the pores in the skin of animals, which possess a like property, may be considered as their mouths. Neither is it by the whole sur- face of the root that this absorption takes place, but only through the " spongioles," v.hich are small expansions of cellular tissue situated at their extremities. It is not clearly ascertained, Avhether the force which regulates the absorption of the spon- gioles is wholly vital, or w hether it is the result of a vital action, in combination with the hygroscopic *For which, see No. 2 Farmers' Register, p. 127-S. property of the cellular tissue. De CandoUe had formerly attributed this action of the spongioles to their hygroscopicity alone; but he is now disposed to consider it dependant, to some extent at least, on the vital force. It does not, however, appear, that because there is a cessation of this absorption in the dead plant, and a continuance of it only in the living one, that we must therefore conclude it to be the result of a vital action in the spongioles themselves; for if it were really due to their hy- groscopic property only, still the immediate remo- val of the absorl;ed fluid, by the organs which cause its progression through the plant, would con- tinually reneu' the conditions necessary to secure a momentary repetition of its action. This absorp- tion also has more of the aspect of a mechanical than of a vital operation, from the circumstance of all plants being equally indifferent as to the quality of the solutions which they imbibe, the quantity being regulated chiefly by the state of liquidity in which they occur; a more liquid solution of some substances, deleterious to the health of the indivi- dual, being more readily imbibed by it than others which are more viscous, though composed entirely of materials which are highly nutritious. From the great uniformity in the means em- ployed for absorbing them, and the general simi- larity of the matters absorbed, arises a great re-' semblance between the nutritive apparatus of all vegetables; which makes these organs ill adapted to the parposes of classification, and compels us to search among the reproductive organs for the cha- racteristics necessary to establish a scientific ar- rangement of plants. The usual aliment of plants we have stated to be water, containing carbonic acid in solution, or, we may add, at least containing some proportion of animal or vegetable matter capable of being con- verted into carbonic acid. But, besides this, air and various salts and other matters are absorbed in solution. Where, however, more substances have been found in the ashes of plants, than were supposed to have composed the materials by which they had been nourished, we must not conclude that the plants have created these substances, as some have imagined, but must consider them to have been extracted, little by little, from some medium in which they really existed, though in such minute quantity as to be incapable of being detected by chemical tests. We may easily allow that plants surpass us in their powers of abstrac- ting the minutest portions of any material dissemi- nated through a given menstruum. Second period of nutrition. — The water intro- duced by the absorption of the spongioles is called "sap, or lymph." It is then conveyed directly to the leaves, without sustaining any appreciable change in its progress, otherwise than by mixing with the vegetable juices it meets with in its course. The particular route which the ascending sap takes has often been a matter of discussion and dispute; but it has been clearly ascertained, by repeated ex- periments, that it ascends along that portion of the cellular tissue which constitutes the woody fibre, and not through the vascular tissue, which is in- tended primarily for the conveyance of air, though its tubes may occasionally be found filled with fluid. With respect, however, to the mode in which the sap is conducted along this cellular tis- sue, there is still much uncertainty. De Candolle favors the hypothesis of its passing along the inter- FARMERS' REGISTER— VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 171 cellular passages, as we before mentioned, by means of the successive contractions and dilatations of the cells themselves. But we decidedly consider the newly established principle of endosmose to affoi-d a much better prospect of accounting for the fact. Endosmose is that property of all membranaceous substances, by wliicii two opposite currents are es- tablished through their texture, whenever two fluids of unequal densities are placed on opposite sides of them. That the vital force must also be employed in securing any lengthened continuance of this action, is evident; for in every apparatus constructed for the purposes of experiment, the ef- fect must cease as soon as the two fluids have ac- quired the, same density. Now, without attempt- ing to account for the manner in Avhich the healthy condition of the membrane is secured, Ave may ea- sily imagine the constant developement of fresh vesicles, and the continued secretion of fresh ma- terials, to be sufficient to maintain the conditions necessary for the establishment of a perpetual en- dosmose during the lifetime of the plant, without considering this property itself to be directly de- pendant on the vital force. This property also ex- plains the prodigious force with which the sap rises in certain seasons of the year; a force suffi- cient, as Hales determined, to support a pressure equal to two atmospheres and a half, and five times that by whicli the blood is pi'opelled in tlie crural artery of the horse. The ascent of the sap is the result of a compound action, partly depend- ing on a force "a tergo" propelling it forward, and partly on a force attracting it towards the foliace- ous parts of the leaf, each, however, resulting from the endosmose carried on by all parts of the cellu- lar texture. Third period of nutrition. — When the sap has arrived at the leaves, and at the other green parts on the surface of the plant, a considerable portion of its aqueous particles is transpired. A cabbage, for example, transpires from a given surface se- venteen times as much as a man by his insensible perspiration. A small portion indeed, of this ef- fect must be ascribed to the process of evaporation ; but this is comparatively very trifling, and the greater part must be attributed to the action of a vital function. This is so decidedly remarkable in the vegetable kingdom, that De Candolle pro- poses for it the name of "exhalation," in order to distinguish it from the less conspicuous effects ot the insensible perspiration of animals. It is mani- festly produced by the instrumentality of the sto- mata, or glandular pores, seated on the gi-een parts of plants, and which are more especially abundant on the under surface of the leaf. Heat exerts a trifling influence in producing an increase of ex- halation, but light is the chief stimulant which de- termines its extent. Plants do not exhale mois- ture in the dark, and as they still continue to ab- sorb a little, they soon become dropsical. The fluid exhaled is nearly pure water, and consequently the gap must become considerably altered by this cir- cumstance alone, as the materials introduced in solu- tion will now bear a higher proportion to the whole quantity of water retained in the plant. This great exhalation of the superabundant fluid may be consi- dered analogous to the combined effects produced both by the insensible perspii-ation and excremen- titial rejections of animals. Fourth period of niUr-ition. — We have now ar- uivedat the complicated phenomenon of vegetable "respiration," the most important of all the prO' cesses which together constitute the function of nu- trition. One circumstance in this process is strict- ly in accordance with what takes place in the res* piration of animals; the presence of oxygen being equally essential to the life of the individuals of each kingdom, though the ultimate results are diame- trically opposite in eacii. In animals, the oxygen inhaled unites with the superfluous carbon in the blood, and the carbonic acid thus formed is ex- haled into the atmosphere. In plants, a similar ef- fect takes place by night; when the leaves and other green parts inhale the atmosphere, whose oxygen unites with the carbonaceous matters dis- solved in the sap ; but the carbonic acid thus gene- rated is, for the most part, retained in solution within the plant, and not exhaled again. All the colored parts of plants perform this function as well by day as by night ; but the green parts al- ways decompose carbonic acid by day, from whate- ver source they may be able to derive it; and the result of this decomposition is to fix the whole of tlie carbon, and a small portion of the oxygen, in the substance of the plant, and to exhale the rest of the oxygen into the air. The chief supply of carbonic acid provided for this purpose is that which is introduced by the roots in a state of so- lution ; but the small quantify universally present in the atmosphere is also inhaled and decomposed by the leaves. Tliat which is formed Avithin the plant itself is cither retained in solution, or it is ex- haled and disseminated in the atmosphere, Avhence it may re-enter the plant by one or other of the two methods just specified. Although the decom- position of carbonic acid is always proceeding during the day, yet it is never so rapid, nor so de- cidedly appreciable, as Avhen the plant is exposed to the direct rays of the sun. It is independent of the presence of the stomata, Avhich Ave have alrea- dy described as being the true exhaling organs of the green parts ; and it is certainly effected by means of the cellular texture of these same parts, Avhose green tint must be ascribed to the result of this very action. There can be no question that the " decomposition" of the carbonic acid is the direct operation of a vital function; but the " for- mation" of this gas in the colored parts of plants, at all times, and in the green parts by night, ap- pears to be the result of a chemical action similar to the ordinary process of decomposition in all dead organized matter. If a plant be exposed to the light in an atmosphere deprived of oxygen, it soon dies, unless (Avhich is very remarkable) it be enabled first to form a little oxygen by decomjws- ing some portion of the carbonic acid Avithin it, and thus to Impregnate the atmosphei-e Avith a suf- ficient quantity to enable it to act as a further re- source and constant stimulus for the formation ancj deconqiosition of fresh supplies of carbonic acid. The result of all these compositions and decom- positions of carbonic acid in the living plant, is the fixation of the Avhole of that carbon Avhich is (bund in the entire mass of vegetation on the sur- face of tiie earth. Thus the atmosphere is conti- nually being purified of every fresh addition of this material Avith which comliustion, respiration, and putrefaction are perpetually adulterating it. — For though all living plants do themselves gene- rate carbonic acid in the way Avhich Ave have spe- cified, they also decompose much more than they form, and this excess is considered to be sufficient 172 FARxMERS' REGISTER— VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. to counterbalance the quantity introduced into the atnfiosphere by other causes. In this single func- tion, then, of vegetable life, we see an eiricient yet simple means of restoring to the atmosphere that proportion of oxygen which is necessary to the health and existence of organized beings. — Thus, the consideration of the humble functions of vegetable life may serve to elevate our thoughts in wonder at that universal order which prevails throughout the works of the gi-eat creator and pre- server of all things. Fifth period of nutrition. — This period com- prises the return of the newly elaliorated sap into the system. The course which it pursues in its altered condition is, for the most part, down the innermost layers of the bark ; as several very satis- factory experiments have decided. In tlie pro- cess of " ringing," which consists in stripping a branch of a circular rim of bark, the descending sap Is stopped, and a swelling is formed at the su- perior edge of the ring. Tlie alburnum, or soft wood immediately below the bark, will also, if properly protected, servs to convey a portion of the descending sap, which is then further elabo- rated, and tlie alburnum hardens to solid wood. — It has been a subject of considerable controversy, whether the new layers of wood and bark have re- sulted from the developement of the old tissues nourished by the descending sap, or whether they have been generated partly in this way, and are partly formed of fibres descending from the buds which are seated on all parts of the stems and branches. Perhaps the question ought not to be considered as finally settled ; but certainly we agree with our author in considering the latter opi- nion, of the descent of the fibres, as one v.'hich is little supported by facts, or by analogy, and that it rests for the present entirely upon vague con- jecture and hypothetical reasoning. The elabo- rated sap descends to the roots, and causes their further developement, whilst a portion of it is in- tercepted by the rising sap by which it is convey- ed to the buds on the stem. There is, in fact, no true circulation in plants ; but a portion of the elaborated sap, in its descent towards the roots, be- comes mixed with the ascending sap, and is thus conveyed to all parts of the system. Sixth periodof nutrition. — In detailing the fourth period, we accounted for one alteration in the con- dition of the sap, by the circumstance of a conside- rable exhalation of its aqueous particles taking place, and for another, by its having received an addition of carbon from the decomposition of car- bonic acid in the green parts. The nutritious ma- terial thus formed is essentially composed of car- bon, and the two elementary ingredients of water, viz. oxygen and hydrogen. There are, however, several vegetable products, differing materially in their sensible qualities, which are composed of these three elementary substances only, and it is a task of some delicacy to select that particular one from among them, which may most reasonably be considered as the universal pabulum prepared for the nourishment of the different vegetable tissues. Our author considers " gum" to be the simplest combination of the three elementary ingredients mentioned ; and argues, from its universal preva- lence, that it must be the true nutritious principle of vegetables. There are some other substances nearly allied to gum in their chemical composition, which appear to be slight modifications of it, cf- | fected in some after process, by the secreting pow- ers of the cellular tissue. The preparation of these fresh substances constitutes our sixth period. They seem to serve some purpose connected with the nutrition of the plant ; but what this may be, it is impossible in the present state of our know- ledge, to decide. Three of these substances are fecula, sugar, and lignine, each differing very lit- tle from gum in their chemical composition. If we consider the solution of gum, so constantly ibund in the sap of plants, as analogous to blood, the formation of these other materials may then be likened to certain local secretions in the ani- mal kingdom. Each gi-ain of " fecula" appears to be a reservoir of gimi incased in an insoluble integument. It is diffused through various parts of the plant, serving as so many magazines of nu- triment for tlie future developement of its several organs. It bears a striking analogy to the fat of animals. "Sugar" bears a strong resemblance both to gum and fecula in its composition. It is ibund in a liquid state in the cells, and is j^robably intended to serve some purpose or other of nutri- tion. " Lignine" is insoluble in water, and is a secretion deposited in the cells, which compose the woody portions of the plant. Seventh period of nutrition. — The three sub- stances mentioned under the sixth period, appear to be destined to serve some purpose or other of nutrition, as well as that universal pabulum "gum," of which they are only slight modifications. Be- sides these, there are many other substances vvhich result from the specific action of distinct parts of the vegetable structure, andAvhich bear a still closer analogy to the peculiar products secre- ted from the blood of animals by the action of par- ticular glands. In animals, however, the glands destined for this purpose are very conspicuous, the ducts through which the secreted matter is con- veyed being clearly defined, and the secretions themselves presented to us in an isolated form. — But in plants, the glands are generally minute, their structure scarcely distinguishaL)lc, and many of tfieir secretions so much blended with other ma- terials, that it requires a chemical process to sepa- rate them. The enumeration of these various substances oc- cupies a considerable portion of the first volume ; and an attempt is made to classify them under a few general heads ; but as no light is thus thrown upon the function of secretion, we shall allude very briefly to these details. Every separate vesicle of the cellular tissue may be considered as a secre- ting organ, and some of them appear to elaborate peculiar compounds without assuming any of the ordinary characters of disiinct glands. In other cases a glandular structure is clearly distinguisha- ble from the rest of the tissue. This matter elabo- rated is either destined to appear on the outside as an excretion, or it remains within the plant, but is so arranged in separate cavities as not to intermix with the nutritive juices. These all differ from those other secretions which we have considered as eminently nutritive, by having their oxygen and hydrogen in a different proportion from that in which they exist in water ; and hence it seems probable that they result from a later and more complicated process than that which produces the nutritive secretions belonging to the former pe- riod. They all moreover act as poisons when imbibed by the roots; and this again shows uSj FARMERS' REGISTER— CURING CORN, &c. 173 that in the living subject they must necessarily be contained in specific cells provided for their recep- tion, and that they can form no part in the process of nourishing and developing the plant. There are certain local secretions which can only be se- parated from the general admixtures in the sap by chemical processes ; such are the various vegetable acids and alkalies, the origin of which is not at all understood. In the ashes of plants also we find variable quantities of different earths, metals and salts, all of which have been introduced in solu- tion with the water absorbed by tlie roots. A sup- position which has been made, that some of these materials may be the direct produce of an effort of vegetable life, is wholly untenable, and their pre- sence is clearly to be accounted for on the princi- ple of their absorption in a state of solution. It is a more delicate question to determine, whether these materials ought to be considered as merely adventitious, and unnecessary to the health of the plant, or whether their })resence is really benefi- cial to it. When received into the system, tliey are conveyed by the sap to the leaves and surface of the stem, where they are always found to be de- posited in greater abundance than in any other parts of the plant ; which arises from the constant exhalation of the water in which they v.ere dis- solved taking place there. Hence, the annual fall of the leaf secures a constant discharge of these earthy matters from the plant, and a renewal of those organs takes place, whichotherwise must ul- timately have become choked by them. Having completed the account of the various processes into which the great function of nutrition maj^ be separated, some account is given of the progress made in the annual growth of a plant during each of the four seasons. In " winter" the vital action remains nearly torpid. A continued but feeble absorption takes place at the root, sufficient merely to supply the slight degree of exhalation still carried on by some of the organs seated towards the surface. In " spring," the increased temperature is the great stimulant to the vital excitability, and the bark now begins to attract the sap towards it, and a fresh current proceeds from the roots. The for- mation of new radicles and spongioles adds in- creased vigor to this flow of the sap, and the im- mediate consequence is, the developement of the buds. Independently, however, of these stimu- lating causes by which the vital energies of the plant are roused to action at the return of spring, it should seem that there is a special law of vitali- ty, predisposing the plant to make these efforts af- ter certain periodic intervals. Their success also depends, in a great measure, upon the conditions under which the plant has been jjlaced during the previous year. During the " summer," the func- tion of nutrition gradually diminishes in the inten- sity of its action. By the " autumn," the leaves have become choked by the earthy particles de- posited in them ; their fall commences, and the true sleep of the individual takes place. This, as is well known, is the best season for transplanting, when the juices are stationary, and the new fibrils have not yet been developed on the roots. In explaining the mode in which the young branches and roots are developed, it is to be no- ticed that the former expand throughout their whole length, while the latter are increased by successive additions at their extremities only. Du- ring the process of developement, something like periodic returns of intensity has been remarked, and it is stated that these efforts are twice accele- rated and twice retarded every day, but the account wants confirmation. OBSERVATIOIVS Orf CURING CORN AND FEED- ING OF catti.e; by B. Nicnlau. [During our excursion into Georgia we several times heard of the excellent management of Mr. Nicolau, and it would have afforded us much pleasure to have called on him. Our time did not permit, and we asked the favor of Mr. Cou- per to request him to become a contributor to the Agriculturist, and the following has been politely furnished in pursuance of this request. We regret, that he sliould have thought that his practice so much resembled that of others, as not to require particular notice; with due deference we think otherwise. The practice of any plan- ter who renders his old fields as profitable as his new, must be worthy of particular notice, and we still hope, Mr. Nicolau will do us the favor, of communicating it in detail]. — £V. So. Agr. Uopeton, J/pril 17, 1833. Dear Sir, — The accompanying statement has just been handed to me by Mr. Bernard Nicolau, who resides in the Buffalo, in reply to my request, that he would furnish you an account of his system of planting. He thinks his practice, except in the greater use of the plough and a greater attention to manuring, so much like that generally adopted by others as not to require any particular notice. He conceives that he has derived important advanta- ges from pursuing the mode of cutting his corn and penning his cattle, which forms the subject of his paper. I can adduce my own experience in favor of the penning system. The sulaject is not new ; but its successful application by a practical man and a good planter, may recommend it to an insertion in your journal. Mr. N icolau is a French gentleman, who presents one of the best specimens of a good agriculturist that this section of the country offers : and has done much with very limi- ted means. He has accomplished what is still more rare, in rendering by a judicious system of manuring and rotation of crops, his old lands as profitable as his new. With great esteem and respect, I am dear sir, your obedient servant, J. HA3IILTON COUPER. Notes on Fodder and Cattle. Fodder. — The greatest difficulty for farming in this part of Georgia is the procuring of fodder. The only source of it that I have as yet discovered, is Indian corn, and when managed as I have learned to do, by the information obtained from "Taylor's Arator," and the third volume of the "American Farmer," it yields a great deal of it, not only for horses which are too nice to eat any part of it but the grain and blades, hut feroxen and cows, which eat all the tops and shucks. For several j^ears I have tried to save both in the comriion icay with no success, and it is only since I have followed the plan laid out by the farmers of Virginia, that I have attained my object, viz. to have fodder enough to support thirty head of grown cattle for two months in the fall (September and October,) with thirty acres of corn. My manner of saving it is this. 174 FARMERS' REGISTER— PORTSMOUTH AND ROANOKE RAIL ROAD. When the corn is past what is called mutton corn, or when I have saved the blades up to the ear of corn, I proceed to cut the stalks. Two hands with their hoes, cut first two rows, in the middle of a half task (which are the fifth and sixth of it, if there ai'e twenty rows in a task) these hands continue to cut it down the whole length of the field, be it more or less. Then they return in the same way in the other half of the task, until all the field is gone through — four or more hands follow these two ; picking up the stalks of corn and carrying them to a place where (our stacks of corn have been tied together to make a heap. In the length of one task, there are tvvO stacks for ten rows, and four heaps are made in each task. It is not necessary to bind the whole stack round. It will stand well if made right. After a week or ten days, I move the heaps ; and of two I make one, so that the inside becomes the outside, and the whole dries well and very few ears are spoiled. When I think that the corn is dry enough, I shuck it on the ground and put up the heaps again, mak- ing one out of two, so that a single heap of fodder remains in each task ; such fodder will keep well the whole winter and will serve for the working oxen till May. Cattle. — Keeping the cattle the whole year in pens, has been my aim since I have known the ne- cessity of making manure. I have succeeded in that plan, in this manner: from May to August, my cattle are turned out to live on the green grass of the woods, and penned at night; and from Sep- tember to April are kept in a close pen, or in my field, and always penned at night. My pen is square with one side of it covered ; all the grown cattle are fastened by their neck at three or four feet distance from each other, by two upright poles, one of which moves on a pin, and when the oxen or cows have put their heads between the two poles, the moveable one is fixed by a pin. Every night fresh litter is put under them, ant! they are fed from September to October with my corn tops and shucks, cured as I have said above, and be- sides with potatoes, vines or peas pulled up root and all; in November and December with sugar- cane tops, and then, when the cotton is done pick- ing, they are turned into the field and fed at night with cotton seed, at the rate of two quarts each. I have found tbat eight acres of corn will support thirty head of cattle for sixteen days, and one acre of cane tops will go as far as these eight acres of corn. In my pen there is a well and a large trough to water the cattle. The young calves are kept in a separate pen, PUBLIC WORKS FOR FACILITATING TRANSPORTATION. ADVANTAGES AND ESTIMATED COST OF THE PORTSSIOUTH AND ROANOKE RAIL ROAD. Extracted from the Report of C. Crozet, Engineer. RiciiJioND, Oct. 8th, 1832. To the President and Directors of the Portsmouth and Roanoke Rail Road Company. Gentlemen : — In compliance with your wish- es and instructions, such surveys were made be- tween Portsmouth and Suffolk as enabled me to establish the outlines of the location and graduation of the rail road between these two places. This forms the first section of the entire line from Ports- jTlouth to the Roanoke ; it is also that on which, owing to the proximity of the Dismal Swamp, the greatest difficulties of execution were apprehended. Indeed, I had heard opinions expressed calculated to discourage the scheme ; that a rail road would be found next to impracticable, on account of the intervening swamps ; but I am happy to have it in my power to state that, on the contrary, so slight are the difficulties, that the expectations of the most sanguine will even be exceeded by the result. — Although the surveys were carried at this time but a short distance beyond Suffolk, I am firmly convinced, from my previous knowledge of the country, that the few natural impediments encoun- tered will appear much less than are commonly met with on the track of other rail roads. In the first place, as regards graduation, a for- mer survey has informed me that the dividing ridge, between the waters of Nansemond and Black- Water rivers, is only 82 feet above tide; and as our operations have already attained an ele- vation of nearly 60 feet, and the distance is yet se- veral miles to the top, tliis ridge may be considered as surmounted. The crossing of the three tributaries of the Chowan, (which perhaps may be reduced to tv/o,) constitutes the next and principal obstacle; but here again the small elevation of the country, and the distance for graduating, sufficiently warrant that the descent to the streams and their crossings will be effected with even less than ordinary diffi- culty. From the Chowan to the Roanoke, the country is likewise low and even, and the expense of gradua- tion upon a judiciously located line, will be small. In the next place, the character of the soil which formed the subject of reasonable apprehensions, proves rather lavorable; it i)ossesses a great degree of firmness, being a mixture of sand and clay, which, in most places, will harden in wet weather and form at all times, as good a foundation as can be expected from earth alone. There can be no hesitation, therefore, in adopting the conclusion, that the rail road can be very advantageously lo- cated for the favorable application of the swift lo- comotive power, to Avhich, since its late improve- ments, rail roads owe their undeniable superiority wherever gravity has but a small share in the re- sistance, as will be the case here. After having asserted the striking practicability of the undertaking, it is almost idle to say any thing further in regard to its expediency, since it turned, as I conceive, solely upon the condition of its feasibility. For it will readily appear that, along so remarkably level a rail road, whether Weidon or any other point be selected for its ter- mination, a few hours will bring to Portsmouth, in sight of the ocean, what now requires frequent- ly more than as many days. Activity is the life of trade, and the easy intercourse thus established between one of the best seaports in the Union and a vast extent of country, cannot fliil to impart to both a new existence. The valley of the Roanoke and the country bordermg on the Chowan and branches, depend, by their geographical situation, on Norfolk lor a market, and will readily avail themselves of the eminently superior advantages which will be offered to them in this direction. And as regards travelling, all that which descends the Chesapeake will certainly take this course to- wards the southern States and vice versa. A glance at the map will suffice to establish the coi - FARMERS' REGISTER— UNDULATING RAILWAY. 175 rectness of these views. An extensive and fertile country at -one extremity, an excellent seaport at the other, a rapid transit between them, render success certain and promise a fair return for the undertaking. Nothing but the existence of numerous other improvements can have prevented the overflowing of the books of subscription, but of these, the navi- gation of the Sound and Dismal Swamp Canal is the only one from which it might not be unreasona- ble to apprehend a competition ; and yet, if the pe- culiar circumstances which now influence the com- merce of Norfolk, be considered, it would not be difficult, I think, to show that the navigation and this work do not conflict with each other, but will rather unite hand in hand in promoting the weliarc and rise of the two sister towns. It would, therefore, be irrelevant to trouble you with an inquiry into the trite and sometimes ab- surd, if not unfair, comparisons which prejudice lias frequently drawn between navigation and transportation by rail roads; each has its ad- vantages, which, in this case, will be made to con- tribute to the support of the same cause and in- terest. The celerity of speculation and travelling Will recommend the rail road, while the proximity of navigation, and sometimes its economy, will favor the Sound. This double facility will prevent di- vergency, and, by drawing the trade into the same channel, will impart to it a greater activity, and thus, production, business and capital will increase and be concentrated upon the same point ; without the rail road, this result is more than doubtful; it should consequently be viewed, I think, as an in- dispensable accessary to the navigation. It would be difficult, at present, to reduce these speculations to numbers ; but this much can be said, that if the rail road is to cost .^ 450,000, (which I do not think far from the truth,) a fair return would require it to pro-luce itj;36,000 annual- ly, to coverall expenses, exclusive of those attend- ing transportation. This amount is certainly in- commensurate with the importance and influence of situation of such a seaport, to which this would be one of the main avenues, to say nothing of the amount at which the increase of business might be valued. As regards the cost of the road, it is obvious that in a neighborhood, where such works have never been made, some uncertainty must exist con- cerning the elTect of a new undertaking upon the price of labor in the ordinary state of things. Con- sequently present prices alone would not be a safe criterion, and the following estimate has been pre- dicated upon the existing prices, modified by those of the nearest work of the kind, the Petersburg Rail Road. The estimate has besides, been made for the uniform plan above described ; and as the modifications that may be introduced by the use of the timber found on the spot, will be a saving to the Company, the estimated cost below may be considered a maximum. StrPERSTRUCTrRE PER MILE. 2,640 Pieces of Scantling a 12 cents, $316 80 2,640 Blocks, - 8 do. 211 20 2,640 Wedges, - 4 do. 105 60 Splicing Plates, - 50 00 70 00 99 00 633 60 13 20 1,100 00 960 00 200 00 $3,759 40 Iron Spikes, 660 Ties String Pieces, 6 by 8 inches, Stakes, Iron, 22 tons, Laying and Dressing, Turn Out, - Total per mile, And for 16 miles 5,106 ket, $63,786 00 In .some places, the cost of the superstructure is enhanced by the necessary adoption of a more ex- pensive plan than the above. For the sake of bre-' vity and uniformity, the difference has been intro- duced at each particular place, in the estimate of formation of the road which follows: GRADUATIOJV AND FORMATIOJSr. D'cstances. I.St, Stage from Chestnut St. 2 miles 140 feet 2d 3d 4lh 5th 6th 7th 8th 9 th lOlh 3 " 2160 0 " 4600 2 " 724 1 " 2747 1 " 4911 1 " 2740 0 " 46j0 I " 394 1 " 3234 Cost. 2,514 691 2,806 672 ]j090 2,881 878 2,220 3,663 Total amount, 1 6ms. 5,220 ft. S18,507 Deduct for error in middle line, ] 14* abt. +23 Leavinj 16ms. 5,105 and $18,544 To which adding for superstructure, And for contingencies, superintendence, &c. on botli, 10 per cent. $63,786 8,233 Tlie wliole estimate will amount to $90,563 W'liich is per mile, $5,337 and a fractinn. In this estimate no mention is made of clearing' and grubbing, because the timber obtained, pro- bably, will be a full compensation for them by its ready use in a work of this sort. I regret that it will not be in my power to wit- ness the progress of this important work. I shall, however, direct frequently my inquiries towards it, with a solicitude I have felt from the beginning, but which has received additional intensity from the confidence and kindness which I have been fa- vored with by the company, and for which, I beg you, gentlemen, to receive collectively and indi- vidually, my most grateful acknowledgements. I have the honor to be, respectfully. Your most obedient servant, c. CRozET, Engineer. Undiilatins^ Railway. From the Athenaium. This contrivance, which we have already curso- rOy noticed, has occasioned some discussion among scientific and practical men ; but it does not appear that any explanation of its efTects has been sug- gested. Indeed, we are inclined to think, that the patentees themselves arc not fully aware of the physical principle on which the advantage which they \\kve undoubtedly gained, depends. *Tliese amounis are introduced here merely to pre- vent embarrassing discrepancies in the calculation: they v/ould otherwise be too small to be noticed. 176 FARMERS' REGISTER— UNDULATING RAILWAY. The problem is onCj the full illustration and de- velopement of which would require the language and symbols of mathematical physics ; some notion of it may, however, be conveyed in such a manner as to be intelligible to the general reader. We shall first state what it is that the undulating rail- way performs, in which the level railway fails ; and we shall next explain the physical law on which this depends. Hitherto, it has been received as a practical axiom, that railways can only be advantageously applied between points where a uniform dead level can be obtained. Now the patentees of the undu- lating raihvay maintain a proposition which is the logical contradictory of this. They hold, that even if the projected line be naturally a dead level, it must be artificially cut into ujjs and downs, so as to keep the load constantly ascending and descend- ing until the journey is completed ; and in so do- ing, they assert that tlie transport is produced in a considerably less time with the same moving power, or in the same time Avilh a much less ex- penditure of the moving principle. Again, it has been held as a practical axiom, that if on a rail- way it becomes necessary to ascend from one level to another, the ascent is most advantageously made by a plane uniformly inclined from the lower to the higher level. On the contrary, the patentees of the undulating railway hold that the ascent is effected with a lesser power, by dividing the in- terval into ups and downs, so as to cause the car- riage alternately (o descend and ascend until it ar- rive at the upper level. Indeed, one of these pro- positions ibllows from the other, for if a greater momentum is generated in going from one point to another of the same level, l>y undulation in the railway, that excess of momentum will carry the load to a greater height than the momentum which the same power would geneiate on a level railway. These facts have been illustrated by a small model on a wooden railway in the Adelaide street exhibition -room. We have ourselves at that place instituted the following experiments, with the re- sults here detailed. Tlie moving poAver was a spi- ral main spring regulated by a fusee : a load was placed on a level railway of such an amount that the moving power was barely able to overcome the friction, but incapable of moving the load. In this state the carriage and load were transfeircd to the undulating railway, and the same moving power impelled tlae load with ease and with considerable velocity from one end to the other ; and lest any difference of level should exist between the extre- mities, we caused the same experiment fo be made in the contrary direction, which was attended with precisely the same result. Hence, it was evident that, at least with the model, a power incapable of transferring the load between two points at a given distance on a level railway, transferred the same load with facility and despatch through the same distance on the undulating railway. Our second experiment was as follows: — We loaded the carriage in the same manner on the le- vel railway, so that the power was barely equal to the friction, but incapable of moving the load. We then transferred the power and load to a rail- way, the remote extremity of which rose above the nearer extremity at tJie rate of one inch in eight feet. The power which was thus utterly in- capable of moving the load on the level, easily transferred the same load fi-om end to end of the undulating railway, and at the same time actually raised it through one perpendicular inch for every ninety-six inches of its progress along the horizon- tal line. Among the scientific men Avho have witnessed this exhibition, many, it is said, have declared, what indeed appears at first to be the case, that the result is contrary to the established principles of meclianics. We do not perceive, however, any difficulty in th.e phenomenon. The effective impelling power when a load is tracked u[)on a railway, must be estimated by the excess of the actual impelling power above the friction. Now, it is well knoAvn that the friction, being proportional to the pressure, is less on an in- clined than on an horizontal railway. The same impelling power which on the level raihvay is on- ly equal to the friction, and therefore incapable of accelerating the load, becomes effective on the in- clined railway, where it is greater than the fric- tion. The excess therefore becomes a means of generating velocity, so that when the load arrives at the extremity of the undulating line, a quantity of velocity has been communicated to it, which is proportional to the excess of the friction on the un- dulating above the friction on the level line. This is, theoretically speaking, a decided and undenia- ble advantage which the inclined railway posses- ses over the level. We could make this point still more clear, if we were addressing mathematical readers. Now, if it be admitted that at the extremity of the undulating line, a velocity is generated in the moving body much greater than any which could be produced by the same power acting on the level line, it will follow demonstratively that this velocity Avill be sufficient to carry the load up a certain height, bearing a fixed proportion to the velocity itself; and hence it will be perceived that a moving power, which is incapable of moving the load on a dead level, will be capable not only of moving it between the extremities of an undula- ting line when at the same level, but even of rais- ing it to a higher level. Bwt the practical application of this principle seems to promise still greater advantages. In the above reasoning, we have assumed that the impel- ling power acts with a uniform energy in accele- rating the motion of the load. This, however, is not the case when steam power is applied : the load soon attains a maximum velocity, and the en- gine becomes incapable of supplying steam fast enough to produce effective pressure on the piston. The cylinder, in this case, receives steam from the boiler only at the same rate as it is discharged by the motion of the piston, and scarcely any di- rect effect is produced by its pressure on the pis- ton. In the undulating railway, the working of the engine will be suspended during each descent, and a part of the succeeding ascent. In this interval the steam will be nursed and accumulated so as to be applied with its utmost possible energy the mo- ment the velocity on the brow of the hill begins fo decline. W hen the load surmounts the sum- mit, and begins to descend the next hill, the ope- ration of the engine will be again suspended, and its powers reserved, and accumulated for the next ascent. The duty of the engine will thus be, not to produce steam constantly at a great rate, but to produce steam of excessive energy for short and distant periods. Every one who knows the prac- FARMERS' REGISTER—RAILWAYS AND "CANALS. 177 tical working of high pressure engines, will see the advantage likely to result from this circum- stance. AVhen the line connecting two points at the same level is thus resolved into curves, the motion oi' the engine may not inaptly be compared to that of a pendulum, and the moving principle stands in the place of tlie maintaining power, the functions of which are the same precisely as those which it discharges. On the other hand, it is right to consider the practical objections to this projected improvement. The very small amount of friction on iron rail- ways renders the rate of motion when descending an incline frightfully great. We have ourselves descended the Sutton plane on the INIanchester Railway, followed by above 100 tons of goods, and, although not particularly timid, we cannot deny that we felt considerable apprehensions, when on applying the drag to moderate tlie fury of our speed, it was instantly burned to a cinder. The power oi gravity in descending a plane of this kind, which only falls one foot in ninety-six, is perfectly uncontrollable ; and if great descents be attempted, we very much fear that the velocities will hardly be consistent with safety.* It must not be forgotten that the more rapid the descent, the less will be the friction, aiid therefore the great- er the velocity due to a given number of perpen- dicular inches. It would be premature, however, at present to pass judgment on what after all can only be satisfactorily decided by experinient. Meanwhile, we have no hesitation in stating-, what every scientific man, after reading what we have above said, will confirm,, that there is nothing er- roneous in principle, as many have supposed, in the project. On the contrary, whatever be the impelling jiowor, it will be undoubtedly rendered more effective l>y the imdulation of the line; and if steam be the power, it will be rendered doubly effective, by the advantage gained by being ena- bled to suspend the action of the moving principle from time to time, so as to collect its energies. We are glad to learn that the patentees have ob- tained the means of constructing an undulating line of railway of some miles in extent, for the purpose of testing on the large scale what they have already proved on a model. Their success will mainly depend on the judi- cious adaptation and selection of the curves into v/hich the line will be divided. It may be worth while to consider, whetlier the common cycloid may not be rendered, by its well known proper- ties, one of the best which could be selected. It will likewise require consideration, what succes- sion of curves will give a maximum advantage, when the extremities of the line are at different levels, and to provide not only for the efficient as- cent from the lower to the higher. level, but like- wise for the safety of the descent in the contrary direction. Although, upon the whole we have a strong per- suasion of the ultimate advantages of this project yet we can see many practical difficulties which still stand in the way of the patentees, and which will require not only expense, but no little inge- nuity to overcome. * Since the above was set up ia type, we learn that a f-ital accident has occurred on the spot here alkided to, arising from the engine and train beii>g carried off the rails. Vol 1.— 23 Rail^vays and Canals. From the Monthly Magazine. [We have already presented (see page 56, No. 1,) some extracts from the pamphlet which forms the sub- ject of the following article. The two pieces when compared, may enable the reader to decide more cor- rectly on the respective and opposite advantages and disadvantages of railways and canals. The alleged un- fitness of the English railways (which are formed of stone and iron,) for the rapid movement of steam car- riages, does not apply to those of America, where the more elastic and yielding material wood, is substituted for stone. This important advantage was not antici- pated ; and when added to the greater cheapness of wooden rails, will more than compensate for their want of durability.]— £(^ Farm. Reg. Although the splendid advantages of the railway system have become already apparent in the mi- ning and manufiicturing districts of England, we regret, that more than ordinary opposition has been arrayed against its progress. In the vast and im- mensely varied and complicated commercial inte- rests of this great nation, it is certain that no im- provement can ever arise without producing a partial loss to the few vvhose capital is invested in v.orks which the improvement supersedes ; and in proportion to the extent of the change, is the cor- responding disadvantage to former speculators. Thus, the rising powers of the railway system, are bringing on the entire annihilation of many millions of property invested in canals, the alarm- ed proprietors of which are struggling by Parlia- mentary opposition, and by distorted and unfound- ed statements and calculations, through the medi- um of the press, to stay the progress of these splendid undertakings. Amon"; other publica- tions on this subject, we have been particularly interested by two pamphlet letters upon the com- paralive merits and advantages of railways and canals, by Mr. Thomas Grahame, a gentleman connected v/ith the Ardrossan, or Paisley canal; and containing a description of certain experi- ments and observations made at Glasgow in 1832. This writer details the particulars of a novel dis- covery in the practice of canal navigation, from which it appears that contrary to all former cal- culation, the facility of draught is immeasurably increased by the adoption of a rapid pace upon ca- nals; for, in the words of Mr. Grahame, "two horses on the Paisley canal, draw with ease, a passage boat with its compliment of seventy-five or ninety passengers, at the rate of ten miles an hour, whilst it would kill even double that num- ber of horses to draw the same load along the ca- nal at the rate of six miles an hour ; and it would be decidedly easier to draw the load at the veloci- ty of fifteen miles an h.our tlian at the rate of six miles. The ordinary speed for the conveyance of passengers along the Ardrossan canal, has for two years, been from nine to ten miles an hour ; and, although there are fourteen journeys along the ca- nal per diem, at this rapid speed, the banks oi the canal have yet sustained no injury." This im- portant change in the practice of inland water- carriage, is made the foundation by Mr. Gra- hame, of certain calculations tending to demon- strate the greater cheapness of transit by canals than on rail-roads ; and before proceeding to exposo the delusive nature of his staterxients, we acknowv 178 FARMERS' REGISTER— RAILWAYS AND CANALS. ledge with great pleasure, that the pamphlets of Mr. Grahame are only too late to effect any ma- terial service to the nation, and would have form- ed an invaluable communication about twenty or five-and-twenty years ago. Let us examine a few of Mr. Grahame's other statements: — " the canal conveyance to London," says he, " is already far cheaper than that on rail- ways ; and the Liverpool and Manchester railway company, in their competition with the water carriage, have obtained but a very trifling propor- tion of the traffic from the canals. The cx- Eenses of conveying even this fraction of the trade, ave been so enormous, as to make it doubtiul whether the railway company do not suffer a re- gular loss upon their carrying trade, which is de- frayed from their profits as coachraasters." Nov.', this is all undoubtedly very true respecting the one particular railway from Liverpool to Man- chester— the worst and most extravagantly plan- ned, built, and managed in all the British domin- ions ; but is by no means true of many other rail- ways, such as that from Stockton to Darlington, where the rate of conveyance does not exceed one halfpenny per ton t»er mile, whilst the rate on the Manchester road is precisely nine times that sum, being twelve shillings per ton for the whole dis- tance, which is thirty miles. The cause of tliis enormous rate of carriage upon the Liverpool rail- way, is the great and entirely needless cost of steam power, in the use of whicli the Directors perse- vere, at a loss to the public of some hundreds of thousands per annum. Let us suppose that the use of these steam en- gines were discontinued, and the entire carrying trade of the railway were perfora^^ed by horses. First, it is necessary to lemark, tliat a decrease of speed would be altogether immaterial in the conveyance of goods, for the short distance be- tween Liverpool and Manchester, since the wagons might travel in the night; or, starting at three in the morning might arrive in six hours, drawn by horses, as effectually in time for business as though conveyed as at present in two hours by unneces- sary steam. By the substitution of horses, in the place of steam engines, the rate of carriage might be at once reduced from twelve shillings to one shilling per ton I — a change which would effectu- ally shut up the canal — increase the dividend up- on the stock of the railway — save almost a mil- lion per annum to the merchants of Manchester and Liverpool, and through them, to the mass of the people, who consume the commodities carried upon the railway. We prove this assertion by the following calcu- lations. The weight of goods now annually pass- ing between Liverpool and Manchester, amounts to about fourteen hundred thousand tons; and as no canal could compete Avith a railway at the rate of one shilling per ton, which involves the loss of eleven-twelfths of its present revenue, it is cer- tain, that the whole fourteen hundred thousand tons would thenceforth be carried upon the rail- way. Now, fourteen hundred thousand shillings at the rate of one shilling per ton, amounts to the annual sum of £70,000, whilst the expense of conveying these fourteen hundred thousand tons will be shewn to amount to no more than the sum of £23,040, leaving a profit of 846,960. The average amount of tonnage will be about four thou- §a»d tQns per diem ; and one horse upon a railway can draw twenty-five tons a distance of ten miles, at a pace of five miles an hour, and return with another load of twenty-five tons ; thus performing two stages, or twenty miles, and conveying a load of fitly tons per diem. One hundred and sixty horses v/ill, therefore, be required for the convey- ance of four thousand tons ; and as there Avill be three stages in a distance of thirty miles, the en- tire number of horses between Liverpool and Manchester,will amount to four hundred and eigh- ty. The weekly cost of maintaining four hundred and eighty horses, we will estimate at the abun- dant rate of twenty shillings per horse, intending lliat sum amongst so large a number to cover the expense of feeding, stabling, attendance, and other incidental charges. This amounts to the sura of £480 per week; and the annual charge for an establishment of four hundred and eighty horses is, therefore, £23,040, which sum deducted from £70,000, leaves a balance of £46,960 for paying the interest upon the stock, the expense of ma- nagement— the purchase and repair of wagons, and all the general expenses of the railway. The stock upon which interest is paid, amounts to about the sum of £ 800,000, the annual interests of which is £40,000 at the rate of five per cent., which must be allowed to be a good return from a con- cern more substantial, certain, and unfailing, than any real property whatever. Thus, after paying a dividend of five per cent., we have a clear sum of £6,960 remaining for other expenses, from the carriage of goods alone from Liverpool to IManchester. To this sum of £6,960, is to be added the entire revenue derived from passengers, which Mr. Grahame asserts, now pays the entire expenses of the railway, covering also a loss upon the conveyance of goods, and yet affording the shareholders a dividend of seven and ten per cent. The entire receipts from passengers we find ac- cordingly to exceed the sum of £200,000 per an- num ; but as we have already, by the substitution of horses for the conveyance of goods, converted the present loss into a dividend of five per cent., with a balance of £6,960 remaining tor the ge- neral expenses of the railway, it follows, that less money will now be required to be made by the conveyance of passengers, and therefore, a corres- ponding reduction may be made in the rate of pas- sage. We propose, then, to convey the carriages by horses, at the rate of twelve miles an hour, whereby the diminution of the cost by the disuse of steam, added to the vast increase of passengers by the shutting up of the canal, will allow the rate of passage to be lowered from seven shillings, and three shillings and sixpence, to two shillings and one shilling, for each individual ; one or two steam carriages being still maintained for the convey- ances of the mails and -passengers at a superior fare. Thus at this low rate of passage we may reckon upon the receipt of an additional £70,000 per annum, which will give the sum of £40,000 for an additional dividend of five per cent ; (the stock of this railway having risen about one hun- dred per cent, above par, ten per cent, is requir- ed in justice to the recent purchasers,) with a ba- lance of £30,000 remaining to be added to the sum of £0,960 cleared by the carriage of goods. Thus, after paying the shareholders a dividend of full ten per cent., we have the sum of 36,960, finally remaining for upholding the railway, being upwards of £1,000 per mile, for a distance of FARMERS' REGISTER— RAILWAYS AND CANALSr 179 thirty miles. When, therefore, we see that the affairs of the company will be improved by this change of system, and that a million per annum will be saved to the public now paid to the steam engine builders and to the JNIarquis of Stafford, for carrying fourteen hundred thousand tons upon the canal, at the rate of twelve shillings per ton ; and when it is remembered, that not the Directors and the shareholders only, but the public general- ly, are interested in the most economical manage- ment of railways, and the consequent reduction of the rate of carriage, and thence, of tlie necessaries of life, — Acts of Parliament, which cause the vio- lation of the property of unwilling individuals, not being passed for the sole benefit of the Directors and Stockholders, but for the general welfare, — it is time that a different course of management should be required to be adoptad by the Directors of the__ Liverpool and Manchester railway. It will undoubtedly be answered, that tweaty- fave tons, conveyed ten miles in two hours, is an exaggerated estimate of the powers of a horse upon railways. Indeed, in the lectures of Dr. Lardner, upon tlie steam engine, that learned per- son is made to estimate the daily performances of a horse at twelve tons conveyed a distance of twen- ty miles at the rate of two miles an hour. But upon the suppositions and calculations of Doctor Lardner, this is very far from being equal to the conveyance of a load of twenty-five tons, even for a distance of ten miles at the rate of four miles an hour — the rate of draught being represented as decreasing in a very rapid proportion, by an increase of speed, even in the proportion of one hundred and fourteen to fifty-tiiree, from four to seven miles an hour. But with every possible re- spect for the authority of Dr. Lardner, we beg to suggest, that this is an unfounded and insufficient- ly considered calculation ; ibr the principle ope- rates in a manner the. very reverse of this supposi- tion, owing to the increasing impetus upon an in- creased speed, for which Dr. Lardner has made no allowance Avhatever. This, upon a railway, where the resistance is slight, and the weight con- veyed so heavy, is an immense consideration ; and if the force of traction be twelve times great- er upon a turnpike road than upon a level rail- way, so the impetus will be twelve times greater upon a railway than upon a turnpike road. It is the increase of impetus which facilitates the draught of the boats upon the Ardrossan canal, when drawn at the rate of twelve miles an hour, as described by Mr. Grahame; for if the towing rope were suddenly to be severed, the boat, with- out any other propelling power than its own head- way, would, probably, proceed for a distance of a quarter of a mile : but if the rope attached to a barge of similar weight, and travelling at the rate of only two miles an hour, were similaidy severed, the barge would, pi'obably, proceed but a very few yards. The practice of the Directors of the Ardrossan canal ought undoubtedly to be introduced upon all railways, for similar advantages are produced by an increase of speed in land carriage ; and this indeed may be illustrated by the instance of the Birmingham mail, us described by Dr. Lardner. He says, that " the mail weighs two tons, and is conveyed at the rate of ten miles an hour." There- fore, at the rate of one hundred and fourteen, at four miles an hour, to thirty-two at ten miles an hour, the same four horses would draw the Bir- mingham mail, though it weighed more than se- ven tons and a half, which is known to be double the load of the four-horse wagons of the London coal merchants, though not travelling at a rate exceeding two miles an hour. But if the Bir- mingham mail weigh two tons, many of the stage- coaches are heavier built, and carrying sixteen passengers, with a due proportion of goods, will weigh more than four tons, and yet travel at the rate of ten miles an hour ; to correspond to which, the weight to be drawn at the rate of four miles an hour would amount to more than fifteen tons, which of course could not be moved by any four horses in the Avorld. Therefore, we entertain no doubt whatever that a rapid rate of conveyance, with sliort stages, and rest and refreshment inter- vening, is the most economical expenditure of the powers of the horse, and contrary to the doctrine of Dr. Lardner, that twenty-four tons may thus be conveyed with incomparably more facility at the rate of five miles an liour, the proper pace for an English cart-horse, than twelve tons at the rate of two miles an hour. The experience of Mr. Grahame, " that it is much easier to draw a boat along a canal at the rate of fifteen miles an hour, than at the lower velocity of six miles," is equal- ly true with reference to railways ; but though twelve tons, according to the estimate of Doctor Lardner, were the utmost daily performance of a horse, conveying that load for a distance of twen- ty miles, still the number between Manchester and Liverpool would only be required to be dou- bled, at an increase of the expense of £23,040 per annum, which sum would amount to an addi- tional charge of four pence per ton upon the con- veyance of goods ; and even at the extreme charge of one shilling and four pence per ton, it cannot be contended that the railway would continue to be opposed by the tedious canal. I do not assert that horse power is in reality cheaper than the steam-engine, upon a properly constructed railway ; but the Liverpool and Man- chester, and all other yet existing railways, are inapplicable altogether to the economical use of steam locomotive power, and were probably not projected for the use of any other than horses in the conveyance of goods. Enough has already been said, however, to prove that no comparison whatever exists in the cost of conveyance by railways and canals, for we have seen that upon the Manchester and Liver- pool railway, a charge of one shilling per ton pro- duces a splendid dividend of ten per cent., by the employment of horses alone ; from which it fol- lows, that for a distance of one hundred and twelve miles, the estimated length of the London and Birmingham railway, the charge will not exceed three shillings and sixpence per ton ; whereas the present cost of conveyance by the canal, from Birmingham to London, is three pounds per ton— almost twenty times the rate upon a well manag- ed rail-road. And as the railway is thus a more substantia], cheap, and durable conveyance, never obstructed in the winter, and requiring none of the immense expenditure for cleaning out, and at- tendance and repair of locks, banks, and walks, it is certain that the canal will be no longer able to compete with the railway. With regard to the wide difference in the cost of steam locomotive en- gines, as compared to the labor of horses upon rail- 180 FARMERS' REGISTER— ANCIENT GREEK LEASE. roads, we believe the true cause to be in the en- tire inapplicability of the steam-engine, in its yet cumbrous construction, to the purposes of motion. The friction and enormous weight of so monstrous a mass of iron, coal, and water, added to the load of the usual train of wagons, is calculated to de- feat even the stupendous jiov/ers of the steam en- gine. A locomotive engine may be justly com- pared to a moving animal, the load of iuel and of water corresponding to the provender and wa- ter of the horse ; and a steam coach or a locomo- tive engine on a railway, moves under the disad- vantage of a horse burthened, in addition to a load, with his own supplies of water, provender, and corn. The wear of locomotive engines upon the Manchester and Liverpool railway, has, from this cause, proved so expensive, as materially to de- feat the advantages of this great work , for an en- gine of the value of one thousand pounds docs not endure for a period of three months, and tliirty- six locomotives are required to be maintained, to supply the daily complement of six. Previously to the opening of the Manchester railway, no just experiment had indeed been made of the cost of locomotive steam power, and until the steam en- gine shall be yet vastly simplified in its construc- tion, we hold that its cost will be fatal to its use, and that the interests of the shareholder and the public require, that for the present it should be abandoned. When reduced to their lowest practicable cost for conveyance, boundless indeed will be the results of the railways, which, at an early day, will throw their giant arms across the commercial divisions of this great empire. Cities now covei'ing a cir- cumference of miles will die away — dispossessed of their peculiar advantages, from the vicinity of harbors, rivers, coal, and the useful metals; the most inland districts will enjoy the advantages cf sea-port towns ; and property will become equal- ized in value to the most distant portions of the kingdom. The rail-road projected from London to Dover will alone overturn the grandeur, and even the very foundations of the modern Babylon — for it will assign to Dover the entire shipping business of London, and finally close the Thames. The expensive and circuitous navigation of the Downs and the river will be avoided — millions per annum, now paid for pilotage, dock dues, and the innumerable charges of the Thames, will be sav- ed to the commerce of the kingdom — the sea-far- ing population will be draAvn off from the pesti- lential haunts of the port of London — and the plough will soon pass over the ancient and filthy towns upon the Thames ; the banks of which will exhibit a beautiful, still, and natural scene — a most desirable view, altliough anticipated by Vol- ney with great regret. For London is one im- mense monopoly — engrossing through the court, the East India Company, the Bank of England, and the various departments of the government, the expenditure of almost all the revenue of the country ; draining and weakening the provinces. The distribution, and not the accumulation of wealth, should be the true object of all commer- cial legislation — and the rail-road projected from Dover to Birmingham should receive the most zealous support of the government, if only to scat- ter the stagnant treasures of London through the impoverished and distant inland districts of the kiiiffdom . It is, indeed, to be most deeply regretted, that the opposition experienced in the upper House of Parliament should cast so disheartening a prospect upon these splendid undertakings. Upon tlie Bir- mingham and London rail-road alone, the parlia- mentary e?cpenses have already amounted to the vast sum of £ 40,000, and it is not reduced to a cer- tainty, that the expenditure of double that sum will ensure the passing of the bill. This forms so great a proportion of the expense to be incurred ior the entire undertaking, that we would suggest to the directors of that and similar works, that measures may be taken to obviate the necessity of applications to Parliament at all. The immense sums thus expended, would abundantly suffice for carrying a railway, by a private company, though by a more circuitous course, and through the lands of consenting proprietors. When it is re- membered that the splendid canal undertakings of the late Duke of Bridgewater were executed by one private fortune, and without any parliamenta- ry advantages whatever, we cannot doubt that, amongst the wealthy speculators in this great na- tion, there are abundant resources for the intersec- tion of the kingdom with railways, carried on from town to town by private individuals, or small com- panies alone. It is indeed devoutly to l;e wished, that in the present stagnant condition of our com- merce, these works may be seen to pi'oceed with rapidity, and that the renovated spirit of our re- formed institutions may influence the progress of a system, the results of v,'hich Avill be boundless to the future welfare of mankind. Ancicsit Greeli Lease. From the Foreign Qiiarterly Review. The attention of the learned world has recently been called to some inscriptions of unquestionable authenticity, brought from Greece many years since, and now in the University of Leyden, which had hitherto been most strangely overlooked, that contain not merely an allusion to the practice of letting land in Attica, but leases actually entered into. One of these inscriptions was found near Mount Hymettus, and is dated in the fourth year of the 108th Olympiad, or 345 years before the christian era. It is a lease by the Aexonians, the town's people, or demos of Aexone, of a piece of land called the Philais, near Mount Hymettus, to a father and his son, for forty years, for 152 drachms a year. But as the inscription is exceedingly curious and instructive, we lake the liberty tosub- join the following translation of it, which we be- lieve Avill be found to be sufficiently exact : — " The demos of Aexone let on lease the Phi- lais, to Autocles, the son of Auteas, and to Auteas, the son of Autocles, for forty years, for 152 drachms a year ; the said land to be farmed by them, or planted with trees, as they please; the rent to be paid in the month of Aecatombason. If they do not pay it, they forfieit their security, and as much of the produce as they stand in arrear. The Aexonians, not to sell nor to let the land to any one else, until the forty years have elapsed. In case of a loss on the part of the tenants by hos- tile invasion, no rent to be paid, but the produce of the farm to be divided between the Aexonians and the tenants. The tenants are to deliver up half the land fallow, and all the trees upon the land ; for the last five years, the Aexonians may appoint a I vine dresser. The lease to begin with respect to tlae FARMERS* REGISTER— ROCKBRIDGE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. isl corn land with Eubulus (he Archon entering into office : but with respect to the wood, not before Eii- buhis goes out of office. The lease to be cut upon stone, to be set up by the magistrates, one copy in the temple of Plebe, the other in the Lesche, and bounda- ry stone (oroi) to be set upon the land, not less than two tripods on each side. — And if a tax should be paid for the land to goveriiment, the said tax to be paid by the Aexonians, or if paid by the tenants, to be deducted from the rent. No soil to be car- ried away by digging of the ground, except from one part of the land to another. If any person makes a motion in contravention of tlic contract, or puts it to the vote, he sliall be answerable to the tenants for the damage." And there are some further stipulations with respect to the " cutting of the olive trees, and the division of the price ob- tained for them between the Aexonians and the tenants." Now it appears clearly from this in- scription or lease, that the mode of letting land for a money rent, for a considerable number of years, and under conditions with respect to management, must have been well understood in Attica. The terms of the lease are such ns indicate a very liigh state of civilization, and a very considerable knowledge of agriculture. In proof of this, it is only necessary to advert to tlie clause binding the tenants to have half the land in fallow, at the ter- mination of the lease, and to that which authori- ses the Aexonians, or lessors, to appoint a vine- dresser for five years previous to the expiration: the making different entries to the corn and vine land, the provisions with respect to the damage that might arise from the hostile invasions, and the interdiction of carrying away any portion of the soil to another farm, all discover a disposition to protect as far as possible the just rights and inter- ests of both parties, and to advance tlie progress of agriculture. The lease cannot be objected to on account of its being for too short a term ; in this country it might be thought too long. [We are pleased to learn from the following article that lliefarmers of one of tlie most fertile and beautiful portions of Virginia are in concert and in motion, to improve the wide field and bountiful resources for improvement, which nature has placed before them. There will be difference in opinion as to the best manner of action for agricultural societies to promote their objects: but let them act in almost any way, and they can scarcely fail to do much good. If we were not restrained by the consideration of be- ing personally interested in the result, we should ex- press more at length our approbation of the novel plan adopted by the Rockbridge Agricultural Society in offer- ing Agricultural Journals as premiums. To make the reward more appropriate and perhaps more valuable, volumes of the Farmers' Register that may be required for this purpose, shall be delivered well bound, and let- tered suitably to their destination.] — Ed. Far. Reg. ROCKBRIDGE AGRICULTTjR AL, SOCIETY. From ihe Lexinrton Union. At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the Rockbridge Agricultural Society on Saturday 22(1 June, it was ordered — that the following premiums be awarded at the annual meeting in October next : 1. For the best bull, not less than three nor more than four year's old — one year's subscrip- tion to the Farmer's Register. 2. The best heifer, not less than two years old — one year's subscription to the American Farmer. 3. The best milch cow — one year's subscription to Farmer's Register. 4. The best fat ox — one year's subscription to New York Farmer. 5. The best brood mare — one year's subscrip- tion to the Turf Register. 6. Tiie besttolt, not more than one year old — a handsome pair of stirrup irons. 7. The best ram, not more than four nor less than one year old — one year's subscription to the Virginia Farmer. 8. The best ewe, not more than four nor less than one year old — same premium. 9. The best boar, not more than four nor less than one year old — one year's subscription to the New York Farmer. 10. The best sow not more than four nor less than one year old — a pair of fine ivory handled carvers. 11. The best stallion, not less than four years old — a silver cup, with a suitable inscription or device. 12. The best stallion not less than two nor more than four years old — one year's subscription to the Farmer's Register. 13. The best filly, not less than two nor more than four years old — a pair of silver spurs. 14. For the greatest quantity of Indian corn produced on any contiguous five acres of low ground or bottom land, not less than fifty bushels to the acre — a silver cup with a suitable inscrip- tion or device. 15. For the greatest quantity of Indian corn produced on any contiguous five acres of upland, not less than forty bushels per acre — a silver cup with a suitable inscription or device. 16. For the best piece of linen cloth for shirting or sheeting, one yard wide, not less than fifteen yards — a pair of silver sugar tongs with a suita- ble inscription or device. 17. For the best piece of figured table linen, one yard or more wide, not less than nine yards — a handsome cut glass bowl. 18. For the best piece of flannel, afll wool, not less than 3-4ths wide, nor less than fifteen yards — a handsome pair of cut glass pitchei-s. 19. For the best piece of flannel of wool and any other material, the chain of which may be pur- chased— a pair of handsome sugar tongs. 20. For the best piece of cassinet or woollen jeans, ten yards, chain may be purchased — a hand- some pair of china pitchers. 21. For the best pair of blankets, (wo yards wide and two and a half yards long, with or with- out a seam — a handsome Britannia coffee pot. 22. For the best piece of carpeting, one yard wide and not loss than twenty yards long, all wool — a handsome parlor mirror. 23. For the best piece of carpeting, one yard wide and not less than twenty yards, made of wool and any other material — a handsome cut glass bowl. 24. For the best cheese, not less than fifteen pounds — a handsome cut glass pitcher. 25. For the best dozen skeins of sewing silk manufactured within the county — a silver thimble with a suitable inscription or device. 26. For the best specimen of soap manufactured in the county — same premium. 182 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF THE GRAPE— SHEEP. Resolved, That each person to whom a premium may be awarded, shall furnish the President (if required) a written statement detailing:; the parti- cular mode adopted in the culture, rearing, manu- facturing, (or otherwise as the case may be,) of the subject to which a premium has been awarded. .Resolved, That the President solicit Dr. Joseph W. Farnum, Professor of Chemistry in Washing- ton College, to deliver to the quarterly meeting of this board a lecture on chemisti-y as connected with agriculture. "Resolved, That this board adjourn to the third Wednesday in September next. ROBT. R. BARTON, President. JOHN p. CARUTHERS, Rec. Sec'ry. OBSERVATION ON THE PROFIT ATTENDING THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE. From the Southern AnMcu'.tnrist. Columbia, November 3, 1832. Dear Sir, — I have been a much longer time than I thought possible, without either writing to you personally, or communicating to you any thing for the Southern jJgriculturist. I am not, however, Avithout some excuses lor this apparent neglect, and among them, this, that I cannot tind any sub- ject to write upon that is likely to be interesting to your readers, and that I cannot write unless the " spirit moves me." As to the culture of the vine and the making of wine, these subjects have been amply discussed in the former numbers of your most useful periodi- cal. It does not appear, to be a subject in which many in this state seem to take an interest, and / have so long been preaching to an indifferent con- gregation, that I fear doing more harm than good to the good cause by saying any more about it, yet some of my predictions on this subject are beginning to be realized ; for a gentleman about sixteen miles from this, (Mr. Abraham Geiger) has inade this year about six thousand five hundred gallons of wine. My vineyard not being any thing as ex- tensive as his, I made only nine hundred gallons. This, however, is very well from our sand hills, which only produce, in good years, and with care- ful culture, about five bushels of corn per acre. — The capability of this kind of land to produce good wine, and that in abundance, is proved beyond the reach of cavil, and, in spite of the sneers of such persons as can find nothing good that does not come from a great distance, and does not cost a great deal of money. Let the prices of our wmes, how- ever, be reduced to ever so low a rate, even that of vinegar, yet the culture and the production of it in lands that cost from twelve and a half cents to one dollar per acre, and may produce, and does sometimes produce, as much as one thousand gal- lons per acre, must be an object of importance to this state, whose population is fast leaving it, and has not many other means of inducing it to re- main. Our policy, it seems to me, most certainly is, not merely to do our utmost endeavors to re- tain our thin population within our limits ; but also to encourage the settling of foreigners among us. What will become of us at last is more than I can or am willing to predict, if we continue to disregard our natural advantages, when the policy of our neighbors, and the politics of too many amongst ourselves, have a direct tendency to re- duce, and does reduce us every day lower and lower. You will, probably, sir, blame me for be- ing thus querulous. I admit that I am rather so ; but you must also admit, as I do, that I am an old man. I wonder if Cassandra would not have be- come somewhat querulous had she grown to bean old woman .-* We have, however, five or six vineyards in a good state of progressiveness in this vicinity, some of them pretty extensive for beginnings, and I hope their future success and example will be of due avail to the patriotic cultivators of them and to the counti-y ; for it is never too late to do good, at least i hope so. I am, very respectfully, dear sir, your obedient servant, n. herbemont. Slicep. From the Lancaster E.xamhier. Of all domestic animals, the rearing of sheep is to the husbandman the source of most pleasure and profit. Their management then, and a means of protection for them, w ill deserve from us a pass- ing notice. It may be said that of all kinds of stock sheep require the least attention and expense from the farmer. The sheep is the only animal subjected to the control of man, which Avill voluntarily en- dure abstinence from water, requiring it only in the event of being housed. Sheep, when confined in an enclosure, would require no attention, had the farmers any protection or security for them, against attacks from their dread enemy the dog — in whose presence they uniformly discover an in- stinctive though justly excited panic. Permit us to inquire into the advantages of sheep and stock, before we indulge in remarks on their management. A principle in farming which should be more generally reduced to practice is, that previous to laying in stock, the farmer should calculate what species, for a certain amount of mo- ney, will realize the largest net profit, — making due allowance for a fluctuating market. Suppose a farmer has sixty dollars to invest in stock, which in the month of July or August, will buy him forty good ewes. If they be managed according to our subjoined directions, and kept one year, we think the annexed statement, if not exactly, will be very nearly answered. 40 good sheep will have 150 lbs. wool, at 40 cents, - - - - $60 00 40 lambs fat in August, worth S2, - 80 00 40 ewes, when fat, will advance in price 50 cents, - - - - 20 00 Clear gain, - - - - 8160 00 A careful and judicious experiment will prove the above statement to be perfectly practicable. — We have known the amount of wool from the same number exceeded both in price and in quantity. — We have known the number of lambs increased fifty per cent. Some may ask the question, how realize even the statement, save the increase? Be- fore the reader has marvelled at our statement, we submit the management and means. 1st. By ex- treme caution in the selection and purchase ; choosing such only as have a good vigorous coat of wool ; avoiding age, which should not exceed four years — the mouth being the best index to the age. 2d. By paying attention that the male be ad- mitted and kept with them, from the middle of November, and a due regard to the maxim, " ^ sheep fat will never fatten again." 3d. By attend- FARMERS' REGISTER— REMARKS ON THE "FARMERS' REGISTER." 183 ino; them in winter and in yeaning time, with scru- pulous care. Although sheep feed sparingly, yet it is impor- tant that they have plenty of the best clover hay during winter; and in the yeaning season, (ewes go five months with young,) they should be pro- vided with a hovel, to protect the yeanings from all wet and excessive cold weather. At this season the feed for the ewes should consist of bran, chop- ped oats and corn mixed in equal quantities — al- lowing each one pint per day, and givingthem one half in the morning and the other in the evening. This feed is admirably calculated to increase their milk — the grand mystery in raising lambs. W hole grain must be avoided. It invariably disposes the fleece to waste and drop off more or less before shearing time. When the pasture is insufficient alone to support them in winter, they should be kept in a yard or ploughed field, for such is their inclination for green food, that while they can get a mere taste of it, they will suffer on hay. If the ewes are of good size, the majority will produce two lambs. It is necessary to see to the lambs for several days after they are yeaned, and ascertain whether they are acknowledged by the ev/es, or suck. If so, there is no danger ; they do well, pi-Qvided they have shelter, and the ewes are regu- larly fed ; in which case it will be nothing extra- ordinary to raise all. It may not be irrelevant to state, that lambs must be kept where old breeding sows cannot come in contact with them — a vora- cious enemy, which will soon swallow them alive ; none can be trusted. Lastly, by turning all upon good pasture about the last of May, and giving bran with salt regularly, they fatten very readily, and at that season are always in demand. The Iambs will command as much as the ev/es when fat. While unacquainted with the raising of sheep, •we could not have subscribed to the statement above submitted ; but with these directions as a guide there Avill be little danger. A'erily then, fellow farmers, the subject must be worth your at- tention ! Feeding cattle, or wethers will not com- pare in point of profit with rearing sheep and fat- tening on pasture. It may be added, that ewes can be procured for considerable less money than wethers. If the sheep hovel be well supplied with littet, the amount of manure will also exceed that of any other stock, in which the same amount of money has been in- vested. Sheep manure, for fertilizing properties, ranks next to that of pigs. Rcuiai'Iis oil tlie first iiuniljer of tlie "Farmer's Register." From the Albany Argus. ^Iff- Ruffin's" F'arniers' Register.''' — A valued friend, who unites the science with the practice of agriculture in a degree not less advantageous to the public than agreeably to himself, writes as fol- lows in relation to this new publication. We give it a ready insertion, as a deserved notice, from a source that adds weight to the commendation, of a periodical that promises to be a valuable auxilia- ry in the efforts to improve and elevate agriculture as a pursuit, and to extend a knowledge of it. — \_Ed. Jllb. jJrgus. Mr. Editor, — I am indebted to the kindness of a friend for the early perusal of the first number of " The Farmers' Register, a monthly publication, devoted to the improvement of the practice, and support of the interests of agriculture," edited by Edmund Ruffin, esq. and printed in Richmond, Virginia. As the columns of the Argus have been occasionally opened to communications on the subject of agriculture, I trust the few observa- tions I intend to make on the appearance and cha- racter of the publication alluded to, will not be de- nied that privilege. I am the more anxious to avail myself of it in the present instance, not only because the merits of this new periodical deserve the notice, but a new era is certainly opening upon us, when, from the Old Dominion, where they have so long complained of their poverty-stricken soil, her sons boldly step forward and take the only pro- per method to resuscitate her agriculture, and thus to enrich her citizens. The Farmers' Register opens well. It begins with a description of Virginia, which is sufficient- ly particular lor the information of the reader, and whilst it is full of instruction to a non-resident, to a resident it is invaluable, for it throws open the whole field of the intended operation of the publi- cation before him. — The face of the country, its civil divisions, its internal improvements, its agri- culture, manufactures and climate, are all briefly examined — he sees, in a word, what nature made it and what man has done ; and to cheer him on- ward, that if more is to be effected by his indus- try and his enterprise, the reward aviU be a full equivalent for the labor. To take up the several articles in detail, when each is sufficiently interest- ing and instructive, can hardly be required, as they are all, whether original or selected, written with an ability and clearness which is sure to ar- rest the attention of the reader, and he cannot rise from the perusal of them without^aving his mind improved and his ideas of the impoi-fance of good farming made more deep and abiding. There is a richness, a raciness, and a sufficient variety in them to form an agricultural repast for the learned and the unlearned, the scientific and the practical farmer. If the Register does not hereafter " break its Avord of promise to our hope," it will have an effect upon the interests of the state of its birth signally beneficial and enduring. When we urge to the improvement of agriculture, we strike up^ on a mine of wealth which in this country is just opened, and although we are beginning to feel its beneficial influence by the diffusion of its many comforts, its extent and its richness are yet far hid and will not be attained but by a perseverance worthy of our industry and intelligence. It is for- tunate for the cause that such men as Mr. Ruffin engage in it, for we require no farther proof of his competency, than the collection of articles he has now given to the public. Neither ought the pa- tronage of the Register to be confined to the South- ern states : To inculcate correct principles of farm- ing is useful every where, and we find upon examin- ing the book before us, that the safe system for the successful cultivation of our great staples, wheat and corn, is not changed by the diiference of lati- tude. It represents the agriculture of Virginia as in a low state, and that the owners of many es- tates deem themselves fortunate if at the end of the year the simple cultivation of their farms has not run them in debt. To correct this evil for the future, let them turn to the well conducted farm of Fielding Lewis, Esq. of Wyanoke, and learn by what a simple process a barren sand has been converted into a rich and valuable soil. The 184 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE, &c. farming of this geutlemaa is worthy of all iniila- tion, and if his example is not followed, now that the description of it is given, his fallow citizens do not deserve success, for his system is upon the best English and Flemish models. Passing over many excellent articles, we now come to the chapter on Slavery and Emancipation. This is very properly introduced into tlie publica- tion, as their slaves perform all their agricultural labor, and it is a subject of thrilling interest to all the states south of the Potomac. Each side of the question is alternately taken ; for slavery and against it, for emancipation and against it ; and it is discussed for good and evil with a liberality and frankness, a force and clearness, an evident desire to arrive at the naked truth, that during the entire reading of the article the interest excited is truly painful : And the inquiry, what are the circum- stances under which slavery exists in these states — what its cousequenc es, in a civil and moral aspect — what the remedy, and wliat the most attainable means of applying it.' is pursued Avith equal can- dor and patriotism. — There is no concealment of the effects of slavery ; t!ie combatants are above it; and when the public will listen to the argu- ment, as it is here conducted by men of sti'ong in- tellect, who understand their subject and are not afraid to grapple with it, a judgment will be pro- nounced according both to the law and the testi- mony. It is another proof that " error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it," and that upon this subject our southern friends are seeking information, and need no interiiied- dling in the decision of what so nearly concerns them. But Ihiik is not all, the free discussion of this question is all important to Virginia. She has long complained that the embarrassment of her ci- tizens has been increased by the disquietude of her blacks. The hrst step to cure an evil, is to ascer- tain its cause. The ability and earnestness with which she has commenced the investigation, is a sure precursor to success ; and if there has been an improper interference by little and malicious spirits to produce this disquietude, their efforts hereafter will be unheeded, for in the collision of great minds, the ravings of weak and wicked ones are neither felt nor regarded. A FRIEJVD TO AGRICULTURE. The reputation of the Farmers' Register belongs to its contributors, and they have a right to know how Iheir work stands in the opinions of impartial and in- teUigent agriculturists abroad. Of the intelligence of the writer of the foregoing remarks, his own language is sufficient testimony — and his impartiality is equally certain, as we know not who is the writer, and have not the good fortune to have either personal acquaintance or correspondence with a single agriculturist, (and in- deed with scarcely a single inhabitant) of the great state of New York. — [Ed. Farm, Reg. WATER DETAINED BY BORING, IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK. JVeiu York, July 8. We are happy to learn that the persevering en- deavors of Mr. Holt to obtain Avafer by boring- have at length been crowned with success. About the middle of last week, the person engaged in boring was delighted to find that he had struck a stratum of limestone, from which he predicted that he should find water in three or four days. On Friday afternoon, the drill, which had teen sink- ing with increased rapidity since it entered the limestone, suddenly dropped about two feet at a single blow, and then struck upon a very hard rock below. Immediately a strong current of wa- ter arose, and there is reason to hope it may prove to be of the desired quality. It is supposed to le so copious that it Avill afibrd a constant supply of as much as can pass through the pipe, v.hich is about three inches in diameter. On this point, however, it will be impossible to determine with certainty, until the water ceases to be affected by the foreign matter introduced into the passage. The two or threc.fcet through which the drill drop- ped, is no doubt a brook or fountain ; and the fact of a flint rock or something like it, underneath, promises well. The boring v/ill now be discon- tinued. We understand that no vein of water of any magnitude had been struck since entering the rock about 130 feet below the surface. Some water, we believe, Avas obtained before entering the rock, but it Avas of an inferior quality. The cost of the undertaking cannot be less than ^2,000 or 83,000. It has been in progress nearly two years. [The drill had, Avithin the last six months pene- trated 650 feet in depth, of Avhich 510 feet are of solid rock. So much for perseverance] EXTRACTS FRO.AI PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. ^^melia, June 19ih, 1833. I congratulate you and the agricultural public, on the appearance of the first number of th.e Far- mers' Register — the more, as the style and execu- tion of the Avork so far surpasses Avhat Ave had a right to expect in a first effort. It is perfectly ob- vious that unless aided by liberal contributions (on the part of farmers,) of the results of their la- bors and observations, a Avork so large cannot long be sustained by the efforts of any single individual ; and, as I believe the existenceof it is almost essen- tial to any great improvement in our agriculture, I shall feel impelled by duty to contribute my poor mite from time to time to fdling its columns, Avith the belief that nothing in my practice is Avor- thy of imitation — but under the h' pe that I may effect something by Avay of example. With this vieAv, I beg have to suggest to you the making of such direct inquiries of farmers Avho ai-e distinguish- ed for their success, as may serve to elicit from them a sort of history of their practices. * * * # # ^ Such inquiries, made of R. S — , J. R — , F. L — , T. M— , W. O— , J. W— , R. H— , &c. I am sure Avould be cheerfully ansAvered, and Avould go fur- ther to spread through the state a knoAvledge of the best systems applicable to our country, than any other plan I have thought of. South Quay, JVansemond, June 21. * » * Will you do me the fi^vor to inform me in Avhat manner the instrument used in boring for marl, should be constructed ? I am induced to believe that there is no marl on my land, but be- ing thoroughly convinced of its benefits Avhen pro- perly applied, I am desirous to ascertain beyond doubt Avhether I have it or not. As a similar inquiry has been made by another cor- respondent, Ave think it may perhaps be useful to others also to ansAvcr here. FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. 185 The cheapest and most simple marl-borer, is made by •welding a stem of five or six feet long, and half an inch square, to any old and useless screw auger, of one and a half or one and three-quarter inches bore. The iron handle, about twenty inches long, should have a square hole through the middle to receive the stem, over which it should slip easily up and down. A screw pass- ing through one side of this handle, and pressing against the stem, fixes the handle at any required height. Small depressions made every twelve inches along one side of the stem, receive the point of the screw, and keep the handle firm. The auger should not be allowed to bore more than five or six inches before raising it, and clearing the eartli away — all of which will be drawn up in the screw, un- less the earth is, so wet as to be almost fluid. A depth of seven feet or something more, may be very conve- niently reached and examined with this instrument — and four or six feet more, by using other pieces with joints to increase the length of the stem, but with much less convenience. More costly and much more eftcctual augers for this purpose, have been manufactured at the Penitentiary in Richmond — of which Colonel Morgan, the superin- tendent, has jjromised to furnish us with a description. Elizabeth City, June 22d, 1833. My attention is now mainly directed to tlie cul- tivation of the artificial grasses, and the improve- ment of our stock of cattle. I have succeeded in the first, and have no doubt of success in the lat- ter : and I think, in a little while, I will be able to convince the most prejudiced, that lower Virgi- nia can produce hay and butter enough for her own consumption, and a little to spare; and thus wipe off the disgrace of purchasing these articles from our less favored but more industrious bre- thren of the north and east. June '24th, 1833. My young friend, the editor of the **** *****^ has lent me the Farmers' Register, with which I am much pleased. You will please to send it to me, directed to . I have long wished to see the commencement of such a work. The experience of thirty six years has taught me that if the people of Virginia willed the resuscitation of their soil, the work was easily done ; and what son of Virginia is so cold, so dead in heart, as not to respond to the calls of his dear, his native land ? who so mercenary and degenerate as to abandon a kind mother because she is poor.^ and poor from his father's neglect.^ Does not patriotic, does not moral duty require at our hands, that we pour oil and wine into her wounds, heal her broken spirit, and cause her to sing for joy of her faithlul sons. In the beginning, God gave the earth to man as his inheritance, and moral proprie- ty requires of him that he hand it down unimpair- ed ; and it is good for morals and humility to keep in mind that we sprang from the " dust of the earth." I pray you not to suspect me of a dispo- sition to preach ; — but to go back to first princi- ples, and lay our foundations in a solid manner, is vitally important. Does patriotism, do morals de- pend upon the abundance of the earth ? Who ever saw a roguish horse, cow or hog, that was not made so by want ? It is this, that like interest. Vol. 1.— 21 works day and night, nor does it respect the Sab- bath. Craft and fraud and violence, and corrup- tions of every grade and color are in the termina- tions of want and fruitless labor. Permit me to say that the very first thing to be done for the landed interest is to put it under the sacred protection of the law : let every man have and enjoy his own. The concentrated spirits of the lower regions could not have drawn a law more destructive to the in- terests of agriculture, than that of Virginia, which makes the whole state a common, save that which is under a strong close five foot fence. Why not make our garments, or our horses and cows that are not in iiBmediate use also common property ? — Land is, and long has been, outlawed in Virginia; and yet it is considered wonderful that her interest should dwindle and waste. * * * We have long thought with our correspondent that our law respecting enclosures is one of the heaviest and most unreasonable of all the-bm-dens that the farmers of Virginia have fixed upon their own shoulders. The ex- pense of the fencing in lower and middle Virginia which is required (not to confine the farmers' own stock, but) to guard against depredations of the stock of other peo- ple, must consume nearly half the average clear profit (or fair rent) of the land. Many are the tracts belong- ing to widows and orjAans, which are left vmoccupied, and unproductive, because the expense of legal fencing would cost more than the rent the land would afterwards yield. New York, June 27th, 1833. I am glad to see old Virginia turning her atten- tion to the improvement of agriculture, the great source of the wealth, power, and virtues of every slate, and most especially of yours. The gains of commerce and manufactures may be greater, but they are less secure than those of the cultivator of the land ; he is not the slave of foreign or domes- tic legislation : nor does he depend on an act of Congress to decide whether he shall be a beggar or a king. His prosperity depends on himself and his God; and so long as the dews and the rains fall, and the sun shines in the heavens, though the whole foreign world were convulsed, he cannot starve. Like the fabled giant of Grecian story, the Virginian cannot be overthrown, so long as he keeps fast hold of his native soil. You may see the other states riding for awhile on their manu- factures and their commerce, passing you in the race of wealth, and outglittering you in baubles and extravagance; but you will, if you are not ca- joled or bullied out of your true policy, still adhere to agriculture as the great source of j'our prospe- rity. Then you will see the pageants of the pa- per, the tariff systems, and all the mushroom growth of modern political economists, pass away generation after generation, leaving nothing be- hind them but the wrecks of their career, while Virginia walks steadily onward, moderately, last- ingly, independent and happy. King George County, July ith. * * * You would do good service to many young farmers like myself, by publishing the best treatise with which you are acquainted, upon the cultivation of Indian corn — and by calling upon your correspondents to state the- method pursued by the most successful cultivators of this staple. — 186 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. I myself feel the want of particular details upon this subject, from the running of the first corn fur- row to the housing of the product. May I also suggest the benefit of a Price Cur- rent ? It is convenient for reference hereafter, if not immediate use. We had supposed that a monthly price current would be of little vakie to our subscribers, and therefore made no arrangement for the purpose: but if it is desired, there will be no objection on our part. We recommend to the attention of our readers, the request of our correspondent, to be informed as to the best mode of cultivating corn. So many different and conflicting opinions and practices prevail, that old and experienced, as well as " young farmers," would be be- nefitted by the exhibition of views on this important subject. July 14, 1833. CHEAP FARMING. I have been much gratified by the receipt and perusal of your first No. of the Farmers' Register. I wish your paper may have the effect of pro- ducing some amendment in our farming ; and that you inay be remunerated for your labor, and good intentions. I am greatly fearful howevei= of your success in both respects. We Virginia farmers, (I mean such as I am, who are at least four fifths of the v/holc,) require to have some plan devised, by which, Avithout much labor and with ?io expense, we may improve our lands, and that speedily, or we will remove to the west- ern forests, and encounter all the labor and priva- tions attending a new settlement. We have no notion of submitting to the tardy and laborious systems of your real farmer. We go for a kind of slight of hand or no work plan — or we are off. Our general course of operations has been, to cultivate our lands in corn one year, and rest them in wheat the next ; and so on, until they are pre- pared for a good crop of old field pines — the best crop by the way, since the introduction of steam boats, of the whole. A piece of land, thus highly improved, I got pos- session of some years ago; but instead of waiting patiently for the pine crop, I determined I would cultivate it every year in corn, until I got it rich; and this too without manure, although I lived near a town where any quantity might have been had ; but I scorned all snch foreign aid. I prepared the land early, and having procured some buckAvheat, I mixed it with oats, and sowed them in March or April. In due time, I planted my corn in drills, say eight feet apart. I ran a single coulter deep on each side : hoed and thinned the corn ; and, in due course, turned a slice to it, and gave it another dressing with the hoes. I took no more than was absolutely necessary for the corn, from the oats and buckwheat, until it became proper to break the middlings, and lay by the corn. By this time the oats were so matured that the seed would vegetate. I preceded the plough by coultering deep with a single coulter, so as to pulverize the middlings, and then turned them with their coat of oats and buckwheat on the corn, drawing the dirt over the straw with hoes, so as to cover it up pretty well. The corn was a sorry crop, but the ground was well co.vered with young oats. These I turned in in the fall, and proceeded in like manner, the next year ; with this differ- ence, that I had no buckwheat to mix with my oats. This was a bad look out : but as it required some little foresight and management to avoid this mishap, it was beyond me. I had heard of the cliinch-bug, but had never seen it : and knew not its great fondness for oats. My last ploughing, instead of destroying, saved it even the trouble of travelling to the corn : It had nothing to do but to " arise, slay, and eat." Being thus rudely and unexpectedly assailed in my grand experiment, I had nothing left but to sow the land down in rye, which I had tried, without success, before I began my experiment. From what cause it proceeded you know better than I do, but so it is, I have rarely seen a heavier crop of rye than I obtained from this sowing. I sold the land soon after, and so ends that ex- periment. I have lately purchased another tract, improved to the pine crop state also — insomuch, that a crop of rye on part of a field where I purchased, was too mean to be cut, and I ran a harrow over it so as to prostrate it. I observed that even this slight cover produced such a change in the appearance of the ground that I determined last fall to make another experiment, if such it may be called. After taking off a crop of wheat, preceded by one of corn, as usual, and after pasturing the land with stock of every kind, as imprudently as any experimentalist could require, in testing a plan to counteract bad management ; and after all my other crops were sowed, I harrowed half a bushel of rye to the acre, not in, but on land thus beat hard by the hoof. It formed no part of my plan to have preceded this operation by deep coultering. That would have been too much like your laborious farming. Plaster would cost money as well as time to sow it, and that also was entirely out of my line. In this situation the field was left to shift for it- self, except that I kept every thing off it until the rye Avas ripe. The crop proved better than, under such circumstances, could be expected. The field Avas also well covered Avith white and red clover, and Avhat Ave call ribAvort or narrow plantain, (I don't knoAv its botanical name ;) but if it is good for any thing, it must be an excellent grass for bad farmers, for it Avill groAv in any place and on any kind of land. I intended to have prostrated the rye by run- ning a harrow over it, (for I have no roller,) but hoAv can it be expected I would take so much time and trouble.'' It Avould have covered the ground much better, it is true, and no doubt Avould have added greatly to its improvement ; but I never have time to do any thing, however proper, that can possibly be avoided — and so I have contented myself Avith turning in my hogs first, and finally my cattle, horses, and every thing, to eat and tread it doAvn, intending this fall and win- ter to turn in this cover of straw and grass, and plant corn next year. The adjoining field, noAv in Avheat, I Avill treat in the same Avay this fall, and prepare it for corn, to take its course the year after next ; and as these fields are better adapted to corn than Avheat, I mean to cultivate them afterAvards, alternately, in corn, harroAving rye in after the corn is cut off, Avith some clover and timothy seed, (if I can mus- ter energy and cash enough,) so as to have as heavy a cover as possible to tread, pasture down, and FARMERS' REGISTER— LABORERS IN ENGLISH FACTORIES. 187 turn in, during the fall and winter preceding the corn crop. If I can discover a place in this, or some such way, to improve our lands, without trouble or ex- pense ; indeed one which will overpay iis at once, for any little trouble or expense we may be at, it may enable my class of farmers to remain in the Ancient Dominion, otherwise (unless indeed you can reclaim us and our lands too,) we must re- move. But seriously speaking, my dear sir, could you not cast this matter in your mind, and mature some simple plan of this kind, that might, as an entering wedge, do some good, and strike tiie at- tention of that great class of farmers, who, from habit, &c. are incapable, at once, of any great and efficient change ? I little expected, when I took up my pen, to trouble you with my crude and unsatisfactory no- tions, for they can't be called experiments — much less to offer any thing to the public eye. This you will at once see is not my object. Deciphering such pieces is a price you will have to pay. We will have 'our money's worth out of you in some way or other. I would be ashamed though to expect an answer, other than such hints, if this shall have suggested any, as you may deem it proper to give us in your paper. By the way, you can also inform us in that way, whether you are acquainted with the ribwort, and what you think of it as an improving grass. It has entirely taken possession of my farm, and I begin to entertain hopes it will prove a valuable grass : if it is not there is no getting clear of it. If our correspondent has had " his money's worth out of us," we will take the Uberty of getting it back by pubhshing his letter: his satire will amuse, if it does not indirectly help to benefit, that class of farmers, of which he professes to be an example. We know of no plan by which improvements may be made and profits gained, without labor and expense — and if we did, its promulgation might reduce Virginia to a still lower state than at present. It is most benefi- cial for man to be obliged to labor assiduously, or to starve — but in return for his labor, to be sure of obtain- ing profit and reward. It is precisely in those parts of Virginia where the support (and even many of the luxuries) of life cost scarcely an effort to obtain, and where land is either rich or highly improvable, as well as low priced, that there are more fortunes spending, and fewer accumulating, by the owners of the soil, than in any other part of the commonwealth. We recommend to tlie attention of other correspond- ents, the inquiries respecting ribwort. , Smdh Carolina, July 8, 1833. * * * Permit me to add my most ardent wishes for the entire success of your efforts to re- store the Old Dominion to her proper scale in agriculture. Her resources, though hitherto much abused and neglected, if brought out, even at this late day, will give her that station among her sis- ter states, which her soil, products, and above all, the character of her people entitle her to hold. — The same causes which have depressed agriculture in Virginia, operate here to an alarming degree. We prefer moving to the virgin soil of the west, to restoring by proper and judicious culture, tlie land given to us by our ancestors. Political causes also have had a most powerful effect in checking the exertions of the planter in South Carolina. A deep, and I fear, a just belief that the improper legislation of the federal government, has been the cause of our present depressed situation, has become almost universal among our citizens. — There is much truth in all the causes, but no cir- cumstances which have yet existed, can afford any excuse for the want of industry and perseverance on the part of an agriculturist. Nansemond, July \st. -In analyzing marl, do you take a piece of it entirely separated from earth, or just as the marl is found .'' To examine and report correctly the strength of any body of marl, a fair sample of the whole body, (one of each kind, if the quality varies at different depths,) should be used. Sometimes the materials vary so much, (as when large and whole shells have their interstices filled with sand,) that no small sample can show the average value. In such case, dig out as much as a gal- lon, or more, frbm one place, pound the whole coarsely, so that the shells are broken down to a size not greater than peas — mix the whole together, and again take from it a small quantity as a specimen, which pound finely — and from it, weigh the forty to sixty grains to be ana- lyzed according to either of the two methods described minutely in the Essay on Calcareous Manures. For the Farmers' Register. THE SLAVES OF HUNGER, Or condition of the laborers in English Factories. " In our benevolent zeal for the removal of slavery, we should not forget that there are afflictions, numerous, wide- spread, and iniavoidable in the most refined and advanced state of society, that are even more intolerable than the slave's toil, stimu- lated by the slave ov/ner's lash. The substance, though not the name of slavery is to be found almost every where in this mise- rable world — and the few favored spots now free from such causes of human suffering, must in their turn be visited with like inflictions. Except in newly settled countries, or in others having as yet a sparse population and plentiful means of subsis- tence, and a free government withal, the laboring poor are slaves in fact, either to individuals, to government, or to then' own craving and never satisfied necessities. The negro slaves of Vir- ginia present striking examples of the first kind — the peoijle of Egypt, and emancipated Hayti of the second — and the entire la- boring population of free and philanthropic England of the third." — Farmers'' Register, p. 48, No. 1. The people of the United States have been as yet happily exempt from the suffering caused by the extremity of bodily laborand privation; and for that reason, assertions like those in the forego- ing passage, will not be readily believed by any who are acquainted only with the different systems of encouraging or of forcing labor in this country. The following proofs and illustrations of the state of misery produced by the slavery to hunger, are . more than sufficient to remove those doubts : but they present a state of human suffering, and human degradation, so horrible, that we can scarcely con- ceive the reality of such things being either ex- acted or suffered by human beings. Yet no proofs can be more positive. The testimony that will be quoted is extracted by Fraser's Magazine from the evidence taken by the committee of the House cf Commons on the Factory Bill, and the com- ments thereon, which follow, are from the speech of Mr. Sadler, the introducer and supporter of that bill, and from Blackwood's Magazine, (the notorious apologist for the abuses of the govern- ment, and of tlie general policy of Great Britain.) 188 FARMERS' REGISTER—LABORERS IN ENGLISH FACTORIES. From Frascr's Magazine. NATIONAL ECONOMY. - We have said, that the manufacturers have entered upon a desperate career of competition — a career which impels them to ever-increasing exertions, without i-e- gard to the misery thereby occasioned. Let the follow- ing extracts from the Evidence taken by the Committee of the House of Commons on the Factonj-bill, corroborate and explain this statement : — Benjamin Bradshaw is asked : " Do you conceive that this labor has been increas- ing since you were first acquainted with mills and fac- tories?" " Yes, it has increased a good deal these few years past. I can remember when it was considered vitterly improper to work them longer than from six to seven ; but now it is not so." Daniel Frasir is asked : " Is it complained of in those places, as it has been made a matter of complaint in many others, that the la- bor of the silk-mills has become more fatiguing than it formerly was ?" " Yes ; and they remark that it is not the same remunerative employment that it used to be ; that there is not the same sustenance afforded to the children ; in short, that they have to work longer hours and get less meat." — "The question has particu- lar reference to the labor imposed upon the children and young persons ; is that more severe than it was — have they more to do — more si^indles to mind !" " Yes, and they are urged more to their work than they used to be, which imports that the system has become worse." William Rastrick is asked : " Is there a tendency in this system to become rather better, cfr is the work required more, and the labor alto- gether severer than it formerly was ?" *' It is decided- ly worse within the last four or five years than it used lo be ?" — " Is there more work required of the children than there used to be v/hen you first knew the busi- ness?" " Yes ; on account of the competition which ex- ists between masters ; one undersells the other ; conse- quently the master endeavors to get an equal quantity of work done for less money." John Allett is asked : " Will you state, upon your own knowledge, whether the hours of labor have not been considerably increased (that is, in brisk times) since you were acquainted with factories ?" "When I went at first to factories, I was at work about eleven hours a-day ; but the time has in- creased to fifteen, to sixteen, and sometimes to eighteen hours," — "Is the labor of the children and young per- sons in those mills more severe, as well as longer, than it was when you first commenced that business ?" " Yes, doubly so ; I do not hes'tate to say doubly so." Charles Aberdeen is asked : " Do you think that there is double the quantity of labor required from the children that there used to be'?" "lam confident of it ; since I have been working at the firm of Lambert, Hoole, and Jackson, I have done twice the quantity of work that I used to do, and for less wages." And another passage or two from the same Evidence, gives us a little light into the manner in which the screw is perpetually applied, in order to get out of the human machines the utmost possible quantity of work : Stephen Binns is asked : " Does the machinery go more easily now than it used to do ?" "If I have a machinery-room to overlook, I have thirty hands in the room to manage this machine- ry. When I deliver in my note of the time and the work, the master sees what quantity of work has been produced from those hands, and he sees the quantity of money that has been paid, and he goes round the room, and thinks 'I can do with one hand less ;' and he says, ' There are five in that row generally — you can do with one less ; offer each of them 3d. a week more if they will do with one less ;' and then by the encouragement, the giving 3d. a week for a less quantity of hands, they perform the same work upon that machinery." — "Is the work done equally well?" "Yea; but it is more fa- tiguing." "But still the children are willing to do so for an advance of wages ?" " Yes ; I have Mr. James and Mr. John Marshall go roimd the frames, and I have heard say afterwards, that they have asked the girls if they could not mind another spindle or two spindles more, and if they could, they would give them 3rf. more ; that is, if they would mind ten spindles instead of eight." Joshua Drake is asked : "What I mean to ask is, whether those who have been employed have not had more to do in a given time ?" " Lately they have put three children upon four children's work ; it took place three months ago at Mr. Sheepshank's mill ; and last Monday morning but one it took place at Bruce, Dorrington, and Wal- ker's, without any notice to the children ; and, in con- sequence of this arrangement, one child in every billy was thrown out of work." This, then, is the course things are now taking ; and from these fi\cts many persons will learn how it come to pass that an outcry has lately been raised, heretofore unknown, for some regulation of the hours of labor. The truth is, that a system of gradual increase of toil has been long going on, and the extreme point of endur- ance has lately been passed. Hence the present cry for relief— a cry which we trust will never cease, until full and complete relief is afforded. Mr. Sadler's bill, however, is only directed to one point; but that is by far the most important point of the case. Its object is merely to rescue the little chil- dren of the manufacturing districts from that most cruel and all but exterminating state of slavery in which they are now held. We call it slavery, with deliberation, be- cause, the toil being excessive, destructive of the child's health and morals, and such as no parent ought to sub- ject his child unto, — the parents are yet compelled, by the threat of absolute starvation, to force their children to undertake it. The proof of this coercion is given in the Evidence, as follows : William Osburn, Esq. is asked : " Supposing that the parents applying for relief for their children, refused to allow them to labor in mills or factories, in consequence of their believing and know- ing that such labor would be prejudicial to their health, and probably destructive of their lives, would they, in the mean time, have had any relief from the workhouse board, or from you, as overseer, merely on the ground that the children could not bear that labor?" "Cer- tainly not." — "Would it be accepted as an excuse for not working, that they could not conform to those long hours of labor?" " Certainly not." — " So that the chil- dren of the poor, and their parents, have no alternative in such cases, but submitting their children to this ex- travagant length of labor, or exposing them to absolute want and starvation, as the consequence of refusing so to be employed ?" " None what ever." Thomas Bennett is asked: " When you were working in the mill, were you bound, when required, to work those long hours?" "Yes; if I had not done it, my master would have got somebody else that would." — " And the parish officers would not have relieved you if you had left?" "No, they would have said, ' You refused to work.' " — "You would then have been left to starve ?" "Yes." Samuel Colson is asked ; "If you had refused to allow your children to be so worl^ed, you could not get any relief from the parish ?" " None whatever." — " So that you had no alternative but that excessive slavery or starvation?" "Yes, we must either .submit to their laws, or starve to death, for at no other place could we get them employed." — "Are you not able to support your children without sending them to a mill?" "No ; I have not had 2s. a week of labor for many weeks together." Joseph Hebergan is asked : " Were there other children at the mill that were al- so made ill by this labor, and who became deformed in like manner?" " Yes, there were some very often sick, FARMERS* REGISTER— LABORERS IN ENGLISH FACTORIES. 189 and some were deformed ; but the pai'ents ivho were able to support their children took them away, in con- sequence of seeing that they would be deformed if they did not take them away." — "Your mother being a wi- dow, and having but little, could not afford to take you away ?" " No." — "Would the parish have relieved you, if your mother had taken you away ?" " No, she has oftentimes been to them, but she was ho better for it. I have seen her weep oftentimes, and I have asked her why she was weeping, but she would not tell rae then, but she has told me since." — "What did she tell you affected her ?" " Seeing my limbs giving way by work- ing such long hours." Such, then, is the situation of these poor creatures, as to what is called their free agency. In fact no one can read the horrible details contained in the volume of evidence, and imagine for an instant that any human be- ings would submit to the sufferings there detailed, if it were in their power to escape from them. Into these frightful details we must now, for a short time, enter. Having alluded to them we must justify the language we have used ; we will do this, and much more. In fact, the common terms of horror and indignation are inadequate to the expression of feelings excited by this dreadful picture. We mvist therefore leave the poor creatures to tell their story in their own words, without incumbering it with our remarks. The evil mainly and principally lies in the excessive length of the labor exacted. From this source all the other evils of the system flow ; and therefore it is, that the main object of Mr. Sadler's bill is to limit the hours of attendance to twelve per day, i. e. ten of labor, with two for meals. The following extracts are from Blackwood's Magazine, on the same bill and evidence. " The following were the hours of labor imposed up- on the children employed in a Factory at Leeds the summer before last. On Monday morning work com- menced at six o'clock ; at nine, half an hour for break- fast; fromhalf-pastnine till twelve, work. Dinner, one hour; from five till eight, work; rest for half an hour. From half-past eight till twelve, (midnight,) work ; an hour's rest. From one in the morning till five, work; half an hour's rest. From half past five till nine, work ; breakfast. From half-past nine till twelve, work ; din- ner ; from one till half-past four, work. Rest half an hour ; and work again from five till nine on Tuesday evening, when the labor terminated, "and the parly of adult and infant slaves''^ are dismissed for the night, after having toiled thirty-nine hours, with brief intervals (amounting only to six hours in the whole) for refresh- ment, but none for sleep. On Wednesday and Thurs- day, day-work only. From Friday morning till Satiu-- day night, the same labor repeated, but closed at five — to show that even such masters can be merciful. This is one of the extreme cases, but they are not of very rare occurrence ; ordinarily the working hours vary from twelve to fourteen ; they are often extended to six- teen ; but in some mills (are we right in saying so ?) they seldom exceed twelve for children." ****** " Who'ever," says Mr. Sadler, "has lived in a manu- facturing town, must have heard, if he happened to be awake many hours before light on a winter's morning, the patter of little pattens on the jmvement, lasting perhaps for half an hour together, though the time appointed for assembling was the same." She works for some hours before breakfast, after what some folks would have called no supper — and then what a breakfast — co- vered with dust ! Nor is she allowed to eat it, such as it is, sitting ; but must swallow a mouthful now and then as best she may, standing and working at the beck of that engine. ' 'At mid-day, " to dinner with what appetite she may," and some hours after, a cup of thin sugarless tea, for nothing else Avill stay on her stomach. There is a de- mand— and work must go on till mid-night. She gets drowsy, and lies down on the floor to snatch some sleep. The overlooker espies her white face upon her thin arm for a pillow — blue ej-ehdsshut — pale lips apart; and, to cure that lazy trick, dashes over her head, and neck, and breast,and body, a bucket full of water. Wellmay our le- gislator laugh at the recital, for all the imps there laugh louder than he at the reality, and it cannot be denied, that the practical joke is of the first water. And now the whole gang of small sweaty sickly slaves is at work in spite of the stupor of sleepiness, — and how think ye do they contrive to keep themselves awake? By all man- ner of indecencies of look, speech, and action, possible in purgatory. Fathers have sworn to it, and wished they had been childless. Weak, sickly, rickety, chick- en-breasted, crooked, decrepit, spine-distorted Sally, scarcely nine years old, to that leering deformed dwarf Daniel, answers obscenity to obscenity, at which the street-walking prostitute would shudder, and fear the downfall of the day of judgment !" INFANT LAEOR IN ENGLISH FACTORIES. At the close of an article on this subject, in an English magazine — in which many instances of cruel suffering are related — the following verses are given.* Many of our readers will find it difficult to realize the scenes we have placed before them, — scenes so abhorent to the feelings, as to find admission into the mind only with great difliculty. Verse will sometimes gain a way where dry prose is rejected from the memory. An af- fecting fact, stated by the witness Gillet Sharp (page 210 of the Evidence) has been thrown into rhyme, and we give it, without consulting the writer. Let the read- er observe, that it conveys merely a simple statement of a fiict which really took place, and which, we fear we must add, is of no uncommon occurrence. " 'Twas on a winter's morning, The weather wet and wild, Three hours before the dawning, The father roused his child ; Her daily morsel bringing, The darksome room he paced. And cried, 'The bell is ringing. My hapless darling, haste !" ' Father, I'm up, but weary, I scarce can reach the door. And long the way and dreary, — O carry me once more ! To help us we've no mother, And you've no employ ; They killed my little brother, — Like him I'll work and die !' Her wasted form seem'd nothing, — The load was at his heart ; The sufferer he kept soothing Till at the mill they part. The overlooker met her. As to her frame she crept, And with his thong he beat her, And cursed her as she v.'ept. Alas ! what hours of horror Made up her latest day ; In toil, and pain, and sorrow, They slowly passed away: It seemed, as she grew weaker, The threads the oftener broke, The rapid wheels ran quicker, And heavier fell the stroke. The sun had long descended. But night brought no repose ; Her day began and ended As cruel tyrants chose. ♦ This last article is taken from Littell's Dollar Magazine, and the name of that editor is a sufficient guarantee for the selection having been made truly and honestly. The verses have been published in some of our northern papers deprived of the last stanza. 190 FARMERS' REGISTER— THE POTATO— UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. At length a little neighbor Her halfpenny she paid, To take her last hour's labor, While by her frame she laid. At last, the engine ceasing, The captives homeward rushed ; She thought her strength increasing— 'Twas hope her spirits flushed. She left, but oft she tarried ; She fell and rose no more. Till, by her comrades carried, She reached her father's door. All night, with tortured feeling. He watched his speechless child ; While, close beside her kneeling, She knew him not, nor smiled. Again the Factory's ringing Her last perceptions tried ; When from her straw-bed spi'inging, ' 'Tis time !' she shrieked, and died That night a chariot passed her, While on the ground she lay; The daughters of her master An evening visit pay ; Their tender hearts were sighing As negro wrongs were told, While the white slave was dying Who gained their father's gold!" EFFECTS OF REMOVING THE FLOWERS AND STEMS OF THE POTATO. Translated, for the Farmers' Register, from the ^' Journal d''- JlgricuHure etc. des Fays JSas." In the last year, the Director of the lloj^al Horticul- tural Institute, of Fromont, planted a certain number of potatoes, as equal as possible, at the usual distance and in the usual manner, izi a soil of the same nature through- out. All the roots received the same tillage, to the se- cond hilling inclusively. The whole plantation was then divided into four lots 23erfectly equal : the first was left to grow at liberty, and without suppressing, or taking ofi' any part of the plants ; from the second lot, all the flowers were removed as they appeared. The third lot had all the shoots cut off at half their length, at the precise time of flowering, so that only the lower leaves were preserved. Lastly, on the fourth lot, all the stems and leaves were cut off close to the earth, or just over the top of the hill. These are the relative differences which these operations caused in the product of roots. Product of Potatoes. Lot of which nothing was suppressed, - - 7 Lot of which all the flowers were taken off" as they appeared, ------ 8 Lot of which the shoots were cut at half their length, ------ 5 Lot of which the stalks were cut close to the earth, 2i We see by this experiment that the suppression of the flowers, or rather the preventing the developement of the fruits and seeds, augmented the product of roots one seventh. There are persons who say that they have obtained one fifth more by this procedure ; but it is probable that their calculation was deficient in exactness. It is always true that the suppression of the flowers increases the product of the roots. The same experiment shows that the removing of half the stems and leaves diminished the product of roots by two sevenths : this is a warning to persons who inconsiderately cut tlie tops of their potatoes, to feed cattle, or for other uses. Lastly, we see that the fourth lot lost about two thirds of the product of roots, by having the plants cut off close to the earth — an example striking enough of the utility of leaves, in the production and developement of the lower parts of a plant. It is not only that the leaves draw up the sap, or determine it to mount from the roots to the stems, but they also absorb much nou- rishment from the air, which they send back to the lower parts of the plant. Those persons who pretend that by taking away the leaves of beets (or mangel wurtzel) repeatedly during the summer and autumn, they do not injure the growth and ultimate size of the roots, are certainly in error. I know well that there are circumstances in which we are forced to gather the leaves of our beets to feed cattle ; but it is not less true, that in this case we are eating our com in the blade. University of Virginia. The ninth session of this University was closed on Thursday, the 18lh of July, 1833, by the following Public Exercises, lield in presence of the Board of Visiters, and of a large and respectable audience. 1st. An Essay on Popular Education, by Dr. Socrates Maupin, of Albemarle. 2nd. An Essay on Fictitious Writing, by James L. Cabell, of Nelson. 3rd. The Chaii-man of the Faculty announced as in the following list, the names of those Students who had distinguished themselves at the Public Examinations held during the session. The numbers indicate the ex- aminations at which the Student gained this honor, and the names are placed in alphabetical order. SCHOOL OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES. Senior Greek Class. James A, Chapman, of Orange, at the IstExaniination. Junior Greek Class. Thomas T. Bouldin, Charlotte, 1st and 2d. Frederick W. Coleman, Caroline, 1st. Thomas Leigh, Halifax, 1st and 2d. George Wm. Ranson, Berkeley, 1st. Latin Class. Thomas T. Bouldin, Charlotte, 1st and 2d. Jacob D. Dudley, Richmond city, 2d. Robert S. French, Norfolk, 2d. Thomas Leigh, HaUfax, 1st and 2d. Roman Geography. [One Examination in this Class.] Thomas T. Bouldin, Charlotte. John H. Christian, Richmond city. John F. Ciu-tis, Hanover. Jacob D. Dudley, Richmond city. Thomas Leigh, Halifax. George L. Nicholson, Middlesex. Robert W. Tomlin, Hanover. SCHOOL OF MODERN LANGUAGES. French Literature, Senior Class. James M. Bramliam, Albemarle, 2d. John N. Brockenbrough, Albemarle, 1st. Thomas L. Patterson, University, 2d. French Language, Junior Class. David W. Brodnax, Dinwiddle, 1st. Archibald Cary, Fluvanna, 1st. Waslungton Van Hamm, Ohio, 2d. George SicLeod, Wasliington city, 1st and 2d. Socrates Maujjin, Albemarle, 1st. George Wm. Ranson, Berkeley, 1st and 2d. William S. Triplett, Riclnnond, 1st and 2d. Spanish Language, Senior Class. JolinB. Lynch, Tennessee, 1st and 2d, Washington Van Hamm, Ohio, 2d. George Wm. Ranson, Berkeley, 2d. Spanish Literature, Senior Class. Thomas H. Ellis, Richmond city, 2d. Washington Van Hamm, Zanesville, Ohio, 2d. George Wm. Ranson, Berkeley, 2d. Spanish Language, Junior Class. Archibald Cary, Fluvanna, 1st. George McLeod, Washington city, 1st. Socrates Maupm, Albemarle, 1 st. Italian Language, Senior Class. Thomas H. Ellis, Richmond city, 1st. Italian Literature, Senior Class. Thomas H. Ellis, Richmond city, 1st. FARMERS' REGISTER— UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. 191 Italian Language, Junior Class. Archibald Carey, Fluvanna, 1st. George McLeod, Wasliington city, 1 st. Socrates Maupin, Albemarle, 1st. German Language, Senior Class. George Schley, Frederick, Maryland, 1st. German Language, Junior Class. "Washington Van Hamm, Zanesville, Oliio, 2d, Socrates Maupin, Albemarle, 1st. Thomas L. Patterson, University, 3d. SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS. Third Class. John F. Curtis, Hanover, 1st. Frederick W. Coleman, Caroline, 1 st. Jacob D. Dudley, Richmond, 1st and 2d. Francis S. Sampson, Goochland, 1st and 2d. Overton D. Watson, Albemarle, 1st. Robert H. Weightman, Washington city, 2d. Fourth Class, {Junior Class ) Alexander Baylor, Essex, 1st and 2d. Thomas T. Bouldin, Charlotte, 1st and 2d. David W. Brodnax, Dinwiddle, 1st. John C. Burrus, Huntsville, Alabama, 1st and 2d. S. D. Cabaniss, Madison county, Alabama, 1st and 2d. John H. Christian, Richmond city, 1st. John M. Forbes, Stafibrd, 1st. John W. Harris, Nelson, 1st and 2d. John B. Lightfoot, Caroline, 1st. Richard Morris, Hanover, 1st. William W. Minor, Albemarle 1 st. George L. Nicholson, Middlesex, 1st and 2d. Thomas B. Robertson, Petersburg, 1st. SCHOOL OF NATURAL HISTORY. Willis P. Bocock, Buckingham, 1st and 2d. Thomas T. Bouldin, Charlotte, 1st and 2d. John C. Burrus, Huntsville, Alabama, 2d. John H. Christian, Richmond city, 1st and 2d. John F. Curtis, Hanover, 2d. Jacob D. Dudle}', Richmond city, 1st and 2d. John M. Forbes, Stafford, 1st. John G. Fidton, Augusta, 1 st. John W. Harris, Nelson, 2d. George L. Nicholson, Middlesex, Jst. Micajah Pickett, Mississippi, 1st. Zebulon M. P. Powers, King and CXueen, 2d. Overton D. Watson, Albeniarle, 2d. John R. Woods, Albemarle, 2d. SCHOOLof CHEMISTRY & MATERIA MEDIC A. Class of Chemistry. William A.Baynham, Essex, 1st and 2d. Albert G. Chewning, Orange, 2d. William Davis, Lynchbm-g, 1st. John Grattan, Rockingham, 1st. Joseph M. Newman, Shenandoah, 1 st and 2d. Charles H. Randolph, Richmond, 1st. Robert A. Read, Bedford, 2d. Robert W. Tomlin, Hanover, 1st. William F. Turner, Jefferson, 1st. Class of Materia Medica, William A. Baynham, Essex, 1 st- Albert G. Chewning, Orange 1st and 2d. William Davis, Lynchburg, 1 st. John Grattan, Rockingham, 1 st. Peter T. Johnson, Albemarle, 1st. James A. Leitch, Albemarle, 1st. John Mayo,"Richmond, 1st. Samuel Miller, Jr. Rockingham, 1st. Moses M. Pallen, Richmond, 1st and 2d. John B. Radford, Bedford, 1st. Thomas Withers, Jr. Dmwiddie, 1st. Carter W. Wormeley, Fredericksburg. 1st. SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. &c. William A. Baynham, Essex, 1st and 2d. Albert G. Chewning, Orange, 1st and 2d. William Davis, Lynchburg, 1st and 2d. John Grattan, Rockingham, 2d. James A. Leitch, Albemarle, 1st. Moses M. Pallen, Richmond, 1st. ' John B. Radford, Lynchbm-g, 1st. Medical Jurisprudence. Alexander A. Austin, Hahfax, N. C. Lawrence Carr, Albemarle. William Finley, Augusta. John D. Morris, Hanover. William M. Randolph, Powhatan. John C • R. Taylor, Frederick. David H. Turpin, Mississippi. William S. Woods, Albemarle. SCHOOL OF ANATOMY AND SURGERY* Wilham A. Baynham, Essex, 1st and 2d. James L. Cabell, Nelson, 1st. Albert G. Chewning, Orange, 1 st and 2d. William Davis, Lynchburg, 2d. William J. Dulaney, Orange, 1st. John Grattan, Rockingham, 1 st. Moses M. Pallen, Richmond, 1st and 2d. James W. Poindexter, Louisa, 2d. Thomas Withers, Jr. Dinwiddle, 1st. SCHOOL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY, Senior Class. Alexander A. Austin, Hahfax, N. C. 1st and 2d. Richard Parker, Frederick, 1 st and 2d. Francis S. Sampson, Goochland, 2d. Junior Class. Douglas H. Cooper, Mississippi, 1st. Washington Van Hamm, Ohio, 1st. John B. Lightfoot, CaroUne, 2d. Charles Minor, Louisa, 2d. Robert W. Tomlin, Hanover, 2d. WiUiam F. Turner, Jefferson, 1st. SCHOOL OF LAW. Senior Class. Lawrence Carr, Albemarle, 2d. Burwell G. Garth, Albemarle, 2d. William M. Randolph, Powhatan, 2d. John C, R. Taylor, Frederick, 2d. Junior Class. Alexander A. Austin, Halifax, N. C. 2d. John H. Cochran, Loudoun, 1st. Alexander S. Matthews, Wythe, 1st. Socrates Maupin, Albemarle, 1st. Wilham M. Randolph, Powhatan, 1st and 2d. William S. Woods, Albemarle, 1st. 4ih. An Oration on our Country, by McCIurg Wick- ham, of Richmond city. 5th. An Essay on American Literature, by Robert G. Cabell, of Richmond city. 6th. DEGREES ANii CERTIFICATES Were conferred, by the Chairman, on the following stu- dents, who had been admitted, by the Faculty, to these honors, in the several schools and classes mentioned below : IN THE SCHOOL OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 1 st. In the Greek Language and Literature. Francis S. Sampson, Goochland. Archibald Cary, Fluvanna. 2(Z. In the Latin Language and Literature. Frederick W. Coleman, Caroline. George G. Minor, Albemarle. Richard Morris, Hanover. Francis G. Ruffin, Hanover. 3d. In both of the above Languages. James H. Davis, Albemarle. WiUiam L. Harris, Prince Edward. Martin Hart, Middlesex, Socrates Maupin, Albemarle. Andrew R. McKee, Albemarle. Hugh M. Nelson, Hanover. George Schley, Frederick, Maryland. John B. Young, Henrico. IN THE SCHOOL OF MODERN LANGUAGES, In the French Language. Thomas H. Ellis, Riclunond city. George Schley, Frederick, Maryland. 192 FARMERS' REGISTER— FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. IN THE SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS. John H. Cochran, Loudoun. James H. Davis, Albemarle. Wasliington Van Hamm, Ohio. John A. Meredith, New Kent. Charles Minor, Louisa. John B. Minor, Louisa. Zebulon M. P. Powers, King and Glueen. Thomas L. Preston, Washington county. Charles H. Randolph, Richmond city. Edmund Ruffin, Prince George. IN THE SCHOOL of NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. William F. Brand, New Orleans. Archibald Cary, Fluvanna. John H. Cochran, Loudoun. James H. Davis, Albemarle. John B. Lynch, Tennessee. John A. Meredith, New Kent. Benjamin F. Minor, Albemarle. Charles Minor, Louisa. Thomas L. Preston, Washington county. Charles FI. Randolph, Richmond city. Edmund Ruffin, Prince George. Ffancis S. Sampson, Goochland, Robert C. Stanard, Richmond city. John Hanson Thomas, Richmond city. William F. Turner, Jefferson. John B. Young, Henrico. IN THE SCHOOL OP CHEMISTRY. William F. Brand, New Orleans. James L. Cabell, Nelson. Richaid Cross, Louisa. James H. Davis, Albemarle. James A. Leitch, Albemarle. John B. Lynch, Tennessee. John B. Minor, Louisa. JoseiDh F. Montgomery, Nelson. Hugh M. Nelson, Hanover. Moses M. Fallen, Richmond city. John B. Radford, Bedford. Robert C. Stanard, Richmond city. McCIiu'g Wickham, Riclunond city. William B. Wilbourn, Nelson. IN THE SCHOOL of MORAL PHILOSOPHY, &c. James L. Cabell, Nelson. John H. Cochran, Loudoun. William D. Hodges, Nansemond. Benjamin F. Minor, Albemarle. Hugh M. Nelson, Hanover. Robert C. Stanard, Richmond city. John W. Stevenson, Richmond cJty. McClurg Wicliliam, Richmond city. Jolm B. Young, Henrico. In the Class of Political Economy. Henry R. Carter, Amherst. William D. Hodges, Nansemond. John D. Morris, Hanover. Lilburn H. Trigg, Washington county. Jolin B. Young, Henrico. IN THE SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE, (with the Degree of Doctor of Medicine.) Robert G. Cabell, Riclimond city. Wilham G. Carr, Albemarle. Richard Cross, Louisa. Joseph F. Montgomery, Nelson. Joseph M. Newinan, Shenandoah. Robert A. Read, Bedford. Benjamin F. Trice, Louisa. WiUiam B. Wilboiu-n, Nelson. IN THE SCHOOL OF LAW. Willis P. Bocock, Buckinghiuia. William D. Hodges, Nansemond. Richard Parker, Frederick. Thomas Semmes, jr. Alexandria, D. C. Cabell Tavenner, Wood. 7th. The following Students havingreceived separate degrees in the schools of Ancient Languages, Mathe- matics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and Moral Philosophy, were declared Graduates of the University, with the title of Master of Arts of the University of Vir- ginia, viz : James L. Cabell, Nelson. Dr. Socrates Maupin, Albemarle. Hugh M. Nelson, Hanover. Robert C. Stanard, Richmond city. McClurg Wickham, Richmond city. 8th. The exercises of the day were concluded with an Oration on the Present Age, by Robert C. Stanard, of RicluTiond city. TH : JOHNSON, Sec. of the Faculty. FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. Preparatory to commencing the publication of the Farmers' Register, arrangements were made to obtain regularly the latest and bet)t periodical works on agri- culture from Great Britahi, France and Belgium. It was not expected that any considerable portion of Euro- pean works of this kind would be interesting or useful to the farmers of Virginia : but many articles of value will be thus obtained, and by keeping up the regular and early supply, we shall at least have the satisfaction of knowhig that every thing new in the science or prac- tice of agriculture in Europe, of miportance to our read- ers, will be in our possession, and speedily and regu- larly laid before them. Compared to the value of this object, the cost of obtainmg these publications will be trivial — though sufficiently heavy if considered as the price of merely the few articles which will be selected for translation, or republication, in the Farmers' Regis- ter. Our first importation has just aiTived, too late to allow more than a hasty view of the contents, and to translate the short article wliich has been inserted. The only work yet received is the Journal d' .Agriculture d'eco- nomie rurale, et des manufactures, des Pays Bas, for 1830, which though not very late, is the latest volume of that work, its publication having been stopped by the Belgic revolution ; and no periodical work on agriculture has since been published in Belgium. The difficulties attending the first arrangements have still longer delayed the arrival of the works ordered from England, Scotland, and France : but they are expected soon, and afterwards will be regularly fm-nished, if the continuance of the supply should be found to be desi- rable. COJVTEJVTS OF FARMERS' REGISTER, No. 3. Embankment and Cultivation of the Shirley Swamp, page 129 — The Four Shift System, 133 — New Mode of Hearing Aspara- gus, 135 — Sphtting RocJjs without Gunpowder, 136 — E.vperi- ments and Observations on the Fermentation of Manures, 136 — Cultivation of Waste Lands, and Pauper Colonies of Holland, 142 — On Hedges, 144 — Hunting Bees, 146— Report on Agricultu- ral Premiums, 147 — To destroy Insects on Trees, 149 — System of Farming of John H. Craven, Esq. of Albemarle, 150 — Domes- tic Silk in South Carolina, 152 — Streets Paved with Shells, 152 — Sumach Leaves, 152 — Turnips, 153 — Importance of Geological Knowledge to Agriculturists, 153 — On the Tidewater Ristrict of Virginia, 155 — Yellow Locust, 156 — Farming in York County, 157 — Queries Respecting Sassafras Bushes, 158 — On Distemper among Cattle, 159 — Yellow Lammas Wheat, and Haymalimg, 161 — Influence of the Moon, 162 — Experiments in Feeding, 164 — Yankee Management, 167 — On Reclaiming MarthLand, &c. 167 —Clover Hay, 169— Fine Stock, 170— Vegetable Physiology, 170 — Curing Corn and Feeding Cattle, 173 — Advantages and Esti- mated Cost of the Portsmouth and Roanoke Rail Road, 174 — Undulating Railway, 175 — Railways and Canals, 177 — Ancient Greek Lease, 180 — Rockbridge Agricultural Society, 131 — Ob- servation on the profit attending the Culture of the Grape, 132 — Sheep, 182 — Remarks on the first number of the "Farmers' Register," 183 — Water obtained by Boring, in the City of New York, 184 — Extracts from Private Correspondence, 134 — Slaves of Hunger, or condition of the Laborers in English Factories, 187 — Efiects of removing the Flowers and Stems of the Potato, 190 —Report of the Examination and Graduates of the University of Virginia for 1333, 190— Foreign Agricultural Publications, 192. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. VOL. I. mn^mm^Ti^T, Qmi^w^mmmm h^qq, NO. 4. EUirUIfD RUFFIK, EDITOR A3VD PROPRIETOR. — T. AV. WHITE, PRINT^.R. 0>- THE IXri.UEXCE OF PAREXTAGE OX OFF- SPRIXG, IX BREEDIXG AXI3IALS. To the Editor of tlic Farmers' Register. The prejudice against speculation may be car- ried too far in matters which ]iar\-e not uttained to perfection. No subject affords a wider scope for investigation, than those to a\ liich tlie Register is devoted. Among us, agriculture is ccr'ainly in its infancy, and its zealous friends are left to inquire nliether we liad better entirely depend for ijifor- mation on, writers in foreign lands, where soil, cli- mate, political institutions, and popular habits are so different from ours — or occasionally make some efforts to grope our own way tliroughthe mysterv that surrounds us. I ntil we begin to interchange opinions wfth each other, it is not likely that our interest in the subject Avill become very deep.= — And although we smile occasionally at each other's notions, yet I feel assured it will be the smile of good nature, and that any original article that may appear in the Register, written with a sincere desire to search after truth, will be received with pleasure by its readers. Indeed, sir, I feel so cer- tain that this apology is unnecessary, that 1 would not make it, were I not assured that many much better qualilied are deteri'ed from writing by these good natured smiles. My excellent neighbor , could furnish you with an article on the culture and management of tobacco, or on many otlier sub- jects, which you would gladly receive, were he not afraid of finding by the succeeding number of your work, that some person had been greatly amused by it.* In your second number, I read with much plea- sure, some sensible remarks extracted from the New England Farmer, on the sulyect of breeding cattle. The hereditai-y transmission among brute animals of peculiar powers and qualities, from an- cestry to offspring, has, in some countries, long excited great interest among farmers as well as gentlemen of the turf We in ^'irginia delight in lookuig at fine horses, and riding them too ; and some few among us know very well how to raise them. But, in the general, we are guided more by fancy lor the individual animal, or tlie price of the season, than by the rules of breeding. The most common error is, to breed from a small delicate * If any person could be so regardless ot iDropriety as to play the critic in the manner and under the cir- cumstances supposed above, the chances would be twenty to one that he would place himself in a more ri- diculous situation than him who was the subject of his strictures. The observations of plain practical farmers will be always read with attention and respect — not only from motives of kindness and courtesy — but be- cause the sound sense and solidity of their instruction deserve and command respect. There is nothing more mistaken than the general opinion of practical farmers, of their unfitness for writing. "SVe are well experienced (at least) in the readmg of agricultural journals, and can conscientiously declare that Uie pieces that are best received, and considered most valuable, have generally proceeded from the pens of men who at first could scarcely be induced to use them, from their too himible estimate of their own powers, — [Ed, Farm. Reg. Vol. I. — 25 mare and a large coarse horse, and vice versa— thus destroying every natural tendency to the pro- duction of peculiar powers and qualities, and re- ducing the lace of our horses to a standard of common mediocrity. In rearing cattle, we seem to have a rule, which is, to breed from that race which can most hardily endure the extreme of privation in food, water and salt, the most cruel beating from negroes, and which requires the least shelter frcmVeather. Whatever may be its design, its certain tendency is, to produce the most worthless animal that the race is capable of afford- ing. I have known a man, who experimented with so much economy, as actually to ascertain that a cow could be sustained through a hard win- ter on a single ear of corn a day. This beats Pad- dy's horse, for he died as soon as he had learned to live on nothing. Having, in the general, in my section of the state (the tobacco region,) a stock of cattle des- cended from ancestry reared according to the fore- going rule, we have felt but little need of any other rules; for with but one breed, we could not well apply rules for mixing breeds. For some years however a spirit has been awaking for im- provement on this subject, and although not gene- ral, and not often directed by skill on'the subject, has already produced very manifest benefit. This spirit has led to the raising from the best animals among us, and hi some neighborhoods to the pur- chase of cattle from the mountains. And, until animals of the peculiarly fine races become more common, we will have "to rely chiefly on these sources. I am very glad to learn tha't there ai'e gentlemen in various parts of the stat*^ who have been willing to incur both trouble and expense, in order to introduce stock of cattle, hogs and sheep, of superior races. I expect that much benefit will result to the public, and I hope also to these pa- triotic individuals, from their efforts. I should be highly pleased, were it in my pow- er, to furnish an abstract of all that is known on the subject of breeding. If there be infallible rules for improving the breeds of animals, in re- lation to any given points of form, powers or qualities, I have not access to the books which con- tain them. But having long been an observer of the laws by which nature seems to regulate the transmission of these things from parents to off- spring, I have thought the result of my observa- tions might not be unacceptable to you and your readers. I will attempt to offer them in the fol- lowing propositions. 1. The direct offspring of two animals, belong- ing to different races of the same species, partake equally of the peculiarities of both parents, in co- lor, form, powers and properties, and may be call- ed mongrels. The mulatto, whose parents are, one white and the other black, forms a suitable example of what is here meant, for in every par- ticular he seems to stand half way between the white man and the negro. I %vould advert parti- cularly to the mongrel character of his hair : it is neither straight nor very much crisped, but 194 FARMERS' REGISTER— RECLAIMING WASTES, &c. woolly. Animals of this description, while they are almost certain to attain to mediocrity in physi- cal qualities, rarely rise much above it in any one particular. The off'spring of the blooded racer and the dray horse, for instance, might transcend the former in weight and strength and the latter in speed, while his runnin<^ powers Avould bear no comparison with those o? the former, nor his size and strength with those of the latter. 2. In order to form distinctively a new race pos- sessing some characteristic peculiarities, it is ne- cessary thai both parents should be mongrels, si- milarly descended. An example of this kind oc- curs in the offspring of two mulattoes. Persons of this description approach towards the peculiari- ties of the Indian. They are apt to be straight, active, delicate, and somewhat dehcient in strength. Their most striking peculiarity, however, is a re- markable glossiness of hair. This, though often perfectly straight, is sometimes curled, yet always shining and free from crispness. I have been able, from this appearance of the hair, to pro- nounce— and on inquiry found the opinion correct — that a child, itself nearly black, being three- fourths negro, had white blood through both pa- rents. The mongrel between the hound and cur dog mingles the qualities and appearance of both races remarkably, but the offspring of two such mongrels, is a slender swift animal, somewhat resembling the wolf in appearance, and pos- sessing such a wolf-like propensity to attack sheep, as to insure its own extinction as a race wherever I have known it. It is generally believed that animals take size from the sire: this is certainly true with the ca- nine species. I have known many a very large dog whose mother was a fice, and I own a very small one whose mother was a hound of ordinary size. I mention these facts, with a view of suggesting, that it might be proper, in order to obtain in per- fection the characteristics that might belong to a new race, to alternate the sexes of its progenitors in such a manner, as that a due transmission of the qualities to be derived from each of the sexes might be insured. For example, I have been in- formed by a friend, that the Durham short horned breed of cattle may be produced by crossing the Holderness with the Alderney breed. Now, 1 would judge it necessary, in order to give sex its due influence on the progeny, that the sire of one of the mongrel progenitors of such a race, should be a Holderness bull, and that of the other an Al- derney. Indeed, the objects in view might possi- bly be more perfectly obtained, by beginning with four animals bred with reference to this principle. It may be here objected, that so much intricacy in the formation of a new race, seems to be in op- position to the simplicity of nature. But we find nature — while she sufficiently yields her secrets to patient observation, for all useful purposes — con- stantly guarding the durability and value of her works against the injuries of mere casualty. It is not difficult to conceive what a mongrel world this would have been long since, if simply a first crossing of animals could have constituted the fun- damental characteristics of a distinct race. Some distinguished breeders have held the opi- nion, that breeding " in and in" affords important benefit in the improvement of stock. May not this have arisen from the better opportunity thus afforded of more perfectly mingling the elementa- ry essentials of a new race ? Nothing, I believe, is better settled among us Virginians, than that tliis practice -will deteriorate an old established race. And we find it necessary to change our breeding animals frequently. My own cattle are descended from a stock which, "five and twenty years ago, were remarkable for size and deep milking. They were the offspring of an imported English bull — I know not of what peculiar race ; and although some slight resemblance to their pro- genitors may still be seen, yet they are now small and very scanty milkers. This I ascribe chiefly to breeding hi and in. The distemper among them almost compelled the continuance of this practice, as it destroyed new comers. I am now determined to introduce a new set, and brave the risks of that malady. I profess to know very little on the «ubject of breeding horses. What I have to say, should, of course, be taken in the way of surmise. I believe it is generally admitted, that a great improvement in the breed of race horses was effected by the intro- duction of the Arabian horse into England. Now, in conformity with the foregoing principles, I would suppose that mongrels, or animals produced by the first crossing between the Arabian and the old English horse, would not distinguish them- selves so admirably on the turf, as their offsprings who might inherit the blood of the Arabian and of the old English race horse, both on the side of the sire and the dam. And further, those breeds which have distinguished themselves greatly on the turf, will probably be found, on examining into tlieir pedigree, to have inheritetl an equal share of Arabian blood from the male and female progeni- tors. There can be no doubt but that nature is regu- lated by fixed laws in the formation of distinctive breeds or races of animals which, if known, might guide to the transmission of any particular desira- ble quality. In attempting to develope these laws, vv^e may readily conclude that they are not to be found in the first cross, because of the unequal influ- ence which the sexes exert on their progeny, and because of the multiplicity of races which would thus be formed, liable constantly to deterioration from every admixture. We must then seek for them, by breeding in and in, from the same slock, until we get a due mixture of the two races used in the experiment, or — v.hich I would think bet- te — breeding the subjects of such an experiment, with animals similarly descended. It is as certainly necessary that we should endea- vor to find out the laws of nature in this matter, as that we should ascertain those which regulate her in the growth of our crops. Some of the gen- tlemen who have paid great attention to the pedi- gree of fine horses, and to breeding them, could doubtless afford us valuable information on this subject. It would at least be a source of amuse- ment, to see a precise calculation of the quantity of Arabian blood in both the sires and dams of some of our noblest animals of this species. A. B. C. MEANS FOR RKCLAIMING WASTES FORMED BY SEA SAND. To the Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. Williamsburg, jfugust 2d, 1833. I send an extract from an article in the last No. of the Foreign Quarterly Review, which I thmk FARMERS' REGISTER— REPLY TO G. W. F. AND MOCKJACK. 195 contains information that will be valuable to far- mers who reside on the sea board. On the Chesa- peake bay, and at the mouths of our rivers, and perhaps for a coiisiderable distance above their moutlis, the sand is making fearful inroads upon the land, and to all who havesuiFered from this in- vasion, the subjoined extract may be of the great- est importance. I regret that I have not leisure to make a comparison between the district of coun- try mentioned by De Candolle, and our own. It may however not be amiss to remark, before I conclude, that tlie Scotch broom {Spartium Scopa- fium) M'hich is found in this neighborhood, and is most abundant in Warwick, will probably answer the purpose of the Genista Scoparia, with which I am not acquainted. J. p. " No districts of country appear so hopeless of being reclaimed from utter barrenness as those which are subject to a periodical invasion of sand, blowMi over them by the prevalence of certain winds. The sands on the sea shore, from whence ■ this supply in general originates, by their capilla- ry action, attract and preserve in their interstices the water which may chance to be beneath them, cr perhaps the soft portion of the sea water itself, and consequently they are always somewhat moist at a little distance below the surface, though the extreme dryness of the surface itself prevents any vegetation from fixing itself upon it. In Holland, England, and other countries where this is the case, it is usual to plant and preserve with great care, the s-ea grasses and sedges ( jlrundo arena- ria, JElymus arencrius, C'arex arenaria, Sfc.) which possess long creeping rhizomata,sufiicient in some measure to bind the sand, and check its being drifted by the wind. But this expedient is very limited in its effects, and not to be compared with the benefits that have resulted from planting tim- ber in the manner that has been practised on the coast of Gascony, where it was first adopted by an engineer of the name of Bremonlier. " ' Bremontier's plan,' says De Candolle, ' is wonderful for its great simplicity. He sows in the dryest and most shifting sand, the seeds of the broom (Genista scoparia,) mixed with those of the sea pine (Pinus maritima,) and then covers over the spaces that are sown with branches from the nearest pine forests, by which means the sand is, to a certain extent, prevented from shifting. — The broom springs up first, and thus serves the double purpose of further restraining the sand, and of nursing the young pines. The latter grov/ for seven or eight years under slielter of the broom, whose foliage becomes mingled annually with the sand, which it thus partially fertilizes. After this period the pine overtops the broom, and frequently entirely kills it with its shade. In ten or twelve years the rising forest is thinned for th.e manufac- ture of tar, and for procuring branches to cover the newly sown districts. After twenty years have passed, a fall of the trees commences for the manu- iiicture of resin. These forests, placed on the dunes (drifting sandhills,) along the sea side, shel- ter the whole country behind them from the conti- nuous action of the westerly winds, and thus, whilst they themselves yield a supply of an important ar- ticle of commerce, they protect the produce of the rest of the country. It is highly desirable that this prodigious undertaking, the most splendid agricul- tural enterprise of our nge, should gradually be completed, and thus provide a shelter for the whole district between the mouths of the Adour and Ga- ronne. I regret that the character of this work does not admit of my entering into further detail, and I close this account by stating that I have her- borized during a Avhole day in these forests sown by Bremontier on perfectly dry sand, upon which, before his time, there could scarcely be seen any trace of vegetation." " GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF VIRGINIA" — RE- PLY TO THE RE3IARKS OP " G. W. F," AND THE .STRICTURES OF " MOCKJACK." To ihe Editor of the Farmers' Register. In the 3d number of the Register, two writers have noticed in a widely different spirit, the " Ge- neral Description of Virginia" which was trans- ferred to your first number from the Encyclope- dia Americana. Your correspondent G. W. F. seems to have justly regarded the task of present- ing a brief yet iaitliful outline of the moral and physical features of a country, as one of no incon- siderable difficulty. To select from a mass of materials derived from dilTerent sources and on various subjects; — to reconcile discordant state- ments,— and compress the whole within ^rescr(6ed limits, — without omitting any thing very essential, and at the same time without sacrificing the in- terest of the narrative, may appear not very labo- rious or difficult to the cursory reader ; — but to him who has achieved it, it is known to be full of embarrassment. In the performance of such a task, where so much reliance is unavoidably placed upon the testimony of others, and so little upon the personal observation of the writer, — even with the utmost fidelity of purpose, all that could reasona- bly be expected, would be something like an ap- proximation to truth. We know that the sources of error are almost universal, embracing not only the frequent illusions of the senses, but the infi- nitely varied causes of prejudice and false judg- ment. G. W. F. is one of those Avho would just- ly appreciate considerations like these. He would kindly commend where he thought commenda- tion due, and would frankly point out errors and omissions wheresoever they existed, not so much indeed from the gratification of exposing error as from the higher gratification of vindicating truth. The author of the " General Description," never having seen himself the natural bridge in Scott county, regrets that whilst collecting his materi- als, he was not fortunate enough to light upon Col. Long's interesting account of that singular struc- ture. The result of actual observation by a man of science and taste would liave promptly received the notice to v/hich it is entitled. Authorities, how- ever, of scarcely inferior weight and of equal re- spectability were consulted, and formed the ground of the opinion respecting the bridge in Scott coun- ty compared with the one in Rockbridge. The late Francis Walker Gilmer, a man of accurate observation and extensive attainments, — who tra- velled much in AVestern Virginia, and was perfect- ly familiar with the country, — in an article which he wrote for the 1st American edition of Rees' Cyclopedia [see Tit. Virginia] speaks in the foL lowing terms of the natural curiosity in Scott, comparing it with its more illustrious rival in Rockbridge. " There is another natural bridge in Scott county of nearly the same height, that is to sav 200 feet, but from the thickness of its arch 196 FARMERS' REGISTER— REPLY TO G. W. F. AND MOCKJACK- less beautiful." Another distinguished gentleman who now resides in Western Virginia, and who was specially appealed to for information on the subject, furnished a detailed description, from which the following is extracted. " 1 he natural bridge in Scott is rather a tunnel through a hill than a bridge. I have never visited it but once, not thinking it worth a second visit, though I often pass within a few miles of it. The arch of- the lower or southern end is said to be 200 feet high, though it appeared less to my eye, — but it quickly becomes lower as you pass through ; — so that from that cause and a bend in the tunnel it is twilight or almost dark in the tunnel. At the upper end where the creek enters the arch it is not 50 feet high, so that there is no grandeur or beauty belonging to this bridge, except in the approach to the lower or south end." AVith such authorities as these, confirmed by various verbal reports, and in ignorance of Col. Long's account, it will readily be perceived that if the natural curiosity in Scott has sutTered unjust disparagement, it was altogether unintentional and not easily avoided, and this explanation is not only due to the writer himself of the " General De- sciption of Virginia," but to your candid and libe- ral corres}K)ndent, as well as to the public. Your other correspondent, " JNJockjack," writes as if rather in an ill humor. He selects one or two passages from that portion of the article "Vir- ginia" which you published in the Register, and because the facts stated therein do not correspond with his own opinions, he denounces without hesi- tation the whole article, and seems to lament that a " currency and potency" should be imparted to it by the sanction of your name, Avhich would not have been accorded to its own merit. In justifi- cation therefore of your favorable estimate, and not because the writer of the " General Descrip- tion" has been either convinced by the statements or enlightened by the logic of your corresjiondent, an attempt will be made to vindicate the passages objected to; — not by referring to the authority of Mr. Walsh — but to the far better evidence of those who have written and spoken from actual obser- vation,— of the hundreds it might be added, Avho if it were necessary could be called on to testify to the facts stated, — facts which are susceptible of perfect demonstration to any one desirous of solv- ing the problem, and who will take the trouble to ride a few hours in any direction in the tide water district of the state. The writer will indeed throw out of view the testimony of his own obser- vation, except so far as to disclaim the cliaritable excuse of ignorance which your correspondent has gratuitously framed for him, and except also for the purpose of deploring (if indeed he is deceived) the spectral illusion which has presented to his own eye in common with so many others, — pictures of barrenness and decay, where scenes of fertility and beauty are said to exist. The passage par- ticularly objected to, is as follows : " The tide water or eastern section is in general low, level, sandy and unproductive, and parts of it exhibit al- most as desolate an aspect as the pine barrens of Jersey." " Mockjack" — repudiates this state- ment, and asserts that " there is perhaps no country in the world which contains a larger proportion of land that will repay the expense of cultivation than Eastern Virginia. Some portions of it," he adds, " are poor, and so are some portions of Eevpt and Mexico, but I rather tliink that the whole country included between the meridian of Richmond, (ex- tended to Maryland and North Carolina,) and the Atlantic Ocean, v.ould ha found, on experiment, to produce much more than the same number of acres includetl \n one body, in any other region of the state." It is worthy of remark that although the whole controverted passage from the " Gene- ral Description," is considered by your correspon- dent as highly objectionable and exceedingly ivon- derful, all his observations appear to be directed against the solitary word " unproductive.^' He does not assert in positive terms that the tide- water section is otherwise than generally low, level and sandy, except indeed so far as the terras themselves may be considered as descriptive of an unfertile region. He regards productiveness and fertility as predominant features in the landscape, and the barren portions of soil as only occasional shadows, forming the exception. The writer of the impugned passage, reverses the position, and considers that the fine and productive spots are in- sufficient to impart the generoZ character of fertili- ty to the whole. Here then is issue joined upon a question of fact. The mode of proof resorted to by JNIockjack, derived fi-om certain statistical documents, will be presently noticed. Let refer- ence be first made to a few written authorities se- lected from among various others, with which it would be idle to incumber your pages. Bever- ly, one of our earliest historians, a native of the country, and familiar with it in its state of almost primitive wildness and freshness, writes as follows: " The middle of the necks or ridges between the rivers is generally poor, being either a light sand, or a white or red clay within a thin mould." Mr. Gilmer who traversed every section of the state, is perhaps still more to the point. " The State of Virginia may be divided into four zones, essentially differing from one another, but having a character constant in each. The first, extending from the sea coast to the termination of tide water at Fre- dericksburg, Richmond, &c. is low and flat, some- iimes fenny, sometimes sandy, and on the margins of the rivers composed of a rich loam covered with a luxuriant and even ranlc vegetation." — [First Am: edition Rees' Cyclopedia. Art: Virginia.] The writer of the prize essay on Virginia agricul- culture, published in the 2d number of the Farm- ers' Register, uses the following language: " The country below the head of tidewater, which now exhibits so many forests of young pines, and so many deserted fields of broomsedge and briers, was the first settled part of the state, and bears more of tlie destroying works of man than any other por- tion." Again — " The newly discovered quantity and value of our marl resources, seem to favor the hope, that from this source alone, a marked change will soon take place in the appearance of this most tattered and desolate looking portion of Virginia." But it would be needless to multiply authorities on this subject when the testimony of hundreds of daily eye witnesses might be safely appealed to, (or abundant confirmation. It remains therefore to consider the conclusions which your con'espon- dent has drawn from the tables of population and revenue. If the proposition maintained by him be correctly understood, it is this. If the tide water district sustains an equal population, and yields an equal ainount of taxation with any other part of the state, in proportion to its territorial extent, it FARMERS' REGISTER— MARLING AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES. 197 is proof of its equal fertility and productiveness. To reduce the proposition to a form more simple, let it be stated as follows : If two tracts of land each containino; 100 acres, support each of them 10 persons, and yield eacli of them 20 dollars to the state treasury, — it follows as a necessary con- sequence, according to your correspondent, that both are of equal fertility and productiveness J — Now, to a plain and unsophisticated mind, no conclusion can be more illogical than this. Before it can re- ceive our assent, it must be shown in the first !)lace, that there is a fixed and necessary relation between the amount of taxes drawn from a given district, and the value of its agricultural products ; and in the second place tliat tiiere is the same ne- cessary relation between the quantum of taxation and the number of inhabitants. In otlier words, does not the following reductio ad absurdum, flow from the proposition, that so long as the popula- tion could be kept down by emigration or other cause to its present point, or so long as the existing rate of taxation should continue in the tide water district, the highest efforts of industry could not improve the soil ! — The truth is, that all such rea- soning is founded upon false premises, and is there- fore fallacious. The same rate of taxation may draw from an impoverished and unproductive dis- trict of countr)-, an amount equal to what is paid by one of the same extent and population but of much superior fertility. No .system of taxation, not founded upon actual income, can constitute a just criterion of productiveness. The slave whose labor barely defrays the cost of clothing and sub- sistence, yields an equal tax to the treasury witli one who rewards his owner by a handsome profit beyond his expenses. If the proposition of " Mockjack" be true, that " no country in the world contains a larger pro- portion of land that will repay the expense of cul- tivation than Eastern Virginia," — why is it that the stream of emigration has flowed so unceasing- ly from that quarter to other regions.' — that the march of its population is in a declining ratio when compared with other districts of the state, to say nothing of other portions of the United States .' If the poor ridges and pine barrens of the tide water district, repay so easily the cost of cultivation, why is it that we hear such frequent complaints even from the proprietors of the rich river margins.' — And even if the liare cost of cul- tivation be generally repaid, is that sufTicient to reward the toils of the laborer .-^ — The fact is, that that portion of our state would probably have been Jong since nearly depopulated, if the profits of agri- culture had been the sole dependence of its peo- ple. Its unrivalled commercial facilities, — its abundance of fish and fowl, and even of forest game (restored to its primeval haunts) have mate- rially compensated for the scanty returns of labor. Even the pine fields, in latter years, by supplying fuel to steam boats, have proved a source of no in- considerable emolument. In this general view, the rich low grounds of Gloucester and Matthews, and the fertile borders of rivers and creeks, are of course not comprehended ; but these ought no more to determine the character of the whole dis- trict, than that the fine Falls plantation which is in full view from our capitol, ought to furnish a stan- dard for estimating the county of Chesterfield. But your correspondent has quoted another pas- sage in which he supposes that the " prejudices of the contributor to the Encyclopedia," are more fully developed. In this passage the old and des- tructive practice of clearing and cultivating land by the tiiree shift system, "is briefly noticed and represented as still prevailing in Eastern Virginia. Does "iNIockjack" deny the fact.' — If he does, — the attempt to convince him would be fruitless. Of the destructive character of that system, even on the rich James river lands, he need only be re- ft; r red to the letter of Mr. Hill Carter in the 3d number of the Farmers' Register (p. 132). That accomplished fiirmer, found his fine estate dwindling to insignificance under the pernicious operation of that system ; and it was only by improved manage- ment, thaf Its tisrtility and productiveness were re- stored. Even theskill and perseverance of Mr. Car- ter might have been baffled, if his patrimonial estate had been placedin the forests of Charles City. In conclusion — the author of the " General De- scription" has no prejudices which were likely to mislead him in relation to Lower Virginia. On the contrary, he cherishes towards it all that vene- ration and respect inspired by the place of his na- tivity ; and even the pine forests in which he ram- bled in boyhood are still hallowed in his recollec- tion. J. K. H. HIXTS ON BIAULING, AIVD MANAGE.IIEXT OP HORSES. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. INIany years past I read a piece written by you, in the American Farmer, on the use of marl, but its importance never presented itself to my mind forcibly enough to induce me to use it, before I heard you had published an " Essay on Calcareous Manures." I then re-examined your piece and the writings of otliers that had written on the use of lime, and commenced marling a few days be- fore I saw your essay. I had long known of three beds of marl upon'a farm I own, and wishing to examine for more, an inquiry was made of such of my acquaintances as it was thought most likely could give some infor- mation, how an auger should be made to bore for marl ; but being unable to obtain the least informa- tion, a trial was made to get one from Richmond, which proved ineffectual. Finding I should have to make one for myself, the idea suggested itself to my mind that a common barrel inch auger would do, by grinding off the end in the shape of a gouge; but on trial it was found theearth slipped out of the barrel as it was pulled up : the barrel was then measured and found to be rather larger at bottom than at top. An auger was tlien made with the barrel rather smaller at bottom than at top, so as to prevent the earth from slipping out, and found to answer very well in most soils. The three first augers made were inch augers, and three, six and nine feet in length, so as to follow each other, but on trial they were not found to answer well. Being of the same size they w ere in- convenient to get in and out. The length of the first answered, as the earth was soft near the surface, but three feet for the handle of either of the others above ground was found laborious to begin with. They were therefore altered : the size of the first remained 1 inch, the second rather smaller, and the third still smaller, the lengths 3, 5| and S feet, w hich answered much better. The length of the barrel should be from three to four inches, the rm FAUxMERS* REGISTER— MARLING AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES. back about one eighlh of an inch (hick, but thin- ner on (iic sides and near the end, the rod should be made of round rod iron hall an inch in diame- ter. One dolKir will purchase as much round rod iron as will make the three augers : the cost of ma- king will probably be about one dollar. The iron, when the augers arc no longer wanting, will be worth about one dollar. We use three augers to look for marl, but keep longer ones at the pit to bore through and through a hed before a pit is dug, for fear of losing time and lalior. In some soils con- siderable labor is required to bore, in others but little. We have found a good many beds, by boring, that had never been known betbre. We l:ad never marled before last winter, nor seen any marl; and had every thing to learn. — We soon found we wanted a pump, but what size we did not know. One was ordered, but proved too large : another was ordered to be made as light as possible with an inch and a half bore, and to have an iron band at the lower end as well as at the top and middle, to prevent its splitting from drying when out of the water. This was found to answer very well. We commenced digging- marl with grubbing hoes, which v.as found tedi- ous and laborious : we then made grubbing hoes or picks, with blades only two inches wide : with these the laborers were greatly pleased, and said the labor was not half as great. Another thing required attention. The laborers threw the marl out of the pit with hoes and spades, as the carts could not conveniently descend hito the pit : the hoe was tedious, and the spade required stooping, Avhich was painful and laborious, to obviate which socket shovels were obtained, and handles got from the woods of the size and form supposed most suitable, with some of which the laborers were pleased, but it was evident there was room for great improvement. A pattern was therefore made and taken to the woods, and a suitable tree selected : the handles were then sawed out four and a half feet in length and about the size of a weed- ing hoe handle, but rather larger one Avay than the other, and dressed off rather of an oval form like the handle of an axe, or grubbing hoe, to pre- vent their turning in the hand : thus made and pro- perly put into the socket the laborer consults his own ease, and throws in any direction that suits his convenience, and frequently, directly over head. In using it, the left foot comes within about a foot of the shovel, the handle passes by the left knee and about eight inches above the right knee. Probably the most convenient way to make a pat- tern to get the handles by, is to take a thin piece of plank four and a half feet long, and five inches wide, and to lay the shovel on the back with the socket end a little elevated, and to cut the plank to fit the socket, which will take in length six inches. When fitted, cut the superfluous plank on the upper side away in a circular manner from the socket to near the left knee ; at the left knee, none is to be taken off on the upper side, but all from the under side in a circular manner ; then i'rom about the left knee on the upper side take, it off to the lower corner of the upper end, in a cir- cular manner. While these improvements for the relief of the laborers wore going on, the oxen were suffering greatly. The cart bodies were too large and heavy, and the oxen were frequently overloaded ; to obviate which, bodies were made of light timber to hold about fifteen bushels. But we were at a great loss how to fix the body conveniently to keep it from being thrown oft' in turning up, as it was too short to rest on the ground, but at last a simple plan answered exactly. A two inch hole « as cut through the cart axle, and a little piece of timber put into the hole to strike the middle sill of the cart, and so fixed as to slip in and out at pleasure. We marled during the winter about one hun- dred acres of land, 2-50 bushels to the acre, in strength from /p~ to Vyn of carbonate of lime. — The marl used was of the large white shell, im- bedded in what is called blue clay, but more pro- perly a mixture of fine blue sand and clay. We have a good deal of " little shell" marl, which is in strength only about half that of the large shell. I am nol sure tliat drying and weighing marl be- fore analyzing, is that perfect way of knowing its calcareous value for agricultural purposes as is generally supposed : for marl is carried from the bed in the state it is there found, and there is no earth below the surface perfectly dry. Given weights of earth from difi'ercnt soils, when wet, vary very widely after drying. We see in our branches, sand that loses but little by drying, and along side, we see earth thrown out of our ditches, that was heavy like the sand, but when dry, is as light as ashes. Evaporation makes this important difference. I should therefore suppose marl containing the most calcareous earth in pro- portion to its weight at the bed, to be the most profitable ; and nol the one giving the most, when analyzed, in proportion to its dry weight. For example, say there are two beds of marl, one as it is dug from the bed, contains, in one hundred parts, of lime jW, of sand j%\, of water y-/^; the other bed is of lime -fj"^, of earth when dry almost as light as ashes y-^o, of water j^/^ ; these two beds as far as respects the calcareous matter is the same, and whether fij"^ of sand or /„"„ of water be carri- ed out is immaterial. But how different would be the result if analyzed : one would lose ^^^^ of water by evaporation, the other would lose /— of water by evaporation. The balance, in one case, would be J lime, the other ^ — instead of both being the same and that only ^. Not many days ago I re- ceived some marl from an adjoining county which I think would have been by analysis y'^^ by first drying it ; but I doubt, from the soil it was im- bedded in, w hether it would have reached —„ as taken from the bed. I have analyzed a good deal of marl (without an apparatus, but) agreea- ble to the directions given in your " Essay on Cal- careous Manures," and I find from good beds of marl, samples can be selected to show by analysis almost any thing. It was not my intention when I began this com- munication to write one tenth as much as I have — however, I will merely touch one or two other subjects. While writing this letter, my attention was arrested by a pterson calling to another to run and prevent a horse from breaking his bridle, that he had just been tied by. I will therefore state how I broke a valuable mare from that habit a few years ago. I came home one day and tied her, and had scarcely reached my door before she broke a new bridle into three parts, and ran off. I ordered her to be brought back, and after some reflection, I cut a piece of leather about four inches long and about as wide as the head stall, and drove two FARMERS' REGISTER— STAGE HORSES, NARROW LEAF DOCK, Lc. 199 rows of small nails through: while this was fixing, I ordered a small pad to be made about the size of the leather, and filled it with wool ; I then pressed the points of the nails into the pad, and put the leather under the head stall, and walked off. She gave a-suddeii jerk to clear herself from the bridle, which forced the nails through the pad into her head, after which she made one or two slight ef- forts, and stood still. I then took a horsewhip and gave her several cuts, but she'would not break away : she appeared more afraid of the nails coming in contact with her head than she was of the whip. After this, when I tied her, for two or three times, I slipped the pad and leather under the head stall, which effectually broke her: and since, I have broken another in the same way. — Both of these were young beginners ; but I ima- gine that old offenders can be broken in the same way. This can be used to make a horse lead into a place or pass a fence or ditch which otherwise he would be unwilling to do. As it is now the time for getting out wheat, and all have not wheat machines, a remark on that subject may be not out of season. I am inclined to believe that horses are frequently seriously in- jured in treading wheat by coupling them together by the mouth, they are continually .jerking each other. Mason in his " Farrier" says " a rider who is compelled to perform a long journey in haste and with certaint)^, in a given time, should be extremely particular in his manner of riding. He should bear lightly and steadily on his bridle and stirrups, never jerking, checking or stopping his horse suddenly, or change his gaits too fre- quently ; all these things have a tendency to weaken and fotigue a horse extremely." This can be obviated in a very great degree by throw- ing the bridle of the second horse over the neck of the first, and the bridle of the tliird horse over the neck of the second, and so on : then with a rein attached to the bit of the first horse, the driver can stand in the middle of the ring, and drive around. Thus fixed, a small boy has more com- mand over his horses, than a man has, when they are coupled mouth to mouth : but I should not sup- pose more than two horses ought to run abi'cast. Running four abreast to save the labor of a hand, is like calculating present profit, without regard to future loss. The last time I saw four horses running abreast, they were coupled mouth to mouth, they were jerking each other, and throwing their heads in every direction, their mouths were frequently suddenly thrown open and the slaver thrown from their knees to their eyes ; and though it was early in the day, they appeared quite ex- hausted. Had they have been fixed as here re- commended, I have no doubt at that early hour, they would have been running fresh and strong. KDMUND F. KOEL. Essex County, July 1833. The minuteness of detail in the foregoing communi- tion is especially worthy of notice, and of imitation Descriptions and instructions on agi-icultural subjects, cannot be made too plain — and for want of enough mi- nuteness and fulness of detail, many valuable pieces lose half their value. The oldest marler may gain some useful hint from Mr. Noel's observations, and the inexpe- rienced, much more. Every fact learned by experience, by which even a little labor may be saved, or a small loss avoided, is worth being communicated, and will be both Acceptable and valuable to our readers. We presume that Mr. N. does not question the cor- rectness of the result obtained from the analysis of any particular specimen of marl, when he states (and very truly) that analysis does not show its true strength, as it is carried from the pit to the field. The degree of v»etness should not only be considered, but also several other circumstances, which greatly afTect the value of marl as manure. Large shells — hard shells — stony (though calcareous) lumps, not capable of being reduced by the action of frost, &c. all manifestly cause the manure to be less operative, than when no such objections exist, and there is the same proportion of carbonate of lime, in a finely divided state. But still, the only foundation on which to erect a correct estimate of the value of a body of mar!, is to learn, by analyzing fair samples, the actual calcareous contents : and then all other matters affecting value and early operation, may be est miatcd with suffici- ent accuracy. — [Ed. Farm. Reg. STAGE HORSES XARROW LEAP DOCK, &C, Lewisburg, Va.Tthmontk 27fh, 1833. Frtexu Ruffix, — I have read with satisfac- tion the two first Nos. of thy Farmers' Register, and requested our mutual friend Edward Cunliff, to direct thee to forward tlic Register regularly to me, which thou wilt please to have done. I contemplate, or I should rather say design, to contribute my " mite" in communications for the " Register," influenced by the impression, that the most humble can afford some aid in accomplishing what it is the purpose of thy paper to effect; and I feel assured that the Register will effect much good as an assistant to the farmer, particularly the fiirmer of poor old exhausted, neglected, Virginia. It will give to us a medium through which the ex- periments and experience of all, from the Taylors and Meades of the state, down to thy humble ser- vant, can be fiirnished for our information. I shall act upon thy suggestion, and sign my name to the pieces I forward for publication. Siage Horses. — In thy second No. I read with some interest an account of the ''English Coach Horse.'' From this, lam satisfied we have in this section of country a superior strain of horses for stage coaches, to those referred to in England — to prove which, I will give the result of my expe- rience in comparison with the rate of performance of the English horse. The English horse, (says the extract in thy Re- gister, from the Quarterly Review,) is required to run "ten miles in one hour per day, resting every-fourth day the whole day." This is exacted of him on good McAdamized roads, nearly level, and he sustains this labor on an " average , for four years," in which time he would have travelled 10,860 miles. Sometime past I saw published an account of a "real Vermonter," that had in six years and six months performed the astonishing travel of 17,000 miles, and he was then regarded as " a good old horse." This about equals the performance of the English horse. Now, I have at this time in my possession, a horse, raised by Charles Arbuckle of this county, that I ran for seven years on a route of upwards of eighteen miles, six times a week, and, often ae- 200 FARMERS* REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. veil times ; and if he lost any time I cannot recol- lect it, and it is not possible that all liis lost time could have amounted to his seventli trip, which would have made him to have travelled in " six years andsix months adistance above 36,500 j/uVes." I sold to William Smith, stage proprietor, more than a dozen horses that had in my service per- formed more than 17,000 miles, several of whom, after having travelled half that distance, he sold for upwards of slOO each. The average of time my horses do me good ser- vice is not short of six years. It is true, a great diiference is produced often by the distance per day at the rate of which a horse is required to travel; but when we take into con- sideration the rough hilly roads in this section, and the first rate roads of Great Britain, there is as much labor exacted and obtained here, as in Eng- land, of the horse. And where our roads are good, our horses perform their stage in as quick time : for instance, between Lewisburg and the White Sulphur Spring, a distance above nine miles, has been, by the teams of Messrs. Porter & Belden, Smith, Shanks and my own, travelled within fifty four minutes : and they could have gone within the hour with great ease the full ten miles, and in doing this, would certainly be less worsted than they would be over the other parts of their routes at the rate of five miles the hour. The Greenbrier horse is remarkable for his small leg (below the knee) and foot, and for his " bottom" and muscle. The climate and country have done all for him : little pains having as yet been taken to avail ourselves of your Sir Archies, Charles, Henrys, or Eclipses, a cross from which I am confident would give an improvement greater than in many other sections of this union. Grass, the natural food for the horse, grows here to great perfection, and he seldom gets any thing else un- til he is three years old ; and then he is generally fed with grain, because his owner cannot spare the time for him to feed on grass : but many fine horses live long and never taste of grain. Leap of a Greenbrier Filly. — I have a mare, raised by A. Rodgers of this county, got by one of the half blooded horses of Old Virginia ; in run- ning, mounted by a light rider, who at starting saw notliing to obstruct his course, but when at full speed discovered a wagon with a body eighteen inches high meeting him, the driver of which, to avoid him, left the track he was in, atthe same time my son with the motive changed his course : the consequence was, the wagon was at a right angle across the track of the mare, who unable to avoid it, leaped over it, clearing the wagon ; and fi'om her toe marks where she started, to the impres- sions made by her hind heel, a distance of twenty feet eleven inches intervened, and this up an accli- vity of at least one degree. Narrow leafed Dock, afertilizerofland. — Dock has, so far as my experience extends, been regard- ed as a nuisance to land, and all good farmers were required to wage constant war against it ; and per- haps it is right that they should be vigilant in its extirpation from other crops : but I am satisfied we have not under our control a more powerful restorer of worn out land. In a piece of my meadow, I discovered a large portion of dock, and to prevent its taking entire possession of it, I had all the stems pulled up be- fore I thought they were ripe ; but in this I was mistaken, for I after.wards discovered that the ground upon which they were deposited (a poor sandy worn out bottom, that would not bring me the seed of any thing I had put in it,) sent up a most tremendous crop of docks, which I had mowed down rather earlier than I had them puUed.up the year previous, and while they were much greener : but I was again disappointed, for the seed had ma- tured more than I had supposed, and another boun- tiful crop w as the result. Next spring and sum- mer, to prevent the dock from spreading, I plough- ed the ground three times, turning under the green dock which killed all etfectually : I spread lightly some timothy hay upon this spot in August, and this month I obtained from this spot which I re- garded as worthless, the heaviest crop of grass I ever saw cut. This suggests this query — would not dock be a powerful assistant in restoring thei exhausted bottoms of Eastern Virginia .' Its long and wide sjireading roots would, I am conscious, bring the strength from below, Avhere our best ploughs reach, and deposite it on the surface : it produces a large quantity of seed, which is easily collected ; and dock is quite easily conquered, if taken in any stage previous to its blossoming, but afterwards it cannot be managed well. Lucerne. — Canst thou inform me through thy " Register," or induce some of its correspondents to do it, whether this grass has succeeded in Virgi- nia .'' and if so, the nature of the soil most favora- ble to its production. Thy friend, F. CALDWELL. For the Farmers' Register. TIIK ADVANTAGKS AND DEFECTS OF AGRI- CULTURAL SOCIETIES. Several suggestions have lately appeared in the Farmers' Register of the necessity of forming so- cieties to promote the improvement of agriculture, which, added toother more private indications, in- duce me to believe that the establishment of such societies will soon be recommenced in Virginia. No one is more thoroughly satisfied than myself of the great advantages that may be derived from agricultural societies under proper regulations — but as they have usually been managed, they have been of but little use to agricultural improve^ ment, if not of actual detriment. If any means are brought forward with great pretensions and parade to etfect a certain object, and fail manifest- ly, the trial is very apt to retard the end intended to be thereby forwarded. As a sincere and zealous advocate for the improvement of agriculture, and of associations to promote that object, I will frank- ly state some of the reasons why so little good has been yet effected by such means in the state of Virginia. My representations will not be useless, if they have the least tendency to prevent similar errors hereafter. From 1819 to 1822 there was a rage for form- ing agricultural societies in Virginia. Nearly all ran the same course, and in a few years ceased to be heard of The faults which led to these results were so uniform, that a general statement may ap- pear lor (what certainly I do not intend,) a de- scription of, or a satire upon, some particular so- ciety. I mean to remark on general, and not on individual or particular cases of action, or of cha- racter. FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. 201 A remarkable and notorious characteristic of Virginians, is to commence tlie support of any good and popular scheme, with vehement and overflow- ing zeal — and having thus wasted our energy in the outset, to become weary, relax our exertions, and finally cease entirely to make them, by the time they are most wanting. Yet perhaps the de- liberate judgment of each individual is as much in favor of the object, w hen he thus abandons its sup- port, as when he first undertook, and gave all his strength, to commence the operation. We act more from feeling, than from reasoning. We start forward to aid a good cause, as most of us would rush to a joyous festival — and when the ex- citement of pleasure is over, we as readily yield to the reaction of feeling — the wearisomeness and lassitude which always follow the pursuit and en- joyment of mere pleasure. But besides this our national failing, which un- fortunately affects all our public institutions, there are other evils which press particularly on agri- cultural societies, and are sufficient to destroy tirst their usefulness, and next their very existence. When the formation of an agricultural society is first proposed, there are plenty of members to be obtained. Each is willing to give his name to support the scheme ; and he is willing also to add a little of his time, and a small contribution in mo- ney. But very few think of becoming lourking members , or oi doing any thing as individual cul- tivators of the soil, to aid the object of tlie associ- ation. They meet at the stated times for one or two years — find that they have no communications to hear — each thinks or declares that the society is useless, and wonders tliat it should be so — and final- ly, (and necessarily) it sinks into contempt and dies, without even the little respect of a vote being taken for its dissolution. Of all these perfectly useless members, there may be scarcely one who might not have rendered some service, by making experiments or observations, and reporting the re- sults : yet each one is kept silent and useless by false shame, and the fear (if he should make the attempt) of not being distinguished as an agricul- tural writer. So much for the mass of private members. — Next let us look to the officers, on whom much more depends, to secure the usefulness and perma- nency of the society. When a society is first formed, one of the most aged, respectable, intelligent and popular members •will of course be made the presiding and first ex- ecutive officer, on whose zeal and energy, the suc- cess of the scheme must mainly depend. Such a man will generally be justly entitled to the love and esteem of his fellow members — perhaps he will stand equally high as a farmer, or as a man of general and valuable acquirements. But if he wants zeal and energy, (as must be expected of most old men,) the highest other qualities will not make up for these deficiencies After such an ap- pointment, the high respectability and popularity of the individual forbids a change — and if he should prove an inefficient president, the society is soon overlaid and destroyed by his worth and dignity. The same observations apply, but with less force, to all the other subordinate officers of a society. To avoid these causes of danger to new socie- ties, I will respectfully propose to those who may be their founders, a few innovations Avhich I think will be found of use. Vol I.— 26 I. Let the society be composed altogether of working members : and to be sure of that object, let no member be admitted, except he previously presents some report in writing, (however concise, or no matter how trivial the subject) of experiments made, or facts observed. Scientific and profes- sional men, in their departments, could perform similar duties. Such a form of initiation would compel every member to " break the ice ;" and generally, nothing more is wanting, to prove to them that they can do good service in this way to agriculture, and with credit to themselves. Let these reports which would be presented as claims for admission, be always plain, simple and short, and in manner and form not beyond the imita- tion of any plain practical farmer. It would also be proper to require afterwards of each member, a small but certain amount of working service every year — a^s for example, the making and re- porting of one or more experiments on some doubt- ful point in farming, or in any art or science con- nected v/ith agricultural improvement. I do not mean todiscourage the more general, speculative, and argumentative essays which have heretofore formed nearly all the communications to agricul- tural societies: but these might be safely left to be performed as voluntary duties. It may be objected that but few members would be obtained if such preliminary and regular duties were required. I think otherwise. Very few v.'ould object to write in the manner proposed, if if it was made a duty, instead of being altogether voluntary, and if the performance was required of all without exception. But even if only ten mem- bers would unite on these terms, they would be more useful, and do more credit to themselves, than they could Vvitli one hundred more upon the ordi- nary plan. II. Let the duties of officers be so fixed and de- fined, as that the performance should be as litttle as possible affected by their individual characters and habits — and by a fixed rule, require rotation in office, so that no officer shall serve two years in succession. Almost any member, who has zeal and activity, may fill well any office in a society — and a year's service would be sufficient to show in any a deficiency in those indispensable qualifica- tions. If societies on something like this general plan were spread through Virginia, incalculable bene- fit to agriculture would be derived from thus insti- tuting, accurately observing, reporting, and pub- lishing hundreds of experiments, and ascertaining numerous important facts, which can be made known in no other v/ay. If only twenty individu- als, composing a society, would make so small a sacrifice as the duties would require, in as many as twenty different counties — and means were adopted to interchange communications, the result would be that each member would have the benefit of the labor of four hundred exjjerimenters and record- ers of agricultural facts, or scientific observations. Is not this an object worth seeking, and worth ?(wrA/7!g' to obtain.'' But if the plan was properly estimated, there might be ten thousand persons so operating, and they, and all the farmers of the com- monwealth, enjoying all the benefit to be derived from combining all these many exertions of labor and intellect. AN EX-MEMBER. Jabj 2ifh, 1833. 202 FARMERS' REGISTER— FALLOW. For the Farmers' Register. FALLOW ITS VAUIOUS AND CONTRADICTORY SIGNIFICATIONS. One of the many requisites for advancin half of the charge might be counteracted in the pur- chase and sale of the commodities passing between the contracting parties. Nor is it too bold to aver that such a measure would result in an immense benefit to Virginia — in a benefit proportionably as great as that which would result to her bank paper in New York or Philadelphia, if the bank of the United States and the other banks v/ere to declare that all the notes of Virginia should be received on the same terms. In fine, a tie would thus be formed that would render the union between North Carolina and Vir- ginia as indissoluble as the advantage to their agri- culture and their commerce would be infinite. The policy of such a measure is especially urg- ed at this moment when New York is making- such an effort to secure the trade of North Caro- lina v/a Charleston. On this subject, a unity of feeling and coincidence of idea should prevail not only among the states of Virginia and North Ca- rolina, but, as to Norfolk, generally among the old southern states. Rapidly are the western states melting into a mass, and as rapidly are the means forming of making them morally and commercially dependent on the middle and eastern states. These means are the canals and rail roads from the Missis- sippi and the lakes in a north and north east direction. Of the Rideau and Welland canals nothing is said, however great a subject they might be of specula- lion. But it is impossible to avoid urging the necessity of a combination among the southern states to counteract these measures, and to lead the products of the Mississippi, its dependencies, and those of the Carolinas, to the shores of the James, and the harbors of the Chesapeake, whence it would find its way to a European market at perhaps a cost little less than 15 per cent, under its actual charge. The influence of the south and the lower west would then be united in one body — their external *After this had been coiTecied in order to be trans.iiit- ted to the Register, the following expressions from a ■western paper struck the writer's eye. " The uncer- tainty attending the Jfeio Orleans marlctt, the risk of life and property arising from an unfavorable climate, as loell as the difficulty ami cost of reaching it from the intiriorof Indiana {and the neighboring countries,) lias doubtless liad an influence in bringing about the comme7icement of this ca- nal"— the Wabash and Erie. commerce would be concentrated at Norfolk— and the creation of Beaufort, S. C— of Beaufort, so long sacrificed by demagogues, brawlers and factionists, converted into a respectable military and naval depot, would give a strength and power to these states that would really make them a fbr- midalde member of the confederacy — a member of which, in truth, it might be said " Their swords are a thousand, their bosoms are one." SMEATOIV. P. S. To show the progress of New York and the supineness of Philadelphia, the following ex- tract from the National Gazette of the 23d July, 1833, is made. " To the Philadelphians we would " say, that, if a communication, by a canal or rail ■' rojd, is not shortly formed from Pittsburg to the " Ohio canal, they might as well at once execute " to the New Yorkers a release of all claim to " the trade of that immense country which lies " north of a line to be drawn from Bolivar, on the " Ohio canal, through Indianapolis to St. Louis, '' and to a considerable portion (of country) even " south of that line. " As matters now stand, New York has in- " disputable and exclusive possession of the trade " along the south side of Lake Erie, of the north- " ern ends of Indiana, Illinois, of Michigan, and " of the country westward and northward of Lake " Michigan. Every improvement made unto ei- " therLake Erie or Michigan — every increase of " the population along or near to these lakes, gives " New York an increased business, simply be- " cause she has a direct and easy communication "with Lake Erie at Buffaloe." Of course this commerce is divided with Canada. However, let us finish the extract, originally from the Pittsburg Gazette. " Complete the im- " provements now making over the Alleghany " mountain, and make a rail road from the mouth "of Big Beaver to Akron on the Ohio Canal, and " then we believe that New York will at once be " deprived of the trade of this great country." Statement of American and Foreign tonnage en- tered into and departed from the Districts of North Carolina, Virginia, South Carolina, Geor- gia, &c. &c. Ajieric.\n. Foreign. Enl'rd Depa'rd. Ent'rd. Depar'd. Virginia, - N. Carolina, - S. Carolina, - Georgia, Fieri- ) r!:i, Kf-V West ' 27467 19126 1999.5 17923 63131 26252 47S93 40124 19207 4536 32974 19471 22412 3412 41836 21565 For the Farmers' Register. THE GYPSEOUS EARTH OF JAMES RIVER. As far back as I can remember, crystals were sometimes found on the river shore at Evergreen, (two miles below City Point,) which attracted no farther notice than being admired for their perfect transparency. At that time it is probable that no one in the county had ever noticed crystalized gypsum, or even the lump gypsum of commerce, and no one had given the s.ightest attention to mi- neralogy. It is therefore not strange that the na- SOS FARMERS' REGISTER— GYPSEOUS EARTH. lure of these crystals was not suspected before 1817, when some person better acquainted with the subject, supposed them to l>e pure gypsum. The expression of this opinion attracted some no- tice at that time, but was received with general incredulity, founded upon the supposed impossi- bility of gypsum cxisling in this region, where it had never been heard of before. A lump was sub- mitted to the inspection of a French apothecary in Petersburg, who had" chemist" painted on his sign : he at once pronounced that the substance was not gypsum, but isinglass. The interest which I had felt with regard to this substance was soon after much increased by find- ing some small specimens on my own land, (Cog- gin's Point.) Having no prospect of having the question decided by any person possessing a scien- tific acquaintance with the sul)ject, I consulted books, and found such instruction as enabled me to analyze the sul)stance, and ascertain tliat it \vas pure sulphate of lime, or gypsum. But however satisfactory to myself, it must be confessed that my chemical proof was not much valued by others ; because it was thought impossible that a process believed to be so mysterious, could be accu- rately performed by one who confessedly was ignorant of chemistry, and who had only resorted to its aid for this particular object. To settle all these doubts, I sent collections of choice specimens to two of the most distinguished chemists in the United States, with the request that they would give their testimony as to the nature of the sub- stance. To have complied fully with my wish would not have required fifteen minutes of the va- luable time of either of those gentlemen : yet nei- ther paid the slightest attention to the subject, nor even returned my specimens. These were cer- tainly the strongest among the very many proofs I have known of how little aid chemists are dis- posed to offer to agriculture. As these applica- tions had been made to remove the doubts of others, and not mine, and to attract the public at- tention to what I considered an interesting and per- haps important subject, the results did not discou- rage the progress of my own investigations. I had previously ascertained that the gypseous formation was of much greater extent and impor- tance, than the crystals alone would indicate. In all the different places where the crystals had been found, they were imbedded in the same kind of earth, having a very peculiar appearance, and which extended along the south river bank, with but few interruptions, from Bay ley's creek toCoo-- gin's Point, a distance of eight or ten miles.— Having so marked a guide for examination as this earth presented, I found gypsum in it in various places, but in such small quantities, that alone it would never have attracted observation. It was evident that gypsum either was, or had been at some former time, diffused through the whole body of this earth, and therefore I distinguish it by the general name of gypseous earth, although in most cases there may be no gypsum now remaining. This term of course is not always indicative of the pre- sent constitution of the mass. The gypseous earth is of a dull greenish color, mottled with streaks of bright yellow clay. Where gypsum is visible, it is generally in numerous small crystals ; sometimes ni coarse white powder. At one spot only (where first discovered) are the crystals large. Here they are sometimes several pounds in weight, and of va- rious and beautiful forms. Some are as transpa- rent as glass: but generally, they are of a dark grey color, owing to a small quantity of dark earthy particles being enclosed l;etween the lamince of the crystals. Except at this place, the solid crystals seldom exceed ten or twelve grains in weight, and generally are less than one grain. The most usual appearance in which they are pre- sented on the bank, is that of a star, formed by nu- merous rays (each a solid crystal) shooting out from a common centre. As these rays are very slightly attached to each other, they generally fall asunder when removed. In much tlie greater part of the gypseous earth which has been yet examined, no gypsum is visi- ble ; nor is it believed that even the smallest parti- cle remains. But v*'hetlier gypsum is present or not, the earth is filled with .numerous hollow forms or impressions of shells, so as to prove that this was once part of a bank of fossil shells, (or marl as it is here called,) of which the upper part, un- chaiTged, still forms the cover of the gypseous earth, through its whole extent. The yellow clay, before spoken of, is very often presented in the form of shells, as if, when fluid, it had filled their vacant places. Masses of hard marl, coated over with crysfalized gypsum, are also found here and there in the gypseous earth. A close examination of the bed, and comparing the irnpressionsof shells with the appearance of those still existing in the upper stratum, or in the neighborhood, will leave no doubt on the mind of the observer, of the change having taken place from a bed of fossil shells to gypseous earth. This conclusion is attended with two difficul- ties : In tl>e first place, we are at a loss to know by what agency or means could so extensive, regular, and conqjletc a chemical change have been made, as converting all the shelly matter (carbonate of lime) to gypsum, (sulphate of lime.) Secondly, admit- ting the means toexist, and the change to have ta- ken place, it is still more difficult to guess what has become of the gypsum so formed — as not one tenth of its proper quantity remains. When sulphuric acid takes the place of carbonic acid, in combination with lime, the greater weight of the former, (together with the water chemically com- bined) serves to increase the weight of the new compound aViout fifty per cent : or, in other words, one hundred grains of shells, or pure calcareous earth, if allowed to combine with sulphuric acid, will form at least one hundred and fifty grains of gypsum. So the mere ciiange of acids being made, ought to give us an earth much richer in gypsum than it before was in calcareous matter. Instead of this, the gypsum is no where so plenty as we may suppose the shells formerly were ; and by far the greater part of this bed now is entirely destitute of both gypsum and calcareous earth. What has become of it is beyond my power to explain. The access of waters containing sulphuric acid, or sulphate of iron, would suffice to produce the change of carbonate to sulphate of lime — and the exposure to sufficient water, and for sufficient time, might dissolve and carry off the greater part of the gypsum. Sulphate of iron is perceptible on the surface of some of this earth near the head of tidewater on Powell's creek, and was abundant enough to greatly injure the land on v.'hich some of that earth was applied thickly, for manure. Sul- FARMERS' REGISTER— GYPSEOUS EARTH. 209 phuret of iron has also been found intermixed with the gypseous earth : and this mineral in contact with carbonate of lime, would also by cliemical decomposition and new combination, form gyp- sum. It was at Berkley, in Charles City, that sulphuret of iron was found by Mr. Benjamin Harrison, near the bottom of a pit of thirty six feet depth, which he caused to be sunk in the beach and through gypseous earth. Many isolat- ed masses of marl were reached, (such as I descri- bed above,) and Mr. H. thinks that the gypseous earth also was still calcareous. In either case, the chemical change from the carbonate to the sulphate of lime must be still going on, as the agent, sulphu- ret of iron, still remained in considerable quantity. The discovery of the existence of gypsum caus- ed the hoj)e to be entertained at first that it would be found in large bodies, and pure enougli to form a valuable commodity for sale, and distant trans- portation. But the examination wliich led to the foregoing conclusions, also served to dissipate these expectations. As the shelly bed whicli was the origin of the gypseous eartli, was composed principally of wortliless sand and clay, the new gypseous formation must have the same degree of adulteration, which would forbid its sale for trans- portation. Tlic only rcmaiiiiiig use for the application of the new discovery, was as manure in the neigh- borhood where it was found : and circumstances then existing, and opinions almost universally en- tertained, prevented much profit being expected from this source, and discouraged even the expe- riments necessary to test fully the value of the earth as manure. These circumstances and opi- nions will be stated. When the wonderful effects of gypsum as ma- nure in Pennsylvania, and in parts of the moun- tainous region of Virginia, were first made known, the reports excited as much of incredulity, as as- tonishment, or of hope to reap the same rewards. But as a few pounds of pulverized gypsum were sufficient for tiie purpose, almost every farmer in lower- Virginia, who was either enterprising or in- quisitive, made some small applications for expe- riment. This was thirty five or forty years ago, and jxirhaps there was not one of these experiments recorded, or the precise result kept in remem- brance. But as to the general result, there could be no mistake. The failure was so general, that every one of the experimenters agreed that gypsum was worthless in lower Virginia, and in that opinion all others concurred. Some marked instances of success presented on Berkley in Charles City, Curie's, Brandon, and some other fine soils on James River, when the use of gypsum was resum- ed fifteen or twenty years after, did not shake the opinion of the general unfitness of our land for that manure. In this opinion I fully concurred — and of course could not expect to find our own impure gypseous earth more efficacious, than the purer substance from France or Nova Scotia. But without expecting profit from the manure, the desire to prove its identity with gypsum caus- ed me to make many small experiments with the pounded crystals, and with the earth in which they were found, in 1817, and afterwards. The results were not such as to promise profit from the ex- tended use, but served to remove all remaining doubt as to the nature of the substance. On the several kinds of clover it sometimes produced re- VoL. 1.— 27 markable benefit — but more generally, very little. On corn, it was totally inert, except in a very few cases, and in one of these exceptions, the benefit was remarkable. On other grain crops, no effect was ever found. Tliese very different effects, instead of being imputed to the nature of the soil, and the crop, (as I have since ascertained to be the true causes,) were supposed to be evidences of the ca^ pricious manner in which this manure acted, and of its general worthlessness for this region. I saw indeed that its best effect was on calcareous soil — and even then began to entertain the opinion which since has been established by facts, that the want of calcareous ingredients in our soils, caused their unfitness to be improved by gypsum. I felt the less inducement iiowever to continue my applica- tions, because my own gypseous earth was poor, and limited in quantity : and I wished to reserve w hat there was of it for future use, when my land should be made calcareous, and more fit for clover. For these reasons, my use of the gypseous earth was almost abandoned for six or seven years, and no other person had then made any experiments to test its value as manure. In the winter of 1825-6, I found, on my land, a small body of gypseous earth containing at least one tenth of pure gypsum on the average — and por- tions of it had as n^.uch as one fourth. This caus- ed me to resume its use. In 1826, 565 heaped bushels were applied, about 20 to the acre, (sup- posed to give from 2 to 3 of pure gypsum,) to va- rious soils, and to different crops. In 1827, be- tween 7 and 800 bushels were applied. The effect on clover, on land calcareous by nature, or made so by art, was as great generally as gypsum has ever pioduced elsewhere. On cotton, and on corn, tlie effects were irregular, and taken altogether, were not equal to the cost of the application. But though the use of this earth was now confined to land made calcareous, (as it was evidently worth- less elsewhere,) I again lost the greater part of its value by another improper mode of application, which it may be usefiil to others to state more fully. Judge Peters, to whom we are indebted for making known and establishing the value of gyp- sum, was of opinion that one of its operations is to hasten tlie rotting of vegetable matter with Avhich it is in contact : and thence he deduced the opinion of the propriety of mixing gypsum in heaps of compost, or of other coarse putrescent manure. Besides gaining this particular benefit from mix- ing the gypseous earth with my stable and farm yard manures, (which I was ready to believe on the high authority of Judge Peters,) I expected to derive from that practice a still greater benefit in distributing easily and equally the earth over the land, which was very troublesome to spread alone. For these reasons, the greater part of my gypse- ous earth was spread over the litter in the farm yard and stable, in such quantitiesas was supposed would give about 20 bushels of the earth to every acre covered by the manure. The heaping of the manure to ferment, then cutting it down to load, and spreading it over the field, no doubt divided and distiilmted the gypseous earth very equally. It showed no effect on the succeeding crop, corn, (at least none that could be distinguished from that of the putrescent manure,) and none on the wheat, which followed. I had not expected much better results on these crops, but relied confidently that my 210 FARMERS' REGISTER -GYPSEOUS EARTH. clover, sown on the wheat, would show the effect of the sjypseous earlh equal to any on other hind, where it had been applied alone. In this I was to- tally disappointed. Not the least effect of p,ypsum couhl be discovered on the clover — and thus the whole of this application was thrown away, as well as the greater part of the succeeding win- ter's application, which in like manner had been mixed with my other manure, and v/hicli had not then arrived at the lime to prove its uselessness. The cause of this inefficiency is now plain enough. Fermenting manure, (and probably all ferment- ing vegetable matter,) forms oxalic acid, which attracts lime so powerfully as to take it fro;Ti all other combinations in which it can be presented. This acid thus meeting with the sulphate of lime in the gypseous earth, at once decomposed it, and destroyed the peculiar manure before existing. No particle of gypsum remained to be carried out, and act on the land. It is useless here to extend my remarks on this operation of oxalic acid, as it has been done at length elsewhere :* it is suffi- cient to show by this statement tiiat my obstinate adherence to this mode of application, for two win- ters, caused the loss of the greater part of gyp- seous earth, as well as the labor of applying it. The rich seam was by that time exhausted, and my later use has been with the poorer body, v/hicb, it is possible, may not be cheaper than to buy the im- ported gypsum. However, witiiin the last year, my friend and neighbor Thomas Cocke of Tar- bay, by applying earth apparently still poorer in gypsum, has produced such remarkable benefit on clover, that I am encouraged to return again to this kind of manure. The earth he uses is brown, and diiiers much from the general appear- ance as described above. We are both satisfied that the gypseous earth possesses some power to aid the growth of clover, independent of the pure gypsum contained. Last year, (1832) to lest this opmion, I sov.ed French gypsum on clover at the dififerenl rates of 1, 2, 3 and 4 bushels to the acre on marked spaces. The benefit of the smallest application doubled the crop of clover — and it was increased by the heavier dressing, tliough not at all proportioned to the quantities applied. But the clover on the heaviest application (of 4 bushels,) was not to compare to the effect seen on neighbor- ing and similar land, from 20 bushels of my best gypseous earth, and which was not greater than had often been found elsewhere. Mr. Cocke finds equal benefit, on clover made on poor liglit land, ^that is, it is made as heavy as it can well stand,) Irom 40 bushels of his earth which appears so poor. It is necessary to observe that all these instances of benefit are on land made calcareous by fossil shells : and on my own, last spoken of, before that operation, the gypseous earth had been used, in hea- vy as well as light applications, and without the least effect. The very rich bed of gypseous earth at Evergreen has only just now been opened for use. The statements made of my own practice show that I cannot boast of having derived much (if any) profit from the use of gypseous earth. Ne- vertheless, my experience may be more useful to others than it has been to myself, and the misap- plications caused by my inexperience and igno- rance may serve to show others, who have access to such manure, how to make proper use of it. + Essay on Calccireous Manures, pp. 143 and S;iJ4. Within the last year, circumstances have attracted attention, and been made public, which induce the belief that this Ibrniation of gypseous earlh is much more extensive than was liefore supposed. The marl beds in Hanover and Henrico, not far below the granite ridge, are covcied by an upper I ed of clay, which is very different in appearance from our gypseous earth, but agrees with it in being full of impressions of shells, and being destitute of any portion of tho carbonate of lime, with which it was evidently so well furnished at some former time No gypsum is visible. This earth also dif- fers from that of Prince George in containing pure sulphur generally diifused throughout, as made evident by its strong sulpl)ureous scent. I do not know tliat this singular and extensive formation is valuable as manure — but it is at least worth ex- amination and trial. The clay bank through which Governor's street in Richmond is cut, is full of such impresssions of shells, though it does not con- tain, and is not known even to cover, any remain- ing calcareous matter. If shells are below, as is probable, this is very near their termination in this direction. In the bed of Howard's Creek, at the point where it Hows nearest to the White Sulphur Spring, (within a few hundred yards distance,) there are many pebbles, varying greatly in form, appearance, and chemical composition, but agree- ing in containing (like the earth before described) numerous hollow ibrms of small shells, of which nothing of the substance now remains, nor any trace of carbonate of lime. These stones are as solid and hard as those of similar external appear- ance usually are, which makes still more strange and unaccountable the entire disappearance of the shells which have at a former time been enclosed. I have mentioned this fact because it may possibly attract the attention of some of the men of science who visit that place, and induce them to observe and explain these singular facts. Th.e silicious fixed rocks lying close oy the Sulphur Spring also have many star-like impressions on their surfaces, (but not within, as in the other cases,) which from their similarity and regularity of form, must have been caused by small shells of one particular species. I found a similar impression on a pebble in the bed cf the Calf Pasture River — and per- haps such facts may be numerous, and well known to others. In all those cases, there was not the least particle of carbonate of lime remaining in these stones, (as proved by chemical tests,) nor any appearance (to the eye) of any other salt of lime, to v.'hich the carbonate might have been changed. The highland which lies over the whole extent of the gypseous formation in Prince George pre- sents a surface and qualities of very peculiar ap- pearance, and which may possibly have some con- nection with the gypseous bed below. If so, my description may direct more successfully the search for gypseous earth elsewhere. The land from Bay- ley's Creek to Coggins' Point, except where in- terrupted by some low alluvial tracts, seems as if it had been originally a high and level bluff, or abrupt termination of table land, v/hich had sunk in successive slices, the lowest next the river, so as now to present somewhat the appearance of a hill side cut into terraces. Of course, this form is extreme- ly irregular. The broken strata cause the great- est variety of surface : fossil shells fit for use at FARMERS' REGISTER— &YPSEOLS EARTH. 211 manure, barren clay, barren calcareous sand, and rich black soil, were all to Ijc fotind in almost eve- ry acre, and remained distinct, until mixed by the cultivation of the surface. It does not rest on mere conjecture that this land took its present form and depression by sinkingorsZi'/)/3('ji§:, as a si- milar natural operation to considerable extent, has taken place on the Tarhay farm witliin a few years, the progress and consequences of which are still visible. The rich f^ypseous bank, at Evergreen, is at a place where the river is encroaching on the land, and every storm, or very high tide, adds to the acres which have doultless i)een already swept away. In this manner was formerly exposed the remains of the trunk of a tree, lying even with the beach, and which when v/et, presented the same spon- gy and soft texture on the surface, smooth and even yielding to the touch, as is usually seen in rotten and water-soaked logs. But except the surface, v/here water had probal)ly dissolved the substance, every pore and cell of the log was iilled with gypsum, though tiie form and grain of wood remained distinct. This complete tilling of the cells could only have taken place when the gyp- sum was in a fluid state. The circumstance of a tree being found beneath a bank of shells, or what had lieen shells, miglit seem to be a proof that the shells were the later deposit of the two. But it is easier to believe that the whole body of earth, (though perhaps 50 feet high) was former- ly thrown into its present place, by one of those land-slips which have been already spoken of. There is a kintl of earth in New Jersey which was called inarl, (as almost every earthy manure has been) but which seemed to me, from the im- perfect descriptions given of it, to be the same kind of gypseous earth that I have described. Although this Jersey manure excited attention, and was bought, and tried, and reported on, by Judge Pe- ters, there was no certain indication given to the public of the component parts of the earth, or what constituted its fertilizing pov.cr. Judge Pe- ters spej^s thus of it. " It is s;id by some that the Jersey pijritous earth, called marl, is of this descrip- tion, [i. e. a mere stimulant ;] and by others tiiat it is permanently fertilizing. Nothing decisive can yet be pronounced, as its many varieties differ in their respective etTects. There are facts both ways ; so that this earth when applied, and the soil it is intended to assist, should be carefully scruti- nized, and the qualities practically known. Some English chemists to whom it has been sent, style it an Hydrat nf Jron j while others designate its composition, as a coUectien of decomposed granite, schorl, silex, alumine, iron ; in some specimens (no doubt those mixed with shells,) lime and mag- nesia, with sulphur. A more accurate knov/ledge of its parts and properties, is still required ; and it is to be wished that our own chemists will give us their assistance. Broom gra-is and c ther pests on worn lands, may be destroyed by a top dressing of Ibis earth and chloritic sands of a similar, though not 50 potent a nature ; which substitute a natu- ral growth of white clover."* In a communica- tion of later date. Judge Peters made the i()liow- ing incidental remarks. '•' Four years ago, I pro- cured 40 tons of Jersey manure, and spread it as * Notices for a Young Farmer^by Judge Peters. — Phil. Memoirs, vol. 4. a lop-dressing on many parts of the Belmont farm, on sand, clay, loam, and in every variety of exposure, as well as on moist and dry grounds. But in no instance any profitable efTect appeared. A broad strip of tlie lawn, light and sandy, had been top dressed, and showed no signs of meliora- tion herctolbrc. This strip is part of my little oat field ; and it has [tliis year] thrown up a most luxu- riant growth, far exceeding any other part, (though l];e whole was good, having been well limed throughout,) and affords a proof that this manure agrees with and co-operates with lime. I never saw, in the richest soil, stronger, better headed, or more promising plants. It would have been in- compatible with my objects, or I should have suffer- ed it to ripen, for experiment of its product. Mr. Mark Reeve, who is very intelligent on this sub- ject, (and to whom I sent a sample of the ma- nure,) informed me that 1 had been imposed on by the person from v,'hora I procured it ; the article used by me being only the cover of the true kind. Its elTect, luxuriant as it is, must have been more so, if the perfect manure had been used."* I have peen it stated elsewhere, (though I am not able now to refer to the authority) that the Jersey earth was particularly beneficial to clover, and that it was used in small quantities, compared with other manures. The description of the Jersey earth, and the ef- fects imputed to its use, agree very closely with those of our gypseous earth. But it also seems, that no one entertained a suspicion that its value was owing to its containing, or forming gypsum. I therefore infer that the eartli there used was si- milar to the great body and poorest kind of ours, having not a particle of gypsum remaining. — if so, the effects produced as manure, were proba bly owing lo either s»//>/ia/e of iron, or siilphuret of iron remaining in excess in the earth — which, when meeting with lime in the soil, formed gyp- sum— and if no lime was present, jcmaincd either (as the sulphuret,') an inert, or (as the sulphate of iron,') a poisonous ingredient of the soil. Jroii pyrites (sulphuret of iron) have been used with much benefit as manure — though that effect would proliably depend on whether the soil was calcare- ous or otherwise. From the publication of the passages quoted above, and many others on the same manure that appeared about 1819, and soon after, it might be supposed that the attention and labors of chemists would have been drawn to this manure, and its composition and value clearly settled; and that practical farmers would have fully profited by this instruction. On the contrary, all notice of the manure soon ceased, and no information there- on has since been given to the public. It may therefore be inferred that the manure was us^ so ignorantly, as not to be found profitable in ge- neral, and that even the solicitations of Judge Pe- ters, and the influence of his venerable name, could not obtain this small aid from men of sci- ence, which might have shown when and why the manure was useful, or otherwise. If my views of its constitution are not mistaken, it is certain that this manure will be found useless on most poor sods, unless calcareous earth is used previously, or in conjunction. edmund ruffin. Shellbanks, Aug. 9, 1833. I Phil. Memoirs, vol. 4. 212 FARMERS' REGISTER— CORN— COMMERCIAL REPORT, &c. CULTURE OF CORN. Fairfax County, jiugust 21, 1833. To the Editor of the Farmer.,' Register. In your No. 3, under date of the 24th June, I find you have inserted an extract from my letter to you (on the unjust and oppressive law concern- ing fences.)* I thank you lor doing so ; the sub- ject is now before ail Virginia, and I hope that every man interested in the sacred rights of pro- perty, (and who is lie tliat is not.'') will give the subject a fair, cool, and impartial consideration. I am a self taught man, and too old to make an efTort to show that two and three make five — and I should consider it equally frivolous and ridicu- lous, to attempt to show, that in a community guided by morals and law, a man is entitled exclu- sively to the use of his own. Some of your correspondents are inquiring for the best mode of making corn. I do not pretend to any knowledge of the best way of doing any thing ; but I will say what I do, and leave it to those concerned to determine what is best. My corn is now nearly stri})ped, and as soon as the ears are sufficiently dry, we gather, and then cut off the stalks and haul them out in a succulent state to the cattle, upon the land intended for corn the next season ; witli this follows all my straw, strewed or put in racks as may seem best — taking particular care of the weakest parts of the field. From time to time, in the winter and spring, the whole is buried with a good two horse plougli — (I have used four horse and three horse ploughs.) The whole is then harrowed close down ; furrows are then drawn at right angles, five feet one way and three the other ; four or five grains are then placed at each intersection, and covered lightly with a hoe. As soon as this is done, the space in each direction between the furrows or rows, is workefl with a single coulter, moved by one horse, eight or ten in,ches deep, until there be sonie ap- pearance of grass upon the ground, or until the corn shews its preparation to go into the tassel, when a cultivator is put upon it, until the silk be- gins to show. It is then left, and we have no fear about results. When the crop comes olT, we see very little of the corn stalks, or straw, unless the season has been very dry. A two horse plough is then used to throw it into shape to receive wheat. When we thin, we dress the plants with a hoe. — In addition to this, I keep a farm yard, where my milch cows, &c. are kept, and we apply the pro- ceeds to surface dress wheat, or use it upon the poorer parts of the corn field. To this use I also apply my stable and sheep pen manure. The ex- perience of more than thirty years gives me au- thority to say that surface dressing is the best ap- plication of those kinds of manure, for this, if for no other reason — that a given quantity will dress a double surface. By this practice, and a very free use of the spade (my farm is very low and level,) I now make from eight to ten times as much as was made upon it twenty five years ago, when I came to tlie pos- session and management of it. It is due however to a bare statement of facts, that I should say that I wandered many years in the dark, and waded many in the water, before I even saw my way clearly. My corn is not bad this year, though * See Fanners' Register, No. 3, page 185. the most of my neighbors will not make the fourth part of a fair crop. Wishing your valuable work tliat reception with the public which it merits, T am your friend, jerk3Jiah. [We shall be obliged to our correspondent if lie will ndd to the value of the foregoing communication by de- scribing particularly the shape and size of the conlter which he uses, and its operation in pulverizing the soil, keeping down the growth of weeds of different kinds, &c ] — Ell. Farm. Reg. COMMERCIAL REPORT, AND PRESENT PROS- PECT OF MARKETS. [We are indebted for the following article to a gen- tleman who possesses much commercial and general infor- mation ; and hope that a similar report of markets, and prospects of markets, will be furnished monthly. We aj-e sure that such reports will be interesting, and some- times may be profitable to many of our readers.] — Ed. Farm. Reg. To the Eilitor of the Farmers' Register. It is gratifying to observe the favorable con- dition of the agricultural interests in the United States generally, and in the southern states espe- cially— niaugre all party and political complaints. The prices of all the most imfwrtant articles of produce are good ; and I believe it requires but industry, good management, and a judicious use of those resources which nature has bountifully pro- vided, to render our State, good old Virgmia ! pros- perous, to clieck that migratory disposition which has too long prevailed, and to restore her to the' eminence that she attained in the by-gone days of the Old Thirteen. It is no wonder that Virginia has not advanced at as rapid a pace as her younger sisters (or more more properly, daughters) have. She has contri- liutetl more than any other state, to people those western regions, a large portion of which once constituted a part of her territory — anc^ she has suffered not only the abstraction of population, but also of capital. Large fortunes, acquired by com- merce, when its profits were inordinate, have been constantly withdrawn from her, to add to the wealth and resources of other countries or states ; and the vacuum created by the removal of a capi- talist has been filled by a new comer without capi- tal— who, if successful in acquiring one, followed the example of his predecessor. Tlius has Virgi- nia been but a nursery of population and wealth, to be distributed abroad, as fast as it was produc- ed. The natural effect has been, to retard the growth of our towns, the extension and improve- ment of agriculture, the developement of natural resources, and the formation of roads and canals, which give an impulse to the others. From this situation I believe we are now becom- ing disenthralled ; and if so, brighter prospects will open to us. Let our energies be exerted, and tliey will make us prosper. Our mines, our quar- ries, as well as our fields, contain abundant sour- ces of wealth. From these general remarks, I will descend to others of a limited character. All the agricultu- ral products of Virginia, and of the southern and western states now command high prices. Wheat sells at 112 to 125 cents— Cotton at 15 to 16— To- FARMERS' REGISTER— POTATOES. 213 bacco 4| for such as formerly was not worth send- ing to market — 7 to 10 for good quality, and at much Iiigher prices for such as pleases the fancy of manufacturers. The extent to which tlie manufacturing of to- bacco in Virginia has reached, is almost incredi- ble. It is not thought extravagant to estimate it at 18,000 hogsheads annually, or about one half of the quantity inspected. The manufactured arti- cle tinds its way, legally or illicitly, to every part of the world. Large quantities of Kentucky to- bacco are now imported into Virginia, wliere it is stemmed, and then shipped to Great Britain. The amount of capital and labor thus employed is very great : but it is considered (and perhajis with good reason) by many, as expended on not only an use- less, but a deleterious article. It may well be questioned, whether the agriculture of Virginia has not been more injured by tlie cultivation of to- bacco, than the profit derived from it can recom- pense. The preference given in the ports of South Ame- rica to Virginia flour, and particularly to that ground at Riciimond, renders our wheat markets as good as any in the Union. It w ill require all the skill of millers, in manufacturing the present inferior crop of wheat, to sustain the character which they have acquired. The quantity of flour shipped from James River to South America in the months of August and September, may be usu- ally estimated at 25 to 30,000 barrels ; and during the year, at more than double that quantity. The mills which recently have been, and those which are about to be put in operation at Richmond, may invite, if not defy comparison with any in the world : and those of Petersburg, though not so extensive, have acquired a high reputation for the quality of their flour. The improvements in machinery for the manu- facture of cotton goods, and the cheapness of the raw material, have caused such an increased use of cotton fabrics, that the demand has at this time overtaken the supply — the consequent advance in price, while it gives a stimulus to increased pro- duction, will at the same time diminish the con- sumption; and at no very distant date, the opera- tion of these two causes will reduce the price of the raw material to the level of the last four or five years. The crop of the United States (1831 and 1832) amounts to about 1,030,000 bales, of which Great Britain consumes about 600,000 France, " " 200,000 Other parts of Europe, " 70,000 The United States, " 160,000 The growth of cotton in the United States in 1824, was but 560,000, and that of the present year, it is surmised, will be 1,150,000. It is but four or five years since the first suc- cessful experiment in Virginia, in the manufactur- ing of cotton, was made in Petersburg. The ex- ample has been followed in Richmond, Manches- ter, Fluvanna, and Smithfield. The quantity spun in these places may now be estimated at 6000 bales annually ; and it is said that other mills are about to be erected at Petersburg and Richmond. The employment given in these establishments, to a class of respectable persons who had been pecu- liarly destitute, will, it is hoped, be attended with beneficial results, instead of the reverse, as has been apprehended by some. The commercial interests of Virginia appear to be thriving. A regular line of packets between James River and Liverpool is about to be estab- lished by an enterprising house in Petersburg. The rail road from that place to Elakely on Roan- oke (60 miles) is now in active use ; and a journey which Ibrmerly required two days, is now perform- ed betw een breakfast and dinner, and may be re- traced by tea time. If our public functionaries will make suital)le arrangements, the great mail from north to south will be expedited one entire day by this road. If I have not fatigued you and your readers, I make my acknowledgements lor their patience ; but as you have brought the burthen on yourself, I leave you to bear it, taking with you my best wishes lor your success. X. MEAXS FOR PRESERVING POTATOES. Translated for the Farmers' Register, from the " Journal ({''Ag- riculture, etc. des Pays Bas.^^ To preserve potatoes from the frost, and retard their germination, is an object of great imj)ortance in rural and domestic -economy : therefore no- thing ought to be neglected to attain this end. We consequently think it our duty to inform farmers of the result of experiments repeated for many successive years. It has been found that, when potatoes are covered 3^ feet in earth, they are not only sheltered from the coldest weather, but may be ke})t for almost any length of time without ger- minating, or giving the least sign of vegetation : but if they are buried less than 3| feet deep, they will germinate. Potatoes have been preserved in this way for three years, without undergoing the least change. Then, to preserve these precious vegetables, it is only necessary to dig a trench deep enough to cover them up 3^ feet deep. We might in this manner preserve a considerable quantity in years of plenty, w Inch would be good food for man, or animals, in years of scarcity. But one might, per- haps, and with good reason, object to this experi- ment, from the difficulty of digging up the pota- toes, from such a depth, as fast as they are used. To obviate this inconvenience, we may dig, on sloping ground, a trench of convenient depth, around which a wall must be built to support the earth. At the lower end of the trench, and on the. surface of the earth, a door must be made, as in a lime kiln. After filling up this subterraneous ma- gazine, with potatoes within 3| feet of the top, they must be covered with sand, which will be 3^ feet deep, to fill up the space. The potatoes nmst be taken out, as they are wanted, by the door of which we have spoken of before, made at the lower end of the trench. The potatoes must be always covered with sand, to shelter them from the atmospheric air which causes germination. The advantages of preserving potatoes without any change, would soon indemnify the expense of building, which is very trifling, since very rough brick work will answer for the walls of the exca- vation, which must be made on sloping ground. After having used all the potatoes, if you wish to fill the trencli again, the sand must be taken out, which will do to cover the new potatoes. 214 FARMERS' RECilSTER— CALCAREOUS SOIL, &c.— tELLOW LOCUST. For the Farmers' Register. Effects of calcaukous soil on health, uiskased trkes. potatoes. The 2cl No. of* the Farmers' Reijister contains the ' Supplementary Chapter' to the Essay on Cal- careous Manures. I was hiijhly dclilet a few inches from the ground, and filling them with the medicine. The next season it began to thrive, and has giown most rapidly ever since. Let others try the expe- riment, and see whether trees do not as often require medicine, and are as often benefitted by it, as men. ( am just gathering my Irish potatoes, before the fall rains set in to make them watery ; and the experience of ten years confirn)S me in the belief that my mode of cultivation possesses advantages over every other. And these are : first, that it re- quires very little labor, and secondly, that the pro- duct is infinitely greater than I have ever known from any other plan ; and thirdly, that the increase is not in proportion to the fortility of the soil, that is, a moderately fertile soil will produce about as well as a rich one, and in the process of cultivation, the soil is necessarily made rich. In February I spade up the land well, and lay off rows, by stretch- ing a line and marking with a stick or handle of a hoe, 18 ini hes apart. In these rows I plant the potatoes 10 or 12 inches from eath other, just deep enough to cover them well, that they may vegetate and f.ike root, say from one to two inches. Any time before the sprouts come out of the ground, I have them (overed with straw, or pine leaves, to the depth of eight, or even tAvelve inches. I find it well to throw a few corn stalks or bushes thinly over to keep the covering from blowing off. My experience has proved that the crop is incompara- bly superior when the plantings are whole, and of pretty good size. Indeed it is better, every two or three years, to start with a fre.sh slock. Gathering will be found very convenient, as it is only neces- sary to remove the covering with the hand, and the potatoes will be exposed to vieAV in groups, like eggs in a nest, on, or near the surface, when the largest can be plucked. I have never made a mea- surement of the quantity produced, and would not, Ihercfore, hazard a guess, lest it might be thought by some extravagant; but I am sure that no one who shall try the plan two or three years, will ever abandon it for another. w. i. d. Nottoway, Aug. 22d, 1833. YELLOW LOCUST. To tlic Editor of the Farmers' Register. Being desirous to aid, if I can, in improving the state of agricidture, I have ventured some sugges- tions for the consideration of those of more know- ledge and experience than myself, on rearing the yellow locust, for several purposes. It strikes me, that the yellow locust v/ould be more durable than white oak for the sills for rail-roads. I am not able to say how long they would last, but I think more than twice as long as white oak sills. The growth of the yellow locust, on good soil, is very rapid. In fifteen years from the time of planting, in a fer- tile soil, the trees would be large enough to make sills for the rails for a rail-road, and those sills would last twice as long as those made of white oak. They might be rearetl on lands along the route of a rail-road, so convenient as to save all the trouble and expense of transportation for any con- siderable distance. In the last No. of the Register, Mr. Grigsby has shewn the advantages of raising FARMERS' REGISTER— DAHLIAS, fcc. 215 the yellow locust for sale, and for sundry firming purposes. From a quotation of his from the New- York Farmer and Gardeners' Ma<;azinc, it appears the expense of raising; a yellow lot ust tree tAvelve years old, would be about eight cents and a half These trees can be raised much sooner than the white oak ; and the day is not far distant when our farmers will have to raise trees for timber. It is said wooden sills and rails, answer much better for locomotive transportation on rail roads, than those made from granite. !t is probable, therefore, that if rail-roads answer t!ie expectations of those who have tested their uses thus far, (of which there can now be little doubt,) a great quantity of timber must be used in keeping them up. The yellow locust would answer an excellent purpose, for posts and rails too, for fencing. A fence made of this kind of wood, would outlast any that could be made of any kind of wood. A plan was suggested to me, in- a conversation with a lar- mer of great experience several years since, which I think he said he had then adopted, which would answer well in constructing a fence of yellow locust. He said he had posts (or a straight fence cut and carried to a convenient cover, and when his male laborers could not be employed out of doors in rainy or excessively cold, frozen weather, he had them employed in boring and morticing his posts. By this means he generally had enough on hand to make all repairs to his fences, which were all post and rail fences. The locust p^sts might be cut and housed in the fall, and prepared in this way, ■when the hands were prevented from being em- ployed out of doors. We farmers in Virginia are too much in the habit of saying " it will do," and doing things in a hurried and slovenly manner. Labor and pains, care and attention, are necessary to attain valuable results, in any calling or profes- sion. I hope your Register will tend to awaken the zeal and the spirited exertions of our farmers, to improve the face of our country, and add to our comforts and happiness, as members of a free and enlightened community. WILLIAM SHAi'DS, JR. Hickory Hill, Prince George, > August 12, 1833. 5 MR. SMITH S COLLECTIOK OF DAHLIAS. We invite the attention of all who are fond of flow- ers, to the adverlisenient on our cover, of the valuable and extensive collection of r^re and beautiful Dahlias, belonging to Mr Smith of Baltimore, and which he now offers for sale. No better opportunity can be availed ot by those who wish to possess these splendid flowers, which are as yet very rare in Virginia, though so fash- ionable and highly prized elsewhere. The cause of agri- culture is indebted to Mr. Smith for the aid which he has for years been giving to it, as editor to the Ameri- can Farmer, with much credit to himself, and benefit to the public : and those who may now patronise his hor- ticultural skill and labors, will at the same time make some return for sacrifices of time and talent which he has made for the general benefit. We have not the pleasure of being personally acquainted with Mr. Smith , but from all that we know and have heard ol him, we feel assured that those who will direct to him orders for his Dahlias, may confide perfectly in their bsing executed, promptly and faithfully. We cannot boast of possessing either taste or know- ledge with regard to flowers, and we are indebted to a friend for the following information, which may be ac- ceptable to those who are but little acquainted with this splendid flower. DESCRIPTION OF THE DAHLIA. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Plants says, the Dahlia is ' one of the most fashionable hardy ' plants.' The Encyclopedia of Gardening says, ' the roots of the Dahlia are tuberous and lascicu- ' lated ; the stem rises from 5 to 8 feet, [rather ' from 2 to 12 feet,] covered with large compound ' leaves, resembling those of the common dwarf 'elder, and with side branches bearing numerous ' flowers of a great variety of colors, which ajipcar ' in August, [here in July,] and continue until ' destroyed by frost. * * * At present (1827) ' tlie Dahlia is the most fashionable flower in this 'country, [England] and tlie extent of its culture ' in some nurseries, especially tiiat of Lee, is truly 'astonishing. Nor is this to be wondered at, as ' Sabine observes, for, independently of the great ' beauty and diversity of the flowers, they are in 'perfection at a season, when, till they came into ' notice, our gardens had but little ornament.' Again, Loudon's Encyclopedia of Plants, speak- ing of the class of syngenesious plants, says, ' [t ' abounds in plants of ornament, all of which are, ' without exception, of easy cultivation. It is not ' necessary to particularize the merits of the bril- ' liant varieties of the Dahlia, or of the Chinese ' Chrysanthemum, which are the chiefestornaments ' of every autumnal garden.' A fine double flower resembles in form the double white Camellia Japonica; sometimes much larger, and sometimes smaller. A large well formed full blown double rose is a tolerable like- ness of a common double Dahlia, except as to co- lor, which is of every hue you can conceive of being formed out of any of the primitive colors, white, yellow and red. Many of them partake largely of blue, but none are entirely of that co- lor, always having a portion of red sufficient to constitute some of the shade of purple. Others partake largely of black, resembling at a short distance, black velvet slightly tinged with scar- let. The single flowers also assume various forms. Sometimes they resemble sun-flowers slightly ; at others, stars with five or six angles, but of all the various colors above described. They have no fragrance, and continue to bloom abundantly from July till stopped by severe frost. The plants are coarse, and no way prepossessing till in flower ; but then, all other flowers are passed by. The roots are like sweet potatoes, and attached by the end to the stalk, and require slight protection from the frost in winter, w hich is easily aftbrdcd by placing them in a cellar, or in the holes with Irish potatoes or turnips. EXPECTED SPECULATIONS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I predict that there will be a good deal of specu- lation in the next six months, and consequently, a good many losses in the six which will follow. Some will speculate in flour, because there may be a short crop of wheat in England — some in cotton, because there icas a small crop last year — some in tobacco, because there is less shipped this year than usual, AN OLD MERCHANT. 216 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. EXTnACTS FR03t Piivatc Corres|joiideiice, BUFFALO CLOVfiR. Prince Edward, July Ath. * * * I enclose a few iiuffalo clover seed, thinking they might possihJy be a curiosity. The plant is a very luxuriant one, but is only seen when May and June are wet montlis, and it dies about the last of June. It much resendiles tiie common red clover — so much, that I cannot distinguish them until late in May. So that, I cannot say at what time the seeds vegetate. I was very much pleased, about six weeks ago, to observe about two acres of poor springy land well covered with young clover, — thinking it was red clover. But in a few days I ascertained it to be Buffalo. With the aid of lime it might vegetate every spring, and in that case would certainly be valuable. It affords a heavy cover to land, and fine grazing for a month or two. # * * Essex, July 1833 * * * My impression is, that 64 pages of agricultural matter js too much to throw before a farmer at time, and that it will be laid by tor a more convenient season. A weekly sheet I think would have been more desirable. I wish the type had been larger : the quantity of matter would have been reduced, but the pleasure of reading would have been increased. * * * If our personal interest and profits were considered alone, we should wish all our patrons to agree in this opinion, as the adoption of both the changes recom- mended would serve to lessen the expenses of pubhsh- ing the Farmers' Register at least §500 a year. We think however, as at first, that tlie monthly form, on the whole, adds much to the value of the work, though cer- tainly there is some ground for the objection made by our correspondent. — {Ed. Farm. Reg. GAM A GRASS. Columbia, S. C. July \5ih, 1833. I might probably be aide to get for you a few seeds of the Gama Gra.ss, (Tripsacum Monosta- chyon,) which grass promises to become of im- mense advantage to our country. I have but little of it myself, from a few seeds given to me last year, and its growth this season induces me to ga- ther all the seed I can, and cause some to be gath- ered where it grows spontaneously, about thirty miles above this, so as to plant next year one or two acres of it. 1 sow the greatest part of what I have for seed, which I most carefully gather my- self, grain by grain, every day as it ripens; for, if this be not done, the most of it will be lost, as it drops as soon as ripe. I have reserved a small portion of it to ascertain how olten it can be cut in the season, and the quality of the fodder made of it. It was cut for the third time on the 1st inst. and expect to cut it again three or four more times this season. It is now from fifteen to eighteen inches high. That which was left for seed not having been cut at all, is, some of it, about seven feet high to the top of the ear, the blades being at least four or five feet, and forming a very great ' mass of vegetation, on a very dry and naturally poor soil, only tolerably manured. The green grass is not very succulent, and therefore does not loose much in drying; and when cured, the fodder or hay is very highly flavored, and eaten very readi- ly, in both states, by both horses and cows. Its roots being very large, and sinking very deep in the ground, enables it to resist the drought better than almost any plant I ever saw, * * * We feel much gratification in being enabled to inform our correspondent as well as the farmers of this state, that it has just been ascertained that the Gama Grass is I native of, and grows luxuriantly in Virginia, without culture and without notice The letter of Mr. Meares, wiiicli describes the plant so minutely, (and which will lie presented among the selected papers in this number "f the Farmers' Register,) reminded Dr. John Bragg that he had formerly observed tufts of a similar grass on the border of a meadow which he owns, adjoining r*etersbui-g ; and, on examination, it was found to be undoubtedly the Gama Grass. We saw it on August 23d, and compared it with Mr. Meares' description. Before this interesting fact was known, we had selected for publication the several pieces on this subject which this number will contain, with the view of directing the attention of our farmers to the introduction of so valua- l>Ie a grass: but its culture may now.be expected to be far more profitable, when we know that it is indi- genous, and already acclimated in Virginia. — [Ed. Far, Reg. . POUJVDIKG OYSTER SHELLS, &C. Nottoway, July ISth, 1833. The subject of marl is exciting considerable in- terest in the upper country. » * » * I was pleased to see in your first number the result of an experiment of the application of pulverized oyster shells as a manure. I had myself thought of making such an experiment, but how to reduce them to particles sufficiently small, was the diffi- culty. I have, however, thought of a plan which, although I may never derive much personal benefit from, situated as I am, yet others may. The late thirst for gold hunting, has brought into use amongst the miners various expedients for break- ing down the rocks, to collect that metal. I under- stand, from a gentleman living near one of the mines, that some of the machinery used for that purpose is very simple and clieap, and would easily reduce the shells to a powder. He promised me that he would send me a carpenter's bill and model for the construction of one, which I expected to receive four weeks ago. I shall write to him in a few days, and if you think it would be worth it, I will give you the information. Should the expense justify me in doing so, I can bring back shells in my wagon when carrying down my wheat. BUCKWHEAT. EXPERIMENTS WITH GYPSUM. A'ing fVilliam, July 9th, 1833. You expressed a wish to me to know something as to the cultivation of Buckwheat. For several years I have raised enough for family use, but have not been so particular as to observe minutely its product, or the probable profits attendant upon its extensive cultivation ; but, perhaps, I may be able, by stating what I know, to excite a spirit of in- quiry, Avhich may eventuate in its more extensive cultivation in lower Virginia If so, I should be gainer, as I delight much in a well cooked cake, floating in rich fresh butter, and but seldom meet FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. 217 with it, except at my own table, where, through- out the cool Avealher, it is a standing dish, and is most cordially embraced by all who breakfast with me, notwithstanding it is raised by so few. The im- pression of many is, that our climate does not suit it. This may be, to a certain extent — we may not raise so heavy crops as in some other situations, but it bears a good comparison with most otiier crops raised by us. For ten years I have raised it, ob- taining the seed from my friend and neighlior, JMr. J R , who, for many years before, had raised it, and still continues to do so. The product depends much upon the season, a cool damp one suiting best. One year Mr. R obtained from three bushels, 96; but this isiuicommon. I think I may say that I average, upoii common land, 8 or 10 bushels to tlie acre. I have made 20. I shall now, in a day or so, commit mine to the earth. I have hitherto sown upon wheat stubble: sometimes I have scattered the seed on the stubble, and ploughed in, giving either a slight harrowing or running over the surface with hoes, taking down the inequalities. This year I purpose fallowing up a clover lot, on which I shall sow the seed and neatly harrow them in. Buckwheat should be sown just time enough to mature before frost. Being a tender plant, it should, if possible, be cut before frost ; but it ripens gradually, and is in bloom even at the time we are compelled to cut it: hence we may infer, that in a climate rather cooler, without early frost, the pro- duct would be immense. It should be cut when damp from dew, suffered to lie on the ground a day or so, then raked in small parcels in the morning, when damp. When sufTiciently dry, in the heat of the day it should be carefully placed in carts, hauled to the barn, and if convenient, (but not ne- cessarily,) threshed immediately. From half a bushel to three pecks of seed to the acre, is the usual quantity. I doubt not, that when taken from the earth, it is an exhausting crop; but if re- turned by a fallow, (which I have in one instance done,) I am convinced it aids the land verj^ much. It is particularh^ adapted for land which has been over marled : such was the result in my experi- ment, it being upon land which had been so com- pletely destroyed by over marling, that no other crop would grow; and when turned in, the land next year produced better corn than could have been expected. This year % intend sowing the seed in my corn field, preceding the last harrowing of the corn, on such land as is not intended for wheat, as the buckwheat would come up, to the annoj'ance of the wheat crop, if on land intended for that grain. I am induced to think it will grow tolerably with the corn, and benefit the land, which in the spring may be put in oats. The buckwheat flour is apt to have grit. To avoid this, Mr. R suggested the idea of rolling it in a cask, through which a handle Avas placed. This idea struck me as good, and forthwith I pro- ceeded to the experiment, and it succeeded, with some little improvement. I now divest it entirely of all grit. At first I htped to get clear of the grit by placing it, immediately after cutting, on a plank floor. This did not answer, as, from farther observation, I discovered the grit adhered to the capsule of the grain, which from winds was thrown there, and retained by the mucilaginous exudation on it — this being rubbed off by friction, and then passed through the fan, entirely divested it of any foreign substance. It is ground like other wheat. Vol. I.— 28 Some experiments made by me this spring, in sowing gypsum on clover, have resulted in the full conviction, that marled land, which will produce clover of the weakest and most feeble growth, may- be made to produce, by the addition of gypsum, clover fit for the scythe. If this be the case, to what state may we not advance our lands ? And that it is the case, I have ocular demonstration. There is now under my eye a lot sown this spring in clover, a line of which through the centre was plastered — it is as evident as the back bone of a rozanante, compared with his lank sides. The same benefit did not result upon clover sown the spring before, and plastered the time that sown Ihis spring was. How to account for the difference, I know not. However, there was an evident advan- tage from the plaster on the clover a year old. JSiickingham C. H. July 26, 1833. * * * I have just seen a tomato, [taken from Mr. G. H. Matthews' garden at this place,] weighing 22 ounces. He informs me that he can gather to-day 50 that will weigh 50 pounds. The tomato, above spoken of, was perfectly ripe and sound. If you can beat ihis, we give it up. I A\ ill procure you some of the seed, if you de- sire it. The wheat harvest is about one half short in this neighborhood : corn crops fine. Marengo, jJlalama, July 30, 1833. Your publication may meet with more encour- agement about Tuscaloosa, owing to the soil, and its situation, in that country. The whole of the county of Tuscaloosa, and about half of Green county, adjoining, is a rich, light, soft loam, from three to nine inches deep, mixed with a large pro- portion of fine sand, and the whole has a remark- ably broken ov rolling surface, which causes this fine light soil to wash off most rapidly. You may now see large fields, which have been so recently cleared that the dead trees are still standing, from the one half of which the soil is already gone ; so that unless the owners fall upon some plan to pre- vent its washing, and in some measure stop the constant cultivation, this must become, in a few years, one of the poorest sections of country in the Union. JNIany of the gentlemen owning this land are now aware of those evils, and are trying to adopt measures that may arrest them. Our cane land is quite different, being much more level, and the soil much deeper, and constituted almost en- tirely of different ingredients. # * « We are just now raising, by subscription, funds, to run a rail-road from "Wood ville, a small town, which is nearly at the extremity of the rich cane land, in one direction, to Demopolis, on the War- rior, where all our produce goes on board the steam boats for Mobile. If rail-ways are absolutely ne- cessary for any country, it is this; for during the wet season, wliich is commonly from the first of January to tlie first of April, the roads through this rich soil are of tough tenacious mud, from one to three feet deep. Turnpike roads cannot be used, as gravel could not be obtained to construct them. GUINEA GRASS. Petersburg, yJugust 20, 1833. * * * From the description given, in the first volume of the American Farmer, of the 218 FARMERS' REGISTER— BEES— SALT ON ASPARAGUS BEDS. Guinea Grass, and of its immense product per acre, 1 determined last spring to ascertain if our climate is genial to its cultivation. I therefore got a friend to procure me some seed, but they came to hand too late to sow, with any reasonable prospect of gain ; however, I decided to make a trial, and ac- cordingly 1 sowed a few seed in a box, also some in a small bed in my garden the latter part of June They vegetated tolerably early after sowing, and the grass looks well. So much am I pleased with it, I intend to procure more seed this winter, and sow them, or rather plant them, if practicable, be- tween the 20th January and 10th February. If I succeed, I will send you some of the grass, when in a proper state for using green, also some after curing it. MOTH-WEEVIL. * * * * Do you know that if wheat is stacked in a cool day, and put into large stacks, that it will be free from weevil, or, in other words, the weevil will not hatch.'' Straw being a non- conducter, the heat does not penetrate into a large stack, and the wheat being put into the stack when cool, will remain so. You must know, too, that I am of the opinion of Mr. Smith of Scotland Neck, Halifax county, that the weevil is a vegetable in- sect, produced not from the procreation of its kind, but a spontaneous creation. For ten years I had been ashamed to advance this opinion, but since I saw it asserted as the opinion of Mr. Smith, I tind it is not new, though singular, and I may add, very extraordinary. # # # It would be gratifying (o many of our readers to have laid before them the reasons on which this opinion of Mr. Smith's is founded — as well as those which support any of the other various and discordant opinions as to the mysterious origin of the moth-weevil. We know of some experiments now in progress, instituted for the purpose of throwing light on this subject, the result of which will be reported in the Farmers' Register. [Ed. Farm. Reg. QT7EKT TO RICE GROWERS MARSH MUD. Queen jinn's County, Maryland. * * * * I understand that the rice growers of South Carolina and Georgia make a composition, which they lay on their floors upon which they thresh their rice, and which renders them hard and consistent. I should be glad to be informed, through the Register, what are its com- ponent parts. I have, for some years past, used Booth's machine for threshing my wheat: it is a good macine, when in good order, but very liable to accidents. I saw a machine yesterday, in ope- ration, made by Cooley in Philadelphia, which, I think, must be superior to all others. It has great strength and simplicity, and is portable without damage. Being used in the open air, a great desi- deratum is to give hardness and consistence to the floor, to prevent the adhesion of dirt to the wheat. * * * Our lands on Wye River were originally of the best quality, (not alluvion,) but have been exhausted by tobacco, which has been relinquished for some years past. By the applica- tion of marsh mud, I have increased my crops of corn and wheat fifty per cent, the first cultivation, but a few crops will exhaust it.* I had used marl with great effect, but was not acquainted with itsi durable advantages till I read your book. Last winter I discovered in my low grounds some earth, which, by the test you give of drying it and drop- ping it into a glass of water, proved to be what is esteemed marl in England. I carried out a few loads this spring, and should it prove valuable, I will make a communication of the result to the Register, as I doubt not it is to be found all through our country, and I should think also in Virginia. BEES. From Goodsell's Genesee Farmer. If you should consider the following plain com- munication of facts worthy a place in your pa- per, you are at liberiy to insert it, hoping that it may prompt some other person to convert a useless garret into a source of amusement and profit. Much has iieen written of late respecting bees. Two years since I learned that bees might be kept to advantage in a garret. At that time I was build- ing a stone house two stories high, and directed the mason to leave a whole in the end eight inches wide and one and a half high, the bottom level with the garret floor, having determined to give this method a fair trial. I delayed putting in the bees until I had a swarm last year. The swarm was first put into a hive twenty inches deep and ten in diameter. I placed this hive on the floor six inches from the wall, and about the same distance from the chimney, opposite the hole left in the wall. They nearly filled the hive last year, and this season they have not only completed the filling of the hive, but have filled the space between the hive and the wall, and also between the chimney and hive, and are now building on the outside of the hive opposite the chimney, and have raised the comb several inches above the hive. Although the bees have increased in numbers to that extent that they cover the wall for two feet above the hive, yet they continue to work well, and there is no appearance of their be- ing disposed to swarm. I have one inconvenience with them : if a door or window is open at the end of the house, they sometimes enter by mistake, where they often remain, as Ulmus says, " bunting their heads against the windows," until they fall down and die, if they are not turned out of doors, I have given the bees the whole of the garret, which is twenty-two by thirty-six feet : no light is admit- ted, except by the hole where they enter, which hole, I fear, may prove too small for them hereaf- ter, shoidd they continue to increase, as it now ap- pears to be filled with bees passing in and out, but none are seen lying about the outlet, as is the case when the common hive is used. LAWSON HARMON, JR. Wheatland, July 29th, 1833. STREW SALT OVER YOUR ASPARAGUS BEDS, The Asparagus is a native of the shores of the ocean, and will bear so much salt without being injured, that most of the weeds that infest the beds may be destroyed in this manner. But the appli- cation has other advantages ; salt is a valuable ma^ nure ; and it also repels insects by its pungency ; for, though we know of none that feeds on the As- paragus, there are many that would otherwise j)oacA and lessen the fertility of the soil. IMaine Farmer. FARMERS* REGISTER— FLOUR TRADE— TULIPOMANIA. ftl0 FL.OUR TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES. Inspections of Wheat and Rye Flour and Corn Meal in the principal ports of the United States for the year 1831, compared with the preceding ten years. PLACES. Wheat Flour. Rye Flour. Albany, New York, . New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Georgetown, D. C. . . Alexandria, D. C. . . . Fredericksburg, Va. . Falmouth, Va Richmond, Va Petersburg, &c. New Orleans, year ) ending Sept. 30, 5 Total, 1831,. 1330,. 1S29,. 1823,. 1827,. 1826,. 1825,. 1824,. 1823,. 1822,. 1821,. Barrels 48,653 928,280 474,076 555,136 194,973 193,735 74,227 51,309 183,768 52,386 360,580 3,117,125 2,851,876 2,255,132 2,245,257 2,061,459 2,031,558 1,882,611 1,714,410 1,557,724 1,599,973 1,707,850 Bbls. 9,222 24,757 3,318 30 72 37,399 41,351 77,945 55,23ti 34,487 27,28-2 57,419 68,380 75,020 59,363 43,976 Corn Meal. Hhds. 9,951 7,970 416 17,337 18,372 17,891 19,178 16,869 18,619 14,781 17,192 14,705 15,157 17,449 Bbls 076 015 092 2,313 56,496 3.%070 51,666 78,958 51,19-2 36,979 51,297 70,415 36,863 32,274 40,693 Comparative Inspections of Wheat Flour m the pnnci- pal Districts for seven years. TEARS 1«31, 1830, 1829, 1828, 18-27, 1S26, 1825, Albany and N. York. 97b,93o 870,585 705,175 686,704 652,035 527,700 446.611 Philadel- phia. 474,076 473,876 297,206 333,764 351,517 342,250 294.2Sf! Balti- more. ooo, lob 597,804 473,604 546,450 572,759 596,348 5 i 0,42: Vn-ginia and Dist. Col 75U,40(j 775,911 621,824 525,746 +381,05: 436, 16& 490.74( •ievf Orleans .J60,5aO 133,700 157,323 152,593 131,096 129,094 140,546 ■ Falmouth omitted. Cluantities of Flour and Grain exported from the United States, from Oct. 1, 1821, to Sept. 30, 1S31, inclusive. 1831, 1830, 1329, 1828, 1827, 1826. 1825, 1824, 1823, 1822, 1821, Wheat Flour. Barrels. l,805,-20f 1,225,881 837,38; 860,80c 865,491 857,82r 813,906 996,792 756,702 827,86: 1,056,119 Rye Finiir. Corn Mpal. Wheat. Corn. barrels. barrels. bu&liels. Busliels. 19,049 204,200 405,384 566,761 26,298 145,301 45,28& 444,107 34,191 173,775 4,007 897,656 22,214 174,639 8,906 704,902 13,345 131,041 22,182 978,664 14,472 1 5.3,625 45,166 505,381 29,545 187,285 17,960 369,644 31,879 152,723 20,373 779,297 25,665 141,501 4,272 749,034 19,971 148,288 4,418 509,098 23,523 131,669 25,812 607,277 Statement of the Quantity and destination of Wheat Flour exported from the United States, com- mencing 1st October, 1821, and ending 30th September, 1831. AMERICA. EUROPE. Africa. Asia. TOTAL. YEARS. British N. Amer Provin. West Indies. South America Great Britain &. Ireland. France. tSpam and Portugal. Madeira. Other parts of Europe. All parts. All parts. Barrels. 1831 150,645 371,876 319,616 879,430 23,991 364 12,811 35,416 2,751 8,305 1,805,205 1830 149,966 281,256 347,290 326,182 56,590 10,222 9,628 36,924 2,609 5,214 1,225,881 1829 91,088 248,236 235,591 221,176 17,464 509 3,779 14,95[: 221 4,362 837,385 1828 86,680 370,371 308,111) 23,25& 6,265 294 4,061 54,371 1,737 5,662 860,509 1827 107,420 362,674 271,524 53,12t 19 4,293 5,171 52,114 4,90b 7,238 865,491 1826 72,904 433,094 285,563 18,357 275 504 6,119 27,716 5,403 7,885 857,820 1825 30,780 429,760 252,786 27,272 102 730 3,597 55,818 7,623 15,438 813,906 1824 39,191 424,359 357,372 70,873 426 939 25,851 47,44fi 3,883 6,438 996,792 1823 29,681 442,468 198,256 4,252 51 62,387 4,752 2,088 903 11,864 756,702 1822 89,840 436,849 211,039 12,096 228 25,104 21,375 976 3,929 26,42t. 827,865 1821 131,035 551,396 156,888 94,541 1,175 71,958 26,.572 9,074 3,123 10,357 1,056,119 TULIPOMANIA IJf HOLLAND, AND IN VIRGINIA. [Extract from Depping's Evening Entertainments.] Before we have done with the interesting history of the commerce of past ages, I will give you some account of a very curious kind of traffic, ■which was for some time in fashion in Holland, and even produced a sudden kind of revolution in that country. These particulars will convince you of the truth q£ my observation, that men rare- ly know how to keep within the bounds of mode- ration, and too frequently fall into reprehensible excesses. Fortunately, the instance that I am about to adduce was of less consequence than those which 1 have already related, and only shows the absurdity of men when under the influence of any prevailing fashion or folly. Among the native productions of the east, intro- duced into Europe by means of its relations with India, was a flower which the Turks call tulibant, and which received in England the appellation of tulip. It appears to have been well known in this part of the world so early as the middle of the six- teenth century. These flowers, you know, though of every variety of color, are not the greatest or- naments of our gardens, being surpassed by many others in beauty and fragrance. Nevertheless, the tulip, about a century after its transplantation into Europe, acquired a consideration which no other flower ever obtained; so that it was valued far above even the most precious metals. The lovers of flowers seemed to be seized with a sort of mad- ness, which has been aptly denominated tulipoma- nia. I shall endeavor to give you a clear and sim- ple explanation of the folly which this word de- 220 FARMERS' REGISTER— TULIPOMANIA. notes, and of wliich there are but few parallels. It was from 1634 to 1637 that the tiilipomania raged in Holland, particularly at Harlaem, Am- sterdam, Utrecht, Alkmaer, Leyden, Rotterdam, Horn, Enkhuysen, and other places. In those years tulips rose to enormous prices, and enriched many speculators. The florists held in particular estimation certain species, to which they gave par- ticular names, and which they sold dearer than others. A single root of the variety called viceroy produced the owner four fat oxen, eight hogs, twelve sheep, ten hundred weight of cheese, two pipes of wine, a bed and furniture complete, a sil- ver cup, a great quantity of corn, and other pro- visions, to the value of twenty-five thousand florins. These I'oots were sold by weight, like the most valuable commodities; an ounce olten cost sevei-al thousand florins; the most esteemed variety was that called semper augustits : it was valued at two thousand florins, and reported to be so rare that there were but two roots of the kind ; one at Har- laem, and the other at Amsterdam. A flower- fancier offered for orie of these, four thousand six hundred florins, and a fine coach and two horses into the bargain. Another person gave twelve acres of land for a root. In 1637, the collection of tulips of one individual, was sold, after his death, by his heirs, for the enormous sum of nine thou- sand pounds ; one single semper aiigustics sold for two thousand florins. Everybody's head was turned by the passion for tulips; those who had not ready money, bar- tered away their lands and houses to procure them. The florists, and other persons who were engaged in the cultivation of flowers, in a very sliort time made immense fortunes. All classes of society were therefore desirous of embarking in the trade; and all the Dutch, from the first gentleman in the land to the chimney sweeper and rag man, began to speculate on the tulipomania. A bed of tulips was considered the greatest treasure that a person could possess, and was worth at least as much as the most magnificent palace. It is related, that a sailor, having brought some goods to a merchant who cultivated tulips in his garden for this specu- lation, received from the lattera herring for break- fast. As he was going away with it, he saw some roots in the garden; and thinking they were com- mon onions, he began quietly eating them with his herring. At this moment the merchant came up, and perceiving what he was about, " Villain !" cried he, in a tone of despair, " your breakfast has ruined me ; I could have regaled a monarch at half the expense." The poor sailor, as you may sup- pose, was in the utmost astonishment ; and it was not without difficulty that he was made sensible of his mistake. The rapid increase of private fortunes made people neglect every tiling to engage in the specu- lations of the moment. The taverns and ale- houses resembled little exchanges; bargains were there concluded in the presence of notaries and witnesses, for a few tulip roots ; and in general, these negotiations, which were transacted with the utmost gravity, were followed by splendid en- tertainments. It has been calculated, that in one single town of Holland the dealings in tulips amounted in three years to ten millions of florins. It should lie observed, however, that those who car- ried on this traffic did not cultivate the flowers, the case that neither the buyer nor the seller ever saw the tulips for which they bargained. Others engaged to supply roots, which in fact they never furnished : before the flowering season, ar- rangements and negotiations were concluded for the sale and purchase of more tulips than perhaps all the gardens in Holland contained. There ex- isted, as I have told you, but very few flowers of the variety called semper augxistus ; and yet no other kind was so frequent in commerce as that. A gentleman would perhaps buy of a chimney sweeper two thousand florins worth of tulips, and sell them again to a farmer at a still higher price; and yet none of the three ever had the tulips, or thought of obtaining possession of them. It was not properly speaking in tulips that they trafficked, but in money. Had the rarity and beauty of the tulips been the object of this trade, people would have bestow ed the utmost attention on the cultiva- tion of that flower : they would have gone to its native country, the east, and sought the most beau- tiful species all the world over ; but, instead of this, the speculators never quitted their alehouse, and enriched themselves by an extraordinary kind of jobbing — the whole secret of which was this : Suppose a dealer engaged to furnish a gentleman at the exj)iration of six months with a tulip root of any particular sort, for the sum of a thousand florins; at the expiration of the time agreed upon, the price of that variety was either higher or low- er, or perhaps the same as before. If the current price of one thousand florins had meanwhile risen to fifteen hundred, the gentleman did not demand his tulip, but the dealer was obliged to pay hiin five hundred florins in cash ; but if the price was lower than at the time of making the bargain, say eight hundred florins, the gentleman, on the con- trary, paid the dealer the sum of two hundred. If, however, the tulips were neither dearer nor cheap- er at the end of six months, neither party lost or gained, and their contract was at an end. Every thing depended on the price current, by which they regulated their agreements and bargains; and the dealers were as anxious to know the prices of tulips every day, as people are with us to inquire the prices of stocks. It frequently happened, that the same person gained of one and lost to another ; and if he had no cash to pay his debts, he referred his creditors to those who had lost. to him; so that plenty of business might be transacted without tu- lips, and even without money. As every body was desirous of participating in this kind of stock-job- bing, the rich speculated on the rarest species, \yhile the bargains of the lower classes were con- fined to the most common sorts. Taking all cir- cumstances into consideration, this commerce in tulips, or rather tulipomania, was in reality a game of chance, by which all were at first seduced by the immense profits to be derived from it ; but as these speculations possessed only a fictitious lustre, and had no solid foundation, the gamesters were at length undeceived, and learned, to their cost, that excessive cupidity generally makes dupes of those by whom it is harbored, and thallabor and indus- try are the surest road to fortune. Nations and individuals, who apply themselves to commerce, cannot, I repeat it, hope for prospe- rity, except from industry and frugality. To con- clude the history of the tulipomania, I shall add, that in a iew years the rage for speculations rose but only bought and sold ; and it was frequently I to such a height that most of those who engaged ia FARMERS' REGISTER— HINTS TO HOUSEWIVES. 221 them were atlengthunable to fulfil Iheir contracts. Others squandered the wealth wiiich ihey had so easily acquired ; whilst others again more discreet- ly relinquished the traffic, and would no longer subject their property to continual risk. The price of tulips fell lower and lower ; the sellers, to avoid utter ruin, offered the buyers natural tulips, but the latter would not have them. Hence arose numberless squabbles and law suits ; the tribuuals refused to decide these complicated affairs; and the speculators were obliged to abate their extra- vagant demands, and to take what they could get. Many were ruined, and had unfortunately con- ceived an aversion to their original occupations, %vhich had furnished them with the means of a comfortable subsistence. Accustomed to indolence and reverses of fortune, they chose rather to live in penury than to return to their former employ- ments. The eyes of all were at length opened, and many people became sensii)le of their folly and shame, at the expense of their property and peace of mind. At the beginning of the last century a game of chance of the like nature was introduced into France, by a man name^l Law, a Scotchman, who had gained the confidence of government by ex- hibiting a plan which was greatly lo benefit the finances of the state. He was appointed director of a company of merchants trading to Louisiana m America, and he opened a bank at Paris. By spreading a report that gold and silver mines had been discovered in Louisiana richer than those of Peru, he roused the spirit of cupidity ; every one hastened to partake of the working of these mines ; shares were purchased with avidity, and this specu- lation became in the end an insatiable passion. The price of the shares rose from five hundred francs to a thousand : fresh shares were now oflered — mi- sers themselves could not resist the temptation, exchanging their treasures against bits of paper, which were to produce wealth Avithout end. All ranks of the nation speculated; Law was looked up to as a universal benefactor ; no private indi- vidual had ever enjoyed so large a share of consi- deration : a single audience with this banker was talked of as an important circumstance in a man's life. This mania extended to the provinces — the country people flocked to Paris to partake of the happiness of the Parisians; the bank was besieg- ed from morning fill night ; but, as the treasures for which they exchanged their solid gold for that in the mines of Louisiana arrived not, the confi- dence of the people began to be shaken. They be- came anxious to dispose of their paper shares ; but as every body nearly possessed moie or less of these valueless tickets, there were no purchasers. The bank was then beset, not for paper shares, but for money ; and Law, after having been flattered, blessed, and courted, was compelled to a disgrace- ful and hasty flight. It was now perceived, that instead of lightening the burthens of the state, it had indeed added to them. This being the case, government had recourse fo other and more sub- stantial means. But the failure of this SLheme did not prevent the French, in imitation of our bank notes, resorting to a plan of the same kind during the revolution. They issued a^-signats ; but the nation in general was not to be so readily duped a second time : some few persons were ruined, some few made their fortunes, but the assignats were quickly witiulrawa from circulation. A few have been saved as curiosities, and as a melancholy re- membrance of the unhappy epoch. The foregoing account oi' die celebrated Tullpomania, (of wliich every one has heard something, but of which so little of the truth is known,) is extracted from a work prepared for the amusement of children ; but it may also serve for the instruction, and as a fit subject for the reflection of men. ]Most of us have wondered at the ridiculous madness of the Hollanders wlien they paid large sums for a single tulip root : but if we view things fairly, their madness was of the same kind, and not greater than has sometimes raged in other coun- tries, and even in our own. The high prices olTered uid paid for tulips were not graduated by any estima- tion of their intrinsic value, but by the expected in- crease of price, and the consequent profit to the pur- chaser. When a flower had risen in price from one florin to five hundred, the immense j^rofits thereby gained still more stimulated avarice and the spirit of specula- tion, and there was a continually increasing impulse to swell these exorbitant prices, until the bubble was obliged to burst from excess of distension. The Mis- sissippi stock in France, and the South Sea, and recent- ly the South American mining stocks in England, rose and fell i^recisely for the same reasons: and much the greater part of the value of those stocks was as ficti- tious, and baseless, as were the prices of Dutch tulips. Have toe always been wiser than the tulip specula- tors of Holland ? The enormous and fraudulent issues of paper money during the war of 1812, from banks refusing and una- ble to pay specie, (which were in fact bankrupt, and yet were the legalized manufacturers of the national cur- rency without limit,) served to make an apparent a;5/>rc- cialion of property, by what was truly only a depre- ciation of money. When a dollar was worth only half of its former value, it followed necessarily that an arti- cle would sell for two dollars, which before sold for one, and yet be no dearer than before. Yet intelligent and experienced men of business, as well as those the most deficient in such qualities, fell into and acted under the delusion that land had suddenly doubled in value, and every one hastened to get rich by buying a kind of pro- perty which was every day inci'easing in price. No where was this ruinous spirit of speculation, this mad- ness carried farther than in and near Richmond. When a purchaser paid $ 1 0,000 for a few vacant lots in the su- biu-bs, or for a few hundred acres of barren and worth- less Henrico land, which were totally unproductive of present or prospective profits, but had increased ten fold in price witliin twelve months, the probability of the continued rise of price was the value considered, and not the intrinsic value of the land. The same num- ber of acres of rock, or of quagmire, would have equal- ly served the purpose, and the madness of speculation ; and tulijD roots as well as either. To buy and sell for $10,000 a piece of land which no man could suppose •ould yield a profit on §1000, wis ce'-tai'ily as mad, and IS ridiculous, as to estimate at (^9,000 a tulip root, which could yield nothing. HINTS TO HOUSEWIVES. Vessels intended to contain liquid of a higher temperature than the surrounding medium, and to keep that liquid as long as possible at the highest ^22 FARMERS* REGISTER— TRAVELLERS AND ttORSES— FRUIT. temperature, should be constructed of materials which are the worst radiators of heat. Thus, tea urns and tea pots are best adapted lor their pur- pose when constructed of polished metal, and worst when constructed of black porcelain. A black porcelain tea pot is the worst conceivable material for tliat vessel, tor both its materials and color are eood radiators of heat, and the liquid contained in it cools with the greatest possible rapidity. On the other hand, a bright metal tea pot is best adapted for the purpose, because it is the worst radiator of heat, and therefore cools as slowly as possible. A polished silver or brass lea urn is belter adapted lo retain the heat of the water than one of a dull brown color, such as is most commonly used. A tin kettle retains the heat of water boiled in it more effectually, if it be kept clean and polished, than if it be allowed to collect the smoke and soot, to which it is exposed from the action of the fire. When coated with this, its surface becomes rough and black, and is a powerful radiator of heat. A set of polished fire irons may remain for a long time in front of a hot fire, without receiving from it any increase of temperature beyond that of the chamber, because the heat radiated by the fire is all reflected by the polished surface of the irons, and none of it is absorbed ; but if a set of rough, un- polished irons, were similarly placed, would be- come speedily so hot, that they could not be used without inconvenience. The polish of fire irons is, therefore, not merely a matter of ornament, but of use and convenience. The rough, unpo- lished poker, sometimes used in a kitchen, becomes speedily so hot that it cannot be held without pain. A close stove, intended to warm apartments, should not have a polished surface, for in that case it is one of the worst radiators of heat, and nothing could be contrived less fit for the purpose to which it is applied. On the other hand, a rough, unpo- lished surface of cast iron, is favorable to radia- tion, and a fire in such a stove will always pro- duce a most powerful effect. — [Cabinet Cydopce- dia — Dr. Lardncr on Heat. to him. If in Spanish, so much the better — most horses have an air for Spanish. (Horses procured from the Pony Club, probably understand Chero- kee quite as well.) 6. Never carry liquor on your journey : a horse can't stand the smell of ardent spirits : I never knew a man who carried a tickler that had good horses^they invariably become wind broken, or foundered. 7. Don't start too soon in the morning. There is nothing gained in a long journey by hurrying away before breakfast. Let your beast have time to rest and fill himself before starting — he can then travel till night without another feed. 8. When your horse is full and stiff, as he will be in the morning or after eating, never ride out of a walk — towards evening, as he becomes emp- ty, his pace may be accelerated, without injury. 9. As nothing is gained by starting too soon in the morning, neither is any thing made by riding too late in the evening. Never ride after night when it can be avoided. A horse likes regular meals and regular sleep, as well as other honest creatures, and is entitled to them. 10. See after your horse yourself — see that he is well fed, watered, rubbed and lodged. Don't let him stand in the mud, nor on a plank floor, when it can be avoided. A dry dirt floor, with a plenty of clean straw over it,- is the best bed lor a horse. 11. Never ride your own horse, when you can borrow your friend's or neighbor's — especially if you want to travel fast. A horse that knows you, wont push himself like one that does not. PlNi: KNOT. RULES FOR TRAVELLERS, AND THEIR HOR SES. From the SnuthGrn Planter. 1. In the first place, treat your horse like a sen sible creature ; (I have seen horses that had more intelligence than the dolts that rode them) — in correcting him address yourself to his understand- ing, and endeavor to convince him by reason. — The forcible remedy comes with more power after- wards. 2. Never beat your horse without sufficient cause, as that irritates and spoils his temper. Gen- tle words to a horse's ear are like lumps of sugar to his mouth — they sweeten his disposition. 3. If your horse take a scare, as the best of horses sometimes will, don't thurst your spurs in- to his flanks or beat him over the head. Nobody knows a horses reason for being frightened — he sees many things we little dream of "Balaam's horse (or mule, I forget which,) saw an angel ! other horses, for aught we know, may see as much. 4. if a horse stumbles, speak to him sharply, or give him a jerk or two with the bridle, just to apprise him that he is watched, but do not strike him — it makes him stumble the worse. 5. A horse is fond of company. Therefore, when riding alone, you should talk, sing or whistle METHOD OF GENERATING NEW VARIETIES OF FRUIT. From the Horticultural Register. After selecting a few conveniently situated branchlets, in dilTerent parts of a tree, I remove all the blossoms, with the exception of three or four of the most promising, from which, a day or two before their expansion, I extract the anthers with a small pair of scissors, or tweezers, and cover each branchlet with a piece of thin gauze, taking care that no opening be left by which bees, flies, or other insects, might gain admission, and thereby mar the experiment by bearing to the stigma the pollen of some variety other than the one I may desire to employ. The gauze should also be ren- dered secure, so that the wind may not partially open it, nor entirely carry it away. When the blossoms are fully ex])anded, and the stigma, by bursting, is ready to receive the influence of the pollen, it must be supplied by the application of a flower of whatever variety has been fixed upon as the male parent, and the gauze replaced till the fruit is set. As the fruit increases in size, if more than one or two remain, judge which gives the best promise of attaining perfection, and the rest re- move; it will be adviseable to distinguish each branch by a label affixed. The above, or some similar method, alone can determine, with any cer- tainty, which is the male parent; or, indeed, there may be many, which accounts for the diversity of the products obtained from seeds of the same indi- vidual fruit. Last year I gathered the first produce of some seedling strawberries, raised by cross fertilization in a similar manner ; and am looking forward to FARMERS' REGISTER— ROTATION OF CROPS. 223 the result of subsequent experiments, which, fronn the success I have already attained, leads me to believe, will prove highly satisfactory. Two or three of the varieties obtained, (but one more espe- cially,) possess excellent properties of growth, fe- cundity and flavor, and differ remarkably from any previous one which has come under my observation. Throughout the vegetable kingdom, it is found that there is a certain point or degree of ramifica- tion, more or less in different individual members, removed from the parent stem, previous to the at- tainment of which, a plant is incapable of putting forth fruit blossoms; the cause o( this it were dif- ficult to explain satisfactorily. Having ascertained the numerical amount of this requisite degree of ramification, in conjunction with a knowledge of the habits of the plants, as to the number of suc- cessive shoots it protrudes in the course of the year, we may form a pretty accurate estimate of the length of time required before it shall attain to a fruit-bearing state. Thus, other circumstances remaining the same, the oak, did it not send forth two shoots, the one in spring, the other in autumn, would be double the long period it now is, ere it began to produce acorns. The exact number, however, cannot be ascertained, since all traces by which they might be computed, are, in the older portions of the wood, entirely lost. It is by earlier inducing this degree in the melon, which is generally the second Irom the main stem, that the pruning, or stopping, is effective towards the accelerating of the emission of fruit blossoms. In the apple the twelfth, and the pear the eigh- teenth, are about the minimum number of degrees of ramification distant from the parent stem, that are required, ere flowers are put forth ; tjiat period, however, is often protracted. In computing these numbers, a shoot, succeeding after a quiescent pe- riod, whether still projected in a line with the older wood, or at an angle li-om it, is equally considered as a distinct branch; there is, indeed, a knot at the junction, as much of the one as the other; and it is the number of these knots, by retarding the flow, or causing the accumulation of the sap, which would appear to bear some part in effecting a fruitful state. From these circumstances, the inference to be drawn is, that if we can cause the formation of three or four successive shoots in the course of the year, instead of one, or at the most two, (as would be the case, were the tree left to its natural growth,) that we shall thereby anticipate, by a half or two- thirds, the usual period of fructification. With this aim, then, it will be necessary to maintain the young seedlings, by due care and judi- cious culture, in a vigorously growing state, and two or three times, or even oftener, as the circum- stances may warrant, nip off or prune back the leading shoot, whereby, at each operation, a new branch will be protruded, which otherwise would not have been the case, until the succeeding spring. By a continued repetition, however, of these opera- tions, an inconvenient number of diverging shoots will also be excited; consequently, attention must be paid to regulating their number, by disbudding the branches accordingly, which will also infuse more vigor into those remaining. It will not be adviseable to continue the stopping far into the sea- son, otherwise the young wood will not have time to ripen ; and the frosts of winter, by killing the new-formed portions^ will counteract the advantage obtained. By duly following this method, the usual period of fructification will be shortened with the apple, to and from the fifth to the seventh year, in- stead of the twelfth to the twentieth, and the pear in like proportion. ROTATION OF CROPS. From the Encyclopedia of Agriculture. Growing different crops hi succession is a prac- tice which every cultivator knows to be highly ad- vantageous, though its beneficial influence has not yet been fully accounted for by chemists. The most general theory is, that though all plants will live on the same food, as the chemical constituents of their roots and leaves are nearly the same, yet that many species require particular substances to bring their seeds or fruits to perfection, as the analysis of these seeds or fruits often afford sub- stances different from those which constitute the bodjt of the plant. A sort of rotation may be said to take place in nature, for perennial herbaceous plants have a tendency to extend their circumfe- rence, and rot and decay at their centre, where others of a different kind spring up and succeed them. This is more especiallj' the case with tra- velling roots, as in mint, strawberry, creeping crowfoot, &c. TTie rationale of rotation, is thus given by Sir H. Davy. " It is a great advantage in the converti- ble system of cultivation, that the whole of the manure is employed : and that those parts of it which are not fitted fbr one crop, remain as nou- rishment for another. Thus, if the turnip is the first in the order of succession, this crop, manured with recent dung, immediately finds sufficient so- luble matter for its nourishment ; and the heat pro- duced in fermentation, assists the germination of the seed and the growth of the plant. If, after turnips, barley with grass seeds is sown, then the land, having been little exhausted by the turnip crop, affords the soluble parts of the decomposing manure to the grain. The grasses, rye-grass and clover remain, which derive a small part only of their organized matter from the soil, and probably consume the gypsum in the manure, which would be useless to otlier crops : these plants, likewise, by their large systems of leaves, absorb a conside- rable quantity of nourishment from the atmos- phere; and when ploughed in at the end of two years, the decay of their roots and leaves afford manure for the wheat crop ; and at this period of the course, the woody fibre of the farm yard ma- nure, which contains the phosphate of lime and the other difficultly soluble parts, is broken down : and as soon as the most exhausting crop is taken, recent'manure is again applied. Peas and beans, in all instances, seem well adapted "to prepare ground for wheat; and in some rich lands they are raised in alternate crops for years together. Peas and beans contain a small quantity of a matter analagous to albumen; but it seems that the azote, which forms a constituent part of this matter, is derived from the atmosphere. The dry bean leaf, when burnt, yields a smell approaching to that of decomposing animal matter ; and in its decay in the soil, may furnish principles capable of becoming a part of the gluten in wheat. Though the general composition of plants is very analagous, yet the specific difference in the products of many of them, prove that they must derive different materials 224 FxVRMERS REGISTER— APPLE SEED. from llie soil ; and (houf;h tlie vegetables liaving tlie smallest system of leaves will proportionally most exhaust the soil of common nutritive matter, yet particular vegetables, when their produce is carried off, will require j)ecu!iar principles to be supplied to the land in which they grow. Strawber- ries and potatoes, at first, produce luxuriantly in virgin mould, recently turned up from pasture ; but in a few years they degenerate, and require a fresh soil. Lands, in a course of years, often cease to afTord good cultivated grasses ; they be- come (as it is popularly said,) tired of tl-.em ; and one of the probable reasons for this is, the exhaus- tion of the gypsum contained in the soil." The poicers of vegetables to exhaust the soil of the principles necessary to their grow th, is remark- ably exemplified in certain /tmg-uses. Mushrooms are said never to rise in two successive seasons on the same spot; and the production of the phenome- na called fairy rings, has been ascribed by Dr. Wollaston to the power of the peculiar fungus which forms it, to exhaust the soil of the nutri- ment necessary for the growth of the species. — The consequence is, that the ring annually ex- tends ; for no seeds will grow where their parents gi-ew before them, and the interior ])art of the cir- cle has been exhausted by preceding crops ; but where the fungus has died, nourishment is supplied for grass, which usually rises within the circle, coarse, and of a dark green color. j4 rotation is unnecessary, according to Grin- sethivaite ; and, in a strict chemical sense, what he asserts cannot he denied. His theory is a refine- ment on the common idea of the uses of a rotation stated above ; but by giving some details of the constituent parts of certain grains and certain ma- nures, he has presented it in a more clear and striking point of view than has hitherto been done. To apply the theory in every case, the constituent parts of all manures and of all plants, (1st, their roots and leaves ; and 2dly, their seeds, fruits, or grains,) must be known. In respect to manures this is the case, and it may be said to be in a great degree the case as to the most useful agricultural plants ; but, unfortunately for our purpose, the same cannot be said of garden productions in ge- neral, though no branch of culture can show the advantage of a rotation of crops more than horticul- ture, in the practice of whitli it is found that grounds become tired of particular crops, notwith- standing that manures are a})plied at ))leasure. If the precise effects of a rotation w^ere ascertained, and the ingredients peculiarly necessary to every species pointed out, nothing could be more inte- resting than the results of experimental trials; and whoever shall point out a simple and econo- mical mode by which the potato may be 'grown successively in the same soil, and produce annu- ally, neglecting the effects of climate, as dry and well flavored tubers, or nearly so, as they gene- rally produce the first and second years on a new- soil, will confer a real benefit on society. That wheat may be grown many years on the same soil, by the use of animal manures, or such as contain gluten, Grisenthwaite's theory would justify us in believing chemically ; and it ought to he fairly tried by such cultivators as Coke and Curwen. Till this is done in the face of the whole agricultu- ral world, and the produce of every crop, and all the particulars of its culture accurately reported on annually, the possibility of the thing may be as- sented to from the premises, but will not be acted on; and, in fact, even the best agricultural che- mists do not consider that we are sufficiently ad- vanced in that branch of the science to draw any conclusion, a priori, very much at variance with general opinion and experience. It should always be kept in mind, that it is one thing to produce a crop, and a different thing to grow crops with profit. The principles of rotation of crops, are thus laid down by Yvart and Ch. Pictet, ( Cours camplet d'jfgricvlture, articles z/ssolement , and Succession de Culture i and Traite des jlssolemens. Paris, 8 vol.) The first principle, or fundamental point is, that every plant exhausts the soil. The second, that all plants do not exhaust the soil equally. The third, that plants of different kinds do not exhaust the soil in the same manner. The fourth, that all plants do not restore to the soil the same quantity, nor the same quality of ma- nure. The fifth, that all plants are not equally favora- ble to the growth of weeds. The folloiving consequences are drawn, from these fundamental piinciples : First. However well a soil may be prepared, it cannot long nourish crops of the sa_mekind in suc- cession, without becoming exhausted. Second. Every crop impoverishes a soil more or less, according as more or less is restored to the soil by the plant cultivated. Third. Perpendicular rooting plants, and such as root horizontally, ought to succeed each other. Fourth. Plants of the same kind should not re- turn too frequently in a rotation. Fifth. Two plants, favorable to the growth of weeds, ought not to succeed each other. Sixth. Such plants as eminently exhaust the soil, as the grains and oil plants, should only be sown when the land is in good heart. Seventh. In proportion as a soil is found to ex- haust itself by successive crops, plants which are least exhausting ought to be cultivated. Influence of rotations in destroying insects. — Olivier, member of the Institute of France, has described all the insects, chiefly tipulas and mus- cas, which live upon the collar or crown of the j-oots of the cereal grasses ; and he has shewn that they multiply themselves without end, when the same soil presents the same crop for several years in succession, or even crops of analagous species. But when a crop intervenes on which these insects cannot live, as beans or turnips, after wheat or oats, then the whole race of these insects perish from the field for want of proper nourishment for their larva. (Mem. de la Societe Rotjal, et Cen- trale d'^gr. de Paris, vol. vii.J APPLE SEED. The best time to sow apple seeds is in autumn, immediately after they have been taken from the fiuit; for if delayed till spring, the greater part will be found to have lost their germinating power. But if it is determined to keep them, they must be mixed with sand and closed from the air; this occasions considerable trouble, if the pippins of dif- ferent varieties, as they always should be, are pre- served distinct. {^New- England Farmer, FARMERS' REGISTER— VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY 225 Extracts from the Foreign Quarterly Review. DE candolle's vegetable physiology. The process used by nature to heal the wounds of trees — theory of pruning. As these details are somewhat foreign to the spe- cific object of his work, we shall not dwell upon them, but pass on to a subject more strictly phy- siological in some of its details, and of nearly equal importance in the practical results which it in- volves— we mean the process employed by nature in healing whatever wounds trees may receive ex- ternally. It is upon this that the whole success of pruning rests, and we shall the more willingly dwell upon the subject, as it is one which has late- ly given rise to considerable discussion, it having become a matter of doubt among some extensive landed proprietors of this country, whether the old system of " close pruning" has not been pro- ductive of immense damage to our forests, and whether it ought not to be entirely laid aside in fa- vor of another system, which has been termed "fore- shortening." These inquiries appear to have ori- ginated from an examination of the effects which are always produced in timber whenever a branch is cut otF close to the trunk of the tree ; and it is rightly asserted, that wherever this has been done, a complete solution of continuity exists between the old wood and that which had been formed over the wounded surface ; and that in many cases, though by no means in all, decay and rottenness has been introduced to a greater or less extent into the very heart of the tree. Where the pruned branch is large, the blemish thus introduced is proportionably great, and must always diminish the value of the timber, even though it should not have caused the introduction of any rottenness. — But although such, it must be allowed, are unde- niably the bad effects of close pruning, it does not follow that the proposed alternative of fore-short- ening is any way preferable to it; and we shall first consider the mode in which all wounds are healed over, and then examine the question whe- ther the damage produced by fore-shortening is more likely to be counteracted by the subsequent efforts of vegetation than those which are intro- duced by close pruning. Whenever the stem is wounded by the removal of a portion of the bark, and the wood becomes exposed to the action of the atmosphere, a double influence is exerted in gradually decomposing its texture : one arises from the union of its carbon with oxygen, as in the ordinary process of decom- position ; and the other from the humidity by which it is penetrated, dissolving some parts of the tissue, and in reducing it generally to a soft and disorganised state. These results will of course be very different according to the nature of the wood attacked, and to the length of time that the wound requires to be healed over. As soon, however, as the wood is secured Irom further exposure to the atmosphere, the damage ceases to increase, though the blemish which has been introduced admits of no remedy. The new wood and bark which form over the wound, are derived Irom the growth of the alburnum and liber, which gradually extend them- selves from its upper edge, and from along each side, till they meet in the middle and then unite and blend together as in the case of grafting. By judiciously splitting a rock vertically at the zone which corresponds to that year's growth in which Vol 1,-29 the surface of a pruned branch was covered oyer by the fresh wood, every mark of the pruning knife will be found on the discolored surface of the old wound, as fresh as when it was first impressed upon it, and the new wood will have received a re- verse impression of this surface as accurately as a counter receives the stamp of a die. Vertical wounds on the surface of the trunk are those which heal the most readily, because their direction tal- lies with the course of the cambium, which soon forms a tumor at the upper extremity of the wound and down each side, in the manner just described ; and this is more readily extended over the wound in proportion as its surface is smoother. V^arious composts are useful for protecting the exposed sur- face from the atmosphere, whilst the healing pro- cess is in progress : but nothing of an oily or pois- onous description should be employed. When- ever, therefore, pruning is absolutely necessary, it is advisable to prune close, in order to reduce the exposed surface to the condition of a vertical wound ; unless, indeed, the limb be very large, when it may be more adviseable to prune at some little distance from the trunk, lest the blemish which would be introduced into the timber should be so considerable as to more than counterbalance any advantage that wou'd be obtained. There is no direct means by which a transverse section through the wood may be healed over, and if a branch be lopped at a distance from its point of union with a main branch, or with the trunk itself, the exposed surface never heals over, but causes the decay and death of the branch for some dis- tance back, until this is stopped at some spot where the returning sap is in sufficient quantity to pro- duce fresh wood and bark. The system of " fore- shortening" rests upon the gradual decay of the pruned branch, until it be ultimately killed by the increasing shade of the superior branches, Avhen its fall will take place in the natural way ; as in all branches which grow low upon the stem, and are early stifled by the shade of the upper branches, and which slough off, without producing any very marked blemish in tlie heart of the tree. Here, however, we must observe, that there is no pro- cess for " sloughing off" the decayed parts of ve- getables which at all resembles that which takes place in animals ; but when the branch has be- come so completely rotten, as to fall off upon the ap- plication of the slightest force, it will be found that the new bark and alburnum which are formed round the base of its stump, always envelopes more or less of the rotten wood, which forms a rough and jagged surfixce to the wound. It is erroneous to suppose that those branches which fall off by a sort of natural pruning, resulting from their being killed by an obstruction of the light, leave compara- tively little or no trace of their decay in the heart of the tree ; but since it happens that those branch- es which perish early are always proportionably small, when compared with the bulk to which the trunk attains, the blemishes which they leave may easily be underrated, and this we believe to have been the origin of the error which supposes that the blemish introduced upon the natural decay and fall of a branch is, ceteris paribus, of less conse- quence than that which results upon closely pru- ning it. The danger which attends all pruning may be diminished by paying attention to a few rules, such as cutting the surface quite smooth, cutting it obliquely so as to prevent the wet from 226 FARMERS' REGISTER— GAM A GRASS. lodging upon it, and especially by cutting close to the main branch or stem. The main object is to procure a rapid developement of the new wood, in order that the exposed surface may be secured as speedily as possible from the action of air and moisture ; and this, we believe, is best obtained by reducing the cut as nearly as possil)le to tlie condition of a vertical wound on the stem. All pruning, then, should be avoided as much as pos- sible; but where it is absolutely necessary, it should be performed as soon and as completely as the young plant or branch may bear it with safety. The action of poisons on vegetable structure. The action of poisons on vegetables is analagous to that which they produce on animals. One class is corrosive, and destroys the tissue on which it acts ; whilst another class is narcotic, and destroys A'itality without producing any decided alteration on the tissue itself It has been ascertained that nearly all substances which are poisonous to ani- mals, are likev/ise so to vegetables, though the in- tensities of their several actions are different in the two kingdoms; but, besides these, there are many substances innoxious to animals, which are de- structive to vegetable life. In fact, it should seem that almost every thing that vegetables can im- bibe is injurious to them, excepting Avater, the in- sipid earthy salts, carbonic acid, and other gases, gums, and mucilaginous substances, and finally, certain animal matters when introduced in very weak solution. It has been supposed that the pre- sence of a nervous system might be assumed to exist in vegetables, from the mode in which they are destroyed by narcotic poisons ; hut there is this remarkable difTerence in the mode in which these substances act on animn:ls and on vegetables : on the former they act by " sympathy" upon cer- tain parts with which they have no immediate con- tact, whilst ill the latter they produce their effect only on those parts of the tissue into which they are introduced. In vegetables, also, all poisons exert their action upon the cellular tissue, whilst in the more complicated structure of the animal frame different poisons will attack only particular tissues ; which again seems to prove the existence of no more than one single faculty in vegetable life, as we concluded to be the case, from other considerations, in the beginning of this article. It is a curious fact in the action of vegetable poisons, that a plant may be killed by the poison which it has itself secreted, as a viper may be stung to death by its own venom. Hence it has been very generally noticed, that the soil in which any parti- cular plant has grown, and into which it has con- sequently discharged the excretions of its roots, is rendered noxious to the growth of plants of the same or of allied species, though it be quite adapt- ed to the support of other species. This fact is of the greatest importance in an economical point of view, as the whole theory of the rotation of crops may be considered to depend upon it. The disco- very of this important step in agriculture Avas probably made by the Belgians; at least they have the merit of having developed the theory of it. — Formerly it used to be said, that the whole secret of good husbandry consisted in ploughing well, and in manuring well ; but to these must now be added the equally important art of so arranging the cultivation of dirt'erent crops that they may mutu- ally assist each other, and thus enable the farmer to obtain the greatest possible annual return from the same land. The whole theory depends upon the fact, that all plants succeed badly upon lands w]u"ch have lately borne crops of the same species as themselves, or even of the same genus, or of the same family. This effect is not owing to any exhaustion of the soil that must have taken place during the groAvthof the previous crop, but arises from a corruption of the soil, by the intermixture of vegetable excretions given out at the root, which excretions are always more deleterious to plants of the same kind than to others. It is even ascertained that the excretions of some plants are beneficial to the growth of others of a different fa- mily ; the LeguminoscB, for example, improving the soil for the GraminecB. Agriculturists have proposed various theories to account for the bene- ficial results obtained by a rotation of crops. Some have supposed that one species, by its denser fo- liage, chokes the weeds which otherwise would spring up, and assists the crop in exhausting the soil ; others have attributed the improvement that has taken place to the remains of the previous crop, which they suppose may have acted as ma- nure ; a third have said, that the roots of different crops extend themselves to different depths, and so extract their nourishment from portions of the soil which do not interfere with each other; and last- ly, it has been urged that plants of different fami- lies may possibly derive their nourishment from different materials. It may be true tliat some of these causes have a certain degree of influence in determining which may be the most proper plants for a rotation, but they can only be considered as of very secondary importance when compared with that Avhich relates to the deterioration of the soil, by its intermixture with the radical excre- tions of a previous crop. After enumerating some of the collateral circumstances which should direct thejudgment of cultivators in selecting such plants as may be best adapted to a rotation of crops in any particular district, De Candolle proposes the following fundamental and physiological princi- ples, which ought to be attended to where com- plete success is to be expected. F'irst,a new crop ought never to succeed another of the same kind, unless under some very peculiar circumstances, as where the soil is annually renewed, or where it is naturally so fertile as to be capable of resisting the inconveniences which ordinarily result from such a system. Secondly, a new crop ought not to succeed another which has been raised from plants of the same fiimily. A remarkable excep- tion to this rule occurs in the practice adopted in tlie valley of the Garonne, where the soil admits of a biennial alternation between wheat and maize. Thirdly, all plants Avith acrid and milky juices in- jure the quality of the soil, and their remains should never be buried after the removal of a crop. Fourthly, plants with SAveet and mucilaginous juices improve the soil for others of a different fa- mily. The chief of these are the LeguminoscB, Avhich are commonly adopted in practice for this purpose. Gania G'rass. From the Newbern Spectator. The grass which passes under this name has ac- quired a considerable degree of celebrity, and pro- mises to become of much importance to the agri- FARMERS' REGISTER— WEAVELS IN WHEAT. 227 cultural interests of the southern states. I say to the interest of the southern states, because the northern and western portions of our country are already so well provided with a variety of valua- ble grasses suited to their climate and soils that to them the acquisition of one more can be of little importance, if indeed the one we are now consi- dering should prove to be adapted to a northern climate. Whereas, in the alluvial portions of the southern states, I believe that neither clover, timo- thy, orchard grass, herd's grass, nor any other of the grasses derived from northern climates, have ever proved, or ever will prove extensively bene- ficial. The consequence is, that throughout this extensive and fertile portion of country no hay of any kind is made* and the only native product re- lied upon as provender for horses and cattle gene- rally, are the dried blades of Indian corn. (Zea mays.) Charleston and Savannah import northern hay, and even in the interior as high up as Colum- bia and Augusta you meet with it! During the last summer and tail, while engaged in occasional investigations of the botany of this neighborhood, I found upon the shore of the Neuse two species of grasses belonging to the genus Trip- sacum, to wit, the Tripsacum dactyloides, and the T. monostachyon. At that time I had not seen the " Gama grass," nor any of the publications rela- ting to it, and therefore did not know, what I have since ascertained, that one of these species is pro- bably ths famous " Gama grass." During the last winter I saw in the possession of a gentleman in Florida a few of the seeds of th3 Gama grass, which he had received from abroad, and he inform- ed me that he had found the same grass growing native in Florida. I immediately recognised them as belonging to one of the species of Tripsacum, apparently the T . monostachyon ; but I was held in some doubt on account of a third species of this genus, mentioned and described by Michaux, in his North American Flora, under the title of Trip- sacum cylindricum, and found by him in Florida. This species, like the T. monostachyon has cylin- drical spikes, while the T. dacfyloides has them flat- tened on one side, and rounded on the other, but differing from both in the circumstance of having its flowers "hermaphrodite." On looking into Loudon's " Encyclopedia of Plants" I found men- tioned a species growing in the It^est Indies under the title of Tripsacum hermaphroditum, which I could scarcely doubt to be indentical with the T. cylindricum of Michaux having hermaphrodite flowers, a species which Elliott suspects to belong to the genus Rotbollia, and which Nuttall, proba- bly from its ambiguous character, has not men- tioned at all. But the Encyclopedia of Plants fur- ther remarks upon the genus Tripsacum that they aregra-sses, used for provender in the JVest India islands, an expression somewhat loose, as only one species of the genus is said to grow in the West Indies, but indicatuig the opinion of the writer that all the species might be employed for that pur- pose. And to this conclusion 1 have been led by my subsequent inquiries of those who have culti- vated the grass. For one gentleman assures me that the grass which he cultivates as the Gama grass has the spikes aggregated, and is therefore * Occasionally a little hay is made in the south from what is called the " crab grass" (Eleusine indica.) But this grass will grow only in cultivated soils. the Trispacura dactyloides; another that the S[)ikes of his grass are cylindrical and solitary, and is there- fore the T. monostachyon if indeed "it be not theT. cylindricum of Michaux. I left Florida l)efore the grass there cultivated had evolved its spikes, and therefore could not ascertain to which of the species it belonged, though it must be to one of the last two. Which of the three species is the true Simon Pure I will not undertake to determine, but my conclusion is that all of them may be employ- ed with almost equal benefit. Perhaps the two last species may be less rough than the first, and I apj)rehend that if the grass be not frequently cut, it becomes too rough, and will be refused by horses, if not by black cattle. But the great value of the grass is that it grows with great rapidity and luxu- riance even in the sandy soils of the south, if mo- derately rich, and bears cutting, it is said, every month during the summer and fall. The publish- ed accounts say that it will yield from 75 to 90 tons the acre ; and I learn from a gentleman who cul- tivates it (W. B. Meares, Esq., of Wilmington,) that it does well both in sandy and clay soils. It appears that one of the species, is found native in Florida and the AVest India islands, and the two others along the Atlantic coast from the Delaware River to South-Carolina and probably to Florida, and also " in the vast prairies of the western states," as JMr. Nuttall informs us. It is therefore proba- ble that this is one of the few valuable grasses that adapt themselves to every climate and every soil. Those among us who wish to obtain it, have on- ly to search for itdurmg the ensuing fall along our river shores. If they have once seen and observ- ed the seeds of one of the species they will be in no danger of mistaking the plant, for it has a de- cided character. n- b. c. CHIXA LEAVES VS. WEAVELS ly WHEAT. From the Southern Planter. Mr. Editor, — As the prospect is bright for a heavy crop of this useful grain, and as the rava- ges of the weavel are so destructive, that little is produced through the winter ; I conceived I might do service to the community by communicating the result of experiments made in conquering so deadly a foe to the lovers of good biscuit. I had read in some agricultural work that the leaves of the Elder and of the Lombardy poplar were a pre- ventive. 1 tried the elder, — no, I speak falsely, I put a few twigs on the top of a hogshead of wheat, and found no benefit. This is a good deal like ma- ny of my attempts, which have been pronounced trials. The fact is, I was too lazy to experiment properly and test the prescription as I ought to have done, aiid some of your read-ers may be like me. O, I had tried the elder, I said, and it was a mere notion. In 1831 I raised, say 300 bushels wheat, and had it thrashed out early and put in a room 18 feet square, ground floor. The last of July I examin- ed the pile and found the black weavel was thick at the bottom, and the flying ones about. The idea struck me that if the scent of the elder leaf was a. preventive, that of the china leaf as strong- er, would be more likely to answer. Large par- cels of the twigs were mixed with the wheat, and in one fortnight, the next time I was at my plan- tation, not a weavel was to be found! So it was not only a preventive but a remedy. Last year several persons tried my prescription 228 FARMERS' REGISTER— VEGETABLE MOULD— SALT AS MANURE, &c. and the same happy effects were the result — the weavel was driven out. I should have made the experiment public last year, but wished further trial to test its unquestionable certainty. The leaves or twigs should be spread on the bottom of the bin or hogshead, and the wheat poured upon them and also some should be mixed along through the heap. No unpleasant taste or smell is left be- hind. I will insure the whole crop of Georgia for a quarter of a cent a bushel if well mixed with the china leaf. lazy planter. April, 1833. Veg^etatole Mould. The first inroads and fertility on barrenness are made by the smaller lichens, which, as Humboldt has well observed, labor to decompose the scori- fied matter of volcanoes, and the smooth and naked surface of sea deserted rocks, and thus to "extend the dominion of vitality." These little plants will often obtain a footing where nothing else could be attached. So small are many that they are invisi- ble to the naked eye, and the decay of these, when they have flourished and passed through their tran- sient epochs of existence, is destined to form the first exuvial layer of vegetable mould: the suc- cessive generations give successive increments to that soil fi'om which men are to reap their harvests, and cattle to derive their food : from which forests are designed to spring,and from which future navies are to be supplied. But how is this frail dust to maintain its station on the smooth and polished rock, when vitality has ceased to exert its influence, and the structure which fixed it has decayed ? This is the point which has been too generally overlooked, and which is the most wonderful provision of all ; the plant, when dying, digs for itself a grave, sculptures in the solid rock a sepulclire in which its dust may rest. For chemistry informs us that not only do these lichens consist in parts of gummy matter, which causes their particles to stick together, but that they likewise form, when living, a considerable quantity of oxalic acid, which acid, when by their decay set free, acts upon the rock, and thus is a hollow formed in which the dead matter of the lichen is deposited. Furthermore, the acid, by combin- ing w ith the limestone or other material of the rock, will often produce an important ingredient to the vegetable mould ; and not only this, the moisture thus conveyed into the cracks and crevices of rocks and stones, when frozen, rends them, and by con- tinual degradation, adds more and more to the form- ing soil. Successive generations of those plants successively perform their duties, and at length the barren breakers, or the pumice plains of a volcano, become converted into fruitful fields. — [Professor jBurnett's Lecture. Salt used as Manure. From the American Farmer. Richmond, Va. June 1, 1832. Mr. Smith : — Having long considered salt as one of the cheapest and best manures we could ap- })ly to our lands, and having a small lot of very ight sandy land, I determined to apply it in con- junction with clay and a small quantity of lime, which I concluded to add only because it was con- venient to the spot to be manured. I dug from a pit two hundred bushels of good red clay, and to a layer of twenty bushels I scattered not quite a peck of ground alum salt and one bushel of oyster shell lime unslacked ; going on until the whole of the clay was used. To the two hundred bushels of clay there were ten of lime and two of salt. The heap remained in that situation until late in April, when I measured an acre of land carefully, which had been ploughed the preceding winter ; on this the mixture was neatly and carefully scattered ; on the adjoining acre I scattered two hundred and twenty bushels of the clay, without the saltor lime ; on the next I scattered ten bushels of lime ; and on the fourth I sov/ed two bushels of ground alum salt. The land was then laid off in rows four feet each way and planted in corn which was thinned to one stalk, and all received the same cultivation. In October the corn from the first acre was gather- ed, and measured thirty-one bushels and one peck. On the secondthere were fifteen bushels and a half; about the quantity the land would have been capa- ble of producing without the addition of lime or other manure. On the third twenty -one bushels and a half peck. And on the last, with salt alone, tuenty-four bushels and a half peck,- making a large difference in favor of the mixture. If the re- sult of this experiment is worth insertion in your useful paper, it perhaps may be of use to the own- ers of the sandy soils in the lower part of Virgi- nia. SANDY LAND. [The foregoing piece is republished at the request of a subscriber in King William, who very natvu-ally con- siders the facts stated as highly important, if similar re- sults may be generally expected from the same causes. We presume that the writer has not failed to repeat an experiment so interesting and profitable, on an extend- ed scale : and we shall be pleased to receive for publica- tion the report of liis sviccess.] — Ed. Farm. Reg. On Gypsum as a Manure. From the Columbia Sentinel. Last week we ventured some observations on the proper time for sowing gypsum. This week we propose to go into a consideration of the ques- tion of the usefulness of gypsum as a manure. — There is the more necessity for this, from the fact that a controversy is now going on upon this sub- ject in the Genesee Farmer — one contending for its use, another denying that it is ultimately bene- ficial to the soil after a few applications. If we turn to the ninth volume of the Agricultural Ma- gazine, we will see that comparative trials were made between this and other manures, on a sto- ney clay, mixed with a little loam, to ascertain the best manure for wheat. " A five acre field was divided into five equal parts, exactly an acre in each. They were equally well ploughed and laid down to wheat, after being manured as fol- lows : On No. 1 was sown 6J bushels of gypsum. On No. 2 was put a compost manure, consisting of lime, rich earth, and dung. No. 3 was manured by yarding cattle on it. On No. 4 stable dung was thinly spread. On No. 5 lime prepared from oyster shells was sown. The product was from No. 1, forty bushels. No. 2, thirty six bushels, FARMERS' REGISTER— GYPSUM— PRODUCTIVE FARM. 229 No 3, thirty five bushels, No. 4, thirty three bushels, No. 5, thirty bushels. The seed wheat was of the best Sicily kind, and weighed 62 lbs. per bushel — the product weighed 63 lbs. per bushel." Next follow eight different experiments of the effects of gypsum on the different grasses, except- ing clover.. In all cases the quantity of land was the same, and the soil as much alike as possible. The results uniformly proved that the profits were from ^ to ^ greater than where none had been used. On clover the benefits were still more marked. The gypsumed yielded per acre a pro- duct of hay equal to 15 The ungypsumed only equal to 5 The gypsumed yielded in seed per acre a pro- duct equal to 30 The ungypsumed yielded in seed, do. only 5^ The experimenter adds — " The invariable results of the several experiments, which are faithfully, and he trusts correctly stated, he thinks incontes- tibly prove that there is a most powerful and sub- tle principle in this tasteless stone ; but by what peculiar agency or combination it is capable of forcing vegetation in such an instantaneous and astonishing manner, time reserves for others to unfold." From the above experiments, it is distinctly as- certained that gypsum produces its greatest effects on clover. Time and experience have confirmed this fact, and it is now generally understood that as a manure it is not so beneficial to the narrow -leav- ed as it is to the broad-leaved plants, such as clover and corn. Besides the above experiments, the general observation of farmers is conclusive on this point, and we could quote abundance of authority in proof of this position. I have seen one half of a field which had clover growing in it sown with plaster, and the other part remaining unsown. — The eye could distinctly trace the part sown from the part unsown. First from the increased size of the one, and next, from the sickly and yellow appearance of the other. The line of demarcation was so observable, that the cause of it was a fre- quent source of inquiry. But this is only one among many similar instances. My own experi- ence and that of my neighbors fully bears me out in the opinion, likewise, that clover, to come up well and do well, must be aided by having the giound sprinkled with plaster as soon after it is sown as practicable. This is an experiment which I have frequently made, and have long since look- ed upon as a settled principle in farming. Previous to the use of plaster and clover as a manure, (for they ought to go together,) what is now called the best of land in this vicinity might have been purchased for less than $3 per acre ; and I have heard of several purchases being made at less than one dollar. Now this land is made to yield the interest of ^100 per acre, free of ex- pense,— is constantly improving, and there are no farmers who thrive so well as those who are the most lavish in the application of these two ma- nures. I verily believe, deprive them of the use of clover and plaster, and their farms will degene- rate, if not as low as formerly, still so much as to make their cultivation very unprofitable. Plaster does not do its maximum of good without it is sown on clover ; and clover will not grow luxuri- antly unless it is sprinkled with plaster — they mu- tually aid each other, and when both are freely used, they are a mine of wealth to the farmer. It is not because he has large crops of clover for hay, but this clover being turned under by the plough, is the best possible coating of manurethat his fields can have to bring him heavy crops of wheat, corn and oats ; not rye — his land is too good lor it — it is too cheap a produce when wheat, which is more profitalile, may as easily be raised. It is principal- ly indirectly therefore that gypsum is so valuable as a manure. We are perfectly willing to con- cede that its good effects are not so distinctly marked as formerly ; the poverty of the soil made it tlien so peculiarly grateful to it, that it at once yielded a hundred fold. Now tlie quality of the soil having materially improved by its frequent application, they are not, of course, so observable. It ought to be enough for us that crops are growing more and more abundant. It is the proof that some- thing is at work, in flirther fertilizing the soil. The sowing of gypsum has produced another and great revolution in farming, and materially lessened the labors of the farmer. It is by making it unnecessary for fields to lay a season to fallow, by which not only the use of the land is lost for the season, but you save the labor of ploughing it two, and often tliree times, for a subsequent crop of wheat. How much simpler and more profita- ble the process now. One year you sow your fields with oats, barley, &c., in the spring, at the same time you put on your clover seed and plaster. The subsequent year you have a fine field of clo- ver, enough to cover the ground completely, and affording abundance of food for your stock for grazing. You fatten them at the same time that you fatten your soil. The coming autumn the remains of the clover are turned under with a single ploughing — you sow on your wheat — apply your drag, and your work is done. Tlie chance is, you will have a much better crop than by the old method of frequent ploughing and fallowing, even if you have added to your fallow land a thin cover- ing of stable manure. When clover can be made to grow so thrifty as to crowd out all other plants, which is frequently the case, it is the best prepa- ration that our soil in the present state of farming can possibly have. But it must have only one ploughing. The clover lay well turned over, must be permitted to remain there according to modern experience, and a heavy crop of wheat or corn is almost the invariable result. a. Productive Farm. From the New England Farmer. My farm is a stiff clayey soil, rocky, uneven, hills and valleys, particularly adapted to the growth of fruit trees, such as pears, apples, peaches and cherries, of which I have about 200 thrifty trees of the choicest varieties, most of them in a bearing state ; besides mulberries, quinces, grapes, &c. It contains 160 acres, 20 of wood, the re- mainder mowing, tillage and pasture land, all in one body, with the great mail road from Boston to Washington running through the center. I get my living by farming, and keep my eye steadily on the profits of my farm, which must exclude every thing like overwrought agriculture, or ex- travagance, from the premises. The following items may not all be perfectly correct, but are so nearly so as to answer my de- 230 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHEEP— DOMESTIC SILK— LUCERNE. sign, and give a sum total varying but little from the truth. I would remark, that in consequence of sickness in my flimily last summer, and other causes, my dairy did not receive that attention, and was not nearly so productive as it otherwise would have been. DAIRY. Most of my butter was sold in Boston by Col. Maynard, and brought from 17 to 28 cents per lb. About 350 lbs., the most sold at any one time, brought 24 cts. — we will call the whole 22 cts. lb. Butter, 3487 lbs. at 22 cts. ^707. 14 New Milk Cheese, 1575 lbs. at 9 cents, 141.75 Cheese, 735 lbs. at 4^ cts. 33.07^ Do. 1526 lbs. at 3 cts. 45.78 Veal, and 4 calves that were raised, 151.47 Total of Dairy, S1139.21J BEEF. I fatted 9 cows, and one ox that weighed 1005 lbs.. One bull six years old, which I raised on skimmed milk, and with his mate a stag, did most of the ox work on my farm for four years. He had 85 lbs. of rough tallow, and weighed 1209 lbs. The ox, bull and 9 cows, amounted to i§308.36.— Four oxen were sold by Col. Fay, at Brighton, to G. Adams, for 39s. cwt. The whole amount for beef was ^603.44 PORK. I fatted 19 hogs which I bought of Theodore Smith, that he drove to Columbia county, N. Y. Their average weight, when I bought them was 86 lbs. I kept them through the winter on Eng- lish turnips, boiled with a little, and but a little, corn and cob meal put with it. When slaughter- ed 14 of the best averaged a fraction over 500 lbs. each ; 15 of them were carried to Boston, and sold for 7^ cts. The hogs amounted to ^651.82 Total of Dairy, Beef and Pork, ^2394.47^ The above is the produce of one year, com- mencing March 25, 1832, and ending March 25, 1833. SAMUEL CHASIBERLAIJV. Westhorough, 1833. Slicep Husbandry, We have heard it remarked by some of the best farmers of Dutchess, will insure the gradual im- provement, in fertility of a farm. The following extract comes in corroboration of this opinion. It is from " Reports of Select Farms'" No. IV., and has reference to a Gloucestershire hill farm : " The improvement of the soil which he occu- pies, ought to be the object of every farmer. Land, in a natural state, if dry, undergoes a gradual im- provement from the yearly growth and decay of the vegetable substances which grow upon it. — But if the vegetable substances which grow upon it are eaten off by sheep, which drop their dung in return and in small portions at a place, the im- provement goes on much more rapidly. Hence land that is always pastured by sheep, is always improving, while that which is always mown is deteriorating. The number of sheep, therefore, kept on this farm, tend much to its gradual im- provement ; — and the regulaf deposition of the sheeps's dung over so great a portion of the farm, every year, in consuming the turnip crop, is an excellent preparation for the course of cropping tiiat is to follow. The double manuring which the land thus gets, in the same year, may be thought by some to be too much ; but the land of this fiirm and the whole district is so thin and brashy, that it can hardly be overdone with manure." Domestic Silk in Virg^inia. From the Lynchburg Virginian. We are glad to perceive that several persons in this section of country are turning their attention to the culture of silk — an occupation amusing and profitable, while it is not at all laborious. Some weeks ago we saw a beautiful specimen of sewing silk, manufactured in the family of Capt. Lewis Brown, of this place; and on Tuesday morning last, a gentleman called at our office and exhibi- ted a quantity of the same article, manufactured by the lady of Mr. Robert Mills, of Bedford coun- ty. Raising silkworms and the culture of silk is attended with so little trouble and expense, that we hope it will be generally practised by the la- dies, who will find it no inconsiderable source of revenue. liUcerne. From New York Statesman. New- York, Nov. 26, 1827. Dear Sir, — AVhen I was at your farm last summer, I observed a field of Lucerne in luxuri- ant growth, and of great promise. Your absence from home prevented my learning the particulars of its culture, uses, and value. This grass, I think, is not grown to any con- siderable extent in Great Britain or Ireland. In passing through those countries a iew years ago, I do not recollect to have seen it at all. Perhaps the humidity of the climate, the nature of the soil, and the strong growth of the oX\\er finer grasses, may account for its absence. In France, however, I found it held in greai esteem ; it produced abun- dantly, allowing of four or five cuttings in a sea- son, and was used in its green state for soiling cat- tle. Your experiments have, no doubt, been made with care. A detailed statement of them will be of service to our agricultural interests. If you will oblige me by furnishing the statement, it will gra- tify me to be the medium of communicating it to the public. Yours, very respectfully, I. M. ELY. Hon. Jesse Sucl, Albany. j^lbany, Bee. 7th, 1827. Dear Sir, — I most cheerfully comply with your request, in communicating my experiments in the culture of Lucerne. My first essay to cultivate this grass was made in 1820. I sowed it with summer grain, but too thin ; the summer was dry, and not more than a fourth of the plants survived till autumn. I ploughed it up at the end of the second year. In 1824, I sowed sixteen pounds of seed on an acre, well prepared by manure and potatoes the preceding year, with half a bushel of winter rye, the whole broadcast. The ground was well har- rowed and rolled after it was sown. The rye soon spread its leaves upon the surface, and protected the Lucerne until its roots had good hold of the soil. FARMERS' REGISTER— LUCERNE. 231 It grew well, notwithstanding tlie drought. The latter end of August, perceiving that some of the rye was pushing up seed stalks, and that some weeds were overtopping the grass, I mowed it, and fed it green to my cattle. In 1825, I cut three tolerable crops, and soiled it to my cows. In 1826, I cut it four times for green fodder, and in the au- tumn gave the field a slight top-dressing of rotten dung. This year my stock has consisted of six cows and four oxen. My summer pasture would not more than suffice for two of them. I fed them on ruta baga and hay till about the 20th May, when I commenced cutting, an 1 feeding my Lu- cerne, morning and evening, in such quantities as I found my cattle would consume. By the time I had cut over tiie acre, the part first mown was again fit for the scythe. Two cuttings, with the small pasture in which the cattle run, sufficed till my meadows and grain fields were fit to turn into. A third crop was cut for hay, and a fourth might have been cut also, but for the difficulty of curing it. This is the field which you saw when at my house. From my own experience, as well as from the observations of others who have cultivated this grass, I am satisfied, that an acre of good Lucerne will feed six cows five months, from the 20th or 25th May to the 25th October. This, to a person located as 1 am, upon a small farm, where land is high, would be worth §45, or ^1.50 per month for each beast. Lucerne is less affected by drought than any grass I am acquainted with; and but few grasses abide longer than it does in the soil. It does not attain its full strength until the third year, and its medium duration is ten or twelve years. I will further remark, for the guidance of those who may undertake to cultivate Lucerne, and are unacquainted with its character and habits, that It requires a rich, deep, clean, light and dry soil. It will neither do well upon clays nor wet grounds. It should be sown only in spring, when the ground has acquired warmth sufficient to promote a quick and vigorous growth. It should be mown lor soiling as soon as the blos- soms appear ; and be permitted to wilt a few hours in the swath before it is fed to neat cattle ; and lastly, like all other crops. It is benefitted by an occasional dressing of ma- nure. I think the best way is to apply compost or short dung in autumn, and harrow with a light harrow in the spring. When cut for hay, there is a difficulty in curing Lucerne without great loss, as the leaves dry and crumble before the stem is cured. It should be managed like clover — lay a few hours in swath, and then be put into small slender cocks with a fork. It will cure in two good days. I mixed my autumn crop, in the barn, Avith alternate lay- ers of straw. Respectfully, your obedient servant, J. BUEL. Isaac M. Ely, Esq. Calendar, (near Yonker^s,) Westchester ? County, Dec. 3lst, 1827. 5 Dear Sir, — Your favor of the 26th instant, together with an accompanying copy of " the Statesman" you were so obliging as to send me, 1 received by this morning's mail. I have attentively perused the statement of Judge Buel, in his letter to you on the subject of Lucerne, and am pleased to find that his experi- ence, in its culture, so fully accords with my own. The first experiment I made with this grass was in the summer of 1821 ; but the seed did not vege- tate, owing, doubtless, to their being unsound, rather than to any peculiarity of management ; for, when good, they appear to germinate as freely as those of red clover. Not being discouraged by my first essay, I prepared the ibllowing year, the same piece of ground for the reception of fresh seed. This was sown, broadcast, in the early part of July, 1822, without a protecting cover. — The plants soon made their appearance, notwith- standing a period of dry weather which succeed- ed, and continued to grow finely, till checked by the frost. As the crop was neither cut nor depas- tured, a large burden was left on the ground ; and in the ensuing spring, before other grasses had yet started, the Lucerne exhibited a flourishing grow th. Without entering into any further details respect- ing this crop, it will be sufficient to say, that it completely justified, in all respects, the encomiums I had read upon its value. It may be well, how- ever, to remark that, in accordance with the di- rections of some writers on the subject, I had the ground harrowed, for the alleged purpose of extir- pating weeds and promoting its vigor. This was done in the third year of its growth, and by these means more than half of the roots were destroyed. The remainder, however, continued to grow well for a year after ; but as the crop did not exhibit the flourishing appearance as before, I determined upon breaking up the ground. In the beginning of May, 1823, I had about two acres sown with Lucerne. The ground was divi- ded into tliree pieces, and each piece was, along with the Lucerne, sown with a different grain crop. These consisted of barley, buckwheat and winter rye. The result of the experiment was as follows, viz : that sown with the rye proved the best, and that with the barley ranked next in quality; but what accompanied the buckwheat was entirely smothered. The Lucerne growing on the two former pieces, being now in the fourth year of its growth, is in a most vigorous state ; and so far from evincing any symptoms of decline, continued to grow, the last season, more luxuriantly than ever. I commenced cutting it last spring, on the 27th of April. It then yielded, I should judge, at the rate of' a ton and a half to the acre, on tlie sup- position that the grass had been cured into hay. it was cut for the purpose of soiling, and given to horses in the stable and to working oxen. The produce amounted, during the season, to six cut- tings. In this experiment, the quantity of seed used was at the rate of 20 lbs. to the acre. It was cultivated on a soil similar to that described by Judge Buel, as indispensable to its success. It is unnecessary here to recapitulate all that has been said and written in favor of this plant. I would remark, however, that the great advan- tages which have been alleged in its favor, are fully borne out by my own experience. It may, further, be well to observe, that, in referring to the remarks of Judge Buel, there was no difficul- ty whatever in its being made into hay, when managed in the mode he describes. And it seems to me a matter of some importance to bear in mind that, although the virtues of Lucerne have been most largely descanted upon by British writers^ 232 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN PRINCE GEORGE. it is a plant which is fiir better adapted to our own climate than that of Britain. The latter country, it would appear, does not possess the requisite de- gree of heat and dryness, to insure the full advan- tage of its real value. And it seems to be expedi- ent, if not necessary, in that country, to cultivate it at the expense of drilling — while here it an- swers with perfect success in the easier and clieap- er mode of broadcast. Notwithstanding, however, what has been said in praise of the merits of this grass, I am not un- aware of the objections that have been made to its general introduction in this country. More espe- cially of those advanced by a distinguished agricul- turist in the vicinity of Philadelphia. It wa^ my intention to have noticed them, and to have offer- ed some views of individual practice in relation to the subject, leading to a ditTcrence of conviction. The length, however, to which this communication has already attained, prevents me from dwelling any longer upon the merits in question. With great respect, I am yours, &c. VAjS'BRUGH livingstgiv. /. 31. Ely, Esq. REPORT ON Till: STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN PRINCE GEORGE. [Submiltcd to the Jlgricultural Society oflhat county and approved March 9th, 1821.] From the records of ihe United Agricultural Societies of Virginia. The committee appointed by the Society, to in- quire into the state of agriculture in the county of Prince George, and to suggest the remedies which they may think calculated to correct the existing defects, regret to state, that the want of means for obtaining correct information will, of necessity, prevent as ample an investigation of the subject referred to them, as its importance merits. — They believe, however, tliat the report now submitted, though perhaps not altogether accurate, is at least free from those prejudices which would prompt either a flattering picture or hideous caricature. The soil of this county is generally light and poor, though a considerable proportion differs in one or both of these characters Rich land, or such as once was rich, is only to be found along the rivers and swamps which intersect the county. All the good soils have been long under cultivation, and are much exhausted, but still exhibit a marked supe- riority over the great body whicli was originally sterile. From one third to one half the county is arable, or cleared land, and the remainder wood- land, tide marsh, swamp, &c. very little of which is worth bringing under cultivation.* The three-shift system (that is, corn followed by wheat, when the land is equal to the production of 4 or 5 bushels per acre, and the field then graz- ed until the fourth year, when its turn comes again for cultivation,) is now, and long has been the usual course. Those who pursue it, seek to pre- vent a diminution of their crops, by clearing the adjoining forest, and thus increase the size of their fields, or supply the place of what is utterly ruined and thrown out of cultivation. Their great object is to cultivate as much land as possible, and this so completely employs their labor as to leave very little for improvement. Under such management, it is scarcely necessary to add that our land be- comes poorer every year. Though many have, to a greater or less extent, abandoned the three shift system, for a better ; yet we fear there are still more, who practice even a w orse mode, by deny- ing to their fields that small share of rest which three shifts afford. The quantity of Tobacco made for the last ten or fifteen years, has been very inconsiderable ; and though the effort is now general to increase its pro- duction, (on account of the low price of grain ;) that crop must still be very limited. MV e have but little woodland to clear, rich enough to produce Tobacco, and therefore nearly all must be made on our small quantity of highly manured land. — If the first effect of this change, is increased attention to making manure, it also directs its whole applica- tion to a crop, which gives nothing to the soil in re- turn, and must ultimately make the progress of exhaustion still more rapid than before. Gloomy, however, as is this view of the tillage of our county, we hail with pleasure the dawn of light arising from the spirit of inquiry now gene- rally excited, and the increasing interest which is felt on the subject of agriculture. AVe already perceive, within a few years, manifest evidences of improvement ; and we therefore, in pursuance of our instructions, proceed with greater confidence to point out those obstacles which have in an es- sential deg ee tended to obstruct its advance. If in the course of this inquiry, propositions are ad- vanced which appear either trite or paradoxical, we hope at least, that they will not be denounced, until investigation decides them to be useless or false. In every age, country and situation, the best sys- tem of husbandry is that which yields most clear profit to the cultivator, for the capital and labor em- ployed. The correctness of this definition will be * When tlie swamps of this county are said to be scarcely worth bringing into cultivation, the assertion is intended to apply to the only course which now can be adopted for draining them, that is, by the unconnected efforts of different individuals, who are compelled al- ways to begin the work at the wrong end — on the out- skirts and head brandies, instead of at the outlet and through the middle of the swamp Therefore all attempts have been attended with great labor and expense, and have never had more than partial success. — But it" our Legislature would PERMIT extensive swamps to be drained on a rational plan, the improvement would be one of the most valuable and decidedly the cheapest which could be effected in lower Virginia. Blackwater Swamp and its numerous branches contain thousands of acres of the richest land, which is likely to contmue use- less and a nuisance. A considerable portion belongs to this county. A central drain ten feet wide would ef- fectually reclaim all this land, and perhaps at the same time afford good slidce navigation during part of the winter. But however well assured its owners may be of the value, and cheapness of tliis operation, it never can be effected by private agreement among so many persons. If only one of thek niunber refuses to unite in the plan, or is a minor and of course unable to con- sent, all the rest can do nothing — A law ought to be pass- ed to grant to those owne^rs disposed to attempt this work, power to proceed at their own risk, and only in case of their succeeding, compel all others benefitted to pay their full proportion of the expense, out of the new value given to their land. In this way no person could possibly incur loss against his will, or liave any reason to complain. If such a law should be considered an in- vasion of the rights of property, then stilf more so must be all laws for cutting public roads, digging canals, and indeed every other which combines the means, of all, for the benefit of all. FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN PRINCE GEORGE. 233 admitted to be so palpable, as to need no elucida- tion. But obvious as it is, exijcrience proves that it has been either totally disre<^arded, or is at best, but sljfihtly operative. Nor do we conceive that we shall materially err, when we attribute the low- state of husbandry principally to the inconceiva- ble misapprehension of this subject, on the part of agricultuiists of every description — whether prac- tical or theoretical — improvers or exhausters of the soil. Various and discordant as arc the opinions of ag- riculturists, they may properly be classed under the two heads of practical and theoretical, wh'mh names, though not exactly appropriate, will serve for the purpose of distinction. With our practi- cal men, he is the best farmer who cultivates the greatest number of acres, and who derives the heaviest gross product from tlie amount of labor employed. The first and generally the only ques- tions asked to decide on tiie good or bad manage- ment of any individual, are, " How many labor- ers does he employ.'" — "How many acres does he cultivate?" — " What amount of crop does he make.'" — By such estimates, is the practice of most of us entirely regulated. Yet the gross product is very different from the nett product, (in which the whole profit consists,) and the former may be, and frequently is, increas- ing, at the same time that the latter is diminish- ing. If farmers were in the habit of calculating the probable cost and profit of every process of cul- tivation and improvement, and in consequence, w-ould reject whatever was not more profitable than costly, a most extensive and beneficial change would be immediately produced. It may perhaps be useful to state a few examples of its effects, and pi'actices which are found on every farm in the county. The cost of the cultivation of corn on average land, including every attendant operation, expense and injury, cannot be rated lower than S§5 per acre. The highest price of corn at this time, is .^2 per barrel,* and of course 2i barrels per acre are ne- cessary to replace the actual cost of cultivation ; and from every acre cultivated producing less than that quantify, an actual loss accrues. Let us sup- pose a field of 60 acres to produce 180 barrels, of which 20 acres produce 5 barrels per acre, 100 barrels at $2 .^200 gross Deduct for cultivation 20 acres at 85 100 Remainder, clear profit 8100 * The pric3 of corn has greatly increased since this report was made. Tlie low price above stated caused a diminution of grain culture, and an increase of that ol Tobacco and Cotton in this county, and as far as the same reisons operated, wherever climate and situation did not forbid the change. This, together with two suc- cessive bad seasons for corn, has nearly doubled its price. This temporary advance is however balanced by the de- pression of the price of Tobacco and Cotton, so as io. leave our average profit for all our crops not very dif5'-ir- ent from that of 1 o'20. But -vvlmtever change may occur in price, it will not at all affvict the principle on which these calculations are founded. All that is caitended for is, that the amount oi nett product is the measure and the proof of good husbandry ; and from this proposition it foliows, that a coiu-se of cultivation or improvement may be at one time good, and at another bad, according to the variation in the price of the product. Vol. 1—30 20 acres at three bbls. per acre, sixty bbls.at $2 per barrel ^120 Deduct for the cultivation of 20 acres at .^5 per acre 100 Profit 20 acres at 1 bbl.— 20 bbls at 82 Cultivation of 20 acres Absolute loss 820 840 100 860 This shews that two thirds of the field would have yielded -8120 profit, and yet from the whole it amounted to 860 only. Considerable as is the loss stated, but few farmers in the county have a greater proportion of good, or a less proportion of poor land, than in the above example. — Such is the profit and loss arising from our best land. We feel no disposition to exhibit a similar statement of the worst. Suppose the clearing an acre of woodland, and putting it in order for cultivation to cost 812, and its average product to be only 2 barrels: the re- gular loss attending its cultivation will be 81, be- sides 8 12 for the first improvement. Not one tract of the land now annually cleared, yields sufficient nett product to repay the enormous expense of the operation. Our theoretical, or improving farmers, by a dif- ferent road frequently arrive at the same end, viz: diminishing the nett product, to augment the gross. They define good husbandry to consist in adopting every mode of enriching the soil, and of making the different processes of cultivation as perfect as possible, so as to make each acre produce to the ut- most. This rule is derived from the publications and practice of Europe, and applied to American agriculture, without considering the great differ- ence of circumstances. In England, land and pro- duce are high, and labor cheaj) : it is therefore pro- fitable to raise as much as possible from each acre, without much regarding fhe additional labor. In this country, land and produce are cheap, and la- bor dear ; and it is therefore generally to our inte- rest to make the most of our labor, and to estimate the quantity of land as of secondary importance: Even if the climate and products of the two coun- tries were the same, the best Virginia management if practised in Britain, would quickly lead to ruin ; and if the Lothian fallow, (the })erfection of Scot- tish husbandry,) v,as adopted here, fhe whole crop of wheat added to the fee simple of the land on which it grew, would not pay the cost of prepara- tion. This neglect of drawing a line of distinc- tion between improvements suitable to our situa- tion, and such as are not, is a fruitful soui'ce of er- ror, to young and enterprising farmers. They are certain to bring upon themselves, serious losses, and by giving practical men an opportunity to tri- umph over book farmers , their own bad habits are confirmed, and new obstacles opposed to the pi-o» gress of improvement. Those who in the end be- come the best farmers, have almost invariably pass- ed through a long apprenticeship of loss and dis- appointment. To derive as much nett profit as possible from our capitals, it is necessary to discontinue much of the labor now devoted to both cultivation and im- provement; but the application of the same rule will sheWj that many improvements which are ge- ^M FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN PRINCE GEORGE. nerally thought too dear, would be highly profita- ble. The least expense should be rejected, which did not promise protit adequate to its reimb\irse- ment ;■ bat permanent improvement cannot be pur- chased too dearly, provide:d the increased profit would more than pay the interest of the expendi- ture. A farm -which would yield a regular annual profit of 600 dollars, after paying all the expense of cultivation, would be thought cheap at 10,000 dollars. But certainly it would be equally profita- ble, to lay out 10,000 dollars on the imjirovcment of land, already in possession , if from tliat improve- ment, an additional clear profit of 000 dollais, cculd be derived ; nor would the propriety of the mea- sure be affected, whether the quantity of land thus impr(.)ved, was 1000 acres, or only ten. This how- ever, applies only to permanent improvement as clearing, draining, and the application of earthy manures which change the constitution of soils. — Improvements which are temporary in their ef- fects, such as more perfect tillage, or animal and vegetable manures, to be profitable, must return the principal, as well as the interest of the expen- diture. The want of capital is considered an almost in- superable obstacle to the improvement of agricul- ture. None are now so listless, or so biggotted as to consider it unnecessary, but their v.'ishes avail nothing, because, " they have no surplus capital, and their labor is ah'eady fully employed." It is true indeed, that the capital of agriculture is small, and its profits almost nothing; but we shall, not- withstanding, endeavor to shew, that we have the means for improvement fully within our reach, and without the slightest diminution of our clear an- nual profits. Capital cannot be increased at will, although it is not long since the belief prevailed that banking could effect that impossibility. — That opi- nion however^ is no longer supported, and even our legislatures have become almost convinced of their mistake If our capital cannot l)e made equal to our cultivation, at least our cultivation may be re- duced, till the proper proportion is restored. This reduction is required even by views of annua! profit, and in the portion now unprofitably directed, abund- ant means for improvement will be found. The full amount of labor, time and fertility thus thrown away, every one must estimate for himself; but many processes are so general, that we cannot err greatly in stating them. It would be both unne- cessary and presuming in us to prescribe the pre- cise means of improvement w hich shall be adopt- ed; these must vary in different situations, and our remarks are grounded on the supposition, that every farmer knows sowie means by which he might improve with profit, could he spare time and labor for the purpose. The labor of a plantation is devoted about twen- ty days in the year to repairing fences. — As those on the dividing- lines of adjoining proprietors, are made at their joint expense, the fences between the several fields, require at least one half of this time. By the discontinuance of division fences, avc should save ten days' labor of every year, and by so doing, protect all our fields from grazing, and thus allow the land to improve itself during the whole lime of its rest. We expect no wonderful effects from merely enclosing, and none perliaps would be perceived for several years. But its be- nefits cannot on that account be questioned. En- closing furnishes more vegetable matter to the earth, than could possibly be done in any other way, (on our poor soils,) without any expense being in- curred, and with the actual saving of ten days la- bor. It is triie, that we lose the means of keeping large stocks of poor cattle and sheep ; buf before wc can admit this to be a loss of profit, it must be j)r()ved that some profit is derived from keeping stock in the usual mode. We are attempting to shew in what manner our business may be render- ed the most profitable, and not by w hat means we may command most luxuries and conveniences ; but even on this ground, a reduction of our stock to one third their present number j would enable us to derive from them as much gross product of wool, meat and butter, and far more clear profit than now. Al)out 45 days of the year, the whole of our la = bor is employed in clearing land, of which a very small proportion is rich enough to yield any clear profit. Allowing 15 days for clearing enough for firewood and other uses, there remains 30 which may be saved without diminishing the nett product of the farm. Much land is planted in corn, wJiich does not produce more than one barrel per acre, and about one iialf the arable land of the county, falls short ef •2.V bbls. which has been stated as the least pro- duct" that will defray the expense of cultivation. One half of our land is cultivated, not only with- out profit, but with certain and increasing loss; and to this purpose, our labor is devoted ninety days, the whole crop being supposed to require six months. Every consideration of profit demands tliat this portion of our soil should not be cultiva- ted while in its present condition. This will save of our whole labor new unprofitably employed 10 y^O >^90=130 tlays in every year, without di- minishing, in the smallest degree, (he farmer's nett profits. Every operation discontinued was a cer- tain source of loss, nor is there any new employ- ment for the labor on our farms, excepting their improvement. If then the smallest clear profit can be derived from the improvement of our soil, the cliange of more than four months of loss, to more than four months of gain, cannot fail to be greatly and immediately beneficial. Your committee are aware that many trivial and some real objections, (in certain situations,) may be raised against th.e reduction of our culti- vation to the extent recommended. We have al- ready trespassed too much on your time, to shew in detail, in how few cases such objections are so- lid. Wiiatever may be the case under particular circumstances, the general question of expediency must turn on such statements as tlie preceding. If we have made an incorrect report of our situation, or if our estimates are false, let their fallacy be ex- posed— but if they are correct, or even approach correctness, it is scarcely possible for us to know our situation, and yet not receive benefit from such examinations of our own afi'airs. A complete change of system on a farm cannot be effected at once ; but no man can be fully sensible that he is regu- larly throwing away one third, or even one sixth of his laf)or and income, without quickly attempt- ing to remove the defect. The obstacles to improvement, which have been mentioned, serious as they are, may be removed by our ow n exertions. There are others, of no less magnitude, which are beyond our control — evils which have been imposed on the agricultural interest by government, which can only be remc- FARMERS' REGISTER— RICE IN GEORGIA. 235 died by the same power. Required as we are to point out the causes of the depressed state of ag:ri- culture, it would be improper to pass unnoticed the viokitionsof its rights and interests; butourlinuts cempel us to touch but siiglitly on subjects, the fatal consequences of which it would require vo- lumes fully to expose. The most injurious, of such violations of our rights, are the immense indirect taxes levied on agriculture, for the exclusive be- nefit of the paper stock, commercial and manufac- turing interests. Against the existing privdeges and monstrous pretensions of the last, our societies Lave already made a delerniined, and we hope not an ineffectual opposition. JMay such exertions con- tinue, until the great agricultural interest is fully awakened to a sense of its wrongs, which alone is necessary for tlieir removal. The destruction of every fragment of exclusive privilege is demand- ed, not more by the interest of agriculture and the principles of sound political economy, than by tlie sacred rights of property winch alone can offer se- curity for freedojii. The commercial interest, (even on the grounds assumed by the advocates of monopoly,) needs no legal privileges, to be prosperous, rich and great. Its natural advantages have made their privileges conferred by government, rather nominal than real, and the few cases in which they have elTect, serve to oppress agriculture and outrage justice, without converting even a tythe of the injury to the benefit of commerce. All these oppressions, however, are trivial v. hen compared to the legal privileges conferred on bank- ing. Their defenders are now silent — nothing is now heard of the once boasted blessings which our country was to receive from banks. But though convinced of their evil effects and worse tendencies, we refrain from their destruction, spell- bound, by the stale doctrine that charters are in- violable— that the people once despoiled of a right, are not justified in resuming it. We console our- selves too, under this submission, with the belief that with the profits of banking, the whole system must sink, and that its present state shews its end to be not far distant. This expectation is vaiii ; when robbers are numerous, their dividend of booty must necessarily be small. Tiie present temporary depression of the paper interest offers the strongest proof of its alarming strength ; in this season of its greatest weakness — notwithstanding a loss of both property and character without parallel — al- though universally execrated, — yet it is enabled to retain unimpared its exclusive privileges, and to pay as little regard to the opinion of the people as it has ever done to patriotism, probity or honor. It is possible for us to convert our wilderness into a garden, to increase tenfold the products of our field — but if the system of monopolies and exclusive privileges be not overthrown, the in- crease of toil alone will be our share, v. hile the pro- fits must go to augment the wealth and power of chartered corporations and privileged orders. CULTURE OF RICE ON TIIE EMBANKED MARSH- ES IN CJEORGIA. E-xtractfrom an account of an AirricuUurNt Excursion by the Edi- tor of the S'juthern Agriculturist. The mode of cultivating rice in this neighbor- hood will be best luiderstood by giving the prac- tice of one or two of the planters. Wc will here give that oi' Col. Green, who cultivrdes an island immediately opposite to Darien,from which it is separated by one of the branches of the Alatama- ha river. These notes w ere furnished us by Col. Green, merely for reference, Imt as we cannot im- prove the account Vvhicli he has himself given, we prefer making use of them as they are, rather than by altering, lose any part. ' The island on which I plant is known as " Ge- ' ncraVs Island," and contains abouteight hundred ' acres of tide land. I have now under cultivation ' about two hundred and twenty acres. My ne- ' groes are settled on the main, from an impression 'that a low damp situation was not as congenial to ' health as a higher and drier site ; and where bet- ' ter water could be procured for use, and, also, ' that there v.ould be nothing risked by gales which ' do at times not only sweep off entire crops, but a ' large portion of the negroes. There is some risk ' to be run in daily crossing the river, and occasion- ' ly nmch exposure to rain ; but of the two haz- ' ards, I prefer the latter. ' I prepare my land by having large and tight ' banks and tight trunks, and as soon as possible ' thoroughly drain, putting my drains parallel with 'each other, at fifty feet apart, from fourteen to 'eighteen inches wide, and not less than three feet ' deep. The inequality of the surface is generally ' so great that a drain shallower than that, will not ' dry the lower spots sufficiently. 1 think it im- ' portaut also that the ditches and drains should be ' perfectly straighd, and all stumps and roots per- ' lectly removed so as to present no point on which ' floating trash may hang, otherv^ise barriers will ' soon be formed. When my fields are dried for ' harvesting, they are generally kept dry until again ' planted ; the stubble will die with less cold, and ' more eftectually when kept dry, than if suffered ' to be kept wet or even damp. As soon as the ' stubble will burn, fire is applied to it, and burnt ' as perfectly as possible ; the earlier it is burnt the ' more numerous the birds are likely to collect on ' the fields, and in many instances the ducks also ; ' and pick up what scattered rice may then be left ' on the surface, as it is perfectly exposed. I think ' it best to prohibit the pasturage of the fields to all ' horned cattle and horses. Rice-field butter is cer- ' tainly very fine, but it is purchased at an extra- ' vagant price. The plough is introduced when the ' roots are sufficiently decayed to admit its use, (the ' Freeborn or Dagon plough I find best) and the ' land is as perfectly turned as possible three or four ' inches deep ; by which process, the rice which ' has escaped the birds is so late in getting up that ' it rarely ever overtakes the crop, and your crop ' invariably comes up free from grass. Some short ' time previous to planting, a heavy harrow with ' good iron teeth is passed over the ploughed land ' once or twice, until it is reduced sufficiently fine ' for trenching. I frequently use the trenching ' plough, but prefer the hoe, as it is neater in its 'execution; but the plough despatches work ra- ' pidly wlisre you ojien three rows at once. I pre- ' ter my trenches shallow and not exceeding five ' inches wide, and aliout fourteen inches from cen- ' tre to centre. In land thus prepared two bushels 'of seed is quite enough to the acre; in land not ' broken up by the hoe or plough^ or on new laud ' that is rough it requires to be planted thicker, say ' two and a half to three bushels per acre. I then ' flow from three to seven days, at first as deep as I ' can, to float the trash which should be taken off 236 FARMERS' REGISTER— RICE IN GEORGIA. as quick and as clean as possible, the water then is reduced down so as to protect the higher spots of the field from the birds. The field is dried as soon as the rice is perceived to have sprouted pretty well, which never exceeds seven days, unless the weather proves very cold, but in no case ought it to be kept flowed deep, lon^. I have seen whole fields of rice entirely rotted by deep ilowing. This flow serves the double purpose of cleaning- the field of small roots tliat may have been ploughed up, or particles of stubble or grass that have escape;! the fire, and destroying insects that prove some- times very destructive to a young crop. I disap- prove of the point-flow, except under peculiar circumstances; if the birds are very troublesome and the land very level, the rice may be protect- ed a few days from the birds, in the point. If the land should" lie unlevel, 1 think that more is sac- rificed by this flow than wouhl be lost by the birds On the poor black soil that is frequently found on the main, adjoining the highlands, and which is invariably level, and from its peculiar soil, is very difficult to dry when once saturated, I would always advise the point-flow and to be continued on from twenty five to thirty days, the Tice by that time attains considerable size, and most generally the field is perfectly clear of grass. The rice on this quality of land is less likely to become diseased by fox, rust, or spot, under this mode of treatment, than giving, what is termed, the long-flow, at the usual time. It will then re- quire to be kept dry and hoed until it has formed the ear. ' But to return, as soon as I am done planting and the rice is up, I commence hoeing — at that period the work is light — the rice is so small that it must necessarily be hoed shallow, and there is no grass, and generally but few weeds to pick out of it, at that early season. Every tolerable good hand is able to hoe a half acre with ease. I prefer to hoe twice before I flow, if I have time. This depends also much on the tides, as lands that are not old and much worn cannot be flowed ge- nerally but on sj)ring tides. This is known as the long-flow, and tlie use of it requires as much or more discretion in the planter than any other point in the cultivation of the crop. When the water may be changed in eight or ten days, and the atmosphere is moist and calm, it will flourish for thirty days ; but if on the other hand, the wea- ther should be dry and cool, and the tides too low to allow a change of water on the fields, I have seen tlie plant show indications of diseases in ten days, i would recommend under such circum- stances, to dry the fiyld and hoe deep and thor- oughly as soon as the land is sufficiently dry. The object is to keep the plant in as healthy and grow- ing condition as possible. Hence it becomes ne- cessary to change the process of culture with it — if disease appears while it is dry, flow, or if when flowed, dry. 'Asa general rule, the long-flow is kept on from fifteen to twenty days. I prefer flowing shallow imless the fields had not been properly cleared of trash in the previous flow, or it should have become much infested with weeds previous to hoeing : in such case the water should be put in deep, to float the trash or weeds : but under no '•cumstances ought it to be suffered to remain •»r this deep flow beyond three or four days. t the rice is under this flow, it is adviseable to have the higher spots in the field hoed and pick- ed clean of grass. The first hoeing afler this flow should be given as soon as the land is suffi- ciently dry, which, if properly drained, will not require more than a week, and be hoed deep, not less than two or three inches, and the surface well broken — care should now be taken that all the grass be perfectly removed. One-third of an acre is a pretty fair average for a hand per day to hoe at this time. If time admits, the crop should all be hoed over again, but hoecl shallow, and what grass escaped at the previous v,orking must now be removed ; this is termed the " lay-by hoeing," and is light labor — a half to three-quarters of an acre per hand per day. The crop is now sup- posed to be made, and requires nothing more but to be flowed and the water changed as convenient. The interval, between the two last flowings is generally about six weeks, and by the time the rice has received this last flow, it has formed two, and if well grown, three joints. This flow should not be deeper than the long flow, until the rice ears out, it is then adviseable to flow deep to sup- port the plant and keep it from lodging or falling. Seven acres of rice may be cultivated to the hand, if on a good pitch of tide, when once properly diti-hed with the assistance of ploughs and har- rows to aid in preparing it for planting, or five acres of rice and two acres of provisions, and un- less the proportion of potatoes should be very small, I w ould prefer the seven acres of rice as the lighter labor. ' The crop of rice, as an average crop for the entire rice-growing-counfry, is greater than in South-Carolina per acre, from the comparatively large amount of nevf land, and the system of al- ternating the fields, but the amount planted per hand is small compared with the usual amount planted in South-Carolina, it dees not exceed four acres, and in many instances, is much below it. The mode of planting and culture also differs widely from that purused in South-Carolina, the rows are wider apart, say eighteen inches from centre to centre, and I believe never exceeding one and a half bushels of rice, planted to the acre, and I believe five pecks per acre is about the medium. Very little water is used in cultiva- ting the crop previous to its jointing, and never, as tiir as am I aware of, used as an agent to des- troy the grass ; this renders it necessary to hoe oftener, and adds to the labor of keeping the crop clean ; and I believe deteriorates the quality of the rice. I would estimate the average rice-crop of this neighborhood at fifty bushels per acre. I am perfectly aware tliat many persons will doubt this as being too low an estimate ; be it so, I will then, to convey my idea, say it is twenty percent, greater than is made usually as an average crop on Sam Pit, Black River, Pee Dee, or Wacca- maw. I know the proneness in planters and over- seers to over estimate the real amount of their crops. I do not think that more than forty bush- elsper acre is made on an average on those rivers. Here and there a solitary planter makes sixty bushels per acre, or occasionally a solitary field may make it ; but that would not be a fair estimate of the average crop of the district for a succession of years.' Although there are many islands in this river, and the borders are swampy, yet there is, compa- FARMERS' REGISTER— ON PUTTING DOWN TRUNKS. 237 ratively, but a small portion, Avhiih is well adapt- ed to the culture of rice. The ri2:ht pitcli of tide does not extend more than three miles, commenc- ing at " Ilnpeton," and terminating; with " Champ- ney's Island, " above the former the crops would be extremely uncertain from the liability to inju- ry from freshets, and below " Champneif s Island," the salt-water would occasionally prove an unwel- come visiter. But even the whole of the space be- tween these two points is not occupied, and there is much fine land yet to be broug;lit under culture. The river here is very v.ide and divided into se- veral large branches. Most of the islands are still in a state of nature, thickly wooded, and appa- rently of great fertility ; but they are all more or less liable to be overflowed by freshets, for although the river has numerous large branches and seve- ral outlets, yet owing to its great length, and the tributary streams which flow into it ; freshets are not uncommon, and are sometimes very destructive. A peculiarity we noticed here, and which is common in this state, is to regulate all the opera- tions of the rice crop by the spring tides. All of their work is done in reference to these, whether it be planting or hoeing, for it is only at these pe- riods that thej' can flow their fields; consequently, if they are not prepared, they must wait for the next. They, therefore, endeavor to have certain portions of their work completed by that time — certain fields planted, certain fields hoed, &c. There is not, (owing to this cause) all the precision which is to be found on the Carolina plantations, nor can science be as effectually brought to aid the planter, for whilst with the Carolina jdanter, each opera- tion is governed by the particular state of the crop, and water is put on or run off as may be required, the crop hoed, and kept dry, or flowed as may be thought most conducive to its health, the Georgia planter is obliged to wait certain periodical flow- ings of the tides, which must operate against him in some degree, although he can regulate his work to meet them in most cases, as these intervals are short. The average product of rice per acre on this river is greater than in Carolina, owing to the causes stated by Col. Green. We heard of seve- ral instances of four barrels being mads to the acre. HGMARKS OX PUTTIKG DOWX TRUXKS IX RI- VER BAXKS. From the Southern A^r.cultur'st. In continuation of my observations on the best mode of reclaiming marsh or rush land, &c. I pro- pose to make a few remarks on river trunks, and shall go somewhat into detail, as it is a suliject of the utmost importance, and one, which I think, is not sufficiently attended to. Of the building of these trunks, I shall say nothing; each of us have a preference as to the mode in which the uprights, ears, and braces should be placed, anrl this prefer- ence I would not disturb : all I contend for as vi- tally important, is, that the door should fit as close as two pieces of wood can be brought together, and that the trunk should have sufficient length, say 30 feet, to keep the water both in its ingress and egress far from the bottom or foundation of the bank. In fixing upon tlie site of the trunk, it is usual to find the lowest spot in the field selected, under the entire conviction, that where the natural outlet of the water is, there must necessarily he the best spot for giving it vent. In theory, this is right, but if our experience is of any value (and it has been dearly purchased,) in practice, it is wrong. If you have a creek in the field, (which most commonly happens) it will be the natural outlet, yet it will not be the proper p'ace to put the trunk; no man of observation will commit this mistake more than once. The objections to these low spots as beds of trunks arc numerous ; they are soft, sloughy and uneven ; they want firmness and consistency, are very liable to cave in, wdiile the work of preparation is going on, seldom reiain the trunk in the po?ition you place it, and forever remain weak points in "the bank, more liable to accidents and casualties than other portions of it. A firm, dry spot is to be prefened. even if it is a lilte higher than the rest of the field^ for the spade can remedy this objection, and all the evils noticed above be avoided. Having decided upon the spot, a semi-circular bank or half moon, as we term it, is to be made around it either on the inside or outside, (I prefer the latter for many reasons) large enough to resist the tide, and at a sufficient distance from the liank to enable you to work. Some planters do not es- teem this precaution e^enlial, and for this very reason I am more anxious to impress the necessity of using it upon those w ho are commencing their career as river planters. It is not unusual to hear gentlemen talk of cutting the bank and slipping in the trunk in a tide, of the facility with which it is done, and of the uselessnes, and even inconve- nience of a half moon. All this is easily said, and is, / believe, S077iel hues done, but I have never seen it well done. Indeed, when we call to mind the size and width of the bank, the dej)th we liave to cut, the prol ability of its caving; tiie necessity of levelling the bed with great care, the sinking of the studs and erecting the breast-work, the un- wieldy, heavy trunk which is io he floated to its place and buried, and that all this is to be done during the gradual flill of the tide, and must be finished before it rises again, it w^ould seem worse than folly to attempt it. In addition to all this, I will add, that if a large log or root is found in the bed, and nothing is more common, then it is im- possible to finish your work in the tide; the bank has to be closed up, your work is all to be gone over again, and a half moon must at last be re- sorted to. I have seen so much troulde, the result of " slipping in" river trunks, that no- thing v/ould induce me to do it; the chances are always against a successful termination of your labors, and it is a matter of too much importance, to be done hastily or indifferently. If your bank is a large one (and the base always should be large) your trunk should not he less than thirty feet long, and the width about three feet in the clear; the uprights, ears and cross pieces should, if possible, be made of cedar out of the swamp, as this wood seldom rots from exposure to air and water; the studs, four in number, should be eighteen feet long, and square, eight inches, if squared at all; though I leave them round, with the bark on. The caps, two in number, should be twenty long, and square, ten inches ; these last (caps and s^tuds) should be procured of pond cypress, if it is to be had. The piles, forty-two in number are of pine, (or in fact any kind of wood you can obtain most easily) seven feet long and about the size of a man's leg. These arrangements being made and these mate- rials all collected, we are ready to put down the trunk. 238 FARMERS' REGISTER— GAMA GRASS, HEDGES, &c. The first step in the process is to sink the studs as far into the ground as either weight or the maul will drive them, before either the bank or margin is touched or cut. This is not the usual plan, but it is by far the best mode of doing it, as we have firm ground on which to stand, instead of the inse- cure foot-hold which is commonly presented to those whose business it is to raise and sink the studs. Between tlie studs a sufficient space is left to enable the trunk to float in ; the caps are now put on, and we are ready to cut the bank. A clear day ard neap-tides oliering, we cut both bank and margin to the depth of five and a half feet, and continue this to the river on one side, and the river ditch on the other. Water will spring and we are to keep the work dry either by a pump (which I prefer) or i)ads. Having reached the depth contemplated, a little water is let in, or thrown in, for the purpose of obtaining a trucica- terlevelj and all the inequalities now showing themselves are to be removed, and a smooth, clean surface presented. Three rows of piles (seven in each row) about four iaches apart, are driven down three feet from each extremity of the trunk, and the heads of them, if they remain above the bed, are to be cut off, so as not to interrupt tlie level. If your half moon is outside, the tide will not interfere with the v.'ork, and we proceed to roll the trunk, (for it should be built upon logs that will roll) immediately over the spot it is to occu- py. Water is now to be let in through the tem- porary trunk sufficient to fdl the ditches, and ena- ble us to saw away the rollers and drop the trunk into the water and stake it exactly where it is to be buried. Things should be left in this slate until the next ebb, and when the trunk grounds, the carpenter with his square, by standing on it, can so arrange it that a perlect level will be obtain- ed. This is the mode I always adopt, and though it may seem difficult in the detail, yet in practice nothing is more sim!)le. But if the half moon is inside, and the flood-f i 'e has commenced, the trunk must be floated into its bed from the river, and there left until the ebb-tide leaves it aground, and enables us to examine its position ; for it is always wrong to attempt banking a liunk v/hen it is afloat, as it seldom either assumes or retains the position you wish to give it. The breastwork which is to keep the earth from falling off, is now to belaid down, reaching from one stud to another, and supported by them. The first of these j)ieces is short, about ten feel, and lays on the trunk itself, the next is longer, and so on, going up until you have reached a point, a little higher than the base of your bank, when the breastwork is to lie fifteen feet long. The earth is now to be thrown upon the trunk, and care is to be taken that it is spread equally over the whole surface between the inside and outside breastwork, in order that no excess of weight on either end of the trunk should cause it to settle and lose its level. These circumstances, however trivial they may appear, are matters of much moment, for it is impossible that any trunk can remain tight afler its level is lost, however great the attention and care which may have been devoted to the building of it. Earth should be thrown over the trunk, so as to raise it much higher than the adjoining portions of the bank, as it will settle more than one unaccustomed to see it can imagine. The half moon ought to remain for several days around the trunk, in order that the new and fresh earth which has been thrown upon il, may unite with the old bank and bectmie firm before it has to bear and resist the force of the tide. When you are satisfied that this union has taken place, then cut tlie half moon away, and by throw- ing the earth composing it on the bank, you are enabled to raise it to a height that defies the high- est tide. I have now, Mr. Editor, concluded all I had to say on the subject of putting down river trunks, and though, to the experienced planter, I may have appeared too minute, yet it is to be kept in mind that my observations are intended for per- sons in their noviciate, and that it was necessary to inform them of the detail even at the risk of be- ing tedious. Trusting that if I have committed any errors, (and no douI)t I have) either in bank- ing the land or putting down tlie trunk, I shall be corrected by some of your intelligent correspond- ents, I will only add, that all which I have stated is the result of my own personal experience and observation, and has been found to meet all of the objects proposed to be accomplished. I remain, dear sir, you obedient servant, Q. E. D. OUSERVATIOXS OX THE INTERCHANGE OF OPI- - NICKS API OXGPLArSTERS GAiM AGR ASS AND HEDGES. From the Southern Agriculturist. Columbia, (S. C) June 29, 1833. Dear Sir, — [f the following desultory obser- vations are likely to do any good, if admitted into your interesting agricultural periodical, you are at liberty to insert them. The present dearth of mat- ter may cause them to be tolerated, and at any rate, they will help to fill up a page or two wlien your stock of original matter is exhausted. But, v,hy should you ever suffer from a scarcity of materials for your journal, in a country w here all are more or less interested in the success of agriculture, and where the planters and flirmers form so intelligent and numerous a portion of the population.'' This would certainly be incredifde were not the fiict of its existence too true and too evident to be doubted. A class of intelligent and generally well educated men, can find no difficulty in expressing in wri- ting, their views and experience on the inexhaus- tible subject of agriculture, with which are con- nected more or less closely an innumerable variety of subjects in which the whole communily, but particularly themselves are vitally interested. The object of Agricultural Societies is to afford their members opportunities of meeting together, and discussing all those matters which concern es- sentially their success and the welfare of the whole. That of agricultural publications, journals, &c. must necessarily be that of diffusing more exten- sively the particulars of their experience, practices and improvements ; thereby furnishing a mass of knowledge by which the w hole community is ne- cessarily benefitted, and they themselves (the plan- ters and farmers) more directly and particularly so. Their daily avocation, and the distance at which the)' live from one another, makes it impracticable for them to meet and discuss their interest as fre- quently as v.oiiki be desirable and beneficial ; but an interchange of their views, through the medium of a public journal, is certainly the next best, if not the very best mode of communicating with each other ;'and, indeed, under their circumstan- FARMERS' REGISTER— DEEP PLOUGHING, OYSTER SHELL LIME &c 239 ces, it is the only practical mode in which it can be done to any advantage ; for private correspond- ence is too circumscribed to have any but a very partial effect. Although it is very desirable to have very -well written essays on the various branches of the science and art of agriculture, the less labored, either in st}'le or matter, the plain statements of matters of fact or of speculation, tliat may be supposed to takephicc when two neighbors meet and discourse on their business, is probably likely to do as much, if not more, than highly po- lished and learned discussions of the highly gii'ted scientific men. A plain colloquial style is intelli- gible to all, and is in ordinary cases perfectly suf- ficient to communicate to the agricultural public, the improvement, discoveries or beneficial prac- tices in which they all feel an interest. If a far- mer, for example, has made the discovery of a new- plant which promises advantages, the plain state- ment of the fact, written just in such a way as he would relate it to one of his neighbors, is probably the best and most extensively beneficial mode of doing it. Take the following instance : Mr. Wil- liam Ellison, of Fairfield district, discovered some time since, that a grass much celebrated in Mexi- co and other places, for its productiveness and its nutritive qualities, together with the facility with which it can be cultivated, grew spontaneously on his plantation and its v4&inity. He communica- ted the fact to the public through the Southern Ag- riculturist, distributed some of the seeds among his acquaintances, and though it is now only a little more than one year since he imparled his discove- fy, several persons have already become so fully satisfied of the great benefit that will result fiom the culture of this grass, that they are now mak- ing arrangements to procure seed of it that they may cultivate it extensively. This grass called commonly " Gama Grass," (in botany Trlpsacmn 7n()nostachyon^ is likely soon to wash away the foul blot on our industry which has hitherto made it necessary that we should procure hay from the noi'lh to feed our horses ! May not this also help us in our exertions to raise in our own state, our butter and cheese, our beef ami pork, as also horses and mules, if not for exportation, at least to pre- vent thereafter the importations of these expensive articles. Our soil and climate are yjerfectly ade- quate to the abtmdiint production of all these in- dispensable articles, it is only required that we set our minds to the task ?ind persevere in it. I heard, last spring, that the canes, after having seeded last fall, had died and left many of the rite- lield's bank's quite unprotected. They will in due time come up again ; but it seams to me, that no plant is better calculated to protect the rice-field banks than the gama grass. This suggestion ought to cause some experiments to l)e made, the result of which is most likely to terminate in incalcula- ble advantages. The roots of this grass are very large and deep in the ground, and if three rows of it were planted on a large bank, one on the top, and one on each side, it would form such a solid mass that no freshets could affect it. The banks would also thereby be most beneficially occupied, and the fodder made from .them be m.ore than suf- ficient for all the wants of the planter, be they nev- er so numerous. It would certainly be most gra- tifying to see the plantation-boats bring to the Charleston market, a full supply of blades and gama grass fodder, instead of those of northern hay. That this grass makes excellent hay or fodder, I can amply testify from a small experiment which ! am making, and which has induced me to plant it as extensively as I possibly can. My experi- ment is in high and very sandy land, and it is now six or seven feet high. A part of it I have cut twice, and is ready for a third cutting this sea.son. It grows also, as I am imformed, still better on moist land. Here then, Mr. Editor, is a perennial grass pro- ducing the most abundant crops of any grass ever heard of, suited to every soil and situation. Can any thin"; be more accommodating. It grows ad- mirably ni sv/ampy land, and in dry soils, it stands drought better than any plant I ever saw, and grows so rapidly as to admit of being cut five or six times every season. It seems to me, sir, that it only depends upon us to render our country a land of abundance, replete with the greatest plen- ty of the good things of this world, together with peace and contentment. It only requires a little attention and industry to set tiiat state of prospe- rity a growing ; tor it will grow with our exer- tions, though tlicse need be only moderate. I was much pleased, sir, to see in one of your latenumbers, the suggestions of Dr. Joseph John- son, relative to the enclosing of our fields with hedg- es, instead of the detestalde and expensive worm- fence in general use in this country. We have, most undoubtedly, many native shrubs suitable to this purpose, besides, several exotic ones that are as thrifty here as they can possibly he any where in the world. Of these, I know none superior to the " Mespilus Pyracantha," (" Burning-bush," " Evergreea-thorn,"') &c. It has the great ad- vantage of being always full at the bottom, at least my experience of twenty years satisfies me of this, that it never becomes naked at bottom, as most other large shrubs and trees ; also its being an evergreen, is an advantage, its thorns are strong, long, and sharp, and it is with all, of a rapid growth. Its lower branches being horizontal, take root very readily by being covere-d with a little earth in the spring. This circumstance renders it unnecessary to plant it for a hedge closer than betv.een two and three feet apart. Besides this, when one has a few rods of such a hedge, he may rapidly increase it by making layers of part of the low horizontal branches, by putting a little earth on them in the spring, and the next winter they will have fine roots and may be transplanted to form another hedge, at least as long as that from which it is taken ; thus, in a few years, an extensive plantation may be entirely fenced with a beauti- ful, durable, and efTective live-fence. I am, dear sir, your obedient servant, n. iierbemokt. On Deep Ploiigliing-, OYSTKR-SIIELL LIMK; TH E MANAGEMENT AND APPLICATION OF VEGETABLE AN n ANIMAL, MANURES. — By John Hare Powell, Esq. — Powclton. From the Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Asricultural Societv. I have reclaimed, by oyster shell lime and deep ploughing, a fiu'm, made sterile by a series of the most exhausting crops, which the cupidity or folly of bad tenants could suggest. I am not ignorant of the objections which have been often brought, and not less ingeniously supported, against break- ing the " pan," and reversing the sub-soil ; but I 240 FARMERS' REGISTER— DEEP PLOUGHING, OYSTER SHELL LIME &c. have seen few instances, where uUimate success has nut attenJeJ deep ploughin;^, in a judicious course of niana^ement, except on arid sands. I have turned up suh-soiis, of dilferent hues, mixed Avilh sulistances, vuryinj^^ from tenacious chiy, to loose gravel, or sparkling sand, and have found, that those who condemned my " burying fertile XTiouhl beneath sterile clay," confess, that at the end of five years, I obtain great crops, by means of deep and fine tilth, from a chestnut ridgo, and gravel bottom, original!)' covered with ban an oak and cedar irees. borne of my friends, who are in the habit of hauling manure to the distance of twelve miles, may imagine, that my proximity to the town, affords a remedy for all the defects of soil. Within twelve years, I have expended but six hundred dollars in the purchase of manure, al- Ihougli during part of the lime, large quantities of hay were iold Irom my farm. Wnere the mould was five inches deep, I ploughed ten in the au- tumn— apj)lied caustic oyster shell lime, in quan- tities, equal to eigiity or an hundred bushels per acre, iln the spring, I ploughed six, reversed the sub-soil, and took a v.hite crop. In tiie next au- tumn, I ploughed nearly eight for a winter crop — in the succeeding year, the original depth of ten inches was reached by tlie plough. In some in- stances, for root crops, has been gradually in- creased. This day with Wood's Plougli, Js'o. 2, drawn by four oxen, my land has been plouglied for mangel-wurtzel more than fourteen inches deep. The " caput mortuum" or sub-sod, alter having in the first instance been corrected by the causticity of lime, and the expansion of fiosl — im- proved by the atmosphere, and the calcareous matter which remained, was turned below the depth of an ordinary furrow. The first crop was certainly better than tliat which had preceded it, as the advantages derived from the lime, the larger supply of moisture, secured by the greater capa- city of the loose soil for its deposite, and the in- creased depth of tilth, more than compensated lor the injury, that might be apprehended, from the admixture of small portions of " sour soil." The next crop was nearly as good — the succeeding crops have gradually increased in quantity, weight and value. The ingenious inventor of the sub stratum plough, has adiled much to our means of improvement, in this, as he has done by the ap- plication of his skill to the production of various implements, valuable by their simplicity and cheapness — but whilst I acknowledge the benefit he has conferred, by placing a substitute for deep ploughing within the reach of those, who cannot be tempted to reverse the sub-soil, I cannot avoid thinking, that if the sub-soil in all cases be delete- rious to vegetation when brpught to the surface — when meliorated by the chemical act. on of lime — by the expansion of frost — by exposure to the influ- ences of heat and light — by the operation of various agents and manures, employed for the mechanical sejjaration of its particles, or the supply of its de- ficiences, it must, in most cases, be injurious to the tender radicles, which have been led to a " caput mortuum ;" whither they never could have been seduced, but by the attractions of water, to vege- tate, for a time — soon after to die, and disease or debilitate the plant. I hav e never had apprehension of the loss of ani- mal manure by sinking, as its component parts are generally so insoluble in water, as to cause them to be left by filtration sufficiently near to tiie surface for all our purposes : but I have had many motives to guard against its escape by eva- poration, and tiierefbre invariably deposite it deep- ly, and generally in its freshest slate, beneath the surface of the land. My experience during near- ly twenty years has taught me that in (his climatey ivhere the exhalations of the sun during one season, the influence of wind— the effects of melting snow, and torrents of rain, during another, upon a sur- face made impervious I)y frost almost to the edge of an axe, top dressing, except when principally composed of calcareous matter, sliould seldom be apj)lietl. Old pastures remarkable for the excel- lence of their herbage, or grass lands within the reach of large towns, may be profitably enriched by the application of animal manure to the surface in the spring, when the soil is open, and the grass by pushing forth its leaves, soon aftbrds some pro- tection, from the sun, whilst they imbibe to a cer- tain extent, the fertilizing principle, passing off in a gaseous form. The expedients which the dearness of land, and the cheapness of labor, have coerced certain Euro- peans to adopt, cannot for ages become profitable, where the farmer tills generally his own soil; and the lal oier is paid, and protected, as being worthy of regard, and the wages of his toil. Compost heaps, in certain situations, may be advantageous- ly formed. In very few would they repay the cost of chopping, turning, and scientific commix- ing, without noticing the loss, in this climate, at each operation, of animal matter, by the escape of its volatile parts — not the least essential of which it is forme;). I am satisfied, that all animal ma- nures should, if practicable, be applied in their freshest state — that where this cannot be done, they should be covered with earth, and exposed in the fold yard, to the treading of beasts, in order that the mass may be made compact — the air be excluded — and consequently, decomposition re- tarded, until its influence shall be directly applied, to stimulate plants, and enrich the soil. The curious sheds, ingenious stercoraries, and mellow compost " pies," of which prints are given, and on which long essays have been written, I have been convinced, are adapted neither to the climate of Pennsy 1 vania, nor to our purses nor plans. I should be unwdling to shake off some of the ])rejudices, which we have imbibed, with our mother tongue : but although I do not object to cut a heavy cloth coat in an August day, after a foreign winter fashion, I am not prepared to re- main a colonist in thinking, that we cannot man- age our farms, without European precedent or rule. If any man were to cultivate a large farm in this state, after the most approved scientific mode, which the agricultural doctors would have us adopt, he might expect to have an empty barn, and ere long a light pocket. Science is essential to the agricrfltural art — che- mistry aids it at every turn, — cooking is a chemi- cal process; yet I should be unwilling to be fed, with soup from the laboratory of the great Davy himself, unless he had been practised in seasoning his broth — even if with the aid of the whole col- lege of physicians, it were scientifically com- pounded, as Smollett's feast of the ancients and served in classic vases of gold. I am, very obe- diently, yours, &c. JOHN HARE POWELL. To the' President of the Pcnn. ^gri. So. FARMERS' REGISTER— GAM A GRASS. 241 From the Fayetteville Observer. Gania Grass* Sampson County, N. C. July 20, 1833. Mr. Hale: When we were together, a short time since, I promised to send you some account and description of the Gama grass, with the result of such experiments as I had made with it. The first notice I saw of this grass, was by Dr. Hardeman, of Missouri ; whose account of its won- derful production, and valuable properties, may be found in the 8tli vol. of the American Farmer, page 244. I considered the calculations, he made of results, visionary, and had forgotten it. It, however, attracted the attention of Mr. James Magoffin, of Alabama, who procured some seed, and has, now, been cultivating it several years. The result of his experiments may be seen •in the 13th vol. of the American Farmer, pages 50, 143, and 215. Also, in the 4th vol. of the South- ern Agriculturist, pages 312 and 475. Further experiments with this grass are detail- ed by Mr. William Ellison, in the 4th vol. of the Southern Agriculturist, page 404, and the 5tli vol. of the same work page 5. To these several communications, I would refer such of your read- ers as have those works, for a lietter and more particular description of the grass, than I can give them. [N. B. Such farmers as can afford to })ay the cost of the American Farmer and Southern Agriculturist, and neglect to subscribe for them, or one of (hem, do not deserve the benefit of any improvement or discovery in agriculture.] The combined results of the experiments of these gentlemen shew, that the quantity of hay which this grass yields, is far greater than any heretofore tried. That the quality of the hay is equal to any other ; and that, both when green, and when cured, it is greedily eaten by stock of all kinds. Mr. Magoffin informs us, he has actu- ally made at the rate of 90 tons of green hay per acre in one year — equal to between 20 and 30 tons of cured hay. Dr. Hardeman states, that a sin- gle root, covering a circle, the diameter of which was two feet, yielded at one cutting 52 lbs. of green hay, which when dried weighed 20 lbs. : and consequently, that an acre of ground, filled with roots equally productive, would yield more than 270 tons of hay. However exorbitant these accounts may appear at first, the high standing of these gentlemen leave no room to doubt their ac- curacy. My own experiments induce me to be- lieve, that under circumstances, in all regards favorable, they may be realized. Of the immense value of this grass, to us, in a hot climate, and on a sandy soil, no doubt can exist. I have ascertained the following facts, with cer- tainty. That it grows spontaneously and luxuri- antly, in our country, on alluvial bottom, and rot- ten limestone lands. I have planted it in a poor sandy loam on a clay foundation, (such as is the general quality of the stiff pine lands of our country,) and on a sand hill, originally as bar- ren, and as arid, as the deserts of Arabia. — These soils, well manured, produce it abundantly. Even the long drourfit of 1832 (which, with me, continued from 23d May to 1st August, with the exception of one slight rain on the 9th of July) did not materially affect its growth. It may be cut as early as the 1st of May, and the cutting re- VoL. 1—31 peated every thirty days, until frost. It ought to be planted in drills three feet apart, and two feet space between the roots. An acre will then con- tain 7,350 roots. A single root, of the second year's growth, (on the dry sand hill,) at three cuttings, has this year already yielded 7| lbs. of green hay, and will without doubt yield at least as much more before frost. At that rate, an acre of jourc sand hill, well manured, would yield fifty five tons of green hay, equal to about eighteen tons of cured hay, of a quality as good as the best blade fodder. In January last, I drilled some seed, in drills two feet apart, with seed dropped at intervals of six inches, intended for transplanting next fall. The whole ground is now covered with a mass of grass 2^ feet high. On the 10th of this month I cut and weighed the product of one drill thirty five feet long. It yielded 25 lbs. of green hay, which, Avhen cured, produced 8 lbs. of delightful forage. At this rate, an acre would yield 15,750 lbs. of green hay at one cutting. It may yet be cut three times more, and consequently, the product would be 63,000 lbs. of green hay, from seed planted in January last. The product of old roots is from two to three fold. These seeds are planted on pine land, with a poor sandy loam on the surface, with a clay foundation — ivell manur- ed. I have not made any experiment with this grass, on any other soils than those above specifi- ed, but I know, it grows iiiuch more luxuriantly on alluvial bottom, and rotten limestone lands. Mr. Magoffin is certainly mistaken, when he supposes this grass is found indigenous, only, in the western prairies. He furnished me with a few seeds of his own raising. I also procured some from Mr. Ellison of South Carolina, which grew in Fairfield District, and some from Gen. Owen, which grew spontaneously on his planta- tion in Bladen county, in this state, on the alluvial soil of the Cape Fear.* They are all planted near each other ; and are unquestionably, the same species of grass. There is not the least difference between that found in this state, and that from South Carolina. That sent me by Mr. Magoffin, from Alabama, is a little different in color, being of a paler hue, and of a little finer texture. This grass is, without doubt, the " Tripsacum" of botanists. In Elliott's Botany of South Caro- lina and Georgia, vol. 2d, page 522, two varieties are described. " 1st. Dactyloides. — Root perennial. — Stem 4 to 5 feet long. — Leaves large, 3 feet long, 1^ mch wide. — Flowers, in terminal spikes. — Spikes nu- merous.— Veiy rare — have only seen it growing on the margin of the Ogeechee river. — Flowers from May to July." " 2d. Monostachyon. — Root, perennial, — Stem, 3 to 5 feet long. — Leaves 1 to 3 feet long, 1 inch wide. — Spike, solitary. — Flowers in terminal spikes. — Grows abundantly on the Sea islands, (particularly on Paris island,) and along the mar- gin of the salt water. — Flowers from August to October." * A well known writer in the Newbern Spectator of the 19th instant, (H. B. C.) states that during the last year he found the Gama grass on the shore of the iN^euse river, and that a gentleman in Florida assured him that he had found it in that territory. — [Ed. of the Observer. 242 FARMERS' REGISTER— SILK— WHEAT AND INDIAN CORN, For any practical purpose, there is no difference between these two varieties. — They are found growing together. The following characteristics will render tliis grass obvious to common observers : It grows in tufts or bunches, measuring about two teet across and three in height ; which tufts are composed of numerous branches, springing from a common root, which is tuberous in its form for about three inches, and terminates in many small, but strong radicles. These branches, in their origin, form the common root, and have a peculiar arrangement ; being produced from two opposite sides of the tuberous portion only, and departing from it at an angle in opposite direc- tions, gives to this part of the plant a tlat shape. The leaves which (previous to the period of flowering) all issue from the root, are of a deep green color, from two to three feet long, and li-om one to one and a half inch wide, are shaped like a blade of fodder, but are sawed or rough on the edges, particularly towards the point. The leaves commence in a sheath at the bottom, which in- closes and covers the origin of several other in- terior leaves. About the last of May, a number of flower stems shoot up from different parts of the bunch, and grow from three to seven feet high, and terminate in one, two, or more finger-like ap- pendages (called, by botanists, spikes.) The up- per end of the spike, resembles a single spike of the tassel of Indian corn, and has a blossom (fari- na) on it. The seeds, (which vary from three to six on each spike) are imbedded immediately be- low this tassel, and when flowering, each has a sin- gle tag, of a deep purple color, resembling the silk of Indian corn. The tassel drops as soon as it has shed its pollen, and then the seeds ripen, one by one, and drop off. The seeds are imbed- ded on opposite sides of the stem, and attached to- gether, after the manner of the rattles of a rattle- snake. The flower stem is jointed and clothed with leaves, much shorter than those which proceed from the root, the sheaths of which embrace the stem, to within a short space of the next joint. It is channelled on alternate sides like a stalk of corn. When full grown, it puts out branches at nearly every joint, which terminate and pro- duce seeds like the main stem. I have been thus particular in my description, to enable persons to search out this grass. I am satisfied it will be the source of mucli wealth and comfort, in our pine country particularly. It is certainly the spontaneous product of our own state. I know it grows in New Hanover, Brunswick and Bladen counties, and have been informed it is found in Craven and in Orange, and may, proba- bly, on any of our alluvial bottoms. Now is the time to search for it. It is in bloom and more readily identified, by the pecu- liarity of the seed. When not in bloom, it very much resembles some otiier grasses which are dif- ferent in their nature, and not so valuable. I might add much more regarding it, but again re- fer your readers to the essays above referred to. Very respecfuUy, yours, wm. b. meares. Silk i^laiiiifactwre. From the Boston Mercantile Journal. One of the most gratifying exhibitions we ever witnessed is that of the silk worm in all its stages, with the mulberry leaves, eggs, cocoons, chrysa- lis, miller, &c. together with a complete domestic process of manufacture, which may be seen at the Agricultural Warehouse, North Market street, Boston. The machine which is there in motion was invented last winter by Mr. Adam Brooks, of Scituate, Massachusetts, and a patent of it, which we have seen, was issued on the late 29th June. It is an improvement, as it seems to us, of vast importance; for unlike the Piedmontese wheel, heretofore chiefly used, m hich only per- formed the reeling process, it combines the reeling and ttoisting J and the saving in labor is such in consequence, that one hundred and fifty skeins can be made in a day by one woman and a little girl to turn this improved wheel, as easily as forty can by the old. — This we learn from those who have tried both. One of the new machines is used in Connecticut, and another in New York, besides those hi the family of the ingenious inventor, who now devote their time in a great measure to this business. Mr. B. is one of the Society of Friends. His wife, who superintends the wheel, and has paid some attention to silk making for several years, had made frequent complaints of the labor lost by the old machine. Her husband doubted the prac- ticability of amending it, and told her so in plain terms ; but went to thinking, it seems, and in about three weeks produced this capital improve- ment. Mrs. B. says it was formerly a very hard days work to make thirty skeins : she can now make one hundred in ordinary hours. ON RAISING GOOD CROPS OF WHEAT AKD INDIAN CORN. From the Cohimbia Sentinel. The introduction of gypsum or plaster to aid the germination and growth of clover, has produced nearly as great and desirable a change in farming, as the introduction and use of steam has in the navigation of our streams. Both have been sources of the developement of powers with which we were recently unacquainted, and while the one has fertilized and is fertilizing our fields, the other is adding to our span of life, because it enables us to accomplish more. Strange as it may seem, they are mutual aids ; for w hile the first causes the earth to yield of her abundance, the other gives a quick transit of that abundance to places from whence we are to expect the most ample returns. Gypsum furnishes us the means of bringing land into a high state of cultivation, and producing of a rapid succession of crops which are constantly im- proving. Experience, the guide of the farmer, has long since established the fact, that a good clo- ver ley well turned under, is as sure to give a good crop of either wheat or corn as it is almost possil)le for the farmer to insure, with all the un- certainties that are incident to his occupation, and are likely to lessen his products. The addition of stable manure is not considered essential to insure a crop, and will hardly, on some soils, compensate tiie farmer for the labor and expense of its application where plaster has been freely used. The point I wish to establish is this — that, with suita. le management, a good crop of clover will insure a succeeding one of grain, whatever it may be, if the soil is carefully turned over and the tilth permitted to remain undisturbed, so that it may afford food for the plants that follow. But with FARMERS' REGISTER— CLOVER MANURE FOR WHEAT. ^3 the growing grain neither grass nor weeds must interfere, and rob the earth of the sustenance which has been prepared with so much expense, labor and care. The crop nmst have tlie whole of" it ; and to permit either grass or weeds to grow is evidence of bad farming and consequently bad policy. The best fields of wheat, and there are many of them, which are now growing in this vicinity, have been prepared in the manner before stated, and their promising appearance is abun- dant evidence that the course which has been j)ur- sued is a correct one. It is but lately that it has been adopted; and I have often been forcibly struck with the very perceptible improvement, not only in the quantity raised, but in the quality which has followed the practice. It is demonstra- tive proof that we have become better acquainted with the appetences of the plant, and furnish bet- ter supplies of the food it requires for its growth. Another fact I have repeatedly noticed and have frequently seen most strikingly exemplified ; and that is, that once ploughing of a clover sod is bet- ter than oftener. I have this year two lots by the side of each other — the soil is the same — both were in clover last year and pastured — one was only once ploughed, the otiier twice, and both put down to wheat. The difference now in the appearance of them is nearly one half in favor of the lot ploughed once. The same fact, under exactly similar circumstances, occurred to me last year. I was aware before that ploughing once was bet- ter than oftener, but I thought I had particular reasons for departing from the rule — the result however was the same. The observant farmers in this section of country, guided by experience, endeavor as much as possible to conform to this rule. But it is indispensable to a good crop of wheat that your land should be clear of the couch or quick grass, and likewise blue grass. It is the same with corn ; but then what with ploughing and hoeing between the plants, you have a better opportunity to subdue it. I would ask our farm- ers to point out the best method of destroying quick grass. It is becoming very troublesome, at the same time it is extremely detrimental to the growth of wheat. I will only add that clo- ver, besides insuring a good crop of wheat and corn, is valuable for hay. For draught horses and sheep it is superior to any other, as it keeps them in finer condition. Of this I have an expe- rience of at least fifteen years. But for feeding cattle it is not so profitable as other hay. A. Clover Manure for Wltc.it. From the Hagerstown Torch Light. The wheat crop is the most important of all crops to the farmer. A man who has one hundred acres of cleared land, of common quality ought, to raiseon an average one thousand bushels of mer- chantable wheat, and rye, corn, oats and potatoes sufficient to defray the expenses of carrying on the farming. The wheat crop should always be clear gain. Don't startle at this, farmer. A man who has a farm of one hundred acres of cleared land, can year- ly put forty acres of it in wheat .' and if the land be in order as it should be, and as every farmer may have it, every acre of the forty will give twenty-five bushels, amounting altogether to one thousand bushels. I shall now sliow how land must be farmed, in order to produce in this way. Never break your land before harvest, and stir it after, as is customary with many farmers. Much plough- ing impoverishes land, and is productive of no good effects. Your wheat ground must be heavi- ly set in clover, and broken up after harvest with three horses, when the seed in the clover is ripe. By thus turning clover down after harvest, when the seed is ripe, it will never miss coming up in tlie spring, which is frequently the case wlien sown in the spring with seed. You also save be- tween forty and fifty dollars worth of seed annual- ly, which it would take to sow your ground. When the clover is ploughed down after harvest, be- fore you seed the field, harrow it lightly the way you have ploughed it, in order to level the ground, and prevent seed from rolling between the furrows, and coming up in rows. Never plough your seed in with sliovels, nor harrow it across the ploughing, when you have turned down clover after harvest, lest you raise the clover, but always harrow it in by twice harrowing with light harrows the way you have broken up your ground. Many farmers have ploughed dcwn clover once, and finding that the crop was not bettered by it, but injured as they believcd,havenever attempted it again. This is almost invariably the case the first time clover is ploughed down after harvest, especially if the fall be dry and the v/inter frigid and close. In turning clover down you must necessarily plough the ground deep, and tlie first time you turn up the clay, which being unmixed with manure of any sort on the top, is in a bad slate to sow wheat on. The wheat alter some time will sprout and come up, but will look yellow and very spindling. Its roots after some time v.ill get down among the un- rotted clover, and there will choke, and for want of moisture a great deal of wheat will dwindle away and die. The unrotted clover below will keep the ground wet and springy, so that the frost will injure the wheat not a liltle. But when the clover is twice ploughed down, the bad effects to the wheat crop arising from unrotted clover are not experienced. You then turn up the clover from below, which was ploughed down before, and which is a manure on the top. The seed sown on it now springs up directly, and before winter sets in has taken deep root. The clover now turned down rots very soon, in consequence of the rotten clover turn- ed up, v/hich as manure always keeps the ground moist, however dry the fall. You may now goon farming in this way : every time you turn up a coat of clover turn down one, and your wheat crop will never fail, until your land becomes so rich that you will have to reduce it with corn, I was pleased \\ ith the above suggestion, and I think it worthy the consideration of the fiirmer. We all know the fertilizing properties of clover, and that when mixed with the soil it is extremely con- genial to the growth of wheat and corn. A good coat of it well ploughed in, is better calculated to give an ample yield than a covering of stable yard manure. Its large, rank and thick growth is like- wise extremely beneficial to a succeeding crop in another point of view. It occupies the whole sur- face of tlie ground, and prevents the grasses and weeds from growing, so that clover well turned in leaves the ground clear and unoccupied by the roots of other plants which interfere with the growth of wheat. In this respect wheat is a remarkable 244 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANURE— GOLD— HORSE RAKES. plant ; it will not thrive intermixed with any thing else ; it must occupy the ground alone. But whe- ther ripe clover ploughed in would seed the ground so as to give a succeeding crop of it, 1 will not un- dertake to give an opinion. — [^Columbia Sentinel. A. Manure is Wealth. From the New York Farmer. In our intercourse with some of the farmers re- siding within forty or fifty miles from New York, on Long Island, we have been surprised at the in- stances related to us of the profitableness of farm- ing. Some farmers, known to have labored and toiled hard, have continued yearly to fall in arrears until they have commenced buying manure. Fif- ty-six cents are given per carman load at tlie land- ing, for the apparently worthless dirt swept from the street. This applied at the rate of twenty loads produces Avealth. The very farmers who could not obtain a living by using only manure made on their farms, have, in a very few years, not only freed their farms from incumbrances, but purclias- ed others in addition, and are now, from the year- ly profits of their farms, putting money out at in- terest. If then it is found so profitable to buy ma- nure, and be at the various expenses attending the carting, how very important is it to give special attention to increasing the quantity and improving the quality of that made on the farm. There is no question but that almost every farmer can double the quantity of his domestic or yard manure, with- out scarcely any additional expense. It is thought, too, that at least fifty per cent, of the nutritive pro- perties of yard manure are lost by drenching of rain, excessive fermentations, and injudicious ap- plication to soil. The more we consider this sub- ject the greater does it become in importance, and justly regarded as the primary object in farming. Gold Mines in Virginia. From the Richmond Whig. We hear almost every week, of new discoveries of gold in the gold region of Virginia — (which as far as ascertained, commencing in the neighbor- hood of the Rappahannock in the county of Spott- sylvania, trends with the mountains from N. E. to S. W., touching the counties of Spoltsylvania, Louisa, Fluvanna and Goochland, on the north side of James River, crosses James River near the point of Fork and enters Buckingham, and passes on through North Carolina to the Cherokee lands in Georgia) and the letter below adds to the number. Many of the veins are extremely rich, and the gold of exceeding purity. The ore is found on or near the surface and the preparations for collecting it are so little expensive, as to have induced numbers of individuals to engage in the search. Some pro- bably do a bad business, but many have made and are making, considerable sums. One gentleman of Goochland, we learn, made ^110 in one day, from 20 hands, the mines he worked being situa- ted in Louisa, and his average profits were thus far not much behind that average. One of the Edi- tors of this paper last year narrowly missed mak- ing his fortune by a speculation in gold land. A tract of land in Goochland, the gold on which Avas reported to have been exhausted, was sold for SlllO, being about the actual value of the soil. The person referred to, had been informed of the fact that there was an immense mine on the land, with the existence of which, the owner was unac- quainted ; but from distrust of his informant, and the fear of being laughed at, he let the opjwrtuni- ty escape, and the land fell into other hands. Af- ter passing through several hands, it finally fell into those of a New York Company , from whom we understand it cannot be purchased for several hun- dreds of thousands ! We would be obliged to any scientific friend, who would take the trouble to furnish us a geolo- gical description of that portion of Virginia gene- rally known as the gold region. GOLD IN BUCKINGHAM. Buckingham county, July 30th, 1833. To the Editors of the Whig. Sirs, — Mr. Thomas Morton & Co., digging on the west fork of Hunt's Creek, about two miles north west of Buckingham Church, are getting frequently four or five dollars per day, to the hand. One day they obtained eighty penny weights, va- lued at 95 cents per dwt., or about 7 or 8 dollars to each hand employ etl in surface gold. A large quan- tity of ore has also been dug up out of a pit adja- cent to the branch that the surface gold has been obtained from. One man (engaged in mining,) supposes this ore worth 8 or 10 thousand dollars, or 7 or 8 dollars to the bushel. A mill will be erected to convert it to dust, for the purpose of be- ing washed. John Mosely & Co., have very late- ly commenced washing for surface gold, about 300 yards south of Morton & Co., on tlie land of Ste- phen Guerrant. A few days ago, they with 8 hands, obtained 16 penny weights, or $1,75 cts. to each hand in one day. The number of hands was so small that the washer was not constantly employ- ed during the day. Yours, respectfully, DANIEL Gl ERRANT, JR. Hoi'sse Rake. From the CoUinihia Ssi tinel. In my last communication I spoke incidentally of the usefulness of the horse rake, as an instru- ment well adapted to the purpose of gleaning wheat fields. What I have farther to say of this instru- ment, is to enlarge upon the use for which it was specially constructed — that is, for the raking of hay ; it being a substitute for the hand rake. Al- though the horse rake has been in partial use here for four or five years, and is extremely well adapt- ed to the purpose for which it was intended, I have often been surprised that it is still so little used by farmers. I can only impute this to the want of knowledge of the excellent manner in which it per- forms its functions, and to the former slow process that information upon every important branch of agriculture becomes disseminated. There is no way of doing this so speedily as through the news- papers, and many a useful instrument is neglected because farmers do not publicly communicate what might be extremely useful to their own profession. I venture to say to those who do not know the uses of the horse rake, that, if through this paper they only obtain the information that there is such an instrument, and are thus induced to purchase it— if that is the only benefit they obtain for one year's subscription to it, they are amply repaid for the out- lay both for the rake and the paper. I speak of the patent revolving hay rake. The mode of using it, is to attach a horse to it, and the rake foJlowing, FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTIVATION OF RYE. 245 collects the hay the length of the instrument, which is about ten feet. The horse docs not stop to unload or disengage it from the hay, hut it makes a half evolution and jjasses over the hay thus gathered. It will collect it in a much quicker manner than the hand rake, and do the work quite as well. Whenever my hay is fit to house, I start the rake immediately before the hay carts, and one man and horse will'gather it much faster than two carts and five or six men can convey it from the field, even if the barn is in the centre of it. To say that it is worth as much as the labor of one man, which is equal to a dollar a day, is not giving it credit enough : it does more than this. For besides what it saves in the mere labor by enabling you to gather your hay in a short time, you may by despatch in some measure avoid showers, and have the benefit of a long day of sunshine. — For large farmers who have clean fields, it is particularly useful ; and those who have not yet obtained a rake cannot do better than to purchase one at once, as now is the season for using it, and in the labor and time saved, they will be amply and immediately rewarded. Farmers upon subjects of agricultural improve- ment, are slow of belief; and perhaps this is right, as it prevents imposition. But at the same time we must not permit ourselves to be positive losers, because we do not choose to believe in modern im- provement. If we are at all attentive to what pass- es around us, we must be satisfied that it is so, and our observation will tell us that there is room for yet a great deal more. We have only to look back and see what improvements have been made in ag- ricultural instruments within the last thirty years. For instance, in harvesting: the instrument first used was the sickle — then a Dutch instrument call- ed the S'eight — then the half cradle — and lastly the cradle. See what improvements in the con- struction of ploughs, to lessen tlie draught, whilst they perform the work more perfectly : — In wagons single and double, for it is not many years since the wood-shod sleigh was used here to bring in the harvest. I have seen this in my time, and I do not look very far back. The first wagons made were shod with wood, instead of iron. The Turks still use a very rude plough ; it being nothing more than a part of the body of a tree, shaped like a plough, with a limb left behind for a handle, and a cow and an ass yoked for drawing it, and a woman commonly attends as a driver. This we would call primitive farming. It is so. W ith them farm- ing has not advanced in the lapse of years. They are not susceptible to improvements, as they are wedded to old customs, and think God would be angry were they to farm better than their ances- tors. I am sorry to say a few about us have some such notions. Let us cast them aside — march up to the intelligence of the age, and throw mind as well as body into active employment. We were not made like the ox and the horse, merely for bo- dily labor. Let the head assist the hands, and our employment will be both more pleasant and pro- fitable, A. On the Cultivation of Rye, From ihe New York Farmer. Haverhill, Sept. 22, 1832. To the Trustees of the Essex Jlgricultural Society : Gentlemen, — Having for some years past been more than commonly successful in raising large crops of winter rye by a process of cultivation, which I believe, is entirely new, I have been in- duced, by llie suggestion of some gentlemen whose judgment I very much respect, to submit for your consideration a statement of the mode of culture, with the produce. And that the success of the ex- periment this season may not appear to be altogeth- er accidental, it will, perhaps, be as well to com- municate the result of the process for the three or four previous years. The land on which the experiment has been con- ducted is situated on the Merrimack, about a mile and a half east of Haverhill bridge ; and came in- to possession of my father in 1827. The soil is a sand, approaching to loam as it recedes from the river. Perhaps the term plain land (by which it usually passes) will better convey an idea of the quality of the soil. It is altogether too light for grass. The crops we find most profitable to cul- tivate on it are winter rye, Indian corn, potatoes, and to some extent turnips. Oats might probably be raised to advantage, were it not that the land is completely filled with the weed commonly called charlick, which renders it entirely unfit for any spring crop, excepting such as can be hoed. The crops of rye, on the neighboring soil of the same nature, vary I believe, from seven or eight to twelve or thirteen bushels per acre, according to the cultivation, and their approximation to the riv- er. AV'e usually raise on land from thirteen to thirty bushels of Indian corn per acre. Potatoes are very good in quality, but the quantity is quite small; not sufficient to be profitable, were it not that the land is very easily cultivated. In the summer of 1827, we sowed three bushels of winter rye near the river, on about two acres of land which produced twenty-eight bushels. In 1828, we sowed four bushels on four acres of land running the whole extent of the plain from the river. Tliis piece was sowed in the spring with oats; but they were completely smothered with charlick, and about the middle of June, the whole crop was mowed to prevent the charlick seed- ing. By about the middle of August, a second crop of charlick having covered the land, it was ploughed very carefully, in order completely to bury the charlick ; and then suffered to remain un^ til the 15th of September, when we began sowing the rye in the following manner : A strip of land about twelve yards wide was ploughed very even- ly, to prevent deep gutters between the furrows, and the seed immediately sown upon the furrow and harrowed in. Then another strip of the same width, and so on until the whole was finished. We found the oat stubble and charlick entirely rotted, and the land appeared as if it had been well ma- nured, though none had been applied to this part since it had been in our possession. The rye sprung very quick and vigorously, having evidently de- rived great benefit trom being sown and sprouted before the moisture, supplied by the decaying ve- getable matter in the soil had evaporated to any considerable extent. This crop produced one hun- dred and thirty-three bushels. In 1829, the charlick was suffered to grow on the land appropriated to rye, until it had attained its growth and was in full blossom. The land was then ploughed very carefully, and the charlick completely covered in. In a short time a second crop appeared more vigorous than the first. This also was allowed to attain its growth, and then 246 FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGY. plouf^hed in as before. A third crop soon aj)pear- ed, which of course was destroyed, when the land was again ploughed for sowing about the middle of September. This piece of land was a parallel strip running from the river, and containing two acres. Two bushels of rye were sowed. The crop presented a remarkably promising ap{)earance, and yielded seventy-four and a half bushels. In 1830, the land appropriated to rye included nearly all the lighter part of the soil, and owing to a pressure of business was not attended to as we could have wished. "It was ploughed in the early part of the summer. But harrowing to destroy the weeds was substituted for the second plough- ing. This, and the unusual blight which affected all the grain in this part of the country, led us to anticipate a small crop. It yielded, however, fif- teen bushels to the acre. The land on which the crop of rye was raised the present season had for the three or four previous years been planted with Indian corn : and owing to the extent of our tillage land, we have not been able to apply more than four or five loads of ma- nure to the acre this season. The charlick was suffered to attain its growth as usual ; and on the 18th and 19th of June, it was carefully ploughed in. The second crop was ploughed in on the 6th and 7th of August. On the 14lh and 15th of Sep- tember it w^is sowed in the usual manner, namely, a small strip of land was ploughed, and the seed sown immediately upon the furrow, and then har- rowed in. Then another strip of land was plough- ed, and so on until the whole was completed. One bushel per acre was sowed as usual. The seed was originally obtained from a farmer in this vicinity, and I suppose is similar to that which is generally used. We have never prepared our seed in any manner, but have directed our attention solely to the preparation of the land; and to this we attri- bute our success. Owing to the unusual severity of the winter, the crop was considerably winter killed, but recovered very soon in the spring, ex- cepting in the mid-furrows. There, as the land lies very level, the water settled, and so complete- ly destroyed the rye that they continued bare the whole season. This would of course cause some diminution in the crop: perhaps a bushel or two. The rye was reaped at the usual season, and, as the weather was favorable, inmiediutely put into the barn. The land contained one acre and thir- teen rods, and yielded /«r/i/ six bushels and three pecks. J/ remarkably fine sample. In entering a claim for your premium, I would ask your attention particularly to the process of cultivation. It is I believe entirely new, and ca pable of general application. Sowing the seed inmiediately after the plough ■we consider very advantageous to the crop. The soil being then moist, causes the seed to spring immediately, and gives a forwardness and vigor to the plants which they ever after retain. The process of ploughing in three crops of weeds before the seed is sown, very much enriches the soil. It would be altogether unnecessary to at- tempt to refute the notion, that by such a process nothing more is applied to the soil than was before derived from it. If one could not discover by the light which chemistry has shed upon the subject of agriculture, sufficient reasons for the contrary conclusion, observation, one would think, would be iufficient to conv ince any intelligent man of the fact. And here I would suggest, that I do not consi- der the experiment, as we have conducted it, quite complete. To render it more so, in the first place, in ploughing in the weeds, I would not turn a fur- row alter the dew had evaporated. I have no doubt but that a large portion of that fertilizing quality in the sod, which Qduring the summer months) is continually exhalea from the earth, is by the dew brought again within our reach, and it would be wise to avail ourselves of the opportunity of again burying it in the soil. And in the second place, I would by all means use a heavy roll after each ploughing. It would fill all the cavities left by the plough, and by pressing the soil more close- ly to the weeds, at once hasten their decomposition and very much retard the evaporation from the soil. But the land is not only very much enriched by this process. There is, I conceive, no method by w hich it can be so effectually cleaned. Three times during the season a fresh surface is presented to the atmosphere, and each time, as the decaying vege- table matter increases in the soil, so is the exci- ting cause augmented to make a more vigorous effort. We have in this manner gone over nearly all our land which is infested with charlick, and the diminution of the weeds is quite sufficient to warrant the expectation, that in a few years it may be comparatively eradicated. Very re.=ipectfully, joiiiv keely. The undersigned having assisted in measuring the rye, an accownt of which is given above, here- by certify that the quantity is as there stated, name- ly, forty six bushels and three pecks. JOHN KEELY, THOBIASE. KEELY, SAMUEL THOMPSON. Haverhill, Aug. 1, 1832. I have this day measured a lot of land belonging to Mr. Keely, on which is a crop of rye, and find it to contain one acre and thirteen rods. c. -WHITE, Surveyor. At a meeting of the Trustees of the Essex Ag- ricultural Society, January 1, 1833, the foregoing statement having been read and examined, Voted, That the first premium offered for the cul- tivation of rye be awarded to Mr. Keely. Attest, J. w. PROCTOR, Secretary. Application of Geology ; AS THE BASIS OF THE SCIENCE OF AGRICUL- TURE. By Professor A. Eaton. SOILS. An error of importance had prevailed among geologists, on the subject of the origin of soils, un- til a classification of detritus was established. Cu-^ vier's theory of the earth did much towards the pre- sent improved state of that department of geological knowledge. But Schoulcratt suggested the first thought ever published, on a classification, which is in accordance with the present views of geologists on that subject ; though his nomenclature was different.* Near the same time Conybeare, Buck- land, and others, gave a character to it, which will endure. It seems to be demonstrated, that anti-deluvial detritus (called the tertiary formation) is a depo site, as independent and distinct, as secondary rocks. It cannot be traced immediately to any adjoining rocks. Consequently its character cannot be ex- * See my Index to the Cieology ol' the Northern States, 'id eel. ISJO. FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGY. 247 plained bj' referring; to other strata; unless weadmit the general principle that all deposites, made after the deposition of the lower part of the argil lite, con- sist of fragments of the older rocks. The principle heretofore received then, that soils depend for their constituent characters on under- laying rocks, cannot be received any flxrther than as applied to analluvion. All other kinds of soil have characters as independent as transition or se- condary rocks; and they may be classified now, with as much accuracy. FERTILITY OF SOILS. 1. Fertility of merely earthly soils does not de- pend on their ultimate chemical elements. Pul- verized emery, which is almost pure alumine, will have the same influence upon vegetation as pulve- rized quarts, which is nearly purely silex. Hence the reason that Davy, and other distinguished che- mists have disappointed agriculturists by their analysis; which were founded on such mistaken views. 2. The perfection of earthly soils, without any reference to animal, vegetable, or other adventiti- ous matter, requires the following constituents in due proportion : 1. e of extin- guishing the fire was gone : he had however cut a hole through, and was able to tear off the boards and put out the fire. These shingles, upon exam- ination, were found sound, but they were covered with this mossy growth. A very small spark must liave set it on fire, for upon trial it was found almost as quick to take as gunpowder. Had these shingles been dipped in oil before they were put on the house, I would have been safe from such an accident, not only now but for many years to come. ROBERT R. HARDEN. Maiiageiiieiit of Bees. From the Genesee Farmer. Messrs. Editors, — In common with many others v/hose pursuits and tastes allow them to devote but little attention to scientific or practical agriculture and its sister occupations, I yet take much inter- est in the progress of agricultural improvement and the developements of our rich, and to a con- siderable extent, unappropriated resources, and am desirous as one of a common fraternity to contri- bute any thing in my power to the promotion of this o!)ject. It is this motive that has induced me to mention the following incident which occured in our Western N. Y., on the authority of a gentleman of unquestionable veracity, who was knowing to it, and if you deem it worthy of publication it is at your service for that purpose. A farmer having a large number of bees, had from one of the hives, late in the season, a very small swarm, and not wishing the trouble of nur- sing it himself, told one of his neighbors that if he had a mind to take it and treat it with suflicient care through the winter it would make him a very good swarm in the course of the next summer. His neighbor not having any, and desirous of com- FARMERS' REGISTER-HORSES-INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT. 251 raencing an apiary, took the diminutive liive, and as soon as cold weather set in, he placed it in the common apartment of his log hut, which was con- stantly kept warm, and every day they were fed with molasses, or sugar, spread on wheat bread, which they would come down, as regularly as chickens when called, and eat from his hand, and at the same time they appeared to be continually busy in the hive. As soon as spring opened he set them out doors, and shortly afterwards they sent out a swarm, which was rapidly succeeded by five others, from the parent h.ive, all of which had left the hive before there had been a single swarm from his neighbor's bees, although he had more ikaa for- ty hives. One of these new swarms alterwards swarmed again, which made an increase in a sin- gle summer from one to eight swarms of bees — all in consequence of the trivial attention bestov.ed on them throuirh the winter. BuJJalo,'lOth July, 1833. ON THE DURATION OF VITALITY IX GARDEN SEED. From the Southern Agricultuiist. Rocky Grove, jJbbeviUe District, \ March 19, 1833. $ Dear Sir, — I send you a few extracts from my note book on gardening, which you can use as you think proper. Question — How many years old wiil Carolina grown seeds vegetate in Caroliiia? ^-Inswer — Cabbage, 2 years — not one tiic third year ; two experiments Civie Beans, Musk Melon, Cucumbers, Water Melons, Pumkins, Squashes, Snap Beans, Carrots, Okia, Tomatoes, Turnip, Radish, Onions, Lettuce, Endive, English Peas, Water Cresses, 2 years, do. do. 4 years, not one the fifth year. 4 years, do. do.* 4 years, not tried further. ter ; the old seed sometimes takes fifteen days to vegetate. Respectfully, THOMAS PARKER. 4 years, do. 3 years, do. 2 years, do.f 2 years, do.j 3 years, do. 3 years, do. 5 years, do. 3 years, do. 2 years, do. 3 years, do. 3 years, do. 2 years, do. 2 years, do. I have observed a dilfernce of (en days in sprout- ing, between old and new seed in favor of the lat- * Cucumber seed, five years old, planted in a common garden soil — not one came up — planted in a dung hill, and watered morning and evening, came up perfectly well on the fifth day. f In filling up the cracks of a log-house with clay in this neighborhood, a small bag of snap beans was ac- cidentally enclosed between two logs in the clay. This clay was removed fifteen or twenly years after, when the bag of beans being discovered, they Vv-ere planted by way of experiment, and the greater part of the m vegetated I Three small beds of carrots sowed by way of expe- riment in June. Bed No. 1 , was watered in the even- ings and afforded a fair crop of carrots. Bed No. 2, wa- tered morning and evening — scalded by the sun and destroyed. Bed No. 3, watered morning, noon and liitei'iicil liiiproTeiiieiit OF NORTH CAROLINA. /Jddress of the Committee. To the P eople cf North Carolina. A numerous and respectarde portion of your fellow -citizens, who assembled at this place on the late Anniversary of American Inilependence, to consult on the means of improving the condition of the stale, have directed us to lay liefore you the re- sult of their deliberations. Without pretensions to authority or the wish to obtain it, without parly or sectional views of any sort, and with no influ- ence save that of reason, we claim your attention simply because of our communion of interest with you on a subject of deep and abiding importance, and because of a sincere and hearty zeal to advance the prosperity of our common country. Nor do we deem it too much to hope that, even at this moment, amid the din of political strife and the struggles of contending candidates for your favor, these claims Avill not be disregarded by an intelli- gent and well meaning community. North Carolina is endeared to us by every tie of nature and every obligation of duty. Her ad- vancement in v.'hatever is great and good is inse- parably interwoven with our hopes and wishes, our patriotism and our pride. Keen, therefore, is the mortification, to be obliged to confess that she is falling behind several of the states of this glorious confederacy, in that career of distinction to which all were invited by the bounties of Pro- vidence, the freedom of tlie American Institutions, and the capacity of tlia American People. Forty four years'have passed away since, under the aus- pices of the Federal Constitution, she entered up- on this generous competition. In extent of terri • tory she had then the'advantageof New York and of Pennsylvania. Excluding their principal cities, she was not inferior to either of them in wealth. In free population she nearly equalled Nev^ York, and v,as but a third less than Pennsylvania. Her superiority in extent of territory yet remains, but in 'all other points of comparison how changed is tite scene ! Her free population is now^ to that of Pennsylvania as one to three, and to that of New York "as one to four, while in wealth she bears to each of them but the ratio of one to six. In New York and Pennsylvania, colleges, academies, sci- entiiic and literary institutions are spread through- out tlie land, presenting the opportunities of ac- quiring a finished education to th.ose who have the means to procure this invaluable blessing; while ample provision has been made by law for com- municating necessary instruction to every child in the community, however poor and destitute. In our state, notwithstanding the injunction in our constiiuiion, and except in the erection of the Uni-- versily, and in the incorporation of a few acade- mies either without funds or witli funds not deriv- ed from legislative grant, no public schools have been established ' for the cheap and convenient in- struction of youth.' in Pennsylvania, more than seven hundred miles — in New York, six hundred miles, of canal navigation have been created, while evenmg— these advanced in growth rapidly ahead of ! railways are everywhere in the process of con- No. 1, and were remai-kably large and fine, | slruction, stimulafrng and employing labor, ma- 252 FARMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT. king and diffusing wealth throughout their wide- spread borders. Their seaports are crowded with vessels; their mechanics find constant employment and high wages ; their manufactures are prosecu- ted with still increasing skill ; and their agricul- tjire is beautifying and enriching the soil, at the moment when it gathers the rewards of industry. There, hospitals for the sick and the insane — asy- lums for orphans — institutions for the cure and in- struction of the blind — schools for the deaf and dumb — and other beneficent establishments for the removal and mitigation of human woe, — de- light the eye and elevate the heart of the behold- er— fit offerings of gratitude from a prosperous community to the Father of the human race for His blessings on their exertions, and mute but ex- pressive solicitors for a continuance of His bounty to those who delight in doing good to the children of men. How are all these things in North Caro- lina.^ Fellow-citizens, we do not require your answer, nor do you need information from us. You know how they are — and loe forbear to speak. It is sufficiently mortifying to discover, it were too painful to dwell on, the humiliating contrast. Indeed, did we not hope that this reproach would ere long be removed from amongst us, we should endeavor to bury it in thick night, hide it from the world, and, if possible, forget it ourselves. But we trust that a blessed change is in store for us. We know that there are difficulties, and serious difficulties to be encountered — but we are sure that there are none which may not be subdued by wise counsels and united exertions ; and we are convinced that on You, People of North Caroli- na, it depends, whether the state shall or shall not become all which her warmest friends ought to desire for her. " Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth and subbue it," announces to man the first direct command of his Creator, and a command rich with promised blessings. To subdue the earth, implies effort ; effort would have been un- necessary, had not difficulties been purposely left for man to overcome ; and He who is all-wise and all-good, never would have imposed an obli- gation impossible to be fulfilled, nor have enjoined an act which was not pleasing in his sight. The subjugation of the earth can be effected but by labor — and the steady, judicious, and economical application of labor to this purpose lies at the root of human prosperity. The extraordinary fertili- ty of the Genesee country, like that of the valley of the Mississippi, no doubt attracted to it many citizens from the adjoining states, and many emi- grants from foreign countries, and thereby hasten- ed its settlement and growth. But, taken in the whole, it may well be doubted whether New York or Pennsylvania presented a better natural soil for the labors of the husbandman than was generally to be found in North Carolina ; while, an the mildness of our winters, the higher value of the products of a Southern climate, and the great- er ease with which our earth is tilled, we had on our part decided advantages. But these were compensated, and more than compensated, by two physical blessings, bestowed on them in an emi- nent degree. Each of these had a port of safe and ready access from the ocean, and bold rivers pene- trating far into the interior — possessing thus the means of cheap transportation to a home market, and of easy exportation to foreign ones. Marts were to be found within each state, for all that the industry of its citizens could produce ; and the products of labor were not consumed by the ex- penses of reaching the place of sale. While ad- equate motives where thus furnished to excite agricultural industry, its success gave activity to mercantile adventure and employment to the me- chanical arts. The profit of these built up capital, and capital led to enterprise, to the discovery of new sources of wealth, to the extension of facili- ties in business, to manufactures, to every species of improvement, and to general prosperity. The great wants of our state then are, emphatically, good marts of traffic and the means of cheap trans- portation. Until these can be supplied, our forests teem fo little purpose with the luxuriant and val- uable productions of nature, our alluvial lands pre- sent too feeble attractions to their general suljuga- tion, and many of the mineral treasures with which our earth abounds, must lie undisturbed and even unexplored. Men cannot be well induced to labor for more than they can consume, unless the sur- plus may be conveniently exchanged for the com- modities which refinement has made valuable, or can be stored up in accumulations for the winter of age, or the wants of posterity. While pro- duction is thus kept back, there is neither supply nor demand for commercial capital. The pro- ducts actually made, because of the costs of trans- portation, are of little value, and there is therefore no increase of agricultural capital. Slovenly farming, slender traffic, and a languid circulation, general want of enterprise, inactivity and listless- ness become habitual, and generation succeeds generation with scarcely a perceptible improve- ment in wealth, manners, science, or the arts. If by a sudden dispensation of Providence, the shoals which endanger and impede our maritime navigation were removed, and the various streams whicTi intersect our state were rendered fit for the purposes of conveyance from their very sources, all will admit, that we should spring forward with resistless energy to the consummation of our hopes. The impulse given to business of every sort would be felt in every section of the state, and in every department of industry. Let children indulge in day dreams ; but it is for men to inquire whether they have not the power of supplying the deficien- cies of nature, and of acquiring by their own ex- ertions what, for wise purposes, was originally de- nied. Obstacles surmounted and difficulties sub- dued, as they are the best trials, so they become the noblest triumphs of virtue, intellect and cou- rage. Often the most eminent among men have been trained up to fortitude and wisdom in the school of adversity ; and the most illustrious of na- tions have usually passed through the stages of in- fancy and childhood, struggling for existence, gradually gaining and consolidating their strength, and by severe trials acquiring the qualifications and forming the habits which were to be display- ed in the maturity of manhood : " Heaven grants the gifts, it grants the power to gain." Is the navigation of our rivers obstructed .'' To a con- siderable extent and with no mighty effort, we can remove these obstructions. W here these are not removeable, or the streams are too shallow for boat navigation, or streams are wanting, experi- ence has shewn, that the canal, and still more, the railway, furnish better means of conveyance. As in no country are these more needed, so in none FARMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL iMPROVExMENT. 253 can they be made at less expense. The process of effecting speedy and safe communications with the ocean has already commenced amongst us un- der the happiest auspices. Art in this respect, signally triumphing over nature — dredge boats are removing in hours the slow accumulation of years ; and we announce to you with joy that the day is not distant when our main outlets to the sea will afford ready passage to vessels of sufficient burden for all ordinary commercial purposes. — There is then ample room for exertion, but there is no cause for despondence. We are aware that injudicious attempts, hereto- fore made in the cause of Internal Improvements, have prejudiced many against the renewal of any efforts at improvement. But prejudice is a wretched counsellor, whether it seeks to conceal the selfishness of the sordid and the fears of the timid, or is seen in the apathy of the sluggard, or speaks in the sneers of the scorner. We have at- tempted too many plans at once — we have flittered away our means over too great a space, and have expended much money in many silly schemes. Let us then profit by experience. Let it teach us caution, judgment, and a proper applica- tion of our resources. Let it guard us against the recurrence of former errors, but never let it repress exertion in the cause of duty. Others have, by a well devised and spirited course of In- ternal Improvements, brought incalculable bles- sings on their country. And why may not we.' Are the people of this state, by some irreversible interdict of Providence, disqualified for improving their condition? If so, in what does this incapacity consist.' Do they want mental energy.' Look abroad and see the sons of North Carolina, where- ever a field is presented, contending gallantly in every department of manly excellence for the palm of victory. We have been called an unpre- tending state, and long may it be before a wretched self-conceit shall cause that epithet to be exchang- ed for one less equivocal and far more to be ab- horred. But if it were not a want of pretension — it would be self-degradation, ingratitude to G»d, and treachery to ourselves — to admit any inferi- ority for good or great purposes to the proudest among the members of this L'nion. Do we want the pecuniary ability .' If we were called on to raise at once a large sum of money to be sunk in the ocean, or transmitted to a distant land, it may be conceded that we could, with difficulty com- ply with the requisition, and should severely feel the loss. But it is among the striking effects of this sys- tem to which we invite your attention, that it dis- burses within the community what the communi- ty furnishes, and returns speedily and in abun- dance all which it exacts. From the moment of its commencement, it creates neighborhood mar- kets for labor, materials and provisions, and throws out money into brisk circulation. As it proceeds, it not only contributes by its profits to pay the in- terest on advances, but it extends more and more the sphere of activity; so that, independently of the immense benefits which it promises in the end, it pays in its progress by the excitement which it communicates to industry, and the impulse which it imparts to business of every description. Money thus employed is not sunk nor lost ; but is money put out at compound interest. Such a course of expenditure and restitution is like that of the blood in a young and vigorous body. It gushes forth from the great reservoir, the heart, and is propelled through the arteries to the very extre- mities, enriching and strengthening the entire sys- tem in its course, but is returned by the veins to be again and again sent forth in a round of life- giving circulation. Our very poverty, then, the result as has been seen of unrewarded labor, lan- guid trade and limited production, is the strongest reason which can be urged for engaging zealously in the system. The one vanishes as the other comes forward. True, we must have, or procure, wherewith to begin the experiment. But here there is no real difficulty- If each one amongst you will consent to set apart half of what he can spare without inconvenience to his family ; if he who has not money will be ready to make his ad- vance in timler, food, or work, we shall at once have a capital more than sufficient for the under- taking of every useful enterprise. But the state treasury ought to aid, and if you say so, will aid in their accomplishment. Why has a public revenue been collected, if it is not to be used, and where is the advantage of public credit, if it is not to be employed for the public good ; and where is the service in which either can be more beneficially engaged? Is the character of the state part of the property of every one of its citizens ? Does his heart throb with honest joy when he hears it mentioned with respect, or do his veins tingle with vexation when it is spoken of in the tone of taunt and derision ? Then tell your legislature, who have this holy treasure in their keeping, that in these days, when the spirit of improvement is abroad, and the strife for pre-eminence in the arts of life is carried on with chivalrous emulation, no state has character that advances not in this career. Are the em- ployment of the poor, the encouragement of the industrious, and the comforts of all classes of the community, objects worthy of the care of a pater- nal government? Would you furnish the means to instruct the ignorant, and lay deep the founda- tions of republican government in the education of every free child within your borders, however humble his origin or destitute his condition ? Would you stay the flood of emigration which is sweeping from you by thousands the most adven- turous of your youth, and remove the necessity which bids them abandon the home of their child- hood and the graves of their fathers for some dis- tant land where scope is to be found for exertion, and reward is offered to enterprise? Would you bring the grazier and the miner of the west, and the planter and farmer of the interior, into com- munion with the merchant and mechanic of the seabord, and unite the integral but dissevered parts of North Carolina into one brotherhood of interest, feeling and patriotism? Would you command for her that respected station among the states of this Union she ought to occupy, and assure to her a fair share in all its honors and of all its benefits? These — all these great, and good, and glorious purposes you may accomplish, but you can accomplish them in one way only. Internal Improvement has effected them elsewhere — and can can effect them here. But it is for you to give the impulse. Instruct your representatives to organize, and to prosecute with vigor a liberal system of Internal Improvements. Direct them to cause to be ascertained the best plans for crea- 254 FARMERS' REGISTER— JAMES AND KANAWHA RIVERi^. ting and improving markets, and for facilitating and cheapening transportation, and wiien ascertained, to forward them by a judicious and ciFicient appli- cation of the puldic resources. Chosen by you, and solicitous lor your approbation, tliey carry in- to the legislative halls the spirit by which you are animated, and take from you that tone of vice which is heard in legislative enactments. It may be asked, why has not tlie Convention ventured to recommend some speciiic plan of im- provement.'' Brought together suddenly from va- rious sections of the Slate, and remaining in ses- sion but tln-cc days, had the members deemed themselves competent to make the recommenda- tion, it is very obvious that they wanted the lei- sure tor maturing a plan tit to be laid beibre you. But in fact the great purpose of the Convention has been to awaken you to a sense of the vast im- portance and urgency of the su!)ject, and if possi- ble draw to it your earnest and united attention. If we succeed in rousing you to think seriously, and to comnmne freely on the toj)ics suggested, to strive to obtain and interchange accurate inibrma- tion,and to resolve alter deliberate advisement in favor of internal improvements, speciiic plans may be hereafter much more advantageously de\isetl and arranged. Our propositions tlierelbre, (for in truth they are but propositions,) are laid before you in the form of simple resolutions. With your sanction they may become the principles of state action, without it they are wholly inopera- tive. Examine then, Ave intreat you, witli the candor due to the motives that have prompted them, and the calmness and good sense and re- gard lor the public good which ouglit to determine your judgment upon them. Call together such neighborhooil and county and district meetings as will afford the most convenient opportunities for obtaining explanations, lor interchanging views, for removing dilliculties, and tor forming, anima- ting and ascertaining the public mind. Devise among yourselves such plans of improvement as your peculiar localities require, and apply at once to their execution -the means which through your county courts are already in your hands, or ar- ranged for procuring legislative sanction to them. And when your delegates shall assemble as we have proposed in November next, let tliem tome together deeply imbued with your spirit, thorough- ly apprised of j-our views, zealous and ready to work together in this great concern of the state. Fellow-Citizens: — We owe to you as well as ourselves an explanation. There v.asa diilerence of opinion in the Convention on one of the propo- sitions now before you — on the resolution which declares that " true policj- requires that tiie funds of the state ought in the first instance to be em- ployed exclusively in providing the means of in- ternal transportation, and in creating and improv- ing markets within her limits." vVe shall not trouble you with the arguments which were re- spectively urged by those who supported, and by those who opposed this resolution. We who ad- dress you, did our.selves differ on this j)roposition, but each knows that it was an honest difference of opinion among men, all zealous for tl.e same end, and no one doubts or questions the patriotism of the rest. A majority approved of the resolu- tion, and therefore it is submitted to you — and how- ever you may decide, we are all and each of us ready to support your decision : we go — every man of us goes for North Carolina and the whole of North Carolina. Improvement to be effectual must begin somewhere; but we hope it will reach every where. What gets not the benefit of it to- day, will, we trust, receive it to-morrow, and eve- ry successful experiment facilitates the next. It is our ardent hope and earnest prayer that, whate- ver spot this beneficent spirit shall select as the first scene of its operation, it v/ill not desist from its kindly action, until its immediate as well as its general blessings shall have pervaded every part of the slate. Too long has North Carolina been rent asunder by sectional jealousies and paltry local feuds. If she is ever to prosper, it must be by vigorous, persevering, and united action — by " a strong pull, a long pull, and a pull altogether." For ourselves, we pretend to no exemption from the infirmities of nature, and are conscious that we respectively feel those partialities which bind men to their immediate vicinities. But we infi- nitely prefer the advancement of the state, as a state, to the prosperity of any portion of it; and it is because we do so, and know that we do so, that we hope for your approbation and ask for your concurrence.^ WILLIAM GASTON, Chair'm. G. E. Badgkr, John D. Jonks, John H. Bryan, Cad'r. Jones, Wm. Bovlan, Wm. B. Meares, IsA.\c Croom, Fred'k. Nash, Jos. J. Daniel, John Owen, Louis D. Henry, S. F. Patterson, John Huske, Henry Seawell, W. H. Haywood, Jr. J. Somervell, Jos. A. Hill, Robert Strange. James Iredell, Raleigh, July 20//*, 1833. COMMERCE AND IMPROVE.^IENT OF JAMES AND KANAWHA RIVERS. To the Inhabitants near the proposed line of con- nection between the Tide IVater of James River and the Navigable fVatcrs of the Ohio. Richmond, IGth August, 1833. Fellow- Citizens : — The terms offered by the legislature, at their last session, to the Bank of \'irginia and the Farmers' Bank of Virginia, as in- ducements to subscribe to the James River and Kanawha Company, not h.aving been accepted by both Banks, it is now certain that the great work must fail, unless otiier and more energetic mea- sures be adopted. Under a conviction of this truth, the citizens of Richmond convened on the seventh instant, and have appointed the undersign- ed a committee w ith instructions " to adopt such preliminary measures as they may deem expedi- ent, to invite the attention of the people along the line of improvement to the necessity of prompt and vigorous action, and to endeavor to procure subscriptions to the stock." The committee believe that they cannot better execute this resolution, than by urging you most earnestly to assemble in your respective counties to take this most important subject into your deli- berate consideration, and to apj)oint an agent or agents in each county, to solicit subscriptions, or to adopt such other measures for the attainment of the object, so far as it depends on yourselves, as its magnitude requires and your judgment may dictate. FARMERS' REGISTER— JAMES AND KANAWHxV. RIVERS. 255 The deep stake which Virginia has in internal improvements generally, and more especially in the improvement of this great central route, which must directly benefit so large a portion of her territory, and can alone connect her with the rich and immense regions of the west, must be perceived by all. No Virginian can close his eyes to the humiliating truth that we no longer retain that place among the states of the Union, which we filled at the commencement of our revolutiona- ry struggle; or, to the still more humiliating truth, that not even our present relative impor- tance can be maintained, unless we advance with our neighbors in that course which has aggran- dized, and will continue to aggTandize them, if we remain stationary while tiiey are rapidly mov- ing forward, the distance between us must inevita- bly increase. If we neglect the bounteous gifts of Providence, while others turn them to the best account, the disparity must be greater. Separated or united, our relative inferiority must become daily more perceptible. But these considerations ought to operate equal- ly with every Virginian wherever he may reside. Our purpose is to invite your attention to those which apply almost exclusively to yourselves. The increased facility, cheapness and safety with which your produce may be transported to mar- ket— the enhanced price of that produce, in conse- quence of the enlargement of that market and of its purchasing capital — the vast number of arti- cles now wasted, which, in this cliange of circum- stances, will become saleable, are truths too obvi- ous to escape your notice. Places of deposite must multiply and grow into respectable villages, and the number of travellers between the west and the east be incalculably increased. The benefits re- sulting from these circumstances will be diilused through the country. A wilderness may be cov- ered by an industrious, thriving population, and forests, over which wild beasts now roam, may be cultivated by man. These flattering prospecCs are not imaginary. They have been realized, to a greater or less extent, wherever internal im- provements have been made. The same causes will continue to produce the same effects. These advantages will be as permanent as they are obvi- ous. Others, though less permanent, will be, for a time, equally certain. A large portion of the requisite labor may be performed by yourselves, and the compensation for it will be prompt and ample. Great part of the money will be expended in your own neigh- borhood, in the consumption of articles for which you have now no market. Immense augmenta- tion in the value of every acre of land in the vicinity of the line of communication will be the inevitable result and reward of these improve- ments. You are then urged, by the strongest motives that can operate on the human mind, to make those exertions without which your navigation, your roads and your country must at best remain what they now are. Not only will the commerce oi those more distant regions, which nature destined for our ports, be diverted, and seek other markets, but the commerce of a great part of Virginia her- self will pursue the same course, and wdl enrich other states. Measures are already in operation, which will infallibly produce this result, if we continue to neglect our own g-reat interest. You, who inhabit the country on the proposed line of communication, more especially the pro- [)rietors of the rich lands on and near the rivers, are urged by an enlightened view of your interests to promote the great work to which your atten- tion is now solicited. In addition to the motives already suggested, you will never forget that the money invested in it, will have a double operation. While it will improve incalculably the value of your lands, it also acquires a property which ought to yield an income proportional to the expense in- curred. This object, so interesting to you, depends on your exertions. If you will do nothing for yourselves, you cannot hope that others will do every thing lor you. We have thought it might be useful to remind you of the very inadequate contributions you have heretofore made towards it, and to shew you, from authentic documents, how unequal your etforts have been to your means, and to shew also the efforts and means of others. Thirteen coun- ties, above Henrico and Chesterfield, adjoining James River, lying east of the Alleghany Moun- tains, whose white population amounts to 89,074 persons, and whose real property is assessed at 33,.565,022 dollars, h.ave subscribed 1,750 shares. Four counties west of the Alleghany, and adjoin- ing the contemplated line of communication, whose white populatian amounts to 23,806 persons, and whose real estate is assessed at !ft2,5 13,739, have subscribed 1,G85 shares, of which 1,()70 were taken at Charleston, in the county of Kanawha. The city of Richmond contains a white popula- tion of 7,755 persons, and the assessed value of its property is 5,803,466 dollars, and 10,024 shares have been subscribed on the books opened in this city. In addition to which, the corporation has subscribed 4,000 shares — making together a charge on the property of the city of 1,402,400 dollars, equal to about 180 dollars on each white inhabi- tant. This immense disproportion between the exer- tions made by the city and those by the country, in a cause common to both, will be attested by the annexed document ; and supposing every sub- scriber to comply with his engagement, which is quite impTObable, the deficiency will still be 7541 sb.ares. We again most earnestly urge you to take this subject into your serious consideration, in gene- ral meeting, in your respective counties, and to adopt those efficient measures, that may secure an object so vitally important to Virginia, and so par- ticularly interesting to yourselves. The direct and obvious means, is to subscribe as liberally as your resources will permit ; but other auxiliary measures are within your reach. Should you be- lieve that alterations in the charter are indispen- sable to success — that fiirther legislative action can alone secure an oiyect on which the prosperi- ty of Virginia and of yourselves essentially de- pends, none can apply to the Legislature with a fairer prospect of success than you. Your influ- ence and your deep interest in the subject, will give a weight to your opinions, which cannot fail to be respected. While, therefore, we urge you by every consideration that can operate on patri- ots and on men, to come forward liberally as sub- scribers to this great work, we respectfully suggest 256 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRESERVING EGGS, &c. the propriety of submitting your views concern- ing it to your representatives. John Brockeivbrough, J. Marshall, Richard A^DERSON, Nicholas Mills, John Rutherfoord, John Enders, Joseph S. James. Suhscriptions in 1832, to the James River and Kanawha Company. Cd-No Lists have been received for 1833. Counties. Albemarle, Amherst, Augusta, Botetourt, Buckingham, Greenbrier, Henrico, Kanawha, Louisa, Monroe, Nelson, Norfolk Co. Rockbridge, Spottsylvania, Towns. Charlottesville, Scottsville, Staunton, Fincastle, Pattonsburg, Courthouse, Bent Creek, Lewisburg, Richmond, Charleston, Union, Salt Sulphur Sprin Red Sulphur Sprin Lovingston, Norfolk Borough, Lexington, Fredericksburg, No. Shares. 122 347 86 20 249 105 330 50 213 10,024 1,070 26 324 ffs, 69 , 9 45 5 345 20 gs 13,459 Corporation of Richmond, 4,000 Bank of Virginia, 5,000 13,459 shares. Required, Deficient, E.E. 22,459 30,000 7,541 shares. J. BROWN, Jr. Second jiuditor. PRESERVING EGGS. In 1820, a tradesman of Paris asked permission of the prefect of police to sell, in the market, eggs that had been preserved a year in a composition, of which he kept the secret. More than 30,000 of these eggs were sold in the open market, with- out any complaint being made, or any notice taken of them, when the board of health thought proper to examine them. They were found to be perfect- ly fresh, and could only be distinguished from others by a pulverous stratum of carbonate of lime, remarked by M. Cadet to be on the egg shell. This induced him to make experiments which ended in his discovering that they were pre- served in highly saturated lime wafer. M. Cadet suggests adding a little saturated muriate of lime, but gives no reason. They may also be preserv- ed by immersing them twenty seconds in boiling water, and then keeping them well dried in fine sifted ashes; but this will give them a greyish green color. The method of preserving them in lime water has been long the practice of Italy ; they may be kept thus for two years. This useful mode is well known in many parts of England, and cannot be too much recommended. — [^Mecha~ nic's Masiazine. TO CORRESPONDENTS AND SUBSCRIBERS. The communications on Roads and Railways as con- nected with the interests of the Southern States, on the Influence of the Origin of Seeds, (^^^mumm a33ii« NO. 5. EDMUND RUFFIIV, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR.— T. \V. AVHITE, PRINTER. THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORIGIN OF SEEDS ON THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CROPS. By Dr. Bronn, Professor of Rural and Sylvan Economy in the University of Liege. [Translaced for the Farmers" Register, from the Jownal d'Jlgri- culture etc. des Pays Biis.] Even to the present day, the cultivators of fo- rest trees have not tliought of taking advantage of a phenomenon which is presented to us in the cul- tivation of agricultural jjfants, and which, altlwugh it has never yet been sufficiently explained, is ne- vertheless well established. This- phenomenon is the influence which seed exerts on the quantity and quality of the crop which is produced from it, according to the different nature of the soil and climate from which this seed has been procured. The good results of this influence have appeared after using seed from a cold climate and a te.- nacious and cold soil, in a warm climate and a dry and light soil; but they are also equally apparent under circumstances quite the reverse, provided the soil be not too dry and barren, and the seed has had the opportunity of being developed and coming to perfect maturity. It appears then that the two opposite kinds of soils and climates profit equally froui a change of seed. Let us consider and examine at first a few observations which may serve to explain this phenomenon, and thence en- deavor to deduce the physiological law, and apply it to the cultivation of trees. The advantages resulting from a change of seed are generally recognized in the cultivation of the cereal plants. In some mountainous countries, in Scotland for example, they bring the seed from the low country and from the plains, where the climate IS more mild, and consequently the seed more for- ward, a quality which it always preserves for se- veral generations. We are convinced that the cul- tivator of this mountainous district, if he always used seed from his own crops, would reap later and later harvests, so that at last perhaps they would not come to perlect maturity ; a circumstance easily ex- plained by the short duration of the summers in the mountains. l(, on the other hand, the cultivator of a flat country, the climate of which is mild and the soil dry and light, continually made use of his own seed, it would head every year sooner, the stalks would become shorter, and the heads and grains smaller and smaller, and in time there would result but a poor produce. In this last case the cultivator brings his seed with advantage from a country more cold, the soil of which is good and substantial. Probably these are the circumstan- ces on which rests entirely the difference between the cereal plants of summer and those of winter, a difference too variable to be easily determined. The flax without doubt, presents us with the most striking example of this phenomenon. We, Avith great advantage to our crops, bring our seed from Riga, i. e. from a colder climate — the sow ing of which causes the grain to be slowly formed, and thus leaves more time for the developement of the stalk/which is the principal object of its cultiva- YoL 1.— 33 tion. To judge by analogy, we would be led to be- lieve that the result would be the same, were we to obtain from a colder country and a colder soil the grain of the clover and other plants used for fo- rage, in the cultivation of which our object is large stalks and a well developed foliage. Even at the present day we are without experience on this head. Generally, all plants which are principally cul- tivated for their grain or fruit, need little or no manure; while manure is necessary for those plants from which we wish to obtain large stalks and leaves.* Fruit trees which shoot vigorously, general- ly bear little or no fruit ; and every circum- stance, which on the other hand prevents the too great growth of wood, favors the formation of fruit. On this observation rests the cultivation of dwarf fruit trees, and espaliers ; also that of the vine, &c. &c. Field plants and plants of the kitchen garden (under equal circumstances in other respects,) blossom sooner in dry, warm and clear summers, and their stalks as well as leaves are smaller, than in raitiy and cloudy summers. From these and many other analogous observa- tions, we can deduce a physiological law of the greatest importance in the cultivation of plants, to wit : Every thing which favors the disproportion- ed growth of vegetables, opposes or retards their propagation or formation of truit ; and vice versa, the formation of fruit is hastened and forwarded at all times when exterior circumstances prevent the* full developement and disproportioned growth of the stalk. Now to apply this law to the rearing of trees, I ought first to remark that many of the phenome*- na which I have mentioned, are equally apparent in the vegetation of forest trees, although they have not been so much noticed. In fact we see the greater part of our forest trees bear seeds sooner, more often, and in greater quantities, with a south exposure, and in a dry and light soil, than with a north exposure, and on a cold and stiff soil ; while under the latter circumstances thej acquire great- er dimensions. Many trees, the birch for example, vary with re- gard to the time of budding and formation of seed, some being forward, and others late. It is well as- • certained that those which bud late, have the hard- est, heaviest, and in every respect the best timber ; and increase more in volume within a certain time, than the more forward kind. It is not yet proved that * The author's meaning must be taken with refer- ence to the usual rotations of his country, according to which, crojDS raised for llieir seeds, are preceded or fol- lowed by grass crops, or others, in which the bulk of the whole plant is of far more importance than the qnan- lity or the perfection of the seeds — and according to his theory, crops of the latter kind would receive so much more benefit from manure than the former, that econo- my requires tlie farmer's limited stock of manure should lie given to the one kind, and not to the other. — [Ed, Farm. Reg, 258 FARMERS' REGISTER— RAILWAYS, &c. the same phenomena may take place relative to age, i. e. that there may be varieties which blos- som and bear seeds, and the'growth of which con- sequently diminishes at different ag;cs. This ap- pears very probable, since we frequently see larches, firs, birches, &c. trees which had tlieir ori- gin in a cold and elevated country, bear seeds in a low, dry and warm country, after having scarcely reached the age of ten or fifteen years, and ten or fifteen feet in height ; and the growth of which af- terwards becomes sensibly slower. From this observation we may conclude that the trees of cold climates produced from seeds ga- thered in dry and level countries will degenerate after many years to dwarf trees, shrubs, bushes, &c. which will scarcely ever be of any value as farest trees. Every attentive cultivator of forest trees will have already noticed similar examples, which Avill justify this conclusion. From all that precedes, I deduce for the rearing of timber trees this general law: It is necessary to procure, as far as possible, the seeds from a cold- er climate, and a colder and stifler soil tlian the climate and soil of the country on which you wish to rear these trees. One of the best things for cultivation in the sandy lands of the provinces of Limburg, of An- vers, and of Nortliern Brabant, is undoubtedly the sylvan pine, [pin sylvestre.} According to the rule just above, the seed gathered in this dry and barren country sliould not be xised, but ought ra- ther be brought from a colder country, or from some place, the soil of v.hich is colder and stiffer. Since sometime back, in France and elsewhere, the preference is generally given to the seeds of the pine from Riga, Norway, Scotland, Hague- nan, &c. and the rule which it is my wish to es- tablish, has thus been followed by us, but without our having been able to justify this preference by reasonable motives. We have been content to re- gard the pines of this country as a particular spe- cies or variety. The fir epicea (a northern fir,) and larch, are suitable to be reared in the mountainous lands of Ardennes. If we used the seed which grows in the dry and. and sandy parts of Limburg, An- vers, and Northern Brabant, we would raise no- thing but dwarf trees, which at the age of twenty or thirty years, perhaps, would be covered with mosses, and the growth of which would after that become more slow, and would soon afterwards de- cay. It is our interest then to bring these seeds from still colder climates and better soils, and from countries in which these two trees grow larger, viz: from the Alps, Switzerland, the Tyi'ol, the mountains of Hartz, the Black Forest, and Nor- way. The rule which I wish to establish will perhaps become very useful in introducing into this coun- try foreign fbi'est trees, for it is very probable that the little success with which we have met in this important part of the cultivation of forest trees is occasioned principally by choosing unsuitable coun- tries from which to bring the seed. [The foregoing communication well deserves the at- tention of all thinking farmers. If Professor Bronn's opinion is correct, we may make it operate beneficially on the practice of every farm, either for the correction of common errors, or die introduction of positive im- provements, or for both. Very many cases of the pro- per application of this theory will readily occur, of which 1 will mention a few rnlyas examples. We frequently" change our seed wheal, cither from choice or necessity, and obtain new supplies from other, and ptrl;aps very different soils — and we decide on the comparative prcducliveness of any two kinds, most ge- nera ly, by their growth, as they stand in the field. Yet, according to the foregoing theory, the greater length and bulk of straw may be expected from seed that will yield a deficient crop of grain. By attending to the rule ofTered, we may make profitable selections of seeds from every single field, by taking from the warm and light soil, if we want the best product of grain, cr the cold and backward, if the crop is of a kind to be most profitable in proportion to it's whole bulk. Another necessary deduction is, that the farmers of Lower Vir- ginia ought often to procure new seeds of clover and other grasses from the mountains, or the northern states, to renew the original bulk and value of those crops, and to jDrevent their becoming more productive in seed than in hay. " And the reverse operation will be equally beneficial as to.vvrheat and other grains, of which the mountain and northern farmers ought frequently to ob- tjp.in a new stock of seed from the plains and from the south. But even if such considerable changes are not attempted, a less degree of benefit may be obtained by attending to these rules within the limits of almost every farm. A striking proof of the truth of Professor Bronn's opinion of the influence of climate on seeds is present- ed in the diflercnt times of maturing of the timothy grass of America and the cattail grass of England. These grasses are in appearance, and in every respect precisely the same, except that the English grass is about two weeks later in matming than the American, when both have been sov.n together on the same soil. -Mr. Strickland m,adc the trial, and states the result in his observations on the agriculture of the United States, reported to the British Board of Agriculture. This dif- ference, which was so fixed, and appeared so remarka- ble to the observers, is completely explained by Profes- sor Bronn's theory, applied to the temperate and moist summers of England, and the mor.e heated air and dryer soils of the United States.] Roads asid Mailivfiys, CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH THE IN- TERESTS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. For the Farmers' Register. Now; that Baltimore is piercing the Valley at its eastern end, and the inhabitants of the Shenan- doah are likely to extend the road from Winches- ter to Port Republic* and Staunton, it is time for Virginia -to arouse, and to abandon, for a time, a scheme, in which her own citizens have no confi- dence, and to which, there is, at present, the most decided objections, from the tardiness with which it must proceed. For, while Virginia is talking about hoiv the James is to be improved, and is really ignorant of the way in which it is to be done, Maryland is preparing to be speedily shaking hands with the inhabitants of the western end of the Val- ley and of Tennessee, and making Baltimore the * See Crozet's Reports in American Farmer. FARMERS' REGISTER— RAILWAYS, kc. 259 great outlet for the produce of the Mississippi and. the intcrveniiifT countries. Hence , for the present , the James plan should be suspended, and more especially, when we see the probable flow of mo- nej' into the western states, and the consequent demand for laborers by the cultivators of cotton. In the large products of cotton plantations, I think there ought to be found funds, which, pro- perly husbanded and well managed, will furnish sources of supply, either in the establishment of plantations, or the sale of slaves by Virginians and North Carolinians; whence, an eventual recom- pense may be received for the labor of tlie slave. I perceive that, by recent accounts from Lon- don, the state of Alabama has effected a loan of i2 3.500,000, and Mississippi one on New -York of 8 1^500,000. The object in view, is the establishment of a bank, which is to deal in ordinary exchange, and discount notes at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum : Notes that have from 6 to 9 months to run, 7 per cent, per annum: Notes that have from 9 to 12 months to run, 8 per cent, per annum. The secu- rity of the bank is admirable, as it takes a priority ill the courts; and it will either have the effect of destroying all other credit, (a good thing, for it will establish a cash system,) or ruining all other creditors. " The debts," says the act to establish the bank, " due said bank, may be recovered in the Mobile circuit court, after thirty days notice," I believe, on the simple motion of the proper offi- cer, after a verdict returned, jDro/cirma, by a jury. But, why should not all undisputed debts be placed upon the same ground.' Is a preference constitu- tional ? Now, when we recollect that the capital of this bank was not even partially raised by individuals, but " wholly by the sale of state stock," (the stock sold in London,) we need not be very astute to discover the spirit of enterprise and speculation (o which this loan will give rise. The debt is not redeemable tdl 1863 ;^so that this 8 3,500,000, (to say nothing about the -9 1,500,000 of Mississippi,) fully trebled in amount by banking operations, will set more than 810,500,000 at work, and the greater portion of this money will be invested first in land and next in negroes. Calculating on the London loan and its premium, it will produce, if but gradu- ally thrown on the market, .§3,745,000. Again; forming our estimates on the bold character of all new banks and bankers, that have thus received thirty years credit for their capital, we may say, that, in a very short space of time, thrice this amount, or S 11,235,000, will be afloat. Nor, if all the parties are prudent, will this loan be inju- rious, in its effects, to the state of Alabama. The new and fertile land of that country will enable judicious, humane and enterprising men to borrow of this bank, and not only punctually pay the in- terest, when due, but provide a fund" for the final destruction of slavery — a doctrine, now becoming prevalent in every slave state ; for, the people, in the healthy portions of each of them, begin to dis- cover, that, in the increased and improved popula- tion and cultivation of these districts, there will be found a more than ample compensation to any pub- lic loss that may be sustained by the abolition of slavery, and the consequent supposed abandonment of the unhealthy portions of these states. I say supposed, as I am convinced much more might be done by industrious white laborers, in these un- healthy sections of country, than is noAV supposed possible: and when the seats in the state legisla- tuics become occupied by men of intelligence and patriotism, science and art fake the place of a love of useless legislation and baleful litigation, and the draining of the low countries is found to be a mat- ter not only of prudence, l>ut of policy and of profit, I have no doubt many obstacles of this kind will dis- appear. This measure, especially in Virginia, with the introduction of white, to replace black labor, in the cultivation of wheat, tobacco, &c., will soon make personal exertion, in the classes of mechanical labor, creditable and praiseworthy — a circumstance now forbidden by the existence and effect of slavery. If I am a subject of ridicule for the expression of this opinion, I will ask, whether the introduction of Africans-did not mainly tend to expel a population of 60,000 whites from Barbadoes; and, whether the first colonists of Georgia, a colony especially planted wi:h a vieio to free cultivation , did not labor in the field ? [See \\^ e%\ey ^official edition.'] The fact is, that the climate ofX'irginia,the Carolinas and Geor- gia, is, in no section, worse than that of the Crimea, and the Mal'aria districts of ItalJ^ I will also ask, if a revolution in opinion, is not daily taking place in the slave states themselves? To demonstrate it, I would refer to Mr. Berrien's recent speech. It proves what he fears will be the situation of affairs in Georgia, if the people con- firm the acts of the convention. He attributes those acts to party feelings; but, every one who is ac- quainted with the upper sections of the southern states, knows that he docs this erroneously. Let the paragraph, in his speech, beginning with "at such a moment," and that subsequent to it, be care- fully read, his party feelings be recollected, and the real state of the case will be self-evident. Let us also recur to Col. Lumpkin's speech at Boston " Several circumstances were now con- curring to hasten that result." [The dissolution of the ties between master and the slave.] " He truly believed, that the interests of the owner and the slave were alike identified in emancipation ; and the tim.e was rapidly approaching w hen the prix- ciFi.E v.ouLD BE abaxdoxed; and, the Only difference of opinion would be, how can the thing be done, and what will be the best manner?" We are assured the doings of the convention of Georgia will be ratified by the people, in the acts of their general assembly. If this should turn out to be the case, no further proof of the correctness of Col. Lumpkin's opinion will be necessary. Hovrever, I am wandering from my subject, which was the London loan to Alabama, and its effects on that and the neighboring states. For whose immediate benefit will this immense sum of money be, in fact, expended.'' For that of Virginia more especially, in the purchase of ne^ groes. But, such is the humanity of many of her slave-holders, that they will rather patiently await the operations of the colonization system, or the re- sult of circumstances, than part with their slaves. To these gentlemen, I would say, " remove your negroes to Alabama, &c. and there let them work themselves, and yourselves, if you are embarrassed, with a condition in all respects free. Your debts may be paid, a sufficient fund furnished for the transiwrtation of your people, and an ample source of wealth created for your fauiilies ; and a more 260 FARMERS' REGISTER— RAILWAYS, kc. than ample source of public spirit and public pros perity, in an expulsion of the baneful effects of slavery from your fire-sides." Should such lan- guage be heard, and such terms be granted, tliere is little difficulty in saying, tliat the wealth, impor- tance and influence of Virginia, will, in ten years, be trebled— its downward progress will be ar- rested. But, an objection will be started, as to the possi- bility of a Virginia planter having an establishment in the two states. This objection, too, can be re- moved, if a Virginia legislature and a Virginia po- pulation can be made to unite, in creating a cheap, and for the time efficient kind of railway; a railway, that, at the expense of $ 3000 per mile, shall pene- trate the very centre and reach the most distant point of the great and the far west; there it shall not only produce a lucrative, but beneficial employment for the negroes; and, if the principle of life-insur- ance could be so well understood as to be generally applied and adopted, together with a proper system of providence and prudence, a provision would eventually be made for tlieir cheap and easy trans- portation and emancipation. In return, it would bring back the results of their labors, at a low and profitable rate, to the banks of the Chesapeake, and thus give rise to a commerce, the consequence of the sale of that produce, which, of itself, will, although in an indiret manner, more than pay every expense incurred. Let us now inquire into the possibility of dis- covering a cheap, efficient and economical rail road system. The subject has been, for many years with me, one of constant and interesting considera- tion. As early as January 7, 1819, my opinion on this subject was thus publicly expressed : — " One of two kinds of roads may be made — the common turnpike, or the artificial rail road. The latter, on which a horse will draw tliree or four tons with great ease, and at the rate of three or four miles an hour, might be laid down, in the first instance, with wood; and when that material shall become as dear as iron, recourse could be had to metal, '/'hen, it will have the decided advantage of resting on a well trodden basis. This will remove all danger of its yielding to any pressure, however heavy it might " A very few dollars would show the result of an experiment, that, if the people of Charleston think proper, may be made. Suffice it, therefore, to say, that 180 miles of road would complete the com- munication between Charleston and Columbia and Camden. Sixty more would carry it to the North Carolina line — in all, 240. Calculating on its con- suming 16,000 feet of timber, it would cost .*! 1500 each mile, or ^360,000, and answer every (present) purpose." But, the people of Charleston would not stoop to a cheap experiment; but, more major um, have liad recourse to an expensive scheme ; and one that must fail in every object, except to i)rove the value of rail roads. At the same time, their expenditure will show the folly, in a country like this, of having recourse to plans whicli are costly, only tempora- rily efficient, liable to rot, and so ol>noxious to fire ; for such is the character of the rail road plan as it has been adopted in South Carolina.* What said the Georgia rail road meeting, on the * See a description of the Charleston and Hambure rail road, at the end of tliis communication. 26th June, 1833, at Athens? " From the best infor- mation which the committee could procure, most works of a like character with ihdii proposed by this meetings liave been effected at about the same ex- pense. It is not an unsafe estimate to say, that rail roads can be constructed, on most surfaces, at be- tween 4 and 5000 dollars per mile. Some have cost less. [These are Mr. Black's ' splendid theories,' I suppose.] It is true, that the Charleston rail road, by a recent report of its directors, has cost more, but this case furnishes no certain data, from which an accurate conclusion can be draion. In the first place, it was an entire new plan." [Query — the Carbondale road — J. Bolton, president — See Con- gressional Report.] " It was, in the beginning, as was reasonably to have been expected, from the want of experience, as well as a departure from the know7i practical science on the subject, not economi- cally managed. Besides, they have expended large sums of money on real and slave property, and upon greater quantities of machinery than was at the [any] time required— all of M-hich ought to be avoid- ed, and no doubt will, in the one to be projected by this meeting." Slave labor was not, as it ought to, and might have been, exclusively employed. The loss, direct and indirect, was great — direct, in its increased expense and great waste of time — indirect, in the transmission of so much capital from the state. Of this, let Virginia and North Carolina be well aware. The charge for the construction, &c. of the Charleston road, is ^579,838 58— for iron, $105,- 161 83: together, -S 685,000 41— the iron is about t*^ 705 per mile — the etceteras about $ 4,295 : toge- ther, $ 5,000. The estimates varied. Mr. Mills calculated S 405,000 for 140 miles. Dr. Howard, $ 637,000 for 150 miles; (expressly urging the company io remember that distance was, comparatively, of no imiKDrtance ;) and even so late as February, 1832, the chief engineer, (Horatio Allen, esq.) when more than one third of the contract labor had been completed, stated $ 600,000. This sum was (by him, it is to be presumed,) thought sufficient to cover the entire construction. It has already cost a million, and probably one million one hundred thousand will be the minimum charge of its construction and completion. The surveys have cost i^ 35,959 85 — the super- intendents, S 16,648 : together, S 52,607 ! ! ! ! ! The engineer received for a service of each eight months, % 3,600 — a little difference from the sala- ries paid in Virginia to engineers, and quite as libe- ral as the legislature is to lawyers. The cost of the locomotives and their etceteras, is to be $ 136,000— their wear and fear, $ 75,600. Etceteras, $ 90,000 : in all, $ 164,000— and, in all probability, judging from the experience we have had of the expenditure of these expenders, the minimvm annual expense will be $ 250,000. However, if the Athenian estimate of the pro- duce and consumption of N. E. Georgia be correct, and, according to the prediction of the wiseacres in South Carolina, Sa\annah is to be abandoned, the Charleston rail road may yet do well — if, at least, the charge on the freight of" cotton be reduced; and this it must be ; for if the Georgians charge 81 cents per bale, and the Carolinians 151, in all 232, the scheme cannot be popular — both must recede from their prices and their pretensions. But state pride will forbid success to any attempt FARMERS' REGISTER— RAILWAYS, kc. 261 that has for its object to deprive Savannah of its importance. When it is clearly seen that the 210 miles to Athens, from Savannah, can be completed foi" 3000 dollars per mile, or, at all events, for one million of dollars, it is by no means probable that, with such an admirable scheme as that proposed at Athens, young Georgia will patiently suffer herself to be deprived of on export now exceeding; that of old Carolina, in the proportion of 240,000 to 180,000 dollars. To this stale pride, I should have no objection, if it did not fend so much to the ag:g;randizement of N. York. This, it most decidedly does; and Charles- ton, Savannah and Wilmington, ports now but;7«r- tially conimercial, as well as Beaufort, S. Carolina, and Norfolk, ports of perfect capacity for all mili- tary and commercial purposes, thus become victims to the great Babylon of the United States. My opinion ever has been, and still is, that a good road is the only true basis, and correct com- mencement, of a perfect rail road — an opinion that was expressed in the Enquirer, at the time when the people of Petersburg were obtaining their rail road act from the legislature of Virginia. The simpler the road the better, if it possess but solidity ; and nothing will confer such solidity as time and travel. Hence, I think Mr. Hartman's idea of the turnpike commissioners laying down a cheap rail road, an excellent one. I differ with him as to the mode. From what I understand to be his plan, I apprehend his object is a channelled track. It will never do, as it will constantly till up. The plan of an ordinary sill, with a lath of harder wood, on which a cast iron wheel, accommodated to the shape of the lath, would travel, would be prefera- ble, and would resemble the edge rail road. Let us suppose the principle to be adopted, and two or four sills to be laid down from Staunton to Waynesborough, and the space between them to be filled up with the best material, and surmounted with the lath of harder wood, be thus rendered fit for the travel of the carriage, with the iron wheel cast for the j)urpose. All the can-iages and horses, proceeding to or from Staunton, could then be car- ried on this road; (they are thus conveyed on the Charleston road;) and as little New- York and Charlottesville are in the direct line of travel to Richmond, a successful result would make it a link in the gi-eat chain of road from the west to the Atlantic. The road from Charlottesville to Rich- mond does not, I think, offer any serious impe- diment; and, should this experiment succeed, it would, at one and the same time, produce a com- mon turnpike and a rail road. The distance be- tween Charlottesville and Richmond, would not cost, at first, more than 85,000 dollars — eventually, 255,000 or 300,000 dollars. As to graduation, it should be performed as much, and as well, as is consistent with economy. But, to the primary and temporary road, we should look for the cheap and easy nieans of fully and com- pletely graduating and perfecting the final site ol the railway. Should this plan succeed, roads would soon be run into the tar west, and the planter would sustain himself and educate his family, with a few ne-roes in thf, east, while the larger number, and more efficient of his servants, would be providing for their future colonization or emancipation, and t' e discharge of -the claim their masters held on them, in the west. In conclusion, and with a practical view of the subject, I have great pleasure in stating, that the newspapers inform us that a cheap 22 mile rail road, from Edgefield to the Charleston road, is in agitation, and that a horse rail road is about to be laid down in the streets of Columbia, S. Carolina. SMEATOiV. GENEIIAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CHARLESTON AND HAMBURG RAIL. ROAD. .As many of our readers may be unncquainted with the extent and peculiar construction of the rail road from Charleston to Hamburg, (opposile Augusta,) and, t'.ierefore, will not understand the preceding remarks thereon, we subjoin a general descnption of that im- portant public work, extracted from a late publica- tion by A. A. Dexter, civil engir.ecr. The pile method of construction, however unfit for a dry and finu soil, seems admirably suited for the passage of swampy and flooded lands, where tunber is plenty ; and no where can it be more advantageously adopted than on p:ir:s of the route of the Portsmouth and Roanoke Rail Road. [Ed. Farm. Reg: We will preflice our description with the remark, that in the establishment of a rail road through a well timbered country like that through which this road passes, there can be no doubt of the judicious economy of the general plan of pile construction, which has been adopted in preference to the expen- sive system of embankments which prevails at the north. Besides the increase in the first cost, the ex- pense of keeping the embankments in repair, owing to the injuries sustained from settlings, washes, slides, derangement of culverts, &c. is unqestion- ably greater than that attending the occasional re- newal of decayed timbers. The profile of the South Carolina rail road, em- bracing, generally, a remarkably uniform surface cf country, may be compared to that of a continued briflge, sometimes resting on the earth, but gene- rally elevated above the soil about five or six feet. The road extending from the city of Charleston to Hamburg, is 135 miles in length ; and the rails were laid in continued line complete, about the 1st of June, 26 months from the period when the whole line was located and put under contract. A few miles of the road, near Charleston, were made, and in use with hand cars, about two years prior to this period. The road crosses the Edisto river, about 400 yards below the junction of the north and south fork, 65 miles from Charleston, after passing over, in that distance, six difficult streams, and depres- sions, the Saw Mill Crer-k, Cypress Swamp, Four Hole River, Indian Fields, Poke Swamp and Cat- tle Creek. The road continues its course on the dividing ridge between the Edisto and the branches of the Savannah, passing nine miles to the north of Barnwell village, until it reaches" the head of the valley of Wise's Creek, a branch of Big Horse Creek. At this point, which is only 21 miles south of Edgefield court-house, the road attains its highest altitude of 510 feet above the level at Charteston, and 360 feet aliove the Augusta bridge, 16 miles distant. One hundred and eighty feet of this de scent to the valley of the Savannah, is conquered at this point by an inclined plane, 3,800 feet long, 262 FARMERS* REGISTER— RAILWAYS, &c. having- three grades of ascent, the steepest of Avhich is 1 in 13. From the foot of the yilane, the remainder of the descent is overcome in 10 miles, having an average inclination of 18 feel in a mile. At Hamburg, two spacious depositories are in course of construction, of brick, with zinc roofs, on a commodious lot of six acres, gratuitously be- stowed on the company by Henry Shuitz, esq. Theie is only o)ie bridge of importance on the whole route, that crossing the Edisto river, which is 400 feet long, lias a single arch over the main stream of 6G feet. The road is a single track, except at the inclined plane, where there is one mile of doulde read, and at the turn outs and depositories, about three miles more. Two stationary steam engines, v/hich work on the same crank, of about 25 horse power each, now- erected at the head of the inclined plane, and nearly in readiness for operation, will effect a passage of th.e loaded trains and passenger cars over the plane at the rate of about ten miles an hour. The 7th residency, embracing the distance of 15 miles from the foot of the inclined plane to Ham- burg, was much the most diflicult and expensive part of the road — a more costly plan of construc- tion being frequently necessary, owing to the liad- ness of the foundation and the height of the work. The excavation of this road cost nearly SIOOO per mile, while that of the rest of the road will not average $ 300 per mile. '^I'he high price of mate- rials was one great cause of the increased expense of this section. The profile of the South Carolina rail read is remarkably favorable, as tlie entire length of incli- nation, as great as 1 in 150, or 35 feet in a mile, is but 1| miles, the occasional ascents not exceeding 1 in 200, or 26 ieet in a mile. The straight lines, with the exception of the 7th residency, are generally uncommonly long, and the curves easy. There is one straiglit line 25 miles in length, and several courses of from 6 to 10 miles. '1 he first 65 miles from Charleston va- ries in length but half a mile from a uniformly straiglit line. The road is now ironed a distance of 100 miles from Charleston, to which point the steam engines have frequently passed. All the iron would have been on, and the road in complete operation, but for imcxpected delay in the arrival of the locomo- tive engines, three of which, contracted to b§ deli- vered in Charleston by the 1st of March last, have not yet arrived. The engines in use do not afford sufficient power to transport the iron for the road, and at the same time comply with their mail and passenger arrangements, and the public conveni- ence in the constant carriage of freight. Two of the engines now in use, are built on an entirely novel plan, according to the instructions of H. Allen, esq. chief engineer of this road. They are supported upon eight wheels, by which means the v/eight is difluscd, and a more powerful engine is obtained with the same stress upon the road. This engine, however, is more complicated in its construction, and more liable to derangement, than a four weelcd engine, and therefore, at present less generally approved — but, it is to be hoped that the few practical difliculties which attend the use of an engine, so w ell adapted to powerful transportation, in this and other roads, which may be built on a similar plan, may vanish before superior skill and experience. When in order, these engines, ft)r a few miles, detached from their train, have frequently attained a speed of 40 miles, and in one or two instances, of more than 50 miles per hour. These engines will carry 30 tons of freight, besides passengers, with ease, 15 miles an hour, at a cost of about S 20 per day, including all expenses of fuel, attendance, and wear and tear of engine. The Phoenix, a light engine on four wheels, has twice run from Charles- ton, a distance of 72 miles, to Midway and back, in tiie day, a distance of 144 miles, placing it, there- fore, beyond a doubt, that the travel from Augusta to Charleston can be effected in 10 and 12 hours. If the engines which have so long disappointed us, should arrive in the course of this month, the whole road can be in use by the 15th day of Sep- tcmlier. The 15 miles from Hamburg to the foot of the inclined plane, is ironed, and used with hand cars. The mail is now carried 105 miles on the road. DETAILS OF CONSTR UCTIO]V. There are four different plans of construction made use of on this road, the adoption of which was determined by the character of the soil, and the height of the line of grade : — these are, the sleeper plan No. 1, the sleeper plan No. 2 — the pile construction, and the truss work. Sleeper Plan JVo. 1. — The sleeper plan No. 1, which is a very cheap construction, answers well on a good clay or gravel foundation. In this con- struction, the rails, 6 by 10, arc supported on transverse sills, 10 by 12, laid 6^- feet apart: these sills are 10 feet long, of good lightwood or heart pine, well hewed. In trimming up the excava- tions and bermes, and preparing the side drains, enough earth is obtained to cover the transverse sills entirely, and afford a solid bearing to the whole length of the rail. Most of our road on this plan has been built by contract for S1450 per mile — the excavation, draining and filling is not included. We have about 5 miles of this road. Sleeper Plan No. 2. — Thisplan likewise is used in excavation, and forms an admirable structure, preferable to the other in being less liable to set- tling and lateral derangement. In this case, the size of the rail and distance apart of the supports remain the same. The caps, into which the rails are let a depth of three inches, and secured by wedges, as before, are 6 by 9, and 9 feet long, fast- ened down at each end by a 2 inch trenail, to a lon- gitudinal sill, which is firmly bedded to nearly its full depth in the ground. These longitudinal sills are put 3 feet from the centre of the road each way, which bring them nearly on a line, under the rails. The size never was allowed to be less than 9 by 9, generally well hewed in the upper and lower surfaces, and. block- ed off on the edges. It is better to jog the caps into the sills by a gain in the latter, and use a wedge in preference to the trenail, as the pin hole admits water and engenders decay. On this plan the inclined plane is built, but tte lower sills are 12 by 12 — all heart of the best pitch pine, well hewed on all sides, and the ends lapped. The average cost of work on this construction, is about the same with that of piling. on the same grade— from §1800 to §2200 per mile. There FARMERS' REGISTER— RAILVt' AYS— AGRICULTURE, &c. 2G3 are about IS miles built on this plan in the whole road. One considerable advantage attending this plan of construction, is the facility of repairing it, and renewing the decayed supports. Another impor- tant consideration is, that timber will last longer horizontally placed than vertically — as in the pile construction. Pile Construction. — In this construction the posts are generally of lightwood or of the heart of the pine tree, round — with the butt end in the earth, and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter. The posts are in no case allowed to be less than 4 feet in the ground — 6 feet apart transversely, by 6^ feet longitudinally. Where the ground is soft the piles are sometimes driven to a depth of 25 feet — the distance in earth being entirely governed by the descent, under a given weight, at the last blow of the hammer. The weight of the hammer used, varied from 600 to 1000 pounds. The best piling machines were 15 feet in height on large wooden rollers, with moveable ears of disconnecting the ram block, at different heights, secured by bolts and nuts to the uprights. Under a hammer of 900 pounds, with a clear fall of 20 feet at the last blow, the pile was allowed to sink two inches. As the success of the road in a great measure depended on the stability of the piles, competent testers, under the pay of the company, compelled by their presence the faithful execution of this important part of the work. Holes were generally dug about 3^ feetdeep into the soil, before the pile was introduced, by means of tongs — a kind of double spade, made for the purpose. In hard soil this previous digging is a great saving in expense, and by allowing the pile to be intx'oduced with nearly its full size at the end, is a material aid to its permanency. The piles, being sawed off and tenanted on the true and even line of graduation established by the levels of the engineer, are connected transversely by caps 9 feet long, 6 by 9. The rails, 6 by 10, and never less than 3 stretch- es or 19^ feet in length, are let into the caps 3 inches, and secured by wedges, driven on the in- side of the rail in each cap. About ^ of an inch is taken off the inner sides of the rails by a cham- fer four inches deep, to a line, on which the edges of the iron plates are laid precisely 5 feet apart across the road, in the clear. Great care is neces- sary that the top surface of the rail be perfectly smooth and uniform, so as to afford the iron a solid bearing. The confidence which the projectors and advo- cates of the pile construction felt in predicting the economy and stability of the plan, is entirely jus- tified by the result. So far, the settling of the road even in parts which have been in use 4 years, is confined to a few points,— and then the introduc- tion of a few additional supports, remedies the evil. Not the slightest yield is observable in any part of the road where the driving was properly attended to. The cost of our pile construction has been from S1900 to §3000 per mile, averaging about 8 2300, the bracing being extra. The piling machines, with blocks and gearing, are furnished to the con- tractors b)^ the company, at an expense of about SlOO, for each complete. We have some pile construction 15 feet in height — strengthened by outside braces, supported against short piles driven about 8 feet from the road on each side of the main track. Mo bracing is i-equisite v^herc the height is un- der 7 feet, if the sod be firm. From 7 to 10 feet, one brace of 4 by 5 scantling between each pair of posts, is sufficient. Above 10 feet, 2 braces be- tween each pair of posts, placed somewhat in the shape of a letter X, are introduced. One mile of single bracing, average height, costs about ^150; of double bracing, S400. Truss Construction. — Where the bottom is bad and the work over 12 feet in height, the truss con- struction is adviseable. A foundation must first be made of piles, well driven, supporting a large bottom sill, 12 by 12, which may be embanked on the top, or a founda- tion of transverse and longitudinal sills, firmly im- bedded in a solid sand embankment, may be used. This last plan we have frequently had occasion to adopt in the 7th residency. Four posts, 8 by 10, making something the shape of an inverted W, connected at the top by a cap 10 by 12, are mor- tised into the bottom sill 12 by 12. The trusses or bents may be put 12 or 13 feet apart, when the size of the rail should be 12 by 12. Ten feet apart with rails 9 by 12, is a convenient distance. The cost of this constiuiction, the solidity and strength of which has given great satisfaction, is very va- riable, depending on the difficulty of the founda- tion, the price of the materials, and the height of the work. It varies from 86,000 to #10,000 per mile. There is one connected piece of road on this plan, almost half a mile in length, the height of which is from 18 to 25 feet. There is al- together about 5 miles of the truss construction. REFLECTIOIVS OJf THE 13IPnOVEJMEXT OP AGRICULTURE. To the Editor of the Fanners' Register. No species of literature affords more useful in- struction, than that which leads to the knowledge of extracting from^iie earth, in the easiest and most abundant manner, a supply of the best food for man and beast, and v/hich shall leave it in a situation to make similar returns. Allow me to congratulate you, upon your success in arousing the hitherto dor- mant feelings of lower Virginia, which promises to enable us to reach the desirable object of resuscita- ting our worn out lands. We owe you much, nor should the sons of lower Virginia withhold acknow- ledging it. For years it has been lamented by the intelligent, that ue were neglecting the advanta- ges within our reach: but no individual has boldly come forward to remedy the evil ; some fliint efforts have been made, but none wliich ever promised' ag does your publication. Should your efforts fail, we may hang up our agricultural harps upon the wil- lows, with a fear that before another such era shall occur, they will be so far unstrung as to require immense efforts to tune them again up to their present melody. By the friends of your underta- king, every effort should be made to sustain you. You acknowledge, that without aid, you must fail: this is evident; and from that consideration alone, am I prompted to make this communication, which, in the absence of more useful, may be used by you : not that I imagine myself able to throw any new light upon the subject, or even to afford matter, gathered from those who have preceded me, that in 284 . FARMERS' REGISTER AGRICULTURE— IMPROV-EMENTS. Itself \\ ill be desirable. Nor do I imagine much can be done bj- any one individual ; if an}' (liini; is to be accomplished, it must be by the successive elforts of many — and as all cannot be masters, an indifieront workman may be allowed to give a helping; hand. It is not my intention, at this time, to attend to any one of the many subjects which aiiriculture atibrd, but merely to throw out some hints which have occurred to me, in reflectino- upon the proba- ble result of your publication. So fully aware am I of the character of us Firginians, that I cannot but fear, that when the novelty of the matter is over, )'our support will lessen, unless those who feel an interest in the subject, instead of merely crying- out to you, " go on," will, in the language of good farmers, say " come on." No one can doulit the advantages to be derived from an agricultural paper among us; tor notwith- standing there are many writers upon the subject, yet it must be discernible to all who have consulted them, that it is necessary for certain sections of our widel)'- extended country, to have some such work as can embody general principles, and at the same time give the result of particular experiments con- fined within the limits of its legitimate influence. The progress of education throughout our country, furnishes a hope we shall have a more readino- peo- ple, and if this should be realized, it is desirable it should be well directed: and to what subject, of a secular kind, can the people of Virginia better devote themselves than agriculture.' That errors have crept in among agricultural writers, is evi- dent ; the useful parts ofthe science have often been sacrificed to those which only afford subjects for speculative inquiry : often more time has been ta- ken in proving the fallacy of a theory than would have been necessary to establish a true one, had the theorist made a proper start, or (as every honest writer should do) when he comes to the end of his tether, there stop. The mind of man, limited ag it is, should be satisfied with ascertaining facts and tracing their relations to each other. But the pride of man often urges him to envelope the sub- ject in mystery, by endeavoring to point out cause and effect beyond his ken ; and unfortunately, many possess pre-eminently the art of plausible misrepre- sentation, from which the mere agriculturist, who may have been deceived, turns with disgust, and is ever after averse to book knowledge. As it is probable that most of the writers for the Farmers' Register will be individuals who have not been in the habit of public exhibition, it is to be hj(ped they will neither follow the verbose style of the day, nor attach themselves to a theory, and hunt up facts to support it, right or wrong, but will con- tent themselves in fc»rming a theory out of facts cautiously endiraced, and honestly stated. Ele- gance is difficult to attain, and without great taste, dangerous to attempt. What is principally re- quired in agricultural writings is great perspicuity, precision, simplicity and honesty. Flowery lan- guage is well calculated to create a suspicion that imagination has more to do with the subject than observation. I cannot conceive a happier state of things, than to create a confidence among the agri- cultural part of the community, in what is called by them book -know ledge. Could we transfer a part of that confidence which the politician has in the different newspaper statements of his party, happy would it be for us. The time having arrived when wc must provide for our sons in soiue other way than by throwing them pell mell in what arecalledthe learned profes- sions, it Iiecomes every jjarent to endeavor to raise agriculture to its proper level, that the present re- luctance manifested by young men in Virginia to follow it, may be done away. Were they to con- sult their interest and comfort, they would not be thus backward; \vouId they look around, they would find but few of those in the learned profes- sions succeeding; and if the funds expended had been applied to setting them up on a farm, (adding thereto the time lost in ol)taining the profession,) they would no doubt, by the time they arrived at the meridian of life, be worth more money, and, from experience in farming, be in the way of^ dou- bling their income. But, it is said farming is not a money-making business. True, it is not often that a young man, setting up on a farm, can move in the splendor which either a professional man or merchant can on a borrowed capital; hut, it is equally true, that he is not so often visited by the sheriffs with writs, &c. We should, therefore, never envy that splendor which is purchased at a price we should not like to submit to. If, then, you refuse the price, why expect the purchase? Why repine at providence for not j)lacingyru in a situation your spirit could not bear."* By well di- rected industry, with our faculties directed to one end, we siiall generally be successful, and enjoy a peace of mind little known to the occupant of a splendid unpaid for mansion. Let the professional man make an estimate of his annual income, and his necessary expenses, and as a genei-al rule, he will find, unless he has a farm to aid him, he clears but little. Let the farmer, on the contrary, who thinks his.farm does not yield, at most, 4 per cent, estimate the rent of his house, the keeping of his horses, the food furnished his table, the domestics around him, all necessary to his comfort; and he will find, that from a capital of -S 5000, judiciously laid out, he can live as comfortable as the profes- sional man enjoying the profits of S 1000 from his profession, with the addition of his ^ 5000 at 6 per cent. Were I to attempt an average ofthe amount obtained by professional gentlemen, (omitting those who get nothing,) I would place it much below that sum. If this be true as a general rule, how much more so must it be when a father shall settle his well educated son upon a farm purchased at a re- duced price, upon which is profusely scattered marl beds, every year adding inexhaustible wealth, which neither the fiiilure ofthe banks can rob, or the ca- price of man lessen: withal he may calculate upon his son having a better prospect of long life, not being necessarily dragged out at all times, through all weather, with an harassed mind, as is the case with the professional gentlemen, who, of all others, are the greatest slaves. One of the many errors entertained by the Vir- ginia agriculturist is, that land is cheap and labor high; hence the destructive method hitherto pur- sued. As a general rule, in Virginia, cheap land is not worth cultivating, unless improved; good land rarely obtainable. To improve indifferent land is not fiishionable, and a large surface of poor land must require considerable expense to culti- vate ; and even to gather together its scanty pro- duct, is often a most laborious undertaking, from its scattered state. To remedy this evil is the great object : when that is done, the reverse of the pro- FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULfuRE— PUBLIC WORKS. 266 position will be so true that our present laborers will advance much in price. It is certainly as much to the interest of the farmer to increase his capital, as to the merchant: and the merchant, who, Irom a condensed capital, can reap a large profit, esti- mates his business more highly than if compelled to scatter his funds. The farmer who, to make 500 barrels of corn, has to cultivate 200 acres of land, certainly does not clear as much as if he made the same upon half tlie surface; supposing, in both cases, that he cultivates land for whicli he pays nothing : and hev,- must the case be altered, v.hen he pays for the extra 100 acres. Furius Cresinus, a peasant, being accused before the Roman people for a sort of witchcraft commit- ted by him upon his neighbors' lands, which though of greater extent, yet yielded not so good crops as his, tliat were less — took no other course to justify his innocence than to bring, on the day of his ap- pearance, his instruments of agriculture, kept in exceeding good order, beseeching his judges to be- lieve he had made use of no other spells than those, W'ith abundance of pains and watchings. It ever being diflicult to persuade mankind to abandon a particular course at once, we need not expect to arrive al the desirable end of lessening our surface, until a new set of agriculturists shall grow up, ob- taining information from some otiier source, than the fire-side chit-chat of their antiquated parent. From wheiice have improvements in agriculture emanated.' Not from those who have followed it from their youth, but from those who at an early period left their parental roof in pursuit of litera- ture, or have retired from some of the professions : they enter upon the business with no preconceiv- ed notions, extract information from any source, and after due deliberation, they act witliout those tloubts and fears which accompany the sons of an old farmer, raised with him, and who have from infancy been taught to reverence old opinions, and to let alone those newfangled notions Avhich " look mighty pretty upon paper, but never till the barn." May we not \\o\)e, that the time is fast approaching when every county will have an agricultural soci- ety— (and what cannot well regulated associations do?) Until that is done, much remains to be done; and tlie Farmers' Register is, I ho})e, the entering wedge, by which the prejudices of tlse community will be rent asunder, and .agriculture iiold up its crest-fallen front among the sciences of the day. Shame to us that we are so far in the rear. With these remarks I close. In wishing you success, I but express a patriotic wish, which would warm the bosoms of all the sons of Virginia, if they would view the matter as it merits. medicus. For the Farmers' Register. OBSERVATIOXS OX THE AGRICULTURAL, IM- PROVEMEXT, AND THE PUBLIC WORKS OF VIRGINIA. To the President of the Fredericksburg Agricultural Society. In circulating pretty extensively through East- ern Virginia, my observations upon the altered face of the country, lead me to the comfortable conclu- sion, that the spirit of improvement in agriculture is abroad in the land, although the ardor in the cause of societies for its promotion, appears much to have abated of late years. There appears to the obser- ving traveller, considerable evidence of attention to Vol. 1—34 the practice of improvement, if lukewarmness as to the theory exists. Fewer gullied and denuded hill sides are presented as eyesores. The fields are now mostly ploughed horizontally, by which the general surface is prevented from being washed into the bottoms, as formerly, by the old fashioned up and down hill mode; and, more attention seems to be paid to the broadcast application of manure, upon the thin and poor parts of the fields, to equalize the fertility, instead of pursuing the old plan (ori- ginating doubtless v.ith the tobacco planter) of con- centrating all the manure raised, upon one or two lots, to the neglect and disparagement of the farm. It seems to be a subject of controversy, however, whether k is not tiie most judicious course, to ma- nure what you can, highly, and limit your cultiva- tion to a small number of highly improved acres, instead of the broadcast plan of improvement, and cultivation of much land to the hand. It seems to me, from my observations and reflections upon this subject, that the peculiarity of situation in' refer- ence to the market, and facility and despatch in visiting it, should decide the course to be pursued. Lands convenient to large cities, of great cost, that can be stocked down'in meadoAv, after one grain crop, that would pay for a manuring and liming at once at the cost of -9 20 to the acre, and which will remain eiglit or ten years in prime meadow, with- out being overrun with thistles, dock, or broom sedge, will present a subject for this description of cultivation and manuring. But, at a distance from cities, which afford a ready and good market for milk, butter, veals, hay, &"c. at no great expense of transportation, and where lands are cheap and labor dear in comparison with the price of land, and the production of grain, as with us in Virginia, tlie limited cultivation and costly manuring system would certainly fail. On our sandy soil, in our cli- mate, the broom sedge will compel a resort to the i)lough in five years, even if our lands, on being made rich, would suit the grazing system in other respects. I have, from long observation and some experience, come to the fixed conclusion, that the Virginia agriculturists generally should, with a due regard to profit and improvement, (v,hich should be regarded as inseparable,) pursue what is called the four shift, or four field system, and keep a stand- ing pasture, for stock to run upon, until harvest. After this, the field for corn, the year after, may be grazed to advantage ; as the clover will be ripe, the stock (which should never be more numerous than sufficient to consume the forage and tread the offal during winter and sjjring) will keep down the young weeds, and bushes, if any should spring, and "give the land a proper degree of compactness to suit the wheat crop. Another advantage, it strikes me, is derived from this grazing the year before corn is planted on the field — all cheat or rye, that may have sprung with the clover, will be eradica- ted, as well as cockle, and onion or garlick seed. And it is my impression that insects, and even the cut-worm, (that vile pest in cornfields, after clo- ver,) will be considerably lessened.* This system of culti\ation in corn one year, wheat another, and rest one year, w-ith partial gra- zino- the fourth, if combined with a judicious appli- * The grazing of a field must be very close to destroy cheat, as this vile weed will not be eaten by cattle, so lono- ns they can find clover or other palatable grasses. [Ed. Farm. Reg. 266 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE— PUBLIC WORKS. cation of manure, especially if the auxiliaries of clo- ver and plaster be added, will insure a rapid im- provement of the land, while it is yielding a good profit upon the capital and labor, independent of the comforts of living, derived from good stock. If all available means of raising manure were judiciously used, and composts and the tine manure applied to the thinnest parts of the fields as a top dressing on wheat, or to be harrowed in with the wheat, there would be little complaint about clover not taking on our fields. The summer's sun, in droughts espe- cially, kills the young clover that springs feebly on poor land, while a very moderate top dressing gives the young i)lant such vigor by the time the wheat is taken off, that a severe drought will Jiot kill it. I have never failed to obtain as good a stand of clo- ver as the quantity of seed sown entitled me to ex- pect, when sown on poor land, if a moderate top dressing had been given to the wheat or oats, upon which the clover seed were sown in the spring. It is true, that my clover has not been thick enough to crowd out all weeds or thistle, as I am inclined to think it would do, if twelve pounds of seed, in- stead of eight, had been sown. Arthur Young re- commends a gallon and a half, or twelve pounds, for England, and less would hardly be proper for our dryer climate, but for the expense of the seed. — The advantages of thick sowing will be found to exist in the suppression of weeds on the land, by which the seed will be easier gathered, and in greater purity, with a rich cover to be fallowed in, equal to a manuring with 25 cart loads of stable manure — the raising, carting, and spreading of which, c.innot be estimated at a cost of less than five dollars per acre. Hence, it would seem, that by means of clovering, the cheapest mode of im- proving a country is afforded, where clover is con- genial to the soil and climate, or rather, the soil and climate congenial to it, as is fortunately the case, in different degrees, with the greater part of Vir- ginia. In districts peculiarly congenial, rapid im- provement has been made, and is still making; and the growing resort to marl and lime, will extend this system to the tide water country, which^ with- out lime or marl, is rather too light and sandy, in general, for clover to succeed well; and on its light- est and most sandy regions, the pea, alternated with corn and oats perhaps, will, even with marl an.d lime, be found preferable to wheat with clover — so unsuitable for either of these is a sandy light soil. As a means of increasing the quantity of manure for improving our lands, there are many subjects which are generally overlooked, that, with a por- tion of well employed labor, would treble the quan- tity. Woods leaves and litter, rotten trees, scour- ings of ditches, and low grounds ditch banks, formed into composts heaps, with marl, or lime and ashes, vegetable additions, and rubbish generally from ne- gro quarters — these all combined, with the ma- nure V. ell preserved and applied to the land, with the clover and plaster system on all lands except the sandy, and the pea and corn system on naviga- ble water, would in a few years give a new face to our worn out country. Having marl in great abundance upon my farm on the Rappahannock, though deeply seated below the surface, and vast quantities of rich vegetable mould, and rich banks on my meadow ditches, from the experiment made, I am confident that it will be the most profitable employment that two or three hands could be placed at, with an ox cart, or tum- bril and two good mules, to raise and carry out marl, and form compost by the year, separate and distinct from the crop hands. Experience will prove, that if a reliance upon the crop-team and liands, for improvement by this means, is the only hope, there will be little done. The overseer, if you have one, (and my professional calls take me so much from home that I am obliged to employ one,) will never find time for this kind of work, in which he takes no interest; and whether you pitch a crop with a view to having it done, or not, you will hnd the same result: little or nothing can be done. He will let the standard of labor fall to the crop's demand for it, regardless of the manuring claims. This has been the case with me for seve- ral years, and I am certain will continue to be the case forever, unless a distinct force be detached for the sole object of manuring. Before closing these desultory observations, I cannot refrain from remarking, that we in V^ir- ginia pay too little attention to planting, or turning out, and trimming up, in our fields and along our inclosures, valuable trees, either for fruit or tim- ber. Such as the persimmon, black and honey locust, cedar, &c. many of which, except in severe droughts, draw but little from tlie crop, while they furnish shade and fruit for stock, and the most valu- able timber. The locust thrives well, and is of rapid growth on many soils, as well as the walnut and the persimmon upon all. Trimmed so as to have long bodies, they draw but little, and are ex- ceedingly valuable. In Germany, we are informed by tra\ellers, the highways are shaded for whole days' travel with walnut. These rows of trees break the fury of winds, and preserve crops from prostration. There is no subject of rural economy more neglected in Virginia than this. This may be accounted for by the woody character of our country, where, for ages to come, a resort to plant- ing, except for fruit ornament, shelter or shade, will hardly be necessary. The reservation of tim- ber and fuel, Avill, for a century, occu})y the place of planting for that purjiose, which, for want of such reservations, forms, in some old settled coun- tries, a subject of great interest. In conclusion, 1 may be permitted to address a few reflections to our society upon subjects, which, though not directly connected with the object of our institution, yet, having a great influence upon the welfare of our portion of the state, especially as slave holders, may not be considered inappropriate. The burthen which, by our revenue laws, is thrown upon our slave jjroperty, is disproportion- ate, in comparison with that of any other; while it is further mulcted with Ihe whole burden of sup- porting the poor, and nearly all of the county levy for municipal administration. Thus, the principal labor of eastern Virginia is trebly taxed under our state government; and the eastern section of the state, by its vast excess of slaves over the western, is most unequally burdened. In our present con- dition, with this inequality bearing upon us, and the restrictive tarifT grinding us, nothing but rigid parsimony in our indulgences, with marked econo- my, and untiring perseverance and industry, can sustain us in the slightly advancing position which we now occupy. This position is barely maintained with our present moderate state taxes; but if hea- vier burdens be superadded, have we not cause to fear that they will prove to be like the last pound that crushed the camel's back? FARMERS' REGISTER— CASTOR BEAN OIL CAKE. 267 Our transmountain brethren require improved facilities, for the products of their soil and labor to reach a market ; and a liberal and judicious policy has been adopted by the stale government, to aid in effecting for them so desirable an object. The joint-stock system, so called, in which the state sub- scribes 2-oths against 3-5ths subscribed by indivi- duals, is the plan for executing public improve- ments by canals, turnpikes, &c. ; and considering the circumstances of the ticle-water portion of the state, in reference to its large slave population, and consequent heavy contribution in taxes, while scarcely any of the expenditures of the joint-stock system, or any other for internal improvement, is requisite, or if so, is considered to be so, a signal advantage is secured by this system to the upper country. But, not contented with this, and omit- ting to help themselves, they, with other internal improvement enthusiasts, are for plunging the state in debt to the amount of millions, and under our revenue system, thereby to pledge our peculiar projjerty to raise the interest by taxes to meet the deficiency of tolls upon the works, which they so much distrust their capacity to meet the interest on tiie cost by tolls, that although their country is to reap the direct benefit, yet they refuse to take up the 3-5ths of the necessary stock by which 2-oths are to lie obtained from the state, under the joint- stock system. Now, it must be obvious to the plainest capacity, that such works of internal im- provement as cannot command 3-5ths of private capital for their execution, when by such subscrip- tion 2-5ths of aid is to be obtained from the state, with the character thereby superinduced in favor of the enterprise, must be regarded by the pro- jectors, mainly for the local advantages sought to be obtained, at the expense of others; and not of a cha- racter to be valuable as stock investment Other- wise, they would take the stock, if they had to bor- row the means, and the works would be made un- der the general internal improvement system of the state, it is idle for any section of the state, solici- tous for a canal or rail road, to complain that it is too destitute of capital to raise tb.e 3-5ths by sub- scription, or to insure loans to meet it. If they believe that the work is not to be an abiding tax on the state, instead of yielding by tolls a profit on its stock, they should not hesitate to pledge their property for a tax, to meet any temporary and par- tial deficiency of tolls to meet the interest on the loans to be obtained for constructing the v.ork. — Those who would have their lands benefitted by the work, ought to pay for it; and it is a flagrant violation of the principles of the social compact, to fix a burden upon one section of the state, to ope- rate a peculiar benefit to another section. The principle is universal in all good governments, that the benefits and burdens should be correspondent. It is a universal principle of justice, too often lost sight of by legislators. It ought to be inscribed in letters of gold in every legislative hall. It might operate to restrain enthusiasts from pushing their projects, under all circumstances, in imitation of New York, who, by her splendid success in the Erie canal, has run a great portion of our people mad upon the subject of internal improvement. It has been overlooked, or not observed in relation to this grand work, that it was to a superficial observer, a route, of all others in the woi-ld perhaps, that presented the surest promise of a trade upon it, capable of affording tolls adequate to a handsome dividend upon the cost of construction. Half, and the richest half, of the state, inlocked, and that ra- pidly settling by a hardy, industrious and wealthy population, and the junction with the lakes, making the canal unite the most extensive inland ship navi- gation in the world with the ocean's tide. Indeed, no great credit is due for foresight to De Witt Clin- ton, tor securing this work to the state, as a certain source of wealth; and had it pleased God to have presented Virginia with a similar boon, she would have had Clintons enough to have saved it, to en- rich the Old Dominion, long before it was done in New-York, supine as she is charged to be. But, it is out of the question to think of Virginia incur- ring a debt of eight or ten millions to construct a rail road or canal, through the state to the Ohio river, in imitation of New-York, when the pros- pect of a return by tolls to meet the interest is so much doubted, that the intelligent inhabitants of the country through which it must pass, and whose lands must be doubled in value by its construction, show such evident distrust of the value of the stock, that they will not take up the requisite 3-5ths to put the enterprise in motion. I have such confidence myself in the enterprise, that were I a landholder on the route, or adjacent to it, I would not hesitate to adopt the plan of pledging the real estate in the counties to be benefitted by the work, for such a tax, as should be requisite to meet the temporary deficiency of tolls for paying the interest on such loan as should be necessary to be obtained for com- pleting the work. This course would be satisfac- tory to all portions of the state, and would be equal and just. I may say, if this course were to be atlopted all over the state, we should see our be- loved Virginia advancing in a judicious course of improvement, and the tidewater portion of the state no longer under the ban of oppression, pro- duced by a glaring inequality of the benefits, com- pared with the burdens, of the state government. Emigration would slacken; and this abused region, instead of returning to a howling wilderness, would yet, by having its energies aroused, and its resour- ces thereby developed, smile like a garden, and teem with a happy population. JOHN BICKINSOIV. CASTOR BEAN OIL-CAKE AS MANURE. To (he Editor of the Farmers' Register. Williamsburg, Aug. 23, 1833. I have delayed answering your inquiries rela- tive to the effect, and mode of apj)lication of the oil-cake or residuum of the castor bean, after the oil is expressed, that I might ascertain and report to you the product of my crop of the present year, although this is not yet known, in consequence of ray not having been able to procure a vessel to take it to market. I have determined, as your patience must by this time be nearly threadbdre, to make the promised communication at once, particularly as I can form a tolerably correct, though not an accurate estimate of the quantity made. I have been using this manure as a top dressing for wheat and oats for the last three years. In the fall of 1830 I made the first regular application of it on seven and a half acres of wheat, on which were sown ten bushels of seed. From fifty to sixty bushels were put on each acre. The yield, in this experiment, Avas twenty six bushels per acre. 268 FARMERS' REGISTER— CHEESE MADE OF POTATOES. In 1831 I sowed about ninety six acres, on which were applied 'forty bushels of the manure per acre. This crop I commenced sowinf^; the 5{h Oc- tober. By the loth, I had put in fifteen acres. The wheat upon these fifteen acres I am perlectly satisfied, was tuw thirds destroyed hy fly. I know this, from tlie circumstance of its being- decidedly the best in the early part of the sprinjj, then gra- dually declining till just before it ripened, and yielding when reaped, not more than one third the quantity of straw that the rest of the land did. The fly was discovered in this wheat before the 1st of November. The last forty acres I did not commence sowing till the 15th Novendier, and did not finish till the 3d December. In consequence of its being so late, I sowed these forty acres (un- fortunately) with Mexican wheat. You remem- ber the severe winter that succeeded. It nearly destroyed the whole of it. There were acres on Avhich scarcely a spire could be seen. This crop, under all these disadvantages, yielded 1450 bush- els : a bushel and a half per acre was the average quantity sown. The last fall (1832) fifty six acres and a half (by actual survey) were sown in wheat, at the rate of five pecks to the acre, with forty buslielsof the manure. Forty acres of this field had receiv- ed_^a previous manuring of the same kind. I have made from itcertainly 1000 bushels, perhaps more, which is within a very small fraction of 18 bushels per acre. But for the blast, or scab, or whatever name you may apply to the disease that has been so destructive of our wheat, I think the present would have been much the heaviest crop I have yet made. Last year, from 94 small stacks, I ob- tained 1050 bushels. This year, from 163 of the same size, I shallnot, perha{)S, get quite as much grain. I should observe that 25 acres of this field was in clover last year, which although much grazed, yielded a considerable quantity of vegeta- ble matter to turn in. Theclovered land produced the heaviest growth, and a few acres (say 4 or 5) which I had plastered in the spring, was decided- ly better than any other part. The plaster cer- tainly doubled the crop of clover. My mode of applying the manure has invaria- bly been to sow it with the wheat, and cover it Avith a harrow. I had been told, that about Hamp- ton, the farmers preferred scattering it over the wheat in the spring. In consequence of this infor- mation, I commenced two years ago sowing a crop of oats before the cake reached my farm, and had half done it before it got there. According to the Hampton plan, what was finished was top dressed, but not harrowed. The other half was applied in my own way, viz: harrowed in with the seed. The difference was fully 150 per cent, in favor of the harrowing. My first experiment (1S30-'31) was upon land on which a crop of corn had been made. The se- cond was on a fallow. The third on a fallow, of which a part was clover. The durability of this manure has been and is still very much questioned. That it will cause good clover to grow on the poorest (stiff) land, I have entirely satisfied myself, and can prove to any one who will take the troul)le to ride over my farm. The able essay of Mr. Carter of Shirley, is perfectly satisfactory as to the effects of a clover lay. I have never seen the Shirley land, but from what I have been informed, I should think mine is of the same character. The seven and a half acres of land on wliich I first applied the oil cake, and which yielded 2G bushels ])er acre, those best acquainted with the farm v.' ill acknowledge would not have produced more than five bushels without it. The 96 acres which brought 1450 bushels last year, in spite of all the disadvantages the crop la- bored under, would not, I feel fully justified in say- ing, under the most favorable circumstances, have yielded more than 700 bushels; and the field of 56i acres, from which I shall get, this miserable vear, 1000 bushels, would not originally have pro- duced 300.* I observe that a writer in your valuable Regis- ter under the signature of " A Gleaner," attri- butes the virtues of the cake to the oil it contains. f This I know to be the general opinion, but I have never been convinced of its correctness ; indeed, I have for some time past, questioned its truth very much. Our press is a j)0vverful one, and leaves a very small portion of oil in the cake. There is moreover other refuse matter in such an establishment as ours, which contains a vast deal more oil than the cake, which I have used as ma- nure, and been uniformly disappointed in its ef- fects. Accident has enabled me, I think, to solve the difficulty, and to declare my belief that the fertilizing qualities of the oil cake reside chiefly in the farina it contains. Sometime last year, a ves- sel laden with flour was stranded near Jamestown, and the flour ruined. Mr. John Mann, who owns a farm in the neighborhood, took two or three of the barrels and top dressed a small portion of his wheat wilh it. I was not an eyewitness of its ef- fects ; but I was informed it produced as great an increase of that portion of his crop as my oil cake would have done. By experiment, I find that 50 bushels of the cake will weigh 1800 pounds ; and of this quanti- ty I have discovered that |j is farina or flour — .equal to five barrels of flour. The cotton seed, I fancy, contains more farina, in proportion to the oil than castor bean, and, I believe, would produce as great an effect after being deprivetl of its oil, as it would do in its original state. I should l)e much obliged to you to give us your opinion on this sub- ject. I have thus answered your inquiries as fully as I am able to do. Should any other queries sug- gest themselves to you, it will give me pleasure to attend to them. tiiomas g. peachy. CHEESE MADE OF POTATOES. Exlract from the Correspondence of jyi. Fahnenherg. TraiLsIated for the Farmers' Register, from the "Journal d'Ag- ricuUure etc. des Pays Bas." In Thuringia and a part of Saxony, they make cheeses of potatoes, which are thought very good. This is the way in which they are made. After having chosen potatoes of good quality, (and large * Tliere are but few farms in lower Virginia which have produced more than half a crop of wlieat this year, owing to the various and disastrous effects of the long continued wet season in May and June — and it is believed tlial not one has yielded so mucli as two tliirds of a fair average product. — [Ed. Farm. Reg. t Farmers' Register, No, 2, p. 109. FARMERS' REGISTER- CULTURE OF CORN, &c. 269 white ones in preference,) boil them in a kettle. When they arc sulficiently cooked, lake them out and let them cool ; then peel them, and mash them in a mortar. To five pounds of potatoes well mashed, add one pound of sour milk, and the quan- tity of salt necessary : knead the whole, cover it, and let it remain undisturbed for three or four days, according to the season ; at the end of this time, knead it again, and place the cheeses in small baskets, where the supertiuous moisture will evaporate. Then place the cheeses in the shade to dry, and put them in layers in large pots, or any other ves- sels, where they must be kept for tifteen days. The older these cheeses are, the better their quality. Three sorts of cheeses may be made ; the first, which is the most common, is made with the pro- portions mentioned above ; the second, with four parts of potatoes, and two parts of curdled milk ; the third, with two pounds of potatoes, and four pounds of cows or ewes milk. Cheeses made of potatoes, have over common cheeses the advantages of not engendering mites, and of keeping fresh for many years, provided you put them in a dry place, and in close vessels. I have repeated this experiment with the pro- portions of the seto:Kl quality, and this is the course that has been pursued. We first cooked the potatoes, then peeled and mashed them with the hands. (We might, if we proceeded on a large scale, make use of the cylinders generally used in distilleries for mashing potatoes.) We then warmed the milk, into which vinegar (in place of rennet) was poured, until it curdled. Af- ter this operation, we mixed the milk with the po- tatoes, put salt into the mixture, and passed it through a sieve of hair to make the mixture more perfect. It was then put into an earthen pan, where it remained for ten or twelve days. At the end of that time we placed it on sieves where it was drained, at the same time that it was moulded. The sieves must be covered with cloth. After draining fifteen days, the cheeses were pressed, and covered over, and placed in wicker work in a cellar. By this time the fermentation was deve- loped, the cheeses still soft, and a skin of mould was formed on the surface. The flavor of cheese was very perceptible ; it is not disagreeable, and I believe these sorts of cheeses may be made with advantage on farms. Now that the taste of cheese is well developed, I shall dry them in the shade, as was recommended in the recipe above mentioned, in order to know the quality of the product in this state. I have noAv shown the reader the conse- quences of this experiment, which seems to me to be very interesting to rural economy. Saviiig^ of lor IN CUTTI3SG DOWN CORN STALKS. REMARKS ON CONTRIBITTORS TO THE FARMERS' RE- GISTER. j^melia, Aug. 22d, 1833. Dear Sir, — If yout numerous patrons could be induced to communicate whatever they consider good in their system of management, much useful information would in this way be obtained. There are many excellent practical managers in Virgi- nia, who cannot be prevailed on to write any thinj^ for puldication. Suppose something like this be suggested tlirough the Farmers' Register — that f\cls be furnished you, with the understanding that you will present tiiem to your readers in your own way. In every instance the name of the per- son should be given. In closing these crude, undigested remarks, I will give the method which I have pursued for se- veral years in cutting down corn, preparatory to sowing wheat. I have no hesitation in saying tliat half the labor is saved. Instead of using a hoe with a long helve in cutting down the corn, to be picked up by another hand, I use a small hoe (which can be bought (()r fifty cents in Richmond) w ith a short helve, made of some light wood, such as pine, pop- lar or walnut. The operator taking the hoc in one hand, and taking hold of the stalk of corn with the other, cuts it down, carrying the stalks cut, until he has as many as he can carry. In this way the corn is cut and piled by the same hand, and the picking up, the luordt half of the labor, is saved. In piling, three rows are laid in one, or six in two; leaving a space along which 'the cart or wagon may pass, to take the corn off" of the land to be sown in wheat. For several years I used knives in cuftingdown my corn, but found it very difficult to avoid leaving the stubble too long. With the short helved hoe the corn can be cut as close to the earth as with the long. Thus, sir, on the plans suggested, I have given you thc.facts respe( ting my plan of cutting down corn. You wil' dispose of them as you please. For the inelegance of style, or other defects in conmmnicating the (acts, if published,! hold the editor of the Farmers' Register responsible. Respectfully yours, JOHN H. STEGER. P. S. I have used the term my plan. It is pro- per to say that Avith me the method did not origi- nate: I learned it from a friend in Louisa. I in- troduced it in this county and in Powhatan. As far as I know, the old plan of cutting down, and picking up, still prevails. J. II. s. We are very willing to incur all the responsibility of publishing .the foregoing communication, and without changing a word — though we should certainly have used the privilege of altering the form, if it had been thought necessary. The communication of our friend and correspondent is just such as are most needed, and might be most abundantly supplied, for the Farmers' Re- gister— a statement of useful facts, in plain but correct words. We recommend both his suggestion and his example to others. Every real improvement in the mode of applying labor by one individual, however in- considerable, is worth communicating for the use of others : and if such was the course of every one of the patrons of the Farmers' Register, it would from this source alone, humble as it may be considered, derive and dispense more valuable information for farmers, than has yet been done by this or any other journal. It would become a literary savings hank, from which each customer would oljtain 'a thousand fold increase upon his deposit. 270 FARMERS' REGISTER— QUERIES IN MARLING, &c. QUERIES IN MARLING IMPROVEMENTS IN LO^VER VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Reaister. jfugust 30th, 1833. I belong to that very small class of farmers, or rather agriculturists, who arc not too wise in their own conceits, to he l)oth willing and desirous of being taught by their more experienced brethren; and not knouing any person better qualified than yourself to instruct us, — especially on the subject of marling our lands, I take the liberty to sug- gest the following queries, which I will thank you to answer a^ soon as your convenience will permit. 1st. How often can the application of marl be beneficially renewed : in other words, how long will one marling, in the (juantities which you re- commend, which I understand to be from 250 to 800 bushels per acre, according to the quality of the soil, continue to produce an equal annual be- nefit in similar seasons ? 2d. What proportion of carbonate of lime sliduld marl possess to pay for the expense of applying it, where the cartage does not exceed 1 or 2 miles.' 3d. Is there any other advantage in exposing marl to the winter frosts, tiian to lessen the ex- pense of pulverizing it by artificial means.' 4th. Is it best to keep marl as near the surface as possible by top dressing, or to plough it under belore the crop, be it what it may, is sowed or planted ? 5th. Is marl equally beneficial to all our usual crops in Virginia ; if not, what are the excep- tions, so far as your experience enables you to judge.' 6th. Have you ever tried its influence upon such vegetables and fruits' as are commonly cultivated in our gardens.' If you have, what has been the result in regard to each.' 7th. Is it as beneficial to lowland as to upland.' I am sorry to trouble you with these inquiries ; but believing that your answers will highly bene- fit the agricultural public as well as your old friend, I hesitate not to avail myself of this mode of eliciting your opinion. At the same time, I beg you to accept my cor- dial congratulations on the rapid success of your Farmers' Register, which I hear every where spoken of in the most favorable terms. This pa- per, together with your book on marl and marling, have already caused our mother earth to be so perforated and pierced with marl augers, that I am sure we should hear her groan most piteously, were she capable of it. 'I'he worst of it too, I fear, will be, that all this boring, and eviscerat- ing, and vinegar effervescing, and wondering how the strange shells which we dig up, found their way into the places where we find them, will end with most of us, like old George the Third's puz- zle about how the apples got into the apple dump- lings— in little more than mere talk. Out of the many hundreds, perhaps thousands, who will make what they call " marling experiments," very few will perform them in a way to obtain any certain and satisfactory results. No analysis will be made either of the marl itself, or of the soil to which it is applied; no measure, but by the eye, will take place, of the quantity used, or of the space on which it will be spread ; no marking off" the spots for deposit, to secure equal distribution ; but the overseer, or most probably the cartman, will ge- nerally be left to regulate the matter by his eye; scarcel)^ any two parcels will be of the same size, being carried out in whatever kind of vehicle — ' from a wheelbarrow to an ox cart or wagon, can most readily be obtained ; each w ill be loaded according to the laziness or industry of the dri- ver and those who fill for him ; and the whole quantity carried out will probably fall far short of the quantities which you recom.mend. Yet these very experimentalists, although without a right to expect much, if any benefit whatever, will be the first and loudest after failure, in proclaiming marl to be good for nothing. Otiiers again will proba- lily reach no nearer point toAvards a trial of their marls, than to carry selected shells as specimens, to the nearest of those innumeral)le places of idle resort, so baneful to our state, where the quid- nuncs of every neighborhood, (and where is there one witliout them,) resort to settle the affairs of (he nation, and — to drink grog. I most sincerely iiope that I may not prove a true prophet in this highly interesting matter ; but that the most san- guine of your expectations relative to the im- provement of our tidewater country from the ex- tensive use of marl, may be fully realized. That something must speedily be done towards it, if the present owners mean to escape ruin, is quite as certain, I think, as any prospective event can be : and that this something is, either your plan, or one like it in all essentials, appears to me equally sure. One of three things a large majority of us must do : improve our lands extensively and constantly ; or be content to live on them under rapidly increas- ing privations; or troop off" to some new country. I say a large majority of us must determine between these courses; for an immense portion of our tide- water lands is either utterly exhausted by reckless cultivation, or never has been sufficiently fertile to admit of profitable tillage, unless by manuring at an expense twice or thrice as great as the selling price of the land ilself. This I venture to affirm from personal observation, — even at the risk of of- fending the Virginianism of a certain correspond- ent of yours, who seems quite as touchy in regard to the character of our soil, as if it were identified with that of our people themselves. But, Heaven iielp us poor tidewater folks, say I, if land which may literally be said to be "born poor," be any disgrace to us ! In this respect, the only real dis- grace which attaches to us, is one that all the newspaper writers in the Ancient Dominion can never wipe off". It is, — that so tew of us make any adequate exertions, either to save our good lands irom irretrievable impoverishment, or to render the bad as productive as we might ; — would we only abandon gadding about; would we study ag- riculture instead of party politics ; and engage with steady, unflinching zeal, in the pursuit of our own proper business, rather than demagogueing of it, (if I may coin such a phrase,) about the coun- try, setting quiet neighbors together by the ears about Jacksonism, and Clayism, and God knows how many other kinds of isms ; and tempting in- dustrious men to neglect agriculture, for populari- ty-hunting. This is truly a miserable occupation for the owners of lands exhausted by a century or two of destructive cultivation, unaided by any kind of ameliorating process whatever ; and can- not possibly end but in ruin, or emigration to soils of such natural fertility, as to yield good crops. FARMERS' REGISTER— LONG ISLAND FARMING, &c. 271 even although their proprietors sliould spend the greater part of their time in seeking tliose politi- cal distinctions and notoriety for which nature ne- ver intended them. The truth is, that far too ma- ny in the Ancient Dominion— too many certain- ly, for that agricultural improvement of which the good old state stands so much in need, are, and I fear, will remain for years to come, in the situa- tion of Beau Clincher in the " Trip to the Jubilee," who, upon being asked what was the matter with him, replied most laconically, — " politics and bran- dy." These, Mr. Editor, are the two diseases which obstruct tlie progress of good husbandry among us more than all other causes put together; and until you, or some other doctor, can cure or greatly mitigate their virulence, will retard, most lamentably, the good which your very instructive and useful paper is calculated to effect. That we may both live to witness this good widely diffused over our poverty-stricken fields, is the sincere and constant wish of Your old friend, CORNPLAXTER. ANSWERS TO THE FOREGOING QUERIES. We will endeavor to answer the queries of our high- ly esteemed correspondent as well as the space will ad- mit, within which it is projier to confine our editorial re- marks: and even this cannot be done without our be- ing guilty of the indecorum of referring, for reasons and details, to the volume of which Cornplanter speaks in such kind terms. The answers will neces- sarily be defective and incomplete, as here presented. Answer to [st Q,uery. The beneficial effects ot calca- reous manures are permanent; and will continue for- ever to be at least equal, if not sujijerior, to those first experienced, provided the soil is kept under meliorating culture. But still, a second dose of marl (or other cal- careous manure) may be beneficially applied, to secure an increase of profit, whenever so much vegetable or putrescent matter has been added to the soil (by ma- nuring or by rest) as to need more of the calcareous to combine with, and retain it. [Essay on Calcareous Ma- nures, chap. 15.] 2nd. It is impossible to answer this satisfactorily, as so many and various circumstances might operate to af- fect the expense and profit. Bat it may be stated in ge- neral terms, that marl containing 60-100 of carbonate of lime, would be profitably carted from one to two miles, to a suitable soil — and the most suitable is either the most acid, or that having the most abundant supply of vegetable matter, whether furnished by nature, or by manuring. [Chap. 16.] 3rd. There is no advantage in exposing marl to the winter frosts, unless it has lumps, which freezing will pulverize : and there is a disadvantage, if it remains in heaps, as they are less easy to spread after becoming compact. 4th. It is best that the marl should be mixed as equally as possible with the whole of the tilled soil. Either as a top dressing, or tvn-ned in deeply and com- pletely by a single ploughing, it will produce but little benefit, until mixed with the soil by after tillage. [Chap- ter 14.] 5th. Marl is most beneficial to clover, and (it is be- lieved) to all plants of the clover or pea tribe. Wheat probably receives more aid from this manure than corn, on light soils, by their being rendered more close and firm; but there is not much difference in the rate of improvement made on any ot the grain crops. — Cot'On i-eceives an additional aid, by being made to ri- pen earlier, and thereby to perfect pods which would otherwise be damaged by frost. The effect of marl on tobacco is not known. Gth. Except on peas, no considerable effects have been observed on garden vegetables and fruits ; nor have any experiments been made to obtain such facts, because the great quantity of putrescent manure used in our gardens, would serve to conceal the effect of marl. Nevertheless, if the theory of the action of calcareous marnires is not mistaken, the benefit from marl must be far greater on a garden, than elsewhere — not so much Ijy aiding the growth of plants directly, as by preserv- ing the moisture and the putrescent manures received by the soil. The difference would be precisely the same as between gardening on one of the best natural soils, and on one of those " born poor," in like seasons, and with equal supj^lies of putrescent manure. [Chap. 8.] 7lh. It is not as beneficial to apply marl to most low- land as to most upland, merely because the former kind is generally of better natural fertility : but acid low- land, or such as will produce sorrel freely, would be more benefitted, than vipland of the best quality. For the Farmers' Register. LONG ISLAND FARMING COST OF »IANURE, AND VALUE OF LAND .lERSEY MARL, OR GYPSEOUS EARTH. Long fsland, (Bath House,') } jJugust 30, 1833. 5 In getting to this place, I have passed through the finest country I have ever seen. One from our part of Virginia would suppose that he was passing a village nearly the whole way, so thick are the settlements on the road. I have learned, since my arrival, something of their mode of tillage — and great as is the expense of manuring, (which they all agree to be absolutely necessary once in five years,) to use their own langu;ige, " it pays well." Yesterday I had an opportunity of forming an idea of this expense. At high water, I saw a schooner Hearing the shore, heavily laden. Her cargo proved to be manure irom the streets of New-York, which cost the fanner, on board, in the dock, 30 cents per load of 14 bushels. The freight was 21 cents per load; and not having a landing of his own, he was charged 100 cents for the privilege of "dumping" (as they call it) on the land of a neighbor. The cargo was 100 loads of 14 bushels, equal to 50 wagon loads of 28 bushels, which would cover two acres of land, as the owner informed me. As soon as the vessel grounded, (which was very near the beach,) and the. tide had fallen a little, the farmer himself, with one wagon, and a colored man (hired at S 8 per month) with another, commenced to " ride it" (as they termed it) from the vessel to the dump, a distance of one hundred yards perhaps. The sand on the beach was very deep — but this they hardened immediately by putting straw along the track, which in a few moments aflbrded a very good road. The tide receded so much as to leave the vessel bare, and before it came in again, so as 272 FAHMERS' REGISTER— LONG ISLAND FARMING, &c. to interfere Avith them, the whole of the manure was taken out by these two wagons, with the as- sistance of one more for tliree or four loads. Tliis they mi!2:ht have dispensed with, and have finished before the tide would have prevented work. There were four men on deck to load the wafjon, three of them belonging to the vessel, and one furnished by the farmer. This manure was now to be hauled one mile farther to put on the land for wheat, which crop they calculate generally wi 1 pay for the ma- nure. The land will be seeded in clover and timothy, and cut three years in succession — then one year in corn, one in oats, after which comes th.e manuring, with wheat again. The first thing that suggested itself to my mind, was the great advan- tage which might Ise derived from the use of marl, or lime. I asked if it was ever used, and was told very promptly tliat it would not answer here, be- cause of the influence of sea air. I asked how this was ascertained: the answer was, that plaster of Paris had been tried, without success, and had been abandoned on the island. I was told that a neigh- bor had tried marl from the Jersey shore this last spring, for corn ; but no benefit had been seen on the crop. This I will endeavor to account to you for, and must see the proprietor of that farm — I will, for a moment then, stop my communication, and see him. Well! I have returned from a visit to this gen- tleman, and have a specimen of two kinds of the marl (as he called it) tor you. On my reaching home, I thought I would try a little vinegar on them. I doubted them on sight to be marl, recog- nizing in the best, as lie considered it, gypseous earth, that abounds at Coggins' Point. There was no effervescence perceivable with vinegar, which of course satisfied me that there was no calcareous matter. Now I am able to account to you some- what for the unwillingness to try marl on Long Island. The people here, like all others in the world, are disposed to pursue the steps of their fathers, and any innovation seems to be treated as something unwise, and ruinous to the lands, here. This gentleman, v» horn I hiive visited, I found to be an nitelligent Scotchman, anxious to do all he can for the improvement of the soil, but discoura- ged by all around him,liecause he does not pursue The same plan w ith themselves. He procured these two parcels of marl (I say gypseous earth) at great expense: he had sown a little clover in his yard, and in one corner of it, he had thrown about one quart of this earth on about three yards square : he took me with him to see if any good had been pro- duced, and we saw the effect at once. The clover on all the rest of the yard seemed nearly gone, whilst this was thickly set. He is anxious to sell out, and a few days ago offered his fiirm at public auction. 11 contains 35 acres, has a dwelling house and barn on it, and some few outhouses. One bid of i^ 7,250 was made, and the ov.ner bid it in, at an advance of ^ 250. This would make our Virginia farmers stare — indeed, few will give credit to it, I am afraid. I therefore wish you to know that it is within 9 miles of the city of New -York. Twenty- four acres adjoining has been sold, by the gentle- man with whom I am now boarding, at ^ 3000 : and he tells me it cannot now be bought for S 4000. This has no house on it at all. I forgot to mention, in the proper j)lace, that the common crop of hay on this land, after the ma- nuring, for three years, was about three loads of one ton each, making 6000 weight, and the average price 75 cents per hundred. Tiie next crops are corn and oats, which, I suppose, pay nearly as well. I have written this in much haste : if there is any thing worth your notice, you can extract it, or do with it as you like. Your's, £ic. c. h. m. The foregoing communication furnishes information well deserving attention, and Avhich causes us to regret that our friend did not extend his remarks farther, on facts, which so judicious an observer knows well how to estimate. Independent of the particular facts here detailed, the comnuuiication is valuable as an example to om- many patrons who travel for health or for busi- ness, and wlio could find so many good and interesting subjects for communications to the Farmers' Register. We hope that we shall be indebted to C. H. M. as well as to others, for more aid, obtained in this manner. The frtcts presented in the foregoing letter, well deserve a much longer comment than we shall now offer. The cost of the manure to the Long Island farmer was as follows: 100 loads (of 14 bushels) bought at 30 cents, $ 30 Freight, at 21 cents the load, - - - 21 Rent of landing place, .... 1 This, for two acres, makes the cost, m money, $ 26 the acre, for a single manuring, to be renewed every five years. The labor of unloading the vessel, aiid of after- wards drawing the manure a mile, form additional ex- penses, which we will leave for others to estimate : but ihis labor alone is as great as the whole average expense of using marl on the farms wliere it is found, throughout lower Virginia. This land, which is manured at such enormous expense, yet gives so much profit on its cul- tivation, as to sell at prices varying from 1 25 to 220 dol- lars the acre. We are not acquainted with the land of Long Island, except from the observation and accounts of others: but these afford enough indirect proof that the soil is very far from being naturally well constituted, or being the most siutable to be benefitted by putrescent manures. The great value there found in wood ashes as manure, and the high prices paid for them, and the inefficacy of gypsum, indicate that the soils of Long Island belong to the acid class — and, as our friend in- fers, are just such as would receive most benefit from marl, or calcareous manures in any other form : And at this time, they could receive greater (because durable) improvement from marl from the waters of the Chesa- peake, at much less cost than that of the customary ma- nui'ing. Perhaps some reader may ask, " Of what possible use to us can be the examples of fanners who are so differ- ently situated, that they can afford to pay as much for manuring one acre, as we can buy the fee simple of ten for ?" Such examples are certainly not for us to follow to the full extent — but they teach most impressively this truth, of universal application— that the amount of ex- pense in manuring is unimportant, provided the crops derived therefrom repay that expense with sufficient profit. FARMERS' REGISTER— THE SPANISH TIHSTLE. 273 That tlie Jersey " marl" is not a calcareous manure, and is identical witli the gypseous earth of James River, are important facts, for which we are first indebted for proof, to the observations of our correspondent. These inferences were drawn from indirect evidence, and were maintained by argument, in the account of gypseous earth in ovu'last number, (page 21 1:) now, they are established as facts, by the pei'sonal observation of one who knows well the appearance and distuiguishing properties of both marl and gypseous earth. The " marl" used on acid soil on Long Island, being found to be, in truth, gypseous earth, serves at once to explain why the latter manure was worlhless, and why the true marl, (as in Virginia also it is improperly called) or calcareous earth, has been considered as no better. When we begin to call things by their right names, or at least, to use the same name for the same thing, we shall have overcome one of the first and greatest obstacles to the spreading of agricultural information. [Ed. Farm. Reg. Fur the Farmers' Rcgi.iter. THE SPANISH THISTLE. In 1810, or llic following year, whe;i the merino speculation i-af::cd in this country, and so many sheep were imported from Spain, they introduced a new plant, which promises to have more impor- tant effects on our agriculture, than either the pro- fits or losses tlicn caused by the ])urchase of the me- rinoes. The Spanish thistle, the burs or seeds of which were brought on the wool of the sheep, was ston after seen, for the lirst time, growing on waste spols of our seaports, and other towns, where these sheep had been landed, or brouglit to for sale. Few as they were at first, their being so well armed with y the chemical action of heat and moisture, and by the decomposed vegetable matter. Those soils are best where there is the most vegetable matter, hence the woodlands that pay for their tenancy in the soil the annual contribution of their leaves, are better than the bald Prairies who receive only a scanty contribution from their decayed grasses. The soil is a powder which dries quickly on its surface for an inch or two, and in dry ^^•eather is all over in small cracks and looks very dry and husky and unfit for vegetation; but below its sur- face, two inches, or below where the plough has reached, there is a perpetual moisture. The soil works up under the fingers without grit and very much like putty. From a casual observation of the black light inland swamps of the lower coun- try of this state, I would say , there was much resem- blance between them as to apjiearance, but to ap- pearance only. This quality in the soil causes the Prairie to bear drought surprisingly, and good crops of cotton and corn are made on tliem, in sea- sons that cut short the product of other lands. This fineness of soil ])revents the percolation of much water through it : hence, in the rains of win- ter, when but very little evaporation is going on, it makes the worst I'oads imaginable ; so much so, that it is a material deduction from the value of any plantation, that should be more than ten miles from navigation. This fineness of soil, which prevents its absorp- tion of water to any de]ith, I think the cause of another mischief. It prevents the gradual feeding of the wells and springs, and in dry summers they go dry loan extent on some few plantations, to re- quire water to be hauled to the people in the fields, and in extraordinaiy years to be hauled to their settlements. It is very common for stock to suffer much for the want of water. So soon as the warmth of spring is felt and exaporation begins, the roads improve surprisingly and become good, and the lands become dry ; and when once \v ell ploughed up in the spring, become as light as an ash-heap, or as lime itself, which it is, and no subsequent weather ever puts them out of order, except for a day or two from some great rain. You can gene- rally plough the day after a hard rain. The soil Iveingso loose and light makes it "very liable to run its surflice ofT with every rain, and I do not think that horizontal ploughing would save it, nor the means usualy considered etTectual here. I have tried cotton stalks, and bushes up-a-slope without effect that would have been sufficient here. You cannot ditch with the spade in the Prairie, you would make as much and very similar pro- gress in a 1)arrel of pilch. With all this liability of your lands to wash, it will be a longtime before you will lose its soil, for it is very deep. I find the opinion entertained by intelligent gentlemen, that the fertility may be restored by the chemical ac- tion of the sun and air without putting vegtable mat- ter tlicre. This looseness of sod and want of re- tention of moisture at the surface during the crop season, makes the Prairies the kindest and the easiest land to work. I would prefer to make a crop on them in an ordinarily good year, to pre- paring for one here.* You can very well cultivate one-fifth more land to the laborer, and gather two thirds more of cotton. The reason v/hy you can gather more is because the cotton pod in that soil and climate matures perfectly, and opens so wide, that ti>e whole contents of the boll comes out at a touch of the fingers; when here, it is drawn out at two pulls, and sometimes a third ; anotlier reason is, that you commence picking about a fort- night earlier than here, and this time in the long days of August, is equal to one bale of our weights to each laborer, and yet another reason is, that knowing that the amount of the crop depends on the gathering, all otlier works are so arranged as not to interfere w'ith it. I think the country more healthy than this, ow- ing in part to its being more high, dry, and bro- ken, and more under the strong infiuenceof the trade winds; b.ut there must be a farther reason, because I have seen local causes enough to produce sickness here, in spite of the general causes of sa- lubrity, that difl not produce it there. Families reskle with security on their prairie plantations all summer, in themidst of extensive clearings of rich land. I think it must come from some purifica- tion of atmosphere arising from the immense quan- tity of lime on and near the surface of the soil. The other lands in that country under similar cir- cumstances, are not more healthy than here. The waters on the Prairie do not corrupt ; it is disa- greeable to the taste, and both cathartic and diu- rectic in its efTects on a new settler, but after a few weeks he becomes reconciled to its taste, and many prefer it to other good water. I have now given you a candid, and to the best of my observation, a correct statement of the ad- vantages and disadvantages of a Prairie plantation. It is a disagreeable "winter country and a plea- sant summer country. Your settlement would be more agreeable off the Prairie, and the neai'er to navigation the better; your cotton once on the ri- ver bank, finds a ready and expeditious way to market at a dollar a bale, for all distances above one hundred miles in a direct line from iMobile. Moliile furnishes a good market for its sale, though, perhaps, not equal to that of Charleston. I think it the most conveniently built town for business I have seen, and destined to increase more rapidly than any other in the South. The country is nei- ther well wooded nor watered, and is rather liable to the visits of hurricanes and tornadoes, and your buildings and fences decay sooner than here. I think tiiese objections overbalanced by having a climate more pleasant, from having more air than this, and you are secure in health to your family and slaves, and can more easdy make much larger crops, and get them as cheaply to the market of + In South Carohna.— [£(/. Furm. Reg. FARMERS' REGISTER— MOBILE PAVED WITH SHELLS, &c. 270 sale. A reasonably good planter on a good plan- tation ought to average from 1500 to 2000 pounds of clean cotton to the laborer each year, with provisions to raise hogs enough to kill one for each laborer, and some to spare. Your lands will yield you from eight hundred to twelve hun- dred pounds of seed cotton per acre, and from thir- ty to forty bushels of corn, and on an improved l)lantation, Avill cost you about ten dollars an acre. I think tlie Prairie, incomparably, the finest corn and small grain upland in the South; and the bald, which sometimes rusts the cotton too nmch for profitable planting, never produces the less corn on that account ; if, therefore, in selecting a wood- ed Prairie plantation, you are compelled to take only as much bald Prairie with it asiuaybe need- ed for your corn and small grain crop, and it lays in such a maniier that it can be so used, it ought to deduct but little from the value of the jdace. It remains for me last to say something about the rust in cotton, but of which I really know no- thing. Some suppose it to proceed from the caus- ticness of the lime from its deficiency in vegetable matter, and if so, it will be likely to increase and attack the wooded Prairies so soon as successive crops shall have exhausted the vegetable matter in them. This may be postponed for as long a time as most lands would last, by the thrifty mode of listing so generally practised in this State. Others suppose it to arise from the extreme looseness of the soil, and its disposition to granulate rather than pulverize, and not hold in so closely about the small roots of the plant; and that a remedy will be found in not breaking the surface of the beds too near the plant, and not stirring too deep and too near with the plough. We have the same disease here, which has been increasing for the last two years, and is within the last few days shewing it- self: it neither proceeds from lime nor the deficien- cy of vegetable matter, for we have none of the former, and it is generally worst in our newest lands, where, of course, there is the most vegeta- ble matter. This letter has been spun out to a very unrea- sonable length, and yet I could not be shorter, and give man)" of the particulars that I believed one would wish to know, tliat might liave thoughts of settling in the West. To change your home and sever the many dear and tender ties tliat bind you to the friends, and the society in which you have long lived, requires you to reflect well, and be sure that the advantages preponderate much. If you are doing well, you had better remain, is the advice of a planter. Jam 28, 1833. THE FORBIER UNHEAIvTIIIlVESS OF MOBILE, AND THE BENEFICIAL CHANGE CAUSED BY PAVING THE STREETS WITH SHELLS. [The following letter, as well as the one preceding, was sent to us to serve as materials in the investigation of a very important subject, and not for publication. — We have ventured to disobey the directions of our much valued correspondent, by giving his facts to our readers, directly from his own pen. There is nothing wanting in their form, nor is there any other reason whatever, why these letters should not so appear ; and upon our confidence in that opinion being entertained by every reader, we place our claim to the pardon of the writer. In withholding the name attached to these letters, which would have still added to their value, we unwillingly comply with our rule of using no correspondent's name, without his consent, however desirable may be its inser- tion. We are much gratified to be thus enabled to present important facts from various sources, which concur in supporting the opinions maintained in the Supplementary Chapter, &c. But liowever anxious we may be that these opinions may be established, and be acted on through our southern country, still, tndh, and not the establish- ment of a particular theory, is our object — and we re- quest of our readers to aid in the discussion of this sub- ject, by bringing forward any existmg reasons or facts wliicii may either oppose, or support, the effect of calca- reous earth in preventing disease.] — Ed. Farm. Reg. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. 3fobile, Aug. 28, 1833. _ Agreeably to my promise, I proceed to detail to you some j^articulars about the former situation and present condition of this place, in regaril to its health, as connected with the system of shelling the streets, and in support of the position assumed in a ' Supplementary Chapter to an Essay on Calca- reous Manures' recommending calcareous earths as promotive of health and cleanliness in cities and towns — (p. 76, Farmers' Register, No. 2.) I settled in Mobile in 1819, and have resided here ever since. Mobile is situated at the head of Mo- bile bay, just where the river of the saine name en- ters it. The plain on which the city stands extends back five miles, and is covered by a pine forest. The region of hilly pine woods then sets in, and affords ifine healthy summer retreats. Summer re- treats have been formed over the plain, quite from the city to the hill latid ; and they prove to be heal- thy. In" 1819, ]Mobile was a small wooden built toAvn — the streets narrow and deep with light sand, except under the bluff, (which was eight to twelve feet above the level of the river,) where the streets were muddy — the tide ebbing and flowing over a margin of marsh from 4 to 600 feet w ide, the edge of the marsh next the bluff at all times wet spring land. The rapidly increasing trade of the place, early drew those engaged in it towards the river, and soon covered the flat with store-houses, Iniilt on lots so badly filled up, that water stood under all of them, without exception — under some 6 inches, some 1 to 2 feet : and encroachments were made quite into the water, by laying timbers horizon- tally, to give sufficient elevation. High tides brought in floating logs — marsh grass — and all small substances that were borne on the waves, depositing them in the streets and over the flat. There were only one or two streets at all filled in this fiat, and they were very partially done. My first visit was in July, 1819, about the middle of the month: then it was healthy. About the last of that month, a violent S. E. storm cast an im- mense quantity of trash and filth over the flat, and a long drought, followed with prevailing north winds, which kept the water of the bay unusually low. The place that summer was visited with the yellow fever, to the extent of a pestilence. In 1820, there was no prevailing ei)idemic, though the place could not be said to be healthy ; perhaps there were sorae cases of yellow, fever. I was ab- 280 FARMERS' REGISTER— MOBILE PAVED WITH SHELLS, &c, sent lliree or four months this year on bxisiness. In 1821, tliere was less sickness tliaii llie previous year. That year, the government sold the site of Fort Charlotte, (now near the centre of the city,) and the citizens tlius can;e in possession of an im- mense quantity of material for tilling up. The fort was a very strong Spanish built one, with walls 20 to 25 feet high, and 1.5 to 18 feet thick, made of brick and stone, strongly cemented with mortar of shell lime. It had an outer wall, and a glacis sur- roimding the whole, of pure earth. All this, during the latter part of 1821, and in 1822 and 1823, was carted and spread over tlie flat, together with an immense quantity of earth taken from the back parts of the town, w'hich went very far towards filling up the flats above high water. But this filling was put in the streets and lots, and the foun- dations of liouses already built, were thus made lower than the surrounding land. In 1824, similar im])rovemcnts were carried on, and up to (and in- cluding) that year, there was no epidemic disease: but bilious fevers were common, and the place w as counted unhealthy. In 1825, similar improvements wont on, and the place was healthy up to the 25th of June, when a wet spell occurred that lasted through the most of July — showery, with intervening hot suns. That year, the old burying ground, which is now in the heart of the city, and interments in which had been discontinued the previous year, being the projiert}' of the Catholic Church, was laid oti' in building lots, and let out on long leases; and many who had friends and relatives buried there, were permitted to disinter them, and remove them to the new grave yard. This operation was carried on during the months of June and July, and the old graves were left open to the influence of the rain and hot sun, to evolve the noxious eflluvia that had been engen- dered by the decomposition of the bodies they had contained. jMost of the subjects that were removed were of those who had died in 1819 and subsequent- ly; and I doubt not the miasmata that were exlialed, partook of the nature of that which produced the disease of which the subject died — it may be it was identical. This year tlie yellow fever raged again like a pestilence, and, unless 1 have already assigned the real cause of the fatal sickness of this year, I am at a loss how to account for it from any local cause that would not have operated as powerfully any pre- vious or subsequent year, anterior to the shelling system. It is to he admitted, that the deep loose sandy streets, and back yards, would serve as re- ceptacles for an immense amount of animal and vegetable matter, thrown out from kitchens and shops, which, in a dry time, was trodden in and hid, and yet the substance remain to be operated on by heat and moisture: and that the effluvia thus created would co-operate with the cause before as- signed. There is another collateral cause worthy of notice, that exposed many a poor creature to the influences of the general causes of sickness, and no doubt accelerated its progress. That year is re- membered as the " gambling year." The legisla- ture, by careless legislation, in a very laudable zeal to suppress that pernicious vice, by a sweeping clause so framed a law as that it admitted a con- struction to license gambling, instead of suppress- ing it. Many gambling houses were opened iTTi- der a $ 1000 license, as public as taverns, and such scenes of dissipation have rarely been witnessed in any country. Exposure to uight air, loss of sleep, loss of fortune, loss of character, drunkenness and debauchery, (all fruitful exciting causes,) no doubt had tlieir full elTcct in swelling the list of morta- lity. lu 1826 and 1827, many brick buildings Avere in progress, and the sites of them exposed by re- moval of the old wood buildings. This, with the general absence of cleanliness produced by the ca- pacity of sandy streets to retain filth, as remarked above, caused sickness these two years. There were several cases of yellow fever in both years; l)ut nothing to be compared with 1825. In Octo- ber, 1827, a fire occurred that swept the whole business part of the town, and hardly left a house standing, wood or brick, in all the flat below the blutf. The legislature, at the next session, which commenced soon afterwards, passed a law prohi- l)iting the building of any other than fire-proof buildings within certain limits that included the business part of the town; and here begins a new era in the history of Mobile. In 1826, a brother of mine, w ho is a physician, then residing here, urged the importance of improving the health of the city, (which he deemed perfectly practicable,) botli through tlie medium of the press, and in con- versations, upon all suitable occasions. Nothing w as done while he I'esided liere ; but his opinions took root, and were finally acted on. The shelling the streets w as the prominent means, with various details regarding police and individual attention to cleanliness of yards, &c. Since 1827, the improve- ments in filling up, building, graduating, and shel- ling the streets, and paving the side-walks, have gone on so rapidly as to defy details; but the effect on the comfort and health of the place is abundantly obvious. In 1822, the first brick tenement was erected, and most of those that were afterwards built prior to 1827, were then burnt down. Now there are between 300 and 400. One entire new street in front has been made, having encroached on the river to the depth of 6 or 8 feet of water : and from thence back to the bluff, the ground is well filled up — every street shelled — all the alleys — many of the yards — all the public warehouse yards, and the tavern yards, are shelled — several of the streets are shelled for half a mile back, and one that meets a leading road is shelled over a mile — many of the cross streets are shelled, and ere long, every street in the city will be shelled — it is, indeed, the settled policy, and without any constitutional bar to its exercise. Mobile has been uniformly heal- thy since 1827 — and I have been particular in my details, that you might the better judge whether it resulted from the shelling system. You will, no doubt, give due weight to the circumstances of all the flat being well filled and mostly covered with fine brick buildings. Last fall and this summer, while the cholera raged so fatally in New-Orleans, iNIobile was visited \s ith very few cases, and they excited little or no alarm. In the first instance, 9 or 10 cases were reported : the deaths were 4 or 5. In the last instance, no public reports were deemed necessary, and I cannot say, with an}' precision, how many cases occurred. I heard of some few deaths among the blacks — and the city continues perfectly healthy up to this time. The shells that are used ai-e cockle, or sea muscle, as some call them. They are the size of a half dollar, to that of a dollar, of the form a clam shell, and they are pretty thick and solid. They abound about the shores of the bay, and are contained in large banks FARMERS' REGISTER— WOODEN RAIL ROADS. upon the marsh islands opposite and above the city; perhaps having been the nuclei upon which those islands were formed. The shells are brought in large lighters, as your correspondent ' M.' informs you. [Farm. Reg. No. 3, p. 152.] When the street is graduated after the manner of turnpiking, the shells are carted and spread over the street to the depth of 4 or 5 inches — the spreading hardly forms a moment's obstruction to the passage along the street : as soon as they are spread, which is done by scattering them with a spade, carriages and horses pass over them, and they very soon form a crust, so well cemented as to be difficult to dig up with a pickaxe. They wear out, by very constant use on the most frequented streets, but, by a little atten- tion to breaks and thin places, when a street is once shelled, it is very easily kept in repair. I have been informed the shelling system has been attempted in New-Orleans; but it will not answer for that place, owing to the ground being so much saturated v.ith water as not to sustain the shells. I learn that it is difficult to make the deep- est paving stand well, from that cause. If it will answer, I doubt not that New-Orleans would find its account in covering every inch of its whole area. I have gone through all the facts and cir- cumstances that occurred to me as having any bear- ing on the subject. They are intended for your own information, and if they throw any additional evi- dence in support of your opinions, that will pay you for their perusal, the end 1 had iix view will be at- tained. H. For the Farmers' Register. •\VOODEX RAIL, ROADS. Recent publications in the newspapers have at- tracted some attention to a plan for cheap wooden railways, for which a patent right was taken by Mr. John Hartman of Scottsville, who supposed himself to be the first discoverer. But (though this gentleman is not therefore the less entitled to ap- plause as an inventor,) it has since appeared that a prior patent had been taken for a similar plan, by Mr. John Williams, an engineer of Ohio. The controversy between them has ended in an amica- ble adjustment of their conflicting claims. The plan is described as follows in Mr. Wil- liams' specification, on which his j)atentwas grant- ed, and in his letter to the Rail Road Journal. " I lay two continuous lines of timber, or other suitable material, lengthwise on said road, such a distance apart as to form tracks for the wheels of such vehicles as are in general use upon the road so improved. I furrow, gutter, or groove one of these tracks, in order to receive and guide the wheel or wh.eelsof one side of the carriage passing thereon. Those groo\ es or gutters may be made in the timber or other material — or they may be formed by attaching cheeks or sides to a plain sur- face. " These tracks may be bedded, or laid in, or upon stone, gravel, clay, or any material of which the surface of the road is formed, and the pieces of which they are constructed may be con- nected by dowels or clamps, or laid upon trans- verse blocks, or cross-pieces, which may or may not extendfrom one to the other. " Where there is much travelling upon a road so improved, I lay two sets, or four continuous lines of tracks, one set for the going and Vol. I.~36 one for the returning carriages. I am aware that some of the advantages of such a track road may be gained by laying timber as above, by furrow- ing, guttering, or rebating both tracks, to guide the wheels, but I prefer to gutter or groove one only." ' As to my preference,' says i\Ir. Williams, ' for grooving or guttering one track only, it originated in my knowing that a guide for the wheels of one side of a wagon or carriage will in all cases an- swer as Avell as a guide for the wheels of each side ; besides which, there is a difference of about eight inches in the span of axles as constructed in differ- ent states and places. This circumstance influen- ced me in favor of furrowingor guttering one track only, as, by the other track being left plain, vehi- cles cannot be injured by binding in the track. Asrain, in turning out, when one track alone is gut- tered, one half the labor only is necessary to over- come the obstacle. And further, by carriages en- tering upon the tracks, one only will be injured, and the jolts be less, where one gutter alone is dropped into. Add to all this, that one gutter will only cost half the amount of two, and I imagine the public will sanction the preference I have gi- ven. As to tying the tracks together in the manner of railroad sdlsofwood, agreeably to Mr. Hart- man's plan, and which is recognized in my patent, I shall not recommend it until experiment shall prove the necessity of it, not only on account of its expensiveness, but because almost every man's ex- perience will convince him that at those intersec- tions of timber against timber, decay will com- mence. At present I believe that timber well bed- ded in the road formation will be still enough, and last'longer, much longer, than for timber to be against timber. Where timbers are spliced, dow- els or clamps may be necessary to join them, and where the substratum is likely to be soft, cross- blocks, of such a size as will support the joint, will be necessary. In respect to forming the groove or gutter in the stick or out of the solid, T prefer it for similar rea- sons, as I am certain that the timber will be less likely to decay than where, by " attaching cheeks or sides to a plr.in surface," furrows or gutters are formed. All holes bored in timber, whether fill- ed with spikes or trenails, and all joints or cracks in timber, should be carefully avoided, if we at- tend to the durability of it, particularly if exposed to the weather. And further, gutters or guides formed out of the solid will be less liable to de- rangement than those formed of " attached cheeks or sides," and I question if they will cost more, as laid timber may be ploughed as well as land, and in much the same way, and grooved as boards are grooved, and that by any sufficient motive power.' The foi'egoing description gives a sufficiently ac- curate idea of the plan. It appears from an act of the legislature of Ohio, passed January, 1832, that part of the Cincinnati, Columbus and Wooster turnpike, is to be constructed on Mr. Williams' plan ; and Mr. Hartman has already finished in this manner a short distance upon the Staunton turn- pike route, which, if this experiment should be sa- tisfactory, is to be made entirely a wooden rail- way. These fiicts are enough to prove that the plan is considered good and economical for roads inten- ded to be permament, and which are expected to be much travelled. This may however be incor- 282 FARMERS' REGISTER— ORNAMENTAL TREES. rect, and still the wooden railway prove a most valuable invention. A railway that will be enough used to be profitable as permanent stock, ouglit to be constructed in the best manner — and economy would direct the most perfect levelling of the track, that the location and circumstances permit, and the use of iron, rather tlian the wasting and rotting tracks of wood alone. But whenever a railway is needed for temporary purposes, or even perma- nently for common wheel carriages, over a level route, where timber is cheap and plenty — under any or all of those circumstances, the wooden tracks will probably be found so useful, as hereafter to double the extension of the lines of railways. I will offer some examplesof purjioses lor which this plan seems to be admirably suited. The country below the falls of the rivers is al- most entirely without hills, or land rising above the general level. There is plenty of broken, or (as it is called) hilly surface ; but the unevenness is caused by parts sinking below the general level, as if deepened by rivers and smaller streams. Hence, in the most broken parts of our low coun- try, the summits of the ridges which separate dif- ferent streams are almost level, and by tbllowing them, a route of 20 miles may sometimes be found, which would need very little grading, to form al- most a level road. It is true that these ridges are the poorest land, and thereibre the least fitted to furnish agricultural produce for transportation ; but more fertile lands, on slopes and bottoms, are generally not distant from the ridge, and extend the whole distance on both its sides. The ridges, from their poverty are still generally in forest ; and their distance from market, has prevented much even of the best timber being removed. For these reasons, the materials for timber railways would be there the most abundant and cheap ; and the railway when completed, would serve to carry to market the forest growth of the ridge, as well as the crops of the adjacent cultivated lands. If a road of tliis kind was so located, it might be used most pro- fitably for a few years, even if it should be not worth keeping up longer than the first timbers would last. The Petersburg rail road crosses the course of the rivers, and of coui'se, all the intervening ridges. I am not particularly acquainted with this coun- try, except from the map, and a knowledge of the general features of the country, as referred to above. But judging from these imperfect lights, it would appear, that branch rail roads of timber might be advantageously constructed on all these ridges, so as to be connected with the main route. Staves and other kinds of lumber, are now brought to Pe- tersburg by the rail road ; and if these branches were constructed, every valuable timber tree with- in 20 miles of the present road, as well as every bushel of surplus grain, might be sent with profit to that, or some other market. The same advan- tages, (if not greater,) will follow the adoption of this plan in connection with the Portsmouth and Roanoke rail road, when that work shall be com- pleted. J. B. For the Fanners' Register. NOTES OF A RUSTIC. In early excursions through western Virginia, I was not more astonished by the grandeur of the mountainous regions than by the immensity of the Ibrests that covered them. Yet, I was informed by some of the octogenarian inhal)itants, whose longevity enabled them to look l)ack over nearly a century of time, that when they first visited those regions, extensive tracts of land, often stretching as far as the eye could reach, exhi- bited scarcely a solitary tree. Even )iow many of our forests present the ap- pearance rather of youth than of old age; while in other places trees of greater magnitude are found. Magnificent jwplars and sycamores, which seem as if they might have stood the blasts of a thousand Avinters, often meet the eye of the traveller. Who that has traversed the rich vallies of Greenbrier, and the Kanawha; who that has seen the " Fraxi- nus in Sylvis," or the "jibies in Montibus yJUis," can be insensible to the beauties of our forests, or cease to wonder that our native ornamental trees are allowed to languish and die in obscurity, while our domicils are crowded with detestable exotics. In the remarks which I propose to make on this sul)JGct, without i-egard to botanical arrangement, I shall divide our trees into two classes — the orna- inental and the useful. The latter class is better known, because appli- cable to so many purposes of life, as in the con- struction of houses and ships, and fences and agri- cultural implements, and mechanical work of al- most every kind — but the former are, tliough often neglected, scarcely less important in adding to the health, and comfort, and beauty, of our domestic habitations. And yet, what adeficiency of taste, if not of common sense, is displayed upon this subject.'' The Lnmbardy Poplar seems to be the favorite tree in adorning our yards and dwellings ; and yet, with tiie exception of the boa vpas of Java, I doubt whe- ther the vegetable world could afford another so il! adapted for tiie purpose ; il supplies us with scarcely any shade— its cortical appearance is rough and ugly, while the immense ramification of its roots running near the surface of the ground and de- scending to the bottoms of our deepest wells, destroy tiie green velvet turf of our yards and the salubrity of our v/aters. There is no depth to which they will not descend — even the walls of our cellars can- not exclude their unwelcome intrusion. This free is also peculiarly infected by the cater- pillar, and other members of the entomological family. I have often wished that this miserable exotic could be banished to its native shores, to make room for any other tree, except The jlspen, (populus tremula,) which is a mem- ber of the same iiimily , inheriting all the bad quali- ties of the former. These trees, united with the poisonous Pride of China, are the ornaments of our domestic habitations. Even the public square of our ca})!tol, on which so much money and so little taste have been expended, is set otY by these ill favored intruders. Our legislators, so filled with political wisdom, so erudite in the great matters of public concern, seem to have but little room left for common sense, and none at all for the pleasures of intellectual taste. It never entered into their heads that the magnificent daughters of our own forests could compare with trees imported from foreign shores — or that a comfortable shade, or beautiful foliage and flowers, were at all important in orna- mental trees. In the class of ornamental trees, I shall give the first place to the Horse Chesnut, (Aesculus Hippo- castanum.) The smoothness of its bark, the den- FARMERS^ REGISTER—PRODUCTS OF LOWER VIRGINIA. 283 sily of its shade — its earlj^ and beautiful bright green foliage, and the profusion of ricli and delicate flow- ers with which, in its proper season, it is covered, place it in the first rank of ornamental trees. Its perfect freedom from all insects, as well as its harm- lessness to the subjacent vegetation, also give it a preference to most of our flowering trees. The growth of this tree is slow, and it flowers late; but, yet, the delay is amply compensated by the exquisite beauty of its bloom. This tree is found among our western mountains, ■whei'e it is best known by the name of Buckeye. It may be also procured from the nurseries of Long- Island, and generally from the gardens of our nor- thern arborists. Next in the order of beauty, is the Cucumber Tree, (Magnolia Acuminata,) which is frequently found in tlie western districts of Virginia, after pass- ing the first and second ridges in travelling west- ward. This tree, at a distance, seems to have tlie beaii- tiful green of its leaves intermingled witii roses — which, on a nearer approach, are discovered to be the fruit or cucumber, exhibiting its reddish tints, partly hid in tlie foliage. Its fruit is highly esteem- ed as an aromatic bitter, and the vigor and luxu- riance of the youthful tree are always admired by those who liave traversed our western woods. It abounds in the neighborhood of the Warm Springs, and I have discovered it in the Valley, between the North Mountain and Blue Ridge. The /*o/?Zar, or Tulip Tree, (liriodendron tulip- ifera,) is one of our most majestic forest trees. It belongs to the ftlagnolia family, and of diciduous trees has the tallest and most uniform trunk. In the rich valleys of western Virginia it towers above the other natives of the forest, while its delicate flowers seem to hang from the clouds. Hie Candida populus Imminet, et lenta; texunt umbracula vitcs. It is not my intention now to do more than merely note a few of our fr.irest trees, so as to call the atten- tion of those who wish to add to the comfort and pleasure of domestic life to the subject. I would not willingly thrust my trees in the way of more useful matter, with which the Register abounds, but I may perhaps resume the subject in a iuture number. W. The bad taste which W. denounces, is no where so conspicuous as on our Capitol Square, or so destructive. of beauty and grandeur. From this place, almost every forest tree has been excluded, and Aspens, Lombardy Poplars, Pi ide of China, &c. have been planted in straight lines, crossing each other at right angles, with as much regularity, and as little taste, as is displayed in the ar- rangementof the cabbages in a kitchen garden. But, asno more agriculturalknowledge was exercised by the agents of government to enable the bai-ren soil to support the growth of trees, than there was of taste in their selec- tion and arrangement, it is to be hoped, that most of these miserable exotics may continue to languish and die, and that the square may yet be shaded and decorated by trees worthy of the place — which is even now beautiful, in defiance of the deforming taste of the agents of the state, kept in active operation at the public expense. [Ed. Farm. Reg. REPL.Y TO "j. E. H." CULTURE AND PRO- DUCTS OF LOWER VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. My communication which appeared in your Au- gust No. was intended to con*ect error, not to provoke conti-oversy. I will not assert that my purpose would have been inferred trom its con- tents; because the vindication it has drawn from the pen of your correspondent " J. E. H." would seem to contradict me if I should. Nor is it ne- cessary that I should deny that I was " in an ill hu- mor," when I wrote. But however this may be, I will endeavor to avoid any appearance of such a spirit now. 1 know that I have no taste for con- troversy ; and I willingly concede that I have no talent for it. Were it otherwise, the disclosure of the name of your correspondent, (for I will not af- fect ignorance of the initials,) Avould neutralise any asperity that I could feel an inclination to in- dulge. Further, I would have no objection to re- vealing my name^to "J. E. H." ; but I suspect the public have no wish to know it, and if they have, I am not disposed to furnish the information by abandoning the incognito of" Mockjack." I propose now to sustain the position of my for- mer article by a kind of reasoning that I avoided in that. You will remember, that my whole argu- ment consisted of arithmetical deductions from sta- tistics. JMy object in adopting that system, was that the reasoning, as iar as it went, might be be- yond the reach of criticism. How far it went, is another question. "J. E. H." thinks it worth nothing, — I am content to let it remain as I have left it. " " The tide-water, or eastern section, is in gene- ral low, level, sandy and unproductive, and parts of it exhibit almost as desolate an aspect as the pine barrens of Jersey." This is the statement in the " General Description," to which I objected, and which I propose now to consider. I suppose that my understanding of this sentence is the right one, and that it is wasting time to analyze the words that compose it. I understand it to mean, in connec- tion with the other parts of the General Descrip- tion, that the tidewater country is far behind eve- ry other portion of the State in fertility. If it does not mean this, I am not inclined to carry this dis- cussion any larther. But supposing that its mean- ing is correctly stated, my purpose is to show your readers, and if I can, to convince the author, that he has too hastily atlopted the opinions of others. I do not understand him as relying on any obser- vation of the country that he has personally made. From some little that I know^ of him, I would in- fer that he has had noopportunity of accurately ob- serving it ; and that he is not sufficiently skilled in judging the characters of soils, to feel any confidence in his own opinion, even with the advantage of oc- ular examination — that he is not, and never was, a/arnier. The appearance of the tidewater country, to one who travels on the highways, is far from prepos- sessing. The great quantity of sand which is in- corporated in almost every portion of the country below the falls, gives to the surface an appearance of sterility. Sandy lands do not produce grass like those of a stilfer character. The stranger, who has been accustomed to judge of the soil, by the cov- ering that it bears, concludes at once that the coun- try M'liich he sees from the windows of the stage 284 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRODUCTJ^ OF LOWER VIRGINIA. coach, is as barren as an African desert. Add to this the fact that the puljlic roads are very gene- rally made throut;'h the poorest parts of our coun- try, along- the ridges that form liie back-bonos of the peninsulas, into which it is divided by tlie ri- A-ers, andtlie mistakes of travellers are readily ex- plained. Even in the richest portions of our coun- try, where tlie sand is abundant, every particle of soil is removed from the beaten tracks of the roads, and carried off in dust, or washed away by show- ers. It is a great blunder to suppose that sandy lands are necessarily poor. Except some few fcrms on the low grounds of the James and Rappahan- nock rivers, I doubt if there is one acre of fertile land in the whole tidewater region that is not es- sentially sandy. And strange as tlse statement may appear to one unacquainted with it, it is neverthe- less true, that in all our lands, except those lliat are recently alluvial, sand is absolutely necessary to give them value. Let me explain : Experiments have been fairly made, and they fully prove that no land on tidewater will bear cultivation frequent- ly without its presence. It is usual in the clay soils of upper Virginia, to divide a farm into four, five, or six fields, and to cultivate them then in ro- tation ; using them, Avhen fallow, for pastures, and if sufiiciently fertile, for cutting grass. But a very sandy piece of land may be cultivated every year in a substantial crop; and, if well managed, im- prove by the system. I will speak of this pre- sently. Mr. Gilmerandtheauthoroftlie" Prize Essay," are cited to sustain the correctness of the views of the author of the General Description. What op- portunities the gentleman first named may have had for a personal examination, I have not learned. My present means of reference do not allow me even to see the work in which his essay is incor- porated. But if he has never seen the country, or has .seen it on the stage roads only, his authority as a witness is worth nothing. To the authority of the other, perhaps my objection is almost as strong. I am aware that he resides within the region he proposes to describe. But let it be borne in mind, that his is the poorest part of it, in the vicinity of the line that divides it from the middle section — where nature seems, by way of offset to the great commercial advantages bestowed on the region of the falls, to have inflicted her direst sterility. Im- mediately below and above these (except in the narrow strijis of river low grounds,) the earth ap- gears to me almost incapable of im{)rovenient. t.ichmond itself stands on a range of hills that can- not be fertilized. Those w ho possess lands about it that are worth cultivation, have carried the soil from other places and spread it on tlie surface. That the description given by this gentleman of the country which he inhabits is true, I shall not there- fore question ; but I object to his making that a ge- neral description of lower Virginia, which is true of a very small portion only. Some questions are asked by "J. E. H." and I have no disposition to evade them : " Why is it that the stream of emigration has flowed so un- ceasingly from that quarter (tidewater,) to other regions.'' — that the march of its population is in a declining ratio when compared with other districts of the State.''" The answer to these is obvious. — The cheapness of rich land in the West and South has carried off the population. This might suffice : but another cause, one of a moral character, has been equally efficient. Slaves form the laboring population of the country ; and the farmer who for the want of them, cultivates his land with his own iiands, feels that his occupation is degrading. He removes, therefore, to a part of the world where he may labor without subjecting himself to mortifi- cation. This species of pride has banished a large portion of those who have emigrated. That the proprietors of rich river margins some- times complain, is undoubtedly true. But I have never known that they complain more- than other people. The merchants complain of dullness in business — the lawyers of the scarcity of suits — the physicians of the healthiness of a season — and the undertakers and grave diggers of the paucity of deaths. The farmers that I have known are gen- erally dissatisfied with the weather, and sometimes Avitb the overseers ; but I have rarely known one to acknowledge that his farm was unproductive. And when sucha complaint is made, I always sus- pect that the farmer is more in fault than his farm. The truth is, that the inhabitants of lower Virginia are the most extravagant people in their habits that are any where to be found. Their revenues, even with the careless management that almost every where prevails in this region, would be very suffi- cient for more moderate wants. A reform in this particular is more wanted than in any other. It is to be regretted that no means of ascertain- ing our exports exist. Not an article of produce winch the farmers of tidewater carry to market, is subjected to any inspection by Avhich its quantity is recorded. I have no disposition to hazard any conjecture on the subject. But so far as my know- ledge is certain, as depending on facts that are no- torious, I will venture to give it. This will suf- fice for my purpose. Indian corn may be considered our principal crop, because it is a large one in almost every por- tion of our country. Virginia corn is known in every market from Newport to Savannah, and in the West Indies, Buenos Ayres and Madeira; be- sides a considerable quantity that is carried to the upper country to supply the deficiency on the wheat and tobacco farms. How much the last item amounts to cannot be ascertained. On the James River Canal alone, 17,115 bushels passed up in 1832.* With the exception, perhaps, of a small portion of country above the falls of Roanoke, eve- ry bushel that leaves Virginia is made on tidewa- ter. " Virginia wheat," too, invariably forms an item in the prices current of Baltimore and New York. Every bushel of it is produced on tide- wafer. That which is raised above the falls, and a large quantity from below, are converted into flour, and pass the inspections established in the different towns. Oats also are carried in very large quantifies to Richmond and the northern cities, where they are quoted as " Southern oats." These are the principal crops. In addition to them may be mentioned some that are less important, from which consideralile revenues are derived by those who cultivate them. Cotton, castor oil, beans, peach brandy, j)eas and sweet potatoes, are produ- ced in gieat abundance in some limited districts, chiefly for the northern markets. * Taken from the books of the toll keeper. It is pro- per to state, that tlie article " corn," includes meal, shorts and bran. The two last, however, form a very small portion of the aggregate quantity. FARMERS' REGISTER— PRODUCTS OF LOWER VIRGINIA. 285 As connected with my main subject, Ibe<; leave to offer you a very general synopsis cf the different systems of farming tliat prevail in lower Virginia. It is usual with us to distinguish the different systems by the number of fields into which a farm is divided. These always, I believe, have refer- ence to the corn crop. Their numbers vary from one to five. The first and last are indeed seldom to be found. But they have been tried sufliciently to test their merits, and are known to possess some advantages. To explain the one field plan, it is ne- cessary to premise, that in far the larger j)ortion of our region, the land is ])loughed in ridges, ave- raging about five feet. This is pursued principally as a means of saving labor. A plough tiiat clears ten inches, and that may, in the greater part of our country, be drawn by 2 small horses or mules, will entirely reverse one of these ridges at four furrows. But to g-et a crop of corn from a field every year, the rows must be widened to about seven feet. The corn is planted along the top of the ridge about the first of April. As soon as tlie spring is sufficiently advan- ced, usually about the first of May, a part of the earth is thrown back into the alley by carrying the plough through, once each way. On the small ridge formed by this operation, peas of the most active growth are planted at distances of two or three feet apart. They are gathered as they ripen, until the frost i)uts an end to their vegetation, when the vines are buried by throwing two furrows on them with a large plough. In the following spring the corn is planted on this ridge, and the decaying peas furnish an excellent manure. Land thus cul- tivated, has been found to double its production in twenty years. None but very sandy soils will bear it. And the great objections to it are, that the cat- tle are badly provided for, both in pasturage and provender. The two field system is much practised on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake, and is to be found occasionally on the western. This, too, requires a very sandy soil. The farm is divided into two equal fields, and cultivated alternately in corn and wheat, or oats. But under this system, as under that which I have described, some other crop is necessary. Nature furnishes one. When the small grain is taken off at harvest, the land is left hand- somely covered with a growth, which, from the small island on which it is was first discovered, is called Magadaba bean. It is an annual growth, with numerous leaves set on a principal stem, like the leaves of the locust, but not more than one- fourth that size. It branches considerably, and from the height of six inches, until its growth is completed, it displays an abundance of bright yel- low blossoms, shaped like those of a garden pea. The pods are black, and resemble in form those of the partridge pea, but are considerably larger. — This wild bean continues to grow in the burning- heats of July and August, never losing its fresh- ness, until the cold weather of October overtakes it. It then decays, and before the first of March scarcely a vestige of it is visible. With this bean, which will grow in any very dry and sandy soil, and with management that insures the return of the offal of the crops in the form of manure, the two field system is ascertained to be an improver of the farms where it is practised. The want of proper and sufficient pasturage for cattle is the evil of this also. The land must never be used for pas- turage in the summer months. The three field plan is soon described : Corn — wheat, barley, or oats — pasturage. Land will not im|)rove by this course of cultivation without other sources of manure than those furnished by the offal of the crops. Those who use marl largely, find it a better system than either before described ; be- cause they have ground on which they can bring it all the year, and the cattle have a third of the farm for grazing. The four field plan is still better, particularly when it is used as a means of increasing the wheat crop. This succession is wheat, corn, wheal — pasture. Thus two of the fields are in small grain, one in corn, and one in pasfure; or, according to another practice, corn, wheat, clover — pasture. With very good management, a farmer may ma- nure his whole corn field under the four field system. The five field plan is that practised principally by the best farmers in the middle country, and needs no description. It must be acknowleged that the two first plans have considerable advantages where the soil will bear them. If a certain number of acres will pro- duce a given crop every year, the land must be more valuable than that of equal productiveness, which requires rest. And these systems (or one or two fields) require much less fencing than others ; a single enclosure protects every thing. I have spoken of^ the principal crops. There are some others very valuable in limited districts. Of the cotton in the country about Petersburg, and in some detached places elsewhere, it is unnecessary to say more, than that this is a crop of which land never tires. The same field is cultivated every year. — So too, of sweet potatoes, an important crop on the Eastern Shore. To form an estimate of its value, it will be sufficient to state, that land which may be worth ^15 or ift:20 per acre is cultivated in potatoes. The hills are made, perhaps, three feet apart each way. It is usual for the owners to sell them before they are dug, to be carried to the Phi- ladelphia and New York markets; and the price is a cent per hill. An acre, by calculation, con- tains 4840 hills, which thus produce -948 40 with- out the trouble of saving the crop. They require about as much cultivation as cotton. Peach bran- dy too, is found to be a very profitable article for market, and is made principally on the sandy fields of the Eastern Shore, and by some farmers on the south side of James River. In the former place I understand that the orchards are sometimes more than a hundred acres in extent. Other croi>s are raised on the same land by placing the rows of trees at a good distance apart. The castor bean is cultivated in considerable quantities in Eliza- beth City and York, where some fortunes have been made by it. Its cultivation has been partial- ly adopted l>y the farmers in some other countries of the salt water region. I have thus, JMr. Editor, given you an essay on the resources and farming of lower V^irginia. On the first, I acknowledge I have written imperfectly ; because certainty cannot be obtained in the ab- sence of the police regulations which exist in some other countries. And on the second, I have under- taken no more than a synopsis ; and this only as conducing to the main purpose of my communica- tion. I think I have kept my promise of avoiding the spirit of controversy — if I have not, it is be- cause I am not capable of judging the demerits of my own composition. mockjack. 28G FARMERS' REGISTER— DUCKS, &c.— LUCERNE— SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. DUCKS AND TURKEYS. To the EJitor of the Farmers' Register. , North Carolina, Jiug. 2Qih. There appeared some time asro in (he " South- ern A£:;riculturist," a communication on the sub- ject of raising ducks. To tlie author of that com- municiition I acknowledge myself much indebt- ed: and cnd)race this opportunity of bearing tes- timony to the utility of his plans and suggestions. I have no hesitation in saying (hat any housekeep- er Avho will carefully follow his directions, will soon (ind his poultry yard abundantly supplied with the quacking gentry. It has occurred to me that a similar dissertation on the most successful method of raising turkeys would be a valuable present to many of your read- ers. Of the young turkeys which are hatched, not more, perhaps, than one fourth survive the diseases and disasters incident to the first months of their existence. This is rather a discouraging circum- stance, even to (hose who do not count their chick- ens before they are hatched. If, therefore, you could induce one or more of your correspondents who may have skill touching this matter, to give to the public the result of their experience and observation , I am persuaded that you might safely calculate on tlie thanks of the whole turkey-raising and turkey-eating community. SPINSTER. We hope that some one or more of the ladies who honor the Farmers' Register with tlieir attention, will comply with the request of a " Spinster." The article referred to on rearing ducks, will be re-published in our next No. if a copy can be procured. — [Ed. Farm. Reg. three feet into the stiff clay which forms the sub- stratum of the ground where I sowed. The depth to v/hich the root goes, renders it liable to be less affected by drought than any of the artificial grasses — but frequent irrigation tends in a won- derful degree to improve it. It may be cut in the spi'ing three or four weeks earlier than red clover. ED. F. TAYLOE. LUCERNE. To the Editor of the Fanners' Register. Powhatan Hill, King George Co. } I5th Sept. 1833. 3 A correspondent inquires in the fourth number of " The Farmers' Register," whether Lucerne has succeeded in Virginia. I have tried it suc- cessfully on a small scale, and have seen it tried with equal or greater success in Richmond County, at Mount Airy. In both cases, it was sown both in drills and broadcast ; and both cases proved the superior ethcacy of sowing in drills. The supe- riority of this mode of sowing, is, I think, more than equivalent to tlie increased labor of cultiva- tion. I sowed it in drills about fifteen inches apart, so that a hoe could work well between each row ; and between every three rows, I left a space of two feet, so as to enable me to clean and work it tho- roughly. On a larger scale, I would sow in drills sufficiently wide to admit the cultivation of it by a small one horse plough. Lucerne, called by the Spaniards jllfalfa, is cul- tivated most successfully in Mexico and Colom- bia, and constitutes the chief food of the horses and mules in those countries. Indeed, they require and often get nothing but Lucerne in a green state. There it is cultivated in drills about two feet wide : as it grows, the earth is dravvn to it in a high ridge. It is frequently irrigated, and when it is well culti- vated, grows from two to three feet high. Lucerne demands a good deep soil ; its root penetrates at least SKETCH OF THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. [Communicated for iiiiblication in tlie Farmers' Register.] We have received from a correspondent of Sir John Sinclair, a copy of a recent communication from that benefactor to agi'iculture and to mankind, which though primed, as it states, " for the perusal of a few particu- lar friends," has not yet been published. The language of panegyric which it applies to that distinguished man, however well it may be deserved, was probably the cause that prevented his giving it to the public : but the operation of this restraint does not extend to others, and we extract for publication a portion which gives a sketch of the various works and public services of Sinclair. We propose hereafter to give somewhat similar notices of others, both European and American, who have ren- dered the most distinguished services to agriculture. Of all who have thus labored for their country, and for the world, not one has had opportunities and advan- tages equal to the subject of the following memoir, and no one has belter used the means and advantages he possessed. The whole communication before us consists of a re- view, translated from the German of Baron Varnha- GEN Von Ense, of one of Sinclair's latest works, together with some correspondence thereon. As the greater part of the piece has but little i-elation to agriculture, we shall confine our extract to the following memoir. The re- view was jjublished in its original language in the Ber- lin Critical Rr.vieto, in 1831. The contemplation of such an excellent and be- loved character as the author of this work, com- municating the most remarkable events of his life, necessarily awakens admiration and delight. Others may have been induced to publish similar accounts, because they have lived in an age of great events, — or been engaged in unusual adven- tures,— or experienced peculiar developements of their intellectual powers ; but on the present occa- sion,we are presented with the spectacle of a ve- nerable old man, who, surrounded by his own achievements, cheerfully, yet thoughtfully, sub- mits them to general inspection, and recalls with satisfaction, the memory of the exertions which have enabled him to accomplish so much, detail- ing, at the same time, with natural complacency, the personal marks of esteem which reflect a lus- tre upon his exertions. He presents us with the model of an excelling and protluctive mind, filling up the whole sphere of its earthly destination; whether we contemplate him as an individual, — as the head of a family, — as a private member of the community, — as a re- presentative of the people, — as sharing in the coun- cils of his sovereign,- — as augmenting the military strength of his country, or defending its naval FARMERS' REGISTER— SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. 2^7 power, — as prom(jtino;its agricultural industry, — or as an author, e.\tenilinf;- I'.is inllucnce over a still wider circle, and by his advice and co-opera- tion, advancing tlie march of civilization both at home and in foreign countries. His self-selected sphere of action is so happily chosen, that while his industry benefits the whole world, every action has at the same time an immediate bearing, on the good of his country, of his native district, of his private estate, of his own family, and of his indi- vidual usefulness. Firmly poised upon a central point, he animates at once all these concentric cir- cles. Sir John Sinclair ^yasborn of distinguished and wealthy parents in the most northerly district of Scotland, at Thurso Castle, in the county of Caith- ness, in the year 17-54. His mother, (a sister of the Earl of Sutherland,) took upon herself, after the death of her husband, the management of his estates, and the care of superintending the educa- tion of her orphan flimily. Sir John received the first rudiments of learning at the High School of Edinburgh, and afterv/ards prosecuted his studies at the Universities of that City, of Glasgow, and of Oxford, carefully improving the opportunities which these seminaries afforded him. of increas- ing both his knowledge and his friendships. In the year 1775, he was called to the Scottish Bar, chiefly with the view of obtaining a more intimate practical acquaintance with the laws of his native land. His attention, however, had been earl)^ di- rected to the improvement of his paternal estate. From this limited sphere, his mind extended itself, first to tlie state of the landed interest in the shire of Caithness, and soon discovering that essential amelioration could only be attained by united ex- ertions, in wider combinations, he succeeded in awakening a kindred spirit in the neighboring counties. Roads and bridges were constructed, to facilitate the intercourse of a scattered popula- tion,— villages and towns were called into exist- ence, to serve as depots of merchandise, — manu- factories were erected,^ — and harbors Avere formed or improved. Above all, agriculture and pastu- rage, in particular the management of sheep, were encouraged : — obsolete and ineffective systems of husbandry were made to give way to those which were more productive, and in all these respects, Caithness may now compete with the best culti- vated districts in the kingdom. Thriving towns also, (those of Wick and Thurso,) have grown up on the site of paltry villages, and the fisheries on the coast have become, perhaps, the most impor- tant of any in the three kingdoms.* It would have been an endless task for the au- thor of the work now before us, to have recounted how these labors were emulated in other counties in Scotland. It may be sufficient to state that twenty out of thirty three counties of Scotland, on different occasions, have thanked him publicly for the obligations he had conferred upon them, by- promoting the improvement of the country. His labors afterwards received a new impulse, by be- ing extended to England ; from which wider cir- cle, however, his patriotism vuiiformly instigates him to keep in view the interests of his native country. * In carrying on these improvements, the author re- cognises the important aid he received, from the Lord Lieutenant and the Sheriff of his native county. In his six and twentieth year, he was unani- mously elected, by the freeholders of Caithness, their representative in Parliament, a situation which he filled for about thirty years, in the course of which he obtained the sanction of Parliament for the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, of which he was appointed to fill the presidential chair, a situation by which he was enabled greatly to extend the sphere of his activity. He origi- nated several most important undertakings : and notwithstanding the most vexatious opposition, he was enabled, not only to influence the condition of Great Britain and Ireland, but the progress of fo- reign nations, even beyond the boundaries of Eu- rope. The numerous di{)Iomas which flowed in upon him from all quarters, proved the univer- sal consciousness of his merits. Some of his plans, that for instance, in the year 1796, for the cul- tivation of waste lands, although approved of by the Commons, was rejected by the House of Lords ; but the impulse being once given, his ob- ject gradually became successful. This inestimable man however, did not limit his exertions to these matters, but, as a member of Parliament, he took apart in every important dis- cussion that occurred in that honorable assembly. His principles led him in general, to support the administration of ]\Ir. Pitt, whose personal friend he was. Every question of finance, of trade, na- vigation, and legislation, whether regarding the mother country or the colonies, — every question of peace or war, received his most serious conside- ration ; and yet, amid this multiplicity of objects, he never once lost sight of that great cause which lay nearest his heart, the promotion of the true in- terests of mankind, as individuals and as citizens. When we learn that such a man was for a time opposed to the suppression of the slave trade, we may be enabled to ap|)reciate the difficulties with which the involved relations of society at times embarrass the judgment of the purest-minded statesman. At a later period, he was raised under the administration of Mr. Percival, to the rank of Privy Councillor to the Crown, and was aflerwards appointed to a situation in Scotland, which was in- compatible with his retaining a seat in Parlia- ment. When, in 1794, the external and internal dan- gers of England increased to a formidable extent, and the necessity of an increased military force be- came apparent, Sinclair, at the request of (he government, raised, principally from among the Scotch Hio-hlanders, a battalion of 600 men, for service in England, and soon after a corps of 1000 additional, for that of Ireland. They were the first troops of the sort raised, for the purpose of being employed out of Scotland. The most remarkable circumstance connected with this undertaking, and of which Sir John feels justly proud, was, the ab- sence of all dissension, and the uniform good health and exemplary conduct of these troops. Although an adherent of ministry, and capable of every exertion and sacrifice for the state, Sin- clair was too enlightened and bold a character ever to become a mere party man. He knew the value of the opposition, and when conviction dictated such conduct, defended its measures. He was a friend of Pitt, and an admirer of his great endow- ments, but not blind to his weak points. He saw the minister's ignorance of military science, his want of intimate acquaintance with, and ability to ap-t §S8 FARMERS' REGISTER— SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. preciate Ihe imporlance of^ foreign powers ; and felt so thoroughly convinced of the inadecjuacy of the means of defence opposed by Pitt, in 1796, to the tremendous developement of the warlike re- sources of France, that he seriously thought of transporting himself with his family to the United States of North America. But the dark cloud passed away ; and if the times were bad in his na- tive land, tliey aftbrded, for that very reason, a nobler field for the exercise of his benevolence and patriotism. While yet a young man, Sinclajr made several short tours on the continent ; but in 1786, he un- dertook an extensive journey through the northern states of Europe, visiting St. Petersburgh, Vien- na, and Berlin, and returning through France and the Netherlands. It was his good fortune, to make his travels the source of two important benefits to his country, — an improved method of coining, and a better system of manufacturing gunpo\vder. Sinclair's activity as a writer, is unsurpassed. His literary works are as numerous and compre- hensive, as they are instructive and impressive. — His first work, published in 1782, is an essay on the Scottish dialect. The subject of the work is philological, but its object political ; for it was an attempt to approximate the conversational lan- guage of the Scots and English, so that the two nations might be more closely united. This pub- lication was succeeded by treatises on Parliamen- tary Reform, the Naval Strength of Britian, on Militias and Standing Armies, the Retention of Gibraltar, the Corn Laws, and Finance. The last mentioned pamphlet, suggested the compilation of his celebrated History of the Re- venue of Great Britain, a lucid work, and full of useful matter. It has gone through several edi- tions, and been frequently translated. This was followed by a volume of Essays on Agriculture, and the Art ot Preserving Health ; and that again gave rise to the Treatise on Longevity, in tour vo- lumes, a work which has not a little contributed to raise the reputation of the author, and which, in its philanthropic tendency and enlightened views, may rank with the work of Hufeland on the same subject. A work on the agriculture of Scotland, and a Code of Agriculture, with some fugitive pieces, complete this series of his labors. The fame and gratitude which his exertions have ac- quired, may well be flattering to our author. Fo- reigners emulate his countrymen in the expression of these feelings, and the French, in particular, honor him by turns with the titles, " Le. previicr jfgronome de V Europe," " Le Grand-pretre de Ceres," and " Le Ileros de VEconomie Rarale." A new genius of literary undertakings, howev- er, exalts our admiration of Sinclair. By unwea- ried seven years' exertions, he completed a Statis- tical Account of Scotland, in twenty one volumes octavo ; and by his power of exciting and cherish- ing activity, he has caused the compilation of se- venty volumes of agricultural reports, from every county of England and Scotland, independent of some kindred undertakings which remain unpub- lished. These enormous collections have been the fountain of important discoveries, and innumera- ble reforms, to which the accunuilation of such su- perabundant materials has necessarily led. But lest our readers should imagine that this man, so variously and deeply busied with calcula- tions comprehensive views, and auxiliary studies of every kind, whose works, though in general fertile of instruction, yet are individually dry, and incapable of furnishing the refreshment which we derive from the realms of poetry, it is time there- ibre to pass in review, his claims to the possession of sentiment and esprit. On every opj)ortunity, he evinces both inclination and facility of expres- sion in verse. This gift he seems however to have used sparingly in his riper years ; and yet circum- stances have brought him in contact with the na- tional muse. The poems of Ossian, first made known to the world by Macpherson, had awaken- ed astonishment and enthusiasm throughout Eu- rope, before their authenticity began to be ques- tioned. At length, some distinguished critics un- dertook, in the absence of historical, to demon- strate, by internal evidence, that they were a mo- dern imposture. The deep silence of Macpher- son, was regarded in the light of a confession ; and the question remained undecided long after his death, although he had left the original Gaelic po- ems behind him, and expressly destined a sum of money lor their publication. A committee of the Highland Society of London was appointed to in- vestigate the matter : Sinclair was appointed chair- man; and chiefly owing to his exertions, this body was enabled to establish the truth, that Macpher- son had really procured legendary songs still lin- gering in the Highlands, and even preserved in one or two instances in MS.; but had arbitrarily omit- ted several passages in his translation, added much of his own, and not unfrequently mistaken the sense of the original. The original Gaelic text was, with much difliculty, prepared for the press; and this service gained for Sir John, an increase of attachment on the part of his countrymen^ and new laurels for the literary Avorld. Loaded with such fruits of a life of energetic acti- vity, our author has now reached that advanced age, fiom which he may look back with satisfac- tion on his career and his labors. If the influence of his lessons, and his example in the world at large, extend beyond the reach of vision, arid be of an al- most untangible nature, what he has accomplished at home is determinate and cheering. When Sin- clair journeys through his own lands, or those of his neighbors, and sees the cultivation of the soil, the manufiictures and population of the country continually increasing, — his native village trans- formed into a thriving town, — a wretched fishing- village extended to an important harbor, where 100 vessels find secure anchorage, and in its neighbor- hood whence 1500 fishing boats set sail of an even- ing,— when he looks round, and sees himself in wealthy circumstances, surrounded by twelve chil- dren and fourteen grandchildren, — he must feel gra- titude to the Pi'ovidence which has givpn such an evening to his day, an evening which we fervently pray may be of long and happy duration. But Sin- clair dreams not even yet of repose. The grey- headed veteran of seven and seventy years, looks cheerl'ully and actively to futurity. Leisure would be to him a burden. He knows, that man is only worthy of living, so long as he prosecutes generous resolves, and feeling himself yet full of vigorous in- tellect, he prepares to complete the system of his literary undertakings. He has already published Codes of Agriculture and Longevity, but he wishes to accomplish a similar compendium of Political Principles, and then a Code of Religion ; for he sees, that new views ol'the super-sensual concerns of man FARMERS' REGISTER— PIT COAL TAR— COMMERCIAL REPORT. 289 open upon him from the station he has assumed. — The completion of these v/orks he proposes imme- diately to undertake. The present book presents itself, as a spot of se- rene repose, between these rcfi^ions of severe labor. It is the result of a backward glance at many liy- fone days and long terminated connexions. Sir ohn thinks justly, that it would lie a pity to with- hold so many important relations of his long and active life, (his friend Bishop Gregoire called him tlie most indefatigable, and extensively acquainted individual in Europe,) from the preservation to which, the mere names of the parties concerned entitle them. He has therefore made his selection from his extensive collection of letters and other documents, a gallery, w Inch makes us thoroughly acquainted with his own cliaracter and many other matters of importance. We will not blame him for assigning places to several unimportant notes, nor for much that is unimportant, and a little that is contradictory, in the remarks appended to some of his documents. In com})any witli so gallant a veteran, we are charmed with his benevolent and amiable loquaciousness, and the importance which he attributes to every thing. And, indeed, the standard of importance differs with everj^ reader : we confess, that a few 'lines from Nelson, were, for the name's sake, most interesting to us, and other readers, who will feel a like predilection for scraps, which have little attraction for us. Other articles again, contain more explicit intelligence ; as, for example, that concerning Washington, whose pure and lofty character, is beautifully ex- pressed in a whole series of letters and illustrative anecdotes. The variety too, is so great, that it must satisfy every expectation. The greatest con- trasts, the most remote extremes, lie here jieacea- bly together as in a traveller's album. That the eminent men of Sir John's own department, i\r- Ihur Young, Pictet, Adam Smith, Say, Rumfbrd, Thaer, Baron Voght, Fulton, &c. should be all here, w as to be expected : but in addition to these, we find besides, Madame de Stael, and tlie Coun- tess de Genlis, — the excellent Ilannali Moore, — Field Marshal Romanzow Sadunaisky, and the tragedian Kean, — Count Bernstorff and General Paoli, — Jefferson and Count Zenobio, — Prince Po- lignac and General Lafayette, beside Bishop Gre- gorie ; the two last, on account of tlieir philan- thropic principles, peculiarly dear to Sinclair. As an Englishman, Sinclair is accustomed to tolerate every political party, to stand true to hisov.n, and attack his antagonist with eagerness, yet without personal animosity. Tins is not the case in other countries, where the contest has not yet been reduc- ed within the bounds of law, and where tlie antago- nists have not yet acquired the habit of regarding each other like the officers of two opposing armies, who do their best to v.cund and kill eacli other, yet "all in honor." For llio Farmers' Register. TAR FROM PIT COAL, A CHEAP SUBSTiTtTTE FOR PAINT, FOR THE ROOFS OF HOUSES. I applied to a painter in Richmond last summer to furnish me a bill of paints, &c. for a small build- ing then erecting, who advised me to use what he called coal pit tar, for the roof, instead of paint. — I have followed his advice, and am very much pleased with the result. The color produced from Vol. I.— 37 the tar is a beautiful glossy dark slate. Time only can determine whether it will be lasting; but I see no reason to doubt it. The tar is obtained from the pit coal in its process of distillation for the pro- duction of gas. It cost me in Richmond $5 50 per barrel of 33 gallons. In Baltimore, where it is manufactured, the cost would probably be much less. F. H. Frederickshall, Louisa, Sept. 20, 1833. For the Farmers' Register. COMMERCIAL REPORT. The prosperous state of commersial affairs which I mentioned in my last communication, has suffer- ed no diminution ; and the complaints of dull times, low prices, losing business, and scarcity of money, is not now lieard either from the farmer or the merchant. It is true that the crops of grain, tobacco, and cotton are smaller in quantity tlian would have been produced had the seasons been favorable ; but, with the exception of the great deficiency in wheat, the prices compensate for the diminished quantity. The wheat crop has been much less productive than for several years past — the price has not been under 105 cts. and generally 115 to 120— now 112 to 118 cts. The mills will cease their operations earlier than usual for want of grain. An unusual prevalence of cold weather during a part of August and Sej)tember, and an aliiiost continual drought during those months, has dimin- ished the product of cotton very considerably, none of the latter blooms having matured — but the ear- lier ones produced a very fine crop, and new cot- ton already appears at market in considerable quantity, and commands from 15 to 16 cts. Whe- ther this high price will be maintained, must chiefly depend on the productiveness of the western crops, which cannot yet be ascertained — nor indeed can those of the Atlantic states, with any tolerable ac- curacy. The business of extracting oil from the cotton seed has considerably enhanced llie relative values of cotton in the rough and clean or ginned state, in the vicinity of the oil mills. Formerly one tenth was exacted for toll — now, the seed is considered a compensation for the labor of ginningand packing. The result of the tobacco crop is not yet well as- certained. On the waters of Roanoke a very short crop is expected, but on .Tames River an average one. The export from Kentucky has been very deficient, and that from Virginia not large. The stocks in all foreign markets are reduced, and there can be little doubt that the new crop will command very good prices. The most important articles of foreign produce have advanced in price beyond the reduction of the duties on them, and the consumer has to pay more than he did under the high tariff. The West In- dia question has affected some articles, and increas- ed consumption has enhanced others. X. GERMIKATION OF SEEDS. The presence of oxygen gas being the principal requisite for germination, and chlorine the most powerful agent for developing tliis gas, it has been found that healthy seeds, steeped in the chlorine fluid, are accelerated in their germination ; and that others, which appeared to have lost their faculty of germination, have recovered it by the same pro- cess.— Humboldt. 290 FARMERS' REGISTER— TO TOBACCO PLANTERS. To tlie Tobacco Planters. From the Richmond Enquh-er — 1827. As the price of wheat must necessarily remain low while a o;eneral peace continues, and its pro- duction has been very much curtailed of late years, from the uncertainty of making good crops, our attention will consequently be more and more turned to the culture of tobacco ; and as 30 to 50 per cent, has generally been lost on this crop, from wantof better management, feeling it a duty, I take pleasure in pointing out your defects, and in sug- gesting the proper amendments ; and to those who are sceptical, I recommend a partial triril and ex- periment. As I shall recommend nothing more than what has been practised by some of you to great and very satisfactory , as well as profitable suc- cess, I hope others will feel a confidence, so far at least, as to make the trial. My object is merely to communicate to all, a knowledge of the advan- tages discovered and enjoyed by a few. TOPPING AND PRIiriNG. Two great errors are in general practice, in top- ping and priming. On the rich land you generally top too low ; almost all the tobacco made on the rich land is too large, too coarse and curly, in con- sequence of topping too low and planting too far apart. On such land as you generally turn out and make ten leaves to the plant, you should aim at making twelve at least, by topping to about sixteen, and not finish priming when you top, but commence again when the four top leaves get about half grown. If the seasons should produce a rapid growth, indulge some of the suckers the high topping, and permitting tlie suckers to remain awhile, during the rapid growtli of a wet summer, will cause the leaves to be smaller, grow slower, and of finer texture. When the four top leaves get half grown, prime off two more, and sucker clean; by this time you can determine whether your crop will probably come to the knife late or early ; if late, prime off Iwo more in a short time ; and if you should shortly thereafter apprehend its suffering from dry weather, prime off two more This will, in general, bring you to the tenth, mid- dle, or latter end of September, with ten leaves to a plant. If the drought should then have been so severe as to have kept back the growth too much, and the leaves now be much too small and no rain yet, prime off two more and take your chance with the remaining eight, which will weigh as much, when ripe, as any greater number would, if permitted to remain. But if the crop should not suffer from dry wea- ther, your plants will produce at least twelve good leaves; and if the seasons should be very good, thirteen to fourteen might well be made. Nothing is easier than to keep down the size of the leaves, and prevent them from getting too large, if you will only top high and indulge the suckers to a proper extent in the early part of the summer, when the seasons are favourable to rapid growth. Sucker and prime judiciously, as the rains subside and dry weather sets in. By turning out a superabundance of leaves, it enables you to speculate on the weather in this crop with more certainty, than any other ever known to the writer. Some planters always make fine to- bacco. The tobacco on the middling rich land, of light, quick, active qualities, should be topped high al- so, and treated in the same manner as recommen- ded for the rich. Two great advantages res^ult from high topping : it causes the u[)per leaves to branch out from the stalk nmch farther apart than the lower, which gives them more benefit from the genial rays of the sun, and latent properties and substances of the air, which feed the plants by ab- sorption ; and the upper leaves have a better shape, not so curly, and much smoother and more valua- ble than the lower. The four top leaves of a plant often, are, in ge- neral, worth more than the other six, although the four arc not so large, and do not, in general, weigh half as much as the six. The four top leaves are always the richest, if ripe, and of much tlie best and most useful shape. They are decidedly so when a plant is fully ripe, because they have the greatest benefit from the sun and air, and act as a shelter and covering to a great part of those below them : and the covered shaded parts of the lower ones are always- thinner, more chaffy, and lacking in substance, texture, colour and elasticity, as well as flavour. Hence the great advantage from high topping, since we all certainly know that kind nature's good arrangement causes the branches and limbs of all vegetation, from the grass to the tree, to bud and spring out further and further apart as they approach the top. Nature's design and wisdom, in this regulation, cannot but be manifest to any one wiio will reflect a moment upon the subject : it is to prevent the upper from stifling and suffo- cating the lower, if I may be indulged to use such terms on the subject of vegetation. As the same rules are also applicable to the cul- ture of tobacco on thin land, such as can just bare- ly produce a crop, I need say but little, particu- larly as I am not disposed to encourage its culture on poor land ; on such as one-third to half the Vir- ginia crop is made, which neither pays for the la- bour nor loss of soil. But it is the general, current, and very errone- ous opinion, that much of the fine high priced to- bacco has been made on poor land. It will be well to correct this error, as it has caused much injury, and great loss of labour, and final destruction and death to a great deal of thin land, either poor ori- ginally, or in the last stage of consumption, by the Virginia-killing mode of cultivation. It is true, however, to a notorious degree, that several poor counties have of late been very conspicuous, and, perhaps, meritoriously celebrated, for making fine high priced tobacco; but the fine tobacco was not made on poor land, when the land was actually poor ; it was made on the richest, liveliest spots that could be picked out in those poor counties ; and the poverty of the circumjacent lands and country, tends very much to brighten and increase the tine ilavt)ur in curing, because the atmosphere of a high, dry poor country is much sweeter and purer than it can possibly be in a rich country, particularly low mud lands, rich low grounds on rivers of wide bottoms, where the exhalations keep the air highly impregnated with too much oxy- gen and otlier acrimonious and deleterious matter, which the tobacco iinbibed to too great an extent in its growth, and should be thrown off in curing, and would lose in a purer state of atmosphere, in the process of what you call, coming and going. Consequently, it would be of great advantage to FARMERS' REGISTER— TO TOBACCO PLANTERS- £91 the flavour of low g;round tobacco, to take it up to the high land of pure air to be cured. It is as im- practicable to make rich or fine hio;h priced tobac- co on poor land, or rather on poor tobacco hills, as it is impossible for nature to generate something from nothing, without any primeval essential mat- ter to act upon. Then to account for and explain the erroneous opinions in circulation, that much of the fine high priced tobacco has been made on poor land, let the following fact suffice, the evidence of which abounds extensively amongst 3'ou. Many of you who have not rich land, have resorted to the ne- cessity of picking the best spots of your thin land with onl}' a thin coat of soil, and that coat nearly all composed of vegetable matter, scraped into hills, which caused them to be tolerably rich, ac- tive and productive for one or two years, and this is generally new ground. In this way, a part of the fine high priced tobacco has been made, but much the greater part has been produced by the rich land, with the aid of the art of high curing, with but little or no fire. CUTTIKG AXD FLAVOUR. These two terms appear at first to be unconnec- ted, but as the latter depends very much upon the former, I have united them. No one essential is more material to the value of tobacco, than a good fine flavour. One of the greatest errors is committed, in cut- ting before it gets entirely ripe, which is the chief cause why so much is defective in flavour, colour, and substance ; and why so much feels rich and thick without looking or being so. As tobacco is an aromatic plant, and one of the most fragrant and odoriferous that is indigenous to this country, when ripened and cured to its great- est perfection, it is not strange that so much of it should lack those qualities when cut before it is ripe ; particularly when we take into considera- tion, that the odours of nearly all the aromatic fa- mily are very delicate and volatile, and never ac- quired in the greatest degree, till the last stages of their growth, and some never fully consummated till they get through the process of curing, which is peculiarly the case with tea and tobacco. Much of the flavour, as well as substance and weight, are lost by premature cutting. But these are not all the losses from it : the impracticability of cur- ing with a good, lively, healthy colour. A dull dingy hue will inevitably be the aspect of all that is cut green, cure it as you may. But it can be cured of a bright colour, which will soon fade away, like a thin, poor patient in a fever, after it abates and subsides. As I hazard nothing in the declaration, that eve- ry rich plant cut in perfection, fully ripe, whether on rich or thin land, bottom or high land, may be cured of good colour and flavour, that will he last- ing and delicious to the taste and smell. And al- though good colour and flavour constitutes the chief value, yet no more than about one-tenth of the Virginia crop has ever come to market with these great advantages. Of all the plants known to the writer, tobacco is constituted and composed of the richest, strongest, and most delicious, and also the most delightful in- gredients. The alcohol or spirit, the oil and opium, le sugar or saccharine matter, the mucilaginous wax and gums, the acids and nitre, with several of the other volatile salts, &c. all so harmoniously combined, constitutes this the richest and most de- licious compound ever engendered and generated in any one plant. No wonder, then, that all clas- ses of every country and clime, from the savage to the civilized part of mankind, should take de- light ih its use. It forms the traveller's compan- ion, and the philosopher's aid. It is the old bache- lor's antidote ; the epicure's last resort, and sai- lor's and soldier's third daily ration. It keeps open the sentinel's eyes ; and besides medical, and ma- ny other good effects, it cheers the watchman in the silence of the night. Wonderful v/eed of Ame- rican origin ! Many incorrect and erroneous opinions have gone into circulation respecting colour; impres- sions have been extensively made in the country that yellow is a favourite colour. A bright lively colour is invariably admired by the purchasers, who give the highest prices. But neither brown, red, nor yellow will do. A rich mixture of red and yellow on the under side of the leaf is desira- ble. Such a mixture as is to be found in fat light- wood, and brilliant, rich, bright mahogany. The dull brown and dark dingy colours, are very ob- jectionable. The next best colour to the favour- ite one just described, is a rich, deep j-ellowish green, or rather the fat lightwood colour, with a slight admixture or tinge of green ; but it is so much the worse of the green, in the ratio that it contains that shade which lessens the fine flavour, and detracts from the value. All rich, ripe tobacco, can be cured of the fat lightwood colour with its rich aspect — and as the greater proportion of you understand two process- es which can produce the effect, and you can ob- tain the information from each other, a description (which is difficult,) is deemed unnecessary. A similar colour, in a faint and feeble degree, can be given to the poor, thin tobacco, and is cer- tainly a handsome dressing for it in the new state, and is well calculated to take with superficial judg- es. But as such a dressing injures the stamina, and increases the fading in going through the sweat, either on land or at sea, it should never be attempted, as it is an injury, and will never take with any competent judge. The dapple, or pieball, is very much admired by many purchasers who are esteemed good judg- es ; and when this aspect is given to that which is very potent, it is similar to Jamaica 4th and 5th proof rum, which can lose a great deal of strength and still be sufficiently good and strong. But those variegated colours are a disadvantage. The variegation is produced either by too rapid curing, which exhausts the lightest coloured parts too much, or by brliising and pressing ; and when the bruised parts come to be acted upon by the air, ei- ther in or out of the hogshead, they fade and exhaust : this bruising is the cause why manufactured to- bacco fades sooner than leaf, both being equally ex- posed to air, and of equal quality originally. A competent judge had rather have the under side of the leaf, stem and fibres, all of one colour, of the fat lightwood appearance ; and this uniformity in colour proves the maximum, and is the best evi- dence of rich, well cured tobacco, in its highest perfection of growth and curing. 292 FARMERS' REGISTER— TO TOBACCO PLANTERS. FIRING AND CUUllVG. Firing has been carried to great excess and ve- ry much to tlie injury of tobacco of late years, both in smoking it too much, and parching and curing it up too rapidly. The smoke is a very objection- able flavour, and the excessive parching makes the leaf too crisp, and destroys the valuable elasticity. It should be well cured, with as little fire as possi- ble. iSbme cure it very well without fire. Several years ago, a great immber of planters took up the impression, that the purchasers were fond of hard fired tobacco, from the erroneous opi- nion of some of them, wlio said they liked to smell the effects of fire, because it was an evidence that it was well cured; but they have since discovered their error, and no one is now fond of the smell of smoke, which is a great objection in every market in Europe, as well as in America. PRESSING IN HOGSHEAD. The leaves in the bundles, which should not con- tain more than four to six, should be arranged straight and parallel with each other, not folded one within another — nor for the leaves in one bundle to mix with those of another. Some planters are in the habit of packing their bundles very straight in large bulks, and pressing them down with heavy weights in proper order for pressing in hogs- heads, and when they pack them in hogsheads, turn them up edgewise, and pack the flat sides close together, edges up, which causes the bundles in sampling to come out very straight, and of a very handsome appearance. This is the best mode. As many of the essential properties of this deli- cious plant arc very volatile, the sooner it is well cured and pressed in hogsheads, the better, and the hogsheads cannot be too tight. And when a crop comes in early, and can be well cured in au- tumn, and pressed in hogsheads at that season, it should be done. It will be more potent, contain more stamina, and retain more of the fragrant and odoriferous essences, as it will imbibe much more of them in autumn than at any other season of the year, because the atmosphere contains more at that season than any other, in consequence of there being more imparted to the air from the decline of vegetation at that period, when the vegetable kingdom renders up to the atmosphere, nmch of the valuable, and most of the delicious excellen cies, to the transmigrating elements of heat, mois- ture and air ; and as tobacco has very attracting powers, and great capacity to receive, it has very great influence over those substances which dying and decaying vegetation throws out to the winds, through the agency of caloric and moisture. I have never known tobacco in hogsheads to be so exquisitely fine and high flavoured as that which had been pressed late in autumn. It is, therefore, an error, in my opinion, when it can be avoided, to let it stay out of the hogshead during the winter. It will be continually losing during its exposure to the air, either in bulk or otherwise. As the air circulates twenty to thirty feet below the sur- face of the earth, you must agree that it circulates much more in a bulk of toiiacco, and much more in a bulk than in a tight hogshead, when hard pres- sed. The winter and spring winds get so many washings from rain, that they become thin, poor and hungry, and will feed upon almost every thing. The autumn winds, on the contrary, get fat from the dying and decaying vegetation, and have much I to part with to all attracting bodies. Thus the fall is the most unhealthy for man, and most nourish- ing to tobacco. STRIPPING AND ASSORTING. The four top leaves that are good and perfect, (not ragged,) and nearly of the same size, should all be put together to make the first class, as they always will be the best when ripe ; and the others should be assorted in the same manner as to size and quality. The mixing of large and small, good and bad, gives a bad appearance and causes a crop to sell for a much less average than if assortecl. There is now too much experience in almost every neighbourhood to doubt this assertion. SUBSTANCE AND TEXTURE. Many incorrect opinions have been expressed by planters, of late, respecting these two qualities. I have heard, with regret and surprise, a great many say, that ayellow, thin, hickory leaf substance was very much in demand, and has commanded the highest prices. This is one of the most erroneous opinions in circulation, and I will attempt to ac- count for its origin. Several manufacturers have, of late, selected the bright, rich, sweet, delicate to- bacco of very high flavour, and although thin and delicate, yet rich, but chiefly of the oil, spirit, and saccharine constituents. And as manufacturing lias increased, and this kindof leaf diminished, the competition .^or it has been great, and caused many sales to be made, of late years, at two, three, four and five dollars per hundred, above the average top of the market for other export qualities; and, al- though that kind is suitable, and is, perhaps, the best for exportation, our manufacturers generally outbid the exporters. When high sales of this kind have been m.adeat very high prices, I have seen planters in a kind of indignant, contemptuous manner, pick outsomeof the poorest leaves, and say — this is the kind of stuff you want, and for which you give such high prices; and for my thick, rich, substantial, real tobacco, you will give only about half: I can easily make such as you want on any of my poor land — which is a very erroneous opinion. None but new ground or high land, well manured with vegetable matter, sucli as straw, leaves, and the like, is competent to produce such. And althougli this kind of tobacco is rather thin, and appears poor to the superficial eye, it is, nevertheless, rich, and of the most delicate and delicious ingredients just mentioned; and having less of those gross, {jotent, strong, cloying substances peculiar to the low grounds, and rich cow-penned highlands or lots of stable manure. But as 500 to 1000 hdds. per annum, of such to- bacco would now more than supply the American demand, the latter quantity would so far glut the markets, as to put down the prices of such even with, if not lower, than the other best export quali- ties, because France, which of late years pays high- er prices than any other country, wants the very richest in every respect, the most potent and fra- grant, to mix and give substance and flavour to the indigenous of their country ; the culture of which was greatly increased during Napoleon's continental blockading, non-commercial system, and has since been continued under the regulations of the government of France. Texture is very important. A close, fine grain FARMERS' REGISTER— TO TOBACCO PLANTERS. 293 is very requisite, and cannot be acquired from a | quick, rapid, luxuriant growth, which always pro- duces coarse grain, and open, spongy texture. Rich, low grounds are more disposed to those de- fects than any other, because they contain a great- er humidity of air than high land of equal fertility. But I have seen low ground crops of very dry years, some of them from the James river bottoms, that was of the middle sized leaf, (owing to the drought,) not too large nor too coarse, cured of the fat lightwood colour, of fine grain, and close, good texture, and of middling good flavour, which might have been very much improved in flavour, by cur- ing on high land, in the purer state of air. Plant- ing closer, topping and priming higher of seasona- ble years, would produce the same good results, and make more leaves and heavier crops than the common mode. As some of you agree that high topping, high priming, and priming gradually, according to the growth, will cause the growing to continue two to three weeks longer, and produce smoother, smal- ler leaves of finer texture, I hope others will profit by this information ; at least all who have strong, rich land, and have been in the habitof wide plant- ing, low topping, and making it large and coarse, which never commands the best prices. Erroneous opinions have also gone into circula- tion on this part of the subject. Some think it should be pressed in hogsheads, in soft, damp or- der, so as to give it a motley, dapple, or pie-bald colour : as these are the effects of bruising or parch- ing in firing, it is an error to press in that order. Others think it cannot be pressed too dry ; which opinion is often expressed by purchasers, and is also erroneous, and has induced many to press it too dry. It should be pressed in just such order as to cause the leaves to adhere, but not bruise, nor become dapple, motley, or pie-bald. And it should never be handled nor pressed, but in soft, mild, hu- mid weather. Nay, indeed, there is no certainty of ever pressing it in proper order when the wind is from any northwardly or westwardly point be- tween N. N. E. and W. S. W. That is to say, the northwardly and v.estwardly winds are too dry and harsh. The safest and best weather is under the south- wardly winds, the nearer due south the better, be- cause the softer. The proper order for striking and pressing, is in soft, humid southern weather, when the leaf will just barely yield to the pressure and squeeze of the hand without crumbling ; and it should always lie some time in bulk before pres- sed in hogsheads, to get out of the curls and con- tractions from dying. By lying till the moisture on the surface gets diffused, the leaves will un- furl, extend and expand measurably, and become smoother. Then press it, if you find it wdl adhere without bruising. If not, it should be hung up, and go through the same process again. The wax, gum, and saccharine matter are form- ed on the upper side of the leaf, and protects it from the sun in growing, and neutralizes and mo- difies the acrimonious and corroding tendency of the stimulants and acids, salts, &c. when used. The wax, gum, and saccharine matter, becom- ing dissolved and washed off by rains, when the plant is ripe or nearly so, causes the leaf to burn by the first hot sun^ and induces the planter to cut the plants in this state of poverty, to save them from total loss and destruction. There is a partial remedy for this dilemma : whenever the growing season of the year is not too far advanced for nature to re-act, repeat and nr.ike another efibrt, which she is always very kindly disposed to do, if within her power. But, if she is too far advanced, and on the verge of frost, the following remedy will not be unavaihng. When such a washing shall have taken place, commence as soon as possible, even before the rain ceases, and cut a part of each plant, say half, and set tliem bottom upwards, each on its own plant, and there let them remain till the weather clears off, and the sun kills the cuttings sufficiently for removal, and then do the best you can with them. This partly cutting, and covering the lower half with the upper, protects the lower awhile from the sun, and thus reducing the size of the plant, gives the standing part all the support from the root, which will often send up sufficient nutriment to support and protect the standing half from too great injury from the sun. And whenever a plan- ter finds his plants nearly ripe, and appreliends much rain, and feels confident that it will fake place, he should put all his force to this partial cut- ting and turning up, as he well knows that a plant, bottom upwards, injures very little by washing, as the substances which yield to solution are chiefly on the ofiier (upper,) side, and the upper half thus turned up, covers and protects the lovv'cr half very much from washing. And although I have heard of but few experiments, the reasonableness of the thing appears so clear and conclusive, that no one should doubt so far as to refuse to make a fair ex- periment. WOOD FOR HOGSHEADS. Too little attention has been given to dry sea- soned timber for headings and staves. It should be seasoned thoroughly dry. The moisture in green wood contains an acrimonious and corrosive acid, far more deleterious and destructive than so much water. And very great injury and loss has often been sustained 1^ green liogsheads, and partly- green. Fear not, ye planters of Virginia, that you will ever over-stock the world with fine tobacco, and thereby reduce the price. The more fine you make, the less will be made in Europe and other coun- tries, not indigenous nor so congenial to its produc- tion. The low, dull state of the markets for the com mon and inferior, is not the result of too much ; it is the consequence of our inferior quality, but little or no better than what is made on the continent of Europe, which comes in competition with our inferior. Make more, better ; make all good, and you Vv^ill* get good prices for all. But I have heard some of you say, not so. To such I beg leave to reply, by asking, is inferior tea cheap because there is too much tea .' If all the India tea were good, all would command good prices. We can raise tea also, but our country and climate forbids our making it so fine and fragrant as that which is made in India. Just so with all the tobacco which may be made in countries and climes not indigenous nor conge- nial to the maximum of its perfection. If any one country or clime hath a decided na- tural advantage over any other in the production 294 FARMERS' REGISTER— TO TOBACCO PLANTERS. of any article, as is eminently the case with India as to tea, and America as to tobacco, the result would inevitably be, that a whole crop made in tlie greatest perfection in tlie country most congenial to its production, will be worth more than if a part were tine and a part inferior- — because that which may be made in countries less favoral)le, will coni- plele more with the inferior than with the fine. If I am incorrect in this hypothesis, I yield all pretensions to logic. But if you admit my reason- ing to be correct, go on to perfection and profit by your improvements, which is the wish and desire of "i'our friend, FREDERICK ORONOKO. CURING TOBACCO. To the ^iidhor of the Address to the Tobacco Planters. Many of we planters make grateful acknow- edgements to the author of the above address. We sincerely hope that he will be so very obliging as to answer the following queries: 1. Is sunning tobacco, after cutting, necessary ; and how long early in the season .'' 2. Whether the firing of tobacco should be in open or closed barns .'' 3. How many fires, and the heaps or sizes of the fires, should be in a 20 foot square room, nearly full of green tobacco ; and what length of time these fires should be kept up, on the first of firing in such a room of tobacco ? 4. After cutting early in the season, how many days should intervene, before the tobacco is suffi- ciently yellow for the first firing .' 5. Alter the first firing shall commence, and it shall be continued for some days, say six, eight, or ten days, will any injury arise to the tobacco by putting out the fires late at night and rekindling them in the morning.' What kind of wood is pre- ferable, and whether green or seasoned .' 6. If cutting ripe enough and pursuing the above means will be certain to secure to the tobacco the saleable colour ; that is to say, the fat lightwood co- lour, or any other colour in demand .' ■ 7. If there be any other means of curing tobacco with the most desired colours, be pleased to state them. APPOMATTOX PLANTER. August 6, 1827. To the Appomattox Planter. I will, with pleasure, endeavour to answer your several inquiries, as stated in the Enquirer of the 6th instant. 1st. Sunning the tobacco is very necessary after cutting; but it should not be kept in the field any longer than to kill and make it sufficiently limber , for removal to hang on sticks, upon a scaffijld at ' the tobacco house ; where it should hang in open airy order, at first letting in the sun well upon the stalks. In this way the butt-end of the stalks, and big ends of the leaves and stems will get a great deal of the sun's heat, which they re([uire in cur- ing. And as fast as the leaves contract and draw up from heat, and in drying, the plants should be moved up nearer to each other, in closer and closer order, to prevent the lower parts of the leaves from being exposed to the sun. It would be a great advantage to split the stalks, as it facilitates the curing very much. They should be split from the top down within two or three inches of the cutting point. The plants thus split siiould straddle the sticks, and the sticks should range north and south, so that the morning's sun will shine on one side of the stalks and the even- ing's on the other. In this manner it should take the sun and open air night and day, until it be- comes well cured, and until the stalks and stems, and leaves get dry. Showers of rain, and even hea- vy shoioers, in this situation, while the leaf con- tinues green, is of little disadvantage ; because it were a small part, except the under side of the leaves w hich are now uppermost. Nearly all of the rich ingredients being on the upper side of the plants as they stand growing. But long, hot, sultry spells of rainy or very damp weather, ot many days continuance, will mould, mildew, rot, or wash it to destruction, particularly after a considerable progress in curing. And when the weather comes from the eastward, preceded by several damp cloudy days, you may count upon a long spell, and then you should commence housing belbre the rain sets in, or much falls; and use fire as the weather may require. 2d. The firing should be in close houses; the closer the better. And the more windows, in rea- son, the better, all with tight shutters, to shut out the damp in long wet spells, and let it in when wanted to bring the tobacco in order. No tobacco can be finally well cured without coming and go- ing frequentI)^ You cannot have any command of your tobacco as regards weather, without close, tight houses — which are of very great importance. 3d. Five fires, dispersed, are enough for a room twenty leet square ; and they should not be large, but burn free, steady, and gradual, and would be the better of never going entirely out, if you in- tend curing by this destructive mode. But why make fires in the house at all ? As smoke is now so very objectionable, why not do the little firing that may be necessary in very long, wet or damp spells, to prevent mould, mildews, &,c. in the man- ner that plank is steamed and dried at saw mills; by stoves, or running a ditch or two through the house, and cover with fla't slabs of rock, or arch over with brick, and make the fire at one end, out of doors, and the heat and smoke will pass through, and give heat enough in a close house, with the windows all shut, to prevent mould, mildew, &c. 4th. Those who cure without firing, or with as little as possible, let it remain after it turns yellow, until the stalks and stems get dry, as well as the leaves, in the open air and sun, if the weather per- mits, or in the house, by the aid of fire, if necessa- ry. But if the stalks, stems, and leaves get dry before the leaves get sufficiently yellow, let it hang until it becomes very high indeed from wet or damp weather, and bulk it in this damp, soft, high order, in very large bulks, in a very close room, and cover well with straw, &c. with heavy weights on the top, and let it remain till it gets warm ; exam- ine it every three to four hours, night and day, and so soon as it yellows sufficiently, hang it up in the house if the weather be wet or very damp, and fire it, moderately and gradually until dry. 5th. This inquiry has been answered, except as to the wood. 'I'he best kinds of wood are those which make the most heat and weakest smoke. The kinds best for smoking bacon, are the worst for firing tobacco, since the smoke flavour has be- come objectionable. FARMERS' REGISTER— VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 295 6th. This question is not sufliciently defined to enable me to give an answer. 7th. I know of but two methods of the curing of the desired colours, viz : The quick curing by fire ; and by bulking in high order, until it yellows, as has been explained. Wishing tiiat these answers may be satisfactory, I conclude. Your friend, FREDERICK OROAOKO. August 17, 1827. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. On a remarkable law of Vegetable Life, and its influence on several operations in Horticulture and y/griculture, by the Rev Dr. Fleming. It frequently happens that the results of experi- ence are extensively acted upon by practical men, in reference to particular operations, long before the principle concerned in the arrangement be dis- tinctly recognized, or its application to objects, under other circumstances, be deemed either possi- ble or expedient. The theorectical naturalist fre- quently receives the first hint of his generaliza- tions from those who have confined their attention to effects merely, and who have marked these even under peculiar confined limits. Yet we must be contented to receive knowledge from every quar- ter, though in scanty portions, and rejoice in every contribution likely to accelerate the march of im- provement. It is well known, that, in the animal kingdom, all those circumstances which accelerate the growth of the body, exercise a proportional influence on the reproductive system, so that the period of pu- berty is uniformly earlier in domesticated than in wild animals, and in those which are fed plentiful- ly with food, than in those which are scantily sup- plied. These effects of an abundant supply of food are exhibited throughout the whole range of the animal kingdom, as far as observation has hitherto extended. The very reverse of this arrangement seems to prevail in the vegetable kingdom. Where plants are furnished with an abundant supply of food, their productive energies develope themselves slowly, and flowers and fruit or seeds are late in appearing. On the other hand, when the supply of nourishment is scanty ; when the plant is, as it were, starved, and when death is threatened, the reproductive energies act with readiness, flowers and seeds are produced, and the extinction of the race guarded against ; or, in other words, the scan- tier the supply of nourishment, the earlier ivill a plant propagate its kind. Let us now attend to some of the exhibitions of this law, and their ap- plication to useful purposes. In reference to seeds, it has been long known to gardeners, that those wliich are new or fresh pro- duce plants with more luxuriant foliage, and less inclined to run into flower or fruit, than such as have been kept for some time, and are partially spoiled. In the first case, the supply of nourish- ment, during the early stages of its growth, being in abundance, the plant enlarges rapidly in sizej while, in the latter case, the scanty supply causes the plant, in obedience to the law which we have announced, to run more directly to flower and seed. These circumstances are carefully considered in the culture of cucumbers and melons, the seeds of >vhich are seldom employed until several years old. Such indeed is the attention paid to this condition, that we find in books on horticulture the following grave recommendation: — " If new seed only can be had, it should be carried a week or two in the breeches pocket, to drv away some of the more watery parts." A similar attention to this law, in reference to the seeds of other vegetables, is pro- ductive of equal benefit. Peas, for example, are well known as apt to run to straw, where the ground is rich or moist. The employment of old is the only suitable remedy. In some newly en- closed carse lands, the evil of excessive luxuriance is frequently experienced to an inconvenient de- gree during two or three years. The straAV is great in quantity, but the grain is always deficient. In vain is recourse had to early or thin sowing, while the use of the old seed is neglected. We need not here guard against misconception, by sta- ting in detail, that, where seeds are kept too long, they either do not vegetate, or give origin to a weak, sickly, useless "plant. Where luxuriance of leaf and great size are the objects aimed at in the cultivation of garden or farm produce, the influ- ence we have been considering must be guarded against as an evil; especially, for example, with turnips and cabbage ; old seed producing plants too much disposed to run to flower. Independent of the influence which this law ex- ercises on the future plant, as the result of the con- dition of the seed, we have it in our power to wit- ness the operation under other circumstances, in the groiving plant itself In the management of fruit trees, there are a variety of plans pursued, which, though obviously depending on this laio of the vegetable kingdom, are frequently but imper- fectly understood by the practical gardener. The transplanting of fruit trees hastens the production of flower-buds. A tree which for years has shown us tendency to produce flower-buds, but which has been exclusively occupied in the extension of its roots and branches, will, upon being shifted from its place, soon exhibit symptoms of a change. The roots, by this process, have been in part injured, the supply of sap to the tree during the following season has in consequence become diminished, and the plant ceasing in a great measure to extend its size, hastens to propagate its kind by the produc- tion of flower-buds, and the subsequent display of blossoms and fruit. The diminished supply of sap, and the conse- quent hastening of the production of fruit-buds, is accomplished by several other plans equally effica- cious. When a rank growing fruit tree is engraft- ed on a slow growing stock, or, in other words, when a tree requiring much sap is compelled to receive its supply through a tree having but a scan- ty supply, the engrafted branch will come earlier into fruit than if it had been always supplied with abundant nourishment. The method of accelera- ting the production of fruit, and termed dwarfing, is particularly serviceable in enabling the cultiva- tors of new varieties to become early acquainted with their respective merits. When fruit trees are prone to run to wood, gar- deners are accustomed to lay bare a portion of their roots during winter. By this exposure many of the fibres are destroyed, and the vigor of all great- ly diminished; so that the sap, during the follow- ing summer, is transmitted to the branches in less quantity, and the production of fruit buds is the consequence. 296 FARxMEHS' REGISTER— LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. Fruit trees, luxuriant in leaves and brandies, but had bearers, arc sometimes forced into a pro- ductive state, by havin*; portions of the bark re- moved by the knife, or wires twisted round tlie stem or branches. In this case, the ascent of the sap is indirectly diminished, by the obstruction of the vessels containinji; the proper juices, the death of the plant, or portion of the plant, is threatened, and the reproductive organs speedily exercise their functions. The late Dr. Walker, Professor of Na- tural History, in th.e University of" Edinburgh, who had devoted much time to the investigation of vegetable physiology, intimates, that the effects here produced by barking, or the twisting of wires, have been accomplished by other means. He says, (in the Economical History of the Hebrides, ii. p. 298,) " To some standard fruit trees, honeysuckles indeed may be applied with great advantage ; these, when even of considerable age, do sometimes con- tinue to run so much to wood, and especially to- wards the heart of the tree, that it remains quite unfruitful. To plant a vigorous honeysuckle at the foot of such a tree, is an easy effectual remedy, and much better than any pruning. The honeysuckle grows up, occupies the heart of the tree, checks its luxuriance, directs its vegetation towards the ex- tremities, and renders it fruitful. A large apple tree of the above description, above fifty years old, and which always had been barren, was rendered by this practice extremely fruitful. When this end is answered, which will happen in a few years, the honeysuckle should then be removed, before it becomes injurious. In the cultivation of floiver in g plants, a know- ledge of this law of vegetable life, and its extensive application may prove of great importance. Sir James Edward Smith, in his introduction to Bo- tany, mentions, that the Solandra grandiflora, a Jamaica shrub, was for a number of years cultiva- ted in the English stoves, and propagated exten- sively by cuttings, each j)Iant growing many feet in length every season, from the abundance of moisture and nourishment, without showing any signs of fructificjition. At length a pot of the So- landra was accidentally left w ithout water in the dry stove at Kew ; and, in consequence of this un- intentionally neglect, the luxuriant growth of its branches was greatly checked, and a flower came forth at the extremity of each. By a similar mode of treatment the same effect has since been fre- quently produced. Indeed, when a law is once properly understood, its application to a variety of cultivated plants, which are slow in showing flow- er, must be obvious. We have seen it with effect on several species of willows. In the cultivation of a farm, numerous examples are frequently occurring of the influence of this ar- rangement in the vegetable economy. The crops growing on the thinnest part of the soil, where the nourishment is consequently in diminished quan- tity, are always the first to exiiibit their flowers, and to be ready for the sickle. In ill managed farms, the harvest is usually much earlier, (other things being equal,) than in those where the crops are under the influence ol a better system. We have had an opportunity of witnessing the delay of harvest, upon the application of lime, for exam- ple, in consequencfe of the increased supply of nour- ishment producing luxuriance of growth rather than early flowering. In the management of plantations^ the indica- tions of this law may prove of great value. Where- ever we see a tree,' in a very young slate, exhibit- ing its flowers, and producing fruit, wc may anti- cipate its early decay. The premature formation of fruit-buds, is the consequence of a scanty supply of nourishment, arising, it may be, from the roots liaving been injured, but generally from the plant having been placed in an unfavorable soil. Fir trees readily indicate their disagreement with the soil by the pro'duction of cones, while yet young, and this early fructification is the almost sure fore- runner of death. The Balsam Fir, for example, which thrives well on a moist soil, will, if planted on a thin dry soil, begin in a few years to produce cones, — then the bark appears covered with blis- ters, which, when opened, pour forth a limpid resin, and the tree, after languishing a few years, dies, after, in the course of a dozen of years, hav- ing attained the height of from twelve to twenty feet. In looking at those decorated villas, near a large town, which to the citizen appear s:> captiva- ting, one may frequently discover the real charac- ter of the soil, by this premature flowering of the ornamental shrubbery. Though plants difi'er from animals, in reference to this singular law, which we have ventured to establish from an extensive induction of particu- lars, they agree, in other respects, in the influence which an abundant supply of nourishment exer- cises in the increase of the number and size of the progeny. LOAD OF A I.OCOMOTIVK ENGINE. To the Erlitars of the Petersburg IntclHgencer. Gentlemen — The following account of the per- formance of one of our engines, -will no doubt in- terest you and many of your readers. On Monday last, the Liverpool brought in a train, consisting of 15 cars and one coach, carrying 127 bales of cotton, 364 bushels of wheat, 162 bush- els of corn, and about 30 persons including passen- gers and agents of the company. The gross weight in motion, may be summed up as follows : Produce and passengers, 83,620 lbs. Cars, Coach and Engines, 67,500 151,120 or nearly 67^ tons. The weight of produce alone, was upwards of 35 tons. This load was put in mo- tion with great ease by the engine, and on level grades was carried at a speed of 15 miles per hour. It was set in motion on ascents of 30 feet to the mile, (on which we had occasion to stop and set down passengers,) and carried them up at a rate varying from 8 to 10 miles the hour. This is the largest load which has ever been on the road at any single time and when we compare it with the small size of the engine, and consider the various ascents on the Rail Road, it may well be called immense. The Liverpool weighs, about 5 tons, and has 9 cylindeis, with a stork of 18 in- ches, and drives four wheels. Her general work- ing pressure is 50 pounds, ranging up to 60 at which the lock up valves blows off. I add the tech- nical details in order that the performance of this engine may be justly appreciated by professional men. Yours, respectfully, HENRY D. BIRD, FARMERS' REGISTER— VIRGINIA SPRINGS— OAT GRASS. 297 From the Lexington Union. VIRGINIA SPRINGS. The crowd of visiters to the various watering places ill our mountains, continues without any obvious diminution. At the White Sulphur, up to Tuesday last, the company could not all be ac- commodated. A number of persons were still lin- gering at the public houses in the vicinity. The number which have registered their names at the above place, during the season, amounts to about 1500. At the Salt Sulphur, for a considerable time past, they have had from 140 to 190 — and the re- gister during the season numbers about 1000. The Red Sulphur has been crowded througliout the season. The Sweet Springs during the present month, as is usual, will be tlie point of attraction. At the Warm and Hot Springs there are large companies. Several of our distinguished citizens have visi- ted these Springs during the summer. * * * A number of the otficers of the United States navy, with their wives — and a number of the officers of the U. S. army, hunting wives — together with all classes of the community, save one. There you will find the divine and the blackleg — the gay and the serious — age and youth — beauty and ugliness. The excluded class, with a few exceptions, are the poor. That this portion of the community should be excluded from these ricli bounties of Heaven, has ever been a theme of regret by philanthropists and politicians; but without having produced an effort upon the part of any individual to effect a change in their management, so as to enable the humble in life, who need their healing influences, to par- take of their benefits. We well remember the substance of a conversation with Mr. Jefferson, a few years ago, when upon a visit to the Warm Springs. Mr. J. was lamenting the state of things, which excluded the poor from these healing wa- ters,— and said in relation to the White Sulphur, that they, at least, ought to be purchased by the State — and placed on such a footing, as to enable all classes of the community to enjoy their bene- fits— and that, if they could not be procured by negotiation, the State ought to condemn them for public use, upon paying the proprietors a liberal price for them ; and urged, as an argument amongst others, for such an innovation on |)rivafe rights, that they were great public blessings, placed there by the hand of God, for the benefit of the human family — and that no individual, or set of uidivi- duals, had an exclusive right to their enjoyment. That the argument of public necessity and public utility, operated with ten fold force, in relation to the health of the citizen, than it did, in relation to his convenience, which authorised the condemna- tion of lands for roads, mills, &c. This is an im- perfect sketch — a mere outline of the views of that distinguished man. The idea was new ; but his arguments satisfied us not only of the power, but the propriety of the measure. The State of New York puchased Saratoga — made the waters public property — laid off a vil- lage— sold the lots — and realized a pecuniary pro- fit. The number of visiters at that Spring, dur- ing the present summer, has been as high as 3000. Hotels of various grades, exist there, — where the poor can be accommodated — where boarding can be had exactly in proportion to the dimensions of the purse. Vol. 1—38 No man can doubt, that, if there were accom- modations upon the plan of Saratoga, at the White Sulpiuir — (vvc select it on account of the advan- tages of quantity of water, not because we believe it j)0ssesses superior virtues to the Salt Sulphur, and perhaps, others)^that in place of having, at the same time, 300 visiters, it would have 3000, The foreign capital, which would thus he introdu- ced into the Commonwealth, would be felt through- out all our borders, — and especially in the moun- tain region — and the richest blessing which man can enjoy, secured to the poor, as well as to the rich. OAT GRASS. From the American Farmer. Beaver Dam, Fa. March 30, 1831. Gideon B. SiMixii; Respected Friend — Amongst the grass cultiva-" ted in our country, there is one which I think has not received its due share of attention. I speak of the Highland meadow oats, sometimes called Pe- ruvian grass; avena elaiior. The first person who tried its merits in this state, as far as my knowledge extends, was the late Col. Taylorof Caroline, who cultivated it a number of years; and in a paper read before the Agricultural Society of Virginia, drew a comparison between it and various other species, as adapted to our climate, highly favorable to its excellence. It has also, if I mistake not, received his encomiums in some communications to the x\merican Farmer, as well as those of other con- tributors to your valuable Journal. It possesses the merit of affording an abundant supply of herbage, at a very early, as well as to a very late season. It shoots up sooner than the or- chard grass, and retains its verdure longer; when the heats of summer, however, overtake it, it fur- nishes less pasturage; it answers exceedingly well to sow with clover. The period at which they come to the scythe being the same, and the meadow oats retaining its erect position, thereby serving to sup- port the clover; render the mixture of these two grasses very desirable. Timothy, which is fre- quently used to mix with clover, ripens so much later, that it can only answer a single purpose. The best season for sowing the seed is in the fall, at the rate of about a bushel to the acre. The young plants are very hardy, and survive the winter with- out injury. I have, however, succeeded well after spring sowing, and farther north it might be attend- ed with equal or better success. In either case, the ground should be harrowed after sowing. I have found it to grow well on all lands that are not wet. Its name indicates that it is better adapted to dry land: and, accordingly, I have not had it to thrive where the soil was very moist. In lands that suit it, it will remain without deteriorating, for an almost indefinite time, neither suffering the en- croachments of other grasses, nor failing from a want of the peculiar food necessary to its suste- nance. Neither do I perceive that it becomes more thickly set. I have now a lot that has been stand- ing for a number of years, and tlie growth is still as vigorous and luxuriant as at first. ]M y experience goes to show that it is well calcu- lated to improve the land. The first that I sowed was on a very thin lot, which, in wheat, scarcely doubled the seed at the time it was laid down in this 298 FARMERS' REGISTER- ORGANIC REMAINS IN MARL. grass ; and after it liad remained in this state three years, tlic jjround was fallowed and sowed in ry^, which yielded thirty bushels per acre. I do not consider the fodder afforded by the tall meadow oats, alone, to be equal to that of tiniolhy, nor is it so great in quantity ; but as Ihcy are adapted to different soils, their relative claims to regard can- not be fully brought into view. l"he chief merit of the oat grass is the early and late herbage it I'ur- nishes ; its excellence for mixing with otiier grasses on lands intended for the hoof, the pressure of which it will bear for any length of time ; and with clover particularly when designed for hay. It will, more- over, flourish well on land where clover and orchard grass will not take; and that there is much of this quality, I fear is lamentably the case, even amongst the readers of the Farmer. Though it fails in its luxuriance in the summer months, it springs up in the fall with freshness and vigor, and remains ver- dant till the end of the year. On the whole, I con- sider it exceedingly valuable and i-ichly deserving a more extensive cultivation. I would add, that as the seed are shed with great facility as soon as they become ripe, some attention is necessary to watch the proper moment to save them. One or two days may make an important difference in the crop. They ripen v/ilh me early in June. Respectfully, t. s. p. ORGANIC REMAINS FOUND IN THE MARL PITS OF LUCAS BENNERS, ESQ. IN CRAVEN COUN- TY, N. c. By H. B. Croom, Esq. It has long been known to the public that large deposits of sea shells exist in different parts of the alluvial country of the southern slates. They have been observed on or near the Tar River, a fisw miles above Tarborough; on Neuse River in the Counties of Wayne, Lenoir, and Craven ; on Cape Fear River in the County of Bladen ; on the Sa- vannah River a few miles below Augusta; on the Oakmulgee River, at Hartford; and finally I have observed them on the Appalachicola River, in Florida, on the summit of a ridge not less than 150 feet above the bed of the river. Of these deposits I have seen, and superficially examined two on the Neuse River, the one at Hartford, and that on the Appalachicola. They appear to be coeval. Oys- ters, Pectens, and Areas, of the same species, pre- dominate in each, mingled with the teeth of sharks, and a variety of other univalve and bivalve shells. The catastrophic by which these remains were bu- ried, appears to have been sudden, and not gradual, as has been remarked by Professor M itchell. This is evidenced by the fact that many, both of the largest, and of the smallest and most delicate bi- valve shells are found w ith their two valves closed and arranged as in a living state, as though they had been suddenly covered up while living. Of all tlicse deposits however, not one has lieen extensively explored except that on the estate of Mr. Benners, occupying the north bank of Neuse River, 16 miles below Newbern. Several years ago Mr. B. commenced digging the marl which accompanies these deposits, [and which has result- ed from them by the mingling of the decomposed shells with the contiguous earth] and spreading it on his fields, which have been much benefitted by the application. In the course of his operations, several pits have been dug, some of them to the depth of 25 feet below the surface of the earth, and ten feet below the present surface of the river. In the course of these excavations a great variety of interesting organic remains have been found, consisting of sea shells, bones and teeth of fishes, and the bones of land animals of prodigious size. Mr. B. informs me that the following is the order in which these remains have been found : — 1st. Sharks' teeth, and the fragments of bones of ma- rine fishes mingled with sea-shells. 2d. Teeth, horns, hoofs, ribs, vertebra, &c. ofquadrupcds that inhabited the land, mingled with sea-shells of great variety. These remains of land animals are found at the depth of from 20 to 25 feet below the sur- face of the earth. Among them are recognized with certainty the teeth of the great mastodon [Mastodon giganteum of Cuvier,] the hoofs, horns, and vertebraj of an elk of great size, and the teeth of an animal supposed to be the hyena. I will now subjoin a more minute account of some of these remarkable remains : I. SHELLS. 1. Pholas costata. Length If inches. Breadth 3^ inches. 2. Clam shells [Venus] one of these in my pos- session measures 5 inches in length and 7 inches in breadth. One which Mr. B. gave to Mr. Nut- tall is a third larger than this. 3. The grooved Conch [Strombus.] Length 5^ inches. A species supposed lo be extinct. 4. Murex. Abundant and of differant sizes. 5. Cardium. [Cockle.] Not common. 6. Solen. [razor shell.] Length^ inch, breadth 4|^. 7. Area. " 2^ " " 2J. 8. Pecten. [Scallop.] " 4| " " 4^. Ostrea. [Oyster.] An extinct species.' Patella fornicate. Length 1^ inch, breadth ^ 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. u (( ^ 21 << 1 2i (( 1 3^ C( 6f 3 X Pectunculus. Conus. [Key shell.] Buccinum. Mya [valves gajung] Donax 1 Nerita. Madrepora porites. II. BONES AND TEETH OF FISHES. 1. Tooth of a Shark. Length 5J inches ; breadth at base within the socket 6j inches. Many others of smaller size. 2. Vertebrae of fishes about one inch in length, and nearly the same in diameter. III. BONES AND TEETH OF LAND ANIMALS. 1. Fragments of the Horns of a fossil Elk.'' 2. Hoof of a fossil Elk.' 9 inches in length.* 3. Teeth of the Elk.', breadth 3 inches, depth 4^7 inches. 4. A vertebra 8 inches in diameter. [Presented toTh: Nutlall, Esq.] 5. A vertebra 3.t inches in diameter; 4^ inches in length. [In my possession.] 6. A vertebra 1 inch in diameter ; 2 inches in length. *The animal to which the hoof and teeth above-men- tioned belonged, must have been much larger than a horse. The space between the extremities of tlie horns of the fossil Elk of Ireland is said to have been eleven feet. The bones of the American fo.ssil Elk have hith- erto been discovered only in the morass near the falls of the Ohio, called Big-bone Lick, in company with the bones of the Mastodon, &c. [Harlan's Fauna, p. 247.] FARMER'S REGISTER— MAKING BUTTER. 299 7. Grinders of the Hyena? 2 inches broad — 3 inches in depth. 8. Fangs of the Hyena? 3 inches in depth; ta- pering to a point. 9. Grinder of the Mastodon giganteum of Cu- vjer. Breadth 7 inches; depth 9} inches. Pre- sented by Mr. B. to the cabinet of' the University of Nortli Carolina. This tooth was found at tiie depth of 25 feet below the surtace of the earth, mingled with sea-shells. The dimensions of this animal as given by Har- lan, in his Fauna Americana, are as follows: Height at the withers from 10 to 11 feet; length from the end of tlie snout, to the posterior part of the pelvis, from 1.5 to 16*y feet. It is remarkable that not more than 10 miles distant from these pits, to-wit, in the Clubfoot Canal, was found, about 4 feet under the surfiice, the skeleton of another spe- cies, the Mastodon angustidens of Cuvier. See Harlan's Fauna p. 214. One of the grinders of this skeleton in my possession measures 6} inches in width. The cutting surfaces consist of elevated and conical points, [4 pairs of points and an odd one,] differing considerably from those of M. gigan- teum, and scarcely seeming to have been intended for grinding grass and leava. The dimensions of this species are said to be one-third less than the other. That was certainly a strange world in which such animals as these browsed and prowled! and, it might seem, scarcely compatible with the co-ex- istence of man in his rude state, armed only with the bow and the club. Newbern, 12th September, 1833. OBSERVATIOivS ON TIIE JIAKING, CUniNG AND CASHING BUTTKR. [From the Elgin Courier, published in ScctUiml.] [A number of copies on the subjoined, having been lately printed in another form attlie Courier office, for one of our country gentlemen, we think we cannot do a more acceptable service to our agri- cultural friends than to insert it in this place. It was drawn up by order of the Agricultural Asso- ciation, as the result of inquiries into the practice adopted in Ireland in making of butter, and of the experience of some extensive cures in the county of Aberdeen. — Ed."] 1. The milk house or dairy should have no in- ternal communication with any other building. It must be kept free from smoke, well aired, and no potatoes, fish, onions, cheese, or anything likely to impart a strong or bad smell, should be kept there- in. In short, nothing but the dairy utensils, which must be kept sweet and clean. 2. The milk, when brought in from the cows, should be strained through a fine hair sieve or strainer, and when cool, put into sweet well sea- soned oaken tubs, keelers or milk pans — the latter to be preferred. A tin skimmer, with holes in it, is the best for taking off the cream, which should always be churned while the cream is fresh. 3. The churns, whether pump or barrel, should be made of the best well seasoned while oak — and as cleanliness is of the first importance, great at- tention should be paid to the \vashing, drying and airing of the ciiurns immediately after use, other- wise they are sure to contract a sour and unwhole- some smell, wliich must injure the quality of the butter. 4. The butter, immediately after being churned should be thrown into fresh spring water, where it should remain for one hour at least, that it may grow firm; and at the end of the third or fourth washing, some tine salt should be put into the wa- ter, which will raise the color of the butter, and purge away any milk that remains among it. Be- fore salting, it is very essential that no milk or wa- ter be left, otherwise a strong smell and unpleasant taste Avill be the certain consequence. 5. The butter thus prepared, should be immedi- ately salted. The proportion of salt may be from one and one-fourth to one and one-half ounce of Scotch salt for the pound of butter — or of the best stoved rock or bay salt one ounce for the pound. But when butter is not intended to be kept through the winter and spring, or for any long period, the quantities of salt above recommended may be some- what reduced, the curer exercising his own judg- ment in doing so. N. B. In Ireland, the use of salt and salt-petre is recommended, in proportion, of one ounce of stoved rock or bay salt, and one-fifth of an ounce of salt pctre to the Aberdeen pound. 6. It is a very injurious practice to keep a mak- ing of butter lincured to the next churning, for the jjurpose of mixing the two together. This mode invariably injures the flavor of the Avhole, and renders it of too soft a quality ever afterwards to get firm. This applies to curers who are the producers of the butter; but as the greatest quan- tity of butter in this country is collected and cured by merchants, they are particularly cautioned against the practice of throwing the fresh butter together, and retaining it in that state for days, un- til they liave collected what they consider a suffi- cient quantity to commence curing — the butter treated in this manner is invariably found inferior to what is salted after churning. Should, however, there not be a sufficient quantity collected in one day to fill a package when cured, the quality of the Initter may be preserved by giving it a partial salt- ing, and covering it over with a clean linen c'oth dipped in pickle, and placing it in a cool situation. Country dealers who are in the habit of sending carts through the districts where they reside to collect the butter, should endeavor to arrange it so between themselves and the makers of the but- ter, tliat it is churned upon the day it is called for, 7. W hen the butter is cured, it should be tramp- ed firm into the firkin w" ith a round wooden tramp- stick, of sufficient weight and thickness. The fir- kin should be filled up to the crose, and then co- vered over with a little of the purest salt — suffi- cient room merely left for the head of the cask, and must be well secured, to exclude air, and prevent the pickle from getting out. 8. The Liverpool stoved salt, or Portugal St. Ubes, or bay salt, is from strength and quality, al- ways to be preferred. All salt must be quite dry, and at a distance from fire, to prevent the first im- bibing the smell of the smoke. If kept in a cask, a little unslacked lime placed under it will prevent its drawing moisture from the ground. 9. The mixing of the salt with th^ butter should be done in wooden dishes, after the water and milk are completely expelled, and no time should then be lost in tramping it into the firkin, which will make it draw even and firm. 10. The milk of new calved cows should never be set for butter until at lo.-st fourdays after calving. 800 FARMERS' REGISTER— NORTHERN GRAPE. as a small quantity of beast milk butter will injure a whole firkin. The practice of scalding cream in cold weather should also be avoided, as cream thus treated will never make good butter. 11. Great care should be taken not to steep the firkin in boggy or unwholesome water. Nothing but the purest spring or clean running water should be used for that purpose — and the firkins should be rendered perfectly dry inside ai'ter being steeped, either by long dripping, or being rubbed by a smooth towel. Old butter sliould never be mixed witli new — and the hning of the casks with infe- rior sorts, or grease butter, is a practice which can- not be too much reprobated. 12. The casks ought to be made of the best oak or ash (the former to be preferred) and the largest size should not exceed eighty-four pounds gross, that being the size used in Ireland, and most con- venient and saleable in the London market. The casks should be tight and well hooped. Beech, plane ash, &c. should never be used, as that qua- lity wood is more apt to absorb the pickle; and in- dependent of the injury thereby occasioned to the butter, it will often lead to dispute the tar. To render these observations more complete, it might be thought necessary to point out the injuri- ous, and even nefarious practices, Avhich more or less prevail in the making of butter throughout the country ; but as a perseverance in such practices must ultimately have the effectof entirely destroy- ing this profitable branch of agricultural industry, it is hoped the makers of butter will see it to be their own interest to produce nothing but butter of the best quality, and that these malpractices, which are perfectly known, will be discontinued. The dealers in the country have it in their power to put a check to them — and it is expected they will do so, by refusing to purchase from those who adopt any artificial means to hasten the making of the butter, or to increase the quantity, while the qua- lify is thereby deteriorated. THE NORTON GRAPE. From the Richmond Whig. We invite particular attention to th.e article be- low. This is unquestionably the most delicious grape we have ever eaten, and it is matter of sur- prise that it has attracted no more attention in Virginia, while its qualities are already well known and duly estimated at a distance. The enterpris- ing discoverer, Dr. Norton, whose vineyard is a short distance from this city, has sunk money by his attempts to introduce the culture of the grape into this state. It is but fair that he should be remu- nerated. An opinion is very prevalent that tlie climate of Virginia is not adapted to the culture of the o-rape. This is all nonsense. The resemblance betweeen it and that of the countries where it most flourishes, and the profusion of wild vines through- out the country, prove the contrary. The fact is, the efforts of most vintagers have hitherto been di- rected to the culture of the foreign grape, which can never succeed here like the native. And yet some of our native grapes, when properly cultiva- ted, are surpa'ssed by none in the world, and never fail (as is often the case with the foreign) in yield- ing a crop. The grape under consideration Ave understand, is as certain as Indian corn or potatoes. The pro|)rietor has some cuttings which he is wil- ling to dispose of, and which we hope to see distri- buted throughout the State. Virginia is naturally a grape growing country, and to that she must ar- rive at last. For ihe Whig. TO CULTIVATORS OF THE VINE. j1 neiv and valuable variety. Norton's Virginia Seedling. Vifis Nortoni, see Prince's Cat. 393, and his book on tiie Vine, page 186, for the following de- scription of this fine fruit: " This very distinct variety owes its origin to Dr. D.N. Norton, of Virginia. It was raised from the seed of the Bland, which fructified in the vici- nity of the Meunicr or Miller's Burgundy ; there exists consequently, some probability, that it is a hybrid between these two. In apj)earance, the vine much resembles the form of the two, to which it closely assimilates in its foliage. The shoots are strong and vigorous, and of a red color. — The vine resists ihe cold of the most severe winters, never failing to produce fruit, and that most profusely, thriving even ivithout pruning, and requiring at 7nost, but a partial use of the pruning instrument, and almost equalling the Isabella in its rapid ex- tension— like that vine, it is also well calculated for arbors, bowers, large espaliers, &c. The fruit is of the darkest purple or black color, and ripens in September, but will remain on the vine with a great increase of saccharine principle, (as is the case with the finest wine grapes of France,) until the end of October, in this latitude, (New York,) and the last week of November in Virginia. The bunches are usually S or 9 inches long on the old and strong vines, and weigh about a quarter of a pound each ; the berries begin to form a conical bunch on the stem at a distance of several inches from the place of its attachment to the wood; they are round, and a little flattened at the end, and about the size of the Meunier ; the juice which they yield is of the richest quality ; the skin is re- plete with a violet colored matter, which imparts to the wine a shade equal to the Tinto Madeira, which last it resembles as well in taste as appear- ance. For the purpose of making wine, this is hardly to be excelled by any foreign variety." This vine thrives in any soil, but the richer the finer will be the fruit; it bears culture with the plough or hoe, as well as the Indian corn, and we may as confidently look for a return to our labor as from that article ; it is not at all subject to mil- dew, rot, or any other casuality of the season, and the possession of this variety does away the neces- sity of farther experiment, as relates to foreign vines, combining all the excellencies, we require, as well for the table as the press. I am confident that even the climate af England loould yield the fruit in great perfection, and that the French cul- tivators xoould most vjillingly introduce it into their vineyards to the exclusion of many others they now possess. It is no doubt to become a na- tional benefit, and will at no distant day, clothe with rich clusters, many of our fields, which for years past have remained barren and worthless.— Du- ring the present unfavorable season, it maintains its character, and holds out to the farmer, a certainty that his field will be far more productive to him m wine than in any other culture to which he can sub- ject them. The originator of the vine, I understand, is willing to part with some thousands of the cut- lings the approaching season, and I would recom- FARMERS' REGISTER— REAPING MACHINE— CULTURE OF ONIONS. SOI mend all who, wish to venlure in the culture of the grape, to possess themselves of so valuable a prize. After selecting the foregoing piece for publication, we met with the following opposite opinion expressed in the American Farmer of Sept. 20th, and which pro- priety requires that we should also insert. The pas- sage is editorial. The grapes on which this judgment is passed were raised in Pennsylvania. [Ed. Farm. Reg. And lastly, a specimen of Norton's Virginia seedling. In this latter grape we are very much disappointed. We had heard it highly spoken of, and in our last number we copied an article from the Richmond Whig, which extolled it highly, and we therefore deem it incumbent upon us to speak of the grape as we find it. It certainly is very in- ferior to many other native grapes. The berry is round, black, f of an inch diameter. The bunch small, berries loosely set, flavor a brisk but plea- sant acid, not foxy ; slightly pulpy. It does not appear to contain a sufficiency of saccharine mat- ter to authorise its being called either a w ine or table grape of much value. If the specimen before us is a fair one, and if the climate of Pennsylvania where it grew, has not made a wonderful change in it for the worse, we are compelled to say it has been very much overrated. REAPING MACHINE. From the Lexington Union. We have omitted until now to furnish our agri- cultural friends with an account of a machine for cutting grain, invented by one of our mgenious and respectable county-men, Mr. Cyrus II. McCor- mick, and which we witnessed operating in a field of grain during last harvest in the neighborhood of this place. A large crowd of citizens were present at the trial of it, and although the machine (it be- ing the first) was not as perfectly made as the plan is susceptible of, yet we believe it gave general sa- tisfaction. We have been furnished with some certificates from several of our intelligent farmers, which we have appended to the following descrip- tion of the invention. This machine is so constructed as to leave a long or a short stubble, to operate alike well on tall or short grain. It is drawn by one horse walking by the side of the grain in shafts — ^just behind is a wheel about 2 feet 3 inches in diameter, which runs on the ground, by which the machinery is operated — having a cog wheel with 40 cogs screw- ed to it. — There is a small wheel (with 9 cogs) working in that, having another on the same shaft with 28, which works another small one, turning a small crank, behind the wheel, and from this crank the knife receives a vibratory motion. It is about 4^ feet long, with an edge somewhat like that of a sickle (having teeth,) straight and pro- jecting into the grain at right angles to the horse. Behind the knife is an apron 5 or .6 feet long-, of thin plank: and this frame connects with, and is made fast to the frame which supports the main wheel — having a slide, or small wheel under it to support it, say about 5 feet from the main wheel. Along side the apron, by the point of the knife, and extending some distance before the knife, is raised a partition of cloth for the purpose of dividing and keeping separate the cut grain from that which is left standing. Then is a reel, as it is termed, which is about 0 or 7 feet in diameter, and the same length of the knii'e — This is made by framing arms in each end of a shaft, say 8, the points of which are joined together by pieces, called ribs, parallel to the shafts. — The reel is revolved as the machine advances by a band from the main wheel to one on its shaft, theobject of which is to draw the grain back to the knife, which will be done whether straight or tangled, upright or leaning, unless below an angle of 45°, and lo throw it on the apron. When a suf- ficient quantity shall have been collected for a sheaf, the hand whoattends it, draws it ofi'the apron with a rake. The grain is prevented from slip- ping with the edge of the knife by pieces of wire projecting before it within 1 or 2 inches of each other. I certify that, having used one of Mr. McCor- mick's Reaj)ing Machines on my farm, I can as- sert that the Machine performs well on level, and on steep land which is smooth, and that it will cut one acre per hour. arch'd. walker. July 18, 1833. I certify that Mr. Cyrus McCormick's Reap- ing Machine, with a horse, was employed by me in the late harvest, and though I did not work it much, I was satisfied with its work. I tried it for an hour, and calculated what it would do for a day, and found that it would cut in a day about 12 acres. I done so more than once. The present year was unfavorable for the trial, as the wheat was lodged in the field. I was so satisfied that I bought one. This pre])aiation was necessary : the ground must be clean — free from stumps and large stones. jAniEs m'uoavell. July 18, 1833, I have seen Mr. Cyrus II. McCormick's Grain- cutting Machine in operation for two seasons — it cut for me this season. I think it will perform well, where the ground is clear of rocks and stumps; and will be a great saving of hand labor, and can be so constructed as to cut much wider than at present, and I think it well worth the attention of the public. I think it will cut about twelve acres per day, by being well attended. JOHN AVEIR, ON THE CULTURE OF ONIONS. From the Genesee Farmer. I have raised onions for several years in succes- sion on the same bed ; but I have had none so fine as those of the present season. The kind which I have cultivated is called ' the top onion ;' and my former practice was to keep the ' sets' over winter and plant them out in the spring. Last fall I adopt- ed a different method. Instead of stowing them away in the house, I set them out at once, and found them to winter best in the garden. I am satisfied, however, that they ought to be well rooted before the approach of severe weather; and this year, I intend to have them in the ground before this note can appear in the Genesee J armer. I have planted ' the top onion' in clumps, and also at different distances. Those that grew close together, have in no case been so fine as those that stood three or four inches apart. The bulbs in the head ought to be always separated before planting. S02 FARMERS' REGISTER— STUMP MACHINE— CATERPILLAR BRUSH, &c. By planting earl)- in autumn, onions will be fit for use tlie next season, a month or two sooner tiian if planted in the spring, — which is a great conve- nience. Some have insisted tiiat a rotation of crops ought to include onions; while others liave been satisfied to sow or plant them, year after year, on the same ground. lu favor of the latter practice, it may be remarked that onions require a soil rather difter- ent from common vegetal)ies, — that is iosay,shal- loio but rich; and one piece of ground so appro- priated can be most conveniently kept in that state, for as soon as the crop is taken off, it may l;c ma- nured, well hoed, raked over, marked out, and planted again without delay. And that such lands do not deteriorate, is evident from the fact that v.'itli a very slight dressing, the crops have been found successively to increase. The cro|) that gained the premium of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society in 1830, was estimated at 657 bushels; and it grew on an acre which had been cultivated with onions several years. ' The top onion' is only a variety of the common kind ; and some bear bulbs, some seeds, and occa- sionally I find one which bears both bulbs and seeds. I destroy the young stems when there are too many shooting up through the patch ; but i( they are not destroyed, they will produce tolerable onions. When I gather the crop, I take up all to- gether, separating the onions from the stems. A PRACTICAL GARDENER. A CHEAP STUaiP MACHINE. From the Genesee Farmer. My neighbour W. in Warren Co., has a very valuable Patent Stump Machine, with which he extracts the largest stumps, and places them side by side so as to form a duralde fence. But as his Patent Machine costs so much that every farmer cannot or will not, procure one, I propose to re- commend one of a cheaper and humbler kind, which every farmer may have without paying for a patent-right — and which he may find useful in ridding his fields of a great obstruction Procure a white-oak log about 8 or 9 inches in diameter, 30 or 40 feet long, let it season for a year. Having chopped some of the roots of thestumj) pre- paratory as usual to taking it out, lay one end of the log against the side of the stump, and chain if fast with a large log chain, — w ith a pair of oxen at the other end, stumps of common size are easily taken out ; making the stump itself the fulcrum, and operating in the same manner that surgeon's puUicans do in drawing teeth. This experiment is easily made, without any unusual or extra expense — and although it is not so powerful as the patent machine, yet its power is very far beyond the rail in the hands of a man, which' I am surprised to see still in use. MEADVILLE. August 3d, 1833. and destroyed about 500 nests or webs. This is not far from the truth, as the trees number nearly 500, and the nests averaged one to each tree. The brush is made expressly for the purpose, is conical, about S inches long, tapering to a point at the apex, and presenting an exterior of short stiff bristles. Being fixed to the end of a pole, it is thrust into the caterpillar's nest, and being turned, collects the entire web with its inmates, which are then readily separated fiom the brush and destroyed. The brush was recommended by the late T. Pick- ering, and cost me fifty cents, atThorburn's seed- store. CATERPILLAR BRUSH. From the Genesee Farmer. August 23. Sent John at 3 P. M. yesterday, to destroy the caterpillars upon my fruit trees, which had become numerous and unsightly, with my Pickering brush. He came in at eleven to- day, and told me he had gone through the orchards. TO TOUNG HOP GROWERS. From the Amherfit Cabinet. The most common fault with hops at the time of inspection is tlieir want of strength. In most cases, when hops ai'e marked down by the inspec- tor, the difficulty lies not so much in a bad flavor, as in the want of a sufficient quantity of that aro- matic fragrance peculiar to this vegetable, and whicli is a sure sign of strength and excellence. Hops deficient in strength are, when rubbed in the hand, generally accompanied with a dry, chaffy appearance. The volatile oil, which appears to be the last thing that enters the ovary, (or fruit,) and which yields the fine flavor, and without which the hop is good for nothing, is not there in any considerable quantity. This deficiency in oil, and consequent deficiency in strength and smell, may arise from three causes. The ^ivsi h picking too early, and before the hop is matured or ripe. Hops picked as soon as they are grown are worth noth- ing. At that stage, instead of the fruit being sa- turated with its ov/n volatile oil, as the first sort of hops nmst be, that oil is only beginning to be ela- borated from the sap. The second cause of the want of strength arises from over drying. Hops that are perfectly dry and mature, and when pick- ed from the poles are of the first quality, are some- times dried to seconds or refuse. In that case the oil is dissipated in the air by heat. I am satisfied of this, for I have seen the operation performed in my own hop-house more than once. I have seen good hops dried until the oil was chiefly expelled, and they would rub into chaff and yield but little fragrance. This may be done without burning them, or a change of color. The third cause of weak hops may sometimes, though I think rarely, arise from nature. I saw a few bales last year grown by some of our most judicious and experi- enced planters, which were feeble; yet, in all j)ro- bability, were picked at the right time and cured in the best style. If in some few cases the defi- ciencj' of strength arises from causes beyond the control of man, yet generally the planter need not look beyond liimsclf for the ground work of se- conds and refuse. If hops be kilned scantily, care should be taken to shovel over the heap once a day for a few days, and occasionally to examine them down at the bottom. In 1882, hops picked the se- cond week, i. e. after the 10th of September, were better than those of the first week. Hops maybe bad, also, from dirty picking, and various other causes. In brief, take care not to pick too early nor dry too much. STEPHEN PEABODY, Milford, August 15, 1833. FARMERS' REGISTER— INCREASING THE RAPIDITY OF BOATS. 303 INCB EASING THE RAPIDITY OF BOATS, Without using more propelling power — Explained on scientific principles. [From the New-York Evening Tost.] Some notice of a discovery recently made in England, ^vith respect to the degree of power re- quisite to draw or impel a boat or other vessel on tiie surface of water, has already appeared in this paper. This subject has excited much attention in England, as might naturally be supposed, when it is considered that the yearly income from canals in the United Kingdom amounts to two millions of pounds sterling. Mr. Macneill of London, has re- cently published a book detailing a series of expe- riments, made with a view to try the soundness of the opinions hillierto received on this subject, and giving the results of his inquiries, with tables of the degree of force which he ibund necessary to draw a boat on the surface of water at different gi- ven velocities. The conclusion to which he has arrived is, that the old theory, by wliich the resist- ance, to a boat moving on water is supposed to in- crease in the duplicate ratio of the velocity of the boat, however, it may be true in i-egard to low ve- locities, as for example, under five miles and a half an hour, is not true as applied to the higher veloci- ties. He remarks, that " it is not necessary to con- sider the old law of the squares to be incorrectly stated. In so far as the boat remains immersed in the water to the same water-line, that law may be correct; but whenever the velocity of the boat is increased beyond a certain point, the boat emerges out of the water, and skims near the surface, the traverse section of immersion being lessened." — The experiments made in London have not been unnoticed in this country ; and as the suc( essful application of Mr. Macneill's new principle, ob- viously must depend on the form of the boat, we understand that some attempts are making to con- struct the steamboat in such a manner as to take advantage of this tendency to emerge from the wa ter when in rapid motion. From a notice of Mr. Macneill's book, which Me find in a late English periodical, we copy the following passage relating to this part of the subject: " It has often been asserted, that such advant- ages as we contend arise from the boat's emerging from the water at high velocities, have never been attained by boats ' with a {)ower in them ;' for in- stance, by such as a rowboat or a steamboat. — With regard to the first of these, the rowboat, we can venture a suf3f]cient reason for such having hi- therto been a just remark. When the boatman is rowing his boat, with his face to the stern, by vvhich position he is enabled to bring all the nmscles of his legs to his aid, the antagonist muscles, flexors and extensors, are so caused to balance or counter- act each other, that his body is for a part of the stroke, not on the seat of the boat, but suspended as it were by a muscular rigidity, very much upon the heels. When, however, the blade of the oar has passed astern of the row-locks, and the inten- sity of muscular force is relaxed, the boatman seats himself with a thump, which, together with the resistance met with when lifting the oar, inva- riably dips the bow of the boat deeper and so pre- vents her emerging from the water. With very little attention to a boat when rowed upon smooth water, she may be seen to act in this manner ; and oscillation will be perceived to a very considera- ble extent, occasioned by thisshiftingof the centre of gravity, not merely in short skiffs, but in the longest wlierries or Galleos on the Thames, at every stroke of the oars. In the case of steam- boats, it is also clearly to be seen, that no attempt has been made to cause an emergence from the water. The improved speed of steamers within twenty years, has its foundation in the improved character of the machinery, and in the elongation and sharpening of the bows, but it has not been in any instance by attempting to draw less water in proportion to her increased velocity." Mr. Macneill, from these and the other conside- rations adduced in his book, draws the conclusion tiiat navigation, whether by tiaction or by impul- sion of tiie oar and the paddle, is yet in its infiincy. The attention of the ship-wright, he remarks, has hillierto been directed to giving the vessel velocity through the water ; but he confidently anticipates the time "when, the velocity already gained, be- ing aitled by the advantage of decreased draught, and the vessel being forced over the water, safety and comfort will be tl)e only limit of nautical sci- ence." The follov/ing is his general reasoning on the suliject of the principle he attempts to es- tablish : " The object immediately in view, when we place a boat or barge uj)on water, is a good con- veyance for j)ersons and property. So is it when we place a wheeled carriage upon a gravelled road, or a sledge upon snow. The difference, however, in the modes of attaining tliis object, has been most striking. In each of these cases, the body to be removed has rested on soft or yielding matter, and whilst, in the two latter cases, no mechanician would provide for the wheels of the carriage, or the runners of the sledge, a facility for cutting along, immersed in the softer matter under them, the boat-builder seems to have studied how he could best keep his vessel ploughing her way. The case may be different with sea-going vessels, which are impelled by the action of a wind ' on the beam,' ami ships of war, with their decks loaded with weighty guns ; in such cases it is necessary that the vessel be a good deal immersed. Nor can it be satisfactorily shown that even sea-going ships would not be im- proved by such a build as would enable them to rise to the surface of the water. But to pursue our reductio ad absurdiim ; there are many cases in na- vigation where a sharp ' cutwater' shape to a boat would be as unphilosophical, as a knife-edged fel- low would be to a wheel intended for ploughed land. A cart-w heel on gravel or other yielding matter, sinks to the determined line of gravitation with as much certainty as will a boat upon water; and a boat resting in water, will (according to the velocity given to it, and the form of its prow and bottom) rise nearer the surface of the water, as well as a cart-wheel will rise, when put rapidly in to motion. The difference of density is, no doubt, much greater in one case than in the other, but the water will resist the penetration of the boat in the same manner, though not in the same degree, as the soft gravel or mould resists the wheel. Not- withstanding a conclusion so obvious to those who know the laws of gravitation and the properties of matter — so easily calculated by every one who un- derstands any thing of the combination of forces, we find it has been neglected, in order to determine what law regulates the movement of a body im- mersed to the same depth, at all velocities. 304 FARMERS' REGISTER— NOTTOWAY RIVER— CHEAT. " At a lime when it was generally held, that the resistance to a vessel in the water increased in the duplicate ratio of the velocity of the vessel through the water, the now keenly contested merits of rail- way transport, and canal transport, were brought under discussion. Experiments were instituted in order to confirm this law, of resistance, but it oc- curred to none of the experimentalists that although they could not increase the density of the water, or consolidate it, as has been done with roads lor car- riages, that they could still increase the relative resistance of water, by giving the boat such velo- city that her prow could not penetrate fast enough, and thus that she should rise out of the fluid. They might have reasoned, by a perfectly fair analogy between conveyance on land or on snow, and con- vevance on water, and have legitimately con- cluded, that, as their object was not to cut through gravel, but to get on it, in the one case, so at high velocities in the other, they should not have endea- vored only to cut through the water, but also to raise the boat to the surlace, and make her skim thereon. " Such iacts are obvious to all, who have seen a boy make a thin stone skim the surface of a lake; who have watched the action of a cannon bail on the smooth sea; who have felt the difliculty of ma- king any impression upon the stream forced from the small aperture of a fire engine hose pipe; or, indeed, who know any thing of the properties of matter." NAVIGATION OF NOTTOWAY RIVER. From the Petersburg Intelligencer. Our readers may remember that, during the last winter, the Legislature ordered a survey of the Nottoway river, from its highest navigable point to its intersection with the Petersburg Rail Road. We published some weeks ago the report of a party of gentlemen, who had explored the river in a large boat, and whose experiment alTorded proof of the entire practicability of removing all obstructions to its navigation. Since that period, an intelligent engineer has been engaged, under the authority of the Eoard of Public Works, in making a critical survey of the river, to whose politeness we are in- debted for the aimexed results of his labors. Mr. Thompson has described so clearly the advantages of this improvement, and the facility with which they may be realized, that we cannot believe that the planters on the Nottoway will any longer hesi- tate to take the necessai-y steps to insure the com- pletion of a work in which they have so deep an interest. Petersburg, Jlug. 21, 1833. Gentlemen, — It is with pleasure 1 comply with the request to furnish you with the result of the survey and estimate for the contemplated improve- ment of the Nottoway river, from the Great Falls to the Rail Road, a distance of 66 miles 613 yards : in which distance it flows through one of the rich- est and most fertile sections of country in the State of Virginia — and from the smallness of the amount required to open a useful navigation, and afford the planters in that section an easy, cheap, and expe- ditious mode of getting their produce to market, would lead to the hope that the work would be im- mediately and vigorously commenced, the advan- tages of which are almost incalculable, when com- pared with their present tardy mode of transporta- tion over a wretched road, requiring twenty per cent, of the actual value of the article to land it at a market. There are 2-5 miles of slack-water navigation on the river, occasioned by the different mill-dams, which are probalily rather an advantage than an injury, as they back the water over many shoals and falls in that distance. The locks are supposed 60 feet long, 8 feet wide, built of wood — sustained by dry walls, where the strength of the current or other circumstances may render it necessary ; they last, under ordinary circumstances, from 8 to 10 years ; when the increased amount of produce will, no doubt, warrant a more j)ermanent structure. — ■ The river (independent of the locks in the different dams) will only require cleaning out, and oocasion- ally wing dams to deepen the water on the shoals; the total cost of which is sg 29,406. In a communication from gentlemen ahove the Forks of Nottoway, they state, that in the event of the river being made navigable, from that section of country alone they can send 2,000 hotheads of tobacco, and 60,000 bushels of wheat. From the forks to the rail road, a distance of 56 miles, there is an exceedingly fertile country, which would add largely to the above amount — with a yearly in- crease on the whole amount from the increased faci- lities of transportation; which would seem to place beyond all doubt a handsome interest on the invest- ment. At the very lowest calculation the saving to the planter will exceed 50 per cent, on the pre- sent cost of waggoning his tobacco, and on wheat in a much greater proportion. Your obedient servant, W. B. THOMPSON. THE CHEAT [OR CIIESS] CONTROVERSY. We laid before our readers in No. 2, (page 83,) the details of an experiment, the object of which was to test tlie origin of cheat by undoubted facts : and the result of that trial was clearly against the prevailing opinion, that cheat plants are produced from wheat. It was not expected that those facts would carry conviction to many whose belief was fixed in a different opinion: but it was hoped that the publication would induce the making of other careful and accurate experiments, and serve to es- tablish truth by facts, ascertained by various persons of opposite prepossessions, on this subject. The time of year has arrived for such trials to be made — and we invite behevers in the transformation to try, in every variety of process and exposure, to produce a plant either of cheat or spelt from the undoubted seed of wheat. If the change is in truth so frequently made in our fields, and may be produced there by any one of so many dif- ferent causes, as is generally supposed, surely it cannot he difficult to effect a like change by design, and to trace and prove the progress, from the depositing the wheat seed, to the gathering of the cheat product. In the mean time, we present the following articles, which severally maintain the opposite sides of this ques- tion. Mr. Ramsdell reHcs also on facts obtained by ex- periments, to establish his cause ; but strong as they may appear, they were not determined in a manner so accurate as to leave no doubts. But we yield the task of commentmg on his letter to his intelligent coun- FARMERS' REGISTER-CHESS OR CHEAT. 305 tryman, David Thomas of Cayuga county, whose re- marks will follow. — [Ed. Farm Reg. CHESS [or chkat] produced from wheat. From the Genesee Farmer. '"He thalis first in his own cause scemfth right; but his neighbor Cometh afterward and proveth him, (or setteth him right.)" Notwithstanding the subject of wlieat turning to chess, has been hammered over and hammer liar- dened, the rust seems to cleave to it yet, as I per- ceive by some late notices in the Farmer. It ap- pears, I will allow, that the communications are heterodoxical. As much strength will be derived from Heman Chapin's experiment, I shall first en- deavor by sound philosophy to convince the public mind, that his process was not agreeable to direc- tion, inasmuch as he cleaned the wheat instead of planting the heads. Suffice it also to state farther, that I took the wheat heads from the north side of a stack, and the west side of the barn, where 1 sup- pose the wheat had been ke})t in a moist state, and so excluded from the sun, in such a manner as not to dry or shrink at all. This is the manner in which I account for the wheat not turning to chess. I shall now proceed to give a true statement of my own experiments. I took from a small lot, where nothing had been suffered to tread the ground after harvest, enough wheat heads to plant eight hills, every one of which produced chess, except one, which produced two straws of wheat and the remainder chess ; those are spoken of by my friend Mead Atwater. In the next place, I sent one of my hired men, in whom I have the utmost confi- dence, who gathered and cleaned in the best man- ner about half a pint of wheat, which was sown in a clean place where other wheat was on three sides of it, with a void place on one side, twenty rods in length, and six feet wide; tliis location was chosen to cheat the pigeons it" they came to exchange com- modities. This lot contains five acres, and is nearly clean from chess; tiie seed was ploughed in care- fully, and dragged in the -best manner afterward. That which my hired man sowed, was carefully hoed in, and nearly one half of it turned to chess, while the surrounding wheat is nearly clean. I also sowed of the same seed as the five acre lot above mentioned, a lot of three acres after wheat. The ground was nearly clean from chess, but a plenty of wheat and wheat heads was buried in with the plough, and the seed sown and well harrowed in. The field now is one fourth chess, and in addi- tion, there is a breadth of aliout two rods in width, extending triangularly through the field, which is three fourths chess, caused by the waters overflow- ing late last spring, and remaining so long as to kill the wheat, so much as to turn it a whitish color; the top of course decayed, while the root remained, and vegetable life spiang up anew and produced a large growth of chess. Another mode of manage- ment, producing chess, was, the cutting off a piece of wheat after it could be ascertained with certainty by examination, that it was wheat vegetation rose up from these roots and produced nothing but chess. Some of these chess stalks growed upon the side of the old wheat stalk more than one inch from the surface of the earth, resembling a young shoot from the bud, after the old stock isXut off. "This is the crop which the farmer would reaj), by feeding his field late to prevent its lodging down. Fur- thermore, the half acre sown by Ambrose Burr Vol. 1—39 upon new burnt land with entirely clean seed, has brought forth chess enough to seed one fourth part of it again, if chess would yield chess as sponta- neously as wheat does. I also planted one head of chess, which has borne chess of the size of caraway seed; which I intend sowing this fall, but do not apprehend any seed ano- ther year. Thus I have raised chess in four different ways, and have a fif\h one on trial ; the result will be given hereafter, when sufficiently tested. All the speci- mens will be preserved for future inspection. I have observed, to my satisfi\ction, that the chess from rye, even when sown on our poorest land, grows much higher than the wheat chess, although the wheat is sown on good ground; and the fiax chess, although sown on the richest of land, will not grow higher than flax. I want every farmer to take particular notice how completely they pre- serve the stature of their respective legitimate fa- thers, as much so as the human species or brute cre- ation. I think D. T. is under another mistake. As to those doing more good* in the economy of wheat- raising, who pull the chess out of their fields, than those who do not soav wheat after wheat, pre- pare their seed and ground in a proper manner, put the crop in well, and in good season too, I shall leave for the farmer to determine. If by observing the above, is a preventive of seven eighths of the quantity of chess usually grown; then, I see no ne- cessity of continuing to raise this surplus quantity, for the sake of pulling it up again — a penny saved is worth two earned. The remark made by my good friend David Tho- mas, that my allusions were too personal, I do not admit, and would be very happy in a private con- versation, to convince him that I only intended to give two shillings for twenty-five cents, honest measure. I still acknowledge his superior talents, and that he makes but very few mistakes. GIDEON RAMSDELI/. Perrinton, 7th month, 1833. CHESS RESULT OF EXPERIMENTS. From the Genesee Farmer. If the notion of wheat turning into chess, was purely speculative, like another notion which has also been prevalent, to wit : that swallotos winter in ihn mud under water, a few remarks on its ex- travagance would be sufficient, and both might be quietly consigned to oblivion. The believers in the spurious origin of chess, however, practice what they preach. They are confident that pure wheat will generate the nuisance; and this being a law of nature, not to be abrogated, they submit to have their fields overrun without making the exertions necessary to prevent it. It must therefore be evident that to exterminate it from our country, that portion of our farmers must be induced to view chess in a different light; and to consider it nothing but a iveed, independent in its nature, not indebted to any other plant for its existence, and only growing from its own seed. If some of them should prove dull or intractable scholars, we ought not to be discouraged, nor grow weary of \vell doing. We are evidently gaining ground. Every sophism, every trait of false logic that we detect and expose, must discountenance or diminish their party ; and if some of our readers. 806 FARMERS' REGISTER— CHESS OR CHEAT. who take no interest in the matter, are oppress- ed by languor, I hope they will turn to other amuse- ments, and be too poliie to yawn in our presence. I have said that we are gaining ground. In Vir- ginia this subject has been investigated in a man- ner deserving of great praise ; and ii'our opponents, in their experiments of the ensuing season will adopt the same plain and philosophical method, this long controversy will doubtless soon be brought to a satisfactory termination. Thomas Cocke and Ethnund R\iffin, of opposite opinions on the origin of chess, in company with Williajii J. Cocke who was undecided, selected a clean piece of hard wet ground, and marked it out in right lines, planting a few small or shrivelled grains of wheat, such as is supposed to turn into chess, — at measured distances. A small spot ad- joining was strewed broad cast with similar defec- tive seed. In the spring, it v/as found that only a part of these seeds had germinated, so verjr imper- fect was their quality ; and as a further test, some of these plants were cut down within an inch of the ground. The parties say " It was our design in this experiment to bring into Operation every cause to which this change is usually ascribed liy different persons, namely, 1. Imperfect seed. 2. Thick sowing. 3. A wet soil. 4. Hard or un- broken soil. 5. Grazing or mowing." iNfo trans- mutation however was effected by any [or all] of these Jive causes. At harvest there stood the wheat, and not one stalk of chess in the whole patch. Now contrast this exi)erimcnt with Gideon RamsdeWs. He appears not to have taken any of his opponents into counsel, but to have chosen his o-wn ground. Whether that on which he raised the hills of chess, was clean or not, he hjis not thought it necessary to say, — perhaps like some of his associates in that notion, not deeming it of any consequence. Plough Jogger says, " The man that sows clean seed wheat, and in time of harvest finds one fourth, or one half of it chess, knows for a certain that wheat will turn to cliess." This is drawing a conclusion from only half of the premi- ses. G. R. does tiie same : he admits that the lot in which his hired man sowed damaged wheat, was not quite but only " viearZy clean ;" and because chess grew there, he confidently assumes that it sprung from the wheat. It is worthy of remark that the more carelessly our opponents conduct their experiments, the more likely they are to succeed. I do not impeach their honesty ; but to every mind that has been disci- plined in the rigorous inductions of modern philoso- phy, it must be evident that such experiments are not entitled to our confidence. There is nothing new in the circumstance that a stubble field of wheat has produced chess ; and it has been explained on former occasions. The plant mutilated by G. R. has not been shown to have been wheat : we have neither proof nor detail of that " certainty." Last spring, one of the best farmers in our country, found a head of wheat which had sijrouted, and he was confident the plants were chess, thinking he knew them by the leaves ; but Dr. Charles Toaii of Springport, planted them in his garden, and these proved at harvest to be genuine wheat. It also appears from the expe- riments in Virginia, that wheat plants cut off n«ar the ground, sprouted anew and |)roduced wheat. The evidence in regard to the field of Ambrose Burr, is not less defective. Newly burnt land and clean seed will not imply that no chess was dropped on it by his team ni seeding time, or by his live stock in winter, without adverting to other causes. I planted one seed of genuine chess in my gar- den last fall which produced this season seven stalks, the largest four feet high, and yielded more than two thousand two hundred seeds. This result is very different from G. R's experiment. If both rye and flax turn into two other kinds of chess in one district, they must occasionally under- go similar changes in otiier districts. Yet no bo- tanist has found any such plants; and G. R. can- not be accredited with this discovery till a decis- ion in his favor be made by some competent per- son. In this quarter, we have only one kind, the common chess, growing indifferently both among wheat and rye. The manner in which G. R. attempts to explain the result of //. Chapin's experiment, is very un- satisfactory. "■ His process was not agreeable to direction inasmuch as he cleaned the loheat instead of planting the heads." I cannot see why old chafi" should turn wdieat into chess, merely by being in contact, any more than old brown paper would turn it. 'I'hat was drawing too hard on our cre- dulity. When chess infests a farm, it is more dilficuit to exterminate than some imagine, owing to the various ways, already mentioned, in v.hich it may be scattered over the fields and meadows; and es- pecially when it is closely surrounded by other farms that are foul with this weed. Noah Dennis has used all reasonable means to destroy it ; he has cleaned his seed wheat, and carefully pulled it up in his fields ; and year after year he has found it scarcer, yet a little still gets in. Not being well enough to be out in harvest, he requested one of his men to take notice if any chess occurred ; and in half a day he found only one j)lant. This fact I respectf Liily submit to the candid consideration of G. R. andoftiiose whoiniite with him in opinion. It will be hard to explain on their principles, but very easy on ours. That regular diminution of the weed is just such a result as we know would follow a spi- rited attack on the Canada tliistles that infest so m.a- ny farms : they woukl grow scarcer every year ; but a few seeds coming from the neighbors would ren- der a strict watch necessary. If Canada thistles however, originated from clover and timothy every time that the first was throwi\ out by frost, or the latter eaten down, there could be no regular gra- dation about it. One unfiivorable winter, or one visit from trespassing cattle, would disannul all our previous labors. Providentially things are not so, either in regard to chess or to thistles ; and the farmer may go on with full assurance that na- ture is not so wild and unmanageable as our oppo- nents imagine. In a former article, G. R. has said, " Uncover- ed wheat will always produce chess as a natural consequence." On this point also, he is mistaken. iMy friend John Brotherton, whose veracity will not be questioned, lately informed me that a few years ago, he observed a lot of stubble near his house, some time in autimin, becoming green from the wheat dropped in harvesting; and he conclu- ded to save it for a crop. The ground was neither ploughed, harrowed, nor cultivated in any other manner whatever ; and some of his neighbors were FARMERS^ REGISTER— ROT IN TIMBER. 307 positive it would all turn to chess ; but not being troubled with that notion, he took his own course. The piece contained two acres wanting fifteen rods, and at harvest he had forty-lour bushels of good wheat. d. t. Greatfield, Cayuga Co., 9 mo. 2, 1833. TIIK ROT IN TIMBER. From the Genesee Farmer. A preventive seems to have been discovered of the rot, particularly the dry rot, in wood, which promises to be oi' the greatest advantage in naval arciiitecture. It consists in applying to the wood a solution of dento-cliloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) which arrests the natural process of de- composition, by combining with the albumen, (the latent element of vitality, and the cause of decay) whether in an active or dormant state, and killing it. The expense of the application is said to be comparatively trifling. 'IMie extract which we subjoin, from the Quarterly Review, will show the principles upon which the discovery is based, and the tests of its efficacy. " The theory may be considered as founded on the great truth thus succinctly stated by Four- croy : ' The aim of nature in exciting fermenta- tion, is to render more simple the compounds form- ed by vegetation and animalization, and to employ them in new combinations.' Mr. Knowles, in commenting on Fourcroy's dictum, says: " Thus is the great law of nature fulfilled, that the death of one body shall give life to others. When the animal dies, and fermentation takes place, flies deposit their eggs, maggots are formed, and the fleshy parts are destroyed ; when the vegetable bo- dy falls, it is eaten b)' worms of" another kind, or destroyed by fungi; and if, in consequence of the employment of art, the duration of either is exten- ded, that slow l)ut sure destroyer, I'ime, at length renders them to their native earth, to serve in their turn for nutriment to others." In the next paragraph INTr. Knowles advances another and a very important step: " When an animal or vegetable body is depriv- ed of life, the very principles which were the cau- ses of its nutriment become the means of its decay. To bring about decomposition the same agents are necessary as to promote vegetation, — air, heat and moisture, under proper modifications and com- binations. In a vegetable body, when the fermen- tation process begins, the vessels or fibres of which it is com})osed are put in motion ; a separation of them takes ])iace ; the volume is consequently en- larged, and it generally suffers an alteration in co- lor. As the process advances towards putrefaction, heat is evolved, and carbonic gas is disengaged." The Quarterly proceeds : " In the germination, which converts the acorn into the oak, and in the putrefaction which reduces the felled tree to a bed of fungi, or a hive of in- sects,— the same great vegetative principle is at work. Vegetable albumen (comliined, in various proportions, with farinaceous, mucilaginous and saccharine matter,) is the primary constituent of every seed. When exposed to atmospheric ^lir, under a certain temperature, — not lower than 32° nor higher than 100°, Farenheit, — the germina- ting power is brought into action, and the seed be- comes a tree. The first year's growth forms the pith, the alburnum and the bark : in the following year or years, the ])!th becomes heart-wood, and when that is formed, every preceding year adds another concentric layer of alburnum, which in its turn ultimately becomes heart-wood. The bark has an expansive growing power, so as to admit the yearly extension of the alburnum; but it has also a strong compressive energy, expelling mois- ture from the layers that successively assume the character of heart-wood, — but not expelling the vegetable albumen, which, squeezed into a con- crete form, remains shut up in the interstices, even to the very centre of the tree. The active vitality of the tree is in the alburnum, through the vessels of which, perpendicularly, and also latterly, the sap ascends and circulates ; but the principal of vitality, — the albumen of the parent seed, — conti- nues to be present, though dormant, in the com- pact tissue of the heart of oak ; and capable, even after the lapse of centuries, during which it has been preserved from the action of air and moisture, of exhibiting its vegetative power on being ex- posed to tliese influences." It is by destroying this latent element of vitali- ty in the central body of the tree, — of extirpating the dormant life of the concrete albumen, that the process of decay is arrested. Sir Humplu-cy Da- vy first suggested the sublimate as the antidote, but had his doubts whether the application would not sul)sequent]y prove deleterious to human health. Mr. Faraday has subsequently made a CQurse of experiments, in the dockyards at London and Woolwich, which seem to demonstrate the efficien- cy of the a])plication, and that the mercury is neu- tralized, and rendered innoxious, by its chemical union with the albumen of the wood. The follow- ing exhibits one of the tests: "The " fungus pit" at W^oolwich is a subterra- neous chamber lined with wood in the worst pos- silile slate of corruption: it is kept extremely damp, generates carbonic acid gas in profusion, and in short, forms, as its name implies, a perfect hot- bed for the growth of all those fungi that used to be considered as the causes, but which are only the most usual symptoms, of dry rot. It is a proverb among the people of the dock-yard, that a month in ike hole is worse for a Itit of timber, than ten years in almost any possible situation out of it. We have ourselves visited this noxious place, and seen an hour and a half elapse, after opening the trap door, before a candle would burn six inches beneath tiie surface. Blocks of timber, — oak, elm, pine, beech, &«•. ^prepared with the solution of sublimate, have now, as Mr. Faraday said, and as the printed documents before us prove distinctly, stood the test of the fungus pit, without exhibiting the slightest symptom of decay, during no less a period some of them than Jive Tjears : and these, in- stead of being insulated by means of some hetero- genous sul)stance, hath been lying on the fungus spread floor of the dungeon, each with an unmedi'- cated fragment of the very same tree, and of the like bulk, close by its side — every one of which unprepared pieces v/as found at the opening of the pit in rapid progress of decomposition." Meditated timber was found to resist the action of dropping eaves, during a course of time suffi- cient to Ijring utter decay upon unprepared ones similarly exposed. Canvass, and even delicate calico, saturated with th'e solution, placed in the fungus ;)it tln-ee months, came out entirely sound while of.' the unmedicated counterparts, {here re- mained notli'ing but a few mildewed strings that 308 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANURE— ICE HOUSES. fell to pieces at the touch. Oak and pine imbibe about an equal quantity of the solution. A cube containing; 216 cubical inches, takes in about tive ounces of the liquid. Fir deals take in their quan- tity in about 48 hours ; while a beam of oak is not saturated under a month. It will readily be perceived, that if this discove- ry proves to be, what it promises, a means of ren- dering wood in a measure indestructible, its ad- vantages will not be confined to naval architec- ture,— wliere, however, its importance will be in- calculably great, — but will be highly beneficial to most of the arts of life. We deem the suliject of so much importance as to warrant our giving to it this brief notice. Those who wish to examine it more in detail are referred to the 9th No. of the London Quarterly, p. p. 12.5 — 133, and to the works there referred to. B. From the New England Farmer. TURNING IN GREEN CROPS FOR MANURE. To the Trustees of the JMassachusMs jigricultaral Society. I have been induced, partly by the premium you offer, and partly for my own satisfaction, to make some exjjeriments as to the value of green crops ploughed in for manure, and I send you the result. In the middle of May, 1828, 1 ploughed up three and a half acres of pasture that had, for many years, been tilled by the former owner, until the crops would not repay the labor. It was a light loam, but not sandy. It had been so reduced, that ten acres did not afford sufiicient pasturage for one cow through the season. We sowed immediately after this ploughing, a bushel of buckwheat to the acre, and in six weeks rolled down the buckwheat in the direction we intended to plough, and then plough- ed and sowed as before. In the latter part of Au- gust we turned in a second crop of buckwheat — having rolled it down flat as at first, and then seed- ed it with clover, herd's-grass and red-top, one peck and a half to the acre. Most of the clover was winter killed, and a great part of the herd's- grass and red-top. Early in the spring of 1829, we sowed 10 lbs. of clover-seed to the acre ; and with a light harrow, went slowly over the whole. The seed took well, but the clover was not high enough for the scythe, when the other grass was fit to cut. We mowed.what had not been winter kill- ed ; and where it yielded best, we obtained one ton of herd's grass to the acre. Immediately after mow- ing, we turned in our cattle, and fed the grass close. Last spring, (1830,) the grass was so for- ward we turned in our cattle on the 19th of April. There were eight acres in the whole field, but there were only five acres that bore any grass worth 50 cents : these five acres were the three and a half managed as I have stated above, and one and a half on which grass-seed was sowed in April, 1830; and fifty bushels of leached ashes mixed with loam, spread on the surface. On these five acres, (and the three which bore nothing,) I pastured four cows constantly for four months, wanting two days, and they had an abundance of feed. I never had any pasture ground yield so well before. I think these green crops improved the land as much as a good dressing of manure, and the comparative ex- pense I estimate as follows on one acre, viz. With Manure. 20 ox cart loads of manure, $24 00 Hauling ^ mile and spreading, 5 00 Ploughing once, green sward, 2 00 Harrowing and sowing 1 00 $32 00 With Green Crops. First ploughing, green sward, $2 00 2d ploughing, and rolling with man and horse, 3d ploughing, and rolling, do. do. Three iiarrowings, do. do. Two bushels buckwheat, Sowinsr, do. 00 00 00 55 25 $6 80 Thus you will see, that it has cost me less than one-fourth as much to enrich my land with green crops, as it would with manure, [f my grass had not been winter killed the first year, I intended to have shown you the precise weight of hay cut on an acre. The above estimate of the cost of ma- nure is less by twelve cents per load, than it can be purchased for in this place. I have given more within two years. Farmers ought, in duty, to make the trial for themselves. They generally have much land, (miscalled under improvement) ten acres of which will not pasture a cow Such land usually lies distant from the house. They say tiiey cannot make manure enougii for the whole tarm, and they find it more profitable to lay their manure on lands nearer home. They do not seem to conceive it possible to enrich them otiierwise than with stable manure. If they would plough and sow properly they could make the whole rich. They further object to growing crops to be ploughed in ; for, say they, " the growing crop will exhaust the land as much as it will enrich the same when ploughed in, so that we end where we be- gan." This would be correct reasoning, undoubt- edly, if the growing crop obtained its Avhole suste- nance from the ground. It j)robably does not one- sixth ynivt. It was the knowledge of this princi- ple that gave me confidence of success in the ex- periment. The advantages of green crops tor ma- nure are greater where the lands are distant from the barn, than in other cases. Respectfiilly yours, W3I. BUCKMINSTER. Framingham, Nov. 10, 1830. ICE HOUSES. The New York American contains directions from one of its subscribers, " as to the best mode of constructing an ice house that will keep its ice through the season." The method suggested is the one most in use in the neighborhood of Bos- ton, where it has been made a subject of scientific inquiry. Directions. — It must be a tight frame building, and above ground, the four sides of which should have an inside lining, fifteen inches apart, the in- termediate space filled with tan ; the floor, which should be dry ground, covered with the same mate- rial to the depth of about 15 inches ; the attic should have a board flooring, with a scuttle door for en- trance, also covered with tan, say about five to six inches ; over the whole, a good tight roof, with an entrance to the attic through the gable end. FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN NEW-YORK, &c. 309 THE ENCOUKAGE3IEXT OF AGRICULTURE IN JVEW*YORK. Circular« To the General Corresponding Committee of the NeiD' York State jigricultural Society, in the se- veral Counties of this State : Gentlemen — In February, 1832, an associa- tion was formed, to improve the condition of our agriculture. It was incorporated by an act of the Legislature, the succeeding April, under the name of the " New-York State Agricultural Society." The title, I trust, sufficiently explains its object; and as tlie field of its labors is to be co-extensive with the bounds of the State, it cannot fail to find in every section of it, persons who will lend their aid in advancing the interests of Agriculture, a bu- siness in which seven-tenths of our citizens are di- rectly engaged, and to which all owe their prospe- rity. To make the labors of the association more effective, they selected and appointed gentlemen in the different counties as a general corresponding committee, who were expected not only to commu- nicate freely, with the parent society, upon sub- jects connected with agriculture, but to aid in the ibrmation of county societies, which would mate- rially assist the State Society in the attainment of its objects. The State Society do not presume to act the part of instructers ; their great object is to collect and embody the practice, observation and experience of our most intelligent farmers, upon subjects connected with the improvement of hus- bandry, that they, through the press, may again diffuse the information thus gathered for the bene- fit of us all. The gentlemen who have been ap- pointed as the corresponding committee in the se- veral counties in this State, we trust have been no- tified of their respective appointments, and we feel confident they will discharge the duties to which they have been called. Arguments, surely, cannot now be required to prove the usefulness of Agricultural Societies. — Simply to show what concentration of effort will do to advance important interests, we will point to what liible. Missionary, and Temperance Socie- ties have already done in aid of the objects they were intended to accomplish. Whilst they are ex tending their labors to teach and enlighten the mo- ral and religious community, and urge all classes of society to the performance of imperative duties, we farmers, who cherish and sustain all, may at least take this lesson from them to advance the in- terests of our peculiar vocation. That our culti- vated land may, by improvement in husbandry, be made to double, and in many cases to triple its pro- duce, no intelligent man at this day will deny. — This result, so desirable, cannot fail to be essenti- ally aided by the labors of the institution we pro- pose ; and as direct evidence of their utility, we will quote a portion of a letter of the first Presi- dent of the State Agricultural Society, who is now in France, to its Corresponding Secretary, and which may be found in its printed proceedings in February last. He says: "The advantages of these institutions are demonstrated beyond the smallest doubt, by the considerable difference which exists between those parts of the country where they have none, and others where some of the best organized societies have exercised their influence. I could quote some of the finest parts of France, \yhere the establishment of a good Agricultural Society has, within a very few years, doubled the produce of the soil." In many of the counties in this State, societies are now^ in successful operation. The coming fall will witness in them the exhibition of domestic products in all of its variety — which, while it will excite to laudable emulation, cannot fail to o-ive an impulse to Agriculture, w Inch must materially im- prove it. It is hoped that those counties in which societies have not been formed will follow these good examples; and as they successively organize, that they will favor the Corresponding Secretary of tiie State Society with a copy of their consti- tution. J. p. BEEKMAIV, Cor. Sec. N. Y. State ^g. Society. Kinderhook, (Col. Co.) INIay 30, 1833. P. S. The Corresponding Secretary will be hap- py to receive comnmnications on the subject of Agriculture, and a copy of the constitution of those county societies that are organized — if not already sent. The foregoing circular letter, though addressed to the farmers of New- York, is equally apphcable to those of Virginia — and it is possible, (though certainly not proba- ble,) that the example of tlie Legislature of our sister State, may not be entirely lost on our own. The mea- sures here announced are but a small part of what have been favorably received as propositions at the last ses- sion of the Legislature of New- York, and will proba- bly be adopted, more or less modified, at the next. The legislative committees, to whom were referred petitions for aid to Agriculture, recommended the institution of an agricultural seminary, and an appropriation of $100,- 000 for its endowment — and a general system of agri- cultural societies, to be maintained at an annual expense to the State of $25,000. When will the Legislature of Virginia adopt any measure of this kind ? — or (it may be more proper, first to ask) when will any member dare to hazard the loss of his popularity, by making such propositions ? We do not wish to be considered as the advocates of these particular schemes, (of which indeed we know very little,) or of any which require such large and immediate expenditures. But we cannot too higlily applaud the public spirit which prompts these measures, for possessing which. New- York is more to be envied, than for the wealth which enables that spirit to operate. It is not to be expected that the first appro- priations for such objects will be expended in the most judicious or effectual manner ; but time and experience will serve to correct early errors and mistakes, and point out the best mode of promoting the great object, the im- provement of scientific and practical agricultm-e. KAKAWIIA MARBLE. " There has been shown us a beautiful specimen of native marble, obtained on the Elk river in this county. It is of a light cream color, interspersed with veins of pure w hite. Some parts of the piece shown us were transparent, while others were opaque. — It is susceptible of a fine polish. We learn, that it is to be obtained in considerable quan- tities, the extent not known." — [Charlestown Banner. SIO FARMERS' REGISTER— WHEAT INSECTS— SCOTCH FARMING. THE WIIKAT INSECT. From the Verinoiit Clironicle. The wheat crop in (his vicinity, and if report speaks truly, t^-cncrally throuj:;li tlie vvliole country, never gave greater promise of abundance, than it has done this season, up to the time this insect com- menced its' ravages. So far as examination and inquiry have extended, (and we have taken consi- derable pains to learn the extent of the injury done by them to the crop,) very few tields have entirely escaped the attacks of these insects. — Some fields are supposed to be nearly destroyed; while others are affected in a much slighter degree. So far as we can ascertain, tlie latest sowed wlieat is much less infested by them, than tliat wliich.was earlier sowed. In some fields tliese insects are numerous almost beyond the reach of the imagination. — From five to seven are found in the husk of a single grain and in almost every husk in the ear. This insect is not, as has been described by some, a maggot in the kernel of the grain, and confined to if; but, moves about at pleasure, within the husk of the kernel ; and after a shower of rain, tliey have been seen in such countless numbers on the beards of the wheat, as to give the whole field the color of the insect. The insect is of a sulphur color, and one-tenth of an inch in length ; ^id through a magnifying glass its skin appears hard and polished, Tike thai of the wire worm. It is beyond a doubt, a very different insect from the one denominated the weevil. It is probably the same species of insect, which is described l)y Mr. Gorrie in the Quarterlv Jour- nal of Agriculture. He says " in May or June, as soon as the temperature rises to 57 or 58 deg., for a week or ten days, the flies begin to appear. If this happens in May, the flies deposit their eggs before the ears of the wheat appear, and are then comparatively harmless; but if the ear wliich they make their nidus, has burst the sheath before this period, they fix themselves on the glume, and de- posit clusters of eggs on the stigma. In nine days after the eggs are deposited, the caterpillars appear fully formed, of a sulphur color, and devour the embryo grain. After the ear is fully developed and about an inch above the sheath, the fly never attempts to deposit its eggs upon it. In three weeks, from the time the eggs are deposited, the maggots disapi)ear from the grain, and burrow in the ground. The damage done by these insects in three years, in the Braes and Carse of Gowrie, was estimated at 400,000 dollars. No remedy has been found for the evil." If the fly, which Gorrie describes, be the same species of insect with those which are now ravaging our fields of wheat, as it certainly appears to be," from its similarity of ha- bits, there is great reason to hope, that late sowing will prove a remedy. One important fact which goes to sustain this belief is, that several fields of late sowed wheat on examination appeared to be very little damaged. Another, equally important, is, that the latest sow- ed field of wheat which we examined, and which appeared almost, if not altogether untouched, by this insect, had a sprinkling of rye among it; and this rye, though not the natural or chosen nidus of the insect, was swarming with them. This is to be accounted for, from the fact, that when wheat and rye are sown together, at the same time, the ears of the rye Inirst the sheath, from ten days, to a fortnight sooner than the wheat. There were probably none of the maggots on the wheat of this iield, except what were produced from the eggs originally deposited on the ears of* rye, and which might have escaped thence to the ears of wheat on their aj)j)earing above the sheath. The most mi- nute observation, Isowever, of the habits of these insects, can alone settle these questions. There can be little doul)t, Ijut that a proper knowledge of their habits, instincts, and time of depositing their eggs might enable the fiirmer greatly to lessen, if not entirely to prevent their ravages. At our suggestion, a number of farmers in Orange County saved their Spring wheat from the worms last year, by late sowing. Winter wheat cannot escape, except by being too early for the v/orm, and therefore all possible pains should be used to bring \i forward. JEFFERSON COUNTY LAND. Late sales indicate a just estimate of the value of cur lands. The Keys' Ferry tract, on the She- nandoah, lately sold lor ^64 per acre, at auction ; a beautiful farm of 200 acres, Avith good improve- ments, a mile and a half south ^of Charlestown, was lately disposed of, at private sale, for ^60 per acre; a tract of 225 acres, within a halfmileof the Shenandoah, but with scarcely any improvements, brought, at auction, ^^45 per acre; and another, of nearly 200 acres, two miles north-west of town, Avith ordinary buildings, was knocked off on Mon- day last, at i5i43 70, cash. These sales prove, ei- ther that there is an intrinsic value in our soil, which our farmers, know well how to appreciate, or that the great public works in our vicinity have something to do with the matter. Our readers will perceive lliat there is still some land in mar- ket. A man, with a Jefferson farm, clear of debt, and with a clear conscience, need ask or desire no better "home" this side of Jordan's bright fields. \_Free Press. SCOTCH FARMING. From the Genesee Farmer. The out-lay in Scotch Farming, or expense of improvement, may be judged of from the follow- ing taken from the Farm Reports, published by the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, and which is given as the actual expense incurred upon a farm in Rosshire : Tiventy-one acre field. " Blasting large stones^ £ 75 00 00 " Trenching 6^ acres £12 10 per acre 81 5 00 " Lime, 3024 bushels, (144 bushels > o-j -.q qq yier acre,) at 6^d 3 " Drains, ' 3 00 00 " Inclosing with stone dyke, 52 7 00 " Average per acre, £13 19s. 6d., £293 10 00" The labor in carting lime, fallowing, &c. would add £ 5 per acre to the above expense. — This was the most expensive improvement. The least expensive was £6 19s. 2d per acre, without estimating team. The pound is ^4 44. B, FARMERS' REGISTER— FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. 311 CHARACTERISTICS OF FL,E3I1SH HUSBANDRY. From the Encyclopedia of Agriculuirc. To make a farm resemble a garden as nearly as possible, was their principal idea of husbandry. — Such an excellent princijile, at first setting out, led them, of course, to undertake the culture of small estates only, which they kept free from weeds, con- tinually turning the ground, and manuring it |)lcii- tifuUy and judiciously. Having thus brought the soil to a just degree of cleanliness, health and sweet- ness, they ventured chiefly upon the culture of the more delicate grasses, as the surest means of ac- quiring wealth in husbandry, upon a small scale, without the expense of keeping many draught horses or servants. After a few years experience, they soon found that ten acres of the best vegeta- bles for feeding cattle, properly cultivated, would maintain a larger stock of grazing animals, than forty acres of common farm grass : and the vege- tables they chiefly cultivated for this purpose were, lucerne, saintfoin, trefoils of most denomi- nations, sweet fenu-grcek, (Trigonclla,) buck and cow-wheat, ( Melampyram pratense,) field tur- nips and spurry, (Spergula,) by them called ma- rian-grass. 7'he political secret of F'lem.ish husbandry ivas, tlie letting farms on improvement. Add to this, they discovered eiglit oi- ten new sorts of ma- nures. They were the first among the moderns who ploughed in living crops, for the sake of fer- tilizing the earth, and confined their sheep at night in large sheds built on purpose, whose floor v,as covered with sand, or earth, &c. which the shep- herd carted away every morning to the compost dung hill. Such was the chief mystery of the Fle- mish husbandrj'. Urine cisterns are formed in the fields, to receive purchased liquid manure ; but for that made in the farm-yard, generally in the yard, or under the sta- bles. In the latter case, the urine is conducted from each stall to a common grating, through which it decends into the vault ; from thence it is taken up by a pump. In tlie best regulated farmeries, there is a partition in tlie cistern, with a valve to admit the contents of the first space into the second, to be preserved there free from the more recent ac- quisition, age adding considerably to its etJicacy. This species of manure is relied on beyond any other, upon all the light soils throughout Flanders, and even upon the strong lands, (originally so rich as to preclude the necessity of manure,) is now coming into great esteem, being considered appli- cable to most crops and to all the varieties of soil. Fallows, according to Sir John Sinclair, are in a great measure abolished, even on strong land ; by means of which, produce is increased, and the expense of cultivation on the crops raised in the course of a rotation, necessarily diminished: and by the great profit they derived from their flax and rape, or colsat, they can alford to sell all their crops of grain at a lower rate. Notwithstanding this assertion of Sir John, it will be found that a fiil- low enters into the rotation on all the clayey soils of Flanders. Flax is^ cultivated with the utmost care. The field intended for this crop, after two or three ploughing.s and harrowings, is again ploughed, commencing in the centre and ploughed round and round to the circumference, so as to leave it with- out any furrow. The heavy roller is drawn across the ploughing by three horses ; the liquid manure is then spread equally over the entire surfiice, and v.'hcn well harrowed in, by eight or nine strokes of the harrow, the seed is sown,"which is also har- rowed in by a light harrow with wooden pins, of less than three inches; and the surface, to conclude the operation, is again carefully rolled. Nothing can exceed the smoothness and culti- vated appearance of fields thus accurately pre- [)ared. The manure universally used for the flax crop demands particular notice. It is termed liquid ma- nure, and consists of the urine of cattle in which rajje cake has been dissolved, and in which the vidanges conveyed from the privies of the adjoining towns and villages, have also been blended. This manure is gradually collected in subterraneous vaults of brick work, at the verge of the farm next to the main road. Those receptacles are generally forty feet long by fourteen wide, and seven or eight feet deep; and in some cases are contrived with the crown of the arch so much below the surface of the ground, as to admit the plough to work over it. An aperture is left in the side, through wliich the manure is received from the cart by means of a shoot or trough, and at one end an open- ing is left to bring it up again, by means of a temporary pump which delivers it either into carts or tonneaus. 7'he liquid is carried to the field in sheets or bar- rels, according fo the distance. Where the cart plies, the manure is carried in a great sheet called a voile, closed at the corners by running strings, and secured to the four uprights of the carts; two men, standing one on each side of the cart, scatter it with hollow shovels upon the rolled ground; or where the tonneaus are made use of, each is car- ried by two men with poles, and set down at ecjual intervals across the field, in tlie line of the rolling. There are two sets of vessels, which enable the men who deposit the loaded ones to bring back the others empty. One man to each vessel, with a scoop, or rather a kind of bowl with a h)ng handle, spreads the manure so as to cover a certain space ; and thus by preserving the intervals correctly, they can precisely guage thequajitity ibr a given extent of surface. For the flax crop they are profuse, and of this liquid mixture, in this part of the coun- try, they usually allow at the rate of 2480 gallons, beer measure, to the English acre. fVith culinary vegetables the Flemish markets are abundantly supplied. Most of these are grown by the small farmers, and are of excellent quality. To every cottage in Flanders a garden of some description is attached; and according to the means, the leisure, and the skill of the possessor, is rendered more or less productive. The general principles of management with all are, frequent digging, careful weeding, ample manuring, and immediate succession. 'I'he rotation depends on circumstances. The chief vegetables in common use are parsnip, carrot, turnip, scorzonera, savoy, jettechou, cabbage, (Brussels sprouts,) onions, leeks, peas, iieans, and all kinds of salading, with another vegetable called feve haricot, a large spe- cies of French bean, which has a place in the field or garden of almost every farmer; and fieing sli- cecl down, pod and seed, is made a chief ingredient in all farm-house cookery. 'J'he treatment of jJsparagus here, and generally in Flanders, differs considerably, from our method: 312 FARMERS' REGISTER— FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. in forming their beds, ihey are not by any means particular as to very deep trenching, or a profusion of manure ; nor, as they grow up, do they cover the beds with litter for the winter, nor fork and dress them in t!ie spring: in the furrows they form a rich and mellow compost of earth and dung, with which, before winter sets in, they dress up their beds to tlie lieight of nearly eighteen inches from the level of tlieir crowns, and without any further operation, (except supplying the furrows again f<>r the ensuing year,) as soon as the buds appear, tliey cut them nine inches under the surface ; by which means, having jvist reached the light, the whole of the stock is blanched and tender. livery substance that canstitiiies, or is convertible to vianitre, is sought after iviih avidity, which ac- counts for the extreme cleanliness of the Fleuiish towns and pavements, hourly resorted to with brooms and Viarrows, as a source of profit. Even the chips which accumulate in the formation of wooden shoes worn by the peasantry, are made to constitute a part of the compost dung heap ; and trees are frequently cultivated in barren lands, merely to remain till their decidious leaves shall, in the course of time, have formed an artificial sur- face for the purpose of cultivation. The manures in general use are — The farm-yard dan g , which is a mixture of every matter that the farm-yard produces, formed into a compost, which consists of dung and litter from the stables, chatr, sweepings straw, sludge, and rubbish, all collected in a hollow part of the yard, so prepared as to prevent the juices from being was- ted ; and the value of this, by the cart load of 1500 lbs. of Ghent, is estimated at five francs. The dung of sheep, pigeons or poultry, by the cart load, five francs and a half. Sweepings of streets and roads, same qunantity, three francs. Joshes of peat and wood mixctZ, same quantity, eight francs. Privy manure and urine, same quantity, seven francs. L,ime, same quantity, twenty-four francs. Rape cake, per one hundred cakes, fifteen francs. Gypsum, sea mud and the sediment of canals, have all been tried experimentally, and with fair results; but the two former have been merely tried ; the latter is used successfully in the vicinity of Bruges. Hone manure was altogether unknown in Flan- ders , but at the suggestion of RadclifF, is now un- der experiment in that country. ANTHRACITE COAL. "A bed of Anthracite Coal has been recently discovered in this county, on the lands of Mr. Ja- cob Sharff and others, about fifteen or sixteen milei? from this place, by Mr. Purcell, Engineer. We have seen several sj)ecimens of the coal, and fiom its appearance, we shoijld judge that it is not inferior in quality to the Pennsylvania coal. Mr. Gibbs intends to procure a quantity, and make a trial of it at his furnace. This mine will, there is not a doubt, prove to be very valuable; all that seems to be necessary, is, for the enterprizing citi- zens of the county to open it as speedily as possi- ble, that its good effects may be soon felt and rea- lized."— IMartinsburg Republican, Sept. 18. INTKRNAL, IMPROVEMEKTS OF N. CAROLINA. From the Petersburg Intelligencer. A Convention of the friends of Internal Im- provement was held at Hillsboro', N. C. on the 9th of Aug. at which Judge Rufiin presided. The counties of Cumberland, Rowan, Caswell, Wake, Warren, Person, Orange, Granville, and Guilford were represented. The object of this Convention was to consider the propriety of adopting measures for the construction of a Rail Road from the place at or near where the Petersburg and Portsmouth Rail Road will strike the Roanoke River, to some point in the western part of North-Carolina. The general committee to whom various propositions had been referred, reported, among others, the fol- lowing resolutions, which were adopted by the Convention: Resolved, That the necessary measures should be adopted to insure the construction of a Rail Road, commencing at or near Weldon, and run- ning thence by or near Oxford to the western sec- tion of the state. Resolved, That the President of this Convention appoint a committee of one person from each county represented in this Convention, to obtain at the next session of the Legislature, an act, incorporat- ing the Rail Road Company hereby recommended, by the name and style of the "Roanoke and Yad- kin Rail Road Company." SALSAFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. This plant, Tragopogon porrifolium, is biennial, and the root is a good substitute for the real oyster. It is of easy cultivation in a deep rich soil. The young plants are not so liable to be destroyed by insects, as most other biennials. The roots are white, and shaped liked a parsnip. They may be taken up late in the autumn, and secured in moist sand from the air; or be suffered to remain out, and dug up when wanted. Every lover of oysters who lives at a distance from the sea-shore, will wish to cultivate this plant after he has once eaten them, when properly prepared for the table. Mode of cooking — Wash the roots, and cut them transversely into thin pieces; boil them in a little water, or milk and water; when boiled soft, mash them, and thicken the whole with flour, to some degree of stiffness, then fry them in the fat of salt pork or butter. They are a luxury. — \_New- York Farmer. FIRE PROOF CEMENT. The French cement for the roofs of houses, to preserve the wood and protect it from fire, is made in the following manner : Take as much lime as is usual in making a pot full of whitewash, and let it be mixed in a pail of water. In this put two and a half pounds of brown sugar, and three pounds of fine salt ; mix them well together, and the cement is completed. A little lampblack, yellow ochre, coloring commo- dity, may be introduced in changing the color of the cement, to please the fancy of those who use it. It has been used with success, and been re- commended particularly as a protection against fire. Small sparks of fire that frequently lodge on the roofs of houses, are prevented by this cement from burning the shingles. — So cheap and valuable a precaution against the destructive element ought FARMERS' REGISTER— BONE MANURE. 313 not to pass untried. Those who wish to be better satisfied of its utility can easily make the experi- ment, by usin;:; it on a small temporary building — or it may be tried by shingles put together for the purpose, and then exposed to the fire. — Mail-Road Journal, BONE MANURE. [Froralhc rroceediiu's of the Doncaster Asricullural Society of Eiislauil.] The efficacy of bone on tillage, respecting which some contrariety of opinion still exists in different parts of the country, has been fully 'demonstrated by the judicious course pursued by tlie Doncaster Agricultural Association. A committee of that body was appointed in 1828, to make inquiries and report the result of them, on the use and advanta- ges of bones, as a manure. And the method lliey adopted, as described in the report of the commit- tee, recently published, may serve as a model for similar investigation. They prepared alist of que- ries, embracing every point on which the inquiry depended, which was submitted to the farmers throughout the whole extent of country over which the inquiry was to run, which was laid out into districts, apportioned among the different mem- bers of the committee, v/ho undertook to distribute the queries and procure returns, and wlio were em- powered to extend them as much farther as they pleased. The committee was composed of Lord Althorp, Mr. Duncomb, one of the members of the county, Mr. V/ood, M. P. for Grimsby, and about ten other gentlemen ; some of whom, as prac- tical men, communicated tlieir own replies to the queries, and thus was collected, what the commit- tee characterise a.s " a valuable body of experimen- tal evidence." The report, which is extremely well drawn up, simple, perspicuous and methodical, is a conden- sation of the several facts, ophiions and sugges- tions, furnished by the correspondents of the com- mittee, from whence principles are deduced, in a very satisfactory manner. The fundamental max- im of the committee is, that " experience is the only guide, and theory and opinion useless." Near- ly all the farmers are decidedl}' in fa\'or of this spe- cies of manure, and although there is occasionally some apparent conflict of ojjinion amongst them on svdjordinate points, this discrepance is skilfully and in almost every case, convincuigly traced to pecu- liarities, which do not at all affect the general prin- ciple, or impair the result at which the committee lias arrived. The degree of utility to be derived from this kind of manure, depends uix)n the different soils, which vary not only in character, but on other particu- lars, such as moisture and quality, and upon its mode of application, as the particular stage of crop- ])ing it applies to, at wliat period of the year, and again whether raw, or after a process of manufac- ture, in what quantity and what size, and whether broadcast or drilled. A long continuance of expe- riments, under the eye of judicious observers, can alone afford a safe ground of conchision, as to tlie efficacy of boning, and as to the proper n\ethods, and " where a course of practice so long establish- ed as the use of bones, has furnished such an amount <)f experiments, all doubt" says the report, " may be at once discarded." The returns, with only two exceptions, concur Vol. 1—40 in stating the manure to be highly Valuilble, and on light dry soils, superior to farm yard dung and all other manures. Upon very thin sand land, its value is not to be estimated. It is not only found to benetit the particular crop to which it is appli- ed, but extends through the whole course of crops, and even in the succeeding courses, its effects are visible in the improved quality of the land, and the efficiency of a smaller quantity than would at first have insured a crop. On dry lime stone, the re- sults are equally favorable — on light loams it is preferable to the ordinary dressing of farm yard dung — in the heavy loams and clays the experi- ments are unfavorable. It is laid down as a ne- cessary qualification in a soil for bones, that it should be dry. And the committee on this prin- ciple, consider that the clay soils are too moist to receive any considerable benefit from bone tillage. Upon peat soils, previously laid dry, the advanta- ges of bone manure are reported to be very strik- ing ; two unfavorable results corroborate the soundness of the principle just mentioned ; the peat was moist. The effect of the manure on gravels is differently stated in different reports, but the same principle accounts for this conflict of opinion — a gravelly soil may embrace every variety of tex- ture and quality, from the light dry sand, to the water-logged yellow clay, preserving in each the necessary admixture of stones and grit. Sti'iking testimony is furnished as to the dura- Idlity of this manure : one farmer says, " on a field, part of which was boned 40 years ago, the crops were visibly better in that part for 15 or 16 suc- ceeding years than the remaining part, although the land was all the same quality, and the part not boned was manured with larm yard dung." Ano- ther says, " about three acres of light sandy land was boned with 150 bushels per acre by mistake, and although it was as far back as 1814, the land has never forgotten it, but is nearly half as good again, as the other part farme<1 precisely in the same way, with the exception of one dressing of liones." A convincing proof of the utility of this kind of tillage may be deduced from the fact, that there is a rapidly increasing demand for bones. " In no one return," observe the committee, " in an- sv.er to the query in our circular, do you continue to use them.' has the answer been in the negative; the impression which is prevalent in our neighbor- hood that he is not accounted a good farmer, who does not use them, is echoed from the Wolds of Lincolnshire." The most valuable part of the report, consists of the practical details derived from the experiments of the farmers, who have used bones, regarding the time and manner of their application, — upon which point some variety of opinion prevails, as might be expected amongst the committee's cor- respondents. Like Oilier kinds of manure, the proper effect of bones on the soil, depends upon their undergoing a certain degree of fermentation ; this principle was discovered by some experiments of Mr. Horncas- tle, of Hodsack, who found that boiled and stewed bones v. ere preferable to raw. The committee ob- serve the principles thus developed, naturally leads us to another of great importance, which has been elicited by the practice of intelligent farmers, and like all principles developed by practice, the most certain and satisfactory from its having proceeded i'rom no theory previously formed; it is the accij- 314 FARMERS' REGISTER— MARSH MUD, &c. rate oliser vat ion of fotts which leads to every prac- tical improvement, and a classification of the i'atts proves the only and safe principle which pervades them. The principle is the superiority of a compost of bones and manure, or other substances, over bones used singly ; tlie etfects of such a compost are sta- ted, by some of our correspondents, who present them as their own individual conclusions, and a course into which they have been individually led by experience, without having had, as far as ap- pears, any communication witli each other. Such a coincidence, is too regular and marked to allow us to attribute it to any accidental circumstance, and the force of the concurrent testimony is so great as to leave no reasonable place for doubt. The results of the inquiries proposed by the com- mittee are shown in the following sunmiary of their deductions from the details collected. It appears that on dry lands, limestone, chalk, light loams, and peat, bones are a very highly va- luable manure : they may be laid on grass with good effect, and on arable lands they may be laid on fallow for turnips, or used for any of the subse- quent crops. That tha best method of using them when broad cast, is previously to make them up with earth, dung, or other manure, and let them lie to ferment. That if used alone, they may be drilled with the seed, or thrown broadcast. That bones which have undergone the process of fermentation are decidedly superior to those which have not done so. That the quantity should be about 25 bushels of dust, or 40 bushels of large, in- creasing the quantity if the land be impoverished, that upon clays and heavy loams it does not yet ap- pear that bones will answer. BIARSH Mur>, &c. From the American Farmer. Talbot County, Eastern Shore, Md. } October 12, 1831. \ Mr. Smith : — I do not know how I can more satisfactorily answer the polite call of" Potomac" than by giving some account of improvements made on one of the farms alluded to in my last, by jthe application of bank shells, sea-ware, marsh- mud, and heads of creeks, aided by a well conduct- ed iarm-yaitl. These have been so remarkable as to have had a beneficial effect in this county, and I tliink such examples should be made knov/n as widely as possible for general benefit. I select this farm, Emerson's Point, in particu- lar, because no one can pretend that capital had any agency in restoring its fertility. It lies near the mouth of JNIile's river, emptying into the Eastern- branch of the Chesapeake bay, and contains two hundred and seventy-five acres. It was purchas- ed by the father of tlie present proprietor, Mr. Wm.Hambleton, about the year 1790, at 40s. Md. currency — 5.33 dollars per acre,— and was occu- pied by a tenant, as it had been for two or three generations, until the year 1808, when the propri- etor married and settled on it. The soil is a stiff yellow clay — growth chiefly pine ; it was worn down to the lowest stale of sterility : a considera- ble portion had been suffered to run into pine thick- ets, where tlie corn ridges are still visible ; and it was nearly destitute of the buildings indispensable lo a farmer. But the means of improvement were at hand : the proprietor knew their value, and lost no time in availing himself of them. He had no capital of any kind : but he was young, skilful and industrious. Having no slaves he commenced with two hired hands, and, occasionally, two boys, two horses and a yoke of oxen. The arable land was one hundred and twenty-nine acres, but his ope- rations, for many years, were confined to ninety- nine acres — a ]K)or field of thirty acres, distant from his resources, he left idle, unenclosed. He laid off these ninety-nine acres as follows: — two fields of 45 each, two lots, 5 and 1|, orchard and garden ^\ acres. For his first crop, to make a push, he selected his best land, iiicluding the old tobacco ground near the house. From forty-five bushels of wheat seeded Sept. 1807, he got a crop of one hundred and fifteen, less than three for one. In the spring of 1808, he planted corn on one half of his other field, after getting out a considerable quan- tity of bank shells and sea ware, and left the other half, under the same enclosure, for fallow, to be manured as opportunity might permit during the sumnter — and this plan he continued to follow about eight years, and would have continued it lon- ger but for the inconvenience arising from the want oi' pasture. It is to Ije regretted that he did not keep an exact record of all his crops : however, he assures me that the following may be depended on as very near the truth. His first crop of corn was eighty-five barrels, his second thirty-five, of which twenty were short corn. (It may be well to mention that a bari'el of corn is five bushels of grain, or ten bushels of ears.) His second crop of wheat was two hundred and fifty bushels from 45 of seed, being five and a half lor one. His third crop of 350, nearly eight lor one. Fourth 500, fifth 700 — and so on, increasing every year, until, in the year 1816, having altered the arrangement of his fields fromtwoof forty-five to three of thirty acre« each, he reaped from sixty-seven and a half of seed a thousand bushels of prime wheat, — one half on corn land — the other fallow. This crop he had the good fortune to sell at two dollars 91 cents per bushel, and the good sense, although not pres- sed, to ajiply the proceeds to the payment of debts necessarily contracted in the erection of buildings, among others an excellent barn, and the purchase of three or four boys; and various expenses inci- dent to a new establishment and growing family. It should be remarked also, that, until the end of the year 1818, his land was burdened with a third of the estimated rent, as dower. No memorandum can be found of his crops for the three succeeding years, nor does he recollect the amount ; but they were not so great as that just stated. He failed in one crop from defective seed which he purchased. In 1820 he reaped eleven hundred and twenty- seven bushels from ninety of seed, thirty of which was sown on the out-fiekl before mentioned. This, and several other crops to be noticed, he has on re- cord. In 1823 his wheat crop from seventy-two was one thousand and thirty-nine bushels — nearly fourteen and a half ibr one. In 1830, from 88 of seed he reaped fourteen hun- dretl and ninety seven bushels of wheat, 17 for one j one half from corn-land, the other fallow — thirty acres each — the fallow yielded twenty-fivefor one ; see some account of this crop in the Farmer about July 1830. Last year, being much occupietl in repairing an(i FARIMERS' REGISTER— NEW DISCOVERIES. 815 building, he seeded only fifty bushels of wheat, which produced a crop of six hundred and twenty- eight, bushels. All this w as on corn land, except a lot of five acres, which, from seven and a half of seed, gave one hundred and fifty-seven bushels, nearly twenty-one for one. I have confined myself principally to an account of his wheat crops, be- cause he could not inform me with so much accu- racy the amount of his corn crops — they were ge- nerally good, seldom falling below three barrels to the thousand and frequently reaching four. His greatest crop of corn was in 18*27, from (wo of his thirty acre fields, five hundred and twenty barrels. Last year he bought five thousand bushels of oyster shells, at the cost of one hundred dollars, — burnt and spread them as far as they went, at the rate of 200 bushels per acre just before planting corn, on the out-field, which got also a dressing of farm-yard manure. The crop of corn, just gather- ed, is fair — few in the county better. His shell-banks giving out and the drifts of sea- ware being less abundant than formerly ; about eight years ago he commenced the use of marsh, and heads of creeks, of which he thinks favorably, paying strict attention, as usual, to Ihe farm-yard and compost heaps. He has one now, containing upwards of a tiiousand skates, or double-heads, ta- ken a few weeks ago in his seine, — from this he calculates on a thousand cart-loads of manure for his corn-land next spring. From (heir livers he extracted seven(y-three gallons of oil. From ex- periments made last year with similar oil, he is of opinion that it is a remedy against the worm, so destructive (o the peach free. He does not sj)read sea-ware so thick as I recommended in my last, on account of the didiculty of ploughing in — nor would he recommend the shells to be put so near — inter- vals of five lands should be left : — between marsh, &c. three. I readily yield to his superior judg- ment. For fourteen or fifteen years past he has made great use of (Jie sickle — nmch of his wheat being too rank for the cradle. He jiloughs about four inches deep, and cannot be induced to go deeper — in good land sows a bushel and a half to the acre, in poor one bushel ; breaks his fallow ground about the middle of June — cross ploughs soon after har- vest— rolls and harrows — and if likely to be grassy, gives it a third ploughing — puts in with the plough, very shoal, in narrow ridges, keeping his manure near the surface. I consulted him respecting the question of Potomac: he is of opinion that no dan- ger is to be apprehended from (he ap])lica(ion of rotten marsh to growing crops if put on in reason- able quantities. It will be observed that this farm, notwithstand- ing its rapid improvement, has been severely crop- ped,— present gain, from necessity, being the main object. The proprietor was not insensible of the value of clover as an improving crop ; but he could not let it remain long enough to be of much use to the land. He never cut but one field crop of it, 182-5, upwards of fifty tons from 30 acres. Here- after, having got his out-field in pretty good order, he will adopt the four-field system, cutting one field of clover every year. His regular forc^is five able hands, with some small boys, — he runs three ox and two horse-carts — has never kept an over- seer, and for many years labored daily. I have not thought it necessary to state his root-crops — the produce of his hog -pen, &c. supposing that his prin- cipal crops would clearly show (he progress of im- provement. There are three other flirms within a few miles of Emerson's Point, on which wonderful improve- ments have lately been made. I mean those of Col- onel John Tilghman, Mr. Edward N. Hamble- (on, and of Dr. John Barnett. I hope they will favor the public, through the columns of your use- ful paper, with an account of their management, crops, &c. There are other farms in the same neighborhood which deserve honorable notice and minute descrijjtion ; in particular, those of Mr. Rigby Hopkins, Major Wm. Caulk, Mr. Joseph Harrison, and Mr. Stephen Harrison, improved, principally by the use of shell-lime. CORNPLAINTER, NKW DISCOVERIES. From the American Farmer. Loretto, Fa. Sept. 16, 1833. Mr. Sjmith : — I will not undertake to affirm (hat the present age is more vain than any which has preceded it; but if the more frequent occur- rence in our public journals of communications with (he cap(ion whidi I have chosen for this, be any proof of vanity, then do the people of our day as far surpass their predecessors in this comforta- i)le quality as can well be conceived, even by the most grumbling of the whole croaker race. Does any one demand (he proof, let him only compare a few newspapers of the present time with an equal numlier of (hose puldished sixty or sevenly years ago, and he will cerlainly find my asser(ion true ; for where he perceives the phrase — " new disco- veries" once in the latter, he will find it many times )"ei)ea(ed in the former. It is certainly true (hat we should expect more now than in times long past, even if our knowledge had increased only half as fast as we believe it to have done. But ad- mi((ing (his to be true, and I am not disposed to deny it; our credulity should surely have diminish- ed; for credulity is the constant companion of ig- norance. Yet, how stands the fact.'' why that the mere proclamation of " a new discovery" gains implicit credence for the claimant among thou- sands who carry their eagerness to believe in such professed novelties so far, as often to take mere opi- nions for facts ; to say nothing of their constantly adopting old facts for new ones. I have been led (o (hese remarks from the peru- sal of two articles in your paper of the 30th of Au- gust, purporting to communicate new discoveries; and they have brought to my recollection another article of the same cliaracter which was published in the American Farmer some time ago, and which I should have noticed at the time; but some circumstance not now remembered prevented me. Be assured, my good sir, that I do not make this declaration from any caplious or arrogant feelings, or from a wish to dicta(e (o others, but from a set- tled conviction that every subscriber to the Ame- rican Farmer, (and I have been one from its com- mencement,) is interested in aiding you to make it the vehicle of correct information on every sub- ject which you may think proper to notice. The articles first n^ntioned are the two first in your paper of the 30th of August. That in rela- tion to the catalpa has these words : " As an orna- mental tree it has long been w6ll known, but un- 316 FARMERS* REGISTER— COTTON FACTORIES IN PETERSBURG. til last year we believe it had scarcely been thought of for any thinfi; else, except in a remote part of " the far west!" and we are indebted to General Wm. H. Harrison, of Ohio, for bringing it into notice." That General Harrison may have been the first to announce the fact in print, I will not deny, for I cannot disprove it ; but you are mista- ken in supposing that it was not long ago known in the east, as well as the " far west." It is at least ten years ago, I think, since Captain T. T. Tabb, of Gloucester county, in Virginia, told me that his father Col. PliilipTabb, who by the way, was one of the best farmers in Virginia, had long used the catalpa for gate-posts, and that he consid- ered it certainly as lasting lor that purpose as any timber he had ever tried. Tliat many others must have known tlie same fact, 1 cannot doubt; for Colonel Tal^b was not a man to withhold from liis agricultural brethren any useful discovery, suppo- sing this proof of the lasting nature of the catalpa wood to be one made by himself. He travelled frequently over the best cultivated parts of his own state; was a very observant man, especially in re- gard to every thin^ connected with the husbandry of the country ; and most probably had heard the fact from others older than himself General Har- rison himself was a Virginian, and I know did not take up his residence in the " far west," until some time after he became a man. So much for the du- rability of the catalpa wood being a recent discov- ery. The second article to which I wish to call the attention of your readers, purports to be a dis- covery of certain doctors, that "new wheat is unhealthy ;" and that the eating of bread made out of it has produced the cholera and all other malig- nant epidemics. Now, if this were true, Mr. Edi- tor, we should have had the cholera and other ma- lignant epidemics, with dyspepsia in their van, af- ter every harvest, from the time that wheat was first introduced into this country, up to the present day ; for so long has bread made from new wheat been preferred to bread made from old wheat; and so long too has it been constantly consumed, with- out any of the dreadful consequences ascribed to it, being even suspected, until since the new fashion- ed diseases " dyspepsia" and " cholera asphyxia" made their appearance. The reasoning used to es- tablish the opinion, (for it is nothing more,) of the writer in the " Portsmouth Journal," is of a piece with the opinion itself Thus it runs : — " half grown potatoes, cloy the stomach"-^ergo, whole grown wheat, made into bread soon after harvest, will produce, first dyspepsia, next cholera, and other malignant epidemics. Again — " new corn, new fodder, and new hay, (all unbaked of course, will not only fail to nourish horses, but it is said, (quere, by whom,) will actually so disorder as to sicken them :" ergo, new wheat baked will give men dyspepsia, cholera, and heaven knows what, besides. Again — the cholera and similar malig- nant diseases made their appearance* in various countries about or very soon after the wheat har- vest in each : ergo, bread made ot new wheat was the cause of them. This discovery will match that of the old man mentioned by Miss Edgeworth, who affirmed that the steeple of Tenterden, in the county of Kent, Avas the cause of the Godwin * In England the cholera appeared about Christmas, and in North America— certainly before harvest. sands on the coast of that county, because they be- gan to aj)pear immediately tliat the said steeple was built. The third discovery which I thought of noticing some time ago, was that attributed to Mr. For- syth, of Georgia, which has caused a long known variety of cotton to be called " Mr. Forsyth's nan- keen cotton." A fi-iend of mine told me, while our newspapers were ringing the changes through- out the country, about this cotton, and the patrio- tism of the gentleman who had introduced it lately, into Georgia, that he had seen samples of it more than forty years ago, in a cotton factory at Glas- gow, in Scotland ; but that it was not approved : and I myself know, that during our revolutionary war, it was partially cultivated in every part of the tidewater portion of Virginia. So much indeed, was this the case for some three or four years, that, during the summer season, if you went to any public meet- ing in the country, you would sec almost every man's breeches, (for pantaloons were not worn in those days,) made of nankeen cotton. Sometimes their coats also v/ere of this material. Yet it was always so mottled, that it was next to impossible to make the cloth of an uniform color; to remedy which it became the practice — especially among the country beaux, to dip their inexpressibles and coats into a solution of Arnotto, which made them appear at a distance somewhat like a flock of fla- mingoes. I remain, Mr. Editor, Your constant reader and friend, QUID NUNC. P. S. If the editor of the Portsmouth Journal will inform me what his doctors mean by " the mcorganization powers of the stomach, and " col- latitious viscera," I will let him into a bit of a se- cret, as I should judge it is to him, about the effect of new corn and new fodder upon horses. " Me- organization" is not to be found in any one of four or five dictionaries that I have consulted, and " collatitious," they inform me, means — "contri- buted by many," which seems to me, (ignoramus as 1 am,) a truly strange thing to affirm of a man's bowels, although it might very well be applied to the innumerable disorders created in them by the doctors themselves. JSIy secret about new corn and fodder is, that we southerners verily believe, tliat nothing in our whole country will fatten a horse sooner than to turn him into a good corn field, where he can get either new corn or new fodder to his heart's content, at any time he may fancy them. The only precaution necessary — is, to turn him in upon a full stomach. It is true that the mode is less economical than several others ; but where des- patch is more consulted, than economy, it is often adopted. For the Farmers' Register. COTTON FACTORIES IN PETERSBURG. The disposition to engage in manufacturing ope- rations was strongly evinced in Petersburg a few days since. A suitable site for extensive opera- tions was obtained, and a subscription opened for ig 120,000 — to be invested in the erection of Cotton Mills. The whole sum -was subscribed in the course of two hours, and more might have been ob- tained. Another establishment is contemplated in the same vicinitv, and one other in Richmond. M. September 26, 1833. FARMERS' REGISTER— NATURAL PRODUCTION— PHYSIOLOGY. 317 To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Buckingham Courthouse, Va. Sept. 22, 1833. Dear Sir — I enclose for insertion in the Far- mers' Register, an account of a " singular species of corn," raised near Frankfort, Ky. If [you or] any of your subscriiiers have known similar " freaks of nature," will they be good enough to communicate the facts, and oblige, at least COUKSTALK. EXTRAORDINARY NATURAI^ PRODUCTION. Frankfort, Ky., Sept. 3. We have now in our ofBce, (where our citizens and fiirmers are requested to call and see it,) a most singular species of corn. The history of this rare freak of nature is substantially as follows : About three years ago, a ISIr. Carrico, living in Gallatin county, Kentucky, planted some of the common Indian corn, in the neighborhood of a swampy piece of land, whicli was grown over with a thick strong grass, resemVjling sedge grass. In the fall of the year, when he was gathering his corn, he was surprised to find that ears of corn were growing and ripening upon the grass, and that on the blades of the grass separate grains were grov/- ing. Struck by the singularity of the circum- stance, he carefully preserved the grains and plan- ted them in the next spring. The result was ex- traordinary, producing a growth partaking of the qualities both of the grass and corn, and superior to both as forming a third article very advantage- ous to stock farmers. The stalks in our otHce pre- sent most remarkable appearances. The tassel does not bear any resemblance to the corn tassel, but is more like the heads of coarse grass — the blades are long and very slender, i-esem- bling more the blades of oats than of corn. Upon the extremities of these blades separate grains of corn, enclosed in a husk, presenting the ap[)earance of hazel nut burs, are found, and to the bodies of the stalks more perfect ears are attached. The stalks themselves are long and slender, and not un- like the wild rye of the country, only stronger and more substantial. We believe that this grain is at least one thing new under the sun, and unlike most novelties, it promises to be useful. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY IN RELATION TO ROTATION OF CROPS. Jiy M. Macaire. In a memoir inserted in the transactions of the Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Natui'elle of Ge- neva, M. Macaire has stated some physiological facts, worthy of being generally known. A judicious rotation of crops is known to be a matter of great importance. One kind of vegetable (A) will grow and flourish well in a soil from which another kind of vegetable (B) has just been gathered ; while an attempt to raise another crop of the first vegetable, (A) or a crop of the third vegetable, (C) immediately after the first (A) in the same soil, will be attended with little or no success. The discovery of this fact, which is al- most as ancient as agriculture itself, is supposed to have led to the practice of fiiUowing. A piece of fallowground will, almost to a certainly, be cover- ed with a crop of weeds. These being plants of different nature, do not uufit the soil, but prepare it for a succession of the same crop as that which preceded them. But science ami experience has taught the enliglitcned farmer to substitute useful plants in the room of weeds, and thus to keep his ground in proiital)le activity. Various reasonings have been emploved to ac- count for the necessity of this rotation. '1st, That different plants absorbdifferent juices from the same soil, and that a piece of ground exhausted by cul- ture may still be rich for another kind of vegeta- bles.— But it is known to physiologists, that plants absorb all the soluble substances that the soil con- tains, whether injurious to their growth or not. — •2d. That the roots of different plants being of differ- ent lengths, extend into different layers of the soil, and thus derive from it appropriate nuorishment. But the roots of all plants, at the period of ger- mination, must be in the same stratum, and, of course, be equally dependent upon it ; and besides, the culture of the farmer turns up and mixes the various layers of the soil together, so as to render them, in all probability homogeneous. It is known also, that plants of the same soil, such as clover (trefoil) and lucerne, do not prosper in succession, although their roots are of very different lengths. The true explanation of the necessity of rotation appears to be founded on the fact stated by Brug- mans, and more fully exposed by De Candolle, that a portion of the juices which are absorbed by the roots of plants, are, after the salutiferious por- tions have been extracted by the vessels of the plant, again thrown out by exudation from the roots, and deposited in the soil. It is probable the existence of this exuded matter, which may be regarded in some measure, as the excrement of the preceding crop of vegetables, that poves injurious to a succeeding vegetation. It has been compared to an attempt made to feed animals upon their own excrements. The particles which have been de- leterious to one tribe of plants, cannot but prove injurious to j)lants of the same kind, and probably to those of some other species, while they may fur- nish nutriment to another order of vegetal)les. The author endeavored to subject these theore- tic views to the test of experiment. After various attempts to rai.se plants in pure siliceous sand, pounded glass, washed sponge and white linen, he decided upon pure rain water. After cleansing and washing the roots thoroughly, he placetl them in vials with a certain quantity of pure water. — After they had put forth leaves, expanded their flov/ers, and flourished for some time, ,he ascer- tained, by the eva|)oration of the water, and the use of chemical re-agents, that the water contained matter which had exuded from the roots. He sa- tisfied himself that this is the fact with respect to nearly all the phanerogamous plants. Several plants of the Chondrilla muralUs, per- fectly clean, were placed with roots in pure water. At the end of a week, the wafer was yellowish, and emitted an odor like opium, and had a bitter taste. Subacetate and acetate of lead* produced a brownish flocculent precipitate, and a solution of gelatine disturbed its transparency. As a proof that this matter was the result of excretion from the roots, it was found that neither pieces of the stem, when macerated in the water during the same time, occasioned neither taste, smell, or pre- cipitate. To determine at what period, whether during night or day, this discharge from the roots takes place, a plant of common bean (Phaseohia vuZga- 818 FARMERS' REGISTER— IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SEED WHEAT, &c. ris) was carefully cleaned ^ ])laced in rain water^ and kept a week, during the day time in one ves- sel, and durinij; the night in another, being; well wiped at each transfer. In both the fluids there were evident marks of excretion i'rom the roots, but that in which the roots were immersed during the night contained a very notable excess of the transpired matter. Numerous other experiments gave the same result. As it is well known that the light of day causes the roots to absorb their juices, it is natural to suppose that during the night absorption ceases and excretion lakes place. The author gives a few interesting details of ex- periments on some particular iiimilies of plants. Gramineous plants. Wheat, rye, and barley, were examined. They do not grow well in rain water, probably from the notable quantity of mi- neral substances, especially silex, which they con- tain, and which they cannot derive from pure wa- ter.. The water in which they have vegetated is clear, transparent, without color, smell, or taste. It contains some salts alkaline, and earthy muriates and carbonates, and only a very small portion of gummy matter. He thinks these plants reject scarcely any thing but the saline matters foreign to vegetation. The inferences which the author deduces from his experiments (acknowledging, however, that more extended trials on a greater number of fami- lies and individuals are desirable,) are, first, that the greater of vegetables exude by their roots sub- stances unfit for their vegetation. 2d. That the nature of these substances varies according to the families of plants which produce them. 3d. That some being acrid and resinous, may be injurious, and others being mild and gummy, may assist in the nourishment of other plants. 4th. That these facts tend to confirm the theory of rotation due to M. De Candolie. THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SEEI> WHEAT. From ihe New England Farmer. It is an opinion prevalent in many parts of the country, that blighted wheat is equally good for seed as the fair and perfect grain. Indeed, I have been informed that some farmers have actually changed their sound and full seed for that which was blighted, as the latter was cheaper, and from the greater number of grains to the bushel would go farther. Tiiis practice has been sanctioned and encouraged by as high an authority as that of Sir Joseph Banks; but both reason and experiment loudly condemn the practice. Who expects to get as good a prochict from smail and half ripened po- tatoes as from those which are fair and fully grown .' and so in respect to other seeds .^ Who would take his mostdiminutive, halfgrown, stimted, and defor- med animals, for the purpose of raising from them an improved stock ; and who does"not know that by such a choice the race must inevitably become de- teriorated ? W hy docs not the analogy apply equally to wheat.'' The matter, however, has been put beyond a question by a most valuable experi- ment on record. " The late Benjamin Bell, Escj. in October 1783, sowed a field of twelve acres at Hunetrillin, Rox- burghshire, with 54 Inishels of wheat, of which 12 bushels were the best that could be procured in the London market of crop 1783, 30 bushels were from East Lothian of crop 1783, 6 bushels the best wheat in the London Market of crop 1782, and 6 bushels |)roduced near Edinburgh in the year 1782. It must be remembered that 1782 wa9 a season generally unfavorable to raising wheat in perfiiction • but that in 1783 the grain was sound and of good quality. The field on which these parcels of wheat were sown had been well fal- lowed, was equally manured with dung, and the whole of these seeds were sown in the beginning of Octolier, all of them having been washed in strong brine and afterwards dried with powdered quicklime. The English seed of crop 1783 was sown on one side of the field ; three bushels of the Mid-Lothian seed of crop 1782 were sown in the next three ridges ; to this succeeded the English seed crop of 1782; then the East Lothian wheat of crop 1783 ; and lastly, the remaining three bushels of Mid-Lothian seed crop 1782. " The field being all in good condition, the wheat appeared early above ground ; and the shoots were every where strong except on those ridges which were sown with the Mid-Lothian seed crop of 1782, on which the plants were weak and not very numerous; neither did they spread or <;7Zer like the others ; so that during the winter and spring months, the wheat on these ridges had a weak appearance; on harvesting, the straw was thin and short; and the ears were short snd small, the grain likewise being not so large nor heavy as on the other parts of the field. On bein^ threshed and measured, the produce of the 12 bushels of seed, crop 1782. both the London and Mid-Lothian taken together, was only 66 bushels, or 5.} after one. The produce of the rest of the field was fully 15 bushels for every bushel of seed. The difference in value was also considerable, as the produce of the seed from 1782 sold almost a shil- ling the bushel lower than the other. On the whole, it seems the safest plan, to use none but good seed, and to avoid as much as possible the seed of wheat that has been infected with any disorder."* H. C. 3Ieadowbanks, Deerfield, 2Qth Au^. 1833. NUMBER OF PLANTS TO AN ACRE. From the American Ploughboy. The following is a very useful table. It is, how- ever, much more convenient for farmers to be fa- miliar with the rule or principle of calculation than to be at the inconvenience of referring to the ta- ble. The 160 square rods to an acre give 4840 yards, because the 5^ yards in length, to a rod, multiplied by itself, makes 30;^, the number of square yards in a rod ; this last number, multipli- ed by 160, gives 4840. There are three feet in a yard ; this number squared produces 9, with which you multiply 4840, and obtain 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre. All that the farmer need remember is the number of feet in an acre, which he will divide by the square of the distance of his plants. For example, if he plants 4 feet apart, 4 multi[)lied by 4, gives 16, the number of square feet allotted to each plant or hill. Divide 43,560 by 16, the quotient is 2,722, the number of plants or hills to the acre. • * Sinclair's General Report, Vol. 1, p. 479. FARMERS' REGISTER— MILK SICKNESS— BYFIELD HOGS, &c. 319 The number of plants whicli may be pi an acre— 160 rods or poles— 4840' yards feet, is as follows Feet No. of Feet Sqiiar apart. feet. plants. apart. feet. 1 1 43,560 11 121 u -\ 19,360 12 144 2 4 10,890 13 169 ^ 6^ 6,969 14 196 3 9 4,840 15 225 Bi 12^ 3,556 16 256 4 16 2,722 17 289 4i 201 2,151 18 324 5 25 1,742 19 361 6 36 1,210 20 400 7 49 889 25 635 8 64 680 30 900 9 81 537 35 1225 10 100 435 40 1600 anted on =43,560 No. of plimts. 360 303 257 222 193 170 150 134 120 108 69 48 35 27 MILK SICKNESS. The Danbury (Pennsylvania) " Herald of Freedom" contains a letter dated V'incennes, (In- diana) July 11. The folIo\vin<^ is an extract: " At Log-ansport, on the banks of the Wabash, I was cautioned by an elderly lady against using either milk, butter or beef, on my way to Vincen- nes. As a reason for her caution, she informed me that the milk-sickness was common in this state. I had heard of it before, but knew little of it. She informed me, that very many deaths occurred an- nually by this dreadful malady. There is a differ- ence of opinion as to the cause that produces it ; but the general opinion is that it is occasioned by the yellow oxyde of arsenic in the low ground and woodland, and particularly near the Waiiash river and that some weed, [as yet unknown,] imbibes the poison, and when eaten by cattle causes them to quiver, stagger, and die within a few hours. If the cows eat of it, the milk is poisoned, or butter that is made from the milk, and is also as sure death to those who use the milk or butter, as it is to the animal that eats the weed. Great care is taken to bury such cattle as die with it: for it dogs, &c. eat their flesh they share the same fate, and it ope- rates upon them as violently and fatally as upon the creature that was first atfected with it. The butcher uniformly, in this state, runs the victims for his knife a mile, to heal its blood, and, if it has eaten of the weed, it will at once, on stopi)ing, quiver and shake; if it does not, it is considered safe to butcher ; and this is the uniform test, even when beef cattle show no signs of having eaten the weed. Indiana is not alone in this misfortune — there have been many cases in some parts of Ohio and south of St. Louis, and others of the south- western States. I have seen many I'arms, with comfortable buildings and improvements, entirely abandoned, and their owners fled toother quarters, to avoid the dreadful curse. And yet, I confess I have never seen any section of country superior in soil to the land adjoining the Wabash, — and this is the only objection to it." BYFIKLD HOGS. From the Observer and Reporter. Since the establishment of Agricultural Socie- ties in our country, great attention has been paid, and large sums expended for the improvement of stock of every description. Hence i( is, we have iiorses and horned cattle equal to the English breeds, and sheep that produce all grades of wool ; the Merino and Saxon, not inferior to the Spanish and Saxony wools. Our hogs have also been greatly improved by a cross of the Chinese and Calcutta breeds. Other descriptions of hogs lately brought to the western country, promise a still greater improvement in the stock of this most valuable animal. They are the Byficld, the Swiss, and the Bitssian. Of the three, the Russian is less preferable, being small and too fat generally to be prolific or ))rofitable; liut when crossed with other stock, a desirable l>reed is produced, Init not equal to the Byfield or Swiss ; of these two, time has not yet developed which is best. Mr. Robb, of Indiana, gives the preference to the Swissj while Mr. Bird Smith, of Woodford county, who is raising the above named stock, gives the preference to a cross pro- duced through the Byfield and Swiss. The Swiss hog is a dark brown, lengthy and round bodied, big bone, hair thin and course, very prolific and easily kept; weighing from two to three hundred pounds at a year old; at two years old he will weigh from four to five hundred pounds. The Byfield is a beautiful white hog ; his ears are small, pointing to the nose; broad back, deep chest, large jowls, short nose, dish face, and thin hair. He was brought from Massachusetts (bred l)y G. Parsons, Esq.) to the State of Ohio, where his i)lood is seen mixed through the great variety of breeds of that state, generally producing a stock after his own kind, as well in color as in beauty and size. He is three times as profitable as the common hog, because he will come to maturity in half the time, and will not consume half the food. He is fat from a pig until he is ready for the pick- ling tub, weighing from 200 to 250 at a year old. Grass being his natural food (as it would seem) he is not so subject to the sore throat, a disease pro- duced by two much grazing, particularly on clo- ver. He is said to undergo the flitigue of driving as well if not better than the common hog. This at first view would appear unreasonable trom his bulky appearance; but when we consider that he is never poor, and habituated from a pig to carry his fat, increasing in strength as he increases in weight, he woukl not be so liable to lag as a hog quickly fattened would be. But this quality is of less importance, as the completion of the rail road will give a different direction to our pork. We understand that Mr. Smith intends to exhi- bit a few of his hogs at the stock fair next Monday, AGRICOLA. TO CORRESPONDENTS AND SUBSCRIBERS. The communications which have been received for the Farmers' Register, and do not appear in this num- ber, have been omitted because they were too late to be inserted in their proper place. All these will be in No. 6. Our correspondents will oblige us, and will ge- nerally avoid similar delay, in the publication of their communications, by transmitting them as early as con- venient in each month. The frequent misdirection of letters, causes both in- convenience and expense, and makes it necessary to ask 320 FARMERS' REGISTER— CORRESPONDENTS— COiNTENTS, &c. the attention of our correspondents and patrons to the address of the Editor, as printed on every copy of the Register. All the earlier numbers can still be furnished to new subscribers. When they are exhausted, notice will be given. MISSING COPIES Oh- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. The editor has been no less surprised than mortified to hear already many complaints of subscribers having failed to receive their copies of the Farmers' Register, by mail. Some such failures must be inevitable in the commencement of any new establishment of this kind, and therefore we will not say that our own office ar- rangements have been always and absolutely free from error. But we can say, that every precaution has been and will be used, to prevent losses and disajipointment to our subscribers. Neither do we charge these failures in the mass, as is usually done, to the post-offices, be- cause we ^71010 of many particular causes of miscar- riage, which we hope that this notice will prevent from occurring hereafter. Many names of subscribers, or of their places of residence have been sent to us, writ- ten so carelessly, as to be illegible ; and sometimes the name of the post-office, or county, has been either omit- ted, or inserted incorrectly on the lists sent in by our friends. The most rapid and even handsome hand- writing, is often far from being plain to the reader — which it is important that our corresjwndents as well as our subscribers should remember. The loss of every copy as yet reported, lias been immediately and wil- lingly supplied : Not only many duplicate, but even some triplicate copies have been sent, when the previ- ous losses were certainly not caused by our fault. Nor will we refuse to make up, in like manner for future losses, if it can be done from the few surplus copies of each number that may remain. But more than this can- not be expected. We have not engaged to do more than all other publishers are bound for, to place in the jiost-office the copies for all subscribers, well and secure- ly wrapped, and properly directed. After that is done, subscribers must incur the risks of the transportation of their copies by mail, and delivery, just as the editor willingly assumes the risk of the loss of their subscrip- tion money, which may be directed to him, after its be- ing committed to the mail. The same number of copies are struck off monthly, to supply the jJresent, or retain- ed for future subscribers — and the taking a single copy from these, would destroy the value of the whole vo- lume, and may cause the loss of a year's subscription. No more extra, or duplicate copies can be furnished, of either of the first three numbers. DIRECTION OF LETTERS. All communications for the Farmers' Register, or let- ters on business connected with its publication, must be addressed to " Edmund Ruffin, P. M. Garysville, Va." The Editor assumes the risk of the loss of all pay- ments sent to him, from subscribers, by mail. IdP" The indisposition of several of the publisher's hands has prevented the appearance of the Register be- fore this day (Friday the 11 th Oct.). The Sixth Man- ber Avill be published on the 9th of November. CONTENTS OF FARMERS' REGISTER, No. 5. ORIGINAL COMMUKICATIOKS. Influence of the origin of seeds, on the quantity and quality of crops, 257 — Roads and railways considered in connexion with the interests of the Southern States, 259 — Reflections on the Im- provement of Agriculture, 263— Agricultural improvement and public works of Virginia, 265 — Castor-bean oil-cake as manure, ■267— Cheese made of Potatoes, 268 — Saving of labor in cutting down corn stalks, &c- 269— Queries on Marling, &c. and An- swers, 270 — Long Island farming, and cost of manure — Jersey Marl, 271— The Spanish Thistle, 27,3- Simple and cheap Thrashing Machine, 274— Animated Oat, 275— Experiment on Oats, 275 — Queries and remarks on the improvement of lands, 27.5- On the calcareous soils of Alabama, and their effect on health, 276 — Former unhealthiness of Mobile, and the beneficial change caused by paving the streets with shells, 279 — Wooden Rail-Roads, 2til — Ornamental Trees, 282— Culture and products of Lower Virginia, 283 — Ducks and Turkeys, 286— Lucerne, 286 — Sketch of the life and public services of Sir John Sinclair, 286 — Tar from Pit Coal, a cheap substitute for paint, 289 — Commer- cial Report, 289 — Cotton Factories in Petersburg, 316 — Extraor- dinary Natural Production, 317 — To Correspondents and Sub- scribers, 319— Prices Current, 320. SELECTIONS. Description of the Charleston and Hamburg Rail Road, 261 — Advantages and disadvantages &c. of the Southwestern Pra- ries, 277 — Germination of seeds, 289 — Management of Tobacco, 290 — Vegetable Physiology, 295 — Load of a Locomotive Engine on the Petersburg railway, 296 — Virginia Springs, 297 — Oat Grass, 297 — Organic remains in Marl, in North Carolina, 298 — Making, curing and casking Butter, 299— The Norton Grape, 300 — Reaping Machine, 301 — Cheap stump machine, 302 — Ca- terpillar brush, 302 — Management of Hops, 302 — Increasing the rapidity of boats, without using more propelling power, 303 — Navigation of Nottoway River, 304 — The cheat [or chess] con- troversy, 304 — The Rot in Timber, 307 — Turning in green crops for manure, 308 — Ice-houses, 303 — Encouragement of Agricul ture in New- York, 309 — Kanawha Marble, 309 — The wheat in- sect, 310 — Prices of Jefiersoa land, 310 — Scotch Farming, 310 — Characteristics of Flemish Husbandry, 311 — Anthracite coal, 312 — Internal Improvement of North Carolina, 312 — Salsafy 312 — Fire Proof Cement, 312— Bone Manure, 313— Marsh Mud, &c. 314 — New Discoveries, 315 — Vegetable Physiology in relation to Rotation of Crops, 317 — Importance of good Seed Wheat, 318 — Number of Plants to an Acre, 31S— Milk Sickness, 319— Byfield Hogs, 319. 9 errata in article on north carolina farmer's register, no. 4. 3M line from bottom, in page 204, for prcfertnce, Tea.d prescience 7th line from top, in page 205, for master, read monster. 2Sth line from top, in page 203, for transportations, read t7-ans- JfViolesffie l^rices Current, Tobacco — Lugs 4 50 rtD 5 50 OtherrefusedT 6 00 (® 7 00 Com. & mid. pass'd ' 50 fa) 8 50 Good 9 50 (ffilO 00 Fine shipping 10 00 rtPll 00 Flour— City Mills.. 6 50 ® 6 75 Canal 5 62 Wheat — neio White 11. " -" Red 11, Corn 70 Corn Meal 80 fiO Oats 40 Beef 4 /a) Bacon, per lb 9(a) 10; Butter 14 /a) 16 Coffee 13 /® 14 Cotton 15 (a) 17 Sugar, loaf St lump. .13 rtD 17 Suirar, brown \Ola) 12 Hides, Spanish U /!D 16 Brandy, Cog gall. 1 20 (a) I 50 Do. Apple 33 (a) 35 Whiskey 32 (ffi 35 Rum, West India.. . .70 fn> 1 00 Do. New England. 36 (® 40 Wine, Madeira.... 2 50 ® 3 00 Do. S.Madeira 80 (iD 1 10 Do. Malac-a 40 (® 60 Tea, Imp. & Gunp.. .80 (n) 1 00 Do. Young Hyson. . .70 (n) 80 Molasses 32 rtB 40 Salt, 4^". sack 1 90 (a) 2 12 Hemp, 100 (a) 130 Bar Iron 3f(ffi 4i Pork, ^bbl 12 00 do 6 00 (® 7 00 Shad, Cut, Herrings, new Ih (S) 5 00 St. Domingo Mahogany, from 8 !a> 37| cents #" foot. Hondiu'as 1 fS) 15" do. Prices of Stocks. V S. Bank, 109 ank of Virginia, 112 P'armers' Bank Ill Course of Exchange. North Carolina Bank Notes. . 2 South Carolina do. 3 flD 4 Georgia do. i IS) 5 VOL. I. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. IBacS'JllE©Sri£)9 STCD^lSmiOia^J ll^^^i NO. 6. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. T. "\V. "WHITE, PRINTER. THE IMPROVE3IENTS ON THE WESTOVER FAR3I, PRODUCED BY CLOVER AND THE FOUR-SHIFT ROTATION. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. TVestover, j^ugust 20, 1833. Dear Sir, — I have here endeavored lo answer yours of July last, in tlie best manner my feeble abilities will allow. You desire me to give you — " A full and detailed statement of my manner of making wheat on clover lay : the improvement thereby made at Westover; and my opinions, as to what extent (on other soils,) the practice will be found suitable ; and all other opinions I may think proper to offer on the subject. You desire, too, " an expression of my opinion as to the danger of injuring the productiveness of soils by exposure to the sun, (as is necessary in August fallows,) and whether the advantages of my system can be expected on light soils, provided they are made capable of producing good clover." And finally, you desire me " to communicate, the commencement, progress and results of the improvement made in Curies' Neck." My preparation for the wheat crop is commen- ced, as soon as the previous one is disposed of; usually, from the 1st, to the 15th of August. The land for fallow, which is a clover lay, and in eleven feet beds, is reversed with large M'Corraick, or Da- vis ploughs, as deep as it can be done with three or four horses. It frequently happens, that the land is too hard for the ploughing to be done well by one furrow. When this is the case, we are obliged to trench plough, (or run one after the other in the same furrow.) As our time is limited, there must be none lost. And I have generally found, after dry fallows, the succeeding wheat crop to be much better — which is a strong induce- ment for us to persevere. If the land is in order, it is immediately harrowed ; but if the ploughing should be done in a very dry season, the clods will be too hard for the successful use of the harrow. It is therelbre left until a rain, when all the har- rows are started and continued, until the fallowed land is harrowed over, or till the harrows have caught the ploughs. If done when the land is hard, which is more frequently the case at this season of the year, the time and labor of the teams will be thrown away, as the harrows Avill make but little impression on the clods, and close but few of the seams left by the plough. In such ca- ses, I have found great benefit from the use of a heavy roller, which facilitates greatly the opera- tion of pulverizing the earth. No farther prepara- tion is necessary, but repeated harrowings, until the ground is gotten in such order, that the wheat will be well covered by the harrows : But if the season has been a wet one, the land will be filthy with grass and weeds. You are then obliged to re-fallow the land with small two horse ploughs, or to use the double shovel plough, going merely deep enough to destroy the grass and filth, and to put the same beyond the reach of the harrows. At tliis season, the earth is sometimes baked very Vol. I.— 41 hard by heavy rains just before seeding, and be- fore much grass can spring up. In such cases I recommend the double shovel, as one of the best instruments I have ever used for putting in wheat on fallow land. I have scarcely ever found it adviseable to com- mence seeding wheat sooner than the 10th Octo- ber, though this should be regulated by the season ; if sowed earlier, it is generally injured by the fly, and if the land is much infested by the partridge pea, it should be postponed until we have some cool weather, that the pea may vegetate; then by shallow cultivation, it may be kept from injuring that crop. It is a remarkable fact, that the part- ridge pea only comes up in cool weather. The plantation on which I live is abundantly set in this grass ; yet I have never been much pestered with it in my wheat crops, owing to my leaving such parts as are very badly beset with it unploughed, until cool weather throws up the pea; it is then slightly ploughed, or repeatedly harrowed; and a second crop will not make its appearance that year. If, however, your re-fallow is too deep, you return the seeds of the pea to the surface, or near thereto, which were before too deep to vegetate; and, consequently, you have returned upon you that very crop you were attempting to destroy. I am convinced that by pursuing this course and mowing your fallow field, (or such parts of it, as are very much infested with this pest,) as soon as it gets into pod, it might be exterminated from our fields altogether : If mowed in this state, there will be no second crop of pea, and still the season will not be too far advanced to have a good crop of clover. The quantity of wheat seeded to the acre, should be regulated by the time of seeding, varying from 4 to 6 pecks; if sown from the 10th to 25th Oct. I am inclined to- think, five pecks sufficient for any land that is well prepared. But if later, the land will require more gram, as it will have less time to come up and branch, before the weather gets too cold, while more perishes in the ground. As a proof of this, in the season before tlie last, between the 10th and 20th of October, I seeded on a field of inferior land, one bushel of purple straw to the acre ; and in November thereafter, I seeded 1^ bushels of the same sort of wheat, on much superior land, and the wheat on the inferior land was much thicker, doubly as much so, appa- rently in the spring. The later the seeding, the thicker it should be; and if possible, it should ne- ver be later than the 6th of November. The fal- low field being all ready by the 10th of October, we start every thing to getting the wheat in as soon as possible; the seedsman goes on, followed by the harrows. The bed furrows are then open- ed and straightened, where they require it by the plough; then the cross furrows, (or grips,) are afterwards well opened with hoes and spades; and finally, the whole is chopped over by the hoe hands. These operations should be carried on as much together as possible, so that every night the whole will be finished. If a heavy rain should catch the 822 FARMERS' REGISTER- WESTOVER FARM- land with the wheat sowed and not dragged, the wheat will most probably sprout before it can be harrowed in, and the other operations will be im- peded in the same way. I had six beds cauglit in this situation last fall; not wishing to carry back to the barn a remnant of wheat, as there was no appearance of rain. We had, however, a heavy rain during the night; and next day, tlie wheat commenced sprouting before the land was in order for the draggs. The consequence was, that we Avere obliged to harrow it in wet ; these beds were perceptibly worse the whole year, the land be- came very much baked, when it got dry, and the crop on it never recovered. The fallowing operations over, I commence on the corn land, though it rarely happens that the corn is sufficiently matured to be cut down as ear- ly as the 10th of October. The corn rows being 5^ feet distance, two of these are thrown together, making eleven feet beds. The ploughing here is done equally as deep as the clover lay ; perhaps deeper, as the land is more easily ploughed, being cultivated during the summer. It is a matter of great importance to deepen with the ploughs our stiff soils, as by turning up some of tiie subsoil it is pulverized by the frost of the winter. It is of great importance also, that the corn land intended for wheat, sliould be kept clean of grass, otlierwise it would impede tlie plough, and consequently take much longer to put in your wheat, and leave ne- cessarily many hollows and irregular cavities, into Avhich the wheat will fall, and probably perish; owing to the depth at which the seeds will have to vegetate : I greatly prefer eleven or twelve feet beds lor wheat on our stiff hinds. By throwing two corn rows together, the beds are not raised too high, while the water is more easily drained fi-om them. The ploughing and draining of our stiff soils thoroughly, is unquestionably the most im- portant operation in fiirniing; and many of our barren, (and as some think worn out) soils may be easily reclaimed, and brought info profitable culti- vation by more attention to it. Ploughing to the depth of from 8 to 10 inches, and making good drains in every depression of the soil where water is likely to stand, and opening trenches ibr the water quickly to pass off, cannot be too closely at- tended to, otherwise the land becomes " sobbed," soured and steril, by being saturated with water. By deep ploughing, the water is more readily ab- sorbed, and the ditches and grips being sufliciently spacious, carry it off immediately. I had a field four years ago, which suffered so much for the want of good ploughing and draining, that there was very little or no growth on the greater part of it, except blue and hen's-nest grass ; it was well ploughed up for corn during the winter of 1829, ditched and furrowed, and so thoroughly reclaim- ed, that it promised this season after a clover lay, to produce 30 bushels of wheat to the acre. When in fallow before, it was scarcely high enough to be cut, as I am informed by my neighbors. It took freely in clover, with but very little mtinure ap- plied to any of it. The land seemed to be fresh- ened and revived from its sterility after the soften- ing qualities of the frost had passed away, and it changed from a white, to a good loam color. The little, and as yet very imperfect improve- ments I have bestowed on the Westover estate, may be attributed principally to the two opera- tions of plougliing and draining. These may be justly termed the pabulum vita of profitable land. Every estate which has been subjected to the dis- astrous operations of the three sliift system, and irregular rotations of croj)S, may he soon made by these means and the proper application of clover, to double, and finally to treble the product in wheat. The four shift system, and the great ad- vantages which result from it, have been lately so clearly and forcibly illustrated by my friend Mr. Hill Carter: (to whose skill, judgment and in- telligence, James River farmers in Lower Virginia are so greatly indebted,) that I shall be very brief in detailing my own experience of this system. The Westover estate (with the addition of se- veral hundred acres I have added to it, for the pur- pose of standing pasturage,) contains about 1200 acres; whereof, rather more than 400 acres are at present arable land. This area (of 400,) is pretty nearly equally divided by a lane running through it, from north to south ; each half is then divided by a turning row running east and west, making four fields of 100 acres each. The remainder be- ing all converted into a standing pasture. I here give an account of the wheat and corn made each year, and the product of each field; shewing the difference between corn and fallow land, as taken from my farming memoranda. Wheat niaUe , nil fiillow. I Wlu-at Miadu on Cdrii 1 iiid. W hole crop I Crop of of wheat. corn. Busliels. 1,600 Bushels-- 7S9 Bushels 2,339 Barrels 250 1,730 2,574 3,991 1830. Late in the fall of 1829, I purchased the estate, with the privilege of seeding a crop of wheat, too late almost to undertake fallowing, but nevertheless I got all the land ready, (viz. 100 acres,) by the 17th October. It was sowed im- mediately after ploughing; and most of it was filthy, and but very partially taken in clover. I made out by December, to put in wheat 200 acres ; this crop as above stated, yielded 2,389 bushels. You will discover from the above table of crops, that the fallow land produced double that of the corn ; although the corn land was much the best. Wherever the clover was tolerably good, the wheat was greatly better. All the manure was applied to corn land. We had in corn, the field alluded to, in the first part of this communication, and which was apparently so very poor, that it produced only 250 barrels by great exertions. 1831. The crop of this year was 2,574 bushels. The fallow land producing rather more than dou- ble as much as the corn. The corn crop increased 125 barrels. Not more than half the fallow field was sowed in clover, by my predecessor, believing it too poor to produce it. The jwrtion which had no clover on it, was very much injured by the fly, and produced but little, although sowed in good time. The clover land produced very heavy wheat. The same land, when in wheat two years before, I am told, [)roduced only about eleven hundred bushels ; all the manure was again applied to the corn land. 'I'he crop was considerably injured by the rain before it was thrashed. 1832. This was the first season we had the full benefit of a clover fallow. All the field having been sowed, it took remarkably well, and had a FARMERS' REGISTER-WESTOVER FARM. 323 good clover lay. The crop was 3,991 bushels of good wheal; three thousand of which we reaped from tlie clover follow of 100 acres. The cater- pillar injured it fully 300 bushels. This would be attested by several gentlemen who examined the field particularly; and I am confident of it myself, from thrashing. The injury from caterpillars, was confined almost entirely to a rich bottom. When we came to the injured wheat in thrashing, we could run the machine one hour and a half without stopping to clean up. The balance only one hour. The corn land made but an indifferent crop of wheat : The cold weather having set in sooner than usual, the seed did not come up. — A bout 60 acres, scarcely brought the seed sown. It will be re- membered, that the corn land had nearly all the manure made on the estate, it being applied in the spring for corn. This course of manuring corn land is pursued, rather from necessity than choice ; not having time in the fall, with our limited means to haul it out. I am not convinced, how- ever, but that it is the most judicious application of it. The corn crop derives the benefit of it; the wheat is always better; and it insures (he clover's taking: I have never been able to manure as great a surface as some of my neighbors, never having got over more land than from 30 and 35 acres; perhaps, this year I may reach 40. We use every exertion in our power to accumulate it. Tlie crop of corn increased to 500 barrels. 1833. The crop of this year promised ample re- turns for our labor. We had a fine clover lay on the field before alluded to. It took in clover thoroughly, to the astonishment of every one, and the crop promised fully as much as the one last year. It all tumbled from its luxuriance. Tlie wheat on corn land was much better than we had ever had it before. The 200 acres it was thought before the rains set in, would produce 5,000 bush- els ; it is not yet ascertained what the crop will be, but not half* The corn crop this year is uncom- monly good, and it is supposed will yield 800 bar- rels. It will be perceived from the foregoing, that great benefits were derived from the clover and fallow system ; laboring too, under many disad- vantages. We work regularly only 14 laborers ; gome very inefficient — 11 horses, and but few oxen, not being able to keep them on account of the distemper. To enable a just exhibition of the four shift and fallow system, these numbers should be increased to nearly double, for we have never been able to get in our wheat crops sooner than the 20th November. It may be supposed that the corn land has never had justice done it, in being sown so much later than the fallow. This no doubt is the case; but I have frequently sown * Mr. Seidell has but slightly alluded to the cause tf so great a reduction in the expected amount of his wheat crop of tliis year — and indeed, the cause was so general through Lower Virginia, and tlie effects so well made known by heavy losses to every farmer, that more full explanation is not needed in this region, and at this time. But it may be necessary to state to distant rea- ders, tliat the unexampled quantity and continuance of rain in May, and the early part of June, caused a dimi- nution of at least half the expected amount of our wheat crops, and that very few individuals sustained a smaller proportional loss. — [Ed. Farm. Reg. some of both the same day, and the fallow invaria- bly yields double or nearly so. The clover land ripens sooner and is less liable to rust. It is astonishing that clover is not more exten- sively used in Lower Virginia. It is unquestiona- bly the best manure used for wheat. I should prefer an acre of larrd well manured with clover, to one with stable manure ; and none so cheap. The cost, with plaster, being not much more tlian ^1 per acre : which will give a profit of 300 per cent, with only the trifling additional expense of sowing it on the land. We have derived great benefit from the use of plaster of paris, and sow it inva- riably on the weaker parts of the field. Never liaving failed in getting my clover to live and thrive well on my corn land, I will here give an account of the mode in which it is sowed, &c. We commenced sowing between the middle and last of February ; before the cracks left by the frost are closed. If the land is frozen, the better ; for when it thaws, the seed will be covered with the earth ; and when that is accomplished, there w ill be no danger of its being killed by the frost and hard weather. The failure most generally is owing to the seeds sprouting on the surface, and nothing to protect the tender shoot. We put from 6 to 8 pints to the acre, being regulated by the condition of the land to receive it and the seed. It is rolled in plaster; one portion of seed, and two of plaster — the seed being first made wet. This is done to enable the seedsman to sow it regularly, as it will give him a good handful — and acts as a stimu- lant to the young plant: In 10 years experience, I have never failed in getting it to thrive well on corn land, though I have on flillow. I am inclined to think a previous hoe crop, almost essential to its success. If the fiict is admitted, that a clover lay is a good manuring for tlie land, you must at once admit the four field system, the best to be pursued on our James River lands — one third of the whole farm being thus annually manured, and three fourths yielding a good grain crop. Under no other system can you manure as much land, and at the same time reap as much grain, and con- sequently, profit. Your fields are kept clean of the blue grass, by the cultivation, once in four years in a hoe crop, and exempted from the noxious weeds, which breed or entice the fly ; and if attacked by them, are more able to resist their ravages. I must here beg the indulgence of the reader, wliile I endeavor more clearly to shew by compari- son, the great advantages of the four shift and fal- low system, over the three, or any other. This is done, because there are many good and practical farmers in their operations, who are now delving under this worst of all systems, (the three shift;) and who from the result of long habit, and a dislike to change a few fences, and old standing ditches, are content to labor the remainder of their lives on a poor estate, with a small profit, and hand it down to their posterity in the same impoverished and unprofitable state. There are many instances of this, almost within my view. AH that is asked, is a change, a fair trial; and if the result is not satisfactory, then the adviser is willing to sacrifice his judgment. We will suppose a farm of 400 acres, under the four shift system, you would have_ A in corn, 5 in clover, and ^ in wheat; with ^ of your corn land animally manured from the offal of the estate. The crops would be from 5 to 800 324 FARMERS' REGISTER— WESTOVER FARM. barrels corn. From 3 to 5,000 bushels of wheat, and -\ of the land manured with clover. Under the three shift system, you would have ^ in corn, 1^ in wheat, and the remaining J in pasturage and weeds : for, without the standing pasture, it must be so. Under this system, you would make three or four hundred barrels corn, 1,000 to 1500 bushels wheat, and have only about 20 acres of land ma- nured : for the offal of the estate will not furnish the means of making more. If under this system, the pasture, or rested field, should be sowed in clo- ver, it will be in a measure lost; and almost en- tirely so, to the wheat crop; which is our staple 'and important crop. I will here revnark, that within my experience, the corn crop is a more certain one when it follows wheat, than when after clover. It is then freed from the worms and other insects, by which the corn is so liable to be destroyed. Under the four shift system, you may in a few years make your estate rich, and at the same time, receive double the profit. Under the other, it must always be kept at a stand or retrograding; for it can never advance in fertility. The system pursued by Mr. Lewis (of Wyan- oke,) is a most beautiful one, and his farm much improved under it, (as any would be under his neat and systematic management;) but there are but few farmers who could be satisfied with so small a return from such an extent of arable land and labor employed. Under that system a farm ought to become rich in a very few years, by not mowing and grazing to such an extent as he does. If the object of the clover lay is the improvement of the soil, (which should be the case, where we have so little demand for hay as a crop,) it would be great economy and saving of labor, to plough it under, and thereby manure a much larger surface — the fodder and other offal of the farm being sufficient for the teams and stock. This, however, may be the most profitable and suit- able mode of managing a farm of light soil. One of stiff, by not mowing and grazing to such excess, would in a few years, become as rich as desired. Pursuing this course, you lose entirely the benefit of the clover lay for the wheat crop, which is 50 to 100 per cent. For I am persuaded, if he now makes 20 bushels of wheat to the acre, he would, by having wheat to follow after clover, make 30 or 40. By the way, in answer to one of your queries, why should not this system (the four field) which I have been endeavoring to advocate, be practised on light soils? I assert that it will cer- tainly have this advantage, that the land can be fallowed in almost all seasons, being seldom too wet or too hard, both of which are frequent and serious obstacles with stiff; and a much greater surface can be put in wheat with less labor. The yield may not, perhaps, be as great to the acre ; but this is counterbalanced by a larger extent of land with the same, or less labor employed; and that the soil will bear it I have but little question, provided the clover is all secured to the land, espe- cially if assisted with plaster or lime. A portion of the Shirley estate, is of this character of soil, and yields abundantly in wheat; and I think I have heard Mr. Carter say, that it was the most profita- ble portion of his estate, by yielding good crops of both corn and wheat. Such soils would no doubt be much benefitted, as it regards the wheat crop, by being trampled by cattle after the clover has matured, or just previous to being fallowed, or rolled heavily in the spring. I find advantage from such a course, even with stiff land ; havin^^ frequently observed that such portions of the field as were trodden by cattle produced better wheat : owing, probably, to the clover leaving the land too porous. This, however, should be carefully avoided, until the clover has gotten its full growth, and the blossom begins to die. The strongest proof within my knowledge, of the rapid improvement under the four field and fallow system, was in the Woods' farm, (a small estate lying in that beautiful neck of land called Curies') but I regret that I am unable to give you a more enlarged account of the improve- ment of that neck generally : (as I consider it the garden spot of Virginia, in respect to soil.) In the year 1816, Mr. James M. Selden, took charge of Woods' farm, of 250 acres of arable land, the remaining 300 acres being all swamp land, subject to the inundation of the tides. Pre- vious to his taking charge of the estate, it had been managed by overseers for a great number of years, under this disastrous system of three fields. To those who are acquainted with the character of the soil in the neck, it would be superfluous to say much. I shall therefore, only state, that it possesses all tlie qualities of our best loam lands, only per- haps, to a greater degree than any other within my knowledge : and probably, would bear this harsh and bad treatment, to a greater extent than most other soils. Under this three field rotation, the crops on this estate were never more than 3 or 400 bushels of wheat: and from 100 to 120 barrels of corn. He at once saw that to persevere in this system of cultivation, was to work for nothing, and finally, to be left in utter poverty, so he resolved on a change to the four field and fallow system. The crops, after the adoption of this change, were in every rotation increased to double, and in a very few years to five or six times the quantity. I will here observe that Mr. James M. Selden, (who was, I think, the best farmer I ever saw,) was the first, who ever introduced the four field and fallow system on James River. Under his very judicious management, this little estate became much im- proved, and finally, became one of the most prO' ductive on the river, or perhaps in the state. I reaped from one hundred acres of this little farm, 2400 hundred bushels of wheat, and the same year made upwards of 500 barrels of corn. A portion of the corn vvas made on a small piece of reclaimed swamp land, but which never repaid for the trou- ble and expense, and scarcely ever yielded as much to the acre as the highland. The estate has been kept under this system ever since, and is now capable of producing 30 bushels wheat to the acre, and from 7 to 10 barrels of corn. The average crops of wheat, for the 6 years I had the manage- ment of it, were near 2,000 bushels, never having more than half in cultivation, viz. 125 acres. — (This was from 1823 to 1829.) What was more remarkable in the improvement of this state, is, that it never had the advantage of a standing pas- lure. The cattle of course, derived all their sus- tenance from the cultivated portion of the estate, (or clover field.) If, then, laboring under this disadvantage, (which is a great one,) the improve- ment has been so great, it would necessarily follow, that it would have been much more rapid with the assistance of a standing pasture. In conclusion, my dear sir^ I have only to express my regret. FARMERS' REGISTER— MOTII-WEEVIL. 3-2J that I have not been able, from the pressure of va- rious duties to develope with fuhiess and accuracy, my humble notions on the cultivation of the soil. Wishing; you every possible success in the useful and meritorious Journal you have undertaken the publication of, I subscribe myself. Your friend and obedient servant, JOHN A. SELDEA. For the Farmers' Register. ON THE PROPAGATION AND HABITS OF THE MOTH-WEEVIL, AND MEANS SUGGESTED TO PREVENT ITS RAVAGES. There is no insect which has been more injuri- ous to the farmers of Virginia, below the moun- tains, than the Muth- TVeevil, and there is none, under the depredations of which we suffer, whose origin and habits, we are less acquainted with. — Fortunately, some means, more or less effectual, have been ibund to restrain the ravages of weevil — or otherwise, a large proportion of the grain of every crop ol" corn and wheat, would be devoured by the maggots of these insects, and the remainder deteriorated by being ground into meal with this animal admixture. If wheat is left long in the straw before thrashing, or ears of corn placed un- der circumstances equally favorable to the opera- tions of weevil, the inside of nine tenths of the grains of both will serve as a nest, and for food for their young. But without knowing, or inquiring into the cause, it has longbeen known that if wheat is thrashed and made into flour, as early as (with- out regard to weevil,) economy would direct, the loss from this cause is completely avoided. By compelling us, under so heavy a penalty, to thrash and deliver our wheat to the miller early, it is doubtful whether the weevil has not rather been serviceable than injurious to the wheat crops of those who will profit by so forcible a lesson. Still, immense quantities of wheat are lost almost every year, merely from delay in getting out the grain : and in most years, all corn kept in the usual man- ner until alter midsummer, suffers considerably from the ravages of weevil. The moth-weevil must be far more numerous now than formerly. From what I have heard of the former late treading out of wheat in Eastern Virginia, when there were no thrashing machines — and the tobacco culture, then general, caused still more delay in getting the wheat to market — it seems pertain that this insect could not then have been so plenty as in later times. Still they were so injuri- ous as to be considered a serious obstacle to the ex- tension of wheat culture, the remedies being then less understood than since. We learn from one of Mr. Jefferson's letters from France, that the fear of introducing this formidable enemy into Europe, where it was supposed to be unknown, was a strong objection to the importation of wheat from this country. This fear was without foundation. The ravages, and the existence of weevil, seem to de- pend on the nature of the climate, and very slight variations are enough to alter the strongly marked limits of its habitable region. I have heard that none were known west of the Blue Ridge until of late years : but since, they have passed that bar- rier, and are slowly ascending the country, follow- ing the course of the valley of James river. They were not known formerly in the state of Delaware. I infer this from the indirect but conclusive evi- dence contained in an article from Delaware, pub- lished m the Philadelphia Agricultural Memoirs, which recommends as a good practice the treading wheat from the straw on the ground when frozen. If such delay was permitted in any country in- fested with moth-weevil, there would be generally found in the grain less flour than bran. These in- sects have not been known for many years together in some parts of Maryland, though very plenty both before and after such long exemption. It is stated in a letter published in the American Far- mer (in 1826,) that weevil had rc-appeared on the Eastern Shore of Maryland after an absence of perhaps forty years, and were very destructive to the wheat crops — the more so, no doubt, because no precautions had been used to guard against de- predations which were so unusual and unexpected. On the whole, the territorial limits within which these insects live, seem to be extending, owing to the increased average temperature produced by clearing and cultivating the country : but these li- mits are sometimes contracted greatly, and for years together, by spells of severe cold weather. In northern papers (this summer) statements have been published of great injujies caused to the wheat crops by insects which are called weevil, and which by the description, seem to act on the grain very much in the same manner.* This visi- tation was severely felt on the crops in the valley of the Hudson, and still farther north. But not- withstanding the name, and the similarity of ope- ration in some respects, these cannot be the same with our moth-weevil, as the damage by the for- mer appears to have been produced while the crop was standing — or, at any rate, much earlier than the moth-weevil is in action on wheat. The same name being applied to different things, and differ- ent names to the same thing, have served to throw additional obscurity over this, as well as many other subjects belonging to agriculture. The weevil known in more northern countries, we have also in plenty in Virginia, and know it by the name of black weevil. This is a very small black beetle, which has wings underthe hard cases which protect them, though I have never known them to be used lor flying. These insects live through the winter, if their food and shelter re- main, and increase from year to year, in any house where they have gained admittance, and where grain always remains ; and they can be kept away by care in clearing out the barn, and other precau- tions, which are totally inoperative in guarding against moth-weevil. Much confusion has grown out of using the same name for these very differ- ent insects. The excellent essay on weevil by Caleb Kirk of Delaware, applies altogether to the black weevil.* My observations are intended to be confined to that which I distinguish by the naiTie of the moth-weevil. Though I have spoken of the moth-weevil as unknown in Europe, in obedience to what are deemed the best authorities, still there is reason to doubt the correctness of that opinion. The follow- ing description, which seems to suit that insect, is contained in a letter from a gentleman of Angou- mois (in France) to M. Duhamel, and is present- ed in a report of the Committee of Husbandry of ♦ The extensive depredations of these insects are de- scribed in one of the selections of our last No. (p. 310) and also in some earlier piece in the Genesee Farmer. '^ we remember correctly, — [E(/. Fcniru Reg. / 326 FARMERS' REGISTER— MOTH-WEEVIL. the American Philosopliical Society. " The great loss we have suffered in our corn, and especially in our Avheat, for 17 or 18 years, has put us on making strict hiquiry iulo the causes of a corrup- tion with which our grain is infected. The com- mon opinion is, that when the corn is in bloom, that is to say in the month ()f June, small ichite but- terflies lay their eggs in the flowers. When the grain is ripe, the eggs are inclosed in it, and as soon as the corn is laid up to be kept, it is found to ferment. This fermentation raises an lieat, which hatches the eggs, whence little worms proceed, which are transformed into chrysalides, and these are afterwards metamorphosed into grey butter- flies or moths." In this description we may trace throughout the apparent or real progress of our moth-weevil. The insect under consideration is a moth, of a dirty pale yellow color, about the third of an inch in length. Their flight is awkward and leeble, and their bodies so soil and tender as to be liable to injury or destruction from slight causes. They leave their places of concealment in wheat stacks, &c. near sunset, and their flight and numbers are always well marked by the concourse of bats and night-hawks, which are engaged in devouring them. Night-hawks are seldom seen, and never in great numbers, at other times. It may be well doubted whether any of the weevil escape these, enemies, and return to the stack or barn from which they flew. These moths proceed from mag- gots which are in the grains of corn or of wheat, and their origin, or manner of propagation is the great difficulty, and will be the principal subject of these observations. Weevil may be produced in myriads wherever corn or wheat is placed in the condition most favo- rable to their increase, but they are seldom, if ever, met with elsewhere: and yet they are not likely to escape observation, wherever they might exist. The strangeness of their being thus appa- rently called into existence merely by grain being made fit for their birth and support, has caused several opinions to prevail with regard to their ori- gin and propagation, which are as much opposed to each other, as to reason and probability. Still, it seemed that we could only choose, as the mostpro- bable explanation, that which seemed the least in- credible. I will pi-oceed to slate the most })romi- nent of these several opinions, and the facts on which they rest — and these liicts, I believe, are un- questionable, however diflcrent, or however false, may have been the inferences drawn from them. The first opinion is, that the eggs of the weevil are all laid on our corn and wheat, after the crops are secured in houses and stacks: and this rests on the following facts. These insects begin to show plentifully, both in the maggot and winged state, in our wheat and corn in August, and not one is ever seen much earlier than that time. They continue to come out of the grainsaslongas the weather remains warm, if the grain continues in the state favorable to them. That the eggs could not have been deposit- ed before the crops were brought from the fields, is sustained by the fact that not a weevil can be seen there, whereas millions would be necessary to de- posit so many eggs, as will afterwards hatch, du- ring the short time that the grain of wheat, or of corn, is green and soft. The second opinion is, that the eggs of the wee- vil, like those of the pea-bug and the chinquepin- bug, are deposited in the grain when in a soft state in the field. This opinion has already been stated in the extract quoted above from a French author : and the following .shows a similar opinion as received and prevailing in this country. " A correspondent of the Cambridge Chronicle, who appears to have given much attention to the study of this destructive insect, has written a very sensi-* ble essay upon the subject in that paper, from which the following facts are abstracted : 1st. That when the grain is in an unripe, soft and milky state, and then alone, the parent fly perforates its upper or smaller end, and therein deposits the egg: and 2d. That to destroy the enemy, to kill the vivific princi- ple of the egg, the grain thus impregnated must be secured from that temperature, necessary to pro- creation, which nature uncheated, would be sure to provide, &c." This manner of depositing the egg in the soft grain agrees with nature's opera- tions in propagating other insects, (as we know of the pea- bug,) and seems the only mode possible for so very feeble an insect as the moth-weevil, which scarcely could bore into the ripe and hard grain, and which could not possibly penetrate into a stack of wheat, or even into a bulk of the clean- ed grain : and j'et so large a portion of the grains in both cases will sometimes be found either te- nanted, or hollowed out, by maggots, as to induce the belief that every grain must have contained an egg. The strange fact that the weevil is seldom, if ever seen on corn or wheat in the field, may pos- sibly be caused by the weevil flying more by night than by day, and by one insect being capable (like the queen bee) of laying many thousand eggs. Besides, it is certain that weevil eggs are laid in growing corn, as in the upper grains of some very ibrward ears, a few weevil holes may be seen when they are gathered in autumn — showing that the continued warm weather had hatched and sent forth the weevil, which in later ears would have continued dormant until the next summer. Other fiicts, w hich many know, and all may easily try, seem to prove that weevil eggs are laid in the field, and that almost every grain is used for that purpose. If twenty or thirty heads of wheat, or a lew ears of corn, are taken from the field immediately to a dwelling house, and locked up in close drawers, where no weevil can possibly enter, a very large proportion ol' the grains of wheat will be weevil eaten l)efore October, and still more of the corn during the next summer. That these eggs could have been laid in the field is admitted to be strange and inexplicable — but that they could have been laid afterwards, (according to the first opinion,) is absolutely impossible. A third opinion, (which has fewer, but equally determined advocates, and they mostly practical and observant farmers,) draws its support from the incredibility ol' either of the others. This is, that the weevil is a vegetable product, and propagated without the usual intercourse of the sexes, and without animal parentage. I will quote (from the American Farmer, vol. 13,) the reasons for this opinion, contained in a letter written by Mr. Wm. R. Smith, senr. of Scotland Neck, N. C. a farmer of such habits of observation as to give much countenance to any opinion he may support, even when as unphilosophical as this is. " I have seen in the Farmer a number of com- munications about the weevil; as I differ with FARMERS' REGISTER— MOTII-WEEYIL. 327 thein all, I have often thought of givir^ you my opinion on its origin ; but being advanced in years, and not much in the habit of writing, only when compelled by business, 1 have put it oti', promising myself at some future day to make the communi- cation : fearing I may still neglect it, I will give you one reason why I differ with all the writers that I have seen on this subject. They all say that the egg is deposited by some insect in each grain while in a soft state. If this is true, I should like to know how the insect makes its its way through the husks or shuck of corn when it is five or six double, in such manner as to lay them in each grain ? I think all will agree with me, that it is impossible ; then how does the egg get in each grain ? It must be the natural production of the grain, or some insect deposits something on the bloom or tassel, and it is scattered through the pol- len to each grain, for each grain has its silk. Get any of your friends to gather an ear of corn this fall, with all its husk on ; put it in some place where no insect can get to it until next spring ; then take the husk off and suspend it with any covering that will let air, moisture and heat get to it ; I will war- rant the weevil will come out. These hints, if at- tended to by some of your numerous and well in- formed readers, will enable some of them to do more justice to the subject than I can myself." My own opinions for a long time agreed with that which was stated the second in order. I owe my change and my present views to a letter from Kentucky, which is published in the American Farmer, p. 74, signed T. S. and is one of those al- luded to above by Mr. Smith, as altogether unsat- isfactory. This letter is sent for republication in the Farmers' Register.* I confess that at first I attached but little importance to its statements ; and it furnishes one of the many instances which 1 have known, that a preconceived false opinion will cause us often to read without believing-, and al- most without notice, other opinions from which we might gather correction and truth. In this case, however, I was induced to make some experiments which will be presently reported, and which, I tliink, leave no doubt that all the foregoing opi- nions are wrong, and that the last referred to is, in the main correct, viz : That there is o continu- ed re-production of the weevil, in short spaces of time throughout the warm season. But tlie obser- vations of the writer, however ingenious and cor- rect, were not made with the accuracy which ex- periments require, and were liable, in particular, to one important objection. The parcel of grain on which the observations were made, and on which he so nearly traced, by the eye, the conti- nued re-protluction of weevil, had not been ex- cluded from the access of the insects from with- out : and therefore, there was no positive ])roof that the eggs, late as was their hatching, might not have been laid in the field — or that as many insects might have been produced (according to another opinion) without eggs. I admit that what T. S. saw (through a magnifying glass) of eggs, and young maggots, was strongly in favor of his views, and in opposition to the others ; but obser- vations so made are extremely delusive, and could not be relied on, unless the progress of a single in- sect had been observed separately, and traced from the depositing of the egg, to the maggot being * It will follow this coiTimuiiication, sufficiently grown to establish its being the wee- vil. Several other kinds of insects are found on bulks of cleaned wheat, and a mistake might easi- ly have been made of one for another. But it seemed possible to institute such experiments as would supply this defect, and establish beyond doubt the truth or falsehood not only of this, but of any other of the opinions mentioned above. With this view, the following experiments were planned and executed. The results prove the correctness of the supposition of the continued re-production of weevil: and this, taken in connection with the fact that some few weevil eggs are certainly depo- sited on corn while yet in the field, (and possibly also on wheat,) will explain satisfactorily the means for the supply, and of the astonishing increase of weevil in our cribs of corn, and stacks of wheat. The whole cause of difficulty respecting the origin and propagation of weevil has been owing to eve- ry person supposing the eggs to have been deposit- ed in some one manner, or at some one period — either altogether in the green state, or altogether in the dry — or not at all. ' The obstinacy with which we all have maintained some one of these different views has kept us blind to the true origin and manner of re-production — which opinion when once examined and admitted, will perhaps seem so clear and undeniable, that the simple annunciation of the facts would be enough to insure their accep- tation. But the extracts which I have quoted, and every opinion which may have been heretofore ex- pressed on this subject by writers and practical farmers, will acquit me of using uncalled for trou- ble, or adducing superfluous proof, for the purpose of opposing prevailing errors. The experiments were made as follows. June 24th, 1833. The corn in my crib, which had been shucked last autumn soon after it was hard, Avas examincdclosely, without finding a wee- vil, or any holes in the grain showing that any had already escaped. Took four ears of white flint or rare-ripe corn (which is much the most subject to be weevil-eaten,) for my experiment. These were examined well through a magnifying lens, with- out discovering any egg attached to the outside of the grain. EXPERIMENT I. One of these ears. A, was placed in a large drawer, which was kept locked, and in which some ears of the common large soft corn, and some of pop corn (the smallest and hardest, as well as the earliest kind,) had been kept since March. The pop corn already (June 24th,) had weevil maggots visible — the large corn none. This drawer (by possibility,) might have been entered by weevil, as I found afterwards that some of those which hatched got out through a very narrow crack : but it is not likely that any from without entered either the drawer or the house. This drawer was kept locked, and was seldom opened. It contained loose papers, which furnished shelter and hiding places to the weevil, so that when the drawer was opened to examine the corn, but few of them attempted to escape. Plenty of air had admittance hi to this drawer, and some glim- mering of light. On Sept. 2nd, this ear (A) appeared (but with- out counting them) to have weevil holes visible on from one-third to one-half of all of its grains — and the large soft corn in the same drawer had suffered no less. 3^8 FARxMERS' REGISTER— MOTH-WEEVIL. The first 10 or 12 days of September were un- commonly warm, after which followed several ve- ry cold nights, and fires were required. On the 16th, another examination was made. Nearly all the winged insects were then dead. The damage had so much increased in the preceding 15 days, that out of 492 grains, which the ear (A) had, all except 3 contained either the maggots of weevil, or had holes from which the perfect insects had es- caped. Many grains had 2 holes, and one was ob- served with 3. All the grains of the ears of large corn seemed to be as completely riddled, though only one row, taken at random as a sample, was counted : and in that every grain was eaten, and some contained two maggots. There is no ques- tion, but that there had been produced in this draw- er more weevil than there were grains of wheat. EXPERIMENT ll. The other three rare-ripe ears were placed (June 24th) in a small and very close drawer within my desk, into which no weevil could possibly have pe- netrated, and from which light was entirely, and fresh air nearly excluded, except at the short spaces of time when it was opened for examination. These ears were looked at every two or three days : and between the 4th and 10th of July, 3 grains on one of them (B) were observed to have maggots. — These had not yet opened their way through the skin of the grain, though its transparency rendered the holes below, as visible as if the weevil had al- ready taken flight. These grains were nearer to the bottom than the top of the ear. The three maggots were killed as soon as discovered, by thrusting a pin into their cells ; and the car con- taining them, (B) and one of the other two, (C) without any mark of weevil, were removed to ano- ther similar and close drawer, in the same desk, and completely secured from the access of weevil without. These were frequently examined until September 16th, and no weevil hole was formed in either, after the destruction of the three maggots in one of the ears. EXPERIMEXT III. The fourth ear (D) was left in the first small drawer, and with it was put (a few days after, or about the 15th of July,) an ear of pop corn, con- taining inclosed maggots, the cells of which were visible — and also a few of the winged insects. — This ear was sometimes examined through the magnifying glass, but no eggs, or small maggots, were observed on the outside of the grain, (as was seen by T. S.) until the 1st of September, when two slender white worms, with yellowish heads, were seen crawling on the corn. They quickly escaped from observation by burying themselves between the grains — and to that haste to escape from light, when taken from the perfectly dark drawer, may be attributed my general ill success in observing the worms before they penetrated the grain. They were so small as to be hardly per- ceptible to the naked eye, when in motion, and not until they had been first discovered through the glass. At no time could I distinguish eggs — though there was plenty of matter of some kind ejected by the weevil, whenever they were on the wing, and this might have containedeggs, and ex- hibited them to nicer observation and a more pow- erful magnifier than mine. By th% 2nd of September, the weevil were nu- merous on this ear, but much less so than on those in the large drawer. On the 16th of September, the grains having perforations visible on the expos* ed parts (as they stood on the ear) were counted, and found to be 270 out of 484, the whole number then on the cob. As no grains were cut open, nor even slielled off, to aid this examination, many or all of the grains which were counted as free, might have contained young weevil. The maggot is not visible to superficial observation, until it is almost or quite grown : and many Aveevil eat out of the grain below, where they cannot escape, and die there without being seen. At this time, (as in the other drawer,) nearly all the winged insects were killed by cold, and the very few remaining alive seemed to be dying — and their propagation and in- crease, for that season, were supposed to be ended, and the experiment closed. For this reasen, the ear was thrown aside. This is to be regretted — for a very warm spell soon came on, which brought out plenty of weevil elsewhere, and would proba- bly have shown almost every grain of this ear to be tenanted, as well as those used in the 1st expe- riment. This however is only conjecture. It should have been stated, that the winged in- sects attempted to escape from this drawer, when- ever it was opened, and that for this reason, the number of breeders was diminished. EXPERIMENT IV. On Sept. 2nd, I gathered from my field an ear of the common large corn, of which the grains were firm and ripe, but far from being dry or shrunken. The ear was so closely covered by its shuck, that no weevil could possibly have pene- trated beneath, for the purpose of depositing its eggs on the grain. From the lower half of the ear, 19 grains were taken off by digging them out of the cob, with a knife — they were so soft at the heart that they could not have been shelled off without being broken at bottom. These grains were im- mediately put into the drawer with the ear (D) used for experiment 3. On the IGth of September, a weevil maggot nearly half grown, was found exposed to the eye, in the germ of one of these grains, in a small wound made by the knife. This was destroyed in the ex- amination. In two other grains, worms were seen (by using the glass) just beneath the thin transpa- rent skin of the grain, which they had apparently, burrowed along under, like a mole under the sur- face of the earth. This would not have been ap- })arent to any but very close observation. The vibratory motion of the yellow heads of the worms, caused their presence to be sufficiently evident, though when still, the speck was scarcely percep- tible. That the proof might be furnished, that these were weevil, and of course from eggs recently laid, the grains were placed in paper, and carried in my pocket, that they might not want enough warmth to continue to live and grow. A few other maggots soon became visible in other grains ; and by the 29th, they had shown in 12 of the grains, and in several of them by the cells appearing, merely covered by the skin of the grain, but pro- ving that the insect was nearly ready to come out in a perfect state. On the 6th of October, the last examination was made. At that time, one of the winged insects had left its cell, and was found dead within the paper covering. This was enough to FARMERS' REGISTER— MOTH- WEEVIL. 829 establish the fact that the weevil egg had been laid and hatched, and that the insect had passed through every change of form, to the perfect winged state, ^vithin the time between the2ndof September and 6th of October. On all the grains, except three, the cells were now visible, externally ; and these three, when cut open, were found to be equally well supplied with weevil. Some were in the chrysalis state, but generally in the larva or mag- got state, and nearly all well grown. Of the 19 grains, 2 contained 3 weevil each, 8 contained 2 each, and the remaining 9 had one in each. The results of these experiments seemed clearly to disprove all the prevailing opinions of the origin and propagation of weevil, and to establish that a few (and generally but very few) of their eggs arc deposited on corn in the field, which usually do not hatch before the next summer, when they send forth the progenitors of several successive broods, produced in short periods of time, and rapidly ma- turing to propagate others. In this manner, their propagation, if not prevented by some means of de- struction, would be, in geometrical j)rogression, increasing by a very large ratio — and their num- bers, at the end of a few generations might rise to an amount that Avould at first seem incredible and in possible. For example — suppose the number of eggs laid by each female weevil to be 200, (which is not an extravagant supposition, if we may judge by comparison with many other insects,) and that three successive broods are deposited in, and issue from corn during the warm season of any year. According to this supposition, a single fe- male, laying her 200 eggs in October, will pro- duce 200 millions of winged and perfect weevil in the last brood of the next autumn. The prodigious magnitude of this number, will be better compre- hended, when I state that 600 barrels (or 3000 bu- shels) of corn, do not contain so many as 200 mil- lions of grains. I will exhibit the rate of increase upon the foregoing supposition, and also at half of that ratio. One pair of weevil, supposed to produce 200 eggs in October, which hatch early in July, making 100 females in the first generation, 10,000 in the second, in August, 1,000,000 in the third, in September, 100,000,000 in the fourth, in October, or 200,000,000, counting the males as equal in number. But if the rate of increase is only half as great, or 50 pairs are produced from each female, the fourth generation so multiplied would amount to 12,500,()00 — which would be nearly as many as there are grains of corn in 40 barrels. These examples are by no means intended to re- present any possible actual increase, but to show that there is no want of procreative power to pro- duce inconceivable numbers, from the smallest ori- ginal stock, if all circumstances are favorable for the propagation and preservation of the race. This prodigious procreative power, though not repressed (as in most other animals) by any want of food, is greatly limited by unfavorable temperature, short summers, and all the enemies that prey on those fee- ble and helpless insects. It is only when these cir- cumstances are guarded against, (as in my first experiment,) that some a{)proach to the real rate of increase can be seen. The manner and rate of increase will serve to explain why more weevil may appear in the last week of a long warm sea- son, than in all the previous time. Vol. 1—12 There are so many circumstances which, without being suspected to operate, may completely change the results of experiments, that we ought not to trust to the most decisive in appearance, without additional trials, and under varied circumstances. I therefore ask of others to repeat these experi- ments, and aid in establishing or overthrowing the conclusion which is irresistible, if there is no delu- sion in them, viz : That eggs of the weevil are laid on corn in the field, but in very small num- bers : but that these few are sufficient to fill the whole crop with their progeny during the follow- ing summer. If these are truths, the most im- portant inferences grow out of them, which will teach us how to restrain almost entirely the ravages of the Moth-Weevil. If either of the three existing opinions of the origin of this insect is admitted as true, it serves to repress, as useless, every attempt to prevent the propagation of the weevil, or to destroy the insects after they assume the winged form, and have ceased to injure the grain. But it will not be so when we know that the first laying of eggs serves merely as the seed for the abundant and destructive broods which follow in the second and third gene- rations. If we could prevent the few first eggs being laid — or could prevent their hatching — or could kill the first small brood as it hatches — either would remedy the evil. And, though altogether mistaken as to the propagation and habits of the insect, chance and observation have long ago taught us how to prevent the worst effects, both on wheat and corn. If we will attend to the truths now as- certained, and use carefully the proper means of prevention, there can be no more considerable danger from this cause. I will state some of the probable, as well as the already known means of prevention. 1. Some few eggs of the weevil are laid on the upper exposed grains, while in the field. — This is proved by grains of very forward corn being found weevil-eaten when gathered. But these are so few, that even if they live and hatch, their direct dam- age would be not worth consideration. If all corn intended to be kept later than the 1st of July, was put up without shucking, that protection to the ear would prevent the second brood being laid in the corn — and perhaps the closeness of the bulk would prevent nearly all of the first small brood from hatching. This course would be directed by the supposed origin of weevil — and it is also supported by experience. Corn put up in the shuck, dry and clean, will be far better preserved from weevil than in any other way ; and all corn intended for bread in summer and autumn, ought to be kept in that manner. I have kept large quantities in the shuck (when the price was so low as to make sel- ling inexpedient,) to the second, and sometimes the third summer after gathering, and found very lit- tle damage from weevil, compared to any shucked corn the next summer after gathering. To save room, and trouble in handling, the outer shucks of my corn had been broken from the ears in gather- ing, which lessened the protection against the wee- vil. If all the shucks had been left, the number of damaged grains would probably have been much fewer. 2. We have been told how to destroy the weevil in its winged state effectually by the fumes of burn- ing sulphur, and even by the smell of the leaves of Pride of China. The last method has been pub- 330 FARMERS' REGISTER— MOTH-WEEVIL. lished in the Farmers' Register, (No. 3,) and the first, I think, was in one of the early volumes of the American Farmer. Perhaps many other strong smelling vegetables mixed with the corn when put away, would serve to kill the early brood as fast as it was hatched. It is well known, that strong odors of many kinds are insupportable to some insects. Under my former opinion, that every grain that could suffer, already contained an egg, or a maggot, it seemed useless to kill the flying in- sects, after they had ceased to eat, and could do no more damage. But the case is very different, sup- posing a continued and rapid renewal of broods to go on. Upon this supposition it becomes import- ant to try these, or other means, for killing every fly, if possible, after its leaving the grain. 3. But whether the winged weevil can be thus killed or not, if the foregoing means of prevention were used, we should be amply compensated by the improved quality of our bread, and of quantity as well as quality in all corn used after July. But it seems likely that another important benefit would be found, in saving the wheat. According to my views of weevil, the corn must furnish the greater part or all of the brood which afterwards fills the tuheat with weevil eggs; and by preventing or de- stroying the existence of a few in the corn, we may prevent as many thousands reaching the wheat. The feeble and awkward flight of the weevil forbids the belief of its spreading rapidly, or being able to travel far, without destruction. 4. Early thrashing and cleaning wheat, (say by the 20th of July, in Lower Virginia,) prevents damage from weevil, even if the grain is kept through the summer — most probably because the first eggs are laid on the chaff, (as is supposed by the writer referred to above,) and, if so, are sepa- rated from the grain before they hatch. If the clean grain be kept spread too thin to heat, there will be very fev/ weevil — and those few, we may suppose, proceed from parents furnished from the adjacent corn-houses, or the grains of wheat left in the straw. But, if they were a thousand times more numerous, they could not (according to the view taken,) affect early cleaned wheat, except the grains on the surface of the heap, because the flying weevil could not penetrate lower. This shows, that the less the surface is changed, the bet- ter ; and if all seed wheat was kept in small casks (as flour barrels,) and the surface covered with a tViin coat of quick lime, or some other dry jwwder, it seems likely that not a grain could be weevil- eaten. My seed wheat has never been better guarded than by being early cleaned and spread 6 or 8 inches thick over a floor. In this way, some slight damage from weevil may generally be found, but none worth consideration as a loss of value. Wheat is also preserved from weevil by being bulked in the chaff — and this plan (of which I have no personal experience,) is said to be equally effec- tual. The security in this case proceeds from the heat produced, whicli (especially in wheat trodden out on the earth,) is sufficient to kill the eggs. But if wheat remains in the straw until Septem- ber, and is then cleaned, whether it is placed in large or small bulks, great injury from weevil is generally sure. The number of insects, already well advanced in growth, produce considerable heat, even in small bulks of grain. I do not know whether it is animal heat^ or the consequence of ani- mal putrefaction; but it certainly acts to forward the hatching of other weevil, until, in some cases, the heap is entirely mixed with living and dead in- sects. In this state, all our wheat would be, if no means were used to prevent it. 5. It is probable that the exposure of corn to se- vere cold, will destroy the first laying of weevil eggs. I recollect having heard it stated, that early gathered corn was most damaged by weevil, and that leaving it in the field untd late in winter, was almost a sure safeguard. Even if this was true, as a matter of practice, the remedy would be worse than the disease ; but the fact would serve as ano- ther exemplification of the truth of the position taken as to the origin and habits of weevil. It is a remarkable fact, that last year, (1832) there was no damage from weevil to wheat, even when thrash- ed so late, that in other years it would have been worthless. I first learned this of a particular crop in my neighborhood, which the illness and death of the owner prevented being thrashed until late in September ; and I afterwards heard it stated that the same absence of weevil was general. How corn was affected, I do not know, not having my attention drawn to it at the proper time. The pre- ceding winter had been a very cold one for our country, and the one still earlier (1830-31,) had been severe, beyond precedent, for the previous 40 years. Possibly these two cold winters had nearly destroyed the weevil eggs in the corn, leav- ing almost none to infect the wheat. 6. The universal practice of our country, is io keep corn (in the ear) in open log cribs, through which the air can easily pass; and it is the general opinion, that such houses are necessary to keep the corn in the best condition. This I believe to be true, so far as it respects weevil, but not otherwise. The corn which was spoken of, as being so well kept, from two to three years, in the shuck, was in a closely planked barn, 32 feet square, and the lower story of which was nearly as full as it could be packed. Weevil are disposed to fly out every fair evening, which the open sides of our cribs per- mit without impediment — and most of them are destroyed by birds and bats. Where a few ears of corn are kept in a close drawer or chest, the da- mage from weevil is ten times as great, because none of the breeders are destroyed. For the same reason, if my corn in the close barn had not been pi-otectetl by the shucks, every ear would, in the first summer, have been as completely riddled as are the few ears left in drawers. From all the facts which have been presented, and the legitimate deductions therefrom, it seems scarcely doubtful that the depredations of weevil may be always easily, cheaply and effectually con- trolled. But this important and most desirable conclusion, depends on my facts and observations not being mistaken. And, to decide that point, I request the aid and corrections of others. How- ever well assured I may feel, that my observations are correct, it still may be that they are incorrect in some important particulars. W hen we are mis- taken as to causes, we are in great danger of also being mistaken as to their most obvious effects ; — and I am sensible of being somewhat exposed to this danger, when all my observations of the effects of weevil, until recently, were attended, and per- haps affected, by totally mistaken views of the ori- gin and propagation of these insects. E. R. FARMERS' REGISTER— MOTH-WEEVIL. 331 Postscript.-Afier the foregoing piece had been fin- ished, except inserting the close of the fourth expe- riment, some additional facts were observed, which may be worth notice, or serve to call the attention of more competent observers, to the habits of weevil. The weather became again remarkably warm by the 18th September, on which day and the next, my thermometer, in the shade, and open air, rose to 90° and 90^°. This brought out a new supply of winged weevil, and they have continued active to this time, the 7th of October. There has been no cold weatlier within this time, and the general temperature has been warm for the season. The crops of corn have matured uncommonly early this autumn, the greater part, on good land, being hard (though not dry) by the middle of September. — Of course, these circumstances have allowed wee- vil an unusual length of time to deposit eggs on the ears in the field, and sufficient time and warmth for many of the insects to complete their growth, and come out to lay a second brood. Tiie focts agree with this anticipation, which was founded on the views which have been presented. Since October 3d, I have examined several fields of corn, and find in plenty (what is generally of such rare occurrence,) ears showing weevil-eaten grains. — It is only where the ear has outgrown the shuck, or otherwise was not covered by it, that the weevil holes are found — but of all such, very few are without one or more of these marks. But on new corn, standing near to houses containing old corn, or wheat, the weevil are far more numerous. I gathered a large ear, which had grown within 60 yards of a crib containing corn well stocked with weevil, and on it counted 89 grains, in which the insects were visible externally, or tlie holes through which they had already escaped. Some of these grains were so low on the ear, that they must have been securely covered until after the fodder was stripped, which, by killing the plant, caused the shuck to open, and gave admittance to the insects. Of course they had similar means of access to ma- ny ears, which did not protrude beyond their co- vering. A friend and neighbor, whom I had re- quested to examine his corn,, informed me, that his new crop in the field is much more full of weevil, than the last year's crop, of which he has a large quantity (in ears) in his barn, and which we had lately examined, and found to be but little injured. He sent me the points of two ears, as specimens from his field: one had 20 and the other 18 visible weevil cells. The last was of rare-ripe, (or flint) corn, and the other of the common large kind. I suppose he meant that these were specimens of the ears extending beyond the shuck, and near his corn house, as he stated the injury to be much greater there than at more distant parts of his field. Before being directed, accidentally, to observe these unexpected facts, (and unprecedented, as it respects the great number of weevil in new corn,) I had noticed the old corn, and wheat retained for seed, on several different farms. In my own corn (September 19th,) very few weevil-eaten grains were found, and but for the presence of some of the insects, it would have been supposed that no such damage had been sustained. But though none could he found within the bulk of ears, some few ears, (especially rare-ripe,) were found a little v/eevil-eaten on the highest part of the heap. My seed wheat, which was in a barn about 60 yards distant, had been f hrashed late in July, fanned clean, and spread upon a floor 10 inches thick. A few winged weevil were seen crawling over the heap. No damaged grains were found within, or on the bulk, though doubtless there were some on the sur- face : the eye does not easily discover the eaten grains in wheat, even when they are so completely hollowed out, as to be easily crushed between the fingers. My barn and cribs had been erected so lately, that these were the first crops they had held — and no grain had ever been kept before within three-quarters of a mile of that location. To this circumstance, together with the scarcity of weevil last year, and to my uniform practice of thrashing and sending my wheat to market early, I attribute my singular exemption from weevil this year. "In other cribs, examined in the same neighbor- hood, there were found remarkable differences in the numbers of weevil, and without reasons for the difference being always apparent. They are ge- nerally more scarce than is usual, but some parcels of corn are very full. In some of the latter cases the wheat has not generally been thrashed early : and if all the facts could be ascertained, I have no doubt it would be seen, that by some neglect in previous management, at all such places, a suffici- ent breeding stock of weevil had been suffered to remain, to produce the present abundant supply. — Such a stock of breeders, it seems, is now in every crop of new corn, and I will venture to foretell that great and iinusual injury will lake place from this cause next summer, unless the winter should be very severe, or some artificial means of preven- tion should be resorted to. It will be especially requisite to thrash and clean the next crop of wheat as early as possible, and to keep in the shuck, all corn intended for late consumption. On the 9th of October, I again examined the corn in my crib, where so few weevil had been found 17 days before. They had increased greatly though still few in number, compared to other places. The ears in the field, (about 400 yards distant from the grain houses,) which protruded from the shuck, generally showed some weevil holes — and on one, 16 such marks of well grown maggots were counted. But though the corn in the fields is most affected where nearest to old and weevil eaten grain, the protruding ears in the most remote and sheltered situations also show more or less of the operations and presence of weevil. It seems evident, that these insects prefer the soft new corn, to the old, as a receptacle for their eggs — or otherwise, that the hatching and life of tlie maggots are more certain in the former. Perhaps I have presumed too much on the pa- tience of the readers of the Farmers' Register in treating this subject at such length— and I may be held as the more inexcusable, because unac- quainted with that branch of natural history, to which the subject belongs. In this, as in many other respects, the c»ut necessity. But to give you this mournful ac- count of the sad state of our agriculture was not my intention when I sat down to write to you. It was rather to tell you what we were doing, than what we had omitted to do — to com|)ly with the request of a mutual friend who solicited me to give you some account of a method practised by a few persons in Halifax and Mecklenburg, for the pro- tection of their hill sides from the effects of wash- ing rains. This s'ystem is technically called trenching. Who was the inventor I know not. It was first practised as far as my knowledge extends, by Mr. Skipw ith of Mecklenburg. His lands are exceed- ingly broken, and he has carried the system to such perfection, as to put an entire stop to wash- ings by the heaviest rains. So much so, that I have heard of his saying, that not a pound of soil was lost on his extensive estate, by the great- est fall of rain. I wish the application had been made to him, rather tiian myself, to give the pub- ic information on this subject. He is, indeed, a good cultivator — an enlightened farmer, practically and theoretically — while I am a tyro — a young man and a young farmer — eager indeed to learn, but unalile to teach. I have practised the system for 3 years — the first two years it was badly done, tor want of experience. The corn land for the present year is better done, and I may safely say, that in an extensive field of about 200 acres, as broken as any in Virginia, there is no washing, nor a single corn-bed broken by the rains. The first thing to be done, is to lay off the trenches. This must be correctly done, or instead of conducting the water gradually off, and pre- venting the wash of soil, the land will soon be in- tersected by deep gullies. The level here most in use, is what is familiarly known by the name of the rafter level. It consists of 2 pieces of scant- ling, about 9 feet long, lapped at an angle of 45 degrees, (or squared,) making a span of 12 feet. The shanks should be precisely of the same length. From the apex, a line is suspended with a plumb at bottom. Across the shanks, a piece should be fixed, on which notches should be made to mark the variations of the plumb line. But it is useless FARMERS' REGISTER— ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCE, &c. 835 todescribe particularly, whatevery one is acquaint- ed Avilh. Different persons use different levels, though this I think the most convenient. To be certain that your level is correct, take a plank and adjust it so, that the plumb line falls in the centre: if on reversing the level, or turning it, it still fails on the centre, your level is true and may be depend- ed on. I will here state that your trenches should have a fall of about f inch in 12 feet, or the span of the level. Some persons prefer more fall, in order to prevent the trenches from filling up; but it is a great mistake, as ceteris paribus, the more fall, the more apt they are to fill up. Where there is much fall, the dirt is carried away, and where it comes to a place where there is less, it will of course be deposited and fill up the trench. It is then the accuracy of levelling, and not the quanti- ty of fall, which prevents the filling up. To prove this, a spade ditch, running down a steep hill, where there are inequalities of descent, will fill up. Three fourths of an inch may, therefore, be considered a very ample fall in 12 feet. Having made your rafter level, and adjusted in your mind the neces- sary fall you should have, you are ready to pro- ceed to lay off your trenches. Your hill side for instance, is somewhat steep, and measures 100 yards from the top to the bottom, with a valley running up on each side. About 30 yards from the top, equidistant from the drains on each side, you take a station — commencing there with the level, you lay off a trench (with the ne- cessary fall) to the drain on the right, making marks with the foot, or in some other way, as you go along. You then return to the jjoint from which you started, and proceed to the drain on the left. The water is then let off in different directions — thus avoiding the great accumulation of water v/hich would take place in one long trench. You then pass down the hill 30 yards farther, and lay off another trench in the same manner — and so on for the third. Where you have to go a long distance to get a bottom to empty the water, it might be in some instances adviseable to make a straight spade ditch 3 feet by 2, right down the hill to receive the water of all the trenches making into it. You need not be afraid of a gully. Gullies are formed by the pouring in of water down the sides ; and the trenches avoid this. The natural tendency to fill up, will pretty nearly counteract the effect of aiarasion at bottom. Having laid off the trenches, the next step is to make them, and which is done in the following simple manner. The leveller having previously marked the line of the trench, walks upon it, with an accurate ploughman with his plough following him, making a furrow where the trench is to run. Three furrows should then he run below, with a large dagon plough, the mould board on the upper side, and 4 above, with the mould board on the lower side — they should then be opened with hoes, drawing the dirt of the 4 furrows on the three be- low, which makes a good solid embankment, with a trench about 3 feet wide at bottom. This work is done with great ease and despatch — one hand being- able to accomplish in a day 200 yards. It may be as well, however, to observe here, that some very judicious men, (among the rest, Mr. Skipwitli,) are in the habit of making their trenches with the spade 3 fieet broad and 2 deep. This, however, in- creases the labor four-fold, and is, I think, of no real advantage. The difficulty of passing them with wagons and carts, is a serious evil. You have bridges to build, in order to cart your corn and small grain over them, which would require a quantity of labor, that few farmers could afford to bestow. I must repeat to you, that every thing depends on correct levelling. This system of correct trenching, will be of in- calculable value to those who cultivate broken lands, and this class must embrace a large portion of the farmers of V^irginia. Three years ago, there were scarcely as many persons who practised the system in this county. All the prejudices against innovation were excited against it. It was affirm- ed by some, that it wasted too much land : but what is the loss of 1 or 2 corn rows on a hill side, compared with the total waste of soil, which is caused by a few years of cultivation. Others object, that it makes gullies. This is the effect of bad levelling — but I can affirm, that most of the trenches I have ever seen or made, were better than none ; if one gully was produced, a dozen were stopped. These prejudices have now pretty well subsided — and our best cultivators, satisfied of the great benefits of trenching, have very generally adopted the system. JAMES C. BRUCE. Halifax, Sept. 20th, 1833. We believe that the foregoing letter will not re- quire any editorial recommendation or comment, to command the attention which- the subject so well deserves. But as the practice described by Mr. Bruce, has scarcely been heard of on the broken lands of the tidewater district, where it may be so beneficially introduced, we will venture to offer our opinion in favor of horizontal ditching, though it will be useless, if not obtrusive, to all who have more experience on this subject. Proceeding upon very imperfect verbal infor- mation (then recently obtained) as to the manner and the benefits of this operation, we tried a ditch of some 500 yards in length, on a slope cultivated this year in corn, which had been very much wash- ed and gullied by heavy rains under former tillage. The repeated heavy rains during the summer, tried well, and established satisfactorily the efficacy of the plan. The labor of making the ditch with the plough was inconsiderable — it caused but little in- convenience in the subsequent tillage — and the plan effected all the benefit which has been pro- mised, but not obtained, from the difficult and in- convenient horizontal ploughing for corn, in beds and water furrows. The damage caused to all our broken lands by the washing away of the soil by rains, has been much greater than all the exhaustion by the growth of crops : and to arrest this agent of de- struction, even at this late period, will be of incal- culable benefit to our country. 336 FARMERS' REGISTER— ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCE, &c. ON ATMOSPHERIC INFLUKNCE, ANU ON THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPERLY PREPARING LANii TO PROFIT BY IT. — By 31. Bastidc d'/zars. Translated fur the Farmers' Register, from the Journal d'Jlgri- ciiltuie etc. des Pays-Bas, I set out with these principles; first, that calo- ric, water and the atmospheric gases contribute to vegetation still more than earth, (vegetable mould excepted) ; that this earth which bears the plants is little more than tlie matrix in which the coml)i- nations of'the alimentary substances are more or less perfectly effected: second and consequently, that unfertile lands are so, principally because they have too much or too little density or porosity, that is to say, that they receive or preserve too abundantly or in insufficient quantity the atmospheric infiuences : third, that on such lands, the object is to pulverize the one and to render the other more compact: fourth and last, that this operation should precede the use of the various manures, or proceed simul- taneously with it. I shall not stop here to prove the above princi- ples in detail, but they are those of the best au- thors, and I have adopted them because they are daily confirmed by my experience. Yet, a conside- rable number of agriculturists still believe that the earth nourishes the plant, as bread supports man, and that the unproductiveness of a soil should be attributed to its natural deficiency in alimenta- ry resources. The addition of animal, vegetable, and mineral manures giving generally more or less vigor to plants, these agriculturists, from this circumstance, conclude that the atmosphere has no share, or but a small share in vegetation. Yet, how many facts combine to prove their error. The atmosphere, in the acceptation which I here give to it in speaking of its influences, contains the air, the water, the calorie and carbon which are found in it, always combined with oxygen. This atmosphere, the good and ill effects of which are unknown, has many constituents in common with plants and manures, as is proved by subject- ing each to an analysis. In a vase containing a certain quantity of earth, you behold that beautiful tree ; it weighs many hundred weight, yet the earth which bears it has !)erhaps lost only one or two ounces : the manure it las received has not supplied all the weight of the tree, for it would have attained its growth, less ra- pidly indeed, yet it would have grown without the manure : but it has been watered, it has respired the air which surrounds it, &c. At Marmande, near St. Martin du Touch, a willow root insinu- ated itself into a long circular subterranean conduit designed for irrigations, at the outlet of a fountain. There it acquired such a diameter as entirely to close up the conduit for a distance of many metres; yet there was in the conduit no more than air and running water. The air and the water then, in this case, nourished the growth of the willow root to its gigantic proportions. Beans have been cul- tivated without any earth,^ — bulbous roots live in vases of water on our mantel-pieces, &c. ; these are the facts which support my first principle. What is obtained from lands in an excess of rain or of drought, or in uncommonly cold or unseason- ably foggy weather .=■ What land is good enough and sufficiently well manured to return a good product in such cases ? Give me the management of your best soil, rich in vegetable mould and calcareous matter. I will harden it by means of a mall, or render it close and compact by trampling, or by two wet a plough- ing: what will this soil produce.' Or shall I adopt a course directly the reverse.'' I will mix with the vegetable surface a quantify of very dry and coarse straw, and bits of hard brush wood laid crosswise, which, acting as levers, to a certain depth, will prevent the roots of the plants from being seasonably moistened, and will leave them naked and exposed to heat and cold; and again we shall see what can be produced by the unassist- ed excellence of the texture of the soil. Two or three years ago. Professor Dispan took the trouble to put into some vessels, for experiment, portions of earth taken from my lands, and from which, not- withstanding the aid of marl, compound manures &c., I have never been able to derive any advan- tage. M. Dispan, without the addition of any ma- nure, but by pulverising, by paring and burning, (^ecnbiiage,') by a mixture of sand, and by simply watering it at proper intervals and in proper propor- tions with pure water, has obtained from this land satisfactory pnKlucts of wheat and maize for two years; and the wheat which he has sowed on it this year is really astonishing for its beauty ; it would be supposed to grow in an excellent soil. So much for my second principle. When a soil is too jwrous, too pervious, the rain water filters through it too rapidly, and the roots of vegetables cultivated on such a soil die of thirst during a drought. The stalks, the branches, the leaves, the whole plant suffers; the fruit is not formed or it is imperfect ; the sudden changes of temperature are very pernicious to plants so situ- ated. A vine that has been worked, but without laying its roots bare, on the evening preceding a hard frost, suffers ten times as much injury as ano- ther not yet touched ; and soils naturally too po- rous are always in the disadvantageous condition in which this vine has been accidentally placed. Last summer all my clover, sowed in October and November 1825, died, leaves, stalks and roots, while that sowed in 1826 Avithstood the drought. I grant that a plant which has only a year longer to live, is more exposed to unlucky accidents than another which has still two years to continue; but I particularly attribute the dying of my old clover to the greater porosity which it gave to its soil ; thereby rendering the drying of the earth quicker, more complete and more fatal. The proof of this great porosity, resulting from the continued growth of clover, lucerne and other plants with tap roots which occupy the land for several years, I derive from the thirstiness of such soils, which is so great, that during the heaviest rains, there seldom re- mains a drop of water on the surface ; while simi- lar lands sowed in wheat, lor example, are over- flowed by the same rains. Soils which are too close, have the defect of not permitting the growth and suitable direction of the roots of plants. Lucerne sowed on my land grows well and dies within the year. On digging into the earth lielow them, their tap roots are found de- viating from the perpendicular direction, branch- ing into forks, taking an unnatural course, and ex- hausting the vicinity. These compact soils, once dried, require a long time to become wet; and once wet are also very slow in drying : and in many instances these delays are prejudicial to the FARMERS' REGISTER— BEDFORD SOILS, &c. 337 labors required by the soil, and to tlie products ex- pected from it. These are the proofs of my third principle. The fourth position is only a corollary from the preceding; for it would be a mere sacrifice of ma- nure to bestow it upon land ill prepared for pro- ducing. If the foregoing principles be admitted, and if the whole of my deductions from them cannot be controverted, it "is then important to seek to correct as much as possible, the closeness and lightness of a soil, to a sutTicient depth. I say to a sufficient depth, because the inferior strata have a great in- fluence on vegetation, the phenomena of which, we observe only at the surface. This being as- sumed, soils of too much porosity should be sel- dom ploughed, and almost solely to clear them oi noxious herbs. They will suffer little from wet ploughing, which bakes the land and is generally so pernicious ; — I sliould even expect some advan- tage from it on sandy soils. The most compact manures will be best for such lands; mud from ponds, strong, rich dung, and clay ; the drains for carrying off rain-water may also be less carefully opened. Lands too close, like most of mine, should re- ceive dressings of sand and mixtures of long, coarse, unrotted litter. Paring and burning should be resorted to; but as these modes of improvement are frequently ruinous, or at least beyond the means of the proprietor, it is by frequent and deep ploughings that we should attempt to pulverize such soils. This is the point to which I would di- rect the whole attention. We know all the exist- ing ploughs, with their improvements : but not one has been constructed with the single object of sinking and keeping its share at the greatest re- quired depth, for all are designed to turn the land more or less. So, in practice, I know no instru- ment of tillage for opening soils during a drought. I should require then such a tool that all the drawing force might be employed in depth. It should make in the earth only a split or cleft vertical to the surface, leaving a given space to separate tliis split from that which is to be made on the return of the instrument; the horses going, as in ploughing, from one end of the field to the other. After passing over the field in one way, the work should be re- peated at right angles to the first, so as to divide the land, like a chess board, into spaces of about a foot square. The original cohesive force of the soil being thus once lessened, good turning ploughs should be worked to a great depth. What was impossible, will be only more or less difficult. Then an energetic proprietor will succeed in im- portant improvements which manual labor is in- sufficient to effect on a large scale in lands like mine. BEDFORD SOILS, .AXD CULTURE. We are indebted for the following communica- tion to the late editor of the Virginia Farmer, to whom it was addressed, and who, on declining tlie publication of his agricultural journal, has sent this answer to some of his previous inquiries, to be published in the Farmers' Register. Vol. 1—43 Liberty, J]edford, Fa. 1th Sept. 1833. To Theoilerick McRobert, Esq. Editor of l/ic I'irginia Farmer. Dear Sir, — The post master at this place has placed in my hands a printed circular received by him some months ago from you, requesting infor- mation respecting " the present state of agricul- ture," &c. and respecting " the soil — the kind of soils — its capacities for improvement — the kind of crops cultivated — the progress of improvement in agriculture generally," &c. &c. And the post master has requested me to write you, giving the desired information, &c. It would afford me much pleasure if I pos.sessed the reqiiisite information, and had leisure and capacity to answer your inter- rogatories fully and satisfactorily ; although a true account of the state of agriculture, &c. in this county generally, would present a gloomy picture. It would also be mortifying, even to my county- men, who are from hal)it so familiarized to the wretched, slovenly and injurious manner of culti- vating tlie soil in many parts of Bedford, that, al- though they would notice and condemn them if seen abroad, yet they at home attract no particular attention. Nor are truths always the most pala- table when they relate to our own indolence or neg- ligences. The present stale of agriculture generally In this county, is a very bad one ; and in some particular parts of the county, the worst I ever saw. There have been some particular periods, when from par- ticular causes, such as the extreme low prices of tobacco, (our staple commodity,) and a rise in the price of wheat, corn, &c. the country would for a short time present the appearance of an obvious change for the better. Then there seemed to be less tobacco reared, and more grain of every kind in the fields, and more clover and grass of different kinds sown, and more plaster and manure general- ly saved and used, and more attention to the build- ings, enclosures, fixtures, &c. generally on our plantations, and more attention paid to judicious ploughing, (the very life and soul of good farm- ing,) and to raising more stock, particularly horses and hogs. But soon, too soon, a little depression in the price of wheat^ and a little spur or rise in tlie price of the tobacco crop, and the scene by the next year is greatly changed : and in traversing the county, you see all the best land on almost every plantation cultivated in tobacco, and every thing like making and carefully saving manure, and ap- plying the same to the grain or grass crops, neg- lected. The enclosures seem to be utterly neg- lected, and go to wreck ; and a total neglect of every thing like improvement in soil, or in the mode or manner of ploughing, and in the prudent application and distribution of manure, except on the tobacco lots, are neglected; and the whole en- ergy and industry of the plantation seem to be employed in bettering the quality, and increasing the quantity of tobacco. This is tlie more lamentable as I do conscien- tiously believe the JJedlbrd lands generally are, from the nature and quality of the soil, and from its lying generally on a fine, firm, compact and close substratum of clay, are susceptible of as high a state of improvement (by prudent and ju- dicious management) as any county in this re- nowned commonwealth. 'Tis true, there are some few local situations, where there seems to be no good clay foundation, S38 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON FENCING, &c. and where manure of any kind geenis to sink, and its eticcts to disappear in a few months, and which it seems cannot he much enriched. But these spots are few, so far as my knowledge of the county ex- tends, and are com|)aratively very small. And tlie great mass of the Bedford lands are comparatively good, and susceptible, by the proper and prudent cultivation of clover, peas, and other shading, succulent, and nutritious vines and grasses, and by the use of plaster and other manures, of the very highest improvement. Our soils are various in many respects ; and among the best in the county, is what is commonly called a mulatto soil, of a dark brown complexion, al ounding in black oak and hickory, black gum, locust, dog wood, poplar, &c. on which is made much of our fine tobacco, and af- ter two, and even three cropsof that plant, is won- derful tor wheat, corn, rye, oats, potatoes, flax, buckwheat, peas, and sometimes hemp (which lat- ter is not often raised here.) This kmd of land is sure to have the foundation I have above describ- ed, which is as close and tough as you can well imagine, and holds manure or water almost like a bladder : and on such, although old, much worn and exhausted, where a load or two of stable manure has been spread and ploughed in before the scorch- ing sun and exhalations have in a great measure destroyed it, its effects and Isenefits are most obvi- ous and visible on the crops for five, ten, or even fifteen vAaro_ In much the larger part of our county, the rota- tion of crops, (if such it deserves to be called,) is to cultivate the same soil in tobacco two, and not unfrequently three years ; then wheat, rye, or oats; and regularly thereafter, corn or small grain of some sort, in constant succession as long as it is worth cultivation; and if it hai)pens ever to get one year's respite, it is during that year so wof^ul- ly pastured and grazed by stock, that one year's rest in that v/ay, leaving it more than ever bare and exposed to the scorching sun, and so trampled by the hoof, that 'tis the hardest year it has ever had. There are, 'tis true, exceptions to this ruin- ous course of cultivation, and I must say tliey are increasing : and there are some who have recently commenced a much more prudent and improving system — and at present there are more clover seed and other grass seeds sown, and more plaster and other valuable manure made, and more horizontal and deep ploughing, than heretofore. Indeed, we have some as fine looking clover fields, and which where well manured or plastered, affords as fine crous of clover as I ever saw beyond the Blue JRidge in the limestone country : and I have heard some Botetourt farmers express their suprrise at seeing (this side of the mountains,) such line clo- ver fields, and tliat they were equal to, and often better (in wet seasons) than any they had seen in their county ; and at the same time declare they had no doubt this county was as well adapted for improvement of its soil as any county in Virginia. But generally, our ploughing is wretched, and done in any other way than horizontal, and so shallow, as only to loosen enough at one ploughing of a corn crop for the first hard rain to carry all oil' that is loosened, or for the sun effectually to kill and parch up the little thus turned over or broken up. There is yet in the minds of many men of ordina- ry intelligence, a strong prejudice against deep ploughing, and a belief that it will soon entirely destrov the soil. Bed(brd is one of the principal tobacco making counties in Virginia, and yet there is a good deal of wheat raised in tlie county, but 'tis mostly on corn land, and such as will not produce tobacco well. And yet there are happily some who fallow pretty extensively for wheat, and 'tis much to be hoped the prices for the two last crops may in- crease its culture. It is with deep regret I must add, I have not known one bushel of good clover seed raised and sold in market in this large, popu- lous, fertile and wealthy county. An agricultural society was probably formed at New London, mainly by citizens of Bedford, on Saturday last, as a meeting was to be held there for the purpose. To all such, properly conducted, I say God speed them and their efforts : and I hope, ere long, we may have one here, and at other places in the county, to which end I hope your Vir- ginia Farmer may largely contribute. w — c — . ON FENCING AND OTHER ENCLOSURES. To the Editor of the Farmers' Reri-ter. Columbia, S. C. Oct. 5th, 1833. In order to add my mite to the great exertions now making by your correspondents, and particu- larly by yourseu, for the promotion of agricultu- ral interests in cur country, I thought the great need to our country of permanent or at least du- rable enclosures would cause such hints as I might give, to be tolerated in your most valuable perio- dical, " The Farmers' Register." If you think so, I beg you Avill insert the following desultory observations. It will not be disputed, I hope, that for the success- ful ])rosecutionofany business whatever, due prepa- rations in buildings, implements, &c. of the most durable and commodious kinds should be provided, and that the first expense ought to be incurrecl with judgment, but without stint, or fear of spend- ing a few dollars more or less. VVe should always keep in mind that it is much more economical to lay out one hundred dollars for a useful thing than fifty dollars for one that is useless, or nearly so. — Make shifts have always, I believe, been found the dearest way of proceeding to business, and should never be resorted to except in cases of the most absolute necessity. One of the things in which we fail most generally in our country es- tablishments, is in the due enclosing of our fields. The common v^orm-fence is certainly soon made in a new country where there is an abundance of choice timber for the purpose ; but we all know, that except in very few favored situations, where the timber is of superior dural»ility, such a fence answers but very imperfectly the object it is in- tended for ; and that after a few years of continual trouble in driving pigs and cattle out of the field and repairing the fence, it must be made anew. The post and rail fence is better, particularly where duralle timber is easily obtamed for the posts; but still, wood decays so rapidly, that I am certain it is much more economical to make at first a dura- ble fence at double the cost, and that in a few years it will have proved the cheapest. The next best thing is live fences, and here also there is a considerable difficulty in the selection of the most suitable plant capable of answering the purpose most fully. There is scarcely any one plant that is not liable to some objection ; we must, there- FARMERS' REGISTER— ON FENCING, &c. 339 fore, he careful to select that which has the least. The Nondescript, Cherokee Rose, the Jiosa Leoni- gesta, of botanists, is used ibr hedi^es in South Ca- rolina and in Georgia, where it has, in some places, succeeded admirably well, when in others it has failed. This failure may have arisen from the unsuitableness of Ihe soil, the want of due care in the course of the planting;- and cultivalinLf it when youn<^; but more particularly, perhaps, from the aptitude of the rose tribe to die when least ex- pected, without our being; able to discover the cause. One of the objections to it is, tl.at as a hedf^e, it covers a great deal of ground, and that . cattle are fond of eating ils young shoots. I have no means of judging whether it would thrive as far north as Virginia. It grows admirably well on the banks of low rich grounds, and wherever the soil is not very poor and dry. It is usually propa- gated by cuttings, which ought to lie planted in the fall, and some say also in the middle of sum- mer. The mode of raising it from seed would pro- bably be preferable where the seed can be procur- ed ; but it is not easy to get it. I have not suc- ceeded well with it, and I am inclined to give the preference to the Mespilus Pijr acanthus, called in Europe, Burning Bush, (not the plant usually so called in this country, which is the Spindle Tree, Enoaimus j^mericanus.) The Mespilus lias very strong and sharp tiiorns, is an evergreen, or nearly so, and has the great advantage of never becoming naked at the bottom, and that its lower branches which grow horizontally, very readily take root. This last property gives it also a de- cided advantage over all the other hedge plants that I know of, except the Cherokee Rose, which is, that in planting the young plants for a hedge, they will be close enough at two feet apart, and even farther, if the ground is tolerably good ; for the lower horizontal branches by being covered with a little earth will readily take root, and com- pletely fill the spaces. Add to this that when the hedge is sufficiently full, two or three of these ho- rizontal branches from each original plant may be layed and covered with a little earth, and taken up the following year, when they will be found to have good roots, and be sufficient to plant a hedge two or three times the length of that from which (hey are taken. It is usually raised from seed which it produces in the utmost abundance. It may also be propagated from cuttmgs planted in a nursery of good soil well prepared, v.-henthey may be removed to their final place of destination. It grows well in all sorts of soil, as far as I have tried it, and, like most other things, it grows best in good land well prepared to receive it. There are many other plants that are used, and still more that may be used for hedges; but I need not enu- merate those best known and in use. A plant that is still too rare to be made into hedges with the probabdity of complete success, is the Maclura y/arantia, Osage Orange. It is very hardy and strong, with very sharp long spines. I am inform- ed that with due pre.autions, and planted in a good soil well })repared, cuttings of it take root very readily. !f so, it may be easily propagated, and may prove very beneficial. Hedges are certainly far preferable to wooden fences ; but yet they are liable to many faults, and require very constant attention, and frequent work to keep them safe, and a full protection against the intrusion of cattle, and particularly of hogs. — When a farmer intends to do his duly to himself and to his fields by cultivating them properly, and gradually improve them in fertility, it seems to me that it is well worth his while to surround them in a more permanent way than can be done even by a very good hedge. A stone or brick wall may be thought too expensive, and so it is for a field that is yearly deteriorating ; but where the materials are convenient, it would most probably be found in ten or twche years to have been the cheapest. In some countries enclosures are made of earth in a mode called in France " pis-," where I have seen handsome large houses, churches, &c. that had been built of this cheapest of material upwards of two hundred years before. I am informed it is also the practice in many parts of South America (o build walls and houses in pise, and that their strength and durability are almost incredible. The best earth for this kind of v.'ork is that sandy or gravelly soil that contains just enough of clay to make it adhere together when pressed in the hand, so that after a slight pressure the marks of the fin- gers are imprinted in it, and the lump thus press- ed does not iiill to pieces without its being acted upon with some slight blow or latteral pressure. The full description of the manner of building pis^ houses and walls is to be found in one of the vo- lumes of the American Farmer of Baltimore, in Recs' Cyclopjedia, and also in the Cours complet d'Agriculture of the Abbe Rozier. It may pro- bably be also found in several other books. This mode of l)uiiding n)ust not be confounded with what is called mud houses, which are inferior in every respect; for I am satisfied, that a pise house well constructed of good materials, is at least as good, and as strong and durable as one made of brick. There is neither water, nor hay, or straw necessary to be mixed with the soil used ; on the contrary, great precaution ought to be taken not to leave in the earth any vegetable substance at all, not a blade of grass, a straw, or a fibre of root. The reason of this is obvious ; for vegetable sub- stances will in time detay, and will tliereby leave a weak place in the wall, or a want of connection of the earth. Water added to the earth prevents its being well pounded, and, in evaporating, may occasion cracks in the wail. The easiest and cheap- est then is the best, and the earth such as is usually found about a foot or so below the surface, is in the best state possible. As soon as it is dug, it is thrown between two sides of planks forming the niould, which beins: properly secured from spread- ing open, so as to form irregularities in the thick- ness of the wall; this earth then being put into the mould to the thickness of four to six in. hes is Ihcn pounded down with wooden pestles made for the purpose, until they no longer leave a mark on the pounded earth ; more earth is then added, and again pounded, till the mould, which is about three feet broad and ten feet long, is filled to the top, and being loosened, is moved along the line of the wall, when the process of pounding the earth goes on as before, and so on till the wall is made. This is a very imperfect and insufficient account of the manner of describing the building with pis^; but I only meant to give an idea of the thing — for it requires plates to render it fully intelligible. It is, however, very easy, and such as can be done by any negroes under the supei-intendence of an intel- ligent man. A house or wall constructed in this manner, forms one solid mass without joints, and. 340 FARMERS' REGISTER— INDIAN CORN. if the earth did not contain too much clay, it will dry perfectly without the least crack, and be very nearly as hard as stone. A wall sutlicient to en- close a field or garden, &c. may be made of the earth taken out of a ditch along side of it, taking care to throw away the surface that contains ve- getable matter. So that a wall of this kind is made certainly at a less expense than would be required to dig clay, temper it, and mould it into bricks for the same wall; besides which, the expense of burning the bricks, hauling them, and laying them are all saved. It is much more convenient to have the foundation of such a wall laid ^vith brick or stone for tour to six inches above the surfiice of the ground ; but I have little doubt that a way may be contrived to build it altogether with pise. Such a wall should have a coping of stone, brick, tiles, slates, shingles, or thatch, or boards; but expe- rience will no doubt discover some cheap method of covering it, though by shaping the termination of it like a roof it would last many years without any covering. For building a house of tiiis sort, if a cellar is wanted under it, dig the tbundation the depth intended for the cellar, build it up with brick or stone to about one ibot above the surface of the earth, and take the middle part of the earth for the purpose of raising your walls on the brick or stone foundation, and by a little exi)erience it will be found that a very good house may be con- structed at a very small cost, saving hauling, &c. A house built in this manner, if intended for a dwelling house, may be rough-cast outside, and plastered inside, and may be made as handsome and elegant as any house built of any material. Forout houses, such as barns, stables, &c. as also for walls of enclosure, a thick white wash of lime is sufficient. This is applied with a broom, begin- ning at the top. This looks rough, but it makes a very durable coating. I have read an account of such an enclosure of several miles in length, in South America, that had no coping, and had lasted so long that the oldest man in tlic country declared that when a boy the wall was then an old structure. Although it was not very sightly at the time it was seen by the inquiring traveller, it was yet an effectual fence, notwithstanding the want of^ a co- ■ vering to protect it from the very great rains of that country. It appears to me from the truth of the above remarks, that v/here rail timber is not abundant, and has to be hauled any distance to the field to be enclosed, that a pise wall would be the cheapest, and that it will be found so, particu- larly after the hands have acquired some expert- ness in this kind of work. !V. HERBEMONT. ON THE CULTIVATION OF INDIAN CORN. For the Farmers' Register. Indian corn is the most valuable crop made in every part of the United States, both on account of the superior qualities of that grain, and of the grea- ter quantities in which it is made. It is remarka- ble that this plant should grow to such perfection over so many degrees of latitude, and through such various climates. But though every farmer, or tiller of the soil, in our country, is a cultivator of corn, and though it forms the principal crop of most of them, still the proper mode of cultivation is as little known, and the opinions thereon as much disputed, as almost any agricultural question that can be named. Operations the most opposite find advocates and practitioners, and success in the re- sult has been boasted as the proof of the value ofevery method practised. Deep or shallow ploughing — a ridged or level surface — and various other peculiar practices, have each been considered by some as in- dispensable, and by others as injurious, to the great- est product of corn. Our ignorance does not arise fiom the want of instructions in sufficient num- ber : our agricultural publications offer to our choice scores of opinions and methods, and in the practices of farmers, we may find a still greater va- riety. I shall not attempt to point out the best mode of cultivation — but rather to seek it, by in- quiring into the causes of this diversity of opinion and practice, and endeavoring to show, and to re- move some of the impediments to the forming of a sound theory, and thence deducing correct practice on this subject. When a man is thrown into a situation altoge- ther different from what he has been acquainted with before — whether liom a change of country and climate — of products — or, of his own habits — he, from necessity, yields to his new circumstances, and endeavors to accommodate his habits to them. He loses all the benefit of experience — but he takes reftso;i instead, as his guide; and it often happens, that this guide leads to truth and correct practice, more surely than all others. When our English Ibrefathers first began to cultivate the forests of Vir- ginia, they found every thing so entirely different, that they were obliged to abandon all their former practices, and learn anew, from the exercise of judgment and the instruction afforded by necessity. They adopted a mode of cultivation well suited to their new circumstances, in which they showed far more judgment than have their descendants in ad- hering to the same, after all those circumstances had changed, or disappeared. Under the like ne- cessity, the new settlers of the western states now act, who never think of contiiming the practices on the long worn and poor fields which they left in the land of their birlh. Eut, in general, farmers do not thus exercise their reason, except under the compulsion of ne- cessity ; and when circumstances change gradu- ally and slowly, they do not change their practice in conformity, but cling to their old (and once ju- dicious) practice, until it has become maniliestly unprofitable, and absurd, to every one who is not thusblinded by the light of experience. AV hen our forefathers had to plant corn entirely on newly cleared forest land, incumbered with stumps, and filled with roots, they wisely made the tillage very superficial, made but little use of the plough con)pared to the hoe, and heaped the scanty loose soil in hills around the stalks, in preference to a more laborious breaking of the whole surface. The soil being kept open, and in some degree of tilth, by the rotting roots of trees, did not much require more periect tillage — and for the labor expended, (the land costing nothing,) this was the most eco- nomical and most profitable culture. But these habits gradually became fixed : and before the pub- lication of Ara{or, the general mode of cultivating corn through lower Virginia, did not vary very much from the okl new-ground practices. Indeed much of it is still remaining every where: and, even after a farmer has adopted a different theory, he will not be able in many years to get his over- seers and negroes out of all the old movements. — FARMERS* REGISTER— INDIAN CORN; 841 On a light, clean, and well pulverized soil, we of- ten see a mark made to plant the grains of corn, by a plough suited to make the only lurrow through a new cleared soil : and to cover the grains, dropped in the trench so opened, three or four strokes of a heavy hand hoe will be applied. If such unneces- sary motions are forbidden, the negro will still lose more time in letting them alone, than it would require to perform them. But with most persons there is no disposition to escape Irom the slavery to old habits. To cause any process to pass un- questioned, it is enough that it has been always performed. The subjection to old opinions and to experience (as it is called,) is by no means the only bar to im- proved cultivation. Many have completely sliaken off the yoke, and not a few of them have published their new opinions for the guidance of their lel- lows. Some of these plans have been found to be altogether visionary and unprotitable, and have served to increase the existing prejudice against all changes. Others were founded on correct view s, and were judicious and profitable for particular ca- ses ; but like quack medicines, each new mode of cultivation has been pronounced, by its advocates, as proper under all circumstances ; and it is there- fore not strange, that more of loss than profit should attend its general adoption. There can be no rea- son to doubt the value of Taylor's ridge and fur- row mode of cultivating corn, on deep, sandy soils, having a level surface, and where wheat was com- paratively an unimportant crop — but no more ru- inous plan could have been adopted on the thin and poor soils with hilly surface, or on broken wheat lands. It has been said, that the whole theory of tillage, or the objects of agriculture in general, may be expressed in these few directions — keep the soil dry, (or free from superfluous water,) rich, in tilth, (or loose and open,) and clear of weeds. Apply- ing the same to corn, it may be said, that whether the soil be rich or poor, sound theory merely re- *quires that the soil should be dry enough, clean enough, and sufficiently broken and pulverized. — The dilliculty is in fixing the degrees of sufficien- cy, and in varying the means for producing them according to every change of soil and other circum- stances. Nothing is more ridiculous than the quackery of giving precise directions for the til- lage process of corn, even to prescribing the num- ber of furrows, and the particular implements to cut them, without regard to the difference of soil. Yet we have often known the most implicit obedi- ence given (or attempted to be given) to such rules, and in situations entirely unlike. Even if the best possible mode for cultivating corn, in any one situation, could be discovered, it would require to be varied with every considerable change of soil: and even on the same soil, an alteration of its fer- tility, and its growth of weeds, might make a par- ticular mode of cultivation good at one time, and very improper ten years after. It is not only that different cultivation is required by sandy, clayey, and stony soils — level and hilly — in a dry or moist climate — infected with indestructible weeds, or free from them — but the succeeding crop, and the general rotation must also be considered. For ex- ample— after corn arrives at a certain state of for- wardness, it becomes doubtful whether additional ploughing will do more harm, by breaking the roots, or good, by killing weeds and pulverizing the soil. Under this doubt, we who follow corn by wheat, must risk the damage of ploughing, to secure the benefit of having a cleaner seed bed for wheat; and it would be proper to let alone that ploughing, wherever corn was not the preparing crop for winter grain. Again — tlie blade and top fodder of corn arc important and indispensable pro- ducts in Lower and JNliddle Virginia, but are not much valued in our best grass countries. In the former case, it is proper to gather the fodder as soon as the grain will bear the operation — and in the latter circumstances, no risk to the grain should be encountered for such an object. For want of know- ing when this operation may be safely performed, or for neglect in enforcing what he thought a safe rule, every farmer among us is a yearly loser in grain : and sometimes to an extent not much short of the whole nett profit of the fodder harvest. — However, no one has thought of estimating losses of this kind, nor the profits of the fodder crop, be- cause we have been always used to the practice and its losses. We spend from three to four weeks without grudging, in securing our fodder, even when we cannot spare a fourth of the time to cut- ting hay on our meadows, and leave fields of fine clover to rot, (not intentionally to manure the soil, but) for want of time to mow even a small part of them. We submit, without complaining, and without thinking of seeking relief, to the heaviest burthens that we have been used to, and will not bear the lightest, not already experienced. I hope, that every reader of the Farmers' Re- gister, who can give useful information on this sub- ject, (and there are very many who can,) will do so — and in stating or recommending his plan, that each one will also state on wiiat kind of soil, and under what circumstances it has been found advan- tageous. It does not follow that a mode of culti- vation is admissible only in one situation : but if we are told the precise circumstances under which it succeeded best, we may judge, with something like coiTectness, what other circumstances will suit as well. Few novices consider that they need this information more than I do, after twenty years of experience as a corn raiser, and nearly as many changes in some part of my mode of cultivation. At one time, and for a continuance of five or six years, I thought that I had fixed on the best kind of tillage — and I still think so, for the circum- stances then existing — but later circumstances have compelled me to change my cultivation, and have left me to preach what I no longer practice. This confession is not calculated to attract confi- dence. Nevertheless I will proceed to describe my plan. The greater part of my farm was poor, sandy, and hilly — had been much injured in former times by the v.ashing of heavy rains, and still more by the adoption of Taylor's mode of cultivation, al- though care had been used to direct the ridges and furrows in the best manner to lessen the dan- ger from heavy rains. The injury sustained from tills cause was enormous^and with every subse- quent care, has not been, aiid perhaps will never be, entirely remedied. To avoid the washing away of the soil, now became my main object, and that object led to the plan of perfectly flat tillage. The old practice on my farm, (and which still prevails through a great part of Lower Virginia,) was to break up the land so as to leave the surface level — to mark off the distances for plaiiting by 342 FARMERS* REGISTER— INDIAN CORN. rows 4 V or 5 feel apart, running north and south, and crossinp; them with others at such distance, as left 18 to 20 square feet for each stalk of" corn. — Four or five ploughiii<;s witli a trowel plough were given, first in one direction, and tiicn crossing, cut- ting about tliree inches deep, and two, and some- times three hillings with the hand-hoe. This heaping up of the earth around tiie stalk, was done not only to smother the grass, but to support the stalk, and keep it from being levelled by storms, after the ears were formed. According to this plan of cross-ploughing, the furrows were obliged to run down every hill side, ai\d the washing was not much less than upon Taylor's plan. But it impassable gullies were not opened by a single rain, another ploughing speedily followed across, which filled up, and in a measure, concealed the tract worn by tlie water. Thus, though there might be as much loss of soil, it was less percepti- ble; and we were content to be thus reduced gra- dually, from a rich soil, to a barren and naked sub- soil. After abandoning Taylor's system, I introduced by degrees, the cultivation which I shall now de- scribe. My fields were not grazed, which made them foul, and increased the difficulty of ploughing, al- though poor. The weeds and grass, however, were nearly all dead al ove ground in the winter, and there was almost no living turf, or sward. The field was ploughed flat, and four to five in- ches deep, in the winter. In the spring, the rows for planting were marked off very accurately 5^ leet apart one way, and across them at 3r feet. — The seed were planted in the crossings of these flir- rows, and to insure the greater accuracy of posi- tion, very narrow furrows were made. These were marked off, not by a plough and setting poles, as is usual, but by a marker, made like a horse- rake, which made two of the wide rows, or three or four of the narrow ones, al a time. If the land was not soft, and in toleral le filth, these marks would still need opening and straightening with ploughs: but even if that was necessary, there was much time saved in getting rid of the moving of setting-poles. After one straight row was made, for the marker across a field, all the others were made by keeping one of the outer wooden pins, (which were 2 by 4 inches at bottom,) in the out- side mark, and thus tracing as many new lines, as there were other pins in the marker. The rows cannot be kept asstraight as by sighting with poles; but their distance apart is more regular, which is more important. For the principal tillage, an implement was used which very much resembled the cultivator, and which will be called by that name, though there was an important difference. My cultivators had 6 teeth; each having 3\ inches of cutting edge, which was like the edge of a broad chisel, set ve- ry sloping. The teeth cut so near to each other's tracks, as to leave no unbroken soil or grass be- tween— and their w hole spread was 26 or 28 inches. They swept the whole narrow interval between the corn rows, at one stroke, and the wide, at two. When land is in good tilth and clean, this is an ad- mirable implement to keep it so — but altogether unfit for either hard or foul land. The first running of the cultivator was given (the wide way) as soon as required, after the corn came up — and without any of the usual trouble and loss of time, that occurs when we use a plough. By running shallow, it only smoothed the surface (and nothing more was wanting, as there was no grass then growing,) and moved so little earth, that the young plants were less covered by very close cutting, than by the plough, with the farthest. In about 10 days from this beginning, (which time would be commonly taken to get through,) these- cond tillage was begun, by running once in the narrow intervals. This required more care, and if any corn had been planted irregularly, the plants would be cut up. The third tillage (wide way) would be finished about the beginning of June — and as it proceeded, the hoes followed to give the very little weeding that this plan required. Of course,fbr replanting, thinning, &c the same trou- ble was necessary as isusuid. But the cultivators trimmed so close to the stalks, and very often threw the pulverized earth against them, that there was sarcely any space left for grass to grow on. — When there was any, it was trimmed away by the hoes ; but no hoe work was done where there was no grass. I have even left out a strip through the Held in whi>.h no hoe was used, and no hand weed- ing performed, and did not perceive that the corn looked worse. But very little lab(M- would have been saved by this omission, and some weeds cer- tainly thereby escaped destruction, and must have injured the c ropand the land. No hilling was per- mitted in any case: and I have never found that my c(jrn was, on that account, more subject to be blown down, or broken off, by high winds. When corn is laid prostrate by wind, in its growing stale, it will rise again and be erect, except some crook near file root. This prostration never happens un- less the earth is saluraled with rain; and then its softness prevents the hill being an obstacle to the falling of the stalk, though it will be to its rising again, by the earth closing around and hardening, before the sun can raise the corn. The breaking of stalks is most apt to hapi)en when the earth is too dry to yield — and the hill may by its resistance, cause the more to break. However, this I arif sure of — that no injury has been sustained by ceas- insT to hill the corn. The fourth ploughing wa? given in the early part of June, and was the only deep one. Trowel ploughs were used, running thrice in the narrow in- tervals, and cutting the earth thoroughly and close to the corn, 4 or 5 inches deep. Sometimes a coul- ter was used instead, (for experiment,) cutting 7 inches deep, and also going thrice in a row. From this I expected great benef]f,by its enabling the earth to absorb so muc h rain, and preventing after injury from drought ; but no difference was seen, and the coultering, being very heavy labor, was abandoned. Afterwards the cultivators again passed over the w ide way, making the 5th horse- hoeing— and sometimes, w here the corn was very small and back ward, a sixth was given. The hand hoes again followed the last horse work, and chop- ped out any grass or young bushes that were found; and there was but little for them to do, if the ploughing had been well executed. If the tillage was more advanced than has been staled, the 4th might be also with the cultivator, and the 5th with the pU ugh ; but the last wasalways given m June, and Ibllowed by the last shallow work of the culti- vator. It required a good horse to draw these cultivators — and with such a one, they would go over 6 acres FARMERS' REGISTER— NOTES OF A RUSTIC. 343 a day. Considerino; the hciivicr draught, this was not a very great gain over the ordinary work of a trowel plough, wiiich I have heard stated at 4 acres, in 41^ feet rows. But the hitter cuts not much more than half the surface in this case, and leaves (bur times as much work for the hoes, as is left by the close cutting cultivators. It is impossible that any thing like 4 acres of good work can be done by any single hoe;l plough, drawn by one horse. The first running of the cultivator, is on land ploughed perhaj)S three months before, and with a compact surface. Then it cuts only 1 to 1 t inches deep. The next time deeper — and the third will probably be 3 inches, if there has l.een no heavy rain to consolidate the earth. If such a rain falls, the field shou'd he ploucfhed as soon as possible af- ter drying, for fear of getting hard ; which ought not to be permitted, even if an extra tillage is thereby given — (not exceeding, however, the 6 in all.) But, if the soil from neglect is permitted to become hard, or foul with grass, it is in vain to try the cultivators. I did not perceive that mv crops were better than when well tended by trowel hoes, (though no accu- rate experiment was ever made (iir comparison) — but I was sure that they vvete as good, and the la- bor of cultivation far less. There was also less washing on the slopes, as the surflice was kept le- vel enough for the water to flow across the plough- ing, (except that in June,) and not lie confined to a single deep furrow. But still it was fiir from i;e- ing effectual in preserving the soil, as very heavy rains would sometimes sweep off from the most exposed spots, the whole deptli loosened by the cul- tivator. All my old cleared land was tilled in this man- ner for four or five years, but I was at last driven from the use of the cultivator entirely, by the con- currence of the sevei'al reasons, which I w ill state. The whole of my fields had been marled during this time, and their product, on the average, more than doubled, by that and other means of improve- ment. One ill effect produced by making the soil calcareous, was tlie general commencement of a growth of either wire-grass, greensward, or blue- grass, over the fields which before were too poor, and unfriendly to their production, to bear either. It was not that any field, or even any large portion of a field, had a turf of such grasses; but small spots of turf were scattered about, so that the plough would scarcely run 100 yards without meet- ing with more or less. A close turf of greensward wouM have been troublesome — but would have been well worth the trouble attending its manage- ment. But the little patches of it would be moved along, instead of being turned under by the plough, and remained alive through the winter. The l)lue- grass and wire-grass, were still less hurt by ploughing. A second ploughingcould not be given to harass (for it could not destroy) the spots of turf, without giving it to an hundred times as much clean land that did not require the ploughing, and was even hurt by it, by having the dead vegetable cover brought back to the surface. But whether with one or two deep ploughings before planting, the cultivators were quite ineffectual in these spots of turf, and which were increasing in number and extent every year. Other objections, which had always existed to the cultivators, but which, when alone had been submitted to, now hastened my abandoning their use. I have said that great attention was necessa- ry in marking off the rows, and in dropping the grain ; and it need not be mentioned that equal care was required in the tillage Circumstances had withdrawn much of my personal attention from my lalior, and of course all these things were worse executed. Again — the making these cultivators required good saived and seasoned oak timber, (to prevent splitting,) and a particular bending and inclination of the teeth to the earth, for them to cut well and easily. I had to depend on the mechanics of my neighborhood for all this work, which was badly done, at double prices. Our neighborhood blacksmith was always a hired slave, and during all that time no*^ one of them continued two years together. I had, therefore, every spring to take all the trouble necessary, to show the smith how to make or repair my cultivators, and to pay dou- ble jirite, because his ignorance made him take doul le time. Tiiough the field work was admirable when well clone, and though a good manager could have removed every difficulty, except the turf grasses, yet I gave up these implements, and have since used the old trowel ploughs, which can get through thg wire-grass, well or ill. This gives 4 or 5 cieep ploughings, instead of the former course as described, and a deal more of hand hoeing. Cross ploughing, has been abandoned, to lessen the washing of the soil by heavy rains; and the direction of the corn rows is suited to the hilly sur- face, and altered when necessary, so as not to vary very much from a level ; though I neither practice nor approve of Aor/zo7i/rt/ ploughing, which I have t()und to be very unsuitable to the hilly land below the falls of the rivers. iVIy late cultivation, however, has been any ihing but systematic, and I am very fiir from being satisfied with it. But notwithstanding the change of practice, I keep the same theory of tillage in view, and consider sufficient tilth, and sufficient cleanness from weeds, all that is required for the crop. I still avoid hilling, except where it is the cheapest mode to smother the grass, instead of weeiiiiig it off. Candor required that I should state my having abandoned a mode of tillage which I recommended to others — and therefore it was necessary to state also, the reasons for that abandonment, which oth- erwise are certainly not worth consideration. It remains only for me to name the extent to which I believe the flat tillage will be found useful and economical. On all dry sandy soils, not infested with perennial fibrous rooted grasses, it may be relied on entirely : if the surface is undulating, or hilly, so much the greater will be the advantage of adopting this plan. As an auxiliary, it will be ad- vantageous on hilly clay soils, (which however, will need more of deep ploughing,) and on level and even bottom lands. As the latter soils would need water-furrows, of course the tillage could be only in one direction. E. R. For the Farmers' Register. NOTES OF A RUSTIC. No. 2. In a former No. of the Register, I called the at- tention of its readers to the subject of ornamental trees ; and noticed a few of the most remarkable belonging to this class. 344 FARMERS' REGISTER— NOTES OF A RUSTIC. In pursuing; tliis theme, in the present No. I shall confine my remarks to a sin<2,le tree, which I shall consider, as regai-fls both its useful and orna- mental qualities. The locust; (robina pseudacasia) is not con- fined to one district — but is found more abundantly among- our mountains, and throughout the lime- stone regions westward, till its growth is checked by the bleak climate of the Rocky Mountains. Its appearance is an indication of a fertile, light, sandy soil, which it prefers; tliough it will grow on stitT, and even poor land, exhiliiting however, a more deformed and dwarfish appearance and slower growth. The height of the common or yellow locust in the regions, cast of the IJiuc Ridge, may be esti- mated at about 50 feet, when full grown ; but it is often found in the rich plains and vallies of the west, rising to the height of 80 to 100 feet. I have seen in one^instance, two locust trees, separated but a few yards, that seemed to have attained the height of the tallest poplars, with trunks as straight as those of the white pine, and about two ieet in di- ameter. This tree, like most others, when tj-ansplanted from the dense forest, to open ground, has a ten- dency to spread its branches, and gains as much in expanse, as it loses in altitude. Ilence, in its cul- tivation, the closer the trees are set, the taller they will grow, provided the soil be not overcharged; and they will exhibit less obliquity, both as regards the trunk and the branches. This tree, when solitary, is generally crooked and irregular in its growth ; but its detbrmity is fully counterbalanced by its beautiful while, and highly fragrant flowers, which hanging in pendu- lous racemes, among its light green petiolate leaves, render it justly admired, as an ornamental tree. For this purpose, it has been more cultivated in Europe antl in our Atlantic States, than for its use as timber, although in the latter point of view, it stands pre-eminent among our forest trees. It possesses in a high degree, those most important qualities of timber, strength and durability. Artificers in wood, necessarily become acquaint- ed with the general qualities of the timber, which they are accustomed to use — but there prevails, I apprehend, on several points relating to this sub- ject, much ignorance, or at least, many doubts and conflicting opinions, which can be removed only by the patient application of actual experiments. For instance, the quality of timlier is said to de- pend on the time in which it is ielled, — both as re- gards the age of the tree, and the season of the year — and yet, how great a variety of opinions prevails upon this subject. Some prefer the spring for cutting, when the sap is ascending, oth- ers the autumn, when it is descending — others with more reason, the summer or winter. Again, the moon which has such an influence over the minds of some men, is supposed to have an effect on the durability of timber. This opinion is as old as the days of Pliny the naturalist, who considered wood cut at the change, as less corrup- tible, than that felled at other times. But the age of tlie tree is, perhaps, more to be regarded, than the season of the year, in cutting trees for timber. If too young, or too old, will it not be more sub- ject to decay, than if cut in its prime.' But when is a tree in its prime.' Some species, as the oak, continue to grow for several hundred years. An officer, now no more, who was in the battle at Point Pleasant, near the junction of the Great Kanawha and Ohio rivers, informed me, that he saw 80 men belonging to the army of Col. Lewis, enter the hollow of a sycamore tree. It is proba- ble, this tree liad continued to grow for many cen- turies. But at what age should trees be felled to render their wood more durable.' The oak, which is so much used in England, in shit)-building and for other purposes, is generally considered in its prime at about 80 years — perhaps, at an earlier age, it may !)e equally durable. Now, if every farmer, who owns wood land, would note the results of his own experience on the above points, it would in time accumulate a mass of facts, and would throw a light around the operations of the shipwright, the carj)enter, the caiiinet-maker, and every artificer of wood, and would enable the providers of timber, to pro- cure that of the greatest strength and durability. AVith the exception of the cedar, which possesses an unctuous, bitter and highly aromatic quality, which prevents the destructive effects of moisture, and preserves it from the attacks of insects ; the lo- cust is decidedly the most durable wood that our forests produce. In point of strength, it far sur- passes the former tree. It is said, that a piece of seasoned locust, an inch in diameter, has strength sufficient to suspend 20,000 lbs. weight — which is nearly a third the weight, that a bar of iron of the same dimensions will sustain. Hence, this wood is much used where strength and durability are required — as for ship tunnels, mill-cogs, tree-nails, posts, &c. and being suscep- tible of a fine polish, is applicable to many purpo- ses, in the hands of the turner and other artificers of wood. To the farmer and planter, the yellow locust is inestimable, and it is to be regretted, that its cul- tivation is so generally neglected, when its use is so universally admitted. IIow much labor would be saved by constructing fences of locust, instead of pine, oak or other still less durable wood.' There is no question, but a good locust fence, would last a hundred years — while every farmer knows, that his ordinary fenc- ing has to be repaired, if not renewed, perhaps, every tenth year. It is stated by some historian, that cedar was found in the temple of Apollo, in Attica, 2,000 years old. It is probable, that the yellow locust, if cut at a proper age, and prepared as the English oak is, for ship-building by two or three years sea- soning, that it would hist nearly as long. At all events, posterity would have to fix the date of its decay. Although, as I have remarked above, there is a diversity of opinions as to the best season for felling trees — it appears to me, that the middle of sum- mer and middle of winter, when the sap is either in the leaves or in the roots, should be preferred, for sap is the great cause of the decay of wood. But my remarks, when I commenced, were in- tended to be strictly dendrographic — so I shall leave the hints which I have dropped upon the sub- ject of timber, and return to the more poetical, "if not more useful subject of ornamental trees, FARMERS' REGISTER— HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE— BUCKWHEAT. 345 Of this class, deciduous trees are preferable to evergreens — because tliey preserve our dwellings from the solar heat in summer, but admit it in winter, when it adds to our comfort. The variety caused by the change of the seasons in the foliage of trees, from the first budding, to the fall of the brown and golden leaves of autumn, also, serves to relieve the mind from the dull uniformity of the cone-bearing and resinous evergreens. The rich display of colors which our forests pre- sent in the autumnal months, are not less pleasing to the eye, than the varied greens of our summer groves. Orange and scarlet, and brown, and crimson, and yellow, mingle in every variety of shade and tint. The culture of the locust is very easy — for it may be propagated, either from suckers or by the seed. Every one knows how prolific its roots are in scions, if severed from the tree : — but it is, perhaps, not so generally known, that the seed, which may be gathered in autumn and sowed in March, in a bed of good sandy loam, will come up in 3 or 4 weeks, with as much certainty as may be expected from any garden or field seeds. When one year old, the young trees may be transplanted to the nursery, and at the age of two or three years, may be set out at proper distances for orna- ment or use. Locust hedges, are much admired, though, as yet, rarely, if at all, found in the .Southern States. This, however, is a different species, (robina his- pida,) which bears beautiful rose-colored flowers. W. For the Farmers' Register. HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE. Anniversary Exercises. The public examination of the students com- menced on the 20th of September and closed on the 24th. During a protracted and critical exami- nation an unusually large proportion of the stu- dents were distinguished for their proficiency in their respective studies. The commencement took place in the College church on Wednesday the 25th. The following is the order of exercises. PRAYER SACRED MUSIC. Oration in Latin, — De Italia, — with the Salu- MUSIC. VIII. Master's Oration,— Hugh P. Kirkpat- RICK. IX. Master's Oration, — Ethelbert A. Cole- man. music. X. Degrees Conferred, XI. English Oration, — Sensibility to public opin- ion,— with the Valedictory Addresses, Ro- bert G. Branch, Prince Edward. sacred music. — prayer. The Degree of Bachelor of Arts was conferred on Robert G. Branch, Alexander S. Dillon, Ed- ward Y. Hamlin, John R. M'Intosh, George W. Pollard, John Shelton, Walter C. Shelton and Thomas Watkins. The Degree of Master of Arts was conferred on Patrick H. Elcan, M. D., Hugh P. Kirkpatrick, Algernon E. Coleman, M. D., and Wm. C. Flournoy, Alumni of this Institution, and on Hen- ry J. Venable, a graduate of Centre College, Ken- tucky. On Thursday the 26th, the anniversaries of the following societies connected with the institution were held in public : The Institute of Education was represented by the Rev. E. Ballantine, who gave a lecture on Classical Education, and by the Rev. Wm. S. Plumer of Petersburg, who delivered an address on the importance of elevating the standard of Female Education. The annual address before the Philanthropic So- ciety, w as delivered by George T. Swann, Esq. and that before the Union Society, by the Rev. J. Kirkpatrick. The Bible Society composed of the students of college, was addressed by the Rev. Wm. S. Plu- mer. The annual meeting of the Trustees took place on Friday the 27th, when Socrates Maupin, A. M. was elected a professor in the institution. peter m'viccar, Secretary of the Faculty. 1. II. HI tory Addresses, — John Shelton, Louisa. English Oration, — The influence of Chivalry on National Character, — Edward Y. Ham- lin, Amelia. English Oration, — The proper objects of the Historian, Novelist and Poet, — George Wm. Pollard, Hanover. IV. English Oration, — The influence of Skepti- cism on Human Character, — John R. M'In- tosh, North Carolina. V. English Oration, — Characteristics of the south, — Thomas Watkins, Charlotte. music. VT. English Oration, — On Prejudice, — Alex. S. Dillon, Prince Edioard. "VII. The Philosophical Oration, — The influence of the inductive system of Philosophy, on the progress of sound knowledge, — Walter C. Shelton, Louisa, Vol. I.— 44 buckwheat. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Although the 4th No. of the Register contains a very good article on Buckwheat, I send you ac- cording to promise, a few facts and remarks, re- specting the cultivation and product of that crop. Understanding some years past, that some farmers in Goochland and Henrico, were succeeding well with this grain, I procured three bushels, which were seeded about tiie 25th July, on about six acres of land, which had been ploughed the winter or spring before for corn, but being detached from the other corn land, and very subject to depreda- tions from birds, &c. was left out. — It received another ploughing, and was harrowed, before it was seeded in Buckwheat. A second harrowing served to cover the grain at a moderate depth. — So far the crop was well managed, grew rapidly and ma- tured in good time — but we waited too long before it was cut, which should always be after the first frost, however slight, or before, if there is not too much in bloom. However, we saved eighty bush- els of good grain, besides about ten damaged in a stack, which was given to the hogs ; and a part lost by cutting, after the dew had evaporated, say at least ten more, so that we made upwards, as I 346 FARMERS' REGISTER— LEAVES FROM A TRAVELLER'S NOTE BOOK. supposed, of 33 for one. But none of my neigh- bors had raised this crop, and I had forgotten a part of tliu directions I had received from the gen- tleman who sold me the seed: your King AVil- liam correspondent's directions for harvesting, &c. if I had then had them by me, would have saved most of the twenty bushels which were lost. My success induced several of my neighbors to try the crop, some of whom succeeded well, so that I am inclined to think that much of the high land near the Chickahomony, is well adapted to it. I raised a good crop last year, and have seldom failed, when the ground was properly prepared, which is very necessary. Give it entire possession of the soil, — for, although it is a quick and luxuriant growth, it should not be incommoded when coming up. I Lave never since made so large a crop for the seed as the above — owing, perhaps, to the superiority of that season. The crop just secured is short, owing to the drought. Mr. Edward Sydnor, near Richmond, sowed five bushels of this grain a few years ago, as he laid by a corn crop, which yielded him 100 bushels, without injuring, as he thinks, the corn crop, which averaged between seven and eight barrels to the acre. Here was a good crop for little trouble or expense. I consider the 15lh to the 25th July, a good time to sow. I have generally sold what I had to spare at -^1 per bushel for seed — what I had ground did not nett me more than that, after deducting the ex- pense of the barrels, sending to mill, and thence to Richmond — but left a good profit. The demand may not justify raising large crops, but after sup- plying the market with flour, a part of the crop may be used advantageously at home. — Besides supplying the family with a favorite article of diet for breakfast, the fowls and hogs may be fed with a part, which they will soon become very fond of, as I know of no grain on which they will fatten faster. I cannot say from experience, that a part of the crop may be used successfully in restoring our lands, but some judicious farmers are of opin- ion that buckwheat sown at a proper time would make a good lay to turn in — and I have heard it is used in that way in the western part of this State with decided benefit. Wishing that your zeal to promote the interests of agriculture, may be crowned with abundant success, I am, respectfully, yours, KU. B. CRENSHAW. Hanover, Oct. 14, 1833. LEAVES FROM A TRAVELLER S KOTE BOOK. For tlie Farmers' Regitter. September the \Wi. — Mr. Robert Dunn, of Oak Hill, on the Appomattox, and opposite to Peters- burg, within the last two years has withdrawn his personal attention from his commercial business, and directed it to the improvement -of the land and the products of his farm. He has been Tery suc- cessful in both, on a soil which does not appear ve- ry favorable for receiving great benefit from putre- scent manures — the means here mostly used. The proper estimate which Mr. Dunn places on manure induces him to buy, as well as to make as much as possible — and his farm being within a mile of the principal stables in Petersburg, enables him to be supplied at no great expense of carriage. It is of- ten remarked, sneeringly, of those who in this man- ner manure lands near town, that " with money enough it is an easy matter to manure well, and make fine crops on poor land," — and with most persons, it is a sufficient objection to any mode of improvement, to say that money, as well as labor, was used freely to produce it. Now it cannot be denied, that much color has been given to the un- dervaluing of tlie improvements and products of ama/ci/r farmers, residing in or near towns, by the injudicious operations of some, and the want of such accuracy of the estimates of all, as might enable them to show when an improvement was cheaply or dearly bought. But, admitting that none are quite clear of errors and losses, in some of their appli- cations of purchased manure, there can be no doubt of the profit of using it judiciously, to any extent whatever, while it is so cheap, and the carriage within two miles. The rich manure accumulated at tavern and other stables, (which is so much the rich- er to the load, from the want of plentiful litter,) in a well rotted state, is bought at \2\ cents for the hea- viest load that a good horse and cart can draw — which I should suppose to be fully 14 bushels. This is the bulk of the loads of the heavier and poorer manure from the streets of New York, which the Long Island farmers pay 21 cents for, in the dock. When the stable manure in Petersburg is bought in the heap, it is often obtained much cheaper. — But at 12| cents for 14 bushels of rich stable ma- nure, every load used judiciously, must be attended with a considerable clear gain ; and the farmer who buys and uses the most, is giving better proof of his economy, than (as is usually supposed) of his amount of cash, or his spend-thrift farming. Mr. Dunn seems to be profiting well by the low price of manure — which price, however, is a sufficient proof of the low state of agriculture in the neigh- boring country. I think it is Marshall who ob- serves that the price of manure is a correct stand- ard to show the rate of advancement in agricultu- ral improvement in any district. In the " Survey of the Southern Counties" of England, by that author, the price of manure used on the valley of Farnham, was a guinea the load — probably large wagon loads. But much the greater part of the manure used at Oak-Hill, is made on the flirm : and for this pur- pose, every thing that will serve for litter or ma- nure, is carefully saved. Leaves raked in the woods are used largely. A large body of straw, which I saw, well secured for winter use, seemed to give evidence of a large crop of wheat having been made ; but I learned from Mr. D. that it was all purchased and brought from a neighbor's farm, at 4 1 371 the wagon load. The crop of wheat was supposed, by its owner, to be equal to 1000 bushels — and the whole of the straw sold in this manner, brought him ^40. Mr. Dunn had made no wheat, having no land last year enough improved and in proper state to receive that crop. There will be no such deficiency this fall. The field of corn, (along the tunipike-rcad,) shows clearly the effi- cacy of the ma-nure which it received, and gives assurance that the crop of wheat which is to follow will be a good one. The honied cattle as well as the horses and mules, are sheltered from cold and bad weather, in excel- lent houses, with close floors of plank for the FARMERS' REGISTER— LEAVES FROM A TRAVELLER'S NOTE BOOK. 347 lioises, and of stone pavement for cattle. A pit of sufficient width, and from 6 to 8 feet deep, is be- neath a back door of tlie stalile, opening ii-om the paved passao;e between the liorse-stalls. Tlieused litter, &c. from tlie horses, is thrown out into this pit every morning, and every two or tliree days, is spread over the area of pit, covered with the clean- ings of the cow-houses, and anv o(l\er putrescent matter tliat may be ready, and tlie whole covered with a thin coat of the red clay, which forms the sub- soil of that part of the firm. The dripping from the stable roof, and rain-water from adjacent slo- ping ground, run into the pit, and keep the manure always soaked, and indeed it is buoyed up by the water, so that the pit appeared quite full of wet muck when I saw it, though it would still receive much more. This mode of preserving summer- made manure, (which is usually so much wasted by excessive fermentation,) I liave before thought of as excellent in tlieory , for the preservation of the materials ; but I feared that the water would pre- vent fermentation, and prevent the manure being fit for use. This evil JNIr. Dunn has not found in his yet short experience. One of the chief objects of JMr. Dunn's care and attention, is raising young cattle of the Durham breed, which he has of pure, as well as of mixed blood. He now has some calves of extraordinary size for their age. It is a remarkable fact, that nu- merous deaths of cattle are caused in this neighbor- hood by the disease commonly called the " distem- per," and in Prince George, not 20 miles distant, it is said that very few cases have been known for many years. Cattle brought from the North or West, are most exposed to this fatal disease, from which there is rarely a recovery. Mr. Dunn's cattle, as well as others, have been sometimes at- tacked, but he thinks that the disease is curable, if attended to immediately and in a pi'oper manner. His habit of seeing and observing the condition of every animal he owns once a day, has enalded him to know generally the beginning of the complaint, and to apply remedies with success. He thinks the disease to be identical with that described in "Every man his own cattle doctor," by Clater, under the name of " Red and black water ;" and it is the treatment there directed, which he has tried successfully for his distempered cattle. Saw a line lot of Mangel Wurtzcl. The sur- face certainly bore a heavy crop; but Mr. Dunn had not noticed the expense in manure, or the pro- duct— nor could he state the value as food, in com- parison with other succulent cro[-,s for winter food. With pumpkins, turnips, ruta baga, and mangel wurtzel, he has a continued succession ofjuicy food for his cows until late in the spring, when there is plenty of grass. Notwithstanding Mr. Dunn's great attention to increase his stock of manure from every proper source, he prefers to lose so much as is caused by his cattle remaining at large in the pasture, night and day, through the warmVeather, except for the short time required for milking, when the cows are brought to their house for tirat pur- pose. He is satisfied that he gains more in tlie health and good condition of the cattle, than he loses in their wasted manure. * * * # October \Ath- — Had a passing glance at the inter- esting mode of improvement practised on the ad- joining farms of Mr. A. B. Spooner, and Mr. J. B. Kendall, on the Appomattox, about a mile be- low Petersburg. These are also town farmers. who lie under the reproach of making great use of purchased manures. Tlieir peculiar practice allud- ed to, is double cropping, something on the Flemish plan — that is, taking a crop of wheat, then imme- diately sowing field peas broad cast, and ploughing in the vines (which is now in progress) just before sowing wheat again. Thus two crops, one for ma- nure and another for market, are made every year on the same land. Mr. Spooner has tried Buck- wheat on part of his field, as the secondary or im- proving crop, and peas on the balance. I hope that one or both of those gentlemen will give the result of these piactices to the public, through the Far- mers' Register. Both of them are well pleased with the results already obtained, but it will re- quire the experience of the next crop of wheat to permit a decided opinion to be formetl. The heavy cover of green pea vines which I saw the ploughs turning in on Mv. Spooner's field, must furnish much manure to the soil. But I have some fears that its late fermentation next spring, will cause injury to the growing crop of wheat. I observed last spring at Brandon, some wheat growing on a late pea fallow,- which was of a yellow hue, and decidedly inferior to the wheat on adjoining and equal land, which was fallowed earlier, and had been under no vegetable cover, excej)t na- tural grass and weeds. The use of secondary crops to be ploughed in as manure, if justified by consi- derations of economy, offers an unbounded source of improvement. Mr. Spooner and Mr. Kendall have certainly been judicious in their practice in one respect; that is, first to make the land rich. — To attempt to sustain or improve poor land by merely ploughing in green crops, is manifest folly : as the expense of seed and tillage is nearly the same whether the soil is poor or rich — and the green manure obtained on poor land, must be always a very light and poor dressing. But it may be, and probably is, a profitable practice, when the green crop is as heavy as can be turned in by good ploughing, and the land kept clear of weeds by fre- ([uent alterations of smothering crops, and good deep ploughings. On both these farms, and also on that of Mr. N. Friend, adjoining, marl was in the course of appli- cation, which had been lately brought from the banks of James river, at a cost of transportation va- rying from five to six cents the bushel. These tri- als, together with others, made by enterprizing far- mers elsewhere, will serve to show \\hether so much expense can be afforded to obtain this valu- able manure. Though applauding these efforts, and auguring well of the results, I would not ad- vise an extensive apj)lication by any one person, until he has seen the result of his first experiment, Valuable as this manure is, its distant transporta- tion has been very costly, and the more so on ac- count of the novelty of the business, and the inex- perience of those who have undertaken the digging and conveyance. Let it be established by expe- rience, that farmers can afford to pay even three cents the bushel for rich marl, in large quantities, and there is no doubt but it will be delivered at that price any where on tide water. In the mean time frequent discoveries of new beds are makipg, and it will be found that many who would now buy marl, burdened by the expense of transportation for 20 miles, will find it in their immediate neigh- borhood, if not on their own farms. * * » A GLEANER, sm FARMERS' REGISTER— TURKIES— QUERIES. TREAT5IENT OF YOUNG TURKEYS. Petersburg, Oct. 4th, 1833. To tho Editor of the Farmers' Register. It affords me pleasure to be able to supply the information required by your correspondent, [in No. 5.] relative to the management of younp; tur- keys ; and the more so, as I can assure it to be the result of successful experiment. The principal remedy necessary in the first in- stance, appears to be a stimulant, to counteract the extreme feebleness which attends young turkeys, more than other fowls, in the earliest stages of their existence : hence, a grain of pepper, &c. is usually administered as soon as hatched. But in- stinct, their nnfiillible guide, it appears, has more successfully directed them to the wild onion, which is proved to be a powerful restorative to their na- tures, and in fact, a grand panacea to the race. When they are permitted to ramble, you will see them busily cropping the green blades of the onion, ■with much apparent enjoyment. However, as the rainy season sets in about the time of their hatch- ing, and their rambling habits forbid exposure to the open fields, it becomes necessary to gather and prepare it with their daily food. Small homony made wet, with the addition of a portion of the wild onion chopped fine, or any other onion tops that can be procured, affords the best and most wholesome food they can have for seve- ral weeks at least, or so long as they are confined to small enclosures. Last spring, I witnessed with astonishment, the wonderful efficacy of this article of food, on a large flock of turkeys, which had been daily and rapidly diminishing during the long rainy season in May. The mortality ceased the first day after their change of food to the above mixture of homony and onions ; and in two or three days, iheir rapid growth and improvement was visible to eVery eye. Turkeys are very fond of green food of any kind, particularly lettuce and cabbage, and by the time they have grown off pretty well on the onions, there is plenty of that sort of provision. Cabbage leaves, chopped and prepared in tlie following man- ner, may then be given them twice a day with good effect, morning and evening. After the leaves are chopped, put them in tubs of water to remain all night, and early in the morning, spread the meal on boards before Ihem : in the same way, prepare that for the evening, by times in the morning. Continue also to feed them on homony, so long as they may require your care, and I can venture to say, that the good housewife, without uncommon accidents, will have reason to complain of the want of a good dish, whilst tur- key is in season. With my best wishes for the prosperity of your valuable exertions, in behalf of the general welfare I remain, yours respectfully, HASSINA. method of cultivation, in the cotton grow ing parts of Virginia? 2nd. Will the stems and branches ploughed un- der in time to rot before the succeeding crop is planted, suffice to keep the land up without ma- nure: if not, what kind of manure is best? 3rd. Has any person who may read this, ever made trial of the everlasting pea for hay ; — if he has, what was his success, and how did he plant or sow the peas ? N. B. — This question is asked by one who once witnessed what he thought a striking proof of this pea's excellence for such a purpose ; but he was a boy at the time, and did not pay sufficient atten- tion to all the particulars of the case, to be of any service to him at present. He knows, however, enough to assure him, that the plant is perennial; that its grow til is early and immense on high land of good quality ; and that it makes excellent hay. 4th. Which is the earliest and most productive of the several varieties of early cimblings, — the globular white or yellow, — the semi-spherical white or yellow, — or the flatfish white or yellow; and what is the best soil and distance for them? 5th. Is it best to cultivate salsify and mangel wurtzel in ridges or on a flat surface, and what is the best distance for each? Any person having the necessary experience, who will answer the foregoing inquiries, will oblige many more probably, than the present QUERIST. QUERIES. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. The following queries are respectfully submitted in the hope that you or some of your experienced correspondents will answer them. 1st. What is the best mode and time of plant- ing cotton; — the best distance to give it each way; — the best kind of soil, and most approved TO SAVE THE SHOULDERS OF HORSES FROM BEING CHAFED BY THE COLLAR. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Waynesborough, Va. Oct. 4th, 1833. Some of the gentlemen of South Carohna are in the habit of making long journeys by land in their own conveyances, and are obliged to resort to eve- ry method of affording relief to their horses. — From one of these I derived the follow ing simple expedient for preventing the shoulders of harness horses from being chafed by the collar. The shrewd, practical sense of the gentleman referred to, is a strong guarantee of the value of his suggestions. A short trial of my own has fully convinced me of the utility of what is classically denominated the sweater. This simple and effectual contrivance is made of two pieces of leather, which, for an ordi- nary horse may be about 5^ inches wide at top, 6 at bottom, and 9 at the greatest protuberance, the front edge benig straight, the posterior curved with a gradual swell adapted to the shape of the collar behind. These pieces must be sewed together at bottom, and connected at top by two small straps and buckles, so as to be let out or taken up at will. The lower part must be so shaped as to fit the throat of the horse. A strap passes from the bottom of the sweater between the legs to the girth, by means of which it is kept in place. The strap should not be too tight, lest it might incline a balking horse to stop, w hen ascending a hill ; and the buckle at the end near the girth, if it chafe, may be covered. The leather should be to- lerably stout upper, rendered pliant by the occa- sional application of tallow to the outside. The inner side should be kept clean and smooth. The sweater is in flict a sheath for the shoulders, and the collar rests on it instead of the skin of the animal. •". FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. 249 KXTRACTS FROM PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. King George, Aug. 20th, 1833. My farm abounds in shell marl, but not one bushel has yet benefitted the land. I have within a few days, for the first time, commenced hauliiifj it on my next year's corn field, to be applieil with the manure from the next winter's farm yard. I pursue the three shift system, with a standinoj pasture, and make all the manure I can. Sliould my marl prove effectual, it will more than double my resources in this respect, and consequently my speed in tlie march of improvement. The Northern Neck, at this place, does not exceed seven miles in width : shell marl is found on both rivers, and I have lately discovered a bed of it at the head of one of the branches leadino; into the Po- tomac, and within a few hundred yards of the di- viding ridge. I think Vv^e are awakened in this section of the state to the subject of agricultural improvement; and I know nothing that will operate more as a stimulant, than such a production as the Farmers' Register. [The foregoing extract marks the time of the tardy commencement of the use of calcareous ma- nures in a part of Virginia most bountifully sup- plied by nature with the means : We trust that the experience of a few years will produce a great- ly increased estimate of the value of this manure, as well as of the value of the lands to which it can be conveniently applied.] , Alabama, August 24. * * * But my letter is extending much too far. I will promote the circulation of the Far- mers' Register all I can ; but I have not much hope of seeing improvement in the agriculture of this state. Our planters are guilty of the same profligate system of destroying lands that has cha- racterized their progenitors of Georgia, the Caro- linas, and Virginia, immemorially. They wage unmitigated war both against the forest and the soil — carrying destruction before them, and leav- ing poverty behind : and they adhere to old modes of culture with as much pertinacity, and about as much sense,ascharacterized the New York Dutch- man whom the Yankee met going to mill with his wheat in one end of his bag, and a stone in the other, " to balance well ;" and who, when the Yankee told him to leave the stone out and divide his M'heat, replied, " mine fadder did so before me, and he knows better as I." They cultivate cotton and corn, Irish potatoes and long " collards," ^usi as they did as long ago as my recollection extends. They burn all their cotton and corn stalks ; they let all their stable manure accumuli\te 'till it be- comes a mire in their stables, and huts, and gives the horses the scratches — and then they move these huts, or take some measures to throw it in a gully, so that it may wash off by the first rains, and prevent fleas from being troublesome. There are some more provident and economical, wiio build their stables and huts on hill sides — so that every rain may sweep their yards, and save the trouble above described. I mention one more cha- racteristic fact : they are seen to save seed from the longest stalk'd Colewort, which I presume is for the purpose of having the leaves as much ele- vated as possible, to avoid the worms. Baltimore, Sept. 1, 1833. * * * * The most severe drought, ever known here, has existed for four or five weeks, to the utter destruction of the late potatoe and tur- nip crops, and to the extreme injury of the corn, and possibly to the essential injury of the next year's wheat crops, as it is yet impossible to pre- pare the ground for sowing. The earth is perfect- ly dry in my garden, 12 inches deep, and the leaves of cherry and other trees are falling rapidly for want of moisture. Norfolk, Sept. 21sf, 1833. Although I have no practical concern with agri- culture, and you have some reason to know, that iheoreiically, \ am entirely deficient, yet I have read, with great pleasure, the Farmers' Register, and take a deep interest in its success. Such a work i)as long been a great desideratum in Virgi- nia; and I think it fortunate that it has been intro- duced under your auspices. Scientific research di- recting and regulating practical experiment — and practical experience tempering and restraining theoretical conclusions — will ultimately furnish a mass of information, which cannot fail to be great- ly beneficial to our state. I have no doubt that there already exists in various parts of Virginia much valuable information on subjects embraced by your work, which if generally known, would be extensively useful. If your work answered no other purpose than to furnish the means of concen- trating, and afterwards diffusing the information, it would give you great claims on the respect of your fellow citizens. But it cannot fail to stimu- late the public more to investigation and experi- ments, the benefits of w^hich no one can foresee or appreciate. It affords me great pleasure to perceive, as the Register progresses, that it is appreciated as it should be, and that you are receiving communica- tions from all quarters. * * * GAMA GRASS. Sept. 21, 1833. I have read, in the course of the last 12 months, so many marvellous accounts of the Gama Grass, that I am strongly tempted to try some of it, if 1 could possibly procure any, although I am well aware, that in regard to all such novelties, it is right to ascribe at least three fourths of what you hear to mistake, or to sheer exaggeration. Ap- plying this discount to the asserted product of the Gama Grass, there will still be left a greater crop than any other grass has ever been known to yield, and therefore I have determined so far to subdue my scepticism as to make an experiment, if you can help me to some of the seed, or put me in the way to procure some. * # * Fairfax, Sept. 22d, 1833. # » # The note you appended to my last communication will be best answered by my send- ing you a coulter plough to Richmond. In our burning climate it has no equal for stirring the earth preparatory to fallow , ( summer falloio) or the cultivation of corn, or any cro]( requiring deep fine tilth. §50 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. Upon the subject of enclosures, T have no fears : the people of Virginia, like those they sprang from, are singularly tenacious of " usages sanctified by lime;'' but it should be known that the common law, that rule brouglit over by our fithers from England, that proud "perfection of reason," laid the "mantle of the law as well upon /a?i(/ason cows, horses or clothes. In Maryland they never gave it up ; and an acre of land there, is as completely under the protection of the law, as a race horse, or a negro, in Virginia. And why not.' Isit pro- perty.'' Surely the people believe it. Why then legislate us into one great common, and yet boast that we are a people governed by law ? If this fact goes out to the world, they will hardly believe us willing to be civilized. Although my interest in human atfairs is drawing to a close, I can never lay down my pen until I see every description of property under the protection of the law, without degradingdiscriminations. # * * MEADES' DURIIA3I CATTLE. Nottoway, Sept. 23. As there is now a laudable spirit in Virginia for the improvement of stock, I should like to inquire through your paper what is the genealogy of that race of cattle owned by the late R. K. Meade of Frederick county. It is said that he obtained them of Col. Powell of Philadelphia. Since Mr. Meade's death, there has been a sale of his stock, at which Mr. Warwick of Richmond obtained some — Mr. Tate of Augusta now advertises some of the pro- ceeds of that stock. The Rev. J. Kirkpatrick of Cumberland has some of that race, and I am my- self breeding from one of the direct descendants of Mr. Meade's Durham stock. I therefore feel per- sonally, and suppose the public may also feel some interest in knowing, Avhat portion of genuine Dur- ham blood this stock may contain. You will there- fore be good enough to insert a short inquiry in your next, with the request that some gentleman wlio is in possession of the information will give it. The Rev. Meade, brother to the late and la- mented R. K. Meade, can probably, and if so, will, I hope, give the information sought. As I"am also in possession of some of Mr. Meade's Frede- rick sheep, and Bedford hogs, I shall be thankful if gome of your readers would tell us something about the history of those respecti\ e races of animals. DISTANT TRANSPORTATION OF MARL AND LIME. Richmond, Oct. 15th, 1833. * * * It would be a gratification to me indi- vidually, as well as a public benefit, if you would give your views of the utility or practicability of using marl or lime in such parts of our middle country as will admit of its transportation from be- low. No person can be more thoroughly persuaded than I am of the benefits to be derived from them. I have no doubt that the improvements they will effect in the husbandry of the lower country will be great and permanent. The active part you have taken in pointing out their advantages and the mode of applying them, I am persuaded, have mainly contributed to their use, which seems in a fair way of becoming general. I trust you will continue your efforts in your Register, the plan and conduct of which I highly approve. It is hardly necessary to add any particular que- ries— they will naturally suggest themselves to you. I have hardly a hope that any body of lime- stone or of marl sufficiently rich for beneficial use, ie likely to be found soon in our middle country; and apprehend we must look for such supplies on- ly as can be afforded to more favored districts from the lower country, or from the narrow vein of limestone that runs through the state below the mountains. # # # * [The inquiries which have been at different times addressed to us respecting the cost of marl ob- tained by water carriage, together with the recent (spirited but badly conducted) adventures of this kind made by several farmers on James and Appo- mattox rivers, have already induced us to collect materials for an estimate of expense, which will be presented in the Farmers' Register, as soon as some additional and necessary facts are ascertain- ed. As this estimate will be applied more particu- larly to marl, we will be glad to be aided by others whose experience can enable them to state the whole expense of purchasing, landing, burning, and spreading shells, as practised on the lands of lower James river — and the cost of applying the stone lime of our upper country.] NEW KIND OF COTTON. Sussex, I5th Oct. 1833. Enclosed you will receive six cotton seed. Last May I })lanled two of the kind in a garden spot, which produced two fine flourishing stalks of cotton. I have gathered a part of the cotton off of them, and find the result to be, that the cotton weighs exactly half the seed, that is, two for one. You need not be surprised at the looks of the seed, all of them are as while and apparently trifling. Prince Edward. * » # I am delighted at the growing popu- larity of the Register. The increase in the quan- tity of original matter, will, I think, add much to its interest with the public. It enables one to stay at home, and yet get acquainted both with the cha- racters and the farms of some of the first men in the state. I was sorry to see a complaiut of its form by a correspondent of Essex. As long as it is so interesting as to lead me to read it through the first night after its reception, I shall neither wish to see it in weekly numbers nor in coarser print. The pamphlet form adds much to the facility of referring to articles in back numbers, and it sure- ly will better guard the permanency of the work, as it makes it so easy to preserve the numbers for binding. If the Essex writer be the venerable gentleman I suspect, I know he will be willing " to wipe" his spectacles " and try again." QUERIES ON RAIL ROADS. What would have been the saving to the Pe- tersburg Cotton Manufactory, if the rail road, now extending to the Roanoke, had reached the Pee Dee .' Would not it have saved 1 cent a lb. or $3 a bale on cotton 1 May not the same besaid of every Company in the Middle and Eastern States.' FARMERS' REGISTER—HESSIAN FLV. 851 SIMPLE METHOD OF DESTKOYING THE HES- SIAN FLY. From the Canadian Courant. As the wheat crop, this season, has, in some places, suffered considerable damage from tlie de- structive effects of this insect, we are happy to be enabled, by a valuable and obliging correspondent, to publish the following directions for destroying it: The Hessian Fly deposits its eggs on the wheat ear before it is reaped ; the egg is so small as to be invisible to the naked eye, but may be very dis- tinctly seen with a microscope; sometimes one grain of wheat will be observed to have several of these eggs on it. They are attached to the wlieat by a glutinous substance deposited around tliem by the parent fly, by which they are held so firmly on the surface, as not to be easily removed by the mo- tion of reaping, thrasliing, &c. Shortly after the seeds begin to germinate in the soil, the genial heat of the season brings the young fly from its egg in the form of a small maggot (as is the case with all insects,) these little maggots deposit them- selves at the root of the stalk, to the seed of which the egg has been attaclied, between the stem and the lowest blade or leaf, where they may be disco- vered during the month of May and beginning of June, quietly reposing ; here they remain until the warmth of the season brings them to maturity, when they commence eating the substance to which they have been attached. It is not until this pe- riod that those destructive effects are visible, by the wheat becoming withered and blighted. This accounts for the fact, that wheat which is attacked by this insect, presents a healthy appearance in the month of June, the month in wliich the embryo fly begins to use food. Now it is evident that if the eggs of this fly can be destroyed on the seed wheat, by any process that will not also destroy the vegetative quality of the grain, the ruinous effects will be avoided. — This can be done by the following very simple pro- cess : " Soak the seed wheat in water for twelve hours ; spread it out on the barn floor, so as to allow the superabundant water to escape ; then take fresh slack lime, and mix it among the wheat in quan- tity sufficient to have every grain covered with the lime, taking care to stir the wheat well with with the shovel, so that no particle may escape coming in full contact with the lime, which, when thus applied, will in a short time destroy the eggs, and consequently preserve the grain from destruc- tion." Our correspondent assures us that tlie egg, which before the application of the lime appears clear and transparent, afterwards becomes opaque, and puts on the appearance of an addled egg. The ef- ficacy of the above remedy has been established by several experiments, one of Avhich we will here relate. Wheat supposed to be infested by the Hes- sian Fly, was taken, and one half of the quantity treated with lime, and the other half was sown in the same soil with the prepared, in alternate drills ; the result was, that every stalk from the prepared seed came to maturity and was productive, whilst the alternate drills which had l)een sown with un- prepared seed, were almost totally destroyed. The above remedy for so serious an evil cannot be too widely circulated. We would recommend its translation into the French papers, and we would thank the Cures of the country parishion- ers, to have it made known at their respective church doors after divine service.' [It is not because we have any crtnfidenc6in the means of guarding against the Hessian Fly recom- mended in the foregoing and the following articles^ that we have selected them for publication — but because we know that many among our readers entertain similar opinions as to the origin of this de- structive insect, and we wish to invite the expres- sion of every opinion sustained by well attested facts on a subject so important. The " wheat in- sect," as it is called in the following letter, seems to be a new destroyer of this crop, and though now only known in the northern states, may, like the Hessian Fly, overspread the south.] WHEAT INSECT AND HESSIAN FLY. From the Northern Farmer. Claremont, Sept. 7, 1833. Messrs. Editors, — Having suffered considerably for two years past, from the ravages of this insect, half of my crops, at least, having been destroyed by them, I formed a resolution, that if it should be possible, I would gain some more information concerning them, than I had yet possessed. Ac- cordingly, this season, I prepared a piece of ground near my dwelling house, and sowed it with wheat, that I might more conveniently make, at all times and seasons, the minute observations necessary to my design. 1 examined and watched, by daylight, for the fly, which deposited the eggs of the wheat insect on the ears ; but in vain. I could discover the eggs, but nothing of the insect which deposited them. I concluded it must be a work of darkness j I therefore commenced a course of observations by candle light. I now soon discovered the parent fly, the cause of all this mischief to the wheat crop; and had an opportunity to observe its habits, and study its instincts. Soon after dark, the flies commenced, in great numbers, crawling slowly up the stalk, from the ground, and ascended to the top of the ear, where they commenced depositing their eggs ; where a single fly, in many instances, deposited sixty eggs at a time. At the approach of morning, the flies were again in motion, and descended slowly to the ground, and disappeared. These flies are about the bigness of the common house fly , but somewhat longer, and more slender, and of a green color. The ears of wheat, at this time, were only partial- ly out of the sheath. Another important fact, which may throw some further light on the habits of these insects, is, that their ravages are most destructive on the borders of the field. Though, in relation to small fields of wheat, this may not be true, yet, from my own ob- servation, as well as from information derived from others, I am satisfied it is the fact in relation to larger fields, so far, at least, as respects the present season. This being the fact, it goes far to shoWj that the embryo from which the fly is produced, in the spring season, is preserved in the earth through the winter, and, not like the eggs of the Hessian Fly, attached to the grains of wheat; that the worms remain in the soil of the wheat fields of the last year through the winter , and as soon as hatch- 352 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANGEL WURTZEL. ed, Ihe flies proceed to search for the fields of wheat, i\5 the phice for depositing their eggs ; and unless the field be small, or the flics exceedingly numerous, they confine their operations, in a mea- sure, to the borders of the field.* I am satisfied that the eggs of this insect are not deposited on the grains of wheat, otherwise, the manner of prepar- ing my seed for sowing must have destroyed them. I have, to prevent the ravages of the Hessian Fly, for the'last thirteen years, prepared my seed wheat, by washing it thoroughly, and while in a wet state, pouring over it boiling hot ley, of wood ashes, suffi- cient to cover it, (no matter how strong the ley is) and drawing it off immediately. The ley will co- lor the wheat, but will not injure the germ, or pre- vent it from growing. By this process, the eggs of the Hessian Fly are destroyed, which are at- tached to the wheat: and by long experience, I am satisfied it affords a complete remedy against the ravages of that insect. I have often sowed wheat prepared in this way in the same field, by the side of the same kind of wheat, Avithout any preparation. The former has uniformly escaped the ravages ofthat insect, while the latter has been materially injured, and in some cases entirely de- stroyed. I therefore consider the Hessian Fly a much less formidable invader of the wheat crop, than I have formerly ; but I have yet found no re- medy against the ravages^of the insect in question. It has been said, that the sowing of new slaked lime over the wheat, when the dew is on, during the time the fly is depositing its eggs, will put a stop to its operations. But how this may be, I cannot say, not having tried it myself N. B. In preparing the wheat for sowing, as mentioned above, my practice is, to prepare but one bushel at a time, lest, by remaining too long in the ley, the germ should be destroyed. As soon as the ley is drawn off, I mix with the wheat as much plaster, lime or ashes, as, when stirred well into it, will prevent the grains of wheat from ad- hering together, and sow it immediately.! DAVID IIURD. MANGEL AVURTZEL. From Gootlsell's Genesee Farmer. This is the German appellation for the Field Beet, more commonly written Mangold Wurtzel or JVlangel Wurtzel, and sometimes, though errone- ous! v, called scarcity beet. It is believed to be a mongrel between the red and white beet, has a much larger root than either, and grows principally above ground. Uses. — This succulent food is admirably adapted to the feeding of cattle, sheep, swine, &c. Neat cattle prefer mangel wurtzel to any other root that can be offered them ; and its effects in producing large secretions of rich milk of fine flavor, are abundantly attested by American writers. Not only is the milk increased, but the quantity and quality of the cream, and consequently the product * An intelligent fcirmer in this town informeil us, that his field of wheat, of six or seven acres in extent, was attacked by this insect on one of its borders only, and that, next to a piece of ground where wheat grew the last year, and which had been ravaged by the same in- sect.— [Ed. J^or. Far. ■f This mode of preparing the seed has also been found to be an efiectual remedy against smut. — [Editor AVr. Farm. of butter. But milch cows, fed on mangel wurt- zel, ought to have occasional changes of other food, as they are apt to become too fati(:)r good milking. In the latter part of the season, many farmers are in the habit of pulling off the leaves, for feeding cows, sheep, &c. We would caution such against this practice, until after the middle of October. It is a generally acknowledged fact, in vegetable phy- siology, that the leaves are the principal agents in tlie elaboration of the farina of vegetables, and whatever diminishes the power of developing the nutritive properties of this or any other plant, di- minishes in the same ratio, its value in domestic economy. Mangel wurtzel answers remarkably well for sheep during the lambing season, which usually happens when grass is not to be obtained; keeping them in a thriving condition, and affording a free flow of milk. Stall sheep fatten well on this alone, though it is better to allow them some hay, say at the rate of twenty-five pounds of mangel wurtzel and five pounds of good hay per day to each sheep. In five or six weeks they will be ready for market ; the probable gain will be from four to five pounds per week, in good sheep. Swine fattened on this root, yield firm pork, of fine flavor — it is fed raw, and much superior to corn or potatoes, in point of economy. Soil. — A clayey loam is the best, but any soil will suit, provided it is well pulverized and rich. Large crops have been raised on strong clay, but as this is apt to bake, it prevents the expansion of the roots — and should not, therefore, be chosen, when a soil which is not liable to this inconveni- ence can be obtained. As a general rule, good corn ground will grow mangel wurtzel. 3Iode of Culture. — ■ Whatever be the soil, give it a good broad-cast manuring in the fall, if prac- ticable, and plough it in. In the spring, harrow it well, and throw it up in ridges three feet apart. — By this manuring, more nutritive matter is afford- ed to the lateral fibres, which this root sends out in pursuit of food. On these ridges, draw a light furrow or drill, about two inches deej), and sow the seed from one to two inches apart in the drill. — Sow plenty of seed — the young plants are easily thinned out in hoeing; but if deficient, are not so easily replenished, and the expense of a few more seeds is nothing, compared to the insurance of a good crop. From three to four pounds is consi- dered by Mr. Garbutt as the proper quantity for an acre. The after culture is easy, and consists principally in weeding, which may be performed with the hoe and plough, when necessary. The plants, when well started, must be thinned out to ten or twelve inches — this part of the business is most expeditiously performed with the hoe, when weeding, and wherever the crop fails in part, from any cause, the intervals may be advantageously filled up with Ruta Baga, which is in season for sowing, as late as the 25lh of July. Some prefer making trenches three feet distant, in the spring, by passing the plough up and down in the same furrow, filling the manure in this trench, and covering it by passing the plough up and down the outsides, thus making a ridge with the manure under it, and sowing on tlie ridges, as above. Experience proves this method objection- able. If the season is dry, this trench of compact manure renders the ground above it, still drier ; — 1 and, as the manure lies in a body, though the tap FARiMERS' REGISTER— MANGEL WtJRTZEL. 553 root may reach it, yet the lateral fibres will receive no benefit from it whatever. But, by being tho- roughly incorporated with the earth, by the tall ploughing and spring harrowing and ridging, the whole crop receives the full benefit of whatever nutrition it may contain. Others, again, contend that the ground ought to be made perfectly level and smooth before the seed is sown, as a safeguard against dry weather ; but so far aS my knowledge extends, crops, treated in this way, have not been so abundant as parallel crops on ridges, and they certainly require more than double the attendance. For, in hoeing, many of the young- plants will be covered, and the operator must stop and carefully brush away the eartli with his fingers. But, plant- ed in ridges, all the earth and weeds loosened by the hoe, fall away from the plants into the furrows. These various methods of culture, with slight va- riations, have their advocates; but I believe the course recommended in the forepart of this para- graph, will be found the most economical and pro- fitable. Time of Sowing. — The proper time for sowing mangel wurtzel, is the last Aveek in April, or first in 3iay. Though it is commonly sown later, ex- perience proves that early sowing insures a better yield; the vegetation is less precarious, and the roots are larger and more fully matured. Yet the time may be varied a little, either way, regard be- ing had to the forwardness or lateness of the sea- son. The seed does not sprout well if sown in a dry time; the husk being hard and firm, requires considerable moisture to cause the seed to start ; — but in long continued and heavy rains, it frequent- ly rots in the ground. The seed requires ao pre- vious preparation. Product. — The quantity produced on an qcre varies from twenty-five to fifty tons. A fair aver- age crop may, with safety, be set down at thirty- five tons, and the expense of culture at from twen- ty-five to thirty dollars, including manure, plough- ing, weeding, gathering, seed, &c. In England, it is said, that upwards of sixty tons have been raised on an acre. Comparative Qualities. — Various comparative experiments have been instituted by American far- mers, which iiave almost universally resulted in favor of mangel wurtzel, both for keei)ing and fat- tening stock, over ruta baga, carrots, and all other succulent food. It is not liable to the attack of in- sects; whereas, turnijjs, cabbages and otlier vege- tables, are frequently entirely cut otf; neither does it suffer much from tlie variety of seasons. It thrives in almost any soil, and will keep sound and firm eight or ten months. The flavor of milk and butter of cows fed on this plant is improved ; but it is impaired when turnips are given. As a tiir- ther proof of its nutritive effects, we would observe that Bonaparte passed a law that the whole farm- ing community of Flanders should set apart a por- tion of their faniis, for the cultivation of mangel wurtzel, to be employed in making sugar. The experiment proved, that good sugar could be pro- duced, at one shilling per pound, when, at the same time. West India sugar was selling at five shillings in France.* * That the compulsion of law should be required to aid the enormous encouragement created by Bonaparte's prohibitions, or continental system^ which raised the Vol. 1—45 For fattening swine, five bushels is believed to equal one of corn. Compared with hay, theTe are various estimates, varying from two to three tons, to one of hay. But whenever mangel wurtzel is given to stock of any kind, they ought to have an allowance of their accustomed food, either with it, or during the intervals of feedings Objections. — ^There are some authorities who speak unfavorably of tlie use of mangel wurtzel, as food for milch cows. Henry Colman, of Salem, says that his cows, when fed from half a busliel to a bushel per day, were much reduced in flesh, though the quantity of milk was increased, and its quality improved. It is asserted in the British Far- mers' Magazine, that the roots ought not to be used before Christmas, and the cattle ought to be habi- tuated to them by degrees — that it purges cattle and reduces them to a very thin state. Mr. Cook's cows were materially injured by the free use of mangel wurtzel, and some of them died. In the same Journal, the Rev. Henry Berry remarks, that he fed mangel wurtzel liberally io his ccfw9> but he soon found them reduced to skeletons — the quantity of milk was increased, but it was both thin and poor. The bad effects charged to this root are principally of foreign origin. In western New- York, we have not heard any bad effects at- tributed to its use ; and we make these quotations to put growers on the alert, that they may canvass the effects of this justly esteemed and invaluable food. If it is liable to these objections, let us look round for the preventive means. The mode of preserving is precisely the same as for potatoes. They must always be put away dry — this is essential to their preservation. The co- vering ought to be sufficient to keep out the frost, but not very warm, as they are finest in the spring w hen kept rather cool. To contain those to be fed in the winter, a double pen or bin might be made in the barn-yard, or any convenient place, of boards or rails and post, the one within the other, and the interval filled with long manure. The roots put into this will keep well, if it is properly construct- ed and thatched with straw, and be of easy access through a convenient opennig. It will be recol- lected that tiie leaves are to be pulled off immedi- ately after the roots are taken out of the ground. — They may be fed to cattle or sheep, and will be found quite an adjunct to the pasture fields. The fbllowing extract of a letter, from Williarrt Garbutt, Esq. President of the Monroe County Agricultural Society, to the Editor, will, we trust, be read with satisfaction. Mr. Garbutt is a prac- tical farmer, and has liad more experience in the cultivation of mangel wurtzel, than any other far- mer in this neighborhood, which renders his obser- vations more interesting. price of West India sugar to five shillings the pound, is but a bad proof of the profit of making beet sugar. A better proof, however, may be adduced, from the fact, that the extension of this branch of industry Is still re- c:)mmended as profitable, in Belgium, though the for- mer scarcity and high price of sugar no longer conti- nues. See " Observations sitr les ctvantages quHl y aurait a multiplier les fabriqiies de sucre de betteraves,^^ published in 1839, in the Journal d\figricidtitre, etc, des Pays-Bas. laD. FAB. BISG, 354 FARMERS' REGISTER— RAIL-ROADS. Wheatland, July, 1833. Your remarks on the field l^eet arc good, l)ut 1 do not know ho\v to account for the sco»irin<^ and loss of flesh mentioned by the Englisli authors, un- less the ground had been very soft, so tliat much earth adhered to them when ])ulled. I co;iceive that cattle led on them alone, when in such a situa- tion, might be subject to such complaints, but I never had any thing of the kind happen to any of my stock. I always commenced feeding my milch cows with mangel wurtzel as soon as the pastures begin to fail in autumn, which sometimes iiappens as soon as the middle of October. I commenced giving from half to three-fourtlip of a bushel to each milch cow, and twice that quantity, to one when fattening, is sufficient. To feed an animal entirely on field beets, would bp like a person's living upon butter ; and therefore, feed- ing at the same time, some coarse fodder, is not only good economy, but absolutely necessary. — The value of mangel wurtzel, to those engaged in raising stock, is very great; chaff and straw, when fed to stock with beets, are preferable to the best hay, when fed alone, and by sucli feed the cost of keeping stock is much reduced. WILLIABI GARBUTT. THE HAIL ROAD FROM RALEIGH TO NEW- BERN AND VIA WAYNESBOROUGH TO WIL- MINGTON. From the North Carolina Journal. Sirs: — As it is now more than thirteen years since there was published in the Cape Fear Re- corder, the diagram of a set of rail roads, so con- structed, if I recollect aright, as to intersect the whole of^ the lower part of the state of North Ca- rolina, and over part of the same ground which I learn, from the Raleigh Star, is nov/ proposed to be covered. — It was with infinile pleasure I learn- ed, that " the delegates from the counties more im- mediately interested in the work, had held a meet- ing, at which it v/as deterinined, that proper mea- sures should be immediately adopted, to connect Raleigh with Newbern and Wilmington, by a rail road. Tlie work is to begin at Raleigh and branch off at some convenient point, (supposed to be Waynesborough,) to Wilmington." I be- lieve a reference to the file of the Recorder will show a partial coincidence between the projector of the diagram and the one now proposed. The only copy obtained by him, was lost. It was con- fided to some privileged prig in office and politely detained by him, without the slightest notice of either project or projector. " The counties more immediately interested," I take to be. Wake, Johnson, Wayne, Edge- combe, Green, Lenoir, Jones, Craven, Carteret, Onslow, New Hanover, Duplin, Sampson, Bla- den and Brunswick ; but as I do not understand divisions in states any more than I believe a house divided against itself can stand, 1 would add, Cum- berland, Robeson, Mecklenburg, Cabarus, Mont- gomery, Anson, Richmond, Moore and Chatham. On a loose calculation, the first named will give us a population of 80,000 v, hitcs and 50,000 Ijlacks ; the latter 73,000 whites and (only) 29,000 blacks ; making a total of 153,000 whites, and 79,000 blacks— together, 23-2,000. The necessity of obtaining the physical and the fiscal aiil of the latter counties, is self evident from their numbers, their nature, and their consuming as well as their productive powers. Besides this, it is evident that, if the road be run up either bank of the Cape Fear to Fayetteville, and thence to Charlotte, it will there meet with a road which is to be laid down from Columbia, S. C. through Winnsborough, Chester, York, and , on the North Carolina line, within — miles of Char- lotte. If it be not done, Columbia will carry off an immense amount of traffic from Mecklenburg, &c. &.C. ; and if it be done, there are many peri- riods of the year, when produce can be conveyed, possibly from Columliia, but certainly from Ches- ter, York, &c. &c. &c. to Wilmington instead of to Charleston. As to Waynesborough, no objec- tion can be made ; a branch of the rail road way still pass it; and, as distance is, comparatively speaking, no object, no inconvenience will be lelt. And the banks of the Cape Fear must offer an ad- mirable site for a rail road. This will be more than equivalent for a little distance. It is difficult to imagine the mii^nus of a mea- sure, similar to that proposed at Raleigh ; impos- sible to account for the exclusion of Fayetteville; and impracticabh to give a reason for the substitu- tion of Waynes! ;orough. It would seem that New- bern was the leading object — Newbern, with about one quarter the tonnage owned by Wilmington, was thought more of than that ancient city. These gentlemen surely forgot, that with the attraction of the two rail roads, and the bridge at Weldon, and without the trade of Fayetteville and its commercial dependencies, their rail road will rather prove a way for the produce to go to Nor- ioV&, than open a passage for it to Newbern and Wilmington — for nothing can prevent the exten- sion of the road from the Roanoke to Raleigh, and that once completed, the produce of the important country of Salisbury will find its way to the me- tropolis and thence to the Roanoke. The sentiments and statements of Mr. Bayan, published some years since, speak volumes on this subject. Nothing can save Wilmington as a port, but the united efforts of tliC whole southern flank of North Carolina. Let what will happen, Fayette- ville must increase in importance. Hence, the application of such an exclusive spirit to her, is, to say the least of it very weak. Let us now speak of the modus operandi. Let us carefully, very carefully recollect the observa- tion of Dr. Howard, on tlie subject of the Charles- ton rail road, at its commencement. This civil engineer, in the employment of the United States, then said, that "to establish a communication be- tween the two places in straight lines, formerly thought (first by Pope Sextus and next by his successor at Castle Hill,) to be of such primary importance is now deemed a consideration the last to I e consulted. He allowed $(800 per mile for graduating the route he surveyed. This for 150 miles, v/as ^120,000. Mr. Blanding's statement was ^93,000; Mr. Mills estimated the graduating at .^200 per mile, or !2;30,000. The general to- tals were, Mr. Howard s637,000; Mr. Blanding ^011,000; Mr. Mills ;« 370,000. At present the public have no means of ascer- taining what would liave been the cost of gradua- tion; possibly an average of the three estimates. The real fact is only to be determined by those wlio possess the drafts of the working sections, if FARMERS' REGISTER— CORN INJURED BY CUTTING TOPS. 355 such were used. However, we know tliat the charge for constructing, etcetera, has lieen ,^809,- 000, or for 135 miles .$;5,175 for a single mile. Thus, the iron is about 8705, the construction and part of the etcetera about ^4,470. There are other etcetera, which the report says will amount to .^200 ,000; probably it will reach ^300 ,000; although when one third of the contract labors had been completed, the engineer tliought 8^300,000 would cover the entire construction, &c. &c. The freight of one bale of cotton is to beouc dollar and fifty cents, from Augusta to Charleston. However, I am forgetting my subject, which was the modus operandi. The early and anxious object of attention should be tlie site of the road; and the dictum of Mr. Howard as to distance, should, I repeat it, be well and carefully recollect- ed. The site once determined, (he object should be to clear it of timber, reserving such as may be of use in the construction of the road, and letting this all be done, as far at least as is possible, by the slave labor of the country. This finished let levels be taken of each mile, or when in level dis- tricts offering little deviation from a flat of as ma- ny miles as will form one contract. Then, the draftsman, having exhibited the elevations and de- pressions on paper, will be able to ascertain what number of cubic feet of dirt is to be removed; and, with this working section in his hand and the ground staked out, the ordinary overseers and drivers of the country, as well as every other in- telligent man, can eifect the work either by his own or his negroes' labor, as well as it can possi- bly be done by the engineers and laljorcrs of New or Old England, or of Old Ireland. This was the annual charge of Engineers &c. on the Charleston road : — Chief Engineer, (for 8 months,) ^3,000 Commissioner, 3,000 1 Resident Engineer, 2,500 2 do. do. 4,000 Road attention, &c. &c. 1,240 814,340 In short, surveying, superintending, and engi- neering have cost the company .952,607 ! ! ! And I verily believe, although they only estimate their eventual expenses at iJf' 167,000, they will amount to $200,000. They cannot expect to carry more than 150,000 bales and at 50 or 60 cents per bale : this will be the maximum. The next consideration would be the superficial work. I should think, that as the road v, ill lie lit- tle short of 300 miles, the chaai)est and best way •would be to commence a preliminary road, till the road is well settled and the materials brought, at a cheap rate, for its final completion, and then to lay down two or four sills, Vveil and firmly connected and to each of them, attached on the upper side, a lath of the hardest wood, about 2h inches wide and If or 2 inches thick. Then an iron wheel cast to fit this lath would, as soon as the centre was filled up, be used by the wagons and horses, as they were formerly in Wales, be substituted fur the expensive steam car which is to cost the Charles- ton company -S 108,000, and )i554,000 for the wear and tear. They do but calculate on .^27,000. If the Charleston Rail Road Company would furnish us with the particulars of its etcetera, and let us know what it would have cost to have gradu- ated Mr. Howard's 150 miles, and what it did cost to frame Mr. Black's 135, so liable to decay as well as to destruction by fire, much light might be thrown on the subject. However, I do not ex- pect lux e tenebris. I shall take the liberty to conclude by averring, that in my humble opinion, fully §1,000 if not 81,500 per mile, 7nore than was necessary, has been expended ; and more, infinitely more than would have been necessaiily disbursed, if a cheap preliminary rail road had been laid down. Such is understood to have been the case in the Camden and Amboy road, between Philadelphia and New York. I look with great impatience for the address of the committee: we shall behold the efforts of a master mind, in the production of the patriotic and polished Gaston. A word at parting, as to the number of laborers. Of the 232,000 persons, the labor of one twentieth or 11,600, might be a])plied. But we will calcu- late only on 5,000 being obtained; of these, we will suppose there are 4,000 negroes and 1,000 whites ; there are 300 miles or 600,000 yards to be completed ; if each man would perform 2 yards per diem, after the ground was cleared, it would be 10,000 yards per diem. Hence, 60 days would complete the labor. The labor of each day would cost $2,500, thus producing a total of #150,000. However, for etcetera, we will quadruple or quin- truple it, and we shall have 300 miles of road for the same sum as the sage Charlestonians have to pay for 1.35 miles. Labor is calculated at 50 centSs,per day, under an idea that tiie citizens of North Carolina will take contracts and receive pay for their completion in rail road slock, which v,ill be good at the banks. If any be left not so taken, contracts may be made for a lesser sum per diem. TELFORD. Carthage, August, 1833. CORIC irCJUKED BY CUTTING THE TOPS. From the New England Farmer. I noticed a statement in the New England Far- mer, by which it appeared th.at the early topping or cutting corn stalks, proved, upon fair experi- ment, to be injurious to the ears of corn, and that the corn not topped at all was heavier than that which was topped. All the farmers in New Hamp- shire, I believe are in the habit of cutting the stalks while the corn is in the milk, or before the inner part of the kernel is hard. A little reffec- tion convinced me tliat this practice is wrong. I this year raised 1 ctv.cen two and three hundred bushels, and suffered no part of the corn to be topped. After the corn Avas fully ripe, I com- menced by having the corn cut close to the ground, tied in small bundles, and put into small shocks by the side of the corn field, to dry, and thence con- veyed to the Ijarn; a practice which in common seasons Avill be beneficial — but afterwards I found the corn so fully ripe and dry, standing in the field, that I had it cut close to the ground and conveyed in small loads to the liarn, husked immediately and put into a granary made for the purpose, standing on posts, properly ventilated. The re- sult was, that my corn was very heavy, large, perfectly sound, and " as sweet as a nut." Many ears were found from twelve to fourteen inches in length. But I plant a large kind of yellow corn ; (lic kernel is vci'v large. Many have expressed 356 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON RAISING DUCKS. an opinion that they never tasted bread, made of itj so sweet and of such fine flavor. I liave never known any corn equal to it, althouj^h it is well known that we never had a season more ftvorable to corn. The cattle appear to relisli the stalks as well as those cut green — there is no loss in (liis particular — but a gain, in respect to the under stalks, often left exposed in the field after the corn is gathered. There can scarcely be a doubt but what tlie corn will ripen earlier and be heavier, by suffering the tops to remain until the corn is fdlly ripe. It is not fully ripe untd the inner part of the kernel be- comes rather hard, or is " out of milk," as farmers say. Then the corn may be lopped without inju- ry. Nature does nothing in vain. It is idle to say that the ear of corn derives no nourishment, while green, from the top stalks. Every part of the stalk, leaves and all, are necessary to tlie growth and maturity of tiio ear, and the saccha- rine juice gently oozes into the cob, and from the cob into the kernel until fully ripe. It would be as rational to contend, that the amputation of an arm would not injure a man, as that the cutting the green stalk would not tend to wither the green ear of corn. I am aware, Mr. Editor, that this doctrine stands opposed to the prejudices of far- mers generally, yet I fully believe that fair experi- ments will, not many years hence, induce them to support it. Another practice among farmers deserves cen- sure. They often pile up their corn in large heaps in the barn in order to have what is called " husk- ings." In this pile there are green materials, green stalks, green ears, and foul matter, which, after laying a short time, produce fermentation, the whole heap becomes warm, and tainted vv'itli the noxious gases or effluvia that penetrate every part The corn is afterwards husked and often {)lacGd in rooms not well ventilated. Tlie corn may be sound and look finely — the bread palatable and called good, very good. Eut tlie question whether it might not have been rendered far better and sweeter with proper management, seldom, per- haps, enters the farmer's mind. One of your correspondents, an enlightened and practical flirmer, informs me that he was fully convinced, that corn would not ripen so soon by topping it while green. This is also against the general opinion, but not, therefore, incorrect. lie also stated, that he topped a portion of a cornfield, before the corn was out of the milk, in order to feed his oxen, a practice very common; and that when he gathered his corn, that portion so topped, was inferior to his other corn in the same piece, the soil being equal. win. CLAGGETT. Portsmouth, N. H. Feh. 13, 1833. A SUCCESSFUL METHOD OF RAISING DUPKS.* from f he Southern Agriculturist. Charleston, February 1833. Believing it to be the duty of every individual to contribute for the benefit of society, any infor- mation he may possess, however small, and on subjects ever so humble ; and having for several years past been in the habit of seeking recreation * This is the article referred to and reromniended hy a correspondent, in No. 5, of J,he Farmers' ^■figister. during those hours which were not devoted to severer studies and labors, in a variety of experi- ments on subjects of natural history, I propose giv- ing you the result of some experiments in raising ducks, which were carried on during a number of years, and which finally eventuated in complete success. It is sometimes beneficial to examine the causes of our failures, and it affords me pleasure at this moment in retracing the steps by which, after many disappointments, I gradually accomplished the olijects to which my inquiries and experiments were directed. As an account of the process by which I arrived at tliese successful results may not be uninteresting to those of your readers who de- vote themselves to rural pursuits, and who pride themselves on having a well-stocked poultry -yard, I hope it may be no tax upon their time and pa- tience, if I go somewhat into detail. During many years I was struck with the gene- ral want of" success which attended the raising of this species of poultry. Not one-sixth of the young were ever raised — they appeared to be sub- ject to iimumerable diseases. Those tliat escaped were stunned in their growth and did not arrive at full size till they were many months old. The general complaint among farmers and planters was, that this the most valuable of our poultry was a puny bird, hard to raise and subject to many dis- eases. They could raise fowls and even turkies, but there was no certainty with regard to the duck. Desirous of investigating the causes of a failure in raising a bird which in its wild state is very hardy — which, although exposed to all the vicissi- tudes of the weather, raises large broods of young, I procured several ducks, determined to pursue my experiments in various ways till I should either be successful or be satisfied that in a state of domesti- cation, there existed obstacles to their successful rearing which no foresight or care could prevent. At first I adopted the usual mode of giving them access to as great a body of water as t could pro- vide for them in the yard. I therefore Iiad an ar- tificial pond made near their coops, to which they could resort as often as they chose ; here they amused themselves at all hours of tlie day, in dabr bling around the edges of the pool, and in swim- ing and diving in the water ; but they did not grow — tliey were subject to cramps and fits, and one after another died, until I began to think that wa^ ter was not their proper element. I varied their food — gave them rice-^flower, corn-grist, boile^l potatoes, hominy, bran, and many kinds of vege- table food, but with the same results — and of a hundred young that were hatched, I scarcely raised a dozen. I tli£n began to n)ix with their food va- rious medicinal herbs, believing that this might correct some deleterious properties pf their fop<|, but it was to no avail. I next procured the difTer- ent varieties of ducks for breed, thinking that per- haps one kind might be better suited to the climate and the confinements of the poultry-yard than aiior ther; but I was soon convinced that my want of success was not owing to my breed of ducks. Se^ veral years passed away and left me pretty much where I began, and I was almost ready to abandon any further attempts at raising the duck. The thought at last occurred to me that in the food with which we usually fed this species of poul- try, we departed widely from nature, and that, a^ FARMERS' REGISTER— ON RAISING BUCKS. 867 though the old ducks in their wild state fed on rice and the seeds of various (grasses that are found along the edges of the rivers, brooks and ponds, yet that at the spring of the year when the young wild ducks are hatched there are few seeds ripe, and it is questionable whether at that early age they feed at all upon grain or seeds. There appears in the digestive organs of these young birds sometliing unsuited to this kind of food — it passes through them without affording much nourishment. I had ascertained by dissection that their gizzards were filled not with vegetable food, but with the frag- ments of small craw -fish, worms and various aquatick insects, as well as the spawn of fislics, and I determined in the following year to try the effects of animal food. In due time my young ducks were hatched, beef was given them at first, after having been chopped very fine ; tliis they de- voured greedily and eat it in preference to alj kinds of vegetable food. The effect upon their health and growth was immediate and surprising! They appeared to grow faster than any otlier poul- try—in a few weeks they were out of danger, and in a few montlis fit for the table. As beef was expensive I tried cheaper kinds of food, such as the haslet of animals, crabs, fishes, &c. The re- sult was equally favorable. I was now satisfied that in the article of food the end is attained by simply following nature and givmg the young ducks animal food. But although my experiment was thus far favo- rable, I found that many of my youn^ ducks died after having been suffered to go in the dews and water, and that after many showers of rain tliey be- came tlioroughly wet, and that when showers were succeeded by hot suns, they were subject to a dis- ease of some apoplectic character, or a coup de soleil which killed numbers. Here I was mucli puzzled. I had succeeded in one instance by fol- lowing nature, but I fountl that I could not carry my theory through, and that water affected the domesticated duck very differently from what it did the same bird in its wild state. The fact was not unknown to me that the down of young wild ducks is almost impervious to water ; they are ex- posed to dews and rains— they dive to the bottom of pools and streams, and live in the water; yet they always keep dry — an oleagenous substance is spread over their feathers, from which the water glides off instantaneously and leaves the bird dry during all weathers. Not so with the young of the domesticated duck. Owing, either to the con- finement of numbers in a smail space, where their down becomes ruffled and displaced, or to their not Jaeing able to procure that kind of food wliich in the wild state is favorable to the secretion of that peculiar oil which is found contained in the glands of birds, and which serves to lubricate their leath- ers and protect them from the wet, the down of the young tame duck soon becomes thoroughly wet, and when this is once the case, it is suWect to va- rious diseases and is difficult to raise. To accom- modate the young duck to that artificial state into Avhich it had been thrown by domestication, I found it necessary to adopt some mode by which during the first few weeks of its life, (the only time in which it requires much care,) it might be preserved from the effects of that element, which m its native state is almost its only residence, and furnishes the means of its subsistence. A little reflection enabled me to guard against the incon- veniences and dangers which result from this state of domestication. I had my coops built pret- ty large and tightly shingled, so as to be impervi- ous to water. The young ducks were not let out in the morning dews till the sun Iiad dried the grass, and the vessels in which their water was placed were railed over, so that they could drink by inserting their bills between tliese little railings, but were prevented from getting into tJie water. After following these simple directions with regard to food and shelter, I found that by a little atten- tion of a servant, I could supply my table with ducks the whole year round — thai I seldom lost one in twenty, and that they were free from all dis- eases. I raised from one hundred to three hundred ducks per year, and now found tliat they were (he easiest of all poultry to raise. I communicated tlie result of my experiments to my friends. Those of them who had the disposition — the patience and industry followed my directions, and in every in- stance met with the same success — I liave their assurance, that they can now raise ducks in any numbers, and some of them have for the last two or three years supplied our markets with from three to five hundred ducks of the largest size and finest flavor. After having carried my readers through this, perhaps to them, tedious detail of experiments wliich cost me much time and attention, but tor which I was more than repaid by the successful re- sult, I shall now proceed to give, under different heads, such simple directions as will enable our planters and farmers to supply their tables with this kind of poultry, which might be an object to those who are in the habit of supplying our mar- kets. 1. The species and varieties of ducks best adapt- ed to the purpose of breeding. — The only two spe- cies of ducks that are raised in this country are what are commonly called the English duck and the Muscovy duck. Tlie English duck is a de- scendant of the wild duck that visits us every win- ter in such numbers, called the Mallard (Anas bos- chas) is found also in Europe, and breeds in Eng- land, although not the largest, it is certainly among the finest flavored ducks in the world. The flavor of the famous canvass-back duck ( jJnas val- lisneria) that is found so numerously in the Chesa- peake, and more recently in the Santee, and at the mouth of the Savannah river, is no doubt superior to it, but it is supposed that this is owing to the peculiar kind of root on which that bird feeds, be- lieved to be the ValUsencria j/?nericana — and that were it fed on common food its flavor would not be superior. The English duck, which is so common in our yards, has from its long domestication, run into a number of varieties, which differ so much from each other as to appear like different species; they are of different sizes — of a variety of colors, and some are tufted. The variety to which I have usu- ally given the jjreference, goes by the common name of the Madagascar duck, is distinguished by its being of the largest size — having a pretty long neck and almost invariably a light streak above the eyes, and usually a small streak extending from the lower part of the upper mandible to be- low the eye. The Muscovy duck (jlnas Moschata) is anoth- er duck more recently introduced, but which is now very common, and is well deserving a place 358 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON RAISING DUCKS. in our poultry-yards. It was formerly, by most writers, consitlercd as coming from tlie Eastern con- tinent, but is now well ascertained to be a native of South America. This duck, in our southern climate is, perha})S, more hardy than the other — sets more steady on its eggs, and lays in the Spring and Fall. A mongrel breed between this species and the English duck is easily produced, and has become very common; but these, though they are good layers, are unable to propagate their species. There are other species of ducks, which the cu- rious in these matters have partially succeeded in domesticating. I once saw a fine flock of the Gad- wall duck, (Anas strcpera,) which an individual, in the upper part of the State of New York, had succeeded in raising from ducks which he had cap- tured, and which hv&A freely in his yard, and made no attempts at flying away. Our beautilul sum- mer duck ( jlnas sponsa) breeds freely in some parts of France and in the Zoological Garden in England. But it is very probable that the two species above mentioned are as well adapted to our purposes as any other, and that, for many years, they will be the only ones which will be generally kept in our poultry -yards. One drake will answer lor five or six ducks. Where mongrels are to be bred, place in a separate yard, one Muscovy drake to four English ducks. 2. The best viode of procuring an abundance of Eggs. — When ducks are raised in the country and have access to rice fields, ditches, ponds, and the borders of rivers, they find food best suited to them and generally lay early and freely. But where they are necessarily kept in yards, and do not pos- sess the above advantages, it will be necessary to adapt their food to their situation. A mixture of any kind of animal food with their rice flour, corn meal or grist, given them regularly and plentifully three times a day, will enable you to procure a great aViundance of eggs ; where this is neglected, your English ducks will lay but sparingly. I have observed that animal food is not sonecessarj' to the Muscovy duck, but that they will lay pretty free- ly on being fed on grain alone. 3. Setting and hatching the Eggs. — The Eng- lish duck, although a good layer, is very careless About hatching its eggs until late in the season. J have invariably used the common hen for that purpose ; and when the young ducks are removed as soon as they are dry, their foster parent will set again on other eggs ; and I have thus known a single fowl to bring out three, and even four broods of young ducks in succession. In that case, she should be repaid for her faithfulness by being richly fed. The young ducklings, in this climate, leave the shell on the twenty-sixth day. The Muscovy set a few days longer. A fowl of a tole- rable size will cover from thirteen to fifteen eggs. After the eggs have been four or five days under the hen, you may, in the evening, examine the eggs by the light of a candle or lamp. Place the eggs longitudinally lietween the fore finger and thumb. If the egg be likely to hatch, it will be of a dark color, with streaks of red frequently perceptible; and the cavity on the thick end will be somewhat enlarged and transparent. If it be a clear egg, it will be wholly transparent, and it ought to be removed at once ; and if it have not been kept too long in the nest, it is still fit for use. In this way, when several hens have been set near- ly at the same time, it will frequently be practica- ble to remove a sufficient number of clear eggs, so as to place a fresh setting of eggs, under one or more of them. The Muscovy duck sets faithfully and may as well be permitted to hatch her own young. 4. 3/ethod of destroying Fowl Lice. — The in- sects which infest the setting hens may be easily destroyed by thoroughly sprinkling the nest, and wetting the fowl, even to the skin, with a strong decoction, made by pouring hot water on a hand- ful of common leaf tobacco, mixed when cold with a table spoonful of spirits of turpentine, and double the quantity of gunpowder. It will be well, also, occasionally to take away their old nest and make a new one of fresh hay or straw. 5. Duck Coops, Food, and manner of rearing the young. — Let your coop be made pretty large ; say three or four feet in length and three in depth. Let it be well shingled, so as to exclude all water, and have a good pitch towards the front. Let it be tight on three sides and bared in front, with a slide l)elow the lower bar, so as to retain the ducks in un- til vorable weather. A space of ten or twelve feet square, formed of common boards set up edgewise, will, when you have not much room in your yard, suflice for fifty ducks. Keep making coops in pro- portion as your ducks increase in numbers, and endeavor to keep the different sizes separated. The first brood, early in the spring, requires, for a few days, the warmth of the hen's body; and she should not be made to take care of more than twenty or thirty. A little later in the season, the young that are then hatched do not require the ser- vices of their foster mother, and may from the be- ginning be placed in a coop by themselves, to the number of fifty. Young Muscovy ducks may be treated in the same way ; and they and the mon- grels, and English ducks, may all be indiscrimi- nately reared together. As soon as your young ducks are hatched, let them be placed together, for a few hours, in a basket containing some warm inside lining; and when they have sufficient strength, place them with the lien in the coop. Feed them with meat, or animal food of any kind, chopped .fine with a chopping knife. For convenience, I have usually had it boiled. A little rice flour or corn meal may be mixed with it, and the latter may be increased, if you have but little meat. Let this be continued for three weeks, and they are out of danger and can be raised on any kind of food. Still it is to be observed that ducks in all cases thrive better on animal food, and where this can be conveniently obtained, it may as well be given them. Those planters who live near our sea coast, by running a tight board fence across any small branch of salt wa- ter, and placing in the eentre a fish-trap made of laths, can easily procure a sufficient quantity of fish- es and crabs to feed all tlieir young poultry. A man with a cast-net could in half an hour do the same. I have known persons in the interior of the coun- try, substitute squirrels, rabbits, and even venison ; and one gentleman fed his young ducks on the flesh of alligators, tlius rendering that which was a nuisance, subservient to his profit. When your young ducks begin to be tolerably feathered on the sides, which will be in five or six weeks, they may then be turned into tlie common poultry yard — alwaj's bearing in mind, tliat those which ore best fed and obtain most animal food thiive the fastest. FARMERS' REGISTER— INDIAN CORN. 359 I "have not treated of diseases to which ducks are subject; since, by the above treatment, I have ge- nerally found them healthy. As this is a long essay, and may be too great a tax on your readers to peruse, I would give in a single line, the substance of my directions for the successful rearing of young ducks : Give tliem animal food and keep them dry. EXPERIBIKKTER. qUAXTITY OF INDIAN CORIV TO THE ACRE. From the New-York Farmer. Meadowhanks , Dcerfield, ) Mass. Sept. 9, 1833. S Mr. Fleet: — Your New- York Farmer for this month was received last evening, and I make no delay in replying to the inquiry of your corres- pondent E. The farmer to wliom I referred, whose crops of corn ibr the last ten years, have averaged more than one hundred bushels to the acre, is Earl Stimj)Son, Esq. of Galway, Sarato- ga county, N. Y. On a visit to his extraordinary and admirable establishment, in July of the last year, where every agricultural operation seems to be conducted in the most skilful and systematic manner, he gave me this assurance, as I lind noted in my journal at the time; and I beg leave to in- form your correspondent, that to any gentleman of agricultural taste and science, a visit to this farm cannot fail to yield instruction and great i)leasure. Mr. Stimpson's success, however, in the culti- vation of this valuable crop, is not singular. Ex- amples of crops as abundant are on record in your correspondent's own state; and to these, and to some others, as extraordinary, it may be useful and gratifying to refer. I ask leave, therefore, to mention a few, which have been submitted to the most careful examination, and the results establish- ed by the fullest proof John Stevens, of Hoboken,N. J. produced on one acre, 118 bushels, 2 quarts. "Mr. S. was confident that he would have had considerably more corn, had not his ci'op suffered very greatly by a thunder storm, which laid the greater part of it down at the time the ears were setting." On this crop a bet of fifty guineas was pending. The motives to exact measurement were such, there- fore, as to secure accuracy. This was some years since ; the particular date I am not able to ascertain. Dr. Steele, of Saratoga, in giving an attested account of the crops of Earl Stimpson, in 1821, says that he had eight acres of Indian corn, which yielded 112 bushels to the acre, 896 bushels; 10 do. do. 90 bushels to the acre, 900 bushels ; (Me- moirs of New-York Agricultural Society, vol. 2, page 73.) The following individuals applied to the Agri- cultural Society in Washington county, Penn. in October, 1823, for premiums, with authenticated evidence of the quantity raised per acre, on not less than five acres: Joseph Evans, 136 bushels per acre — John Wolf, 127| do. do. — Samuel An- derson , 123 bushels 12 quarts, do. — Isaac Vanvook- ens, 120 do. do. — Isaac Buckingham, 118 bushels 1 quart, do. do. — James Clakey, 113 do. do. — Jesse Cooper, 108 do. do. — De Gross Jennings, 120 do. do. - In the same year the following individuals ap- plied to the Alleghany County Agricultural So- ciety, for premiums on their crops : James Ander- son, of Ross township, 103 bushels, 17 quarts, on one acre — John Snyder, of do. 103 per acre, on five acres — John Irwin, of do. 105 bushels 20 quarts per acre, on 4ff acres — Wm. M'Clure, 129 bushels per acre, on five acres. (Memoirs of Pennsylva- nia Agricultural Society, vol. 6, page 228.) ■ In 1822, J. & M. Pratt, of Ea'ston, Madison county, N. Y. obtained from one acre, \11\ bush- els— do. do. 161 do. — do. do. 161 do. In 1824, the same gentlemen obtained from four acres 680 bushels, or 170 to the acre. From public and j)rivate testimony I know that tlie respectability of these gentlemen is such as to justify entire confidence in their statements; and their crops were subjected to the particular ex- amination of committees for a premium. The Messrs. Pratt, say tliey have no doubt of being able to ol)taiii 200 bushels to an acre. In 1823, Benj. Bartlett, of Easton, Madison county, N. Y. obtained from one acre 174 bushels. Tlie veracity of this gentleman is erjually unques- tioned ; and his, too, was a premium crop. In 1831, Benjamin Butler, of Oxford, Chenan- go county, N. Y. states that he raised on one acre, 130 bushels, at 60 lbs. per bushel, or 140 bushels at 56 lbs. per bushel. (New-England Farmer, for Nov. 1831 ) We will come now to some crops which have been produced in Massachusetts, on our cold, and rocky and despised soil. The evidence of these crops is ample and of undoubted character. In 1820, J. Ilunnewell, of Newton, produced 111^ bushels to an acre. In 1822, J. Valentine, of Hopkinton, produced 116 bushels, 28 quarts, to an acre — D. Burnham, of Newbury, 117 bushels 8 quarts, do. — T. & H. Little, of do. 116 do. — P. Williams, of Fitchburg, 116 bushels 12 quarts, do. — W. Hull, of Newton, at the rate of 118 bushels, on seven eightlis of an acre. In 1823, Fitch Winchester, of Southboroughj 103 bushels per acre — John Lees, of Newbury, 113 bushels 16 quarts, do.— T. & H. Little of do. 115 bushels do. — Thaddeus Howard, of West Bridgwater, 122 bushels 23 quarts, do. In 1824, Wilmarth of Taunton, 142 bushels per acre. 1825, S. Longley, of Shirly, 112 bushels 21 quarts per acre. 1827, John Andrew, of Danvers, 110 bushels per acre. 1831, Charles Bugbee, of Palmer, in Hamp- shire county, states that he has protluced, on five acres, 540 bushels, or 108 bushels to the acre. (New-England Farmer, for Nov. 1831.) I might produce many other examples of crops approximating a hundred bushels, and some as large as those which are above referred to. The above are fully attested by the examination of com- mittees ; and are, in most cases, certified under oath, with the exception of the last, which rests upon the personal declaration of the gentleman named, whose integrity I have no reason to dis- trust, thovigh I have not the pleasure of knowing him, excepting through the communication above referred to. Another gentleman, whose name has escaped me, residing in Windsor, Berkshire co. Mass. on the very ridge of the Green Mountain range, in a spot whose aspect was particularly propitious, pro- duced a few years since, 240 bushels of corn on two acres, lying in one piece, for which he received the 360 FARMERS' REGISTER— INDIAN CORN— MANURES. preniiuin of the Berkshire Agricultural Society. This, however, I state from recollection only, and not from any documents in my possession. 1 have, likewise, the assurance of his neighbors, who pro- fess to know the facts. In the communication to which your correspon- dent refers, I there stated, that Jesse Buel, Esq. President of the N. Y. Agricultural Society, rated his corn crop, from the measurement of a part of it, at 103 busiiels to the acre ; and deemed it prac- ticable to obtain 154 bushels to the acre. The above n)casurements aj"e all understood to be ripe and shelled corn. I am perfectly aware that these are extraordi- nary statements ; but I have not a doubt of their correctness. I have not, myseli', been able, with the best cultivation that I could apply, though I have never had a very favorable opportunity, to obtain near one hundred bushels; though, in one case, I gathered eighty -six from an acre; but I do not on that account the less doubt that it has been done. 1 know, likewise, very well, the utter in- credulity of many persons on this subject, who say, " they never can, and never will believe it possible to obtain one hundred bushels of Indian corn from an acre of ground." In such cases, I ask them if they would make such statements un- der oath, if they were not true; and if they did make them, whether they would not expect to be believed, or feel that they ought to be believed ; and then, if they are not willing to render equal justice to others, or if they regard themselves as the only honest people in the world.'' I consider the crop of Indian corn as of the high- est importance to the country. There is, I believe, no farm, in which an acre of ground can be made to yield so much of food for animal life, as by the produce of Indian corn; and no crop by which, where the olfal is well managed, so much is re- turned to the ground to rejiair the exhaustion, to which the crop has subjected it. Rye and oats are very inferior croi)S, compared with it. Wheat is much more precarious ; and with good cultivation we may reasonably calculate upon two bushels of corn to one of wheat. The superior value of corn fodder, where it is well sa\ ed, is, in many cases, a full equivalent for the extra expense of cultivation. The average amount of lliis crop, even on the rich alluvians of the Connecticut, is, I apprehend, not more than forty bushels to the acre; and throughout the state of JNIassachusctts, it does not exceed thirty. It is my opinion, that not one fifth of the extent of land is devoted to this cultivation, which might be advantageously applied. Many a farm of one and two hundred acres, has, perhaps, a patch of Indian corn of from four to six acres. This is nothing, and scarcely deserves the name of farming. The culture of this crop admits, certainly, of very important improvements. The great things which have been done, show us what may be done ; and present the most emphatical encouragement to experiment and enterprise. I have seen fine crops of this vegetable growing in (hose j)arts of New- Jersey through which I have passed, and the soil seemed to me particularly favorable (o its culture. Indian corn will bear to be cultivated longer in succession, on the same land, than almost any other crop; but its productiveness would be greatly fa- vored by a judicious rotation. It is almost the only crop wliich cannot be too highly manured; and lands of a warm aspect, and which have a large pro])ortion of siliceous sand, intermixed with loam, are peculiarly favorable to its growth. Th6 durability of the grain is greatly in its favor; as, if well saved and housed, it may be kept in our climate lor an indefinite period, without injury or deterioration; and the farmer may always regard it as having a cash value. When pork is worth six cents per pound, corn may fairly be considered as worth from seventy to seventy-five cents per bushel, provided the animals to be fatted are of a healthy and thrifty kind, and the corn is applied in (he best form, and with proper economy. Its va- rious important uses are too faniiliar to require re- mark. It is, in truth to l)e considered as the gold dust of a country, where it is capable of being abundantly produced. Yours respectfully, HENRY C0I.,M;AK. MANURES. From the Genesee Farmer, We have uniformly recommended, (hat dung' should be ploughed in, and not applied as a top- dressing, to the surface. This has been said in re- gard to long or unfermenfed dung, in which state we have considered it far most beneficial for the farmer to apply it. And the reasons are these : The gases which are evolved by fermentation, and which constitute a food for plants, are specifically lighter than the atmosphere, and consequently es- cape, and are lost, if the fermentation takes place upon the surface; but areo- sited iu Santee swamps. Hence, plantations for which not ten years ago bonds to the amount of $50,000 were given, and many of them not re- deemed, are not now worth a quarter the sum, and others for which .*!35,000 were offered, could not, at this time, fuid a prudent cash purcliaser for $3,500. In sliort, unless a channel for the extra water of the freshets was provided, attempts, all at- tempts to render the swamps safe for cultivation, are as futile as would be the scheme to check tiie streams of the Mississippi or the Ganges. This has been very clearly and expensivel}'' proved this 3'ear. But the bank from the vicinity of dry swamp to the stone landing just above Stateburg, and which cost -S 12,000, is clear proof of the folly of disre- garding nature. Like all other banks, it failed, and although an '' object of high expectation and heavy expense, left the state burdened with works not only useless but hurtful." This is the exact character of all the works in question, and planta- tions which 40 years ago were triennially covered with a thick alluvium and at no expense, produc- tive to the owner, have now become channelled into sterility or covered with sand and thus been made useless, and after a very heavy expense, wholly unproductive. The folly of one generation has been punished for its inattention to the practi- ces and precepts of its predecessors. However, it is now time to allude to the pass- ways across the swamps. As I have before observ- ed, my leading motive is, lest some persons should be so enamored of all Charleston and great man's schemes, as he advocated the rail road bridge, instead of the embankment system, to discuss the relative advantages of perishable wood with those of imperishable earth.^ In advance, I would observe, for the benefit of those, so sage and prescient as to confound an em- bankment with a road on it, with one intended to confine or exclude water, that the bank near State- burg above mentioned, first gave way at where * However, sucli wus tlie sujierlative wisdom of the Senate, or its, of course justly founded confidence in the great expander, that the Senators from Camden and Claremont, the two districts most interested in a good work of the kind, voted for this foolish work and waste- ful expenditure. t The errata in this paragraph must be ascriljcd to the paper from which we copy. — [Ed Farm. Reg. there had run for ages, a natural stream. Hither the greater force of the fluid was concentrated, and as soon as it reached a certain height away went the fabric. — But, suj)posing that it had been intended for a passway, there would have been substituted for solid end.)ankmenl at this natural stream, Gum Swamp, I think, a sufficient number of arches, so, that the descending water would have gradually filled the swamp; above and below the dam, and thus the higher would have fully counteracted the lower pressure. I would next advert to tlie expense of embank- ment, on the supposition, that it is to be performed by "that class of labor'" not furnished by New or Old England, Germany or France; hut by the ne- groes of Carolina. It is to their employment and the expenditure of (he capital of f/ie state within the state that I look. We will suppose one of these embankments to be 6 miles or 36,000 feet. An embankment 60 feet base, 20 fijet wide and 18 feet deep, can be per- formed by able bodied negroes, at the rate of one foot per day — thus, on the calculation that they are to be hired at the rate of 25 cents per day, or !i^75 dollars per year, costing .99,000.. This simi w'ill cover the erection of the wooden bridges ne- cessary 'till the work is completed ; when, and at the public leisure,! should propose to found brick piers or bridges permanently on the granite, that could then be brought, for the purpose, with both ease and cheapness. To the advocates for wood, I leave the calcula- tion of a Avooden road across the same distance of swamp. I think, but am not certain, the superin- tendent calculated on bridging Murray's swamp for i^S per foot. This makes the wooden system infinitely greater in expense than the embankment plan. However, its advocates can state it exactly, and the accounts of the Charleston road will shew what it has cost that company. But, in the actually depressed state of land in this country, it is impossible to avoid adverting to the subject of its improvement ; and, if we think it at all practicable, suggesting a position and a plan which may unite in rendering a service to the landholder, and in conferring a benefit on the state. In the first place, 1 would suggest the simulta- neous formation of an embankment and a canal with a lock or locks into the river, from the Cam- den road at Boykin's mill, on Swift's cieek, to the- late Mr. Ancrum's ferry. The creek to be turn- ed into the canal by a dam, and thus all the low ground below, would only have to contend with back water, a part, if not the whole of which, might be rendered harmless and jaossiiZ?/ altogether excluded. In the second place, I would suggest a dam from Garner's ferry through the Garner, Miller and Furman property, to the land where it is high and [)erfectly safe. — This is one of the most favored situations on the river. Nature has provided a connected chain of lakes and a correspondent range of high land, along which the present road runs, which assures us of her sanction, and that if we open another channel, such a one as the formation of an embankment of 60 feet base, &c. we shall not thwart, but second her efforts. A large mass of v/ater thus brought out, in a double portion to the eastern shore of the last lake, would then have to be provided for; but, it is a matter of little ques- tion whether, as in low^ freshets, the Kcnlock dam. 364 FARMERS REGISTER— SALTPETRE IN MEAT. did great service to the planters below, so the pro- posed dam will not confer a similar benefit on them. Eventually, ulterior advantages may be ob- tained to recover a mass of now useless land, and a proper use made of the declining character of the face of the back swamp towards tlie high land ; but, this must be left to time and experience. The tliird portion is, the swamp at Fulton. Tiiis is less known to the writer; but, from the repr - sentations of intelligent persons, there is no doubt as good ground for improvement there as above, although perhaps the ground is little lower. To the Charleston Rail Road, the pass way at Fulton is of the last importance, as though an immense portion of the cotton raised in Sumter, will be con- veyed to Columbia or Charleston. I say to either, and particularly call the attention of Columbia, to the necessity of attracting the cotton of lower and middle Sumter to its market. — It now ex- clusively goes to Charleston. This slioukl be thought of when the site of the road is fixed. But the river — the bridges — these are the difli- culties and well will it be, if the temptation of the Columbia bridge do not carry the road from Co- lumbia too near the section of country occupied by the Charleston road and too far from that possess- ing any convenience of the kind. However, the subject is jjremature ; but, I cannot avoid a refer- ence to the April 1832 number, or thereabouts, of the Franklin Institute, where there is to be found an article relative to the German boat bridge, and which, answering as it did, to transport the tre- mendous mass of artillery it did during the last war, could surely be made available in this coun- try. A3IPHICON. SALTPETRE IN MEAT. From the New York Farmer. It is a matter of regret, that while so much salt meat is made and used, we have not yet acquired the proper knowledge of the best mode to prepare and preserve it ; nor is it generally known how noxious salt meat may become by an improper use of saltpetre in the pickle or brine usually employed. There are various modes of preserving salt meat and fish, by dryings salting, pickling, oiling, smoking, &c.; but I merely mean at present to notice some of the defects and noxious properties of our actual salt meat, either beef or pork. One of the main defects appear to -consist in the useless addition of saltpetre into the pickle, where- by the meat often becomes sour or spoiled, and al- ways acid and pernicious. I never could under- stand why this substance was added to common salt in curing meat, except that it is said to make it look belter. But it ought to be known that the part of saltpetre absorbed by the meat is nitric acid or aquafortis, a deadly poison! whereby our salt meat becomes unpalatable and pernicious. A slight excess of this acid makes the meat sour, or spoils it as we say. It has been suggested to cor- rect this by potash, which re-absorbs this excess; but merely hides the defect without neutralizing the whole poison. Is it not surprising that we should feed and deal, as a staple of our country, with an article contain- ing a portion of such active poison as nitric acid? In fact, our actual salt meats are no longer meat! They are a new pernicious substance, produced by a chemical action of salt upon the fle.sh of animals. This flesh when fresh and clean consists chiefly of gelnntine and fibrine. Gelantine or jelly is the substasice soluble in warm water, forming a broth by boiline:, or becoming a jelly by concentration ; while fibrine is the fibrous tough part of the meat, which cannot be dissolved, and is therefore unfit for food, while gelantine is the real nutritious part of the meat. But it is well known that salt meat and even corned beef can no longer afford a broth, and there- fore gelantine must have been changed into another substance no longer soluble, nor so nutritious, by the chemical action of salt and saltpetre. To this new substance chemists have -as yet not given a name ; but is as different from meat as leather is from the hide before it is tanned by the tan-bark or tannin. To tliis chemical change in meat is to be ascri- l)ed all the noxious qualities of salt meat, and the diseases to which those who feed chiefly on it be- come liable, — sea scurvy, land scurvy, sore gums, rotten teeth, biles, ulcers, &c. — which we entail on ourselves by using a kind of poisoned bad meat, which we call salt. This important and doleful fact ought to be well known, or made known generally to all those who raise cattle, cure meat, or eat it in order that they may correct this sad defect. The first thing to be done is to abandon altoge- ther tlie use of saltpetre in curing meat. This is indisjiensable, and no one who is told that aquafor- tis is tlie produce of it, ought any longer to use this poison in pickles or brines. The best substitute for it is sugar: a small quantity added makes the meat healthier, sweeter, nicer and equally durable. Let this be known to all our farmers and sailors. How to make a brine for meat perfectly innocu- ous is yet a desideratum. Gelantine ought to be preserved in salt meat perfectly pure and soluble, as it is in broth cakes, before any salt meat can be perfectly healthy and equal to fresh meat. But at any rate, by withholding the saltpetre, we divest it of a deadly poisonous substance. Yours, &C. C. S. RAFINESQUE, Prof. Hist, and A^at. Sciences, J^bn Place, Lansingburgh, N. Y. Jlvg. 5, 1833. RIessrs. Editors — It is with no small degree of surprise that I observed in your paper, a com- munication from Professor Rafinesque, in which the use of saltpetre, for the purpose of preserving meat, is condemned in the strongest terms. A communication from such a source v«'ill be receiv- ed by a great mass of the community as fact, with- out inquiring whether it be so or not; and as the article in question is most palpably erroneous, I feel it to be due to the public that its errors should be exposed. In the first place, it is stated that " the part of saltpetre absorbed by the meat is nitric acid, or aquafortis, a deadly poison," than which nothing can be more erroneous. If Prof. R. can decompose nitrate of potassa (saltpetre or nitre) by means of animal muscle, he has gone one step further in chemistry than any other person. On the same principle may we say that common salt is decomposed, and that the part which enters the meat is muriatic acid, as powerful a poison nearly as aquafortis. Mr. Rafinesque states that he "never could understand why this substance was added to common salt in curing meat, except that it is said to make it look better."— As this is rAllMERS' REGISTER— EXTRACTS. S65 not the object of the nitre, I will briefly state its use. By the addition of a small quantity of it, the meat is prevented from absorbing- a far greater amount of common salt, while, at the same time, it is equally as liable to " keep," and in consequence of this diminished quantity of salt, the meat is ren- dered more tender, and retains its original sweet- ness to a far greater degree than it otherwise would. I would not, however, recommend a large quantity of saltpetre, as it would thus prove injurious instead of beneficial. About four ounces to every 100 lbs. of meat will be amply sufficient. At the same time a small quantity of refined sugar will mate- rially add to its sweetness. The very respectable source of the communica- tion referred to above has induced me to be some- Avhat more lengthy in my remarks than I other- wise would have been, but I trust that tlie impor- tance of the subject will be a sufficient apology. Yours, &c. siEDicrs. EXTRACTS FROM MARSHALL'S "RURAL ECO- NOMY OF Norfolk" — and "rural eco- NOBIY of GLOCESTERSIIIRE." Cost of Marl. The farmers of Woodbastwick, in the southern part of this district, have their marl chiefly from Norwich, in boats round by Yarmouth 40 or 50 miles. Sometimes tliey bring it, by way of back carriage, from Thorp-next-Norwich, [by land,] about 6 miles ; at other times from Ilorstead, and other neighboring pits, convenient for back car- riage : none within 5 or 6 miles. The usual quantity set on, is 8 or 10 middling loads an acre. At Norwich they pay one shilling — at Horstead I8d. a load, uncallowed.* The carriage (as back carriage) is reckoned worth about 3 shillings or 3 shillings G pence; so that it costs them about 4 to 5 shillings a load ; or 50 to 60 shillings an acre, [or from :^11 66 to .^16 33.] The marl brought by wherries, is worth, at the staith, [where landed] about 4 shillings the mid- dling load. * * * * # Yesterday, procured the following particulars of the expenses upon Norwich marl, brought round by Yarmouth, and landed at the staiths, at Wood- bastwick. Cost of a chaldron (^iL'cigJiinga clialdron of coals) at Thorp, and putting it on board the lighters, 8 pence; ligliterage to Woodbastwick, round i)y Yarmouth, 50 miles, 16 pence; together, 2 shil- lings a chaldron. Two chaldrons make a middling cart load ; 2^ chaldrons, a good load : 7 or 8 large loads are esteemed sufficient for an acre — the ex pense upon which stands thus : The marl, (suppose 18 chaldrons,) at 2 shil- lings, £1 16 0 Filling it at the staith — carting to a medium distance, and spreading about, 15 pence a load, 1 2 6 Expense per acre, £2 18 6 * These piices are for marl as it lies in the pit. " Uu- callow," ill JsTorfulk language., means the earth which lies over tlie " j.im," or body of marl. It may be gath- ered elsewhere from the author, that this marl is highly calcareous — [Ed. With the marl ought to be, and frequently is laid on, a quantity of Yarmouth muck, equal in expense to the marl. After this dressing, for about 10 years, the soil, (a sandy loam, but stronger and deeper than the Norfolk soil in general) throws out very great crops ; and with the usual teathe* and ordinary dungings, will feel tlie effect of the marl for 10 years longer. Before tlie use of marl, (whicli has not been brought by water, I apprehend, above 10 or 15 years,) the farmers could grow no turnips ; the land letting for 10 or 12 shillings an acre : now the turnips upon it are remarkably fine; and the land lets at full 20 shillings an acre ; a rent the occupi- ers could not pay, were it not for marl. The distance between Woodbastwick and the marl pits at Thorp-next-Norwich is not, by land, more than 6 or 7 miles; yet the farmers rind it cheaper to fetch their marl 50 miles by water, and then carry it, jierhaps, half a mile from the staith to the ground, than fetch it these 6 or 7 miles by land. What an advantage, in some cases, is water carriage to a farmer, and consequently to an es- tate. Unproductiveness of a Falrstead. The Bidlock Hill, at St. Faith's, is said to re- ceive no benefit from the teathe of the bullocks, which every year are shown on it daily, during a fortnight or three weeks. This year it was in wheat ; andif one may judge from the stubble (notwithstanding the wheat was dunged for,) the crop was a very inditrcrcnt one. The soil a lightish sandy loam. This is an interesting fact. It is said to be ow- ing to the worthlessncss of the teathe of " drove bullocks." This I much doubt, however ; for the bullocks, being many of them in high case, and kept in grazing grounds about St. Faith's, some of them perhaps, within a quarter of a mile of the Hill, the driving is little more than the driving of sheep to a fold. Some of them may, no doubt, come on to the Hill immediately from Scotland; and they are all of them, of course, driven more or less ; and there may be some truth in this opinion. That the teathe of lean stock, and more particu- larly of cows, is much inferior to that of fatting bul- locks, is a fact universally acknov/ledged through- out this country ; and this may in some measure be accounted for from the oleaginous matter carried off by tlie milk of cows, and imbibed by the vas- cular carcasses of lean stock in general. On the same principle, if stock be hard driven, and much exhausted by perspiration, and want of regular nourishment, their teathe may become insipid and of little use to land ; consequently, this reasoning may in part be applicable to the Bullock Hill at St. Faith's: but, as before has been observed, there are numbers that come in good condition, and from good pastures, at a very small distance from the Fair-hill, and there is no obvious reason why the teathe of those should not be nearly equal to that of other fatting cattle: therefore, upon the whole, it seems that driving alone does not produce this interesting fact. May we not venture to think it possible, that * " Teathe" is a provincial term used to express the dung and urine derived from the penning or grazing of iMttle on arable land. — [Ed, SG6 FARMERS' REGISTER— GYPSUM— SASSAFRAS. land may he satiated, or tired, even of the dung of cattle ? The Hill in question has been the site of a large fair for cattle, during time immemorial ; perhaps were tlie fair removed, and the soil ma- nured with lime, marl, or such other neio manure as experience would |)oint out, it might continue to throw out great crops tor many years. * * * [As a strong contrast to the foregoing remarka- Me fact, we present the following passage from the same author's "Jiaral Economy of Glocestershire." The Cotswold soil here spoken of is previously slated to be " generally a calcareous loam," lying on a " calcareous rubble."] Durable Effects of Dung. The eifect of dung on the Cotswold soil is ex- traordinary. There is an instance produced of its lasting near fifty years! Its effect is evident, in a piece of wheat now growing (May 1788) on a patch, which was lately common field land, but which now makes part of an enclosure. But this extraonlinary effect is on land which lies at a great distance from thedungyard ; and is, perhaps, no more than an incident, (striking in those days) of the efficacy of a 7iew manure, — even of dung:, — on land which has not been accustomed to it. It is well known that the dung of sheep (tlie sheep-fold,) is singularly beneficial to land which has not been folded ujion ; and there seems to be no reason why the dung of horses and cattle should not be similar in their effects. The duiation is the only thing extraordinary. The retentive nature of the soil is the probalile cause of it. Had not the fact been well authenticated by a most intelligent husbandman, (Mr. John Craddock o( Northleach) who has probably seen every crop which has grown upon the land since the circumstance took place, I should not have thought it an object of notice. Straw Feeding. I met with an idea here [Glocestershire] that cat- tle maybe satiated with straw ; or, in other words, may be served with it in too great plenty. It has been observed that after a dry summer, when straw is scarce, and the cattle have it dealt out to them regu- larly, they thrive better than when, after a plentiful year, it is thrown before them in profusion, from the thrashing floor. Not through the superior qualify of the straw in a scarce year; as these effects have been observed to be produced from the same straw. This subject is by no means uninteresting to those who winter large quantities of cattle. I have observed, in Yorkshire, where cattle are kept tied up, and of course are regularly fed, that they in feneral thrive better at straw, than in the south of Ingland, where they go loose among a much great- er plenty ; but whether it proceed from the warmth, from their resting better, from the breed of cattle, or from their being regularly fed, and eating with an appetite, I will not pretend to de- cide. REMARKABLE BENEFIT FROM GYPSUM. From the Genesee Farmer. il/essrs. L. Tucker fy Co. — Please inform our friend, the Plough-Jogger, that Agricola has stated nothing but the truth about the fourteen acre lot. The lot is situated about a mile east of Lansing- burg, on the Hudson, in Rensselaer county ; and the principal facts stated by Agricola are well known to more than a hundred credible inhabitants of that village at the present time. The land was originally as poor as self-righ- teousness, and for fourteen years it scarcely afforded pasture for one family. It was then ploughed five limes, harrowed five times, and at each plouhging and harrowing, the stones were picked off, and sowed to wlieat and clover, and plastered with one and a half bushels of plaster to the acre. In sow- ing the plaster, one land was omitted through mis- take, and this land could be seen from the Mohawk falls, (bur miles distant ; it was covered with stunt- ed clover and mulleins, while the land adjoining was covered with clover three feet long. It was afterwards divided into four acre lots. Agricola dug the post holes and set the posts, and afterwards took from one lot six hundred and fourteen cart loads of stone, and the three lots were covered with stone at least three inches all over the surface. — There is no mistake about this, as Ulmus would say — for I know it by feeling, and feeling is the naked truth. Now, why was the land omitted in plastering covered only with stunted clover and mullein, while the adjoining land was covered with a luxu- riant growth of clover .'' The land originally was very poor, and I should think no stimulant could promote such luxuriance, — for twelve years, un- less it was a powerful agent, and permanent in its effects. Is it not possible that the plaster operated in at- tracting the vegetable food from the atmosphere.' It certainly could not find it in the earth. When manures, either vegetable or animal, are buried in the earth, they are slowly resolved into carbonic acid gas, which is absorbed by the earth, and yield- ed to Uie future crop by degrees, and in such por- tions as the capillary vessels can lake in. The car- case of a dead animal, grass, or weeds, after decay on the surface, we all know, do little good to the crop— the virtue is blown away by the winds, and is lost to vegetation ; but if buried in the earth at a proper depth is yielded slowly, and the plaster of Paris may very possibly have an agency in retain ing this vegetalale food near the capillary vessels of the plants, so that it can be taken in and assimi- lated. I think if the Plough-Jogger will consult his reason, he w ill guess that plaster may very pos- sibly do good without stimulating the earth. Potter, August 29, 1833. agricola. EXTIRPATING SASSAFRAS. Scotland Neck, Sept. 23, 1833. Dear Sir : — In answer to the queries of J^nti- sassafras, extracted in the Farmer, from the Far- mers' Register — if Anti- sassafras will cut all the sassafras bushes down in the spring of the year, that are of any size, and pasture the land with cat- tle and sheep for two or three years in succession, it will effectually destroy them. I had a piece of land thickly set with them; I pastured it with cat- tle and shee|), the years 1831 and 1832, to destroy it ; in the fall of 1832 I broke it up and sowed it with wheat; I rode over it a few weeks past and could not see a single sprout of it. Three years will effectually destroy i^, and I think two is suf- ficient. Sheep and cattle are very fond of the sprouts, and they continue to trim them off as soon as they make their appearance. To satisfy FARMERS' REGISTER— GAM A GRASS— SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES. 367 any person of the correctness of this method, let him notice, when passing along a lane where the field is infested with this growth, — a plenty may he seen in the enclosure, but not one outside the field, unless it is too high lor cattle to trim the leaves olf. I am satisfied it is a great impoverisher. Kespectfiilly, your obedient servant, Wm. R. Smith, Sen'r. GAMA GRASS. Extract of a letter from N. Herbcmont, Esq. to the Editor of the Southern Agriculturist. It is supposed that this grass is rather too coarse and rough. It would, perhaps, be so, if it were kept till it is too old before it is cut for fodder. As I intend to save all the seed of it in my power, in order to plant as much of it as I can, I reserved only a small portion of the grass for cutting, and it^was cut for the fourth time this season, on the 27th July. It might have been cut at least once more, if I had begun earlier as I should have done; and I expect to cut it at least three times more. I wish I may find it practicable to send you, sir, a specimeii of the hay, as also specimens of the stalks with their various spikes for botanical examination. The hay, I have no doubt, would be found excel- lent. As to the amount of produce, it is probable that the account I have seen, stating that it would be about 300,000 lbs. of green grass of the various cuttings of one season, per acre, the person that made the supposition may have been rather too sanguine; but there cannot be any doubts of its being the most productive and easily cultivated grass ever tried in this country. GAMA GRASS. Extract from the Southern Planter. About 18 months since, I received some seed of the Gama Grass from Mr. Legare, and planted them in my garden, only three came up, enough however, to enable me to identify with it other grass, which I soon after noticed and watched till it seeded, it was the Gama Grass. Mr. Bugg, to whom I had given some of the seed, received li-om Mr. Legare, found the same grass growing in Mr. Woolfolk's plantation on the Chattahoochee river, six miles below Columbus, where we both procur- ed roots and seed. I subsequently found it on the town common, where I also i)rocured seed and roots. I have since seen it growing in the corners of a fence about 5 miles from La Grange, in Troup county. Dr. Ingersoll says he has it in his plan- tation, 3 miles below Columbus, and Mr. Biggers in his, about 8 above. I have lately seen a de- scription of the grass by a Mr. Meares, I think, which is so nearly correct, that persons cannot fail to identify wherever they see it. I planted nearly a quart of seed last spring, about one half came up, and is now from two to three feet high. I have not cut it. Not many of the old roots which I trans- planted lived, but irom those that did live, I have saved about a pint of seed, a part of which I will send yon the first opportunity. As the seed are enveloped by a very hard shell, some have advised planting them in the fall of the year, and though I have lost many by deferring till spring, 1 cannot agree with them, for if placed in the open ground, the rats and mice are sure to eat them ; for they seem to be as fond of the seed as cattle are of the blades. The better plan, I think, would be to put the seed in a box of earth, and place it away in the cellar or some other convenient place till spring, and then sow in drills in the open ground, and af- terwards manage as has been directed by Mr. Ma- goffin and others. I have noticed that the grass is never found in large quantities, at least I have never found more than twenty or thirty bunches together. ON THE AllVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LOCATING A PLANTING INTEREST IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES. From the Southern Agriculturist. Dear Sir, — In my last communication,* I tried to point out as correctly as my opportunities and ob- servation enabled me, the advantages and disad- vantages of locating a planting interest in such of the Prairies of the West, as I had seen. I shall now attempt some account of the other lands there, and give a few hints as to the first steps that should be taken by a new settler. The other lands are classed by planters into the red and grey uplands, and the river lands. The river lands are generally strips of alluvial soil im- mediately on its margin, rather narrow but very rich, called the first low grounds ; the second lo\v grounds are much wider but not so rich ; and there are large quantities of lands in the '•' bends," of which tliere are a great many, from the crooked- ness of the river. These "bends" or "necks," often in the shape of a horse shoe, present general- ly, on their upper sides, high bluffs of red land, not overflowed by the river, except from very extra- ordinary freshets, such as the Yazoo freshet of 1796, and the freshet of this spring; and on their lower sides, lands frequently overflowed, but rich- er on that account. The river lands are generally light isinglass sands, that work freely with both plough and hoe, and produce more cotton for equal fertility than corn, and more cotton, and perhaps- more corn than the Prairie, and are more free from its little discomforts. These lands, though at this time more healthy than ours, may be considered as sickly, and are liable to inundation, with its disad- vantages of injury to your stock, and the removal of your fences, &c. The freshets in the Alabama river, though not as regular in their periodical returns as in the Missis- sippi, are generally up in (he latter part of the win- ter and sjiring, and but rarely, indeed, during the crop-making season. 1 am informed there has been but one summer freshet to injure a crop with- in the last fifteen years; it is much to be doubted whether this will continue to be the case, when the country above becomes more cleared and drained. The freshets on this river for fifty miles below^ where it receives the waters of the Coosa and the Talapoosa, rise to sixty-five feet and more above ordinary low-water mark ; and then do not cover the high bluff lands. The great convenience of having good navigation at your door for the most bulky articles, with the expedition and facilities offered by the steam-boats, which pass up and down the river, on almost every day during the winter and spring, place these lands deservedly ve- ry high. * Farmers' Register, No. 5, p. 277. \i6B FARMERS* REGISTER— SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES. The red ami grey uplands lay very level and do not wash, are easy (o work, and free from the ca- sualties of tlie river, and tlic disagreeaMcncss of a residence on the Prairie, and make the handsomest plantations. Tliey do not produce as much per acre as the swamp or the Prairie, and they suffer more from drought, and I think they are not as du- rable ; but tlieir conveniences are so great, and you are sure of a pretty good crop, and your lands lay together so handsomely that they also stand very liigh, and I think are more in request than any other lands by the residents. They are more heal- thy than the river lands, but less so than the Prai- rie. The grey lands are lighter and bear drought better, but are not generally as productive. To contrast these lands with each otlier, I should say, the red lands make the handsomest plantations, and the most comfortable residences, and are lia- ble to the fewest casualties and diseases, but their general crops not as large as cither of the others. The river lands have the most substantial conveni- ences, make large crops, and have a great advantage in the navigation, but are less healthy than the others. The Prairies make the largest crops and have most health, but make very unpleasant re- sidences and bad roads, and are liable to the rust, a disease uncertain in the extent of its injury, or to what kinds of Prairie it may extend. With these advantages aiid disadvantages before him, of the different kinds of land, a settler will try so to locate his plantation as to avoid the pro- minent objection to each. If you select a river or a red-land plantation, the same rules that would guide you in wh.at lands yf>'i would plant if here, ought to guide you there : I shall, therefore, say no- thing about them. If a Prairie plantation is se- lected, and I could recommend one settled at dou- ble the price of one all in the Vvoods as cheaper, I would advise, that the bald Prairie, part of the old land, should be put in corn, because it rusts the cotton, and tlic wood-land, both old and new, and the bald, if new, to be put in cotton, because the bald is very little liable to rust cotton till it has been planted three years. The only difiiculty of making a crop on the bald Prairie the first year is, that tlie land is so much bound in a close mat of coarse grass roots, that it cannot produce, without it is ploughed up sulTiciently early for the frosts of winter to strike through it and moulder it down. One of our broom-straw old fields will give you some idea of a bald Prairie, both as to the appear- ance of its growth and the situation of the soil as affected by its roots. Newly cleared land gives a more certain rise of cotton and a surer crop than old land, and requires for its preparation the .same treatment from hoe and j)lough as here. The ge- neral preparation for the crop should be as it is here among good planters: though it is certainly true, that fine crops are made under a preparation of tiie soil, and a cultivation of them entirely too slovenly to be called husbandry, or to give the planter any credit for it, as it all belongs to the soil and the season. It is an object of first consequence to clear land for cultivation; therefore, after fixing your negroes in comfortable buildings, and a good pen for your mules, you should push yur clearings, and put your plantation under one fence. The most expe- ditious mode of clearing, is to grub nothing, but to cut with the axe the bushes even with the ground, and to cut down the small growth under four or five inches in diameter, and all the rest to girdle of ring by cutting through the bark and a little into the sap-wood all round the tree, and to do so little of the cutting dov/n as to enalde each laborer to go over from one-third to one-half acre per day. Where the stump of the tree stands, you cannot ])lant, and the body may as well stand above it, for at any rate the first and second years. Ano- ther kind of girdling is to cut in with tiie axe in single chops, following each other in the circle, without taking the chip out; this mode is about four times as fast as the other, and yet, perhaps, not to be preferred, because as you have no present means of knowing whether the communication of the sap has been cut off, you are very liable to be imposed upon with bad work. Where you wish to make certain of the trees dying the same year, you must girdle deep enough to go through the sap- wood. I have seen large oaks in the spring and au- tumn wilt on the same day they were girdled deep, that is into the red wood. The trees easiest killed are the ash, the maple, the pine, the various kinds of oak and the cotton; the trees most difficult are the scycamore, the gums, the beach, the elm, the waw- hoo, and the lyn. You will of course pile your brush and burn about such trees, and leave the others to the stroke of the axe. Where the undergrowth is principally cane, and a thick growth of it, you cut down and girdle nothing, but cut down the cane, which when seasoned, you put the fire to and it does all the rest of the cleaning for you ; but the cane must be close so as to make a strong fire. Where it is sparse, you will have to clear as above described. When you are clearing have all the stuff suitable for your buildings cut and hauled to the spots on w hich they are to be erected, because after the crop is laid bv, you cannot haul out of the cultivated fields, and your teams will not be in a suitable con- dition after making a crop. In ordinary years you may calculate on taking off a large portion of your men from the middle of June till the middle of August or first of September, to go to work on your buildings ; you should have a strong team of oxen. I believe I have given you a faithful account of the lands and the various matters that are to be taken into consideration, in making choice of a plantation, with some of the steps preparatory to commencing a crop. The liest mode of attend- ing a crop, and the quantity that may be attended to the hand, are matters I do not feel competent to advise upon, and would therefore recommend the practice of the best planters of your neighborhood. The usual mode of cultivation is different from ,imphes it to be a later edition. If he was 7iol the author, I should be obliged to any of your correspondents, who have the means of ascertaining, to inform me ichoicas. S T. An earlier edition of ' The Boke of Husbandry" is dated 1534. Con. Vol. 1—47 ' horse ware old, brused, or blinde, thd he is lytle ' worth. And yf any sorance com to an oxe, or he ' waxe olde, brused, orblynde, for II s, he may be ' fed, and then he is man's meate, and as good or ' better than ever he was. And the horse whe he ' dieth is but caryon. A nd therefore me semeth al ' thinges considered, the plough of oxen is much ' more profytable than the plough of horses.' The next chapter is thus entitled, ' The dili- ' gence and the attendance that a husbdde shuld ' giue to his workes, in maner of another prologuej ' and the special grounde of al this treatis.' Next, ' How a man shuld plow al maner of tymes in the ' yere.' Then, ' How to sow both pees and beanes.' The following is an article which it may not be amiss to prescribe to the agriculturists of the pre- sent day, namely, ' Sede of discrecyon.' ' There is,' says our author, ' a sede that is call- ' ed discrecyon, and yf a husbande haue of that ' sede and myngle it among hys other comes, they ' wyl groAV much the better, for that sede wyle tell ' hym how many castes of corne every lande ought ' to haue. And a young husbande, and may for- ' tune some old husbande haue not sufficients of that ' sede, and he that lacke let him borow of his ' neighboures that haue. And his neighbours be 'unkynd if they wil not lende this yonge hus- ' bande parte of this sede : for thys sede of discre- ' cion hath a w-onders propertie, for the more that ' it is taken of or lent of, the more it is. And ther- ' fore me seemeth it should be more spiritual than ' tcporal, wherein is a great diversitie,' &c. &c. Having stated ' howe all maner of corne shoulde ' be sowen/ he tells us, ' the best property that^ ' logeth to a good husbande is to sow all maner of 'corne thyck enough ;' — a good old fashioned rule^ which it would be well if some of our modern theorists would pay attention to. In describing the process of harrowing, he no- tices an an ox harrow very heavy, ' goode to breake ' the great clottes, and to make much molde ;' and observes, justly enough, ' yt were better for the ' oxen to go to the ploughe two daies, the to har- ' rowe one day.' We are too apt to fancy that any horse, however old, will do to go to harrows. The horse-harrow (a lighter kind) is then described,: and also one used in the neighbourhood of Rippon, having ' tindes' of wood. Then follow instructions to ' mowe grasse,' to make ' rakes and forkes,' to ' tedde and make haye,' ' sheare wheate, rye,' &c. in all which I observe but little difference from the modes in use at the present day. Speaking of sowing wheat, &c. he says, ' In Essex they use to ' haue a childeto goe in the forowe before the horses ' or oxen, with a bagge, or a hopper full of corne, ' and he taketh his handful of corne, and by lytell ' and lytell casteth it in the said forowe. Me seem- ' eth that childe ought to have much discrecyon.' How little does this differ from the well known practice of dibbling, so general in Norfolk and Suffolk, in this improved age ! A variety of pages arc occupied with instruc- tions on the management of sheep, cattle, &c. some fanciful enough, others bordering on super- stition, but for the most part, practically useful. — The reader Avill smile at the following precaution in the case of murrain. ' And it is comely used ' and Cometh of a great charitie, to take the bear ' head of the samebeaste,' (one that died of the mur- rain,) ' and put it upon a longe pole, and set it in ' a hedge faste bound to a stake by the hie way 370 FARMERS' REGISTER— FTZHERBERT'S BOKE OF HUSBANDRY. * side, that eveiye man that rideth or goeth that ' waye maye se and know hy that signe that there * is sycknesse of catel in liiat townsliip. And the ' husbandes holde an opinyon that itsliallhe rather ' cease. ' ' Tlie turne,' or sturdy as tliey call it in Scot- land, he says he has frequently seen cured by rais- ing the skin, turning up a i)iece of the skull bone, and taking out a bladder of water from over the brain. How little do we know of this common and fatal disorder, more tiian this old fashioned farmer has told us.'' We generally content ourselves with the latter part of his advice respecting it. ' If,' says he, ' tiie beast be fat, and any reasonable meat ' upon him, it is best to kill him, for then there is 'butlittel losse.' We next proceed to the management of hedges, orchard trees, &c. after which the work takes a more serious turn, and not only embraces various points of domestic economy, but goes on to enjoin the practice of many religious duties. I make no apology for the following extract, the quaintness and good sense of which will, I hope, justify its in- sertion at length. * ji shorte information for a yonge geniylman that entendeth to thryue. ' I advise him to gette a copy of this presenle * boke, and to rede it from the beginnyng unto the ' endyng, whereby he may perceive the chapters ' and contentes in the same, and by reason of oftc ' readyng he may perfyte what shulde be done at ' al seasons. For I lerned two verses at grammer ' scole, and those be these — 'Giitfa cauat lapid^ non vi sed sepe cadeJo, 'tSic liomo fit sapiens non vi scd sepe legeiido. — ' A dro[) of water perseth a stone not alonly by ' his owne strength, but by his often falling — ' Kyghte so a man shal be made wise not alonly ' ley by him selfe, but by his ofte readinge, and so ' may this yonge gentilman, according to the sea- ' son of tlie yere, rede lo his servauntes Avhat chap- ' toure he wyl — And also for any other maner of ' profite conteined in the same, the wliich is neces- ' sary for a yonge husbande thathatli not the expe- ' lyence of husbandry, nor other thynges conteyn- * ed in this presente boke, to take a good remem- ' hraunce and credence thereunto : for there is an * olde sayingc, but whataucloritye I cannot tell, — ' It is better the practice or knowledge of an hus- ' bandeman well proved, then the science or cun- ' ning of a philosopher not proved ; for there is no- ' thing touching husbandrye, and other profytes ' conteyned in this present booke, but I have had ' the experience therof and proved the same — ' and over and beside al this boke, I vvil advise * him ryse betime in the mornynge, and to go ' aboute his closes, pastures, feldes, and specially ' by the hedges, and tohaue in his purse a payre of ' tables, and when he seelh any Ihyng yt wolde be ' amended, to wryte it in his tables, as, and he fynde 'any horses, mares, beastes, shepe, swine, or geese ' in his pastures that be not his owne. And ' perad venture though they be his owne, he wold * not have the go there, or to finde a gappe or a sherd ' in his hedge, or any water striding in his pastures 'upo his gras whereby he may take double hurte, ' both losse of hys gras and rottying of hys sheepe ' and calves, &c. &c. For a man alway wander- 'yngorgoying about, somewhat findeth or seilh ' that is amisse, and would be amended, and assone 'as he seth any such defautes, then let him take ' oute his tables and wryte the defautes, and when ' he Cometh home to dyner, supper, or at nighte, ' then let him cal his bayly or his head servaunte, ' and to shew him the defautes that they may be 'shortly amended, and when it is amended, the put ' it out of his tables : thys used I todoe X. or XII. ' yeares or more, and tiuis let him use daili, and in ' short sj)ace he shal set much thynges in good or- ' dre, but daylye it wil haue mending. And if he ' cannot wryte let him nycke the defautes upon a ' sticke, and to shewe his baily as I sayd before. ' Also take hede both early and late, at al times, ' what maner of people resorte and come to thy ' house, and the cause of their comyng, and spe- ' cially yf they bring with them pitchars, Cannes, ' tankardes, borels, bagges, wallettes, or bushel- ' pokes. For if thy servantes be not true, they may ' doe the great hurt and themself litel auantage, ' wherfore they would be wel loked upon.' Next follows ' The AVives Occupacion.' How our modern wives may relish the various avoca- tions assigned them by honest Fitzherbert, I know not ; but to show them ' whereby they shuld not be ydle at no tyme,' I subjoin a list of a part of the duties expected from them (in 1550.) ' Fyrst in the mornyng when thou art waked ' and purpose to ryse, lift up thy had and blis the ' and make a signeof the holy crosse. In nomine ' pair is et filii Sf spiritus sandi. j^men. And if ' thou saye a pater noster, an ave and a crede, and ' remembre thy maker, thou shalte spede much the ' better ; and when thou art up and readye, then ' fyrst swepe thy house, dresse up thy dyshebord, ' and set al thynges in good order within thy house, ' milke the kie, socle thy calves, site up thy milke, ' take up thy childre, and array them, and provide ' for thy husbandes breakfaste, dyner, souper, and ' for thy children and servauntes, and take thy ' parte with the — And to ordeyne malt and come ' to the myl, to brew and bake withal when nede ' is — And mete it to the myl, and fro the myl, and ' selhat thou haue thy measure againe, besides the ' tole or elles the mylner dealeth not truly with ' the, or els thy corne is not dry as it shuld be.' After a variety of other employments, he says, ' leLte thy distatTe be alwaye redy lor a pastyme, ' tliat thou be not ydell. And undoubted a woman ' cannot get her livinge honestly with spinning on ' the distaife, but it stoppeth a gappe and must ' nedes be had.' W hat will the ladies of 1817 say to such whole- some advice as the following 1 ' It is a wives occupacion to winow al maner of ' cornes, to make malte, wash and wring, to make ' hey, to shere corne, and in timeofnede,tohelpeher ' husbande to fill the muckle wayneor donge carte, 'dryue the ploughe, to lotle hey, corne, and such ' other. It may fortune sometime,' says he, ' y' thou ' shalte have so many thinges to do that thou shalte ' not wel knov/ where is best tobegyn. The take ' hede whych thing should be the greatest losse if it ^ were not done, and in Vvhat space it would be ' done, and then thinke what is the greatest losse, ' and thcr l/Cgin ;' so very anxious was the good man to keep the ladies out of mischief. He next adnionisiies both husband and wife to live within their income, or, as he aptly styles it, ' eate within their tedder ;' and after laying down many excel- lent maxims of domestic economy, he proceeds to state his opinion of the causes of the increased lux- FARMERS' REGISTER- BUCKWHEAT. 371 ury of the times — these are three. * The Jyrst is ' prodigality in outragius and array far above me- ' sure ; the seconde thynge is costly charge of deli- * cious meates and drinkes ; the thyrde is outragius * play and game far above mesure.' ' Prodigalitie in outrageous and costly aray. ' I have sene bokes of accompt of the yomd of the ' wardropes of noble nu, and also invitories made ' after theyr decease, of theyr aparell, and I doubt * not but at this day it is XX. times more in value ' than it was to such a ma in degree as he was C. yeres ' agone, and many times is geuen away or it be ' halfe worne, to a symple man, the which causeth ' him to were the same, and another symple man, ' or lytell better, scynge him to were suche ra\^- ' ment, and thinking in his minde that he may ' were as good rayment as he, causeth him to l)ye ' suche other to his great cost and charge, and abo\ c ' measure, and an yl ensample to al other, and also ' to se meimes servauntes so abused in their array, * their cotes be so side that they be taine to tucke ' the up when they ryde, as women do theyr curtles * when they go to market or other places, the which ' is an inconvenient sight. And furthermore, they ' have such playtes upon theyr brestes and ruftes ' upon theyr sieves above theyr elbowes, that and ' theyr master or theyr selfe had never so greate ' neede, they cold not shote one shute to hurt theyr ' enemyes till he have caste of hys cote or cut of ' his sieves : thys is far above measure, or comon ' weale of the realme.' The increase of extravagance in ' delicious meate anddrynke' is not less curiosly stated. ' I have seen bokes of accompt of houseliolde and ' brumentes upon the same, and I dout not but in ' delicious meates, drynkes, and spices, ther is at ' thys day foure tyme so much spente as was at ' these dayes to a like man in degree ; and yet at ' that time there was as much byetfe and nmtton ' spent as is now, and as many good householdes ' kepte, and as many j^omen wayters therein as bee * now. This began wyth love and charitie, when * a lord, a gentylman or yoman desyreth or pray- ' eth another to come to dyner or supper, and by- ' cause of his cxnuyng he wold have a dysh or two ' mo then he wolde have had yf he had byn away. * Then of very love he remembrynge howe lov- ' ingely he was biden to diner, and howe well he ' fared, he thinketh of very kindness he muste nedes ' bid him to dyner agayne, and so ordeyneth as ' many maner of such dyshes and meates as the ' other man dyd, and two or thre mo, and thus by ' litle and litle it cometh far above measure. And ' began of love and charity, and endeth in pride and ' glottony, whereof S. Jerome sayth,' &.c. Etc. The latter part of this singular publication is chiefly occupied by instructions on moral and reli- gious points. Having, however, already taken up so much of your time, I will only give a part ol' his concluding section. ' What is the greatest offence that a man may ' do and offende God in :' ' In myne opinion it is ' to be in dyspayre of the mercy of God. And * therefor, whatsoever that thou hath done or of- ' fended God, in worde, worke, thoughte, or dede, * be never in despayre for it: for Isodorous saith, * " He that despayreth to have forgivenesse of his * synnes, he synneth more in the desjiayringe than ' he dyd in the synn doing." ' With the followiuf^ ' protestacion,' at once ex- pressive of his simplicity and sincerity of inten- tion, the author concludes his labours : ' Be it knowen to al men, spiritual and temporal, ' that I make protestacion, before God and man, ' that I intende not to write any thyng that is, or ' may be, contrary to the fayth of Christe and al ' holy churche. But I am ready to revoke my say- ' ing, if any thing haue passed my mouth for want ' of learning. And to submitte myselfe to correc- ' cion, and my boke to reformacyon. x\nd, as ' touching the poyntes of husbandrye, and of other ' articles conteyned in this present boke, I wil not ' say that it is the best way, and wil serve best in 'all places; but I saye, it is the best waye that ' ever I couldc prove by experyence, the whiche ' haue bene a householder thys XL. years, and ' more. And haue assayed many and divers waies, ' and done my diligence to prove, by experience, ' which should be tiie best way. THE AUCTOR. ' Go, litlel quere, and recoinmende me ' To ai that ihj-s treatyse shall se, here, or rede, ' Piayina; them therwyth contented to be, ' And to amende it in places, where as is nede. ' Of eloquence they may perceyue I v.ant ye sede, ' And rethoryko in me dotii not abouiide. ' Wlierefore I have sowen such sedc as I found. If you think the above worthy a place in your intelligent publication, it is much at your service ; and should you feel disposed to know, and to make known, a little more of the farming of our forefa- thers, I will, as I observed in the former part of my letter, give you a similar analysis of Barnaby Googe's Book, which, though of a later date than the work before us, was printed 75 years previous to that of Blyth. I am, &c. S. TAYLOR, jr. Ditchingham, Norfolk, j^pril 12, 1817. BUCKWHEAT. From the Complete Grazier, 5th Loudon edition, 1830. Buckwheat, (Polygonum fagopyrum, h.,) ve- getates with great luxuriance in dry, loose, and sandy soils, that are open to the effects of the sun ; though the variety known by the name of Siberian buckwheat, which is nmch heavier and more pala- table in the grain, will thrive in the poorest soil, and is not at all affected by cold. The best, and indeed the proper season for sowing it is towards the end of May, or the commencement of June; and, in the course of a week, it generally appears above the ground : the quantity is from one to three bushels per acre. Buckwheat requires little or no manure, and affords an excellent food, either for soiling or for winter store. Given to horses em- ployed in slow draught, in conjunction with bran or chaff, whether the seeds be in a whole state or bruised in a mill, it will put them into fine condi- tion; and, if given to cows, in a recent or green state, it greatly increases the quantity of milk. The seeds of the buckwheat are excellent for fat- tening poultry and swine; but the last mentioned animals should, if possible, be kept from eating the whole vegetable, as it is as.serted, not only to intoxicate them, but also to cover them with scabby eruptions. The peculiarly fine flavor of the poultry in the south of France is said to be derived from this grain; but its fattening proper- ties are not equal to those of the corn in common use. 372 FARMERS' REGISTER— APfllS LANATA— FRUIT TREES. APHIS LANATA. The jJphis lanata, nicknamed without reason the Jlmerican blight, is a minute insect which is doing great injury to the apple orchards in Great Britain, and is extending itself in this country. In the June No. of the Gardener's Magazine, there is a collection of facts and prescriptions in relation to this pest, which it may be of use to notice. " The blights wander wherever it pleases the wind to carry them ; and if bad luck should drive one of them against the branch of an api)le tree, there it will stick, creep into a crack in the bark, bring forth its young, and found a colony. It has just the look of a bit of cotton, or a downy seed. — If you examine it you will find it to be just like the plant-louse, which infests our rose trees, &c. ; but unlike all other plant-lice, it is closed and muffled up with cotton wool, in such quantities, that at first you would have no more idea that the lump con- tained an insect, than that the mass of cloths on a stage-coach box in winter, contained a man. The white cotton soon appears in bunches ; branch after branch becomes affected ; the tree grows cankery, pines and dies," from the exhaustion of sap caused l)y these insects. We have seen this aphis only upon nursery trees, and there they located themselves generally at the intersection of branches. Tubercles or knots soon appeared upon the bark where they had fixed, and on taking up the trees we often found they had extended their colonies to the roots, as in- dicated by strings of tubercles resembling the an- bury in turnips. The remedy we employed for two seasons, which was a faithful application of oil, with a rag, to their nests, seems to have destroyed them, ?i.s well at the root as on the branches, as they have hardly met our eye for the two last years. The rains, it is presumed, carried the antidote to the roots. Various remedies for the evils tlic insects inflict are mentioned in the Gardener's Magazine. One writer recommends a mixture of whitewash and size, to be applied to the tree, warm, with a brush. Another, diluted sulphuric acid, three-quarters of an ounce measure of the sulphuric acid with seven and a half ounces of water, applied to all the cre- vices with a rag. This also destroys lichens and other insects and their eggs. The sublimate of tar is recom.mended by a third, applied with a pain- ter's brush ; train oil by a fourth ; oil and soot by a fifth] a strong infusion of tobacco by a sixth, &c. &c. The best topical application which we have ever applied to the apple tree, whether to destroy insects or parasitical plants, or to impart health and vigor to the tree, is a very strong ley of ashes or potash. It destroys the bark louse and the larva of other insects, and gives to the bark a smoothness, elasti- city and freshness which no other application gives. We apply it the latter end of May, and have not repeated it oftener than once in three years. B. SEEDLINGS FROIM GRAFTED AND UNGRAFT- ED FRUIT TREES. An opinion prevails that seedling peaches, plums, &c. will yield fruit exactly resenibling the parent, provided the old tree was not grafted, — and pro- vided the jojYs be kepi moist until planted, —to which some add, if the fruit be planted whole; that is, with an unbroken skin, and all the pulp left sur- rounding the stone. As mankind are generally best satisfied with a reason for every thing, we will endeavor to inquire into the cause of such rules — the ivhy and the loherefore — and begin by putting the question, fVhy should the offspring of a grafted tree, stand- ing on another's root, be more likely to prove a new variety than the offspring of a seedling tree stand- ing on its oivn root? It has become a common opinion that new kinds of fruit originate from the pollen of one variety be- ing carried by the bees or by the wind, to the stig- ma of another variety ; and the offspring, partak- ing of the nature of both parents, must, in conse- quence, be a new variety. That this is very likely to happen amongst crowded trees of different kinds, will be readily admitted; and the experiments of Knight and Fan Mons, tend to confirm it. But if a grafted tree stands too remote from other va- rieties to be affected in this way, the offspring could not change on this principle ; and might not change at all. It will thus be seen that proximity to other trees, requires to be considered. Another question will then occur, j^re the stigmas of grafted trees more liable to be fertilized by other varieties, than the stig7nas of ungrafted trees 1 We could not affirm it. Hoiv then can the offspring of a graft- ed tree be more liable to a change ? We know not ; for whether the stock affects the graft by its sap, or not, — it cannot affect it by the pollen when it produces none. A fourth question is now presented. Does an un- grafted tree produce seedlings exactly like itself 7 Thirty years ago, when we had scarcely any other kind than the old Indian peach in the country, it was observed to come very true from the stone ; and. amongst the hundreds of trees produced in this way, we have not met with any distinguishable sub-variety. It has been the opinion of some hor- ticulturists however, that inferior varieties are more permjinent and less liable to change in their off- spring than superior varieties, — as if the latter had ascended lo the top of the wave, with ^ 3trong ten- dency at the first change to fall back to the origi- nal level. We lay no great stress on this idea, though it may merit a passing notice. However, if in the beginning of things there was only one sort of peach, it follows of necessity, that it or its offspring must have spread into varieties unassist^ ed ; and we know from observation, that a plant, solitary, and remote from any other of its species, has in a few years passed into several varieties. — There are other causes then, besides the access of pollen to the stigmas, for such changes ; but in ad- dition, when ungrafted trees grow in close assem- blage with other kinds, it is very doubtful if the young trees will prove true. We have seen seve- ral kinds of peach trees crowded together in a small gai'den ivithout budding, that varied much in their offspring. Among them was a white peach of very peculiar properties which could be readily traced in its descendants; but there were no two exactly alike. It remains for us to speak of planting the stones in a recent state, while the whole or a part of the pulp remains attached. If we examine a peach stone in its freshest state, we find the pit a kernel no longer fast to the inside of the stone, but gene- rally a little shrunk, and loose in its cavity. It ig FARMERS' REGISTER— xMORTAR— CORNSTALKS, &c. 373 already llie embryo of a periect plant ; and if any moisture could transude from the pulp through the stone, which we incline to question, it is too late, if it ever possessed any power, to model the young plant ; it could only at most be food, not needed ; for the die is already cast; and the constitution of that plant, we fully believe, is not to be changed by any external application. We liave now two seed- ling trees of a tine sort, from stones kept dry for more than a year in the garret, — the fruit of which is so nearly exact as to be scarcely distinguished apart; and we cite the instance as a further confir- mation of the non-effect of drying, and of the un- changeable nature of an embryo. In conclusion, we would advise those who wish to propagate varieties of fruit trees with exactness, to bud or graft, — assuring them there is no just ground for believing, so far as we can discover, that the descendant of an ungrafted tree has any better chance to be true than the descendant of a grafted tree, V. OJf THE FORMATION OF MORTAR. From the Genesee Farmer. Extract from an Essay of James Jliidcr son, L. L. D. F. R. S. " The best modern mortar I ever savv, was made of lime that I myself had analyzed, and found it contained eleven parts of sand to one of lime. To this there was added between twice and thrice its whole bulk of sand by measure, which may be al- lowed to have been, at least, three times its quantity by weight. " Now, supposing that every particle of that lime had been so perfectly calcined as to be in a caustic state, there could not be less than forty- seven parts of sand to one of lime. The reader may allow what he pleases for the uncaustic part of the lime, and make his calculation accordingly. But it is hardly possible to suppose, that above one hundredth part of this mass, independent of the water, consisted of pure caustic calcareous earth. " But whatever was the exact proportion of caus- tic lime, the mortar was made of these materials in proportions expressed, and was employed for pin- ning the outside joints of the stone wall of a house situated in a tempestuous climate, and exposed to every blast. It is now about fourteen years since it was finished, and I do not believe there has fallen to the ground in all that time, one pound weight of the mortar.* " Had this mortar been employed in building a thick wall, where it would have been suffered to dry slow enough, there seems to be little reason to doubt but it would in time have become as firm as the stones of the wall itself. " From these considerations Ave may clearly see, that it is impossible to prescribe any determinate proportion of sand to lime, as that must vary ac- cording to the nature of the lime, and other inciden- tal circumstances which it would be tiresome to enumerate, and which would form an infinity of ex- ceptions to any general rule. " But it would seem, we might safely infer, that the moderns in general, rather err in giving too lit- tle sand, than in giving too much. * In a note to a second edition of this work is the fol- lowing addition : " After seven years longer trial, tlie mortar still proves good and firm, and e.xhibits no ap- pearance of ever falling." " It deserves, however, to be remarked, that the sand when naturally in the lime-stone, is more inti- mately blended with the lime than can possibly be ever effected by any mechanical operation — so that it would be in vain to hope to make good mortar artificially from pure lime with such a small pro- portion of caustic calcareous matter, as may some- times be effected when the lime naturally contains a very small proportion of sand. But there seems to be no doubt that if a much larger proportion of sand were employed, and if that were more care- fully blended and expeditiously worked than is com- mon, the mortar would be much more perfect than usual in modern times. " This I have tried experimentally with the de- sired success." CUTTING CORN STALKS. From the Genesee Farmer. Much has been said and written on the subject of cutting up corn, and much diversity of opinion still prevails. Some prefer cutting above the ears soon after the kernel begins to change color: and any innovation on this practice, is by these, consi- dered an indication of unskilfulness in husbandry. We believe this system is, not only unphilosophi- cal, but productive of much injury to the crop itself. Physiologists are well agreed in this, that the leaves of plants are important organs, in the elaboration of nutritive matter, that by them the jdant per- spires, feels the influence of heat and light, and through them receives that which stimulates and promotes their vital operations. What then must be the injury, which the plant sustains, when thus mutilated.^ The assimilation of the farina, which is the nutritious part of the grain, will be impeded and partially performed : consequently a less crop may be expected, not only in quantify, but the quality will be proportionably diminished. By topping early, the fodder is finer and sweeter, but does not afibrd so much nutriment, as when more fully matured. But by cutting the crop at the ground, the land is at once cleared from the stub- ble, in a measure, which when left long is always troublesome, by obstructing the progress of the plough, and is ready to be immediately applied to another crop. — The weight of the grain is increas- ed and its value as an article of food is enhanced, because the grain is fully ripe. The quantit)" of fodder thus obtained, may not vary much from that, by the other method, but more than double the quantity of manure will be secured, the value of which will be duly appreciated by every good far- mer. We should be glad to receive some care- fully instituted experiments on this subject for publication. AMERICAN FARMER. From the Baltimore Patriot. We observed in the last number of the Ame- rican Farmer, that Mr. Gideon B. Smith, has taken leave of that journal as its editor. Mr. S. has long labored with much zeal in promoting the cause of agriculture, and his useful and culti- vated talents have often graced many of the publi- cations of the day besides the Farmer. He de- serves and we hope will find success in whatever new undertaking he may have in view. 374 FARMERS' RJaOISTER— POTATOEJ^. GATHERING AND SECURING POTATOES. From the New England Farmer. A variety of conflicting; opinions have been, and we believe still are entertained, relative to the topic of difjging and preserving potatoes. Formerly it was the custom among farmers to dig them early, while the tops were entirely green and the potatoes not ripe, nor indeed fully grown. They took care to dry them in the sun till the bulbs were almost as green as the balls or apples, and nearly as strong as so many quids of tobacco. Potatoes ti-eated in this way "become poison for pigs, and very un- wholesome for all other animals, including the great rational biped whose sagacity is as apt to go astray in this, as in other matters of impor- tance to his welfare. It was probably this and other injudicious modes of cultivating, managing and using this crop, that caused those violent pre- judices against the plant, which prevailed for a long lime among the bulk of mankind, after the potatoe was first introduced and recommended as an arti- cle worthy of the attention of the rural economist. Even in this enlightened age and nation, we have known farmers nearly spoil their crop of potatoes by mismanagement in digging and securing them. Some of those wise cultivators who know too much to be taught, either by the lessons of experience or the dictates of reason, let them lay after they are dug, for several days, perhaps weeks, in the field, as if on purpose to spoil them. But, of late years, more correct systems relative to this and other branches of husbandry are intro- duced and becoming prevalent. Men who unite science, good sense, and expei'ience, afford such lights that none but those whose mental optics are, as it were, hermetically sealed by obstinacy and prejudice, persevere in the use of bad means, to at- tain good ends. Among others who have deserved well of their country and of mankind, by illumi- nating the path of the husbandman, the lion. Mr. Fiske, of Worcester, has directed his attention to the subject under consideration. The remarks to which we allude are contained in his address to the Worcester Agricultural Society, delivered Octo- ber 3, 183.3. " While on the subject of the potatoe," says Mr. Fiske, "it may be worthy of remark, that it pos- sesses one peculiarity distinct from any other ger- minating vegetable. It is not susceptible of vege- tation until the season succeeding its growth.* From this it seems obvious, tiiat nature has not accomplished its maturation at this period when the vines decay, and the farmer believes it to be ripe. It seems probable that the earth, by some unknown process, perfects its qualities after it has attained its growth. That potatoes which have remained the whole season in the earth are more farinaceous and pleasant, has been ascertained. A farmer in this town, who was in the practice of planting a large quantity, took his family suj)ply from a large field early in autumn. As the residue were intended for his stock, he deferred harvesting them until a late and more convenient period. Du- ring their consumption, his table was furnished * This is not the case, where the continuation of warm weather is much longer than in New England. The early potatoes made in Eastern Virginia, when left in the ground until October, are materi^illy injured by sprouting. — [Ed. Fai-mers' Register, with some which had been destined for the barn. The quality was so obviously superior as to lead to an investigation of the cause. From that time tho two parcels received an exchange of destination. Another fact illustrative of this position, was stated to me by an eminent farmer in the vicinity of Bos- ton. A distinguished agriculturist, from Scotland, who had dined at the best tables in this city and its neighboi-hood, remarked at the iiospitable board of my informant, that he had not seen in this country what, in Scotland, would be considered a good po- tatoe. He imputed their difference to the different mode of cultivation. Tlicre they plant early and dig late. Surely the science of agriculture must be in its inflmcy, when the cultivation of our most common and staple vegetables is in dispute!" The following paper from the Transactions of the Society of Arts in London, may be of use to those who wish to preserve potatoes in the best possible condition, either for sea stores, foreign consumption, or domestic use. " The usual mode at present practised for endea- voring to })reserve })otaloes, is to leave them, after digging, exposed to the sun and air until they are dry. This exposure generally causes them to have a bitter taste; and it may be remarked, that potatoes are never so sweet to the palate, as when cooked immediately after digging. I find that when potatoes are left in large heaps or pits in the ground, that a fermentation takes place which de- stroys the sweet flavor of the potatoes. In order to prevent that fermentation, and to preserve them from losing the original fine and pleasant flavor, my plan is, (and which experience proves to me to have the desired effect) to have them packed in casks as they are digging from the ground, and to have the casks, when the potatoes are piled in them, filled up with sand or earth, taking care that it is done as speedily as possible, and that all vacant places in the cask are filled up by the earth or sand ; the cask thus packed, holds as many pota- toes as it would were no earth or sand used in the packing; and as the vacant spaces in the cask of potatoes are filled, the air is totally excluded and cannot act on the potatoes, and consequently no fer- mentation can take place. " I sailed from New-York to St. Bartholomews, and brought with me two hundred barrels of pota- toes, packed in the above manner. " On my arrival at this island I found, as I ex- pected, that the potatoes had preserved all their original sweetness of flavor ; in fact, as good as when first dug, having undergone no fermentation, nor in the slightest degree affected by the bilge or close air of the ship. Some barrels of (he potatoes I sold there, and at the neighboring islands, for four dollars per bushel, and at the same time pota- toes carried out in bulk, without packing, and others that were brought there packed in casks which had not been filled up with earth, sold only for a dollar per bushel, they being injured in the passage by the bilged air and fermentation, being bitter and bad, whilst mine were as perfectly sweet and dry as when first dug. What remained I shipped from St. Bartholomews to Jamaica, where they arrived in equally good condition, and sold at a higher price than they had brought at the former island; some of these casks of potatoes were put in a cool cellar by the purchaser at Jamaica, and on examin- ing them when I was leaving the island, two months after, I found that they had in a very small FARMERS' REGISTER— DUTCH ASHES, &c. 375 degree sproulcd, but that all their original flavor was preserved." CHARLES WIIITLAVV. In order to preserve potatoes in sand or soil, it is not necessary to pack them in casks or other ves- sels. They may be mixed with a due quantity of the earth of the field in which they have grown, and put into bins in cellars, or buried in holes dug in the ground. The earth should be in such quan- tity as to keep them from the air and from the gene- ral contact with each other. Placed in this man- ner, they will not sutTer from the heat nor frost, if deposited in a cellar which freezes. If surrounded by each they will receive little or no injury from frost. It is wrong to suppose that the earth or sand in which they are imbedded, should be perfectly dry. Some degree of moisture is necessary, in or- der to preserve the life of root. If the vital or vegetative principle is destroyed, they will soon decay, by a sort of dry rot. They may, however, it is said, be cut into slices, and dried in an oven or kiln, and will then remain sweet and sound for years. We suppose that either the native juice of the potatoe should be expelled by heat, or the vege- tative principle preserved by moisture, and a se- clusion from the air. THE USE AND VALUE OF DUTCH ASHES, AS A MANURE FOR CLOVER. Extracted from Sir John Sinclair's .AgrkuUural state of the Ne- therlands. [The remarkable manure described in the fol- lowing extract was referred to in the Abbe Mann's Observations on the A griculture of the Netherlands, (which is one of the selections given in the second number of the Farmers' Register,) and it is so important a means of improvement, in that admira- bly cultivated country, that every one who wishes to know the features of Flemish husbandry, ought to be more particularly informed of tlie nature and composition of Dutch ashes. Our latest informa- tion with regard to the agriculture of Belgium, shows that an artificial compound manure has been invented by M. Hollert, formed of certain propor- tions of lime, clay, pit coal, salt, &c. which after being burnt, is considered similar in chemical com- position, and equal in value, to the Dutch ashes. The sulphate and carbonate of lime, (gypsum and calcareous earth,) which are ingredients of the Dutch ashes, must constitute their principal value as manure. M. HoUert's scheme of a substitute, may be visionary : but nevertheless, it may be true, that cheap materials may be presented by nature, in this country as well as in Belgium, which may be so mixed, as to yield the same chemi- cal results and proportions, and produce the like effects, as this valuable manure.] " For a number of years past, the crops of clover in England have gradually become more and more deficient, and the crops of wheat sown after the clover, have frequently failed. It was supposed, that i'rom two frequent repetition, the ground had become tired of clover, and that the same success in cultivating it could not be expected. The fail- ure of the crop of wheat afterwards was peculiarly unfortunate, and certainly greatly contributed to the scarcities which have of late prevailed in tliis country. I was much gratified therefore to find, that in Flanders there were no complaints of the fail- ure of the crop of clover, (except in one district, where a plant, called the orobanche, infested the ground,) and that the crop of wheat, after clover, Vv'as reckoned among the surest of any. It was still more satisfactory to ascertain, that the means of obtaining similar results, were distinctly known, v/ere not expensive, and could easily be procured in England, being nothing but the application of Dutch ashes. " According to the best information I have hith- erto been able to obtain, there are too sorts of turf or peat in Holland. The first is found on rising grounds, and in a sandy soil, at from three to twelve feet from the surface, the strata varying from eigh- teen inches to three or four feet in depth. This sort is principally found in Friesland. It is cut and prepared in the same manner as the peat of Scotland and Ireland, burns quickly and cheerfully, gives a good heat, but leaves only a very light ash, of little value. The other sort of peat, which is more generally used in Holland, is extracted from the marshes, which are constantly covered, during the winter season, with water of a brackish nature; after this peat is reduced to a pulp, it is spread upon the ground, and when it has acquired a cer- tain consistency, it is cut and dried in the same manner as the former. It burns less clear, and gives less heat than the other peat, but it lasts longer, and leaves a much heavier ash, full of saline matter, insomuch that it is sometimes used as a substitute for soda, in the manufacture of green glass. This can only be accounted for by the effects of the water by which it is covered, which not only deposits a muddy substance, whence the richer part of the ashes is derived, but the water being of a brackish quality, it impregnates the peat with salts. " These ashes were analysed about fifty years ago, when it appeared tiiat from one-nintli to one- twelflli part consisted of glauber and marine salts.* In a recent analysis by Professor Brande, of the Royal Institution, the contents of the specimen given him were as follow : — " Silicious earth - - - 32 Sulphate of lime, - - - 12 Sulphate and muriate of soda - 6 Carbonate of lime - - - 40 Oxide of iron _ _ _ 3 Impurities and loss 93 7 100 " In such an article, however, the variety of sub- * Sec Memoires de rAcadcniie de Bruxelles, Tome III. p. 47, where there is a paper written by the Abb6 Marci, read on the 13th December, 1775, on the subject of artificial manures, and stating the advantage of using these Dutch ashes, as being then well known. 376 FARMERS' REGISTER— DUTCH ASHES, &c. stances to be found in it must be very great, and in different proportions. " In every part of the interior of Flanders these Dutch ashes are used for clover, and with a success hardly to be credited. They are brought to Brus- sels by a canal, and thence are conveyed, by land carriage, to the distance of from 50 to even 100 miles. Wherever they arc used, there is no com- plaint of any deficiency either in the crop of clover, or of the wheat afterwards. Some instances of' their success, it may be proper to sjjecify. " Mr. Mosselman, a great farmer at Chenoi, near Wavre, assured me, that without the ashes of Hol- land, he could neither have a crop of clover, nor of wheat afterwards ; and that wheat, after clover, manured loith Dutch ashes, was the most certain crop of any. " Mr. Hanelot, near Fleurus, declares, that he sows upon clover twenty-five cuvelles of Dutch ashes per hectare; (about nineteen bushels per English acre;) that no manure, though it were to be given in greater quantities, and at more expense, would equalit in strength ; that after sowing these Dutch ashes, they always have two great crops of clover, besides pasturage afterwards ; and that the next crop of wheat is not more injured by insects, than the other crops of that grain. " Observing a great heap of dung in a field near Baulet, I inquired of Mr. Grossje-an, the farmer who accompanied me, what it was intended for. He answered, that it belonged to another farmer, who thought to render the use of Dutch ashes un- necessary, by spreading a great quantity of dung on his young clover during the winter, and collect- ing it in the spring to carry to another field ; but there was no comparison between the clover where the Dutch ashes had been applied, and the field that had been covered with the dung, the former being much forwarder, and in every respect supe- rior. " Mr. Vandoorslair, in the Pays de Waes, in- forms me, that this manure is used with great bene- fit where clover is kept for a second year, whether for cutting or pasture, and its advantage, where that practice is adopted, would be incalculable, as the second year's crop is of little value at pre- sent. "It is unnecessary, however, to dwell more on individual opinions, when eighty-three practical farmers in the neighborhood of Fleurus, have joined in a public declaration to the following effect : — " All our farmers know by experience, that when clover is not manured at the rate of twenty-five cuvelles of Dutch ashes par bonnier, the following crop (of wheat) is very bad, not- withstanding any culture that can be given to the soil, whereas they always have an excellent crop of wheat after clover, and, doubtless, in proportion to the quantity of manure above mentioned being- used." The farmers who have subscribed this declaration, must have been deeply impressed with the importance of these ashes; for, in general, they must have brought them from forty to fifty miles, by land carriage, from wharfs on the canal of Brussels. " These circumstances astonished me more than any thing I had met with in the whole course of my excursion. The advantages of Dutch ashes have been long known on the continent; and though it would be as easy to import them into England or Scotland, as into Flanders, it does not appear to have been ever thought of, or tried ; and on my return to England, on the 22nd of April last, the crops of clover in Kent seemed to me from a fortnight to three weeks behind, in regard to maturity, and greatly inferior in point of pro- duce, to those I had seen on the continent ; which, I am persuaded, was entirely owing to the use of these ashes. " Upon inquiring info the price of these ashes at Brussels, I found it was one franc fifty centimes par hectolitre, (about 5d. sterling per bushel ;) that it required 16 hectolitres (about 47 bushels) par hectare, containing rather less than three English acres. The quantity therefore is about eighteen or nineteen bushels per English acre, or from 7s. to 8s. besides the carriage- " Mr. Ferrier, the British Consul at Rotterdam, (whose ready attention to my inquiries I acknow- ledge with much pleasure,) informs me, that the price at Rotterdam was seven stivers per 100 pounds, Dutch weight; and including all expenses, that it would come to about twelve stivers, which, at the present rate of exchange, is about Is. 4d. per 100 pounds weight, delivered free on board. The freight per ton of 2240 pounds, would be about 21. to London, and perhaps about 21. 10s. to Leith. The expense, on the whole, would not pro- bably exceed from 10s. to 15s. per acre, freight included.* "Dutch ashes are used for various purposes, be- sides as a manure for clover. Some farmers spread them on the ground where they have sown turnips or carrots, passing a harrow over the surface, and thus destroying the insects which injure those plants. These ashes are likewise sown on rye in October, on wheat and pasture lands as well as on clover in April, and on oats and beans in May. They are of great use to peas ; but they render the grain harder, and nwre difficult to boil. In gardens they are used with much advantage, scat- tered over the surface, after the land is sown and raked. They are also good for hops, a handful being given to each heap. When applied to grain they promote its early growth, but are principally useful by iiKreasing the quantity. They are in general sown by the hand, like grain; but care must be taken to leave no part of the surface with- out its just proportion. A still hazy morning is' preferred for this operation, lest the wind should blow them away, and prevent their fixing on the soil and plants in the manner intended. The change which these ashes cause on the clover, is perceptible in the course of a week, and it is known, from repeated experiments, that without this pre- caution, vegetation has suffered so sensibly, that in some cases a crop of clover has been lost, and in others, has become less abundant. Among the other advantages of these ashes, it is said, that they not only bring with them the principles of fertility, but that they are also well calculated to hinder the multiplication of all sorts of worms and insects, (hence they may prevent the ravages of the turnip- fly or beetle,) to destroy the mosses and lichens,, which injure our pasture lands, and to protect the wheat from several maladies to which it is exposed, in particular the nielle or mildew ; and perhaps the exemption of Flanders in so great a degree from * The expense would now be less than when the above was written. P- P- FARMERS' REGISTER— MANURING. 377 these maladies, is partly owing to the abundant use of those ashes.* " When completely analysed, perhaps we may be enabled to procure an artificial compound ma' nure, equally efficacious ; or it may be found that clay ashes, now so successfully employed by Mr. Craig of Cally, Mr. Boyd of Merton-hall, and other agriculturists in Wigtonshire, may in some respects, answer the same purposes. " Mr. Young informs me, that whilst the crops of clover were abundant, the succeeding crops of wheat were equally good. If, therefore, by the use of these ashes, our former crops of clover can be restored, a double advantage will be obtained. The saline substances in the ashes may also con- tribute to destroy the wire- worm, and in that way may protect the crops of wheat from injury. " In a celebrated experiment made in France, wheat sown after a moderate crop of clover was indifferent ; after fallow was good, but after a great crop of clover that had been gypsumed, it was, in the language of the report, superb. The reasons are obvious. No insect can exist under so suffo- cating a crop as an abundant one of clover; and the roots of the clover, when abundant, furnish a great quantity of manure for the wheat. It ought to be a rule in farming, to sow oats after a mode- rate crop of clover, but wheat after a large one. "I do not know any means by which so great an improvement can be so rapidly, and so gene- rally introduced, and at so moderate an expense, as by the importation of Dutch ashes ; and it gives me particular pleasure, that it is likely to promote, in a peculiar degree, the interests of the spirited and intelligent farmers of the county of Norfolk, to whom this species of manure is fortunately so accessible. " In Switzerland, and other countries where these ashes cannot be had, they make use of gypsum, or the sulphate of lime ; but from the best informa- tion I have been able to obtain, there is no compa- rison between the two articles, the Dutch ashes being greatly superior, and much more certain, the effects of gypsum being precarious." ON THE FLEMISH SYSTEM OF MANURING. From Sinclair's AgricuUm-al State of the Netherlands. " The Flemish farmers are peculiarly distin- guished by their great attention to manure. It is a principle with them, that the fertility of the soil entirely depends on the riches you give it, and that a farmer cannot be too attentive to the collection and application of this source of wealth. The more opulent farmers likewise pave, and line with bricks, the receptacles for their dung, which is thus kept constantly plunged in a mass of liquid matter. The fibrous parts of the vegetables are in this way completely decomposed, and (bur tons of this manure go as far as five collected and kept with less precaution.! " The following is a list of the manures made use of in the neighborhood of Lisle. * It appears by the analysis of the turf, (whence the Dutch ashes are derived,) by the Abb6 Marci, that the salts are found in the bituminous parts of the peat ; and fortunately great quantities of peat, full of bitumen, are to be found in the Hebrides. I Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. J. p. 238. Vol. 1—48 " 1. The dung of cattle and horses, with the straw; 2. ashes; 3. lime; 4. the urine of animals, collected with care in brick cisterns; 5. the cakes of rape and hemp seed,* reduced to powder in a mill, and which is sometimes thrown into the urine cisterns. This last sort of manure, on account of its strength, is scattered about in small quantities, fifteen days before the seed is sown, that it may not prove injurious to the plant. 6. The sour wa- ter obtained by washing the tubs of starch-makers. This is considered to be a very weak manure. 7. The urine of cattle fattened at the distilleries ; 8. the dung of pigeons; 9. that of sheep, gathered by young children along the sides of the roads ; 10. street dung ; 11. marie ; 12. the refuse of horns, a manure as effectual the second as the first year ; 13. night-soil purchased from scavengers. The price of this article is three-pence, to the scaven- gers, per ton, and twice as much to the inhabitants of the country. A wagon-load of this matter, drawn by three horses, costs only twelve francs, or 10s. sterling. The town of Lisle, however, alone produces as much of this sort of manure, as would sell for about 4200Z. a-year. The night-soil of an hospital there, containing 1800 souls, is let for 3300 francs, or VSKl. 10s. per annum. " In order to increase the quantity of manure, not only horses, but cattle, and even sheep, are kept in stables during almost the whole year ; and, that nothing may be lost, the stables and cow-houses are washed with water, which is conveyed into cisterns, or thrown into the dunghill. " Great attention is also paid to cover the dung. When it is spread on the surface of a field to be ploughed, after a furrow is made, a person with a fork or rake goes before the plough, and throws from the surface, into the furrow, the manure upon as much soil as the plough is likely to turn over, which is thus effectually covered, and prevented from being exposed to the atmosphere. This should be done in all cases, and not restricted to the potatoe crop, as in this country. " The Baron de Serret has ascertained, that powdered rape-cake, strewed over the surface of the ground, destroys la taupe grillon (gryllo talpa,) so injurious to kitchen-gardens; and he is per- suaded that every insect of the same species may be destroyed by the same means, f " But the great improvement that has taken place, in regard to manure, is, its being applied in a liquid state. For that purpose, the urine of cat- tle and horses is regularly collected into cisterns, that none of it may be lost. Mr. Mondez has five cisterns at Frasnes, fit to contain 230 metres (about 250 English yards in capacity,) for receiv- ing the urine of 68 cattle, of different ages, and 32 horses, young and old. This quantity of urine + Cakes of flax-seed are destined for feeding cattle and sheep. t "The use of oil in vegetation also, is very great. When the cuttings of gooseberries are planted, it should be done in a limip of clay mixed with cow-dung, and a few drops of train oil ; and when yoimg thorns are planted in a poor or sandy soil, they will thrive bet- ter, if theii' roots are dipped in oil. Near the first turn- pike going to Mile-End, there is an artificial manure sold, supposed to be the sweepings of the dry-salters in Thames-street, mixed with the refuse of those places where the blubber of whales is boiled ; one bushel of which, it is said, is equal to twenty-eight of common ! manure." 878 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF SILK. manures 16 French hectares, or about 40 Enj^lish acres. Many other farmers adopt the same system. " It is proper to state, that several intelligent practical farmers oljjoct to tiiis plan ; alleging-, that the dung of the farm-yard loses as much as is gained by the cistern system. But those who were appointed to examine Mr. Mondez's practice declare, that owing to the judicious concavity of the farm-yard, there was as much moisture as was necessary to ferment the straw, which may be effected by water alone, and repeated turnings, as gardeners know well ; and it is now ascertained, by the experience of the Swiss, that liquid manure is the most efficacious of any, and produces a third more effect than what is spread on the surface. Hence, after the dung is fermented, they dilute it in water, and the liquid alone is carried to the field, and scattered over it. The earth immediately im- bibes the liquid, which soon reaches the roots of the plants, and causes a rapid vegetation; whereas it is a long time before dung in a solid state fer- tilizes the soil. The straw that remains after the dung is thus washed, is applied as manure for po- tatoes. " Tlie experience of Mr. Harley, who keeps a great dairy near Glasgow, corroborates this doc- trine. He says, ' That the advantages of irriga- ting grass lands with cows' urine, almost exceeds belief. Last season some small fields were cut six times, averaging fifteen inches in length at each cutting, and the sward very thick. The soapsuds of a neighboring wash-house are applied to the same purpose, with considerable advantage.' " The great argument for separating the urine from the dung is, that it is always at the command of the farmer, and can be applied in any manner he thinks most advantageous. It is peculiarly useful in spring, when the application of liquid manure gives a new fillip to the plant, and makes its growth more vigorous. The urine is much improved by powdered rape-cakes, which are fre- quently thrown into the cisterns." CULTURE OF SILK. From the Genesee Farmer. 3farcellus, Sept lOth, 1833. Mr. L. Tucker, — I send herewith, for publi- cation in the Genesee Farmer, a copy of a letter, lately written by myself to a friend of mine, in the county of Oneida. The subject of it is the culture of silk, with reference to its general introduction in this section of the country. As I have, not un- frequently, addressed the readers of the Farmer on the same subject, I am aware, they may accuse me of bringing it too often to their consideration. My apology, if apology be needed, is, that I con- sider this as a subject of deep interest to the com- munity. The silk-growing business is already commenced, by many praise-v/orthy citizens in Western New-York : it must, and 1 am sure, it will, go on. Yet, in the present stage of its exis- tence, while no profits are realized, and its advan- tages are seen only at a distance, and perhaps through a false glass, it is necessary, in order to keep up the excitement, that the bellows be kept constantly blowing. At the bellows, therefore, I take my station, and there I hope to stand, until the object is secured. When once Mulberry foliage shall have become plenty in the country, and the business of silk- making, shall have assumed the attitude which be- longs to it, there will be no farther need of individual exertion to keep it in motion, and accelerate its progress. The business will then recommend itself; and, as the fire will burn spontaneously, there will be no need of continuing the use of the bellows. DAN BRADLEY. Copy of a letter to Samuel Royce, Esq. of Clinton Village, in the county of Oneida, on the Culture of Silk, and its application to this coun- try. Marcellus, September 9, 1833. Dear Sir — Since I left your hospitable mansion, into which, while a sick man, it was recently my good fortune to be cast, I reflected on the conver- sation that passed between us, relative to the cul- ture of silk, and its adaptation to the circumstan- ces and condition of your family, [t appears to me, that the subject, in relation only to your own interest, merits greater attention than we then gave to it. For several years, I have had the culture of silk, with reference to its general introduction in the United States, and especially in this section of the country, under my own special consideration, and iiave given great attention to the subject. Of course,! have kept myself in the constant pursuit of such information as might give me light in re- lation to this subject. My success in this has been less than I hoped it would be ; yet I flatter myself, that I have acquired some knowledge of the silk business, that may be useful to my fellow citizens, and to yourself, and your family in particular. So far as relates to nurturing silk-worms, and con- verting their produce into merchantable commo- dities, I yet lack the best of all knowledge, that is, such as is derived from practical experience. But, sir, such knowledge as I have, it will give me great pleasure to impart to you, if it can do you any good, or afford you any satisfaction. In the first place, permit me to say, the question is settled beyond all dispute, that silk may be pro- duced in the United States, and in Western New- York particularly, to as great advantage as in any part of the world. That vast quantities of it are produced someivhere, we all know: and we know too that tlie annual consumption of this article in the United States alone, amounts in value to little or nothing less than eight millions of dollars. We are informed, by unquestionable authorities, that, in whatever parts of tlie world the silk growing business prevails, it is there considered one of the most productive occupations, yielding to industry a greater reward than almost any thing else. As my subject is vast, I must pass over it with all practicable brevity. It need not be considered, that there is any obstacle in the way of making' silk to great profit, in the village of Clinton, or any where else, within the bounds of oiir happy coun- try. If, as is known to be the fact, it is a profita- ble business in other countries, no reason can be seen why it may not be equally so in this. In re- gard to the expediency of introducing it at your own premises, permit me to say, I scarcely know of another private situation, at which it could be introduced, under circumstances so felicitous. I need not assign my reasons for thinking so. The most of them will readily occur to your own mind. FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF SILK. 379 I will, therefore, say only that, so far as relates to house-room, tor the accommodation of silk-worms, you are already happily prepared for carrying on the silk- making business, on a large scale. We have information, derived from experience, and entitled to full credence, that a room, eighty feet by forty, will be sufficient to accommodate a million of worms. The large building which you occupy, including the numerous apartments of its lower and upper stories, will afibrd that amount of space, and much more. A portion of if, sufficient to ac- commodate a million of worms, or more, can be spared lor that use, during the short time that w orms operate, and yet the family, although it may be numerous, experience no serious inconvenience. At a moderate and safe calculation, 3,000 worms will produce a pound of reeled silk : of course, a million will produce SSSj pounds. The value of this, at $5 a pound, (the lowest estimated value,) will be 8166Gf|o. But we are told that, if silk is well reeled, as it always may be, with proper care and attention, it is now worth, in the American markets, from seven to ten dollars a pound. The amount of labor, requisite, for taking care of a mil- lion of w orms, every thing included, is estimated as follows: for the first week two persons; for the second week four ; for the third eight ; and the re- mainder of the time, which may be ten days, or more, from sixteen to twenty. The most of these laborers may be boys and girls, women, and aged and decrepid people. It will always be easy to hire enough of such laborers, and at trifling wages. You will reflect, dear sir, that here there is no ex- pense of carts, wagons, ploughs, harrows, har- nesses, oxen, horses, &c. And surely, there will be no necessity of employing whiskey as an agent, in carrying on this business. The quantity of land necessary, to be employ e*d for the growth of Mulberry trees, will not be great. Gideon B. Smith, Esq. of Baltimore, who has been taught by experience, tells us, that a full grown iNIulberry tree will produce foliage enough to feed 5000 worms. If then a million are to be fed, the number of full grown trees, must be two hun- dred. But the same gentleman remarks that, in order to guard against failures, and losses of leaves which may happen after they are picked, and also to save the trees from excessive cropping, it is better to have double the number of trees, that is, two trees for every 5000 worms. If it be intended, that Mulberry trees shall at- tain to all the growth of which they are suscepti- ble, it will, doubtless, be necessary to set them at as great distances from each other, as apple trees are usually set in orchards, perhaps greater. This we know, is practised in many places, and it may be the better way ; yet, it is not the way that I should recommend to planters, in this section of the country. I think it belter to incumber no more ground with Mulberry trees, than will be necessary for the intended purposes. If set in a form much more dense than that of apple orchards, they will grow, for several years, to perfect advan- tage, and, in the mean time, produce as much foliage, as if set in any other form. Subsequentlv, if it be desired to give room to some of them for greater extensions, they may be thinned. I have advised many of my fellow citizens, who have sought to me for advice, to set Mulberry trees, if intended for standards, at the distance of ten or twelve feet apart. I know not now how to give better advice. You will see, my plan is, to have the Mulberry trees, after a year or tw o, exclusive- ly occupy the ground. At first, for one or two seasons, potatoes, or other crops, may grow among them. Subsequently, tillage should cease, and nothing be required of the .soil, but the produce of Mulberry foliage. There is another manner of setting Mulberry trees, which is much recommended : that is, to set them in hedges, or otherwise in a form so dense, as to give at the rate of 3000 trees, or nearly that number, to an acre. Persons, commencing Mul- berry plantations, will do well to occupy a portion of the ground allotted to that use, with trees plant- ed in this manner. The produce of such planta- tions, is said to be very great. I have little doubt of the fact, that an acre of gootl soil, planted with Mulberry trees, three fourths of it at ten or twelve feet distances, the remainder in hedges, or other- wise in a dense form, will, after the trees have been set five or six years, and well taken care of, pro- duce foliage enough to support a million of worms. Some writers say, an acre may supply " two mil- lions." I dare not put the estimate so high. It is enough to say, one million. There are very few farms in the country, whose produce, in the ordi- nary way of farming, exceeds in value, that of one such acre. If such be the facts, how great are the inducements to engage in the silk business.' Surelj', many thousands of our industrious citizens, should hasten to embark in an enterprise, so full of pro- mise. Although I am perfectly sincere in making these remarks, yet there are in society many individuals, whom I could not advise to meddle at all w iih the silk business. For instance, if the man be a lover of ease, and given to indolence; if he be careless and slack in his manner of conducting business; if his faith be weak, so that he cannot labor with a view to objects unseen, and placed at some distance ; or if he lack courage to encounter difficulties and disappointments, and be hasty to relinquish pur- suits, if not attended with immediate success, he should, by no means, be advised to undertake the culture of silk. If he do, it is certain, he will not succeed in it. It scarcely need be said, he will succeed little or no better, in any thing else. Think not, respected sir, that I harbor the slightest suspicion, that either of these characteris- tics belong to you, or any of your household. I know better. Yet for the benefit of others who may hear, I have said these things ; and I say far- ther, that it will avail nothing to plant Mulberry trees, unless the ground on which they are to grow, be well fenced, and secured, especially while the trees are small, against the intrusion of cattle, horses, sheep, &c. The trees too, while young, will require some cultivation to render them thrifty, and rapid in their growth. There can be no doubt, that the growth and manufacture of silk, will, in a sliort time, become general in tl)is country, and that silk factories will abound among us, as those of cotton and wool do now. This new branch of industry will add much to the resources of the country, and become the happy means of improving the condition of many thousands of our citizens. All such farmers, as are too limited in their means of subsistence, may easily improve their condition, by cultivating Mulberry plantations, and causing their foliage to be con- verted into silk. This may be done, without inter- 380 FAUMERS' REGISTER— DESTROYING ANTS. fering, in the least, with the ordinary resources of their farms. And let it be considered that, as a gentleman of the south has recently remarked, " Silk always was, is now, and always Avill be a cash article." The families of many poor widows and orphan children, might be relieved from the sufferings of poverty, if they could have employment, in the simple, easy, and healthy business of making silk. Ought not farmers, who have land enough to be spared for the growth of Mulberry trees, to consi- der this, and plant freely, that the poor of the land may have the means of profitable employment.'' We are informed that in one of the eastern states, a young lady not long since, took a Mulberry plantation to be managed by herself on shares, and that, at the expense only of her own labor six or seven weeks, she realised to herself .$108, render- ing the like sum to the owner. This was done by an exchange of work, so that when her pressure came on, she had help enough provided and paid for. Is not this simple tale, the trutli of which, 1 suppose, is not to be questioned, full of instruction to the famers of this country.'' How much good they might do, by multiplying Mulberry planta- tions ! Let them destroy half the apple trees, which now grow to no useful purpose, in their orchards, and supply their places with Mulberry trees. The culture of silk will apply, with peculiar feli- city, to such families as contain manj^ children. A southern planter of experience in the business of silk-making, in a late communication on the sub- ject, remarks that "for every child of a family, aged from twelve to thirteen years, and employed a few weeks only, in gathering leaves, and taking care of silk-worms, $(300 may be realized." If so, how many families that are now poor, might become affluent. If manual labor, in any form, can be successful- ly connected with seminaries, and schools of learn- ing, it appears to me, the culture of silk, including the reeling process, and perhaps, some other branches of its manufacture, offers a business the best of all adapted to such purposes. No other can be thought of, so happily suited to the strength, capacities, and amusementsof pupils in such insti- tutions. There is no other, in which they can be employed to equal advantage. This business is adapted to both sexes alike; and it may be so planned as to afford a pleasant and profitable em- ployment for the pupils, during the whole year. To all public houses of pauperism also, the cul- ture of silk is most happily adapted. Such institu- tions, of which there are many in this state, might, in a short time, support themselves, and perhaps do more, if this branch of industry were properly in- troduced, and prosecuted with courage and ability. It is, beyond dispute, the indispensable duty of all superintendents of county poor houses, to institute Avithout delay, Mulberry plantations for their use. Capitalists need not the profits that may be de- rived from the growth and manufacture "of silk ; neither, at present, is their capital needed for that use. Hereafter, it may be otherwise. It is a pe- culiar excellence of the business which tbrms the subject of this discourse, that it requires very little capital to gain access to it. To families of mode- rate fortune, and especially those whose means of support are too limited, this business offers relief; and thousands there are, who should bid it a hearty welcome. I have, dear sir, already gone far beyond the bounds which I had prescribed to myself when I commenced writing; and certain it is, I have tax- ed my feeble strength too severely. And yet, I have arrived only at the middle of my subject. I find myself compelled to pass over many interest- ing considerations which I intended to introduce. It has been supposed that there was something quite mystical in the silk making business, and that it required more than ordinary ingenuity to become capable of managing its complicated de- tails. We are now assured that it is not so; that the liusiness, in most of its details, is remarkably simple and easy ; that even the art of reeling, which has been supposed very difficult, is easily attained, and may be practiced, with perfect suc- cess, in any of our families. We are informed, that reels, after the models of those used in Eu- rope, have been constructed and improved, by our own artists, and are now for sale in this country, at the low price of ^12- Indeed, we are informed, that a gentleman of the name of Brooks, a citizen of Massachusetts, has recently invented a reel for silk, on a plan entirely new ; that this reel is found to possess much greater excellence than any ever used in Europe, and is happily adapted to the use of private families. You see every thing conspires to encourage the Mulberry planter, and the silk grower. You will permit me, sir, in closing this letter, to reiterate my advice to you and your household, to introduce the reading of the Genesee Farmer. This paper is abroad, in nearly all the land, and doing an immense deal of good. I have not been informed, however, that it circulates in the county of Oneida. Sure I am, that every Mulberry plan- ter, every practical husbandman, and every horti- culturist, wlio will read it attentively, will de- rive from it a tenfold remuneration of its cost. It is printed at Rochester, and published by L. Tucker & Co. proprietors. Judge Buel conducts its editorial department. With great respect. Yours, &c. Samuel Boyce, Esq. DAN BRADLEY. TO DESTROY ANTS. From the Horticultural Register. Having read in pages 278 and 279, two com- plaints against ants, I am induced to send you the following : Some time ago, a drawer in which I kept sugar was so much infested with ants, that we were obliged to remove the sugar from it. It happened from some cause or other, a small piece of camphor was laid in the drawer, and on opening it a tew days afterwards, we were agreeably sur- prised to find the bottom literally covered with dead ants. This induced us to repeat the experi- ment, and from that time we have found no diffi- culty in keeping the sugar free from their depre- dations, by allowing a small piece of camphor to be in one corner of the drawer. Where trees upon walls, or plants are infested, I should recom- mend small pieces of camphor to be thrown on the ground round their stems, and in some cases, to dissolve a little alchohol, and sprinkle it over the leaves in a diluted state with a common syringe. JOHN J. GODFREY. Albany, March 3, 1832. FARMERS' REGISTER— STEAM-BOILER— TREES, &c. 381 INQUIRY. From the Lynchburg Virrlnian. What has become of the fVeevil ? About twenty years past, the black weevil were very numerous ; they decreased gradually, and I have not seen one lor eight or ten years. The white weevil have likewise been numerous till last year, when none appeared; neither are any to be seen this year. There is another kind of weevil which I have known to do considerable damage ; they are about one third the size of the white wee- vil, of dark color, slender, and have feelers like a wasp ; these have likewise disappeared for several years. I have not this year seen a single Tobacco Fly. It is requested that inquiry be made throughout the United States, through means of the newspa- pers, whether or not these insects are yet to be found in our land; and if so, where.' From an in- quiry and investigation of thissubject, benefit may arise other than that of gratifying curiosity. Amherst, Va. Oced margins, with- out fear of raising a bank. The poor level ridge lands, below the falls of our rivers, are full of shallow basins, which though of- ten dry in summer, are ponds of rain water all the winter and spring. These ponds are usually in aline along a wide shallow depression, descending towards one of its extremities. As the wetness of the earth, and the roots of trees (when the land is first cleared,) would forbid the effectual use of the plough in such places, a narrow ditch must be cut with spades, and brought from the lower outlet, through the middle of the line of ponds, so as to 386 FARMERS' REGISTER— DRAINING. draw off all the standing water. But as soon as the land is tit to receive good ploughing, (which will be by the beginning of the next course of crops,) a broad land as directed before should be marked oflf, taking tlie ditch as its middle, and ploughed out. Tlie closing furrows will be pro- bably as low as the bottom of the old ditch, and sweep away all appearance of it, and leave it pas- sable by ploughs and carls, though more servicea- ble than when it was a barrier to the passage of both. In short, in all situations of this kind, the plough seems to efface theditches, while it renders them most elBcient. The superiority of these drains, in cheapness and efficiency, to tliose cut in the best manner by the spade, may be easily con- ceived, by supposing a piece of flat and wet soil to be thrown into wide and high beds with clean deep water furrows, in tiie usual manner, by the plough — and compared with similar lands plough- ed level, and then divided into beds by narrow trenches being dug between with spades. Every piece of well bedded flat land has in every water furrow such a drain as I have recommended. In bedded level land, there will be many slight depressions, which even when so shallow as to be scarcely perceptible, will hold water after heavy rains, and destroy the growth of winter crops. If the beds prevent the opening of drains across en- tirely by the plough, at least it may commence and forward the spade work for these places. — These grips (as such temporary drains are called) should be opened only a little deeper than the wa- ter furrows which cross them, as soon as the field is sowed in wheat. They may be quite elTectual as drains, without being wide or deep enough to ob- struct the future ploughing of the field. The next kind of ditches are carriers of streams, and serve to drain the adjacent land by sinking the level of the stream in ordinary times, and more or less preventing its overflowin;j its margins, when swollen by rains. These ditches are required in almost every alluvial bottom, formed by, and sub- ject to the inundations of streams passing through : unless the body of water is too great to be managea- ble by such means. The streams in lower Virginia may be divided into two kinds : 1st. Such as have so little fall in their course, as to form swamps, by overflowing, or at least saturating with water all the lov/- grounds during the winter and wet seasons, and thus making the land a v/orthless quagmire at all times. 2d. ^uch as have enough fall to leave the lowground firm and even dry, in ordinary times, except where injured by springs, or other water than that conveyed by the main stream. The first class of streams are much the most important, on account of the many extensive bo- dies of swamp land which remain not only worth- less, but nuisances in several respects, and particu- larly as nurseries of disease ; though no lands are richer, or could be brought into profitable use and cultivation, so easily andche;iply, compared to the great gain that would be obtained. Still, it will be unnecessary for me to treat on this branch of drain- ing at length. In this point only, there is nothing to object toasflmlty in the practice of individuals — for our laws (indirectly but effectually) forbid all such extensive drainings — and thus, our govern- rnent shows a degree of negligence or stupidity — (it deserves no milder name — ) which surpasses all of which evidence can be found in individual ope- rations. When our country was first settled, it seems probable that these swamps were compara- tively dry, and the streams unobstructed, except by the dams constructed by beavers. But every operation of our civilized population has served still more to raise, obstruct, and stagnate the wa- ters. The only profit yet drawn from the swamps, has been by getting lumber from the large cy- presses and other timber trees. In cutting down these trees, their tops are very often thrown into the course of the stream, where each serves to catch all the leaves and oilier floating rubbish, un- til it forms a dam, and raises, and often diverts the stream, to a new bed. The current is at no time sufficiently strong to remove such obstructions, although it may be spread over a flat of half a mile in width — and every one remains, until co- vered over with a deposile of mud. The law per- mits any landowner to add to these obstructions at his will — but (in effect) refuses the right to use the only means for bringing into profitable culture these great tracts of rich land, and of restoring health to the neighboring farms, which they now infect with bilious diseases. Notwithstanding the great extent of overflow- ing waters on these flat swamps, the supply is much smaller than it appears, and they could be removed and kept within safe bounds by opening a canal from the outlet below, through the whole course of the swamp, as straight as the form and inclination of the land would permit. Level as such swamps are, there is plenty of fall for this purpose — anda ditch of lOor 12 feet wide and 3 or 4 deep, would drain away the water which as now obstructed, inundates many thousands of acres. The expense of this central main carrier would be very inconsiderable, divided among all the owners of a large swamp ; and when finished, nothing more would be wanting to make the land dry, ex- cept the small side drains to intercept the springs coming out of the highland, which each proprietor would dig for himself. The central canal being so nearly level might possibly be made also servicea- ble for winter navigation, by having temporary floodgates. But cheap and profitable as such drainings would be, they are rendered impossible under our exist- ing hnvs, because the concurrence of every indi- vidual owner of the swamp is necessary for the exe- cution of the work. Blackwater Swamp (for ex- ample) is more than 60 miles long, including all its branches, and perhaps belongs to more than thrice as many individuals — and it is manifest, that from such a number, no such concurrence can possibly be expected, even if there were among them no minors, or life estate holders, neither of whom can legally concur. If by possibility, only a single proprietor opposed the scheme, while all the others were in favor of it, he alone might obstruct the execution. Nor is there any remedy to be soon expected. If three out of every four of the pro- prietors of any of these swamps were to be awa- kened to the importance and profit of such a ge- neral plan of drainage, (and I am sorry to confess that such is far from being the case,) and were to petition the Assembly for powers to make it, and to compel all to bear their share of the cost, the proposition would excite violent objections, and perliaps intolerant and unappeasable enmity to the scheme. Every small lawyer, in and out of the legislature, would be furnished withamost conve- FARMERS' REGISTER— DRAINING. 387 nient theme. We should hear the ph^n denounced as an invasion of the " sacred rig;hls of property," and the denunciation maintained by so many ar- guments (or what would pass for arguments) that the .idvocates would be glad to retreat from the wordy inundation. But as plausible as such argu- ments may be, precisely such might be urged against opening the existing, or any roads, through private property, if we can suppose such a case possible as the country being settled and cultiva- ted, without having a public road within its limits. Roads are cut through private property wit'.iout asking leave of the owner, and he is also taxed ac- cording to his property, to pay his share of the ex- pense of construction. Sometimes it happens that the road for which a proprietor is so taxed in his landed rights, and on his purse, though beneficial to the public, is to him individually a source of in- convenience and of loss. Still these exceptions are properly considered as no objection to the general regulation, for the general good — and the lawyers raise no objections, because the policy is already sanctioned by taw. But if all of lower Virginia had been one great swamp, held by thousands of individual proprietors, and which could be drained as easily as Chickalwminy and Blackwater swamps now could be — according to our laws and to the" arguments of lawyers, there would be no possible means, consistent with justice and the principles of our legal policy, by w hich this beneficial im- provement could be effected. But I have already said too much upon a branch of draining which was only intended at first to be named as a matter to be omitted. My purpose was to advise practical operations which each individu- al may perform — and I have allowed myself to di- gress (uselessly I fear,) upon what individual ef- forts are altogether forbidden. Streams of the second class, having sufficient fall, are generally such as (low through a hilly country. The lowgrounds, or bottom lands, lying on the borders of such streams, form a large pro- portion of the best natural soils of lower Virginia. indeed but few other soils are richer than these have been, or would be more productive, if they liad been properly managed : but the general treatment of such lands has been so injudicious, that they have yielded but litlle nett product, and in many cases have become nuisances, and a source of loss instead of profit. I allude especially to low- grounds on small streams, not exceeding the size sufficient for an ordinary mill. Some of the usual and barbarous practices will be pointed out for avoidance, and also because their effects now pre- sent some of the worst obstructions to a proper plan for drainage and cultivation. The bottoms through wliich the streams run, have been entirely formed during past ages by the earth washed from the higher lauds by heavy floods from heavy rains, and deposited so as to form a near- ly level surface. Of course the greater part of this deposite has been made from the main stream, and at the times when it overflowed the whole low- ground. But it is not only during such floods that the operation is going on. At all times a shallow running stream is bringing down earth, and thus raising its own bed, until it leaves it for another and lower place, or when a flood comes, throws the accumulated sand out of its choaked channel, over every place low enough to receive an accession. Thus, by the tendency of the overflowing ">^ater to cover mostly the lowest land, and from the greater subsidence of the suspended earth, where the water is most deep and still, nature works con- tinually to keep such lands level from side to side. Before the adjacent hills were cleared and subject- ed to the plough, there could have been no great supply of earth, except from the richest soil on the surface — and that was furnished slowly and gradu- ally. Rich as these narrov/ bottoms were, our fathers did not readily undertake to drain and cultivate them. Before this was done, the adjacent high- lands had in most cases been cleared, cultivated, and washed into gullies — and had served to throw upon tJie lowgroiind more of barren subsoil in a year, than it had before received of rich mould in ten. Nor was this injurious deposite brought down by the principal stream, and spread over the whole surface. It mostly was brought by torrents of rain water, which for a little time-swelled the rivu- let to a flood, and by which the sand or gravel was canied out on the rich bottom soil, in points pro- jecting from the ravine llirough which the torrent rushed. These points of sand, by their thickness and poverty, now form one of the greatest diffi- culties in draining and cultivating the lowgrounds. The management of the neigliboring highland, so far as its wasJiing is promoted or prevented, is one of the most im{)ortant things bearing on the alluvial bottom below. If no mischief had teen already produced from this cause, the instructions that ^vill be offered would be more simple, and yet far more serviceable. Prevention is always bet- ter than cure — and in these cases, the perfect cure is impossible. We liave destroyed the greater part of the value of our lowgrounds, before we know tliCir productiveness. Next come the injuries inflicted directly when such lands are under cultivation. Bottoms of the kind under consideration are ge- nerally from 150 yards wide, to the narrowest size worth draining — meandering continually in Iheir course, — and having sufficient fall or incli- nation to give a rapid course to the natural stream, and to allow the land to be effectually drained for cultivation. The stream is still more crooked than the valley through which it runs, and is often twice as long as would be the slraightest course that might be given. Nor is the course of the stream always through the lowest part of the land — tor the margins of the stream are often the highest parts, owing to the more plentiful deposite of sediment when the overflowing waters first rise over their banks. The first error usually committed is to leave the stream (if a large one) in its natural crooked bed, instead of giving it a shorter course: the next is, to impede still more the course of the water by allowing thickets of laiers and shrubs to stand on the edge of the stream, and every kind of rubbish to be thrown into it. The crooked and choaked channel causes the stream to overflow with a rain that would not sv.ell the current injuriously, in a clean and straightened bed, though of no more average width, and occupying not one fourth as much land. The land lost is not only the bed and banks of the stream. A very crooked course makes it impos- sible for the plough to run in the same direction : and many points of land are formed too narrow to to be worth cultivation. Hence a wide margin is left to grow up in thickets, and to harbor musk- 388 FARMERS' REGISTER— DRAINING. rats and other vermin — or to be kept cleared at more than twice the cost of proper cultivation. If the stream separates the lands of two proprietors, (as is one of our common follies,) the evil is far worse. If either cleans his margin effectually, and opens the stream, it will avail but little, while his neighbor uses no such care. In the meantime, with every heavy rain the obstructed current sweeps across the land, tearing away the ploughed mould, or covering it with its load of sand. The soil thus swept off serves to fill and render useless the cross drains made to convey the smaller streams. Every such flood saturates the soil with water to the great damage of the crop, and leaves the whole a picture of desolation. Next let us examine the side, and cross ditches. In hilly and sandy lands, small springs ooze out of the hills .so frequently along the side of the low- ground, that tliere is almost always a necessity for a ditch on each side, to intercept them. The side ditches (unless they are covered or hollow drains, which will be treated of hereafter,) if bordered by cultivated land, are perpetually filling from the washing hillside soil : and the difficulty of keeping them open is still more increased, where they cross the points of sand brought down by former cur- rents, and which are still increasing from every torrent of rain water. It is not strange, therefore, that the side ditches are seldom clean ; and though they obstruct, they seldom entirely prevent the oozing waters finding tlieir way to the lowground. Where the valley is narrow, or the main stream small, one of the side ditclies is often made also the main carrier, or channel of the stream. This is a great saving, if the ditch is straight enough, and so situated in other respects as to be kept open, and deep : But otherwise, the side of the low- ground is the worst location for the main stream. Cross ditches are used to bring the water of a side ditch to the main stream, when it can no longer be continued down the side : or they lead from low places which though not exposed to spring water, would be made ponds by receiving the sur- face water from rains and floods, and would remain so until the water was soaked up by tlie absorbent earth. The beds in which the land is cultivated usually lead to these cross ditches, and their water furrows there vent the water that collects in them. As the cross ditches fill rapidly from the causes already stated, their rei)eated cleanings soon make a dike not only on one side, but on both, unless more judgment is exercised than is common. Then the ditch, when well open, may draw water from its head to its outlet : but not a drop can en- ter it along its whole course, so well is it defended by the bank of eartli on eacli side. Now for the rotation and culture. Lands of this kind seldom form but a small por- tion of a whole field, and are therefore not often put under a different rotation. Say that it is the common three shift rotation, or 1. corn— 2. wlieat — 3. at rest. When the winter comes preceding the year for corn, the land has been two years with- out a ditch being cleaned out : and if grazed, the treading of cattle and rooting of hogs, have been, aiding greatly to fill them up. If not grazed, the richness and wet state of the land have made it a wilderness of weeds and rubbish growth of all kinds. In the latter case, ditching in autumn would be almost impossible ; but even if kept bare enough by grazing, no farmer has leisure for a heavy job of ditching before winter. At all events, it is never done. The land treated as I have stated is almost as wet as if no draining had ever been done — nay, it is often much the wetter for the work miscalled draining. But little of wet ditching can be done in cold weather : so it is in March, before the old drains are opened. Still the land is very wet from having remained so long water soaked — and it is ploughed before it is dry enough, because the season is too much advanced to wait longer. Under such circumstances the land cannot produce near a full crop, even if the draining was then perfect, and continued effectual for the remainder of the year. During the follow- ing crop of wheat, the drains are filling, and sel- dom opened, and during the year of rest afterwards, the fiirmer water soaked condition of the land is completely brought back. This picture docs not in every particular apply to all such lands, even when most badly managed : but some of the traits will suit all, not excepting some in the hands of the best farmers : for in the management of lowground especially, we often want the means to perform what our judgment directs should be done. For example — who is there who does not pronounce, when ditching in .March, that he ought to have done the work in September.'' and who is there who profits by his own opinion and experience, so as to avoid the same error in future.'' I now proceed to propose plans for draining and cultivating soils of tliis kind, all of which I have tried with success to such extent as was permitted by the situation of the land in my possession, and the circumstances under Avhich it was placed. It will perhaps be more plain to apply instruc- tions to a particular case of common occurrence, than to attempt to embrace every variety of cir- cumstance and difficulty. For this purpose, sup- pose the land under consideration to vary from 100 to 150 yards wide, the alluvial formation of a stream strong enough to turn a common mill, and which flows through in a very crooked channel in ordinary, and commonly overflows the whole bottom w ith every very heavy rain, or perhaps two or three times a year. The average descent of the stream and the land, from six to fifteen feet in a mile. The soil a rich sandy loam. Subsoil various : sometimes layers of sand within reach of deep ploughing, sometimes of day, and some- times (though rarely) the rich black surface soil shows no change for several feet in depth. We suppose flirt her that the land has been cleared and cultivated long enough to give the plough gene- rally a free passage. Lowgrounds of the kind under consideration are in general more exposed to water from numerous springs oozing out of the adjoining highland, than from the main stream^and therefore the removal of the former first demands the farmer's care. But neither the side, central, or cross drains can be finished, before the other kinds are in progress — and it will suit my arrangement best to speak first of the ditch or carrier of the main stream. The side drains require most skill and care, and their consideration will hereafter be undertaken. For the present, let it be understood that the side and cross drains are in the usual imperfect state of operation, serving to permit the imperfect culti- vation of the lowground. The great object is to give the main stream the FARMERS' REGISTER— DRAINING. 389 shortest and best course throup;h all the extent of lowground to be drained. With this view, the shape of the ground, and the force and size of the floods should be well considered, and the new course for the stream determined accordingly. In general, it will be cheapest to adhere nearly to the straightest course — which in a crooked bottom, will cause the line to touch the projecting points of highland, first on one side, and then on the other. But desirable- as are long straight stretches, we must take care to change their direction very gra- tlually, when a change is necessary. In a long straight course, with sufficient descent, the water acquires a force which enables it to keep its direc- tion, in spite of considerable obstacles — and will rush across, and fill up with its deposite, any part of its channel which turns off at an angle, or with a short curve. To avoid this danger, it will be sometimes proper to begin a gentle curve before reaching the point where it would necessarily be made. There is another case in wliich straight courses should be departed from — that is, when with no great variation of direction, or increase of distance, the main carrier may be made to keep along the side of the lowground for a considerable distance, which will so far serve to avoid the trou- ble of another side drain, and also preserve the lowground in one unbroken body, at tliat place. But desirable as it certainly is to have the stream kept at the side of the lowground, it should not be done unless the location is good with a view to perfect drainage. A ditch at the junction of the low and highland, is far more subject to be filled with rubbish and earth brought by rains, than if in the body of the lowgrounds — and, there- fore, if so situated, its course must not be too crooked, nor the force of the current too small, to guard against that danger. When the line for the ditch has been fixed, it should be marked off by stakes, wherever not plainly enough exhibited by some existing marks. It will be generally found that the line will divide the lowground into large pieces, shaped something like segments of circles, the straigiit sides of which will be the new line for the stream, and the curved sides made by the hollow bends of the in- closing highland. The new line will j)robably cross in many places the serpentine bed of the stream. The work should be commenced in the dry season, and on the dryest parts of the land, if any are too wet for tlie operations required. On a part of the new line, say from 50 to 200 yards in length, and extending from the old stream at one place of crossing, to another, lay off with a plough, well and deeply, a land of about 12 feet wide, the closing water furrow of which will be the centre of the intended canal. This width of ploughing will be sufficient, if a passage for the water six feet wide and 2^ feet deep will serve: but the larger the canal is desired, the wider should be the ploughing. Such a stretch as is here spoken of, is supposed to pass through the body of low- ground. As soon as the plough has cut a few fur- rows, laborers with broad hoes begin to draw out the loosened earth, and to deposite it, with very lit- tle regard to accuracy, on the land outside of the ploughing. When the plough has closed its work and formed a deep water furrow, it begins again and goes over the same land, whether the hoes have finished ahead or not. A third time the same operations may be repeated, or until the ditch is either nearly deep enough, or the bottom has become loo miry for the horses to walk on. In this manner, the greater part of the digging and removing of the earth may be done at a very small cost, compared to spade work. Still there remains something for the spades to finish. After the last ploughed earth has been drawn out, the ditch of the desired width (say 5 to 7 feet) should be ac- curately laid off by a line, ami by the stakes first set up to mark the course. A single spade's depth will generally give sufficient depth, and the work will be very easy to perform. There is no need, generally of digging low enough to divert at once the stream to the new course. It will be sure to take the new and straighter course at every rise of water, and will naturally deepen the new, and at the same time be filling up the old channel. This operation may be hastened by opening well the upper end of the new channel at each crossing place, and obstructing somewhat the old passage just below, by the top of a tree or other rubbish, which though serving to impede the floods, will not prevent the passage of the stream in common times. It would be improper to stop the water entirely from its old cjiannel, as that would prevent its being filled up, and it would remain in the way of cultivation. But if a current has choice of two channels, united above and below, the one straight, and the other crooked and twice as long, the effect will certainly be, sooner or later, to deej)en and enlarge tiie first, and to deposite its mud and sand in its slower passage tiirough the second, until it is entirely filled. It is much cheaper to let nature thus aid your draining operations, than to dig the carrier at once as deep as desirable. When the first rough part of the excavation, by ploughs and hoes, is finished through one stretch, it may be begun on some other — either adjoining, or distant, as may be most convenient. As the old channel for a long time will continue to convey the stream, it serves to keep the new work in dif- ferent dry sections, to be opened as may be con- venient. Adjoining sections sliould be connected as soon as possible (and by the spade if necessary) so as to have the benefit of any flood of rain that may occur. When the main carrier is intended to be made for some distance along the maigin of the high' land, the earth must be thrown by the plough al- together towards the lowland. For this purpose, it will be cheapest to use a hillside plough, which by shifting the mould-board, turns the furrow slice to the same side, whether going up or down. If a common plough is used for such places, it must cut only when driven down the course of the valley, and be dragged back empty, to begin another furrow, at tlie upper end of the stretch. If the owners of lowgrounds would act accord- ing to their true interest, this plan would be ex- tended as far as the nature of the land required it, without regard to who might b^ the owner of any particular spot. Then each proprietor would be benefitted by the drainage of the land below, serv- ing as an outlet or vent for his own. But that is not now to be counted on, and each person must expect his drains to end witii the lower termina- tion of his land. If there is nmch fall in the stream at that place, the injury from this stoppage will not be considerable, except perhaps to the next land below. There, the water increased trebly in velocity by its clear passage above, and finding no 390 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL ESTABLISHMENTS. straight or sufficient channel below, will probably rush over the land, and expose it to all the damage which the owner will well deserve to sustain. If on the contrary, the fall is inconsiderable, as in the swamps before described, the lower land holder could render ineifectual the draining of the land just above. In such cases, a good vent to the wa- ter below is highly important, and the want of it may destroy half the benefit which might be de- rived from the whole drainage. When streams are thus straightened, and their sides kept clean and smooth, they will carry off quantities of water that could not be kept within the former stream, even if four or five times the superficial extent. But I do not mean that inun- dations will be altogetlier avoided, though they will be comparatively rare — and when they oc- cur, will be of short continuance. But there is an objection (and unfortunately a very general one) to all such schemes of drainage. Streams are generally made to serve as dividing- lines between different properties, and that cir- cumstance alone is sufficient in most cases, to pro- hibit any rational scheme of drainage. When lands were first taken up under the old patents, and sold out without accurate surveying, a stream was a very convenient land mark, because it could not easily be changed or mistaken. But for the drainage and proper cultivation of the lowground, the stream is the worst dividing line that could Le fixed upon. All my foregoing directions on this subject must rest on the supposition tliat one per- son owns both sides of the stream — or that the different owners are willing to concur in the best general plan of drainage, and in the exchange of points of land cut off by the new carrier of the water. Either of these cases is so rare, that I must agree that the directions I have written are almost useless, and an unprofitable waste of the time of my readers, as well as my own. However, should I find that any value is attached to my sug- gestions, I may resume and finish my observations, as at first designed. It remains to treat of side drains, open or covered, intended to intercept springs having their sources in the highlands. n. N. A GLANCE AT THE EXISTING ESTABLISHMENTS FOR AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. Translated for the Farmers' Register from the " Journal i? Ag- riculture dcs Pays Bas.^' At no epoch of modern times, have all the ad- vantages which agriculture procures, been as well understood as now. After thirty years of revolu- tion and of war, this science, whose practice, so innocent and so delightful, calms the ardor of am- bition, preserves the serenity of the soul, and has always been the cherished occupation of the wise, receives at last r^al encouragements from most governments. Among those who are distinguish- ed, we ought to mention that of Wurtemburgand that of Bavaria. In the first of these states, agri- culture and horticulture make a part of primary instruction. In this small kingdom, whose popu- lation does not exceed 1,500,000, there are more than three hundred and fifty schools in which these sciences are taught. In Bavaria, the king and queen have taken un- der their special protection all the establishments in which agriculture is taught. This protection is not limited, as in many other countries, to use- less and sterile eiicouragcments ; there these es- tablishments are richly endowed by the bounty of the government : [)remiums offered, and often dis- tributed by the king himself. This homage ren- dered to the first of arts, and these encouragements decreed to those who profess them, do honor at once to the sovereign who grants them, and to the modest and interesting class of subjticts which re- ceive them. For some years the government of France has made great sacrifices to perfect the agriculture of that vast kingdom, which possesses already many establishments which may be cited as models in the best cultivated countries. They exercise a happy influence on the agriculture and rural econo- my of the country. In the farm of Rambouillet, they put in practice the best agricultural processes. This establish- ment is distinguished above all for the finest breed of domestic animals useful in agriculture. Not far from these, the domain of Grignon, of the value of more than a million of francs, paid from the royal treasure, has been turned into a vast agricultural establishment, intended to serve as a model, and to train scholars. This will be, without doubt, one of the monuments which will do most honor to the reign of Charles X. To mention the establishment of Roville, near Nancy, due to the celebrated Mathieu de Dom- basle, who directs it with so much success, is to in- dicate the utmost perfection to which practice, en- lightened by sound theory, may be brought. M. de Domhasle (son of the one mentioned above,) has founded a short time since, a farm near Angers, like that of Roville. No one can doubt the complete success of this establishment, which will be a true benefit to the country. Near Nantes, a Belgian agriculturist is conduct- ing a farm according to the Flemish system, with great success. An English farmer, protected by the govern- ment, has just founded an agricultural establish- ment in Normandy. He makes use of impro- ved ploughs, which he has imported from Eng- land. In Berry, the Count de Gourey is occupied with forming an agricultural establishment after the Flemish method. He has brought from Belgium ploughs, ploughmen and teams, with which he suc- ceeds well. One might yet mention the agricultural estab- lishments of Copet, near Geneva; that of the Duke Decazes, near Libourne ; of M. de Pradt, in Au- vergne ; of General Lafayette, at La Grange, ( De- partment of Seine and Marne,) and many others, which are equally interesting by the superiority of the processes which they employ for the execution of their works. Switzerland and Germany also offer many agri- cultural establishments deserving notice: among others, that of Hofwyl, near Berne, founded and directed by M. de Fellenberg. All parts of what is properly called agriculture, of rural economy, and whatever relates to the improvement of agri- cultural implements, are taught there with much success. This celebrated institution receives scho- lars from all parts of the old and new world. Near Hamburg, the Baron de Yosht directs a very remarkable agricultural establishment : it is FARMERS' REGISTER— SEED WHEAT— BUCKWHEAT. 391 a source of light which exercises a happy influ- ence on tlie agriculture of the north of Germany. England, so jealous of her superiority, knows too well all what industry owes to agriculture, to neglect any thing that can favor and encourage this art ; thus is it carried in this country to a very high degree of perfection. Rural economy, espe- cially the raising and improving the races of do- mestic animals, leave nothing to be desired in Eng- land, where one can draw up the best precepts on this important branch of public riches. Although Belgium justly holds the first rank among all the agricultural countries, and all of our farms may be considered as so many models, it is not less desirable to see Ibundeda Normal estab- lishment, theoretical and practiced, devoted to the improvement of all the parts of agriculture and of rural economy, and where the pupils might obtain and put in practice the best precepts on different branches of the agricultural and economical sci- ence which they might then spread in all parts of the kingdom. Let us hope that the government will supply this need of our time, and that it will do for agriculture what it is doing tor the mechan- ic arts, in institutingat Brussels gratuitous courses of Geometry, Theoretical Mechanics, Chemis- try, &c. applied to the arts, and especially design- ed for the instruction of the laboring classes. is added occasionally, and a sufficiency of salt to maintain the strength of the brine, which is tested by an egg kept at hand for the purpose. The whole process is completed in the morning, by the time the teams are ready to proceed to their work. I suppose a bushel of salt would probably suffice for one hundred bushels of seed, which would, by reason of its invigorating qualities, be very well bestowed in that way, independently of its aid in freeing the wheat from its impurities. F. H. N. B. If the wheat is infected with smut, it will be effectually destroyetl, by stirring in a portion of quick-lime before the gypsum. PREPARATION OF SEED WHEAT. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I have been somewhat amused at the discussion in the Register, concerning the production oC cheat: one party contending, that it is a distinct species oi grain, which, by no process whatever, can be pro- duced from any other grain ; the other party con- tending, with equal earnestness, that it is produced from degenerated wheat ; and one gentleman goes so far as to assert, that it .is incapable of reproduc- tion beyond one course of generation. Both par- ties claim to have proved their respective theories by actual experiment. I shall not undertake load as umpire between them, but will inform them of the manner in which I have for a number of years prepared my seed wheat, which cleanses it effec- tually from the light and defective grains of wheat, from cheat and from garlic. If the theories of either party be correct, or of both parties partially so, my process will prevent the evil arising from the propagation of cheat, so far as it can be guarded against by purifying the seed wheat. W hen I am about to commence seeding, I have two barrels prepared, one of which I have filled about two thirds full with brine, strong enough to bear an egg, into which I have the seed poured very slowly, until the brine rises nearly to the top, which will be covered with the light grains of wheat, cheat and garlic, which are skimmetl otf with the hands, and the wheat at the bottom stirred once or twice to free it of any remaining impuri- ties, which are again skimmed off. An old basket without a handle is then placed on the top of the empty barrel, through which the brine is poured from the wheat by two men taking the full barrel by its bottom, on opposite sides. The wheat is then emptied into a large box, and the same process re- peated from one barrel to the other alternately, un- til a sufficient quantity is washed for the day's seed- ing, and as much gypsum is then stirred into the whole mass, as will adhere to the grain. Water SARRASIN BUCKWHEAT. Translated for the Farmers' Register, from the '^Cours Complet d\>lgriculture, etc. par VAbbe Rozier et aulres.^' This grain, improperly called black corn, (since it does not belong to the gramineous family,) has borne different names more or less approved. Olivier de Serres designates it by the names of miUet-sarrasin, and bucail ; elsewhere it has been named bouquet or bouquette, doubtless on account of its abundant and durable flowers, which resem- ble nosegays [bouquets.*] It appears, that being brought into Europe by the Moors [Sarrasins] of Spain, this grain borroAved their name ; but that it was not cultivated until the commencement of the sixteenth century — in France about 1520, and in England about 1590. As to the species brought from the north of Europe, it was introduced in Belgium towards 1570. The grain of buckwheat is of a triangular shape, and blackish color ; its skin is easily broken, is bitter and very disagreeable ; it covers a very white meal, to which it adheres but slightly, and from which the skin ought to be completely sepa- rated, or it will be injured both in taste and color. Buckwheat grows on almost every kind of soil; but it prefers such as are light, and not moist, as well as situations sheltered from the exhalations of marshes, and from the north and north-east winds. Buckwheat does not occupy the land but from three to four months : it yields heavily in good years ; it stifles weeds, and cleans the soil on which it has been sown : it offers, if turned in green in a proper manner, an excellent manure; its flour gives to men a very nourishing pottage, and to poultry a dough which makes them fatten well and quickly. But how many ol)jections also pre- sent themselves with these advantages! Buck- wheat ofTers always a very precarious harvest. As it is not sown until in May, or even June, if the weather is dry, as often happens at that time, it does not come up; if frost comes, the growing plant perishes at once. Grown to a good size it still is endangered by drought, because it does not branch well, and cover the ground ; in flower, it is still more delicate, and the mists, frosts, heat of the sun, rains, (but not the stars, whatever may be said of them,) destroy the fecundating power of the stamens, and render the plant entirely bar- ren. Its bread is extremely indigestible, and of a disagreeable flavor; it is even difficult to make bread of the meal ; it cannot be used but when * This is an amusing exan^le of the derivation of names: buckwheat is evidently a corrupted English pronunciation of the French name bouquet — [Transla- tor, 392 FARMERS' REGISTER-BUCKWHEAT. newlv jjround ; the common mills are not fit to extractit from the grain, which requires only to be rubbed to rid the meal of the very tender bran which encloses it. I'he culture of Buckwheat is laborious ; it demands a soil well pulverized, worked carefully, and improved by leached ashes, dry dung, or night soil, [paudrette] burnt litter, and rich mould ; in many cantons, they are forced to pare and burn the turf, and to spread the ashes on the soil — a pernicious operation, which being commonly adopted on lands already dry and fria- ble, acts by removing their adhesive quality, and finishes by exhausting them entirely. Sully, who was acquainted with all the inconveniences of this culture, and knew doubtless how precarious is the crop of buckwheat, which, to speak properly, gives a full harvest scarcely once in five or six years, wished to proscribe this grain, which indeed, does not succeed, whatever may be said of it, but in soils from which we might with more advantage obtain wheat, or some other cereal grain, more useful, and wiiich would serve better for our wants. It should be observed that buckwheat weighs from five to six kilogrammes (10 to 12 lbs.) the decalitre (10 pints,) of which the price is 1 decime, (tenth of a frank) the kilogramme, which sells commonly one half less than rye, and that it re- turns also (all quantities being equal,) one half less bread. Rozier states that we may sow buckwheat at two periods, according to circumstances, or rather, to the climate — either in May, if late frosts are but little feared, or otherwise, after the harvest of wheat and rye. This last plan, which may suit in the southern departments, is not admissible in the other parts of France, since there the wheat and rye harvest has not generally ended but during the month of August, a period at which it would be impossible to sow buckwheat, which requiring four months to remain on the land, would not ripen before December, or rather, would not ripen at all, the frosts of October being sufficient to destroy it.* The land that is to receive buckw heat should be ploughed with care, put in good tilth, and (if not already fertile,) improved either by ashes, dried night soil, or with the dregs of the dung pit; or it is still better to use turf and heath reduced to ashes. Buckwheat requires t\vo-thirds less of seed than rye and wheat. If the season is a little rainy and the earth newly ploughed, the seed will come up quickly and soon cover the earth, in which it ought to be lightly covered by means of the harrow, or by rakes. It is sowed in beds, or in very %vide " lands," in order to make the most of the soil, which has no need (as for winter grain) of ridges and water furrows, since buckwheat does not occupy the land but about an hundred days of the warmest part of the year. * Tliis shows an important difference in favor of the climate of Virginia for the culture of buckwheat, whe- ther made for green manure, or as a crop for sale. Its growth is so much more rapid under our more fervid sun, that it may be sown and ripened, not only after ■wheat, but after the main growth of Indian corn, by sowing the buckwheat with the last ploughing of that crop. This rapidity of growth makes buckwheat par- ticularly well suited to form part of a rotation of dou- ble crpos — if indeed, it*culture is in other respects more profitable than other plants, either for grain or for manure — which, is at least, very questionable. — {Trans- lator, As this plant is easily hurt by cold dry winds, and by frosts which may occur at the time of itsf flowering, some farmers have thought of raising along the windward side small heaps of l>alf dried grass, which they cover with a little earth, and set on fire; the wind carries the smoke over the sur- face of the field, and prevents the effects of the cold, w hich would freeze the stamina of the flowers, and cause them to perish. As soon as three-fourths of the seed are dry, black, and consequently ripe, although the top of the plant may be still in blossom, it is time to reap the crop. If we wait later, part of the grain, de- tached from the stalk, would fall on the ground, and be lost ; even in making the harvest at the time indicated, there is still a considerable loss. In or- der that it may be the less, we should choose the time for reaping buckwheat when the dew, or a light drizzling rain, keeps the seeds in their places. Much heat makes buckwheat shatter rapidly; and is not desirable, except to dry it, and to finish ripening it, when it has been put immediately in sheaves, which are tied around their tops, and made to stand up by spreading the base, so as to manage them the better, and make them dry more quickly. To avoid the loss that shattering occasions, some prefer pulling buckw heat by hand, which shakes it but little, to mowing, which shakes it too much. A few days of sunshine suffice to complete the maturing of the grain and the drying of stems. As soon as this time arrives, an area is cleared, and with the flail, like other kinds of grain, the buck- wheat is beaten out. It is prudent not to winnow it immediately : this grain is apt to heat and be in- jured in the granary, when its chaff is not retained with it. It is spread and stirretl every fifteen days to air it; and fanned when it is wanted for use. It should not be ground but when the flour is wanting. As after the reaping and beating out, there re- main on the earth jiiany seed (and these are al- w ays the best and most perfectly filled,) it is pro- per to lead to those places the fowls of the farm, which find an abundance of this food, of which they are very fond. We may estimate the loss which this crop sustains from shattering at one fifteenth. In good years buckwheat may return an hun- dred grains for one: it would be an excellent pro- duct if these good years were frequent ; but un- fortunately they are rare, and, as we have said abo\ e, they do not return at the oftenest, but once in five or six years. I have seen many consecu- tive years during which the crop not only has not defrayed the expense of culture, but even has not brought a single stalk. Independently of the nourishment that buck- wheat provides for hogs, and especially for fowls, to which it gives quickly a delicate fat, it serves to support men when they have no better grain for food. However, it is wrong to make the meal into bread, either alone, or in combination with other kinds of meal ; what is obtained is only an insipid, indigestible mass, and even still more injurious, if it is true, as Cabanis assures us, and as we can scarcely doubt, that it occasions " an almost abso- lute defect of intelligence, a sino;ular slowness in determination and movement." Headds thaf'men are the more stupid and sluggish, according as they live exclusively on this food." M. Parmentier, who has so much improved cookery, and even agri- FARMERS' REGISTER— BUCKWHEAT. 393 culture, has clearly proved that buckwheat is not fit to make bread alone, nor to be mixed with oth- er kinds of meal, susceptible of fermentation. In the countries then, in which they obstinately culti- vate this plant for food for man, they should limit its use to the making of pottage, for which it has been observed, that skimmed milk suits better than new. When cold, this pottage becomes com- pact, and cut into slices is good fried or broiled. They also make with the meal of buckwheat bat- ter-cakes, which are baked on a plate of iron lightly buttered. These cakes are the better, and easier to digest, for being mixed with eggs well beaten with skmimed milk, and for being well cooked. When spread with fresh butter, and sprinkled with fine salt, they are very agreeable, and are, in some countries, the object of very gay country parlies. When buckwheat is intended for poultry, it should be boiled to swell it, and partially break the cover of the grain. Coarsely ground, and mixed with barley, it forms a nourishing and sti- mulating food for horses and other animals of the farm. Cut green, it gives milk to the cows ; it is preferable still, if it has been sowed with vetches and peas, to cure the mixed forage into hay. The straw of buckwheat furaishes but little litter, and horses eat it only moderately ; but there may be drawn from its ashes a potash very valua- ble for the composition of glass. We have yet to consider buckwheat as a ma- nure, and when so useil, it may become of the greatest utility. It makes, in a short time, excel- lent muck, which being decomposed rapidly, is very suitable for land intended for rye or wheat. It is at once convenient and cheap ; it is proved that 80 pounds of seed, of which the price is about 4 francs, can sufficiently improve 2 acres. This ma- nure is very precious, especially for countries where dung is scarce, and where the lands require vege- table substances more than animal or mineral ma- nures. To arrive at the end proposed, they plough in April, give a second ploughing at the end of May, and after putting the ground in good tilth, sow the buckwheat in the usual manner. At the end of two or two and a half months, that is to say when it has arrived at its full size, and would do no more except to dry in ripening, it is buried by the plough. Well covered in the earth, it quickly begins to ferment, and is soon reduced. We may almost immediately in warm countries, sow buck- wheat a second time, which is then allowed to ri- pen ; and in colder countries, the better course is to use this manuring as a preparation for winter grain. It is easy to demonstrate that this im- provement, valuable in all resj>ects, costs much less than farm-yard manure, and in the proportion of one to eight. It appears that this important disco- very is due to the illustrious La Chalotais. We read what follows in the Observations of the Agri- cultural Society of Brittany : " When buckwheat is in flower, they cover it by a ploughing : a few days after, it is common to see a thick vapor like the mists that rise from marshes." It results from this manure, which in truth is less lasting than the others, but which is also much cheaper ; that we may spare soil the abuse of naked fallows, procure a good manure without the cost of car- riage, rapidly clean the soil of weeds, and make up in certain cantons for the scarcity of materials for enriching the lands. [The mills used in France for grinding other Vol. 1-50 grains, are unsuitable for buckwheat, and several plans and descriptions of mills are given for grind- ing buckwheat, without preventing the separation of the bitter bran from the flour. These are unne- cessary to copy, both on account of the expense of the plates, and the fact of mill machinery and ope- rations being now superior in the United States to those of France, at the time of the publication of Rozier's Cours Compht.'] Besides the common buckwheat of which we have spoken, there is a species considered prefera- ble, which is known by the name of buckwheat of Tartary, or of Siberia, and which was in 1782 much extolled by M. Martin. This variety which has been brought from Siberia by a missionary of Low Maine, is especially suitable to the north of France : it is more hardy than the common kind ; it is less inclined to lodge, and produces more. The grain is smaller, the stalk more yellow, and more solid. According to M. Curant, who calls this grain Martin- Corn, (in honor of M. Martin, of whom we have spoken,) the Siberian buck- wheat fears neitlier hot winds, nor white frosts ; it gives for one seed sown, nearly two thousand in rich soils — and elsewhere, from fifty to three hun- dred and more ; it makes a better meal, and can be kept as well and as long as that from wheat. These incontestible advantages are accompanied by some inconveniences : in the first place, the Siberian buckwiieat shatters in reaping still more easily than the common, and consequently demands an increase of precautions ; then it grinds almost as slowly as rye, and it ought not to be sowed until July, a time when the hay harvest draws so heavi- ly on the labor of the farmer. That nothing may be suffered from the bitter- ness which this grain might have, if the bran is mixed with the meal, M. Turmelin teaches the following process, by means of which the meal is perfectly separated from the skin which encloses it: " The upper millstone is raised so that the grain may be only rubbed, and the skins be thrown whole, with the meal, into the receptacle, such as corn appears in the granary, after the ravages of mice. We should not be surprised if many of these skins are full of pulverized meal, which how- ever will be completely separated by the shaking of the sieve : then we will have a pure, good, and well flavored flour, without bitterness, very dry, and for that reason, taking much more water than the common buckwheat flour, which constitutes the superiority of its quality." M. Turmelin, who resided near St. Bfieux, as- sures us that he has obtained two crops of Siberian buckwheat in the same year. He had at first sow- ed in March, and reaped at the end of June; then, on the same ground, sowed again in July, and reaped in the last days of October. This va- riety ought to be sowed thinner by one third than the common buckwheat: its straw is not fit to serve as forage for cattle, but however, may be used for their litter. A third variety of buckwheat deserves also to be cultivated : it is that which is designated by the name of emarginatum. It grows as high as the foregoing kinds, produces abundantly, and ripens early. M. Parmentier cites still other varieties of Si- berian buckwheat, which are cultivated in Swe- den ; and among others, a kind from Finland, more forward than the others, more hardy, which 394 FARMERS' REGISTER— FARMING, &c. IN LOWER VIRGINIA. has the advantage of beiniz; more tenacious of life and of bein^ able to multij)ly both by transplant- ing and by its suckers. It grows, says that excel- lent agriculturist, in Daourie, at the extremity of Siberia, near Chinese Tartary, in a mountainous country. Such are the most important details into which we may enter, and which ought not to be over- looked when the business is to pronounce on the character and worth of a plant, from which so many thousands of men and beasts draw their suste- nance, and which is accompanied by many objec- tions, as well as by considerable advantages.. GLEAMXGS IN NATURAL HISTORY. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I recollect about a year ago, to have read with great pleasure, as well as, I trust, considera- ble improvement, a little work entitled " JVhite^s Natural History of Selborne ;" and have recently met with another production of the same kind, styled " Gleanings in Natural History ,xoithhints for an jlngUr , by Edward Jesse, Esq." from which I have also derived so much gratification, that Avith your permission, I will venture to recom- mend them to the notice of your readers as strik- ing instances of how much may be done by a little trouble and system towards increasing the general stock of knowledge, and thus becoming beneflic- tors to mankind. If such a habit as the above au- thors pursued, I mean a habit " of paying attention to the districts in lohich they reside, and publishing their thoughts respecting the objects that surround them," were followed up by our country residents generally, incalculable good would ensue ; and we should, in that case, seldom again hear the com- plaint that has so repeatedly come across my ear, that rural life in Virginia is a life of extreme dull- ness and wearisome monotony. You too, Mr. Edi- tor, would undoubtedly find the adoption of such a plan by our agriculturists of no small aid to you in the important work you are now so ably engaged in. I send you Jesse's book, in order that you may examine it for yourself, and if you see fit, give an extract therefrom, as a further means of drawing attention to the work. Both together cost about a dollar and a half only. S. [We tlmnk our correspondent for liis .snggestions, and hope that our publication may be benefitted by them, not only by such selections as he recommends, but by similar original matter, which many of our readers can aid in furnishing. Both the authors referred to, and also our countryman Godman, in his Rambles of a Na- turalist, have proved that such details of the habits of the most common animals, presented m a familiar style and unpretending manner, excite a degree of interest in the reader, which would not be produced by the most studied and ambitious literary work. Nor would such studies and notices secve merely to give pleasure to the readers of an agricultural journal. There are but few -if any of the numerous small animals which people our earth and air, -which are not more or less either injuri- ous or friendly to the farmer's labors : and yet without some knowledge of iheir habits, we can neither repel the evils that some inflict, nor profit by the service that others offer — and indeed, from ignorance we often mis- take our friends for our enemies. It is probably not an exaggerated estimate, to suppose that a want of know- ledge of the habits of some one hurtful insect, and of such other animals as would if permitted have destroy- ed it for food, may have cost the farmers of the United States many thousands of dollars.] SOME REMARKS ON FARMING AND GRAZING IN LOWER VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Having recently landed in this country, a num- ber of your valuable Register was put into my hands, and as its pages are destined for the recep- tion of any thing tending to promote agricultural improvement, if the following remarks collected during a short and hasty tour through a part of the country in this neighborhood, be considered of any importance, they are at your service, as they may throw out a useful hint or two for the benefit of planters in general. Along the greater part of my tour, I was par- ticularly surprised at the almost universal and lux- urious growth of weeds on all pasture fields, or fields in grass ; and my surprise was not lessened to find that the system of agriculture adopted in this part of the country favored such a growth of weeds, it being considered highly advantageous to the soil ; and under that impression they are al- lowed to increase and flourish unmolested until the ground is again about to be broken up for a corn crop, when they are cut down and burned. I am very far from considering such a system as being otherwise than highly detrimental and exhausting to a soil. Such a luxuriant growth of weeds as generally grow on the low lands of Gloucester county and similar soils, must have an exhausting tendency, and the benefit which they are supposed to impart by preventing the heat of the sun from causing too great an evaporation, is much more than counterbalanced by the quantity of vegeta- ble food extracted from the soil in their growth ; and as they are allowed to grow, ripen and die every year, a very small portion if any of such ve- getable food again returns to the soil. In highly improved districts of country in England, Scot- land, and also in the States, it is the care of every farmer to clear his farm as much as possible from such weeds. The method usually adopted is to cut these weeds previous to their ripening or get- ting into seed, collecting them into heaps, when they soon form an excellent manure, and are again applied to the soil with benefit ; allow weeds to grow along the ience lines of a farm, and it is im- possible to keep a farm free from them, as winged seeds are easily carried by the w ind, and soon co- ver hundreds of acres. Cattle in such pastures must suffer severely from the number of flies har- bored in such thickets: and in such fields as I have seen, it was difficult for cows and other bestial at pasture to get to the clover and other grasses of shorter growth. It is a complaint among farmers here that it is impossible to get their lands so well prepared for the reception of wheat and other grain crops as they could wish, from the quantity of roots contained in the soil. Let them adopt the simple mode of cutting these weeds before getting to seed, and in a few years, with careful manage- FARMERS' REGISTER— RAIL ROADS, &c— CORN. S95 ment, their farms would become comparatively free from such a nuisance. Observing the pas- tures in such a condition, I felt anxious to learn what profit they derived from their cows and the general mode of management. On one farm in Gloucester county of nearly two thousand acres, and having upwards of thirty cows, the greatest quantity of butter made in any one week was sixty two pounds, and the whole amount of produce from these cows from the month of April down to tiiis time was only .S152 00, a sum by no means ade- quate to defray the expense of attending to them. The plan here adopted, is to allow the cows to pas- ture over a space of nearly six hundred acres, co- vered higher than themselves with weeds of vari- ous sorts. Before sunset, they are collected and enclosed into a pen for milking, and are allowed to remain there over night, until milked next morn- ing, without any fodder. It is imjwssible for cows to thrive under such treatment. Would it not be a much better plan to confine the cows to a small- er range of pasture, and shift them from one pas- ture to another once a week or oftener, and instead of penning them up all night without food, to turn them out to pasture.? It is impossible for cows in warm and sultry days, and in a climate such as this, to gather more tiian a bare subsistence throughout tiie day, when (eased with numberless flies, and generally flocking together lor the shelter of trees or bushes. It would be a much better plan to place cows into a well ventilated house du- ring the heat of the day, supplying them Avith a quantity of grass and clover cut from some of the fields, and allowed to be a little deadened before be- ing given. To haul a little earth sprinkled on the floor of the cow house is considered beneficial for cows. The expense of such an additional at- tendance on cows would be more than recompens- ed by an increase of dairy produce. On farms of a good size there are in general one or more old or infirm persons who could attend to the coA'^s, and who are unfit for almost any other work. The greater part of their work would be to clean out the manure daily, and supply the grass — in which case, cows would soon learn to assemble to tiie sound of a horn, and thus give very little trouble. A. N. Norfolk, 2Sth Oct. 1833. [The foregoing letter is from a practical Scotch far- mer, whose remarks we shall be glad to receive, whe- ther made on the husbandry of Virginia, or of Scot- land. It is always desirable to compare opposite opi- nions, and by that means, instruction may often be drawn from those, whose previous habits, and the cir- cumstances \mder which they have been placed, are the most unlike our own. The " enclosing" system, as it was called by its great advocate and introducer, the justly venerated John Taylor, which by forbidding gra- zing, allows fields to manure themselves slowly by the decay of their own vegetable cover, must seem as im- proper as it is strange, to a farmer coming from high priced and highly cultivated lands. Nevertheless, where labor is high, and but little profit is to be obtained from grazing, and especially on poor, but improvable soils, the enclosing, or non-grazing plan, is the cheapest and best means of giving putrescent matter to improve the laud. Bat this plan, even when properly carried through, is not suitable to every field — and still less do we defend such practices as our correspondent describes, which by attempting to obtain profit both from feeding cattle and improving the soil by the weeds they leave, in fact serve to lose botli the benefits expected. If a farmer is obliged to burn off the weeds before breaking up his field for cultivation, it proves either that his ploughing is very badly executed — or otherwise, that liis soil is so rich, that clover ought to have taken the jjlace of weeds.] For the Farmers' Register. A PLAN PEOPOSED FOR A CHEAP AND DURA- BLE RAIL ROAD. In passing the streets of Williamsburg, I notice before many gentlemen's doors a very hard and even cement, and I recollect that a few years ago, they had put marl, or fossil shells there, which is the only ingredient. Query — Would not the same material, after levelling a track, by being spread from four to six inches thick, serve as well or bet- ter for a road, than wood and iron as used for rail roads.' If the wheels were made of cypress or pine of suitable size, and like a roller four or five feet long, fixed fast on an axletree of wrought iron, (so that the axle would turn with the wheel,) one wheel would answer inslead of two, and the pressure or weight being on a broad surface, would serve to keep the track smooth and even — especially if car- ried by steam power instead of horses. I see no reason why a road so made and used, would not last forever, with very slight repairs. The contemplated road from Richmond to York- town would run through a country that abounds with the above named material. IMy impression is that a road might be made on this plan, for half the usual cost. The question now arises, would such broad wheels run as easy as narrow .' Expe- rience would test this — but I think there would be little or no difference, as weight is weight, whether its rests on a tread of five inches, or five feet. The main thing in doubt, is, whether the marl could be made as smooth as an iron rail road. I think a portion of sand might be added to the marl, with advantage. I submit these remarks for the con- sideration and judgment of the public. PARKE JONES. James City Co. Oct. 27lh, 1833. ON THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. To the EJitor of the Fanners' Register. Upper JBrandon, ? Prince George, Nov. 1, 1833. ^ Fully convinced as I am that much more labor than necessary is usually expended on the culture of the corn crop, I yet offer the following remarks on that subject with great diffidence. Early and deep fitllowing, particularly on stifrsoils,is deemed essential, even where a sccord ploughing is ren- dered necessary by the a])plication of manure in the spring. In every process on my farm it is my object tosubstitule as far as practicable the use of horse power for manual labor; and in subservience to this rule, after the whole surface has been pre- viously well harrowed in the spring, my corn land is all laid off in checks, where the lantl is dry enough to admit of this sort of culture. With a view to the same object (the saving of mauual la- 396 FARMERS' REGISTER— LIME, MARL, &c— ENCLOSURES. bor,) a p;reater distance is allowed, and two stalks are left in a station where tiie strength of the land is sufficient to bear it. This you observe greatly di- minishes the hoe work. We use seed without stint, dropping from six to eight grains in a place where one stalk is to be left, and from ten to twelve where we design to have two. The object is to insure an even crop. We use a variety of small ploughs; but infinitely more depends on the exe- cution of the work than on the kind of plough used. There should always, however, be a due relation between the size of the implements used and the width of the rows, in order that the whole work may be completed at a given number of bouts, Avithout ploughing any part of the row twice. We deem it all important to start the small ploughs early (soon after the corn is well up,) ploughing deep and close to the plants, and endeavoring to get over the whole field once in 14 days, till harvest. During that busy season we keep about half the usual number of ploughs at work. Some of my neighbors have frequently hoed over their entire crops before I begin to weed at all — an operation that at that early period I verily believe rather retards than forwards the grow th of the young and tender plants ; nor am I singular in that opi- nion. If I can barely get over with the hoes be- fore harvest, and that rather imperfectly as most farmers would pronounce, I am perfectly satisfied. Immediately after harvest we keep all our ploughs running for five or six days; and at the same time, we weed out the most grassy spots with the hoes. We then commence thrashing wheat, and leave about half the ploughs to lay by the corn, which they do by ploughing every other row to diminish the risk of firing. When the field has been gone over in this way, they return and finish the rows that have been left. As soon as the crop of wheat is thraslied, the hoe hands return to the corn field and destroy the young grass ; this is done to expedite the seeding of wheat. Under this system, we are enabled to deliver most of our wheat in July, when according to the old plan, we hardly ever commenced thrashing till about the 1st of August. The advantages of an early delivery of wheat nmst be obvious to every farmer. The quantity is greater, the quality improved, and the price enhanced,aswell for these reasons, as because the miller is anxious to get wheat in order to com- mence grinding at that early season. In fine, I will not say that quite as much corn can be made in this way as with more hoe work, though I am by no means convinced to the contrary; but I do say, that the increase, if any, would not compen- sate me for the extra labor at tliat busy season of the year. WM. B. HARRISON The land was put in corn, succeeded by wheat, and is now in clover. The two former crops were equally and manifestly benefitted by the calcare- ous matter, but the clover exhibits a much more flourishing appearance on the marled part, although it is very tine where the lime was applied. The land on which I tried the second experi- ment is now in corn. The soil is light. The quan- tities of lime and marl, and the previous improve- ment the same as before. The corn on the marled part is equally as good as where the lime was used, and strikingly better than on the adjoining land which had received the same dressing of putres- cent manure. The marl used was brought by water 12 miles ; and I applied only 140 bushels per acre, because the cost of this quantity, and of 70 bushels of un- slacked lime, was found to be nearly the same, and from the tried efficacy of the lime, I well know, that, if the effect proved to be equally great, I could extend the use of it to great advantage. Con- trary to my expectation, the results of the experi- ments stated, fully establish the fact that the 140 bushels of marl are at least as efficacious as half the quantity of lime. You ask how much the crop was increased by the marl.' I regret that I did not ascertain by measurement, and cannot there- fore say precisely ; but it may be confidently af- firmed, that the increase of the first crop of corn and wheat wdl repay the whole cost of the marl- ing, and the land will be left permanently im- proved. I observe that one of your correspondents in the middle country has made some inquiries of you in regard to the value of burnt clay as a manure. I have tried it, but cannot affirm that the clay used was of the right sort. The effect on light land is not perceptible ; on a cold tenacious soil the effect is greater, hut not sufficiently great to justify the continued use of it. I find my time much more profitably employed in collecting leaves from the woods, and converting them into manure. WM. B. HARRISON. For the Farmers' Register. COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF LIME AND MARL, BURNT CLAY. The two following experiments to test the com- parative value of lime and marl, were made on ad- joining pieces of land of the same original quality, and previously manured from the same heap. The soil on which the first experiment was made, was a fine loam, rather stiff. I applied seventy bush- els of unslacked lime per acre, and one hundred and forty of the marl, or two measures for one. — For the Farmers' Register. ON TIIE LAW OF ENCLOSURES. Respectfully addressed to the Members of the Ge- neral jfssembly of Virginia. Justice and policy have concurred in fixing as a general principle in the laws of civilized nations, that every individual should be compelled to refrain from trespassing injuriously on the property, or otherwise doing wrong, either directly, or through others under his control, to any other person under the protection of the laios. In Virginia, however, there is one most important exception to the gene- ral adoption of this principle. The whole land of our country is, in effect, deprived of this protec- tion against trespassers and wrongdoers. Our law does not forbid A to suffer his cattle to eat and de- stroy the growing or ripe crops of B, but compels B to secure his fields effectually against the en- trance of the cattle, or otherwise maintains A as innocent. In this case the rule just named is re- versed, and so far as our fields and crops are in question, the principle adopted is this — every indi- vidual shall guard and protect his property from de- predators, and every one is permitted to consume or destroy all that may not be well guarded. FARMERS' REGISTER— ENCLOSURES. 397 The injustice of this reversed rule would be readily admitted by any one who considered the question abstracted from the circumstances from which our policy sprang, or who was not in some degree blinded by being accustomed and reconciled to the practical operation of this policy. But I am no advocate for aiming at theoretical perfection in government, or consulting arithmetic and geome- try, rather than the actual condition of men, to make rules for their direction. I freely admit that at a former time, circumstances in Virginia re- quired the general adoption of this policy — and that it is still expedient over a large portion of her territory. But in another large portion of the state, from change of circumstances, this policy has be- come as injurious in its practical operation, as it is unjust in theory. VVhen our country was newly settled, the ex- tent of cultivated land was very small, compared to the forests and wasteland, much of which, even in that state, was valuable for pasturage ; and it was by far cheaper to fence the few and small spots of arable, than their extensive woodland pastures, or range for stock, and the range was much too valua- ble to be abandoned. It was beneficial to every landholder that such should be the general plan of enclosures, although the open land thereby became one large common pasture, for the use of him who owned but little, or none of it, as much as for those who owned the largest shares. According to these views our legal policy with respect to enclo- sures was fixed — and from it all derived at first some benefit, though certainly the benefits were very unequally divided. The law, stated general- ly, requires that each owner of a field shall surround it with a good fence, of a certain height, or shall have no remedy against the intrusion of his neigh- bors' live stock. But now, the state of things in much the greater part of Eastern Virginia is altogether changed. All the fertile land lias long been cleared and made arable, and much more of^ such as is extremely poor, is also under tillage. In districts where the soil is, or has been, of good quality, very little tim- ber for fencing remains, and, consequently, the ex- pense of fencing is increased greatly more than in proportion to the increased extent of enclosures. The remaining woodland is poor, and so worthless for pasturage or range for stock of any kind, that many of its owners make no use of their un- enclosed woodland for that purpose. But this aban- doning the use of their woodland (which in fact is not worth using by any one,) does not relieve the owner of the expense of fencing his arable land — and this is required merely that other persons may not be deprived of the use of his woodland for range, which he does not consider worth using as such. The great extent of fencing required bears es- pecially hard on the tidewater region. There, on and near good lands, the original growth of dura- ble pine and good oak has all been destroyed — and a choice has been already, or soon will be present- ed to every farmer, either to purchase suitable fencing timber at a distance, or to use the old field pines which form the second growth of his worn fields, and which are not more remarkable for their rapid growth, than for their rapidity in rotting, when used for fencing timber. There are no du- rable materials for dead fences, and the frequent di- visions of lands, as well as the laws permitting stock of every kind to range at large, forbid, or discourage the attempt to make live hedges. — There are many farms which have five miles of perishable fences to keep in repair, that do not yield $500 of clear profit ; and many other tracts are thrown out of cultivation, and yield nothing to their owners, (who in most cases are the especial favorites of our laws — widows or orphans) — be- cause the expense of lawful fencing would exceed the whole rent. Under this system and these circumstances, far- mers wlio make suitable enclosed pastures for their own live stock, (as every one ought to do for his own interest,) are burdened with the expense of two kinds of fencing, for two different objects. His own interest requires that he should make an enclosure to keep his own cattle in, and the law compels him to fence his cultivated lands, to keep the cattle of other people out. It is impossible to estimate with any approach to accuracy the enormous loss caused to the far- mers of Eastern Virginia, by this unjust policy. But if each person will calculate the amount of his own individual loss, it will be sufficiently evi- dent that the whole annual amount is enormous. It is admitted that the evil of this policy is not so felt by all who bear even its heaviest burdens. There are many, who because they have never known any different state of things, can scarcely conceive the advantage of making every man re- strain his own cattle within his own bounds. Therefore, even if the legislature was impressed with the opinions I have advocated, it would be im- proper to make any general or sudden change in our system. Most of the benefits of a change might be secured, and the objections avoided, by partial changes of this law of enclosures, for such particular districts as would accept the offer by the voices of three fourths of their proprietors, and they owning not less than three fourths of the land within the boundaries of each district. If such a privilege was accepted by the owners of a district of five miles square, for example, they would still be bound to maintain at their joint expense a gene- ral enclosure in obedience to the general law, and to exclude the cattle of all persons residing with-^ out their limits. But the expense of such gene- ral enclosing fence would be very inconsiderable, and would be diminished to each individual in pro- portion to its greater extent. Such a plan would secure to every considerabletract of country either kind of policy that its inhabitants were decidedly in favor of — and would be free from every reasoij^ able objection. If the people of any one neighbor- hood were permitted to adopt the change proposed, under proper restrictions, all the risk and loss of the trial would be confined to them, and if it suc- ceeded, the whole community would participate in the benefit. If our legal policy in this respect was altogether changed, there are many farmers who would still refuse to profit by the boon : and from their fond- ness for close grazing their fields by as many cat- tle as can be kept alive through the year, would keep up their present amount of fencing, though their fields would be no longer liable to the depre- dations of any cattle but their own. But most persons would soon learn the benefit of pursuing a different course. Each farmer having to mam- tain his own cattle, would keep a smaller number, and confine them generally to -a permanent pastui-e 398 FARMERS' REGISTER— MEASURING CORN CRIBS, &c. well enclosed : and by being necessarily reduced to one f'ourlli of their present numbers, and treated as well as tbe change of system woukl permit, the live stock would yield more j)roducts of every kind (except hides ))erhaps,) than at present. The lands kept for tillage, thrice as extensive as the enclosed pastures, if too poor to be grazed, might be safely left without a fence, until their im- provement in after time may make enclosures ne- cessary for the owner's interest. There can be no doubt but if permitted to get rid of the burden of making and repairing three fiiurths of our costly and perishable fences, that the change would be al- most necessarily followed by greatly improved pro- ducts from both live stock and tillage, as well as increased fertility to the whole country exempted from the usual impoverishing and unprofitable grazing of poor fields by poor cattle. SUUM CUIQUE. EASY MODE OF MEASURING THE CONTENTS OF CORN CRIBS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Perhaps the following short and easy rule for as- certaining the number of barrels of shelled corn in any crib or house filled with corn in the ears, may be acceptable to some of your readers. RULE. Find the solid content of the house in feet ; that is, multiply the length, breadth and height of the house continually together ; then multiply their product by 8, and cut ofi' the two last figures ; this will give you the barrels and decimals of a barrel of shelled corn contained in the house. EXAMPLE. In a crib measuring on the inside 20 feet in length, 12 feet in breadth, and 10 feet high, there will be very nearly 192 barrels of shelled corn. 20 ■ 12 240 10 2400 192.00 I found this rule in pretty general use in this neighborhood when I came into it some years ago, but none of those who used it could give a reason for its correctness. It will be easily seen that it is only a substitution of the decimal .08 for the vulgar fraction irrirro ^^ which it is a pretty near approxi- mation. The solid feet in a crib are multiplied by 1728, the solid inches in a foot, and tlie product is di- vided by 2150, the solid inches (rejecting § of an inch) in a Winchester bushel ; this shows the con- tent in bushels, which, divided by 5, the number of bushels in a barrel, gives the barrels of corn in ears. And as 2 barrels of corn in ears are sup- posed to be equal to 1 barrel of shelled corn, the quantity of the latter may be expressed by multi- plying the solid feet of the crib by the compound fraction 5 of ^ of iff f , which is equal to j^ very nearly. Those wlio wish to be more exact, may add two bushels and two gallons for each hundred barrels. H. SASSAFRAS BUSHES MURRAIN. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Buckingham, Nov. 5th, 1833. In the third number of the Farmers' Register, a writer over the signature of Anti-Sassafras, in- quires whether any reader of that periodical can direct how to eradicate the growth of Sassafras in cultivated ground. Having succeeded in entirely destroying the shrub, I will now proceed to give the information desired. It is simply to cut down or grub up the Sassafras in the winter, and turn a flock of sheep on the land in the spring, and keep them on the land during the spring and summer of that and the succeeding year. The sheep are very fond of the Sassafras, and will browse the young scions as soon as they ap- pear above the ground ; and the twigs not being suffered to grow or put forth leaves, the roots na- turally perish. A writer in the same number thinks that there is no cure for the murrain in cattle. I formerly resided in the lower part of this state, where the murrain was very fatal to cattle. I tried many remedies to which I was advised, without success. Discovering that the bladders of the cattle that died were invariably filled with bloody urine, I de- termined to try what effect bleeding would have, and found that it was by far the best remedy I had used. My plan was, to bleed them on the neck as you would a horse, and take as much blood as they could bear without fainting. When bleeding was resorted to as soon as the cattle appeared sick, the remedy was generally successful. As a preventive, I had all my cattle bled as soon as the disease made its appearance, and generally succeeded, I thought, in lessening the number that sickened, and in mitigating the violence of the dis- ease in those that were attacked. Resj)ectfully yours, SKRINICSKY. ARTIFICIAL GRASSES IN LOW^ER VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Fort Monroe, Oct. 30th, 1833. My experience as a farmer, will not enable me to add much to the stock of agricultural know- ledge. The consciousness of this fact, however, will not deter me from occasionally troubling you with my reflections : take them for what they are worth ; as I grow older in the profession, they may possibly become more interesting. I shall not be accused of pedantry, for having af- fixed my name to this communication : practical subjects, particularly those connected with the science of cultivating the earth, should never be treated anon)'mously. A fact or a suggestion thus promulgated, cannot carry with it the same weight as one made under the authority and responsibility of a name ; and a hint which, over the signature of Arator, might have been imnoticed or ridiculed as visionary, if subscribed by that of John Tay- lor, would have been eagerly seized and acted uj)on.* [* We wish that all our correspondents were impress- ed with tliese truths. All communications signed by their authors command far more attention, than they would if anonymous.] FARMERS' REGISTER-^ARTIFICIAL GRASSES, 309 There is no class of men more wedded to the no- tions of antiquity, or more averse to innovatino- upon the venerable customs of their forefathers, than farmers : to a certain extent, this is undoubt- edly a laudable propensity, as it restrains scheming ■within proper bomids ; but it may be carried so far as to set a limit to improvement. Agriculture is a progressive science, and there is no reason why, in the scale of improvement, it should not make as regular and as rapid advances, as other more abstruse, but less useful ones. No one circumstance more fully illustrates the error of adhering to preconceived notions, and ta- king for granted that " what every body says is true," than the very general opinion, that the cli- mate and soil in this part of the state are not con- genial to the growth of artificial grasses. Nothing can be farther from the truth ; and I do not hazard too much when I say, that Timothy, Herds Grass, Orchard Grass, Tall Meadow Oat, Feather Grass, Clover, and Lucern, all of which 1 have fairly tried, thrive as well and grow as luxuriantly as in most parts of our extensive country. For five years I have turned my attention very much to this branch of agriculture ; two or three enterprizing gentlemen in this, and in Norfolk county, have done the same. The charm is now broken ; all acknow- ledge that our hay is as good as ever was import- ed from the eastward ; and in a few years, I hope to see our old fields transformed into profitable meadows. I have now before me a few spears of Timothy of my last crop, to verify my assertion. They measure five feet and upwards in length. I do not offer them of course as a sample of the crop, but merely as an evidence of what our soil and cli- mate are capable of producing : for if twenty spears can be raised, twenty acres may, under similar circumstances of soil, location, &c. I committed a serious error in my noviciate, in mixing my seed without a proper reference to their period of ripening : for instance, I sowed Red Clo- ver, Timothy, and Herds Grass together : the Clover was ready for the scythe in May, the other two were not ripe for three or four weeks after- wards : I consequently lost the best part of my clover crop. But that was not all ; had I cut (he clover as early as I might, (and the proper time is when it is fully in bloom, without waiting for half the heads to turn brown,) it would have had a chance of springing before the hot and dry weather set in here; whereas, waiting for the ri{)eningof the Timothy, the roots became suddenly exposed to the full influence of the sun, and were totally killed. The like objection applies to mixing Mea- dow Oat and Timothy ; the first ripening three or four weeks before the latter. Here, however, the same inconvenience does not result to the same extent. The Meadow Oat is much more hardy than the Clover, and even after it has shed its seed, and become perfectly dry and yellow, it still makes good hay, and is eagerly eaten by stock. The best mixtures therefore, if mixtures are to be used, are Timothy and Herds Grass, and MeadoAv Oat and Clover, as they ripen about the same time. I think the latter very important, as they make much better hay than either separately. Clover is at all times difficult to cure, and in the process loses a large proportion of its leaves : this is in a great measure obviated by curing it with the Meadow Oat; besides, the stubble affords conside- rable protection to the exposed roots of t!ie clover. As to the best time for sowing grass seed, I am still somewhat in doubt ; that is, 1 have very little choice between early fall and early spring sowing; say the latter part of September and February. If deferred until November, the young plants can- not withstand the winters cold : if delayed until April, they are burned up by the summers sun. When sown alone then, I should prefer Septem- ber, as you thereby save nearly a year ; but if I wish to sow on a grain crop, I would do it in Feb- ruary or early in March. I last spring soAved Orchard Grass and Clover on wheat; half the field was first harrowed, and the seed sown and left on the surface ; the remain- der was harrowed after the seed were sown : I can now perceive no difference whatever in the ap- pearance of the grass. I believe the wheat was benefitted by the operation. I apprehend the great causes of failure with those who have had courage to attempt the culti- vation of grasses in this section of country, have been, first, an unwillingness to risk a doubtful ex- periment on good land ; and secondly, the unpro- mising appearance of the crop the first year. I confess I was myself very much disheartened, and actually broke up several pieces of grass, which would have turned out well, had I exercised a lit- tle patience. This was particularly illustrated on sowing a low piece of ground two years since. It was roughly ploughed, and the seed covered with a heavy drag in September. I watched if very closely, and as late as the following March, could not discover a single blade of grass. I concluded the seed were bad : the fact is, they were buried so far beneath the surface, that they did not vege- tate until spring; and I this year cut a fine crop of Timothy and Herds Grass from it. This fact de- termined me in all future soAvings, either to leave the seed on the surface^ or to cover them lightly with a bush harrow. My experience with Lucern has been very satis- factory. I have cultivated it six years, anil consi- der it one of the most valuable grasses known : its yield is immense, and is preferred by stock to almost any other, either green, or in the form of hay. I cut it five times a year, and get as much from each cutting as if it were repeated but twice or three times : for soiling therefore, it is invalua- ble. I usually sow it in drills three feet apart : this enables me to cultivate a cleansing crop be- tween them, so that in Avorking one I Avork the other, which is absolutely necessary, as Avithout it, the Lucern is soon overrun and destroyed by the native grasses. This appears almost a paradox in vegetable physiology, considering the great depth (50 or 100 feet) to Avhich the tap root of the Lucern has been traced in ])ursuit of Avater. I this year raised a crd{) of mangel Avurfzel betAveenmy rows, Avith as little inconvenience as I could have cultivated either separately. The Lucern is a very hardy j)lant, and resists heat and cold belter than any other grass Avith which I am acquainted. It groAvs luxuriantly at this place in the sand fertilized with stable ma- nure, Avithout the addition of a particle of clay or vegetable mould. It Avill also groAv on a stiff soil, but a light loam is best adapfed to it. In Februa- ry 1832, the Aveather mild and open, I drilled a small lot of rather stiff shelly land Avith Lucern : it came up beautifully in eight or ten days. Every body here recollects the extreme cold Aveather Ave 400 FARMERS' REGISTER— CHEAT OR CHESS, &c. had the March following: I gave up my Lucern as lost; but I dent believe I lost a single plant. It continued green the whole time, and I cut three crops from it the first year. I have made but one experiment in sowing Lucern broad cast : it did not succeed, and may have proceeded from the imperfect preparation of the land; but I rather think the drill system will be found to be the best in the end. ROBERT ARCHER. CHEAT OR CHESS. To the Edilor of the Farmers' Register. Farmville, Prince Edward. Volumes have been written on tlie question, is cheat the product of wheat? This has for years been the great enigma which has kept alive the curiosity and investigation of the agriculturist. The following thoughts were suggested to my mind, after i-eading two articles from your last Register, by Gideon Ramsdell and David Thomas ; and you will perceive that I have embraced Mr. Thomas' views ; viz : that cheat is not the product of wheat. 1, I believe that it is contrary to the laws of the vegetable kingdom, for one plant to produce ano- ther of a different nature. A single seed of any kind contains within itself, the whole succeeding fenerations (if I may use the expression) of seeds, 'or example ; in the acorn is a forest. In the single mustard seed, are myriads of infant embry- otic plants. In the tobacco seed, lies concealed enough tobacco to freight thousands of ships. Now if we admit a departure in one instance from this rule in the vegetable kingdom, we at once derange the whole order of nature. 2. But admitting that cheat is the product of wheat. Then, it is a de- generation. And all degenerations, from the same causes continue to degenerate. Then what is wheat this year, will be cheat the next, and some- thing else the next, and so on. But, this is not so ; for cheat will when sowed come up, and propagate with perfection : thus, proving itself to possess the full powers of germination, which proved that it is not " the degenerate son of a worthy lather," but a father staniiing on his own bottom. There are several other views I would introduce here ; but they might be thought unnecessary. 3. The same causes, under similar circumstances will pro- duce the same effects : But this maxim does not hold good here. Wheat in a defective state, which has been cut or eaten down, which has been left uncovered &c. does not uniformly produce cheat. 4. If wheat produces cheat, we may reasonably conclude, that oats would produce a cheat. And if so, there would be the same difference in ap- pearance, between the cheat prcJ#uced by the oats, and that produced by the wheat, that there is be- tween the two kinds of grain. But, we find that the same kind of cheat, is found in both. 5. From my earliest recollection I have noticed the mixture of " volunteer" wheat, oats, rye and cheat, about old treading yards, or stacks or granaries. 1 have seen good wheat, and rye, and good cheat, growing up to full maturity side by side. Now, they all had stood the winter together. Had slept " pig- ging together in the same truckle bed," as Burke says, (I believe these are his words) — had slept there together the whole winter ; and still, they had respectively preserved the utmost chastity. Can we be made to believe, that the cheat seen in these circumstances sprang up from the seeds of wheat ? No sir, I cannot, for reasons before given. These views may not be new to you, or they may be new and incorrect. They have just been suggested to my mind, and it occurred to me, I would send them to you, to use as you might will. I do sincerely wish you the fullest success, in your endeavor to give new lile to agriculture in Virgi- nia. And I think a few years will prove the great value of your excellent publication. The public are well assured, that the Farmers' Register is no "cheat." But that cast upon the Avaters "after many days" it will produce fruits of a good kind, Virginia, can never regain her former stand in the Union, without improvement in her agriculture; and agricultural publications, as time and history demonstrate, conduce more to this end, than any other means. " Knowledge is wealth, and informa- tion power." I have seen one single article in your Register, containing truths, to obtain a know- ledge of which, a man might loell afford to pay the year's subscription. My feeble aid is at your service. And I will do all I can, to cause an in- crease of subscription in this part of Virginia. With high respect, yours, T. McR. EXTRACTS FROM PRIVATE CORRESPON- DENCE. October 17, 1833. * * * One of the good effects I have expe- rienced from taking Agricultural Journals, is a zeal, which though often evanescent, sometimes results in permanent improvement. Arator made me a non-^razer, and a good ploughman ; your Book and Register will make me a marler (if I have it,) and has already determined me to put one of my farms on the four shift system. In ag- riculture as in morals, we often know more than we can reduce to practice; at least, this is my case. Yet with what I consider only tolerable manage- ment, I have quadrupled my crops of wheat on one of my farms, in the course of fifteen years, and value it now at ,^6,000 more, than it was worth when I first owned it. I should like to see in your Register, a more full and minute description of the augers, &c. used in searching for marl : and think they would be readily sold by any dealer in iron or smith, who could give assurance that they were made by an approved model. I have been prevented from pur- chasing these things, because I know not where to procure them, and have not myself sufficient know- ledge of their construction, to direct their manu- factory. CLOVER ON POOR LAND, Farmville, Nov. 7, 1833. I have long been impressed with the futility of attempting to grow red clover extensively, on our poor, thirsty sandy soils ; unaided by calcareous manures, I believe it had best not be attempted. Of course, I was much pleased at the idea suggest- ed, in an article on Gama Grass, in your fourth number, that it might be better, to substitute some of our coarse indigenous grasses, whose strong roots strike deeper in the ground Clover may, however, be made to live in thin land, by sowing the seed in the month of August, on stubble grounds FARMERS' REGISTER— GAMA GRASS— HESSIAN FLY, &c. 401 and harrowing; fhcm in. The plants have then the benefit of the autumn rains and strike their roots sut!icicnt]y deep before winter to bear the cold, and will produce a cro]) of scad the following year. When sown with small grain, they are oversha- dowed and kept back by it, until harvest, when they are suddenly exposed to a burning sun, at the most trying time of the year. All this is obviated by sowing on stubble, and I have known a gentle- man in Buckingham succeed by adopting this plan. * * # * # WILD PKA VIAKS. I have often been told by the old people, of the astonishing luxuriance of the tall wild pea vine, in old times, on lands now the poorest — of the great quantities of food which it afforded ibr stock, and the extreme mellowness which it caused in the soil. It has perennial roots reseml)ling the sweet potatoe, which were eaten with avidity by hogs, and its vines, leaves and fruit were greedily de- voured by horses, cows and sheep. So that its very value seems to have caused its almost utter extermination. With so much worth and so many enemies, is it not entitled to a single friend.' In short, would you advise a crop of it.' I have lately found a few seed, and think it might be advanta- geously used, either as an improver of land, or as fodder. It certainly afforded much manure to our lands in former times. At least they have become very poor since itsdcparture. Whenever it becomes necessary to cultivate its ground in another crop, its roots might be fed to hogs, or ploughed up and transferred to other land. * * # * # I w-as much pleased with some very timely and very sensible inquiries by your Louisa correspon- dent, who it seems, like your humble servant, and perhaps many others of your subscribers, lives on jioor land. W hat would you think of lengthening the rotation on such lands.' Or at least, of. culti- vating them much seldomer in a hoe crop.' The greater returns of small grain and grass crops, might, perhaps, make ample amends ibr any defi- cit in the crop of corn. I consider, hill side ditches and horizontal ploughing as the best means of pre- serving poor land, and consequently of restoring it, at least of its original fertility, and as the great- est discovery in agriculture tor o\ir middle country, which has been made since its settlement. GAUIA GRASS. Prince Edward. I have long known the article described under the name of " Gama Grass" in the 4tli number of the Register. Fifteen years ago, finding the cattle fond of eating it, I scattered the seed in tiie fence corners, and in that way propagated it to some ex- tent, though I have never regularly cultivated it. There is now, in one of my meadow s, a patch eigh- teen or twenty feet square, almost exclusively of this grass. It contends well with all other grasses, but 1 find it in time overpowered in the fence cor- ners by bushes and briers. It would doubtless need cultivation, if cut six or eight times in the year. I suspect the variety in this vicinity is larger than those described in your Iburth number. It has nine or ten seed on every spike — I have lound but one with fewer than nine. A friend Vol. 1—51 brought half a dozen seed to me from Newbern the other day — (where they sell at one dollar per quart) — evidently smaller than those growing in this neighborhood. Ours is, however, evidently a tripsacum, grows most luxuriantly and makes fine hay. I measured a stalk the other day nine feet in length. Its spikes are generally cylindri- cal. They sometimes grow out double, and then are flattened on one side. * # * * IIKSSIAN FLY AND Sr-lt'f IT! WHEAT; About the year 1800, for the fifst flmfe, ttiy fa- ther discovered Hessian fly in his wheat J ju^tthen^ for the first time, the clover on the farm produced slavering with the horses. Can there be a con- nexion betw^ecn these evils.' 1 know the latter is ascribed to a little parasitical vine growing on the clover. On several occasions, I have known seed- wheat scalded to remove smut, and the crop pro- duced was exempt from Hessian fly. I know it is sometimes exempt when there has' been no scald- ing ; yet with other facts it alTords ground for sus- picion, that some minute insect artificer, (I suspect a little black tickling insect, which appears in numberless multitudes during harvest, and which appeared for the first time about 1800,) produces the evil by depositing its eggs in the grain. The insect hatched from the egg, I know, is very dif- ferent from this one, but these creatures pass through many transmigrations. A gentleman took some seed wheat from Virginia to Alabama. The succeeding crop was well supplietl with Hes- sian fly, and stocked a neighborhood previously exenq)t. To scald seed-wheat, the water should be heated on the margin of a running stream, into w hich the basket of wheat may be plunged after dipping it for a moment, into boiling water. Last year, having the misfortune to have some of my wheat srautted, I kept some smutted grains from which hatched a number of worms, which grew more than half an inch long, and which I suspected to be the cause of the evil. I had long susj)ected this disease and several others to be pro- duced by insects — for I could not well conceive how the atmosphere could contain a poison de- stroying one crop and not touching another imme- diately adjoining. I have known smut in wheat entirely cured by scalding the seed in ley, and by rolling in quick lime after wetting. In both of these processes, I I)resume there is heat enough to destroy the egg of the insect. I have also known seed-wheat soak- ed several days in strong but cold ley, without i)re- venting smut. I suspect that it has been heat which gave efficacy to niost of the pickles in curing smut. MARLING. King William, Nov. 7, 1833. It gives me the highest ]>leasure to observe the rapid progress marling is making among us. Popu- lation being the natural result of agriculture, I doubt not, but marl is destined, not only to enable Lower Virginia to retain in her bosom her native born sons, but to give her many by adoption. It is important to convince that class of farmers who labor in their fields with very few servants, or none, that it is to their interest to use it. Two of that class in this neighborhootl liave commenced 402 FARMERS' REGISTER— SNAKES. its use, and are so pleased with the results that they intend continuing it. Few acts of my life afTord me more pleasure than the belief of my instru- mentality in setting thenrx about if. Could it be- come with them common, incalculable advantages would result. One of themselves will have more influence than whole neighborhoods of a different class. We should labor to induce them to adopt it. A second year's trial of the Guinea Grass has re- sulted in a firm conviction of its happy adaptation to our wants. Should you want any seed 1 can furnish you, but still I do not rely upon their vege- tating, having with me come up badly : how to ac- count for it I know not, unless tlie plant from fre- quent propagation by slips has lost the power of fully maturing its seed. Certain it is the climate is not the cause, as it will bear seed after being cut, I believe twice. This difficulty is much lessened from the circumstance of one small root being able under proper management to furnish a large sup- ply in two seasons. A PLEA FOR SNAKES. To the Editor or the Farmers' Register. It has long been my opinion that the increase of insects and other vermin which injure the crops of the farmer, or cause detriment to his labors and comforts, has been greatly aided by the endless and destructive war which is carried on against animals which make prey of such devouring plagues. It seems that the disposition to destroy life in every animal whose existence is not mani- festly a source of profit, is natural to man ; and shows itself with more or less force in most persons, notwithstanding the checks imposed by education, and acquired sentiments of mercy. In early child- hood we mutilate and kill flies for sport, then pro- ceed to the destruction of such nobler game as toads and frogs, and continue through life to kill birds, beasts, and reptiles, if not for the pleasure, at least whenever there is the slightest suspicion or appearance of their being hurtful to our inte- rests : and we are so ready to act upon such a sus- picion or belief, that some of the most serviceable of untamed animals are never spared because they consume a little of our grain, in payment for the preservation of ten times as much. I have been pleased to see, Mr. Editor, that you have selected and published (though I fear to but little purpose) several good articles which shew that benefit, as well as injury to the farmer, are produced by crows, hawks, and owls — and that the great amount of good which many kinds of birds effect by destroying insects, is a clear gain, being ac- companied by no other habits injurious to man. These, our little benefactors, are seldom spared from any consideration of their usefulness in de- stroying caterpillars and bugs — and no mercy is shown to a crow or owl, though the farmer eats more cut-worms and bugs, than grains of corn, and the latter (especially of the smaller kinds) will kill one hundred rats and mice in the fields, for every chicken they may seize as their hire. But I leave all these to the care of former and better advocates, and will confine my observations to another race of animals which is the most perse- cuted of all, and whose numerous and valuable services to farmers are accompanied by scarcely any acts of an opposite character— I mean snakes. Very few of the snakes in Lower Virginia are poisonous, and those few are rare, or confined to such localities, and have such habits, as render them almost harmless. But all that arc known to be poisonous, I willingly give up to the vengeance of the snake killers. The dreadful rattle-snake is now scarcely known below the mountains, and the two kinds of moccasins, both confined to water, or wet ground, are almost the only snakes which are dangerous, and may be often found. The adder truly has a most ugly and venemous look, when he spreads broad his head and neck in anger, or from fear; but if he possesses poison, I never have heard of its being used in this country. I have read of a man in England who made his living by killing adders and selling their fat, which was used for its supposed medicinal virtues. His dog that had been taught to find the sluggish adders, was sometimes bitten by them, but the poisonous effect was always quickly removed by rubbing the wound with adder's fat. This is the only evidence that has reached me of the adder being poisonous, and it serves as well, to prove that their poison is followed by very little pain or dan- ger. But the most numerous and useful snakes are cer- tainly not poisonous, and the fear and horror with which they are regarded, are founded altogether upon vulgar error and prejudice — and perhaps have grown out of what was originally a mistaken re- ligious duty. But whether it is to " fulfil the com- mand of the scriptures," or from hatred and fear, almost every person who does not run away from a snake, kills it if it can be done. To spare a black-snake, or a ringed or king snake, that can be killed, is seldom done — and some carry this ge- neral antipathy so far, as to kill the little green snake which winds among the branches of trees, and is one of the most beautiful as well as the most harmless of animals. Rats and mice, both in the field and in the house, are great destroyers of the farmers grain, and they have no enemy so flital to them as the black snake. One of these sometimes take up its resi- dence in a barn, until discovered and killed by some one of the greatest of all the snake's ene- mies— negroes, and fools, whether white or black. I have several times had the benefit of such an in- mate in my grain houses — but was never able long to prevent its being killed. If they were not dis- turbed, there would be few barns or corn cribs without a snake, and no rat or mouse could long keep possession. It is not that they can eat many, and probably do not kill more than they require for food. But they are able to pass into every hole and hiding place of the vermin they pursue, and thus drive them away. I knew a granary which for several years together was never clear of grain, and generally had a large quantity of corn, m the shuck. The house in other respects was well fit- ted to conceal rats and mice from all the attacks of cats and of man — and as might be expected, they in- creased greatly, and destroyed and injured much of the corn. The rats were so often outside of the house, as to furnish good sport to gunners, and many were shot, with the hope of thinning their numbers, though to no purpose apparently. Af- terwards, when the evil was supposed to be still increasing, and there appeared to be no remedy but emptying the house, (which could not then be done,) the rats and mice disappeared without any FARxMERS' REGISTER— SOILS LN NEW YORK. 403 known cause. If" any remained, the niini])er must have been small. I suppose that black snakes had got into the house, and had been concealed and protected by the contents, until they had time to destroy, or drive off the rats. But though snakes are seldom suffered to clear our houses in this manner, they must render much service by destroying the different kinds of field rats and mice. Wherever arable land is not gra- zed, these destructive little animals increase ra|)id- ly, not only on account of the shelter of the high weeds, and greater supply of food, but probably also because hogs are excluded, and kept from rooting up their nests and destroying their young. This evil, which is sensibly felt by all /ion -grazers, would be completely kept under, by simply sparing the black snakes, and such others as are not vene- mous. Now, for the loss and injury caused Vjy these per- secuted animals. The most that can be said, is that sometimes, and rarely, a fine large snake finds his way into the poultry house, and gorges himself by swallowing eggs and young fowls, until he is scarcely able to move, and falls an easy prey to the avenger of the crime. The snake does not, (like other thieves,) make many and hurried visits to the scene of his depredations, and commit much injury before he is caught. When he finds so good an opportunity, he swallows as many chickens as he would of rats, if permitted, and has as little power as inclination to leave what he considers such good quarters. K all such are killed, and none others, the number would be too small to be of any importance. But if the case was mine, though I would not leave a snake free access to my chicken house, I would not kill him for the first offence; but when taken gorged, move him unhurt to some distant house, infested with rats, lie would pro- bably remain still for several days, until his heavy meal was digested, and then would be satisfied to take the kind of food there offered him in abun- dance. I.ARGE VEGETABLES. From the National IntcUisencei-. At the Horticultural Exhibition of the Massa- chusetts Horticultural Society, on Saturday the 2d inst. pears were exhibited weighing twenty -eight ounces; a Mangel Wurtzel, weighing thirty-six pounds; and a Sugar Beet, weighing twenty- three pounds. These exhibitions are held in the apartments regularly appropriated to this purpose, in Boston, on every Saturday. This weekly exhi- bition closes at noon of the day on which it is held. It is in general well attended, and is a most effec- tive aid in improving the quality of the fruits and esculents in all the country round. ON sons I3V WESTERN NEW YORK. From Goodsell's Genesee Fanner. The editor of the Maine Farmer, in noticing an article from Gen. Harmon, as published in our paper, on the produce of wheat in the southwest- ern part of this county, asks for information res- pecting the soil, &c. to which we reply — Western New York,or that part between Utica and Buffalo is of secondary formation. For many miles south of Lake Ontario, the superincumbent rock, is the saliferous, or red sand rock. The greater portion of the soil, immediately over this rock, is a light sand, easily worked, producing when first cultivated light crops. Above this is a formation of Calciferous Shale, of about one hun- dred feet in thickness. As might be expected, the outcroppings of this formation extends over a large extent of country, and by disintegration, forming a soil, which contains both clay and sand. This soil is counted of first quality for wheat, grass, and most crops grown in this section of country. Above this are the geodiferous, and cor- nitiferous lime rocks. These taken together may be counted at about fifty feet thick. In an agri- cultural view there is little difference in these rocks, as they both possess the same general cha- racteristics. Near the bottom of the formation, the rock contains more silicious particles, and near the top there is a greater portion of allumine. Di- rectly upon this formation rests the bituminous shale, a formation of about one hundred feet in thickness. This formation has by some been call- ed the Pyriferous, in consequence of its containing in most places innumerable particles of ironpiry- tes, or sulphuret of iron. The town of Wheatland (which is that part of ihe county of Monroe referred to in the inquiry,) has mostly for superincumbent strata, the upper part of the cornitiferous lime rock. This rock, as has been observed, contains considerable allu- mine, and the soil formed entirely from the disin- tegrated rock, might, with propriety, be called a rich marl, as much of it will effervesce with acids. There is one peculiarity in the town of Wheat- land, which, perhaps, might be proper to notice in this place ; that is, the situation in which sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris is found. This is not in a continued strata, but in small parcels or no- dules, near the surface of the rock. The presence of these are indicated by the inequality of the sur- face, the projections indicating the extent of the sulphate beneath. 1 his sulphate is evidently of later formation than the rock in which it is found. The rock in which it is imbedded is in thin lay- ers, many of which are not more than an inch in thickness. Immediately surrounding the sulphate of lime these layers are broken, and disturbed from their original position, by the force of the chrystalization, or the effervescence which pre- ceded it. To account for these masses of sulphate of lime, we must have reference to the time when this lime formation was covered with the bituminous, or py- riferous formation, which we have before mention- ed. It is well known that the decomposition of iron pyrites produces sulphuric acid, and that sul- phuric acid, when combined with lime, produces sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris. That there is a constant decomposition of the pyrites going on in the bituminous formation of this section of country, is evident from the circumstance, that there are in this vicinity several springs, the wa- ter of which contains so great a proportion of sulphu- ric acid, as to render it unfit for common uses, to which water is applied for culinary purposes. The probability is, that the sulphuric acid thus formed, percolated through the bituminous shale. 404 FARMERS' REGISTER— CORN— RAIL ROAD, &c. until it came in contact with the carl-onate of lime, which was decomposed, and sulphate of lime form- ed; and as the sulphate of lime required more space when formed, than the carbonate did before its decomposition, the expansion produced the ine- qualities, which indicates its location. But it is not to be understood that all the soil in this or the neiofhborinj^ towns are fi)rmed directly from the disintegration of the lime rock. Tlse sur- face of the country here is uneven or undulatinp:, the higher parts of these undulations being com- posed of materials bearing evidence of having been deposited there by water. The interior of these undulations are mostly coarse washed gi-avel, di- minishing in size towards the surface^ which is mostly fine silicious particles intimately blended with lime, and clay, among which in manv places may be discovered smalf gvains of sulphate of lime. One peculiarity of the soil, in the district above alluded to is, that the more it is cultivated, the greater the produce. It is safe to say that the crops have increased twenty five per cent, witliin the last five years. SALT YOUR CORN. From the Alabama Intelllg-encer. Mr. Brown, of this vicinit}', communicated some information to us, in a conversation recently held with him, in regard to the use of salt in corn, which is put away in the husks, which may be in- teresting to the public. He stated that he receiv- ed last year a quantity of corn, which he had pur- chased, in so wet a state, that he was apprehensive that it would spoil. He remembered that it was a common practice in Pennsylvania, when hay was put away somewhat damj), or not fully cured, to sprinkle salt on it, and that such hay generally kept well, and that horses and cattle m ere very fond of it ; he therefore concluded to try the ex- periment on his corn. He accordingly, as his corn was thrown in a pile on a large floor, sprinkled it with salt, using from half a bushel to a bushel of salt to five or six hundred busliels of corn. The corn kept well, never became musty, and never had any weevil in it. ]\Ir. B. still had of this corn when he communicated this information to us; and he stated that the bread which it then made was so sweet and good, that it was esteemed preferable to that made of new corn. He also stated that he was not under the necessity of purchasing any fod- der for for his working oxen last winter, they fed upon the husks of this corn so freely ; and he ad- ded, that they kept in excellent order. JMr. B. wa.^ so well pleased with this experiment, that he is putting up all his corn this year in the same man- ner, using about half a bushel of salt to five hun- dred bushels of corn, which he thinks is enough. engine; and their success with this kindof power h.as not been surpassed in the country. Tiiey have now three engines upon the road, a j)art of which have been at work upwards of nine months, and made their trips with as much regularity as could have been ex])ectcd from horse power. One of those, the " Liverpool," is probably, for her weight, the most efiective engine of the country. This, and one of the other engines on this road, were constructed by M. Burry, of Liverpool, who has also furnished two engines for one of the Schuylkill rail roads, which I am informed work equally well. Tlie proprietors of this road consider it as part of the great line of communication from north to south, and look to its ultimate connexion V. ith the Charleston rail road, by similar works, through North Carolina. The opening of the Charleston rail road to Au- gusta, which is advertised for the first of October next, in connexion with the two lines of steam- boits now being estabdishcd between New York and Charleston, and between Norfolk and that city, will, with the exception of the short distance from Augusta to INIontgomery, complete the fa- cilities of tl.c great line of communication from Boston to New Orleans ; and I venture to predict that, before the expiration of three years, the mail will be transported from this city [N. Y.] to New Orleans in the short sj)ace of eight or nine days ; and that to avoid the rigors of a northern winter, a trip to the sunny regions of the south will soon become as common as the visits from that quarter to the north are in the summer. But the most gratifying part of ih.e details — and that which, as an American citizen, and a member of this great rejmblic, most flatters my vanity — is the proud recollection that the whole of this trip, from the city of New York to Saratoga, from Saratoga to the interior of Virginia, near the North Carolina line, and thence again to this city, making the distance travelled more than fif- teen hundred miles, was performed b}- rail road, and the splendid steamboats which ply on the no- Ide waters of the Hudson, Delaware, Chesapeake Bay, and James river, without any fatigue or sac- rifice of personal comfort, in the short space of nine (lays, including a detention of ninety six hours, or four days, at the different places I visited, making the travelling time but^fe days for the whole dis- tance. Yes, Mr. Editor, I think every American citi- zen may justly feci proud, when he reflects on the rapid progress of these facilities of internal com- munication, which are so rapidly springing up on every side, and intersecting our country from north to south, and from east to west, forming the great avenues of intercourse with every part of our ex- tended confederation, and which alike strengthen the bonds of our happy union, and give an addi- tional guarantee for tlie stability and permanency of our governm.ent and institutions. PETERSBURG RAIL ROAD. Extracted frnni the [N. Y.] Rail Road Journal. The last object of my tour was the Petersburg and Roanoke Rail Road, in Virginia. This road is now completed from Petersburg to the Roanoke, a distance of about sixty miles. The srade of the road, with the exception of two or three planes, with an ascent of twenty seven or thirty feet per ^.... ..„ ^. „...„ ^.. -- mile, 18 very favorable to the use of the locomotive I in academies as well as in boudoirs, has ren- SUPPOSEH EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON VE- GETATION. From i\IadJcn"s InGrniiliesof Ge..ius. Tlic influence which electricity exerts over ve- getable life, till very lately, has been overlooked, and even now the same fisshion which domineers FARMERS' REGISTER— AMERICAN REFUGEE SLAVES. 405 dered the doctrine of animal, or rather vital elec- tricity, as apparently ridiculous as that of elec- tro-chemical agency was considered, belbre Davy, by its means, changed the whole face of that sci- ence which he so nobly cultivated. Nothing, per- haps, has tended more to his discredit of this theo- ry, than the inordinate expectations which medi- cal electricity called forth some forty or lifty years ago, when it was ushered into practice as a uni- versal remedy, and wliich shared the fate of all new remedies whose powers are overrated, abused, and ultimately decried. But of late years, on the continent, the influence of the electric fluid or vi- tality has again forced itself on public attention ; and in the south of France, we have seen whole vineyards in which numerous electrical conduc- tors were attached to the plants, for the purpose of increasing the progress of vegetation, and of in- vigorating the vines. REFUGEK AXD E3X AXCIP ATED SLAVES. [The following extracts will serve to show the pro- gressive and present state pf the slaves who were car- ried from Virginia and the more Sovithern States, by the British fleets, during the war 1812. The narrative will probably be interesiing to many of our readers, as tlie circumstances relate to those who were formerly our slaves, and it also presents subjects well worthy of consideration for the political economist, the philan- thropist, and the statesman.] From A Subaltern's Furlough. There is a settlement of negroes a few miles from Halifax, at Hammond's Plains, the com- mencement of the military road laid out by Sir John Sherbroke, in a direct line to Annapolis, through the dense forest, which lessens the niter- mediale distance nearly onC'third. Any one would liave imagined that the government would have taken warning from the trouble and expense it in- curred by granting protection to those wlio emi- grated from the States during the revolution, 1200 of whom were removed to Sierra Leone in 1792 by their own request. Again, when 600 of the insurgent negroes, the Maroons of Jamaica, were transported to Nova Scotia in 1796, and received every possible encouragement to become good subjects, by being granted a settlement at Preston, and being employed upon the fortifications at Hali- fax, yet they too soon became discontented with the climate, and, being unwilling to earn a livelihood by labor, were removed in 1800 to the same colony as their predecessors, after costing the island of Jamaica more than 45,000/. , and a large additional sum to the province. Nothwithstanding all this, when the runaway slaves were received on board the fleet off the Chesapeake during the late war, permission was granted to them to form a settle- ment at Hammond's Plains, where the same sys- tem of discontent soon arose. Many of the settlers professing they should prefer their former well-fed life of slavery in a more congenial climate, and earnestly petitioning to be removed, were sent to Trinidad in 1821. Some few of those who remain- ed are good servants and firrmcrs, disposing of the produce of their lands at the Halifax market; but the majority are idle, roving, and 'dirty vaga- bonds. AMERICAN REFUGEE SLAVES. From Blackwood's Marrnzine. The American refugee slaves are the next class who deserve notice. They have been settled in Trinidad, and consisted, I believe, on their arrival there about eighteen years ago, of 1100 men, 309 women, and 217 children ; altogether, 1626. These were, I believe, principally field slaves, or agricul- tural laborers when in the United Stales. Great Britain paid these Stales, for these people, the sum of twelve hundred and fifty thousand dollars, making, with the expense of the commission at St. Pelersl)urg, attending the reference to the Emperor of Russia, and the additional expense of transport- ing them from America to Trinidad, a suni exceed- ing 300,000/. sterling. Since they went there, they liave cost the British Government upwards of 30,000/. sterling more, besides the value of the land, sixteen acres given to each grown up person, some of it in cultivation of provisions, cocoa, &c., above, if land is to be taken worth any thing, 60,000/. more; or togelher, 400,000/. sterling on this free labor speculation. I passed through a part of their location in January last, and have col- lected a particular and accurate account of the whole. They have done nothing : they arc scat- tered, and utterly demoralized. These people were located in the vicinily of Sa- vannah-lc- Grande, the most fertile part of Trini- dad. They were settled in companies in a military way. The cultivation of provisions for their own supply, and some product for exportation, as direct- ed by Sir Ralph Woodford, was abandoned in con- sequence of orders from England. Mr. Mitciiell, their superintendent, with a salary of 400/. sterling per annum, endeavored to keep them all at work on his own estate, by persuading them that (hey would not get paid if they wrought on any other. He had then an estate with about thirty slaves, yielding a fair return, and clear of debt. About this time he sent to England some sugar, as lie said, the produce oi free, labor, about which a great noise was made. The fact was, that" notwith- standing his unlimited authority, and the applica- tion of the whip, to the extent that the flagellations inflicted amongst these people exceeded those in- flicted on all the sugar plantations in the districts of both Naparimas, still these people would not work, nor could he obtain any labor from them at a profit, which compelled him to purchase a consi- derable number of slaves, at a very high rate, in order to carry on the cultivation of his estate. From this cause it got deeply in debt at the com- mencement of the late ruinously low prices of sugar ; and it is now, after his death, in the hands of a mortgagee, and his family left without a farth- ing! Government discontinued the superinten- dent at the beginning of last year, since which period these people have begun to scatter them- selves all over the country. Only about a thousand of them can be found. They go upon estates where they are supjtorted by the slaves. A few among them occasionally engage in the labor of cutting wood and canes, in order to procure rum and a little salt fish, and such clothes as will cover their na- kedness. They drink rum to excess. Those w ho engage in cutting wood, never drink less than a bottle a-day, and two if they can get it. These people, togelher with the free Indians and Spanish peons, look with contempt upon an estate that has 406 FARxMERS' REGISTER— AVALANCHE IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. not got a still upon it! When they first arrived from America, they were both a moral and reli- gious people. Without teachers, they for a time performed their public and private devotions regu- larly, and in a very serious manner. With their freedom, however, their religion has vanished. There is now neither church nor school in any of the settlements. The former preachers have degen- erated into irreclaimable drunkards. A school- master, lately sent among them, has been obliged to retire, on account of want of success, encourage- ment and pay, and is now obliged to cut canes, in order to support his existence ! The timber which had been cut and dragged a considerable distance from the woods, for the purpose of building a church and a school-house, now lies rotting on the ground. Not one will put a hand to it. Government cruelly neglected these people. They pointedly refused to send them a religious teacher until about eigh- teen months ago, when the Bishop of Barbadoes sent a clergyman with a salary of 300Z. sterling per annum, for the establishment. When he arri- ved on the coast, about six miles distant, not one of them, either for love or money, would engage to carry his baggage. It was carried to the settle- ment by slaves. Disgusted and terrified at Avhat he saw and heard, he only remained among them for a few days, when he left, declaring that nothing could induce him to return or stay among such a set of savages. In fact, the only instructers and lielpmates that government sent among them, were a set of dirty, ignorant, and savage Congo women, rescued from the wreck of a Spanish slave- ship at Anegada,and sent from Tortola to this set- tlement in Trinidad, at the expense of £385 58. sterling, to the British Treasury. AVALANCHE IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. E.xtract from ^ Suballci)i''s Furlough. The Notch, as the term implies, is a narrow pass, six miles in length, at the southern end of the White Mountains, the loftiest of which. Mount Washington, is 6234 feet above the level of the sea ; but on each side of the pass they rise only from 1800 to 2000, at an angle of about 45°, form- ing a valley less than half a mile in width between their bases, and down which the roaring Saco takes its course. The whole extent of their front is fyrrowed and scarred by the tremendous storm of July, 1826 ; and the valley, choked up with trees uptorn by the roots, remnants of bridges, buildings, and huge masses of rock piled upon each other in the greatest disorder, presents what might be almost imagined as the wreck of nature. A melancholy and interesting story is connected with this storm, which will for years to come be the cause of thousands making a pilgrimage to the White Mountains. I give it as related to me by one who, though not an eye-witness, was in the immediate vicinity at the time it occurred; it was as follows : — A farmer of the name of Willey, with his wife, five children, and two laborers, oc- cupied a house with a small farm at the u|)per end of the valley. They were much esteemed for their hospitable attentions to travellers, who, over- taken by night, sought shelter at their hearth, which was the only one in the Notch, their near- est neighbors being at the farm aforementioned, six miles distant. The hills at that time were thickly overgrown with forest trees and shrubs; nor had any thing ever occurred to make them suspicious of the safety of their position, until the descent of a small avalanche, or slide of earth, near the house, in the month of June, 1826, so terrified them by the havoc it caused, that they erected a small camp in what they deemed a more secure place, half a mile lower down the Saco. The sum- mer had been unusually dry until the beginning of July, when the clouds collecting about the moun- tains poured forth their waters as though the flood- gates of the heavens were opened, the wind blew in most terrific hurricanes, and continued with unabated violence for several days. On the night of the 26th of the month, the tempest increased to a fearful extent, the lightning flashed so vividly, accompanied by such awful howling of wind and roaring of thunder, that the peasantry imagined the day of judgment was at hand. At break of day on the 27th, the lofty mountains were seamed with the numerous avalanches which had descend- ed during the night. Every one felt anxious re- specting the safety of the family in the valley, but some days elapsed before the river subsided so far from its extraordinary height as to allow any in- quiries to be made. A peasant swimming his horse across an eddy was tlie first person who entered the Notch, when the terrible spectacle of the entire face of the hills having descended in a body presented itself. The Willeys' house, which remained untouched amidst the vast chaos, did not contain any portion of the family, whose bodies, after a search of some days, with the exception of two children, were discovered buried under some drift-wood within 200 yards of the door, the hands of Miss Willey and a laborer grasping the same fragment. They had all evidently retired to rest, and most probably, alarmed by the sound of an avalanche, had rushed out of the house, when they were swept away by the overwhelming torrent of earth, trees and water. The most miraculous fact is that the avalanche, descending with the vast im- petuosity an abrupt declivity of 1500 feet would give it, approached within four feet of the house, when suddenly dividing it swept round, and, car- rying away an adjoining stable with some horses, it again formed a junction within a few yards of the front. A flock of sheep which had sought shelter under the lee of the house were saved ; but the family had fled from the only spot where any safety could have been found, every other part of the valley being buried to the depth of several feet, and their camp overwhelmed by the largest avalanche which fell. A person standing in rear of the house can now with ease step upon the roof, the earth forming such a perpendicular and solid wall. A small avalanche was seen descending from one of the mountains some days after the above occurrence. The thick pine forest at first moved steadily along in its upright position, but soon be- gan to totter in its descent, and fell headlong down with redoubled fury and violence, followed by rivers of floating earth and stones, which spread over the plain, carrying devastation far and wide. The long heat of summer had so dried and crack- ed the ground that the subsequent rains found easy admission under the roots of trees, which, loosened by the violence of the wind, required but little to set the whole in motion. There was no tradition of a similar descent having ever taken place ; but, upon a close examination, traces of one which had FARMERS' REGISTER— GOOGE'S ARTE OF HUSBANDRY. 407 evidently occurred more than a century before could be discovered amongst the forest. BARIfABY GOOGe's "WHOLE ARTE AND TRADE OF HUSBANDRY." From the Fanners' [Edinbiirgl\] Magazine. As you were pleased to express your approba- tion of the account I gave you of * The Boke of Husbandry,' by Fitzherbert, I sit down to fulfil my promise to send you a similar analysis of an agricultural work printed in 1577, translated from the German of Conrad Heresbach, by ' Barnabe Googe, Esq.' Before I begin, however, I will just observe, that I think I have found a very sa- tisfactory account of Fitzherbert and his book, which clearly i)roves to me that he flourished in the reign of Henry Vni,as a Justice in the Court of Common Pleas, and died in 1538. Now, the date of my edition is 1555, consequently, though this particular copy is not so valuable (being, as I had conjectured, a later edition,) yet there is little doubt that the work itself was first published in 1534, or 118 years instead of 97 years, as I had asserted, before the publication of Blyth's 'Im- prover Improved.' Respecting the doubts which nave been raised as to the real author of * the Boke,' the following extract from Chalmers's Biographical Dictionary may throw some light upon the subject. It was published first ' in 1534, ' and several times after in the reigns of Mary and ' Elizabeth. It is said, in an advertisement to the 'reader, that this book was written by one Antho- ' ny Fitzherbert, who had been forty years an ' husbandman ; from whence many have concluded, * that this could not be the Judge. But, in the • preface to his Book '' Of irlensurinj Lands." he 'mentions his book " Of Agriculture;" and, in ' the advertisement prefixed to the same book, it is ' expressly said, that the author of that treatise of ' " Measuring," was the author of the book " con- ' cerning the Office of a Justice of Peace." Whence * it appears, that both those books were written by ' this author.' Barnaby Googe, the translator of ' the Whole Arte and Trade of Husbandrie,' is supposed to have been born about the time Fitzherbert died, viz. 1538. He was a relation of Sir William Cecil, Queen Elizabeth's minister, and had distin- guished himself by many poems, particularly a volume of Eglogs, Epitaphes and Sonnetes,' now very rare. He was also much given to translating, both in verse and prose ; and, in 1577, produced the volume before us. It is printed in black-letter quarto, by Richard Watkins, and contains 193 fo- lios. The work consists of four bookes , the first • entreatyng of Earable Ground and Tyllage,' ' of Pasture Ground and Tyllage,' and ' of the Order of Harvest; the second' entreatyng of the Order of Gardning' 'of the Ordrynge of Orchardes,' and of the Ordring of Wooddes ; the third ' entreatyng of Cattell ;' the fourth ' entreatyng of Poutry, Foule, Fishe and Bees.' It is a sort of dialogue, and, for quaintness and simplicity, reminds us of Walton's Angler. After describing the various occupations of an husband- man, and bestowing suitable commendation on hus- bandry, both for its antiquity and ' woorthinesse,' CoNO (the farmer) proceeds to describe the dif- ferent parts of his house and offices; after which, his friend Rioo asks him, ' I pray you let me haue your opinion of the feeld, and the tilture 'thereof; ' for I see you are a perfect husbande, and nothing ' unskilful!. I have a great desyre to hearc some ' rules, and such as serue our turne best.' CoNo. 'If it be a shame for an apprentice at ' the lawe, and a pleadar of causes, to be ignorant 'of the lawe wherein he dealeth, a greater shame ' is it for a professor of husbandry to be unskilful 'in the ground Avhereon his whole trade lyeth. ' Howe is he able to judge uprightly in husbandry, ' that knoweth not whic-he way to tyll his lande? ' The professours of all other artes do commonly ' keepe to themselves suche things as be the chiefe 'mysteries of their knowledge. Contrariwyse, ' the husbande rejoyceth to haue every body made ' priuye to his skill ; and being demanded in what ' sort he dooth this or that, he gladly declareth his ' whole dealing in every poynt; Such goodnatur'd ' men dooth this knowledge make. I have ordered ' my ground here, according to the diligence of the ' olde fathers, rather then for the wantonnesse of ' these times. Therefore I wyl fyrst shewe you ' their opinions, and afterwards myne owne fancie.' He then points out the various kinds of soil, with rules for ascertaining the good from the bad ; from whence he proceeds to discourse on manures. Speaking of chalk, he tells us, ' In Germanie, this ' maner of mendyng of ground is common. But ' long use of it, in the ende, brings the grounde to 'be Starke nought, whereby the common people 'have a speache, that grounde enriched with ' chalke makes a riche father and a beggerly sonne.' After enumerating the different sorts of grain and pulse, he proceeds to point out the various manners of sowing and harvesting them. Among the im- plements used for this purpose, the modern farmer will be surprised to hear the description of a reap- ing machine! an invention which, anno 1817, is expected very soon to be brought to bear; and great credit has been bestowed on the ingenuity of the meciianic for the utility and novelty of his invention. Googe, anno 1577, alludes to it as a worn-out invention, a thing ' whiche was woont to be used in France. The devise was, ' a lowe kinde ' of carre with a couple of wheeles,and the frunt ' armed with sharpe syckles, whiche, forced by the ' beaste through the corne, did cut down al before ' it. This tricke,' he says shrewdly enough, ' might be used in levell and champion countreys; ' butwithusitwoldemake but ill-favored woorke.' We next come to ' the lettying of a farme,' on which point our author's remarks are very judi- cious and liberal. ' In the lettying of a farme,' says he, ' this thing is to be obserued, that )'ou let ' it to suche, whose trauayle and good behauiour * you may be assured of, and that you regard more ' their good ordring of the lande then the rente, ' which is least hurteful and most gaynefull. For ' where as the grounde is well husbanded, you shall ' commonly haue gayne, and never losse, except ' by unreasonablenesse of the weather, whiche the ' civil lawyer sayth should not be any damage to ' the tenaunt, or the invasion of the enimie, where ' the tenaunt cannot helpe it. Besides, the lorde ' must not deal with his tenaunt so straightly in ' every poynt, as by lawe he might, for his rent ' dayes, bargaynes of woode, quitrents, or suche, ' the rigour wherein is more troublesome then ' beneficial : neither ought he to take every ad- ' auntage, for lawe many times is right plaine 408 FARMERS' REGISTER— GOOGE'S HUSBANDRY. ' wronp; : neither must ye 1)0 to slackc on the otiier ' side, for loo muche <:,entlcncssn many times makes ' a man the woorst. And therefore it is good yf ' tlie farmer he slacke in his paimcntcs, to make ' him to knowe it; but in no wyse to lie a rayser 'or enhaunser of rentes; for that discomfortes, ' and many times undooetli the tenaunt. Moreouer, ' you muste not lyghtly change the olde fiirmer, ' both liecause of liis desertes, and that lie is better ' acquainted with the groun(le then a newe ; and 'therefore I doo bke well tliat order, where the ' kind is let for tiie lives of the tenaunt, his wyfc ' and his cliyhle, [)aying a ycrely rente, so tiiat as ' long as he payes his rent, and kcepes tlie repara- ' tions,it shall not be lawfull to deceiue liim: for ' hereby the tenaimt shal be prouokcd to order the ' grounde with more diligence, to repayre the ' house, and to looke to it in al pointes as to his 'owne, bestowyng many times as muche as he ' hatii upon it. And here be sure tiiat you let it ' rather to one of habilitie, then to an unthriftie ' man that is not able to beare it, whereby vou ' may loose both your landc and your rent.'' It would be well if some of our modern landlords Avho are not in the practice of grantin"- leases woukl pay due reverence to such reasoning. We now enter upon ' The Seconde Booke, en treatyng of the Order of Gardning;' and, first, for fencing it in, he gives us the following instruc- tions. ' The place that you determine to enclose, must, ' after ye beginning of Sei)tember, when ye ground ' hath been wel soked with rayne, be trenched ' about with two furrowes, a yard distant one from ' the other, the deapth and breadth of every one of ' them must be two fbote, whiche you muste sutTer 'to lye cmptie al winter; providing in the mean ' time ye seedes that you meane to sowe in them, ' which must be the berries of sliarpe thornes, ' bryers, holly, and wylde eglanttine, or dogge ' bryer. The berries of these you must geather ' as ripe as you may, and mingle them with the ' floure or meale of tares, whiche when it is sprink- ' led with water, must be put ujion olde rojies of 'ships, or any other ropes ; the ropes being thus ' handled, and drycd, muste be layd up in some ' boorded floore. Afterward, when winter is doone, ' within fourtie dayes after, about the coming of ' the swallowe, yf there be any water rcmayning ' in the furrowes, it must be let out, and the mel^ ' lowed earth, whiche was caste out of the furrowes ' in the ende of sommer, must noue be cast in ' agayne, till you haue fylled them up to the mid- 'dest: then you must handsomely unfblde the 'rope, and lay them in length thorowe both the ' furrowes, and so cover them, taking good hede ' that you throwe not to much earth uj)on them ' for hindering the spring, which commonly useth ' to appcare within thirtie dayes after; and when ' they be growen to be of some heygiit, they must ' be made to encline to the space betwixt the two ' furrowes ; in which space you must haue a little ' walled hedge, to tcache the springes of other fur- ' rowcs to climbe by, whiche wyl be a jolly stay ' and a comfort to them.' He tiien describes ' a newer and a better way,' by planting young shoots, or springs, instead of seeds, on the face of the bank, ])lashing them, &c.; and which difVers but little from the modern me- thod of raising quick hedges. Having enumera- ted almost all the various kinds of flowers, the author proceeds to treat of the management of on hards, fruit-trees, &:c. &c. The cultivation of the vine is particularly enlarged upon; a subject more entertaining than useful to the English reader. The 'Third Booke cntreateth of Caff el, and first of the Horse; tiie natural history, diseases, &c. of which are stated with great accuracy and judgment. The following directions ought to be attended to by all ' of every age.' ' You must not suffer your horse to drinke after ' his journey, tyll he be colde : howbeeit yf he ' sweate not to extreamly, and be ridden soone af- ' ter, it is not so daungerous : it is farre better to ' let him thyrst, then to give him colde water yf ' he be hotte. If a horse haue long rested, he is 'not to be trauayled upon the sudden, eyther in ' galloping or long journey, but to be laboured ' faire and softly at the fyrst. A horse that is ' weery or tyred, wyl be wonderfully rofreashed yf ' he may wallo\v himsolfo eyther in the stable or ' other dry placo out of the wynde and rayne,' &c. '&c. We have next a dissertation on the uses and ' treatment 'of Bullockes,' — ' some of which, says ' he, are for ye drawght, some for the staull, and ' some for the payll.' — ' Tlie wordes of couenaunt ' in the olde time (as Varro saith,) in selling of bul- ' lockes, were these — Doo you v,' arrant these bul- ' lockes, or steeres, that you sell, to be sounde, of ' a sound hearte, and without fault.' The butchers ' that bje for slaughter, and such as by for sacry- ' tises, use no word worde of warrantise.' On breaking them in, he gives the following ' directions — Fyrst of all, sec that you haue a ' large roome where the breaker may easily goe ' up and dov.ne, and out at his pleasure, without ' any daungcr. Before the stable, you must haue ' a fayre fcelde, that the steeres may haue libertie ' yenough, and not be feared, or haltred,with trees ' or bushes. In the stable, you must haue certayne ' stalles, or boordes, yokewyse set up, a seueii ' foote from the grounde,to which the steeres may ' be tyetl ; this doyne, choose you a fiiyre day for ' the purpose, and taking them up, bring them into 'the stable: and yf tliey be urcasonalde wylde ' and curst, let them stand lyed a day and a night ' without any meate, to tame them withall : after- ' wardes, let him him that keepes them offer them ' a little meate; not sidev.'ayes,or behinde,but be- ' fore, coying them all the whyle, and speaking ' gently to tliem, stroking their backes and their ' mooscls, sprhickling them with a little sweetc ' wine, taking good hcede that they strike him ' neyther witli head nor with heele: for yf he ' once get that tricke, he wyl ncuer leaue it. Thus ' being a little acquainted with him, you shall ' rubbe his mouth with salte, and let downe info ' his throte certayne lumpes of salt tallowe, and ' powring after a quart of good wine, whiche wyll ' make him, in three dayes as goode a fellowe as ' you woulde wislie him to be. Some use to yoke ' them togeather, and let them drawe some light 'thing, or plowe in a light plowed grounde, that ' their labour hurt not their neckes. The redyer ' way of breaking them, is, to yoke them with an ' olde oxe, that may easely instruct them : yf he ' happen to lye down in the furrow e, doo neyther ' beate him nor feare him, ))ut hinde his feete toge- ' ther, and let him lye, that he may neyther sturre ' nor fcede : whiche being well punished with hun- FARMERS' REGISTER— PRESERVING FRUIT, &c. 409 ' g'er and thyrste, will teaclie him to leave that sul- ' len tricke.' Next comes the management of Cows, with (he va- rious ways of miikino; Cheese. — 'Cheese is also made ' of Ihemilke of cattell, the milke being: poured into ' a vessell of earth, putting; into it a little rennett, ' the quantitie of a walnutte, in a great vessell of ' milke, wherby it turneth into curd. Varro dooth ' better like the rennett of the lcvret,or the kydde, ' then the lambes, howbeit we commonly use the ' calues rennet: others use sundry other meanes ' only with heate, warming it in linne vessells, and ' after dipping these vessels in cold water, v.hich is ' the sweetest and cleanliest manj^r : others put in ' the seede of wylde saffron, and being so turned, 'the whay dooth greatly purge fleanie; others * again u.se the milke of the figge tree, and then 'dooth the whay purge both choler andfleame; ' .some turne it with oxymell,or syrope, of uineger, ' which is of all other wayes the holsom.est; some ' besides, use the little skinne of birdes guysardes, ' and others the flowres of wylde thystels or harti- ' chockes.' The above may perhaps serve as a hint to some of our modern dairy women, and teach them, if not a substitute for rennet, at least a less bountiful ap|)lication of it to their cheeses. Speak- ing of the different sorts, he says, 'In our dayes, ' the best cheeses are counted the Parmasines, ' made about the River of Po, esteemed for theyr ' greatnesse and daynetinesse, of which you shall ' haue brought into other countries that way aboue ' three score pounde.' Next are commended the Holland cheese, the cheese of Normandy, and the English cheese. ' In England the best cheese is ' the Cheshyre, and the Shropshyre, then the Ban- ' bur)' cheese, next the Sulfolke, and the Essex ' cheese, and the very worste the Kentishe cheese. ' The places where the best cheese is made, appear- ' eth by this olde Englishe distichon, better sensed, ' then footed. ' Sanhury, Langlony, Suffolke good cheese, Es- sex go thou by, Shropshire Cum Cheshyre, Hertford may well with the best peere.' ' Of the discommoditie of Essex cheese, our ' Englishe Martial, John Heywood, thus meeryly ' wryteth : * / never saw Banhury cheese ihycke yenough, But I haue sene Essex cheese quicke yenough.' Next follows a dissertation on Pigs. ' Euery pigge,' he says, ' doth knowe his owne pappe that ' he was borne to ; and sucketh onely that, and ' none other ; yf you take away the pigge, the ' pappe dryeth, as both Plinie and experience ' sheweth. They were v/oont to be bought and ' bargained for in this sorte. Doo you warrant ' that these swyne are sound, that I shall well en- 'joy them, that you wyll answere the faultes, and ' that they be of a healthy breede.^' From Pigs we get to Dogs and Cats, and then enter upon the Fourth and last Book, ' on Poultry Foule, Fishe and Bees.' — Much useful informa- tion is here developed, particularly with regard to the first article, and on the management of Pigeons. ' They haue many aduersaries, crowes, dawes and 'owles, which all destroy the pigions, specially ' when they breed. I founde of late in myneowne ' dovehouse, an owle sitting solemnly in the nest ' upon her egges, in the middest of all the pigions, Vol. 1—52 ' and hard by the house in an olde, hollowe tree, I ' found peeces of young pigions, that the owles had ' brought to feede iheyr young with; and though ' the owle seeme to be greater than the pigion, by ' reason of the thicknesse of her feathers, yet wyll ' they creepe in at as little a place as the jjigion wyll, 'so small and little is theyr bodyes, though they ' be bombased with feathers.' I have thus introtluced you and your readers to my old friend Barnaby ; j)erhaps they are already tired of his company, and therefore he shall ?ay very little more tor himself; and all that I shall say tor him shall be condensed as much as possible. Were I to dra^v a parallel between this work and Fitzherbert's, I should say that Fitzherbert's, though the earliest of the two by more than 40 years, and considerably the least volume, is the best practical treatise. It is, in fact, a plain state- ment of the writer's ex[)erience. Googe's, on the contrary, is only a translation, and deals in many articles not interesting to an English farmer, such as vineyards, citrons, jximegranates, and the like. A superstitious veneration for the writers of anti- quity likewise pervades the book, and constant re- ference is made to authorities which a modern farmer would but smile at, so great is the preva- lence of incredulity. For instance, ' the colicke ' or pain in the belly (in oxen,) is put awav in the 'beholding of geese in the water, specially duckes; ' for the sight of the ducke, as Vegctius and Colu- ' mella say, is* a present remedy to this beast.' ' Flureiitinus is of that fancie,that he woulde your ' number of sheep should rather be odd than even ' think mg that more fortunate for the healthinesse ' and long continuance of the cattell.' He seems indeed, rather inclined to question the authority in this instance, for he goes on to say,' but these are superstitious toyes, as are a great 'number of others imagined by the foithlesse.' — Not so, however, the following nostrum. ' Hieronimus Tragus teach- ' eth for a horse, If he be sicke, and suddenly fall ' downe of a disease that you know not, put under 'his tongue a peece of a feme roote, whereupon ' you shall see him immediately voyde, upward and ' downward, whatsoever is in his body, and pre-^ ' sently amende : This he sayth (and truely J be- ' leeue him) that he proued' with a horse of his owne.' The farmers of the present day (however old fashioned,) would stare to be told, that tares must not be sown ' before the moone be 24 dayes ' olde, otherwyse the snayle wyll devoure it. His ' tyme of sowing is, as Plinie wryteth, at the setting ' of the starre called the Berward,' &c. &c. These, and a number of other similar instances will prove to the reader of the present day, that he must not place implicit confidence in every thing he meets with in the book. There is a great deal of good in our author, but he requires sifting. I remain, sir, your most obedient servant, S. TAYLOR, Jun. Ditchingham, July Y7th, 1817. GATHERING AAD PRESERVING FRUIT. Fiom the American Orchardist. Various theories have been offered for preserv- ing apples in a sound state for winter use, or for distant voyages. Some have proposed gathering the fruit before it is ripe, and drymg it on floors before it is put up : this has been tried ; apples lose their sprightly flavor, and keep no better than by 410 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF SILK- some less troublesome modes. Dr. Noah Webster has recommended that they shou'd be jnit down between layers of sand that has been dried by tlic heat of the summer. This is, without doubt, an ex- cellent mode, as it excludes the air, and absorbs the moisture, and must be useful when apples are sliip- ped to a warm climate. But apples thus preserved are liable to imbibe an earthy taste. Chopped straw has also been highly recommend- ed to be placed between layers of fruit ; but I have noticed that the straw, from the perspiration it im- bibes, becomes musty, and may do more hurt tlian good. When apples are to be exported, it has been recommended that each be separately wrapped in coarse paper, in the manner oranges and lemons are put up. This is, Avithout doubt, an excellent mode. And Mr. Loudon has recommended that apples destined for Europe should be packed between layers of grain. Great quantities of winter fruit are raised in the vicinity of Boston, and put up for the winter use, for the market and for exportation. The following is the mode almost universally adopted by the most experienced. And by this mode the apples, under very favorable circumstances, are frequently pre- served in a sound state, or not one in fifty defective, for a period of seven or eight months. The fruit is suffered to hang on the tree to as late a period as possible in October, or till hard frosts have loosen- ed the stalk, and they are in danger of being blown by high winds; such as have already fallen are carefully gathered and inspected, and the best are put up for early winter use. They are carefully gathered from the tree by hand, and as carefully laid in baskets. New, tight, well seasoned flour barrels from the baker's, are usually preferred; the barrels being quite filled are gently shaken, and the head is gently pre.ssed down to its place and secured. It is observed that this pressure never causes them to rot next the head, and is ne- cessary, as they are never allowed to rattle in mov- ing. No soft straw or shavings are admitted at the ends ; it causes mustiness and decay. They are next carefully placed in wagons and removed on the bulge, and laid in courses in a cool airy situ- ation, on the north side of a building, near the cel- lar, protected by a covering on the top of boards, so placed as to defend them from the sun and rain, while the air is not excluded at the sides. A chill does not injure them ; it is no disservice ; but when extreme cold weather comes on, and they are in imminent danger of being frozen, whether by night or by day, they are carefully rolled into a cool, airy, dry cellar, with an opening on the north side, that the cold air may have free access — they are laid in tiers, and the cellar is in due time closed, and rendered secure from frost. The bar- rels are never tumbled or placed on the head. Ap- ples keep best when grown in dry seasons and on dry soils. If fruit is gathered late, and according to the above directions, repacking is unnecessary ; it is even ruinous, and should on no account be practised, till the barrel is opened for use. It has been fully tried. CULTURE OP SILK. From the New-Hampshire Spectator. The culture of silk has of late been suggested to the American people as affording a prospect of reward to the cultivator of the New England or the Eastern States. If yoii think the following experiment worth an insertion in your paper, you may oblige some who wish for more information on this subject. I have made an experiment per- sonally, and can attest the truth of every item that I communicate, for I have kept an exact diary of the whole experiment, and the result. I may be permitted to say in the outset, that I never have had an opportunity of attending any silk worm es- tablishment, and all the previous knowledge I have ever had, before commencing the experiment, v^as in 1831. I saw one silk worm in the action of winding, and one other on the shelf, nearly ready to ascend the buskw; to winter; and in 1832, one or two hundred aWut ten days old, reared by those who had no previous opportunity of seeing the de- velopment of the silk worm, and were as unlearn- ed as myself This fact is only hinted at to prove that any person may, by diligent care, raise silk, if they never were acquainted with the art; yet, to make it profitable in the end, as in every other spe- cies of cultivation, a complete knowledge of the subject is undoubtedly necessary. On the 20th June last past, my eggs were hatch- ed. I counted out 1500, and a few more to supply the place of those that should die in the several stages, say from 50 to 100. These were uncount- ed. My calculation was to raise about 1500. By reason of the cold and rainy summer, the worms were retarded in their growth, as will always hap- pen— warm and dry weather being the climate suited to the full perfection of the worm, and faci- litates its growth and maturity; yet, the food in either case, will be about the same — the only dif- ference will be the length of time required for the insect to eat the same quantity of leaves. The first cocoon was wound on the 38th day of the age of the silk worm. After the fourth moulting, or in other words, shedding of their skin — for they skin four times during their life before they commence winding their balls or cocoons — they are usually about ten days in winding up their cocoons. Pre- vious to their moulting the fourth time, I counted about 1450 ; so that 50 had died out of the 1500, besides the worms I held in reserve above stated. Of these 1450 worms, beside those that died during this last age of the worm, and during their winding,! counted 912 that remained on the shelves on the 40tli day— 585 on the 42d day— 303 on the 43d day— 186 on the 44th day— 90 on the 45th day — 43 on the 46th day — 26 on the 47th day — 13 on the 48th day. In ten days from the beginning of winding, all had wound their cocoons, except 13 worms. In four days more, these Avere all wound. The whole time the silk worms were pro- gressing through their several ages, each age de- signated by their moulting, including the winding, was 53 days — the usual time is from 42 to 45 days — retarded no doubt from the cold and dampness of the season. There died in the whole 257, during the several ages, till the completion of the cocoons. I had 1243 cocoons of all descriptions, and but few, say 15, that would not reel off. The reserved un- counted worms are not included in this estimate. The weight of cocoons before reeling, and as soon as they were picked from the bushes, weigh- ed 4 lbs. 5 oz. 20 cocoons weighed precisely 1 oz. Raw reeled silk, 6^ ounces. Raw silk, l| ounce. Making the whole product of silk nearly one half pound. FARMERS' REGISTER— ENTOMOLOGY. 411 The weight of leaves consumed and wasted, was 75 lbs. After I had found the quantity of leaves the 1500 worms consumed, I made a comparison with a sta- tistical table communicated in a letter to tlie 20tli Congress of the United States, by Dr. James Mease, on the method of rearing silk in Bavaria, and found by this table 20,000 silk worms con- sumed 1000 lbs. mulberry leaves — exactly corres- ponding to 75 lbs. for every 1500 worms — and that from 7 to 10 pounds of cocoons make a pound of raw or reeled silk — from this estimate the product of my experiment nearly coincides, for 4 lbs. and 5 oz. produced 7| ounces ot silk. Nor does this estimate of consumption of leaves and the product of silk, materially dilfer from the estimate and exact result of Count Dandolo — transmitted to Congress by the Hon. Richard Rush, then Secre- tary of State. It will readily be perceived that the rearing of silk worms in our state is practicable, and with due management equals the product raised in Bavaria, and the careful management in the extensive labo- ratory of Count Dandolo, where eight ounces of eggs, or 160,000 worms are reared. In this labo- ratory the leaves are chopped, the thermometer regulates the temperature, and the hygrometer the dampness of the atmosphere ; and every measure of precaution used to secure the worms from dis- ease— by ventilation, by stoves, and by cleanliness. On reading these treatises, and observing all the nice directions contained therein, any person would almost shrink from the task, and become discour- aged before they attempted to enter a field where so many obstacles seemed to threaten him. I have chopped no leaves — made no fire but once or twice, and tlien when the weather was extremely cold and damp for the season. I gave them what they would eat, and they appeared to know what to do with the leaves as well as any other insect, and not more at a loss about it. I am fully of opinion that the culture of silk is as easily learned as any other kind of business or art — and that many families in every town would find as profitable reward for their labor as our rich farmers do, by correspondent care and exertion. ELIAS FROST. Plainfield, j^ugust 27, 1883. VALUE OF THE STUDY OF EXTOMOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. Extract from an address delivered by the Rev. J. Brachman, before the Horticultural Society of Charleston. From the Souihsrn Agriculuirist. Entomology too. a science but little known till very recently, lays weighty claims to the attention of the horticulturist. Wherever we go, we find the earth, the trees, the shrubs, and the air filled with thousands of living beings, assuming the most wonderful changes, and gifted with the most sur- prising instincts. Some of these, like the silk- worm, the cochineal, and the cantharides, add to the wealth or luxury of man, or minister relief to his disease^ Others are destructive of his pros- pects, and the enemies of his repose. Some at- tack the roots of his trees and plants which soon wither and die, whilst others fasten upon the blos- soms, or upon the fruit, and all his bright hopes are blighted. The fair one who has raised with care and perseverance some favorite plant, finds it drooping and decaying in spite of all her vigilance, and is not aware that a worm may be at its root, or that some insect may visit it at night and de- prive it of its buds and leaves ; but she knows not the characters of either — she knows not where its eggs are deposited, at what season of the year she may apprehend its attacks, and is utterly unable to guard against it. When the insect called the Hessian fly made its appearance on Long-Island in 1776, it was wrongly conjectured that the Hessian soldiers, under the pay of the British government, had conveyed this evil along with them from Germany. The British government feared that it might be introduced into England, and took measures to prevent it. Infor- mation was sought by government from practical men in America, some of whom had lost their en- tire crop by tlie insect; and yet they were igno- rant whether it was a moth, a fly, or what they term a bug. Expresses were sent to ambassadors in France, Austria, Prussia and America. The information obtained was so voluminous as to have filled two hundred octavo pages, yet still so little science was possessed by the persons who gave in- formation about the insect, and by those who met to ward off its ravages, that it was impossible to form any idea of its genus or character till Sir Jo- seph Banks, an eminent naturalist, lent his aid in the investigation, and gave the nation the only in- formation that could be relied on. An insect with a somewhat similar character actually made its appearance in England sometime afterwards. It threw the country into great consternation, as they feared that it might prove destructive to the staff of life; when Mr. Marsham, by tracing out the species proved the alarm to be unfounded. Pursuing the history of this insect again in Ame- rica, entomologists discovered its character and habits, and by sowing their wheat at a particular time in autumn, when it was too late for the insect to multiply before the cold weather set in, and when the plants Avould be too much forwarded to sustain much injury in the spring, the cultivators have, in a great measure, arrested its destructive progress, and thus science has lent her aid to agri- culture, in averting evils which at one time threat- ened to banish from our land the culture of the finest grain, with the exception of rice, which is found in the world. The utility of entomological knowledge will far- ther appear from a circumstance which occurred in Sweden. The oak timber in the royal dock- yards had been perforated and greatly injured, when the king sent toLinnaeus, the father of natu- ral history, to trace out the causes of the destruc- tion of the timber. He detected the lurking cul- prit under the form of a beetle, ( Lymexylon no- vate,) and by directing the timber to be immersed during the time of the metamorphosis of that insect, furnislied a remedy which secured it from its future attacks. Another instance, which oc- curred among the elm trees in St. James' Park, London, between the years 1820 and 1824, is re- corded. These trees suddenly became affected in a very singular manner. The bark fell from the stem and whole rows died. There happened to be a compan)' of soldiers stationed in the Park, and as the trees were barked to about the height of the soldier's bayonet, the suspicion fell on some unfor- 412 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRUNING GRAPE VINES— FLOUR, &c. tunate recruits as having occasioned the injury, and they were arrested; but nothing could be proved against them. Persons were now employ- ed to watch the Park at night, but still in the morning, the bark was lying in great quantities around the roots of the trees. At the same time the elms in a grove at Camberwell, near London, were also destroyed. This was ascribed to the effect of gas escaped from pipes used for lighting the road. Legal proceedings were commenced against the company for the removal of the nui- sance. In this state of things, William Sharpe M'Lay, an eminent naturalist, profoundly ac- quainted with the history of insects, was requested Dy Lord Sidney to draw up a report on the state of the elm trees, for the purpose of referring to the Lords of the Treasury. He discovered it to be a beetle, ( Hytensius destructor,) belonging to the same genus as that which destroys the pines in Germany. By ascertaining its habits he was ena- bled to point out a remedy and the remainder of the trees were preserved. PRUBTING THE ISABT3LLA GRAPE VIKE. From the New-England Farmer. Pruning the Vine. — " Well, neighbor, how does your Isabella promise this season? Not a single grape. Ah, how is that.'' We sent for Mr. M. last fall — he pruned it so closely that the branches looked like naked sticks, and now we have not a grape to gratify our palate. " Close prunino- is too common in this country ; in summer only tne unproductive shoots should be taken out, and not these unless they produce too much shade."---[A^eio York Farmer. The above appeared in Vol. XII, No. 10, and I regret to see such pieces inserted in a standard pa- per like yours without comment from the Editor. If this sarcasm on pruning shall pass as deserved, much injury will result to the cause you have evidently at heart: I mean the successful culture of native and other hardy vines. " Mr. M." knew nothing of his business, or the vine had ex- hausted itself in the previous year's bearing. Any Isabella (and most other hardy vines) pruned ju- diciously every year according to the age, vigor and general growth of the plant, and depth and strength of the soil, will, every year produce a good crop, much superior to any thing from a vine only slightly pruned in the summer. The reason is obvious to any who have studied the nature of the vine, and attended carefully to its cultivation in this country. It should be divested of its sur- plus branches in the summer, to admit the light and air to ripen the wood as well as the fruit. An experienced cultivator will be as particular in ex- posing the branches which are to bear freight the following season, as to any other part of cultiva- tion. Grape vines have a constant tendency to throw out lateral shoots, and if the branches which are intended to furnish the next crop of fruit are not divested of those as they appear, their strength will be found exhausted ; and if any fruit appear, its quality will be very inferior. As soon as the buds are developed in the spring a vine stops bleeding; and in the spring we can cut out all the wood which has perished during the winter, of which there will be a quantity on every vine native or exotic, and it cannot be ex- pected that the late growth should ripen suflicient- ly to stand a severe frost. I prefer pruning in the spring, because we can then make clean work, and lay in only fine ripe wood; and by doing this work a short time before the buds put forth, the j)lant receives no injury from bleeding. Most foreign vines will become acclimated and hardy by a discriminating use of the knife. If you deem this communication worth inser- tion, I may probably make more remarks on this subject. Port Carbon, Pa. IJIPROVE]ME^'T IN aiAKIA'G FLOUR FOR EX- PORTATIOX. From the BaUimore American. Some months ago we published a description of an invention which had been practically applied at the flour mill of Nathan Tyson, Esq. of this city, for the purpose of keeping tlour sweet for a length of time in warm climates. The process is simple, but effective, and consists in passing the flour, after it is manufactured, through a heated chamber, the temperature of which is sufficient to expel from it whatever natural moisture or damp- ness it may contain, without any injury whatever to the valuable properties of the flour, but on the contrary imjjarting to it additional life, strength and color. Several experiments have been made with flour manufactured in this manner, in order to prove its value, by submiting it to the test of the action of hot climates in various parts of the world. It has been carried on the long voyages around Cape Horn, and Avas found sweet and sound on arrival ; and in some instances, according to re- cent advices, its peculiar qualities have secured a very handsome profit to the exporter which ordi- nary shipments could not have realized. We have before us a letter from one of the most re- spectable houses at Gibraltar, to which a small parcel of this flour had been sent, as an experi- ment, which contains the Ibllowing conclusive tes- timony in regard to it. The letter says — " It is now six months since the landing of your ship- ment, which has this day been examined by the contractors for the supply of the troops of the gar- rison, and by them pronounced as sweet as though just from the mill." A letter from a commercial house in Port au Prince, also before us, cites the opinion of a baker of that place who has had some of the flour in his possession for eight months, that " he had no doubt it would keep for a year and be perfectly sweet." In addition to these evidences in its favor, we would advert to the fact mentioned in our weekly review of the markets, in another part of to-day's paper, of the recent sales of con- sideral)le parcels for export, at %1 per barrel. We are induced to notice this matter for the purpose of making more generally known the valuable invention of an industrious and enterpris- ing citizen. It cannot but recommend itself strongly to the attention of those who make ship- ments to distant ports, or where a hot climate is to be encountered; and we know of none who are more immediately interested in it tha%the millers of the West, who are obliged to send their flour to the distant market and unfavorable climate of New Orleans. To the latter class, it may be the means of saving, annually, thousands of dollars. FARMERS' REGISTER— SILKWORM— GRAPE VINE— ORCHARD GRASS. 413 ON THE REARING OF THE SILKWORM AND CULTURE OF THE GRAPE VINE. " Winnshorough, June 23, 1833. Dear Sir, — A few years since, several persons in tliis neighborhood paid some attention to the rearinf^ of silkworms, and even to the manufac- ture of silk on a small scale. I sometimes met my friends with one or more garments of home- made silk, that would compare well with the imported article. Attention to this business seemed likely, at one time, to become fashionable. Some spoke of making extensive preparations for it, and our Agricultural Society, by Avay of encourage- ment, imported the Moras multicaulis, which was pretty generally distributed, and grows with great luxuriance in our soil. Such, however, is the difficulty of overcoming inveterate habit, that the rearing of silk could not obtain a permanent foot- hold in a single family, although its practicability were established by numerous successful attempts. Many individuals on account of its very superior quality compared with the imported, make an abundant supply of sewing silk. This is some- thing gained. I tiiink it is capable of demonstra- tion, that with a good market for cocoons, which I am told may be found in Charleston, at all events in Baltimore, small capitalists, with convenient preparations, by no means costly, would find it far more profitable to raise a crop of them than cotton. I have for a good many years past attended to the cultivation of the vine ; and I have good rea- son, (founded on some experience) to believe, that it may be reared here to advantage. The soil of my vineyard is a stiff red clay, clecomposed trap, I plant in large holes about two feet in dej^th, and fill up with a mixture of loam and sand. In a few instances I have used the scoriae from the black- smith's shop, in setting out cuttings, according to the suggestions of Mr. Clarke of Florida. The vines run upon arbors about eight feet high, made of hewn timber or scantling, covered over with long slender pine poles, with the rough bark care- fully pealed off. The vines are trimmed close, in the winter months, after the usual method, and so confined to the frames on which they run, as not to be affected by the severest winds. I have never watered nor manured them since they were plant- ed. The hoe is never used except for the removal of grass and weeds. Suckers from the old wood are carefully removed, but the fruit-bearing shoots are never topped, nor a leaf intentionally taken off. I have not failed to raise a good crop of Herbe- mont's Madeira for twelve years. In some seasons I have had them in great abundance, and in the highest perfection. Bland's Madeira has generally succeeded well, but I think a soil of decomposed sand-stone or granite, the proper home of this spe- cies. The admirable Lenoir overpays me every year for the attention liestowed upon it. It never rots, and always fulfils its promise to the letter. I cultivate several other kinds which answer tolera- bly, and which are suffered to remain as members of the vineyard dimi bene se gesserint. I have ex- tirpated the black Hamburgh as a cumberer of the ground. This variety, whose origin is uncertain, and which has been so generally reared in the country as the English grape, has done more l)y its numerous frauds upon the vigneron, to call in question the capability of the State lor the produc- tion of the vine, than all others. The cuttings. however, live without difficulty, and afford excel- lent stocks to graft on. I have found by experi- ence, that old vines bear more plentifully, and perfect their fruits more certainly than the younger ones. Those who intend to rear the vine," should, therefore, begin early, and exercise patience. The traveller in passing through this part of the coun- try will find here and there some attention paid to the cultivation of tlie vine, principally for its fruit: not a few are extending their views ilirther. Cut- tings are in good demand every spring. The planting of vineyards, and the making of wine are becoming ordinary subjects of conversation. A half dozen successful examples would wake up our people to the enterprlze in good earnest. I am somewhat advanced in j-ears, but I entertain hopes of yet living to see tlie greater part of my neigh- bors manufacturing an abundance of good wine for family use, and the bad habit of drinking ardent spirits as a common beverage entirely given up. Very respectfully, dear sir, P . ORCHARD GRASS. From tlie Buck's Couniy Intclliseiicerof 1931. The most eligible time for sowing the seed of Orchard Grass, I am induced to believe, is as ear- ly in the spring as the state of the ground will ad- mit ; and as clover is the best adapted to the growth of this grass of any with which I am acquainted, they may be advantageously sown together. I have usually sown clover seed at the rate of about four quarts per acre, and afterwards followed with orch- ard grass witii one bushel on the same quantity of ground. This plan has been preferred from a knowledge of the fact, that the latter grass does not generally advance as rapidly as clover, (it not seeding the next season after sowing,) but there is always sufficient of the blades, if the seed takes well, to improve very much the quality of the clover hay. The succeeding season the orchard grass occupies much more space, gradually in- creasing as the clover declines. The experience of the growers of this grass has shown that the crop imi)rovcs for at least seven years. Unlike Timothy and Herd, the bulk of this grass consists in the blades ; and of course, when the top is cut for seed, the value of the crop for hay is not much lessened, the part usually cradled being of com- paratively small value ; but after the seed is gath- ed, it does not, like the grasses just mentioned, be- come dead and dry, but continues green and in a suitable state for cutting during several weeks. I have this season mown the stubble which had been standing more than four weeks, and the larger part of it furnished hay of a very good quality ; on the other hand I have observed several patches of Timothy and Herd that have been cut for seed, the stubble of which would not be worth gathering for any thing but manure. In sowing the seed of this grass, especial care should be taken to distribute it evenly over the ground, it being light, (weighing but about 15 lbs. per bushel,) and easily acted upon by the winds. On an eight pace land four casts should be sown, the sower scattering seed with every step. But it sliould not be mixed with clover or any other heavy seed, as the difference in weight will vary the extent to which a cast will reach. With re- spect to the quantity of seed per acre, those who 414 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHEEP HUSBANDRY. sow with a view of making it the sole object, would probably consult their interest in sowing one and a half or two bushels per acre ; but one bushel sown in the manner above mentioned, has been productive of a profitable result, botli as re- spects the improved quality it has im])artcd to the hay, as well as the seed it has afforded. The ap- pellation of Orchard has been given to this grass, from its known congeniality with shade. I have known very luxuriant crops to grow in an orch- ard, producing three cuttings in a season, although the trees were large, and almost entirely shading the ground; but in such situations it will not pro- duce seed. The fertilizing quality of this grass was former- ly mentioned, and it may probably be attributed to the circumstance of its shading the soil more effec- tually than most other grasses, excepting clover. If a field of it should be kept for mowing, there will be very little time during the warm weather in which the grounds will not be protected from the heat of the sun ; and if for pasture, unless it be too heavily stocked, the soil will be shaded by a sufficient covering of this luxuriant grass. It may be mown for hay at any time best suited for cutting the clover with which it grows; but if it is designied to save the seed, the mowing must be deferred till towards the last of June, at which time the seed will be ripe. This should be cradled before it is ripe enough to waste, bound in small sheaves, and shocked in rows. The stubble may then be mown immediately, or to suit the conve- nience of the farmer, the seed requiring some ex- posure to the weather to render it in a suitable state for thrashing. I subjoin the following anal3"sis, contained in Sir Humphry Davy's Agricultural Chemistry. The quantity of grass from which the estimate is made, grew on a spot of earth contained in four square feet, in a garden attached to Woburn Abbey. The soil was selected, as best adapted to the cul- ture of said grass — a circumstance which may account for the great burden obtained for the esti- mate per acre. JDactylis Glomerata — Round- Headed Cocks-Foot Grass, (or Orchard Grass.) lbs. per acre. Grass in flower — rich sandy loam, 27,905 When dry, . . . . 11.859 Nutritive matter, - , - 1,089 At the time the seed is ripe, grass, 26,544 When dry, - - - 13,272 Nutritive matter, _ _ . 1,451 Rowen grass, (or 2d crop,) - 11,910 Nutritive matter, _ - - 281 This analysis is given as a mere matter of curi- osity, as the climate of England, differing so much from this, must make a great difference in the re- sult. The time of the first crop's growing in that climate continues to a period of one month beyond the same growth in this section of the United States; and hence the Rowen or second crop might be expected, (as the result shows,) both inferior in bulk and quality to what it is in this country. SHEEP HUSBANDRY, NO. I. From the Columbia (Kiiitlerhook) Sentinel. Sheep husbandry is that sort of farm manage- ment which relates to or has sheep for a principal object. There are various motlifications of this kind of farming, depending upon the difference in the circumstances of the lands, their nature and situation, as well as other local causes. In Eu- rope, this business has been entered into with all the modifications of which it is susceptible. All the varieties of sheep, of which there are many, have been carefully and distinctly cultivated; the profits of each kind as nearly as [)Ossible ascertained; the improvements from crossing the different va- rieties carefully noted, and the number that each farm which is in a course of arable or other til- lage, according to its size, can jirofitably main- tain. They have a system about the whole man- agement which results in certain profits to the owner of the farm, whilst the farm itself is annu- ally improving. Sheep are animals of the utmost importance to mankind, whether considered in the light of food or clothing, or in that of the vast im- provement and profit which they produce in the various systems of management to which they are subjected by the ingenuity of man. In some instances they constitute a very large proportion ; in others nearly the whole of his dependence and support. There is another point of view in which they appear equally advantageous ; and that is up- on lands that must otherwise be nearly if not wholly useless. True, cattle will do tolerably well on land of this description, but not as well as sheep ; and if the first afford us food, the latter give us both food and clothing. I do not intend at this time, however, to take a detailed view of the manifold advantages of sheep husbandry, or the profits that arise in stocking an entire farm with them, to the exclusion of other kinds of tillage. It is my purpose to take only a glance at the present method adopted by our far- mers, who all keep a number proportionate to the size and the capacity of their farms, while they are under a course of arable tillage. Upon this point, I am happy to say that I think we are manifestly improving, not only in the qualities and general appearance of our flocks, but in their increased number. Sheep husbandry to an extent to which a farm is susceptible, whilst a large portion of it is likewise ploughed and sowed, is one of the greatest of modern improvements. We have al- ready seen how, and jirofitably too, this is managed in Europe. We have only successfully to carry out the plan here, and we are yet little aware of what will be the extent of the benefits of the practice. Sheep not only enrich a farm, but they prepare it for our best crops of grain. They seem to cleanse and jjurify a soil better than other ani- mals, and a fallow cannot be rendered more suita- ble for wheat, than by giving them the range of it; for they destroy almost all weeds; and the quack or couch grass, so injurious to our wheat croj), is more certainly obliterated by them than by any other animal whatever. Besides, they are a sure return to the farmer ; and if his crops of grain by drought or severe winters, are cut off, it is not so with his mutton and wool, as his sheep never fail to produce these, and what is more, while man must have food and clothing, the far- mer's mutton and wool will command a price, as they are articles that can always be sold and a cash return made sure. Ought not a farmer, then, carefully to cultivate this species of slock, and to ascertain almost to a certainty how many sheep his farm can keep, and keep well. Upon this he may likewise depend; the better his farm is cul^ FARMERS' REGISTER— SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 415 livated, the larger number he can supply with good wholesome food; and vice versa, a poorly cultivated farm is soon overstocked. I say tliere- fore to the farmer, manage your form well, and keep as large a stock of sheep as it can well sup- port; you will receive a much larger profit than from the old method of having a few miserably starved sheep, raising a large number of cattle, with a barn filled in winter with mares, young horses and colts. Of all the methods of farming, the last of which we have had an ample experi- ence, is the most unprofitable. According to the old plan the hogs ate up the corn, the negroes the hogs, and the mares and colts the hay, so that the farmer had nothing but the negroes and horses left, for whose support it was his constant business to labor. The negroes, thank God, have all been liberated: the horses are now limited in number and put to profitable uses, and the former starvel- ing sheep are now carefully nursed — their num- bers increased — their qualities improved — and what is the effect of the change.' Our land is worth twice as much per acre as before; simply be- cause it produces nearly three times as much grain. We have better fences, houses and barns — better horses and cattle — the comforts of life vastly increased — intelligence more general — education more common and more thorough ; in fine, we are physically and mentally improved — every thing around is improved, and the prospect continually brightening. If we have now commenced the correct system of farming, let us carry it out to its full extent, and by perseverance we must make our farms generally worth $! 100 per acre, and they will be so when we can make them bring in that interest free of expense. Whether the kind of sheep usually grown here is most profitable, must be the next subject of inquiry; but I must leave that for a succeeding- number. SHEEP HUSBANDRY, KO. II. In a former number, I took a general view of the benefits of sheep husbandry, in connexion with farm tillage, I noticed, first, the systematic manner in which it is attended to in Europe, with its • results. Secondly, the introduction of more enlightened ideas upon the subject here ; and thirdly, the greater profits that have followed the practice thus far, when compared with the method formerly in use among our farmers. I refer to these distinct points, and wish the reader to bear them steadily in mind. Not that I mean to press them farther at this time, but, believe me, judi- cious sheep husbandry is the cornerstone of pro- fitable farming; and to this principally may be attributed the increased value of Dutchess county land. The subject for consideration at the present time is, whether the kind of sheep usually grown here is the most profitable. The profits arising from sheep husbandry are of two kinds, direct and indirect. It is the direct profits, that is the sale of the mutton and wool, which is now to engage our attention; and our aim is therefore, to have a good sized carcase with a heavy and fine fleece of wool. Have we attained either or both of these objects.' I answer, no. Generally speak- ing, we are very deficient in both, and both of course are susceptible of great improvement. The sheep usually grown here are the native, with a slight cross of the Merino. The native sheep we all know have light carcases, with no great pro- pensity to fatten, and coarse wool with seldom over three pounds to the fleece. These have been crossed with the Merino, which has added a little to the fineness of the wool, but not to its weight; at the same time it has made the carcase of the sheep rather lighter than it was before. The con- sequence is that it has not added to the profits of the farmer, and certainly none to the hardiness of the animal. The quarters usually do not exceed 10 or 12 lbs. to a full size sheep ; so that the car- case would weigh say from 40 to 48 lbs., and the wool 3 lbs. Comprising these weights with those of the different English varieties, we will be the better enabled to form a correct judgment how far an improvement might carry us. tt is essential that we do this ; for if siieep husbandry is the ba- sis of good farming, it is of the utmost impor- tance that we have the most profitable kinds of sheep. The annexed table which is taken in part from a late English publication, will give a clear view of the subject; and although we may be surprised at the difTerence in weight of both fleece and carcase, when compared with ours, yet we must make due allowances for the better manner in which the former have been kept. BREEDS AND VARIETIES OF SHEEP. Names of Breed. Weight of Fleece. Wethers Age when per qr. killed. iNauve or kind in common use* 4 lbs 12 lbs. 4 year.s. Teeswaterf 9 lbs. 30 lbs. 2 years. Lincolnf 1 1 lbs. 25 lbs. 2 years. New Leicester and Dishlevt 8 lbs. 22 lbs. 2 years. CotswoldJ 9 lbs. 24 lbs. 2 years. Romney MarshJ 8 lbs. 22 lbs. 2 years. B\mptoni 9 lbs. 25 lbs. 2 years. * Wool coarse and not long. — f Wool long and coarse. |Wonl long and fine. I trust that in the above k presented a clear view of the subject; and if the authorities from which I have quoted can be relied on, (of which I have not a doubt,) it is high time that we look a little closer to our interest in this matter. If an improved breed will give us twice as much profit as the present one, the farmer who now realizes .9125 from his sheep, with the same trouble, but a little more immediate expense for the first pur- chase, would from the same number realize his S250. As there are some of the English varieties already here, a simple comparison with the eye of the Teeswater, or the new Leicester and Dishley, will at once shew the great difference in the pro- portions of the respective animals. The native sheep are not well proportioned, and there is not even a uniformity of make in them, some of them being long-legged, some short, with thick heads, big bellies, narrow shoulders and plenty of pro- jecting bones, with here and there one that has a propensity to fatten ; but this last quality is pure- ly accidental. On the contrary the better breed is the reverse of all this; their carcases will weigh double, the wool nearly so, and all have a propen- sity to fatten and are selected in part for this very quality. They are, besides, a well proportioned animal, and at the same time that they fill the purse, the sight of the animal will please the eye. 416 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHEEP HUSBANDRY. We may take it as a settled rule, that the more perfect an animal is in all its proportions, the nearer it comes to answer the purposes for which it was designed ; and a well proportioned animal has evident advantages over one of the same size that is somewhat disproportioned. The reason is, in the tirst there is aperfect developcmentof its parts, and every organ performs its functions naturally, easily and properly. In thesecond, where ever there is a variation from a perfect shape, there is some defect, the organization in that part is not perfect, the circulation is not free, tliere is some compres- sion which tends to disarrange some of the other organs, and all the secretions and excretions of the body are not regularly performed. This disar- rangement may not constitute ill health, but it may be enough to make the animal not so suitable to fulfil the purposes required of him by man. For instance, he may not fatten easily, and the most careless must have observed that all animals ■with which we are acquainted, fatten quick as they approach the point called symmetry. We see it so in a remarkable manner in the sheep, the ox, the horse and the hog. Whichever of these animals we raise therefore, fine shape is all important. I speak not so much in regard to th.eir appearance as to their profit. Now we will rest for the present, and the next subject of inquiry shall be, whether it is more pro- fitable to the farmer to raise the fine or the coarse wooled sheep; or, in other words, to raise sheep lor the mutton and v.ool, or for the wool onlv. "A. Note. — I should do injustice to myself in the illustration of my argument— -to the public and my neighbor whogo observation I am to quote, were I not to mention that behaving long thought that an improvement might be effected by judi- cious crossing of our native sheep in the weight of the carcase and fleece, has for ten years been test- ing his plan. He has succeeded so far, and that without any admixture of the foregn varieties, that his iambs will weigh per quarter from 12 to IS lbs., and the average v^eight of the fleece from his flock is between 4 or 5 lbs. The wool howe- ver is coarse. This defect might be remedied by selecting from the foreign varieties, a large sheep with fine wool. The gentleman above alluded to, sells his fat sheep and lambs in market for at least one third more than the ordinary price. A. SHEEP HUSBANDRY, NO. III. In my last number, 1 endeavored to establish the position that the farmers generally, M'ho grow sheep for the mutton and wool, have not yet ob- tained tlie most profitable kind of animal for that purpose. The next subject of inquiry is, whether taking the quality of the native sheep as they now are, the growth of them affords as much or more profit to the farmer— who keeps a small flock only to fill out the number of his stock — than it would be to raise the Saxon or Merino on account of the fineness of their wool. I know of no belter way to come to a correct conclusion than simply to com- pare the first cost of each animal with the expenses of keeping and the profits. A native ewe will cost say - - SI 50 Interest for one year ------ 10 — 1 60 The profits will be 3J lbs. of wool at 45 cts. per lb. - - - - - - - - $1 57 Lamb, --------- 125 Ewe when fattened, - - - - 2 00—4 82 Profits, - - - - ^3 22 A full blooded fine Saxon and Merino ewe will cost say ------^3 50 The profits will be 3 lbs. of wool which will sell at say GO cts. per lb. - - - • 1 80 The chance for a landi is one half of its value, i. e. only one half of the ewes have a lamb, and if a lamb is worth i^l 75, we allow - 88 — 2 43 Deducting tlie interest on $S 50 for one year leaves .^2 43 as the gross amount of profit. The annual profit on the native sheep is ^3 22, and on the fine wooled it is ^2 43. Thus a balance is left in favor of the coarse wooled or native sheep of 79 cents. In the above comparison I have allowed 15 cents as the difference in the price of wool between the coarse and fine wooled animal, but if we go back for the last five years we will see that the actual sales of fine wool have approximated much nearer than that sum, and I do not think 10 cents would vary much from the real amount. This may be considered an additional argument in favor of the native sheep. For the native sheep however I have given credit for a lamb positive. This to be sure is not always the case, but is much more sure than it is in the Saxon and Merino, for in a flock in the last named, near one half of them will commonly go farrow. I account for the last cir- cumstance from the fact that the buck is not put to the latter until late in the fall when the ewes have got over their heat; for it is all important in fine sheep, which are considered of tender constitutions, not to have lambs too early in the spring. With a native ewe however, the buck is generally put a month earlier, and of course the chance for a lamb (other causes being the same) is much greater. We see there is a great difference in the first ex- pense between a common and a fine ewe, the latter costing more than double the price of the former, and as we have taken only the interest of this into calculation, the chance therefore of losing the one may be put against the chance of having a Iamb from each native ewe. Again the fine sheep do not often have lambs until the third year, so that until then the only profit from them is in the wool, whereas with the native sheep the ewes often have lambs when they are one year of age. It is manifest therefore that the difference is en- tirely in favor of the common sheep, and more money may be made in growing them by farmers, who do not entirely stock their farms with sheep, than to have the more expensive Saxon and Merino. Sheep for mutton and wool likewise give the most sure and speedy returns. Their wool is much sooner bought up as there are ten purchasers for coarse where there is one for fine wool, and a lot of lambs or fat sheep are always in demand, the diffi- culty not being to sell them, but to keep them long enough to put them in proper condition for market. The expenses of keeping the two kinds of sheep I have assumed to be the same, but the truth is the Merino are the most expensive if they are kept as they ought to be, and were the latter wintered as most of our farmers in this vicinity winter their native sheep, one half of them would not live until a succeeding spring. Were farmers however to stock an entire farm with the native sheep, to the FARMERS' REGISTER— ODORIFEROUS SUBSTANCES, INSECTS, &c. 417 exclusion of cattle and tillag"e, and expect to realize the proMt above mentioned from them, they would be disappointed, for in that case by crowdinf;" so many on a Jarm, the lambs would not be so valua- ble, and the sheep would not fatteii with facility, which would lessen if not cut olT two great sources of revenue. The result of my inquiries therefore is, that those farmers who plough and sow and keep horses and cattle, and only fill up the remainder of their farms with as many sheep as they can keep well, it is to their interest to have the common kind in preference to the line sheep, because they can make a profit on both mutton and wool. But on a farm in- tended only for grazins:, and where we do not mean to fatten either young or old, but keep sheep simply for the sale of the wool, and wdien it is an object to have as many on alarm as it can sustain, tlie Sax- on and JMerino on account of the superiority of their wool, are of course tlie most valuable. I wish to have it borne in mind however, and hope to see it generally carried into effect, that tlie native sheep both in their mutton and wool are susceptible of great improvement. JMuch more might yet be said upon sheep and sheep husbandry tliat is inter- esting to the farmer and wool grower, but whether I shall undertake it, time and circumstances must hereafter determine. A. ODORIFEROUS SUBSTANCES OFFENSIVE TO INSECTS. From the New York Farmer. It is said that common mint strewed among grain as it is mowed away in the barn, will pre- serve it from being injured by vermin. Cam- phor, when kept among bed clothes, will keep away bed bugs and fleas. From these circum- stances, together with the fact that we do not re- collect of having seen plants strongly odoriferous injured by insects, we are led to conclude that far- mers might be benefitted by turning their atten- tion to the subject. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, AND FRUIT TREES. From the American Farmer. Mr. Editor, — In your paper of the 18th inst. you inserted, from the Richmond Enquirer, an article headed "Fine Fruit;" near the end of which, the writer, alluding to the worm which de- stroys the peach tree by cutting it near the root, says ; " It is generally believed, that if hogs are suffered to run at large in the orchard, or if the trees in the garden or yard are paved round, the curculio (the insect which produces the worm) will be arrested in its ravages." It is something new (to ??ie, at least,) that the curculio and ''the insect which produces the worm" in question, are one and the same thing. I had always been taught to believe differently, and do still think I am in the right. The curculio is certainly the insect which attacks the smooth skinned stone fruit as well as the apple and pear, by depositing in the young fruit an egg, which becomes a worm, and most frequently causes the fruit to fall off before maturity. Its greatest ravages are on the plum, apricot, and nectarine. The peach does not suffer Vol. 1—53 so much, being defended by the down on its skin. When the fruit falls, the worm makes its way into the earth, where it undergoes its various changes, and the following year it comes forth a small winged insect of the beetle kind, which ascends the trees and begins to deposit its eggs in the fruit. Hogs are of service by devouring-the fruit and in- sect before the latter has time to secrete itself in the earth. It is also useful to pave the yard or garden around the trees, because then the insect cannot penetrate into the earth, and perishes for want of its natural asylum, besides being liable to destruction from a thousand accidents. But the worm which eats into the root and lower part of the stem of peach trees, is a very different affair. If you turn to Kenrick's New American Orchard- ist, p. 238, you will find the following account of it, and several modes of preventing its attacks. " The worm is produced by a fly which, from the middle of June, to the first of August, depo- sits its eggs on the bark of the tree, generally at its root, whore the bark is tender. These are soon hatched, and the worm shortly penetrates lieneath the bark, where it commences its work of destruction, devouring the sap-wood often around the whole circumference of the tree, causing the gum to exude, and often death. " IMuch has been written and said of this insect ; yet the prevention is very easy, provided there is a necessity for it, which is not the case in all soils and situations. It seems with us only an occa- sional evil, and tlie remedies are seldom required. Whenever serious suspicions arise, let every tree be carefully searched at the surface of the earth, and the worm destroyed by probing with a pen- knife or pointed wire. About the beginning of June, form around the trunk of the tree a small conical mound, to the height of eight inches or a foot above the natural surface of the earth. Un- leached ashes, which might be preserved for this purpose, are without doubt the best and most use- ful substance, and each tree will require about a peck. But any thing else, even soil, is found to answer. The design of this is to protect that por- tion of the tree where the bark is most fender; let this mound be levelled in October, and the bark will harden again beneath where it was placed. I am inclined to believe the potash wash before described, would answer every purpose, as it does with the apple tree if applied at the suitable time; also the wash recommended by Mr. Lindley. The Garden Compound, sold by Messrs. Russell of Boston, and Ives of Si\lem, I am persuaded would be effectual. Also coaZ /a?-. A gentleman of Nan- tucket is trying the coal tar with his peach trees. He is also trying it on the plank of his ships which sail to the Pacific, to preserve them from the at- tacks of the sea worm ; the odor it exhales is pow- erful and lasting. "Another cheap, easy and effectual mode is practised by Mr. Vose of Dorchester. About the last of May, the soil is removed to the depth of two inches round the trunk ; a composition of clay, ashes, &c. is applied with a brush ; and over this, stiff brown paper is wrapped around the tree to the height of a foot, and the earth replaced. Mr. Ellis, of New Jersey, has found that rye straw bound round the trunk from the surface up- wards is effectual ; and Mr. Wilson, of New York, in his Economy of the Kitchen Garden, has re- commended grafting clay to be applied round the 418 FARMERS' REGISTER— CHEESE MAKING. trunk. Lime mortar mixed with sulphur in found good." Now, Mr. Editor, if these fow disjointed re- marks be thouo:lit of any utility, they are at your service. But I would beg leave, at all events, to sug<^est the propriety of correcting a statement which might puzzle some inexperienced hand, and give him an erroneous idea of these insects, which agree, I believe, only in one particular, that, viz. of doing all possible injury to our fruit trees. I am, sir, with great respect, Yourobd't serv't. M. A. CHEESE MAKIKG. From the New York F.inner. This article is submitted as a demonstration of ■what can be effected in our country, by commu- nity of exertion and enterprise, directed to one staple commodity ; and also what extraordinary impulse has been given in a few years to one de- partment of agriculture, in a small section, by the facilities of transportation on the Erie Canal. Heavy produce is transported from Utica to New York for 25 cents per 100 lbs. on large contracts, this season. Much public and general inquiry has, of late, been excited, by the rapid increase, extension, and improvement in cheese-making, in a district of about twenty miles in length, and ten or twelve in breadth, chiefly within, and parts of the towns of Salisbury, Norway, Fairfield, Newport, Rus- sia, and Trenton — and of butter-making in the town of Steuben ; being the second tier or range of towns on the north side of Mohawk river, and within the counties of Herkimer and Oneida. A sparse population Vvas spread over all these towns as early as the year 1800, and in 1815 had become a well-settled country, emigrating to the ■west; and at that period, and even till the com- pletion of the Erie canal, cheese, as an article of commerce, over and above the home consumption, was an item little thought of or known. It is supposed that less than 60 tons were annu- ally exported from this district at that period, and this was chiefly confined in its manufacture to a few families in Norway. This district is hilly, well watered, and better adapted to grazing than to any other department of agriculture ; and with- out recourse to records, it is supposed that it may have doubled its population since 1815 ; and it is now ascertained that in 1832, though an unfiivor- able season for making, there was exported, the manufacture of this district, more than one thou- sand tons of cheese, besides twenty-five tons of pine-apple cheese. Mr. H. Burrell, of Salisbury, sold in New York market near 400 tons of the same. In the art of cheese-making, improvement has advanced in this district far towards Avliat, in this age, is known of perfection, as will be ac- knowledged or attested by the extensive cheese merchants in New York, Philadelphia, and the cities south. Steuben early settled by that noted Baron, is much inhabited by emigrants from Wales, and their descendants; has long been almost exclu- sively devoted to butter-making ; and, although a small town, sent, in 1832, one hundred and fifty ions of butter to New York market — which, as an article to keep good in tubs and firkins, stands high in market. Indeed, some small sections of the said cheese district make butter only. Tlie writer of this article was bred a farmer, and from the year 1806 to 1813 made a cheese dairy on the farm whereon he now lives, from twenty, and some years from thirty cows. Cheese was then a dull article, and he relinquished that business; and again, in 1828, commenced on a cheese dairy of forty cows, and now has, on the same farm, eighty cows. Inquiries are often made as to theory, and statistical facts, pertaining to this subject, from friends and acquaintances, both near and remote, and he has been requested to commu- nicate in writing the modern process of making, as practised by himself and maily others, at this day, and also to point out as distinctly as might be, the difference between the former and the lat- ter process. This has been done, by saying that less heat, and some less salt, is applied in the making, and the cheese made softer, and is kept from spreading and cracking, by swathing, soon after the cheese comes from the press. The milk, in warm weather, is not considerably below the warmth of milk directly from the cow. The ren- net must be free of taint, and made in such quan- tity as to last several weeks, that its power can be relied upon to "fetch the cheese," in three quar- ters of an hour, or be sure in an hour, so as to " break up," which is done with the hands, from bottom to top of the tub or vat, or with an utensil made of fine brass wire, with a sharp iron or brass rim, in squares of three quarters of an inch, like a sieve, with two high bales crossing each other on the top, and reaching above the top of the tub ; when broken up, it is then left for a little time, till the curd settles, and the whey rises on the top; then begin to draw or dip off, and of the first put some over the fire, and with it, as soon as may be, gradually increase the warmth in the tub, work- ing off the whey and making fine the curd, endea- voring always so to manage that the Avhey is as green as possible. It is a conceded fact, that the greener the whey the richer the cheese. If the weather be hot, and there be any appearance of souring in the tub, the process must be hurried, and less heat applied, or the cheese will be hard and dry, and the yield small in proportion. For the last half hour, we have, in warm weather, about milk or animal heat in the tub or vat, and this is called the scalding process, which, if all works well, is done in about two hours from the setting, and ready to dip off into the cheese basket or cinque. It has, I believe been a gene- ral practice to cool off the curd while in the tub, with cool whey or water, or the cheese will be rank, but we do not so; we let the cheese go to the press with its warmth, except what is impart- ed by making it fine and stirring in the salt, and think it closes better, and needs much less scalding, and is not so liable to be porous and spongy. We put two pounds of dry Onondaga salt to 100 lbs. of curd, pressed and worked so fine and dry that not more than two quarts of whey can be extracted by the press. We choose to have our cheese made so soft as to need swathing the first or second day ; and if the weather be very hot, very soon after they come from the press. This is done with cheap cotton cloth, stained with annotto, and dip- ped in melted lard, and, by some cased entirely over, there to remain till the cheese goes to mar- FARiMERS' REGISTER— MYRTLE WAX. 419 ket ; it is then safe from flies to keep any length of time, if made so as not to leak. Tlie soft cheese ripens and matures much sooner than the dry hard cheese ; tlie latter will dry much sooner; but maturing and drying are, or may be very different. Cheese will shrink two to one in October that it will in August, yet it will ripen and mature three to one in August that it will in October and November. Many suppose that large cheeses require more time to ripen than small ones, but we think not ; the ripening process is of a chemical nature, ra- ther accelerated by increased mass than retarded ; as is also the mass of the baker, the brewer, and the distiller, by increased mass. A very little cheese, made to please a child, will soon become dry, but never have maturity or taste. The coloring, if any, should be of annotlo, dissolved in pure strong ley, a spoonful or two ol which is sutlicient for the milk of a large cheese ; let the outside be painted with the same soon after the cheese comes from tiie press, then dry an hour, and be anointed with lard or butter. We do not darken the room, or attempt to keep out the flies, but depend on the soundness of the cheese to save it from their depredations. In hot weather we open our doors and windows, and give air; but cool dry winds, blowing directly on, will crack the cheese. In spring and fall we keep up a generous warmth; and indeed, in the cool damp days in midsummer, have fire in the cheese room stove, and so greatly accelerate the maturing process. My sons commenced cheese-making the present year the 15th of April, and before August had three tons of cheese in market, which would have passed well with many for old cheese, being so ripened. It is found, by actual experiment, that every pound of butter taken fi-om a cheese will shrink the weiglit of the same about three pounds for one. The experiment of making cheese of milk directly from the cow night and morning has been tried often in this section, but I know of no one who continues the practice. The yield will be greater, but the cheese rank, carrying into it something of that kind of taste peculiar to milk directly from the cow. The reservoir for the whey, and every other thing that may have tendency to charge the atmos- phere with impurity, should be hept at a sufficient distance; and the room where the milk stands over ni^iit, well ventilated. The question is often asked, how much cheese will each fair dairy cow make in a season.' and how much in a day will each such cow. make at full grass in May.' I answer, 300 lbs. is perhaps about an average yield for a fair dairy well kept; but a very choice selection of cows well kept will sometimes exceed 400 lbs. in a season, and one such cow may make four or five pounds in a day at full grass. We have very few cows of the im- proved breeds, and very little stock is raised. Many hundreds of cows are brought in annually from a distance, for sale and for use. Ephraim Perkiivs, One of the Com. of the New Vork State ^Agricultural Society for Oneida Co. South Trenton, August, 1833. "Living within the above cheese district, I am well convinced that the calculations here made by Ephraira Perkins, Esq. as to the quantify of cheese manufactured in second district, is to be relied on as correct; and his process of making worthy of the attention of those engaged in the dairy business. W. WiLLOLGHBY, M. D. Late President of the jlgricultural Society of Herkimer County. BAYBKRRY, OR MYRTLE WAX. From the New England Farmer. The Vegetable Wax, called Bayberry in the Northern, and Myrtle Wax in the Southern parts of the United States, is the produce of a shrub called by botanists Myrica Cerifera, which some- times grows to the size of a small tree, and is found abundantly along the coast, from Maine in the North, to Texas, on the Gulf of Mexico. The wax is extracted from this shrub by collecting the berries, boiling them with water, and bruising them at the same time, by which the wax will rise to the top as a thick oily scum, easily separated, which, when cold, turns out a moderately hard substance, of a green dingy color. After chemical investigation, that substance has been found to resemble bees' wax so closely in the most important properties, that they may 'be classed under the same genus of chemical bodies. Until now, the use of this wax has been very limited, the farmers pick up in swamps and the woods a sufficient quantity to supply themselves with candles; and if there is any surplus, they send it to market in New York, Boston, or other North- ern places, where it is bought by caudle makers, who mix it with their tallow, in order to correct in summer, the extreme softness of their candles. Notwitstanding the abundance of its growth, the picking up of the berries among swamps, thick wood and mire, is so laborious, that peoj)le who have attempted the collection of the wax as a special business and matter of trade, have found that one single bushel of berries is the utmost a stout and active man can collect in one day's work ; hence its price in market is very high, fluctuating between 18 and 25 cents per pound. The object of this publication is to invite the attention of farmers to the cultivation of the shrub affording the myrtle wax, in order to bring its price down to that of tallow. It is obvious that should the shrubs be collected in one field, con- sequently ready at hand — it is obvious, I say, that the same man, who, under the difficulty of wan- dering in swamps, wood and mire, can collect but one bushel, shall be able, when lie finds the shrubs gathered together in the same field, to pick up in the same space of time, from three to four bushels, can also deliver his wax at a price proportionably reduced ; that is to say, from 25, to 8, 9, or 10 cents per pound. The question now is, to investigate what will be the nett produce of an acre planted in myrtle wax, the wax selling at the reduced price of 10 cents per pound. Let us suppose each shrub planted at two and a half feet from each other, there will be in one acre 6724 of them : supposing, next, the average product of each shrub to be only one pint of the berries — then the whole crop will amount to 6724 pints, making up 105 bushels. Now, experience has shown by those who follow the trade, that the quantity of wax obtained from a bushel of berries, averages from 5 to 8 pounds ; then our 105 bush- 420 FARMERS' REGISTER— WHEAT— FALL OF A CLIFF. els of berries would yield 630 pounds of wax, which, at 10 cents a pound, tallow j)rice, would make $63. As we have stated already, one man v/ill pick up in a field from 3 to 4 bushels in one day, it follows that the picking of the whole 105 busiiels, will require the labor of a hand during a whole month ; admitting SIS for the Mages and finding — then ^18 deducted from $63, the value of the crop as before stated, the balance, 845, will be the nett profit accruing to the farmer. Besides such a valuable income, this culture re- ceives additional recommendations from the follow- ing circumstances : 1st. It grows in the v/orst soils, especially if damp and sandy. 2d. It requires no fences, as the cuttle do not meddle with it. 3d. Once planted, it requires no attendance ex- cept in picking time. 4th. The picking may Le performed by boys, girls, old men and old women, ^vho else would be useless on the plantation. 6th. By a process discovered lately, the myrtle v/ax may be bleached to a degree of whiteness equal to that of bees wax. This process adds only five cents per pound to the original price, is done in a short time, and within the power of every indi- vidual to perform. 6th. A soap equal, if not superior, to any shav- ing or fancy soap imported from Europe, can be manufactured of the myrtle wax. RESULT OF EXPERIMENTS OX WHEAT. From the Genesee Farmer. Mr. Editor, — Having observed much contro- versy maintained through the columns of the Ge- nesee Farmer during the past year, upon the novel subject of wheat, by a natural process, turning to chess [cheat,] although from first tolast incredulous, I had the curiosity to give the subject some atten- tion ; this more especially when the names of Da- vid Thomas and Gideon Rarasdell were to be seen among the belligerents. I claim the latter of these gentlemen as a former acquaintance and friend, and believe him a person of truth and rec- titude, and that he would not on any account knowingly state that which he knew not to be true; but I am certainly disposed to think him la- boring under a mistake when he asserts "wheat will turn to chess" under any circumstances. The subject being both new and interesting to me, I embraced the earliest opportunity of testing its truth by experiment. Accordingly I removed a piece of sward from a waste corner in my gar- den— marked the spot and took eveiy precaution against deception. Thirty small stakes were then driven down in this prepared spot ; and from the outside of a wheat stack I took a head of wheat, the grains of which appeared considerably wea- ther-beaten and of a dull color, some of the grains ■were sprouted and the sprouts withered. I placed a grain of this wheat by the side of each stake and left them uncovered, protecting it from the fowl with brush. When it come up in the fall I examined it critically, and ascertained that each etalk came directly from the grains of wheat I had planted. The severity of the winter killed a part of it. That which withstood the winter I kept clear of weeds and grass. Early in May I muti- lated one half of it — it sprung up again and all produced wheat, and not so much as one grain of chess. Not being satistied with the first, I made a second experiment; trying to raise chess on a larger scale. In thrashing my wheat on an earth- ern floor exposed to the weather, a shower came up and prevented me from sweeping the iloor after the chief of the wheat was removed where it could be kept dry ; the sv.eepings lay on the floor two weeks, untd it had the appearance of being much damaged, it was then taken up without further cleaning and sowed in a place adjoining the place sowed with the wlieat which was thrashed and properly taken care of at the same time. At har- vest time I could discover no more chess upon that part sowed with the damaged wheat, than up- on that sowed with the good wheat. There was as usual some through all of it. ***** SaXECA LAPHAM. Champaign Co. Ohio, Oct. 1, 1833. FALL, OF A CLIFF IX EXGLAXD. From White's Natural History of Selborne. W^hen I was a boy, I used to read with astonish- ment and implicit assent, accounts in Baker's Chronicle of walking hills and travelling moun- tains. John Philips, in his Cyder, alludes to the credit that was given to such stories with a deli- cate but quaint vein of humor peculiar to the au- thor of the Splendid Shilling. " I nor advise, nor reprehend, the choice Of Marcley Hill ; the apple no where finds A kinder mould : yet 'tis unsafe to trust Deceitful ground : who knows but that, once more, This mount may journey, and, his present site Forsaking, to thy neighbor's bounds transfer Thy goodly plants, affording matter strange For law debates !" But when I came to consider better, I began to suspect that though our hills may never havejour- neyed far, yet that the ends of many of them have slipped and fallen away at distant periods, leaving the clitTs bare and abrupt. This seems to have been the case with Nore and Whetham Hills, and espe- cially with the ridge between Harteley Park and Ward-le-ham, where the ground has slid into vast swellings and furrows, and lies still in such roman- tic confusion as cannot be accounted for from any other cause. A strange event, that happened not long since, justifies our suspicions; which, though it befell not within the limits of this parish, yet as it was within the hundred of Selborne, and as the circumstances vv'ere singular, may fairly claim a place in a work of this nature. The montlis of January and February, in the year 1774, were remarkable for great melting snows and vast gluts of rain, so that by the end of the latter month the land-springs, or levants, be- gan to prevail, and to be near as high as in the me- morable winter of 1764. The beginning of March also went on in the same tenor, when in the night between the 8th and 9th of that month, a conside- rable part of the great woody hanger at Hawkley was torn from its place, and fell down, leaving a high tree- stone cliff naked and bare, and resem- bling the steep side of a chalk pit. It appears that this huge fragment, being perhaps sapped and un- dermined by waters, foundered, and was ingulfed, going down in a perpendicular direction; for a FARMERS' REGISTER— NATURAL IIISRORY. 421 f?ate, Avhich stood in the field on the top of the hill, after sinking Avith its posts for thirty or forty feet, remained in so true and upriglit a position as to open and shut with great exactness, just as in its first situation. Several oaks also are still stand- ing, and in a state of vegetation, after taking the same desparate leap. That great part of this prodigious mass was ab- sorbed in some gulf below, is plain also from the inclining ground at the bottom of the hill, which is free and unincumbered, but w^ould have been bu- ried in heaps of rubbish, had the fragment parted and fallen (brward. About an hundred yards from the foot of this hanging coppice stood a cottage by the side of a lane ; and two hundred yards lower, on the other side of the lane, was a farm-house, in which lived a*laborer and his family ; and just by, a stout new barn. Tlie cottage was inhabited by an old woman and her son, and his wife. These peo- ple, in the evening, which v/as very dark and tem- pestuous, observed that the brick floors of their kitchen began to heave and part, and that the walls seemed to open, and the rooi's to crack; but they all agree that no tremor of the ground, indicating an earthquake, was ever felt, only that the wind continued to make a most tremendous roaring in the woods and hangers. The miserable inhabi- tants, not daring to go to bed, remained in the ut- most solicitude and confusion, expecting every mo- ment to be buried under the ruins of tlieir shatter- ed edifices. Wlien daylight came, they were at leisure to contemplate the devastations of the night. They then foi;nd that a deep rift, or chasm, liad opened under their houses, and torn them, as it were, in two, and that one end of the barn had suf- fered in a similar manner ; tliat a pond near the cottage had undergone a strange reverse, becoming deep at tlie shallow end, and so vice versa ; that many large oaks were removed out of their per- pendicular, some thrown down, and some fallen into the heads of neighboring trees ; and th.at a gate was thrust forward, with its hedge, full six feet, so as to require a new track to be made to it. From the foot of the cliff, tlie general course of the ground, which is pasture, inclines in a moderate descent for half a mile, and is interspersed with some hillocks, which were rifted, in every direc- tion, as well towards the great woody hanger as from it. In the first pasture the deep clefts began, and, running across the lane and under the build- ings, made such vast shelves that the road was im- passable for some lime; and so over to an arable field on the other side, which was strangely torn and disordered. The second pasture field, being more soft and springy, was protruded Ibrward with- out many fissures in the turf, which was raised in long ridges resembling graves, lying at right an- gles to the motion. Afthe bottom of this enclo- sure the soil and turf rose many feet against the bodies of some oaks that obstructed their far- ther course, and terminated this awful commotion. The perpendicular height of the precipice, in ge- neral, is twenty three yards : the length of the lapse, or slip, as seen from the fields below, one hundred and eighty one: and a partial fall, con- cealed in the coppice, extends seventy yards more ; so that the total length of this fragment that fell was two hundred and fifty one yards. About fifty acres of land suffered from this violent convulsion ; two houses were entirely destroyed ; one end of a new barn was left in ruins, the walls being crack- ed through the very- stones that composed them ; a hanging co[)pice v/as clsanged to a naked rock : and some grass grounds and an arable field so bro- ken and rifted by the chasms, as to be rendered, for a time, neither fit for the plough nor safe fen- pasturage, till considerable labor and expense had been bestowed in levelling the surface and filling in the gaping fissures. EXTRACTS FKOM WHITE S NATURAL HISTO- RY OF SELBORNE. Tame J3at. I was much entertained last summer with a tame bat, which would take fiies out of a person's hand. If you gave it any thing to eat, it brouglit its wings round before the mouth, hovering and hiding its liead in the manner of birds of prey when they feed. The adroitness it showed in shearing off the wings of tlie flies, \\hich were always rejected, was worthy of observation, and pleased me much. In- sects seemed to be most acceptable, though it did not refuse raw flesh when offered ; so that the no- tion, that bats go down chimneys and gnaw men's bacon, seems no improbable story. While I amused myself with this wonderful quadruped, I saw it several times confute the vulgar opinion that bats, when down on a flat surface, cannot get on the wing again, by rising with great ease from the floor. It ran, 1 observed, with more des- patch than I was a\vare of; but in a most ridicu- lous and grotesque manner. Bats drink on the wing, like swallows, by sip- ping the surface as they play over pools and streams. They love to frequent waters, not only for the sake of drinking, but on account of insects, which are found over them in the greatest plenty. As I was going some years ago, pretty late, in a boat, from Richmond to Sunbury,on a warm sum- mer's evening, I think I saw myriads of bats be- tween the two places ; the air swarmed with them all along tlie Thames, so that hundreds were in sight at a time. Harvest Mouse. I iiave procured some of the mice mentioned in my former letters, — a young one, and a female with young^, both of which I have preserved in In-andy. 1< rom the color, shape, size, and manner of nesting, I make no doubt but that the species is nondescript. They are much smaller, and more slender, than the mus domesticus medius of Ray, and have more of the squirrel or dormouse color. Their belly is white ; a straight line along their sides divides the shades of their back and belly. They never enter into houses ; are carried into ricks and barns with the sheaves ; abound in har- vest; and build their nests amidst the straws of the corn above the ground, and sometimes in this- tles. They breed as many as eight at a litter, in a little round nest composed of the blades of grass or wheat. One of these nests I procured this autumn, most artificially platted, and composed of the blades of v.heat; perfectly round, and about the size of a cricket-ball ; with the aperture so ingeniously closed, that there was no discovering to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well filled, that it would roll across the table without being discom- posed, though it contained eight little mice that were naked and blind. As this nest was perfectly full, how could the dam come at her litter respec 422 FARMERS' REGISTER— NATURAL HISTORY. lively, so as to administer a teat to each? Perhaps she opens different places for that purpose, adjust- in"; them again wlien the business is over : but she could not possibly be contained herself in the ball with her young, which, moreover, would be daily increasing in bulk. This wonderful procreant cra- dle, an elegant instance of the efforts of instinct, Avas found in a wheat field suspended in the head of a thistle. As to the small mice, I have farther to remark, that though they hang their nests for breeding up amidst the straws of the standing corn, above the ground, yet I find that, in the winter, they burrow deep in the earth, and make warm beds of grass ; but their grand rendezvous seems to be in corn ricks, into which they are carried at harvest. A neighbor housed an oat rick lately, under the thatch of which were assembled near a hundred, most of which were taken, and some I saw. 1 measured them, and found that, from nose to tail, they were just two inches and a quarter, and their tails just two inches long. Two of them, in a scale, weigh- ed down just one copper halfpenny, which is about the third of an ounce avoirdupois; so that I sup- pose they are the smallest quadrupeds in this island. A full grown mus medius domesiicus weighs, I find, one ounce, lumping weight, which is more than six times as much as the mouse above, and measures from nose to rump four inches and a quarter, and the same in its tail.* The. Viper. Providence has been so indulgent to us as to al- low of but one venemous reptile of the serpent kind in these kingdoms, and that is the viper. As you propose the good of mankind to be an object of your publications, you will not omit to mention common salad oil as a sovereign remedy against the bite of the viper. As to the blind worm (an- guis fragilis, so called because it snaps in sunder Avith a small blovy,) \ have found, on examination, that it is perfiectly Innoccous.f Noxious Insects. A full history of noxious insects, hurtful in the field, garden and house, suggesting all the known and likely means of destroying tiiem, would be al- lowed by the public to be a most useful and im- portant work. What knowledge there is of this sort lies scattered, and wants to be collected ; great improvement would soon follow of course. A knowledge of the properties, economy, propaga- tion, and in short, of the life and conversation of these animals, is a necessary step to lead us to some method of preventing their depredations. As far as I am a judge, nothing would recom- mend entomology more than some neat plates that should well express the generic distinction of in- sects according to Linn«us ; for I am well as- sured, that many people would study insects, could they set out with a more adequate notion of those distinctions than can be conveyed at first by words alone. ♦ This must be a different and larger animal than the domestic mouse of Virginia ; one which seemed to be fully grown, and of common size, measured 3 inches from nose to tail, and 3t of tail— weighed 9 dwts. 21 grains. j Is the blind-worm the jointed-snake of Virginia ? Fern- Owl. On the 12th of July, I had a fair opportunity of contemplating the motions of the caprimulgvs* or fern-owl, as it was playing round a large oak that swarmed with scarabcei solstitiales, or fernchafers. JVote. — We find the following additional infor- mation regarding the goat-sucker, in Mr. White's Miscellaneous Observations : — " The country peo- ple have a notion that the fern-owl, or churn-owl, or eve-jar, which they also call a puckeridge, is very injurious to weaning calves, by inflicting, as it strikes at them, a fatal distemper, known to cow- leeches by the name puckeridge. Thus does this harmless, ill-fated bird, fall under a double impu- tation, Avhich it by no means deserves, — in Italy, of sucking the teats of goats, whence it is called caprimulgvs ; and Avith us, of communicating a deadly disorder to cattle. The least observation and attention Avould convince men, that these birds neither injure the goat-herd nor the grazier, but are perfectly harmless, and subsist alone, being night-birds, on night-insects, such as scarabcei and phalceence, and through the month of July on sca- rabosus solstitialis, Avhich in many districts abounds at that season. Those that we have opened have always had their claws stuffed Avith large night moths and their eggs, and pieces of chafers ; nor does it anywise appear, how they can, Aveak and unarmed as they seem, inflict any harm uponkine, unless they possess the powers of animal magnet- ism, and can affect them by fluttering over them. A fern-owl, this evening, (August 27,) showed off in a very unusual and entertaining manner, by hawking round the circumference of my great spreading oak, forlAventy times following, keeping mostly close to the grass, but occasionally glancing up amongst the boughs of the tree. This amu- sing bird was then in pursuit of a brood of some particular pAaZffi»a belonging to the oak, and ex- hibited on the occasion a command of Aving supe- rior, I think, to the swallow itself. When a person approaches the haunts of fern- owls in an evening, they continue flying round the head of the obtruder, and by striking their Avings together above their backs, in the manner that pigeons, called twisters, are known to do, make a smart snap.t Perhaps at that time they are jeal- ous for their young, and their noise and gesture are intended by way of menace. Fern-owls have at- tachment to oaks, no doubt on account of food ; for the next evening Ave saw one again several times among the boughs of the same tree ; but it did not skim round its stem over the grass, as on the even- ing befere. In May, these birds find the scarabceus melalontha on the oak, and the scaraboeus solstitia- lis of midsummer. These peculiar birds can only be Avatched and observed for two hours in the twenty four, and then in a dubious twilight, an hour after sunset and an hour before sunrise. The powers of its wings Avere wonderful, ex- ceeding, if possible, the various evolutions, and quick turns of the SAvallow genus. But the cir- cumstance that pleased me most was, that I saw it distinctly more than once put out its short leg while on the wing, and, by a bend of the head, de- liver someAvhat into its mouth. If it takes any part of its prey Avith its foot, as I have noAV the [* JXight-Hawk — vulgarly, the large Bat] 1 1 believe this is also done by the bill, in the manner of owls when disturbed. — W. J. FARMERS' REGISTER— NATURAL HISTORY. 423 greatest reason to suppose it does these chafers, I no longer wonder at the use of its middle toe, which is curiously furnished with a serrated claw. House Martins. A few house martins begin to appear about the 16th of April ; usually some few days later than the swallow. For some time after they appear, the hirundines in general pay no attention to the business of nidificaiion, but play and sport about, either to recruit from the fatigue of their journey, if they do migrate at all, or else that their blood may recover its true tone and texture after it has been so long benumed by the severities of winter. About the middle of May, if the weather be fine, the martin begins to think in earnest of pro- viding a mansion for its family. The crust or shell of this nest seems to be formed of such dirt or loam as comes most readily to hand, and is temper- ed and wrought together with little bits of broken straws to render it tough and tenacious. As this bird often builds against a perpendicular wall with- out any projecting ledge under, it requires its ut- most efforts to get the first foundation firmly fixed, so that it may safely carry the superstructure. On this occasion the bird not only clings with its claws, but partly supports itself by strongly inclining its tail against the wall, making that a fulcrum ; and thus steadied, it works and plasters the materials into the face of the brick or stone. But then, that this work may not, while it is soft and green, pull itself down by its own weight, the provident ar- chitect has prudence and forbearance enough not to advance her work too fast ; but by building only in the morning, and by dedicating the rest of the day to food and amusement, gives it sufficient time to dry and harden . A bout half an inch seems to be a sufficient layer for a day. Thus careful workmen when they build mud walls (informed at first per- haps by this little bird) raise but a moderate layer at a time, and then desist ; lest the work should become top-heavy, and so be ruined by its own weight. By this method, in about ten or twelve days, is formed an hemispheric nest, with a small aperture towards the top, strsng, compact and warm ; and perfectl)' fitted for all the purposes for which itwas intended. But then nothing is more common than for the house-sparrow, as soon as the shell is finish- ed, to seize on it as its own, to eject the owner, and to line it after its own manner. After so much labor is bestowed in erecting a mansion, as nature seldom works in vain, martins will breed on for several years together in the same nest, where it happens to be well sheltered and se- cure from the injuries of weather. The shell or crust of the nest is a sort of rustic work, full of knobs and protuberances on the outside ; nor is the inside of those that I have examined smoothed with any exactness at all ; but is rendered soft and warm, and fit for incubation, by a lining of small straws, grasses, and feathers; and sometimes by a bed of moss interwoven with wool. In this nest they tread, or engender, frequently during the time of building ; and the hen lays from three to five white eggs. At first, when the young are hatched, and are in a naked and helpless condition, the parent birds, with tender assiduity, carry out what comes away from their young. Was it not for this affectionate cleanliness, the nestlings would soon be burnt up, and destroyed in so deep and hollow a nest, by their own caustic excrement. In the quadruped creation, the same neat precaution is made use of; particularly among dogs and cats, where the dams lick away what proceeds from their young. But in birds there seems to be a particular provision, that the dung of nestlings is enveloped in a tough kind of jelly, and therefore is the easier conveyed off without soiling or daubing. Yet, as nature is cleanly in all her ways, the young perform this of- fice tor themselves in a little time, by thrusting their tails out at the aj)erlure of their nest. As the young of small birds presently arrive at their stature, or full growth, they soon become impa- tient of confinement, and sit all day with their heads out at the orifice, where the dams, by cling- ing to the nest, supply them with food from morn- ing to night. For a time the young are fed on the wing by their parents ; but the feat is done by so quick and almost imperceptible a slight, that a person must have attended very exactly to their motions, before he would be able to perceive it. As soon as the young are able to shift for them- selves, the dams immediately turn their thoughts to the business of a second brood ; while the first flight, shaken off and rejected b)' their nurses, con- gregate in great flocks, and are the birds that are seen clustering and hovering, on sunny mornings and evenings, round towers and steeples, and on the roofs of churches and houses. These congregatingg usually begin to take place about the first weekm August; and therefore we may conclude that by that time the first flight is pretty well over. The young of this species do not quit their abodes all together; but the more forward birds get abroad some days before the rest. These, approaching the eaves of buildings, and playing about before them, make people think that several old ones at- tend one nest. They are often capricious in fixing on a nesting-place, beginning many edifices, and leaving them unfinished; but when once a nest is completed in a sheltered place, it serve; for seve- ral seasons. Those which breed in a ready finish- ed house, get the start, in hatching, of those that build ne\v, by ten days or a fortnight. These industrious artificers are at their labors in the long days before four in the morning: when they fix their materials they plaster them on with their chins, moving their heads with a quick vi- bratory motion. They dip and wash as they fly sometimes in very hot weather, but not so frequent- ly as swallows. It has been observed that martins usually build to a north-east or north-west aspect, that the heat of the sun may not crack and destroy their nests: but instances are also remembered where they bred for many years in vast abun- dance in an hot stifled inn-yard, against a wall facing to the south. Birds in general are wise in their choice of situa- tion ; but in this neighborhood, every summer, is seen a strong proof to the contrary at an house without eaves, in an exposed district, where some martins build year by year in the corners of the windows. But, as the corners of these windows (which face to the southeast and southwest,) are too shallow, the nests are washed down every hard rain ; and yet these birds drudge on to no purpose from summer to summer, without changing their aspect or house. It is a piteous sight to see them laboring when half their nest is washed away, and bringing dirt" generis lapsisarcire riiinas." Thus is instinct a most wonderfully unequal faculty ; in 424 FARMERS' REGISTER— DISCOVERY OF MARL. some instances so much above reason ; in other respects, so far below it ! IMartins love to frequent towns, especially if there are ;j;reat lakes and ri- vers at hand ; nay, they even atfect the close air of London. And I have not only seen them nesting; in the Borouf^h, but even in the Strand and Fleet- street ; but then it was obvious, from the dinp-iness of their aspect, that their feathers partook of the filth of that sooty atmosphere. Marlins are by far the least agile ot the four species ; their wings and tails are short, and therefore they are not capable of such surprising turns, and quick and glancing evolutions, as the swallow. Accordingly, they make use of a placid, easy motion in a middle re gion of the air, seldom mounting to any great height, and never sweeping along together over the surface of the ground or water. They do not wan- der far for food, but affect sheltered districts, over some lake, or under some hanging wood, or in some hollow vale, especially in windy weather. They breed the latest of all the sv/allow kind : in 1772, they had nestlings on to October the 21st, and are never without unfledged young as late as Michael- mas. As the summer declines, the congregating flocks increase in numbers daily by the constant succes- sion of the second broods : till at last they swarm in myriads upon myriads round the villages on the Thames, darkening the liice of the sky as they frequent the aits of that river, where they roost. They retire, the bulk of them I mean, in vast flocks together, about the beginning of October; but have appeared, of late years, in a considerable flight in this neighborhood, for one day or two, as late as November the 3d and 6th, after they were supposed to have^gone for more than a fortnight. They, therefore, withdraw with us the latesl of any species. Unless these birds are very short- lived, indeed, or unless they do not return to the district where they are bred, they must undergo vast devastations somehow, and somewhere; for the birds that return yearly bear no manner of pro- portion to the birds that retire. House-martins are distinguished from their con- geners by having their legs covered with soft downy feathers down to their toes. They are no songsters, but twitter in a pretty, inward, soft man- ner in their nests. During the time of breeding, they are often greatly molested with fleas. MARL DISCOVERED IN TUB GRANITE AND COAL REGION OF VIRGINIA. Amelia, Nov. 12, 1833. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Dear Sir, — Your publications on calcareous manures have awakened much interest in our country, especially in Eastern Virginia ; in the tidewater district of which, beds of marine shells are numerous, and are at once recognized as the material called marl in this country. But calca- reous substances may, and certainly do exist in our country in other shapes than common lime- stone, shells, marble or gypsum, all of which are strictly calcareous. According to BufFon's theory, these masses are marine remains transmuted by the slow and silent operations of nature. This view is sustained by many interesting facts ; whilst we must consider Darwin's " Omnia e Concha" rather extravagant. However, the curious and sceptical will be dis- posed to concur with BuiTon on examining the !)luffs at the Blowing Cave, Calaghan's, and the Salt Sulphur Springs. [ have at hand several specimens from the two first named places, hear- ing the marks of shells as plainly as wax bears the impress of a seal. But to return to the sub- ject. As lime in its various combinations and condi- tions is known to be a valuable ingredient in the earthy constitution of the soil, independent of its use in managing other manures, and as a cement, it is desirable that we should be acquainted with its various appearances and localities, as the value of land is at once enhanced wherever it is discovered. The price now demanded for the location of that presently to be described, is advanced a third on what was formerly asked, though not one pound has been yet applied to the land as manure. You will herewith receive a just and beautiful specimen of a calcareous mass, which, if you deem worthy, please to analyze and describe. The credit of the discovery is due to our worthy neighbor Major John H. Steger of this county, who has in occupancy an estate called Bear Island, lying between the first branches of Pamunky ri- ver in Hanover county, where this article was found — which, for want of a better name, 1 will call rock marl. This gentleman havingobserved great improve- ment from the use of marl on South-Wales, the second estate below, determined to examine his preiiiises for that article. Several persons made an imperfect search, and no shells were discovered; but a shark's tooth, lying on, or in a soft rock, was found, which attrac'.ed attention. Common vine- gar was poured on a portion of the rock without its throwing up any fixed air; but on the application of muriatic acid it effervesced actively, shewing that it was certainly a carbonate ; and from the pre- sence of the shark's tooth, that it was probably calcareous. Subsequent but imperfect analysis confirms the impression. Bear Island is situated on the first bed, and within a short distance of the first cropping of gra- nite in ascending the Pamunky, and is pretty clearlv in the same geological range that the Ches- terfield and Henrico coal mines are, being in a northeastwardly course from them, and shewing thin strata of coal in a bluff of free-stone which overlooks Little river, a tributary of Pamun- ky, and the northern boundary of the tract. The calcareous mass, as exposed by a small rill passing over and through it, is about three feet thick and thirty or forty long; the spade and hoe will proba- bly discover a much larger body. It is about fif- teen or twenty feet below the general surface of the adjacent table land, and about forty or fifty above the bed of the neighboring river, between which and the hill side where this mass is bedded, there is a strip of flat land. The color is that of ashes, with waving lines of lighter and darker shades running in some places into confused curls or con- volutions : its consistency is that of soapstone, the firmest chalk, or the fossil clam shells ; but in no place is the color or shape of a shell to be found. Indeed, so singular is its location and appearance tor marl or calcareous substances, so far as I am acquainted with ihem, that I observed to Major S. had he l)een acquainted with marl, he would not have made the discovery : to this he facetiously ap- FARMERS' REGISTER— DISCOVERY OF MARL. 425 plied the familiar saying which implies that the o;reatest folly is attended by the best fortune — but this is in no wise applicable to him, especially in farming; operations. Some useful hints may be gathered, and many curious speculations drawn from the aliove facts ; but as paper and time are nearly exhausted, I leave them to abler hands, and will close with the expression of thanks for the pleasure received and the profit hoped to be deri- ved from the spirited " Farmers' Register." Respectfully, THOMAS MEAUX. MAGKESIAN MARL. The earth described in the foregoing letter deserves more than common attention, not only on account of its peculiar appearance, and its being found in a region before supposed destitute of calcareous earth, but also for its singular chemical constitution. To the eye, it does not seem to be even slightly calcareous — oral best, to be an argillaceous marl, very poor in calcareous mat- ter. But upon examination by proper tests, it was found to be richer in earthy carbonates than any whole body of marl yet known in Virginia. By the most com- mon mode of analysis, (separating the clay and sand, and estimating the calcareous earth by subtracting the cpianlities fovmd from the whole specimen,) and also by the most correct mode, with all marls before examined, (measuring the gas evolved,) the whole of the earthy carbonates would have passed for so much Calcareous earth, and the, marl would have been reported as con- taining 85 in the 100 parts of that ingredient. But this astonishing result, and the consequent importance of the discovery, induced -varied and more extended ex- periments to be made, which served to. prove that the earth contained a large proportion of carbonate of magne- sia, in addition to as much carbonate of lime, as would alone constitute a rich manure. Whether the addition of the magnesia increases or lessens the value of the whole as manure, will not now be considered. It is, however, iinportant that it should be knoWn as consti- tuting so large a proportion of this earth, especially as it will probably be found in many other places neartlie granite range. The effervescence of this marl, even when finely pounded and exposed to the action of strong acids, is remarkably slow for its strength — much slower than that of common marl of the poorest kind. This peculiarity first caused the suspicion to be formed that magnesia was present ; and the same circumstance may serve to guide to the like result, in future discove- ries of similar magnesian marls. The first lump of this earth which was examined, Was received from Mr. Steger, and analyzed, before Dr. Mcaux's letter was brought with another sample. The chemical character of both was very nearly the same, but there was some difference in the appearance of the two. The first seemed to be composed of very thin la- mince, the lines between which were quite plain to the eye, but all still forming a perfectly solid mass. In the second mass no lamince, nor lines were seen— but some scattered black particles, too small to be separated for trial, which looked like the specks of charcoal. When moist, llie earth is of an ash color — when dry, a very light ash, or dirty white. The dry lumps seems to be about as hard as chalk, and break much in the same Vol. I.— 54 manner. When lumps are thrown into a glass of wa- ter and left undisturbed, some retain their form, but others crumble rapidly, and fall to what might be dalb ed powder, if that term could be properly applied to a substance covered by water. The small lumps which were not thus reduced, were mostly tiiiged on one side with the color of rust of iron, which probably marks the exposed surface of the bank. It seems likely that not- withstanding the hardness of the marl, it will be easily made fine enough by exposure to rain and freezing, when used as manure. The constituent parts will now be stated. 100 grains of the first sample, yielded a bulk of car- bonic gas equal to 43 oz. measures of water, which would indicate 86 grains of carbonate of lime (or calca- reous earth) to have been dissolved by the acid applied, if all the earthy carbonate had been of lime, and none of magnesia. The amount of both these earths was nearly that quantity (8G grains) but not exactly, as magnesia combines with proportions of carbonic acid different from lime, 16 grains of dark ash colored clay, without a parti- cle of sand, was all the solid matter remaining. Of the second specimen, 100 grains evolved 42^ measures of carbonic acid gasy indicating 85 grains of earthy carbonates, widiout al- lowing for the error above referred to, caused by part being magnesia. The soluble parts were then separated from the solid, and the lime from the magnesia, by the processes di- rected by Davy, and the proportions found to be as fol- lows : 13 grains of dark clay apparently free from all .sili- cious matter, 50 — — carbonate of lime. 31 — — carbonate of magnesia, 94 6 loss', 100 The loss was caused by some of the earth's being una- voidably left adhering to the several filtering papers, in which manner all the different parts were collected separately, and weighed after being scraped off. Besides these different modes of examination, (one of which served to give the proportion of carbonic acid, and the other of each of the three earthy ingredients,) there were several other methods tried, more or less complete, but all of which tended to the same general results. Indeed, the want of proper apparatus, and of some of the most convenient tests, as well as the inex- perience and unskilfidness of the operator, made it ne- cessary to employ much time and trouble in repeated and varied experiments, which were thought due to the importance of the subject. But however slowly and awkwardly the results may have been reached, they are not the less relied on as being correct — or enough so for every useful purpose. Among other variations of the mode of examination, one was to add slowly to the pul- verized marl, sulphuric acid, grinding them well together (in a semi-fluid state,) in a glass vessel. After being thus well mixed, and remaining some hours, enough wa- ter was added to enable the soluble parts to be separated 426 FARMERS' REGISTER— MAGNESIA. by filtering. Of course, this brought ofF all the mag- nesia, in the form of Epsom salts, and with the clay left the lime, rendered insoluble (or nearly so) by being converted to gypsvmi. This showed clearly that mag- nesia was present, and in large quantity. It was pre- cipitated from the filtered solution by adding carbonate of potash. In another trial, instead of being precipitated, it was exhibited as Epsom Salts (in solution) of which the peculiar nauseous bitter taste sufficiently proved its kind, and of course the existence of the magnesia from which it was formed. This is not the best method of finding magnesia — but may be useful when better means cannot be used. This statement has been made more in detail than necessary, if the discovery of this kind of marl is to end where it is, or if the benefit of a single landholder only was concerned. But it seems reasonable to believe that this kind of earth may be foixnd to stretch over a large part of the granite region where this has been found — and it may be advantageous to many to have the clearest description of the appearance and chemical character of an earth, which promises so little to the eye. Dr. Meaux writes that the farm on which the disco- very has been made, has been thereby enhanced imme- diately one third in price. A much greater advance ought to be made, if this resource for fertilization is in sufficient abundance. If the magnesia is supposed to be worthless, and to do neither good nor harm as ma- nure, the marl is still rich enough in calcareous earth to double at once the value of any farm on which it is dis- covered— and to quadruple it by being used. But though very little if any thing is known of the opera- tion of carbonate of magnesia on soils, and nothing but actual experiment can determine it, still there is every reason to suppose it to act in a similar manner with cal- careous earth, which it so nearly resembles in chemical qualities. And if the magnesia is equal in value to lime (both being carbonated or mild) which would make the strength of the manure 85-100, then it will be not only used where discovered, but may be profitably transported for matun-e to considerable distances. There has been much controversy respecting the ac- tion of magnesia as manure — but its effects when caus- tic, as when calcined with quick-lime, were only con- sidered, and little or no attention paid to it in its carbo- nated, or mild form. But defective as they are in this respect, such opinions as have been expressed will now be interesting to many of our readers, and we shall ex- tract them from some of the most intelligent writers on the subject. Though but little has been published as to the effects of carbonate of magnesia, (as present- ed in tliis magnesian marl,) the testimony and opinions expressed are in favor of its being valuable as manure. The discovery of this marlwith such remarkable quali- ties, offers strong encouragement to othei'S to search ^or such beds, and try their value themselves by che- mical tests. A few drops of muriatic acid in this case served to disclose a concealed and invisible value, which will be worth thousands of dollars to the owner. Nor need such examinations be limited to so incomplete a trial as first indicated that the earth was calcareous. Almost any person by attending to the directions which have been given in several different works (Davy's Ag- ricultural Chemistry for one,) may soon learn to ana- lyze marls with sufficient accuracy. This knowledge, and its practice, will be valuable to every person who is using calcareous manures ; and the same value cannot be as well supplied by any degree of trouble imposed for that purpose on another and distant operator. The discovery of this rich calcareous bed in the gra- nite range, together with the great extent of the argillace- ous marl discovered by Dr. Morton, and announced in the first number of the Farmers' Register, furnish good reasons for believing that every region of Virginia is provided by nature with sources from which to obtain calcareous manures in abundance. The consideration of the ultimate results to be expected, if this hope in- deed is well founded, opens a prospective view of agri- cultural improvement and national benefit, which if ex- liibited, perhaps would not (at present) add to any re- putation we may have for possessing soundness of judg- ment. We will therefore close these remarks, with re- peating a suggestion which we have before made. If the legislature would employ some scientific and practi- cal geologist, having a competent knowledge of agricul- tural chemistry, to survey the whole territory of Virgi- . nia, and report all discoveries of minerals, whether ma- nures, metallic ores, or materials for manufactures, there can be little doubt but that the gain to the common- wealth would exceed the expense tenfold. If the dis- coveries made by Dr. Morton, and that which has pro- duced these comments, had been due to such an agent employed by the government, their value alone would overpay the salary that would procure the scientific attainments and laborious services required for the faithful jierformance of such duties for a year. EXTRACTS FROM SEVERAL AUTHORS, SHOW- IMG THEIR OPINIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF MAGNESIA, IN DIFFERENT FORMS, ON SOILS. I. The question considered, whether Magnesian Livie- stone is pernicious to vegetation ? From the [EtlinburghJ Farmers' Magazine. During two or three years past I seldom return- ed to til is city, from my laborious peregrinations through the liighlands and isles, without having my ears perpetually stunned with violent invectives against the use of lime, which contains magnesia, as manure. Some zealous friends of mine (whose zeal exceeds their knowledge) suggested the propriety of analyzing all the limestone quarries in their vicinage, and, if found to contain a parti- cle of magnesia, proposed that they should be shut up by act of Parliament, and prevented from poi- soning the crops in their neighborhood. In fact, among your agriculturists, the magnesice- phobia seems to be the order of the day : and they appear to be as much terrified at magnesia, as a helpless traveller, like me, is sometimes at mad dogs. My peregrinations having precluded me from perusing any of the original publications which excited this magnesiae-phobia, I beg leave to offer a few remarks on an Essay, signed Tyro, York- shire, 1804. Vol. V, p. 272. As far as I can learn, the magnesiae-phobia com- menced in Yorkshire, and has spread by repeated FARMERS' REGISTER— MAGNESIA. 427 undulations through tlie island, and has topsy-tur- vied stronger brains than mine. 1. The first remark I beg leave to make on this gentleman's Essay is, that he does not point out the stale or combinations of the magnesia, which produces such dreadful effects. This question I have repeatedly put to several of my friends, Avho were visibly under the highest parox3'sm of tiie magnesite-phobia ; but, whether from ignorance, or from the disorder having reached their cranium, I never could draw from them any distinct answer. In one point only they all concurred, in expressing the greatest horror and alarm at magnesia coming within a hundred miles of their land; and some, when they learnt that this deleterious substance was capable of combinations, became still more alarmed lest it might be smuggled in upon them in a form which they had no means of detect- ing. 2 Your correspondent Tyro not only omits specifying the state of the magnesia which proves so hurtfid to land, viz. Whether it is pure carbo- nate, or with what acid it is combined, but also neglects to mention tiie mode by which the solu- tion of the limestone is effected. All I am left to gather on this point is, that the solution was effect- ed in a way similar to that, the fallacy of which I have already pointed out in a preceding essay. Whatever way his solution was effected, I can only say, that his ammonia, or vol-alkali, would throw down several other matters before it touch- ed magnesia ; and that his whole sclienie of ana- lysis appears liable to objections. I might enter into particulars in order to establish this assertion ; but, not wishing to embark in any controversies remote from practical utility, I shall content my- self with showing that magnesia, under certain combinations, is either harmless or beneficial to the growth of plants. 3. It must appear strange to any man endowed with reason, that magnesia, which is evolved by the putrefaction and combustion of (I may venture to say) all animal and vegetJibJe substances, should operate as a poison to plants. How does this sub- stance get into plants ? doul)tless by their roots. How does it get into animals.^ doubtless by feed- ing on plants which contain it.' How does it get into animals which do not feed on plants.' doubt- less by devouring animals which feed on plants. The uses of magnesia in the vegetable and animal economy are yet unknown ; but that its uses are great, may be interred from this fact, that it always exists in both kingdoms, and often in con- siderable i)roportion. 4. I had long ago ascertained that many strata of limestone in Scotland, but especially those alloy- ed with clay, contained various proportions of magnesia. In these cases I always found the mag- nesia to exist eitiier in tlie state of carbonate, or combined with sulphur; and not unfrequently ex- isting in both these states in the same rock. When combined with sulphur, it effloresces into sulphate of magnesia, which often forms a hoary incrusta- tion on the lace of the rock. Yet the farmers, who used the lime of these rocks in great quantities, never entertained the smallest apprehension that it was injurious to vegetation. 5. 1 have analyzed various coal ashes, and never failed to find in them sulphate of magnesia, and sometimes also subcarbonate of magnesia, both, not imfreouentlv, in considerable pronortions. Yet coal ashes arc applied to certain soils with very good effect. 6. Lord Dundonald having stated, in his essay on Manures, that peat-ashes contained pot-ash, to which he ascribed their virtues as manure, I was led to analyze peat-ashes in various places from Ayrshire to Caitliness, in the hope that those who used peat-fuel might be able to furnish pot-ash like those who burn wood. I never was able to detect a single particle of pot-ash in the ashes of peats; but I never failed to find sulphate of mag- nesia, and frequently the sulphate and subcarbo- nate in large proportions. Those peats which yield white ashics contain most of tliese ingredients. Now, peat-ashes are universally used as manure, and mosses are often pared and burnt for the ex- press purpose of manuring them with their own ashes. An efflorescence of sulphate of magnesia is often seen on moss binks, that is, the face of moss from which people had been cutting peats. 7. In the essay on manures, referred to in my for- mer communication, I described a species of schistus commonly known under the name of blaes, which effloresces into sulphate of magnesia by exposure to the air, and yields a considerable portion of sul- phate and carbonate of magnesia from its ashes. I had observed three species of schist i, one contain- ing sulphur combined with clay, which oxygenates into alum ; another containing sulphur united to iron, which oxygenates into sulphate of iron ; and the third contains sulphur united to magnesia, which oxygenates into sulphate of magnesia. Often all these three species are blended in the same mass; and I have had evidence of the hurtful effects of the aluminous and pyritical schistus, if laid upon land before the salts are extracted. The magnesian schistus is commonly more hard and compact than the others, is of a dark blue or black color, and very much resembles parrot or candle coal. I had once an opportunity of inspect- ing an experiment on a large scale with this schistus. Eeing set on fire by brushwood in very large heaps, it burnt with a smouldering flame, and left a great quantity of white ashes, such as the country people call guests. These were found to contain a very considerable proportion both of the sulphate and subcaibonate of magnesia. The ashes were laid upon the surface of land in pasture, and allowed to remain until the lumps mouldered down. When the land was ploughed, it yielded very extraordinary crops, and the effects seemed every way superior to tiiose of a good liming. I showed specimens of tiie sulphate of magnesia in fine crystals, and also of pure magnesia, to the late Dr. Black, which were extracted both from the ashes, and from tiie efflorescence of this schistus, together Vvitli specimens of the materials from which they had been extracted ; and that illustri- ous fiither of chemical science expressed an opinion that this schistus might be advantageously used for manufacturing the magnesia alba of the shops. My ingenious friend, Dr. Coventry, lately exhi- bited specimens of this schistus in his class, and mentioned that it was successfully used as a ma- nure in some parts of Fii'eshire. I am aware that burnt clay operates on land as an alterative, and renders it more penetrable both by water and the roots of plants; and that the whole effect is not to be ascribed to the magnesia, or its salt. Lime operates both as an alterative, and as a direct manure. Being capable of combin- 428 FARMERS' REGISTER— MAGNESIA. ing with large doses of carbonic acid and oUier compound gasses, it retains tliese in the soil, and easily gives them over to the roots of plants ; and being very soluble with an excess of carbonic acid, it may easily enter the plants along with it. I am inclined to think that magnesia always enters plants in union with some acid, because, in its pure state, it is insoluble in water. But, whatever be the mode by which it enters, it certainly does enter plants ; and hence it makes part of their food, or is a maimre. In the case under consideration, if we be not entitled to ascribe all the merit to the mag- nesia, or its combination with sulphuric acid, it must at least be admitted that the presence of these ingredients does no harm. It is hardly necessary to mention, that the re- fuse of salt is often used as a manure. It seems now to be ascertained tliat marine salt contributes nothing to the nourislmnent of plants, those only excepted which grow in the sea. But the muriate and sulphate of magnesia, and other earthy salts, which abound in the refuse of sea-salt, certainly promote the growth of plants, and are hence ap- plied as manures. 9. An ingenious friend of mine tried the pure magnesia of the apothecaries, and found that it neither did good nor harm to vegetables. From all these lacts I am warranted to conclude, that magnesia, in certain combinations, so far from being a poison, is a manure, or pabulum of plants; that, when pure, it is inert, doing neither good nor harm. If there be any combinations of magnesia which are hurtful to vegetation, it becomes those who have raised the cry against it to point out what these combinations are, or hold their tongues. It cannot be any state or combination of magnesia that has ever occurred to me in analyzing lime- stones, or other substances used as manures ; for, in all these cases, the presence of magnesia, instead of being hurtful, was apparently highly beneficial. I remain, sir, your most obedient servant, JAMES HEADRICK. Edinburgh, Nov. 2, 1804, II. Strictures on Mr. Headrick's Letter concerning Magnesian Limestone. Mr. Headrick, in your 20th number, having made some remarks on the prejudicial qualities of magnesian limestone, wliich, in my judgment, have a tendency to mislead many of your readers, as coming from a j)erson who seems possessed oi a considerable degree of chemical knowledge, per- mit me to state a few things in reply. The original memoir concerning the prejudicial qualities of pure or carbonated magnesia, when combined with lime, and made use of in agricul- ture, Mr. Headrick says lie has never seen. I beg leave, therefore, to make some extracts from this paper, which, I ai)prehend, may give Mr. Headrick some account of the rise of the magne- siaphobia, as he is pleased ludicrously to term it ; and perhaps, considering the very high character of the author, may convince him that is by no means so groundless as he is disposed to imagine. Full information of all that is known concerning the bad effects of magnesia, may have a tendency likewise to remove the improper dread of the com- binations of mac^iesia and lime, of which Mr. Headrick complains. In the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1799, Part II. p. 30.5, Mr. Srmthson Te- nant, a gentleman well known as a most accom- plished chemist, first called the attention of the public to the magnesian limestone. He was in- formed " that, in the neighborhootl of Doncaster, two kinds of lime were employed in agriculture, whicli were supposed to differ materially in their effects. One of these, which was procured near the town, it was necessary to use sparingly, and to spread very evenly over the land ; for it was said that a large proportion of it, instead of increasing, diminished the fertility of the soil ; and that wher- ever a heap of it was left in one spot, all vegetation was prevented for many years. The other sort of lime, which was obtained from a village near Fer- rybridge, though considerably dearer, from the distant carriage, was more frequently employed on account of its superior utility. A large quanti- ty v/as never found to be injurious ; and the s})ots which were entirely covered with it, instead of being rendered barren, became remarkably fer- tile. The different properties ascribed to these two kinds of lime were so very distinct, that it seemed probable they could not be imaginary, and it therefore appeared to be worth the trouble of as- certaining them more fully, and of attempting to discover the nature of the ingredients from whence the difference arose. For this purj)Ose, I procured some pieces of each sort of limestone, and first tried what woidd be their effect upon vegetables in their natural state, by reducing them to coarse powder, and sowing in them the seeds of different plants. In both kinds the seeds grew equally well, and nearly in the same manner as they would in sand, or any other substance which affords no nourishment to vegetables. Pieces of each sort of stone were then burnt to lime ; and after they had been exposed some weeks to the air, that their causticity might he diminished, .some seeds were sown in them. * In the kind of lime which was found most beneficial to land, almost all the seeds came up, and continued to grow as long as they were supplied with water ; and the roots of the j)lants had many fibres w hich had pen^ etrated to the bottom of the cup in which they grew. Upon examining the composition of this sort of lime, it proved to consist entirely of calca- reous earth. By its exposure to the air for about three months, it was found to have absorbed four fifths of the fixed air required to saturate it. In the other kind, a few only of the seeds grew ; and the plants produced from them had hardly any stalks or roots, being formed almost entirely of the two seed-leaves, which lay quite loose upon the surAice. This sort of lime being spread upon a garden soil, to the thickness of about a tenth of an inch, prevented nearly all the seeds which had been sown from growing up, whilst no injury was occasioned by common lime used in the same man- ner. Upon examining the composition of the sub- stance, which was so destructive to the plants, it was discovered to contain three parts of pure cal- careous earth, and two of magnesia." The above detail will, I think, be sufficient to satisfy an)' one, that pure or carbonated magnesia, when combined with lime, in the proportion of two parts to three, is prejudicial to vegetation, when used in a considerable quantity as a manure. Mr, FARMERS' REGISTER— MAGNESIA. 429 Headrick, however, may be disposed to say, that this proportion is very unusual, as he seems never to have met witli it. IMr. Tenant, in his memoir, however, says, tliat he examined limestones from six different parts of England, which contained magnseia in this proportion, and mentions several others, which, from the accounts he received, are probably of tlie same nature. Hence it appears likely, that this species of limestone is not of rare occurrence, and of course to be found in Scotland, although Mr. Headrick has not fallen in with it. The contradiction of JMr. Headrick's friend's ex- periment with the pure magnesia by Mr. Tenant, only adds to the list of experiments carelessly tried : He will probably be induced, from the above extract, to doubt the accuracy of his result, and take the troul)le of repeating it witli more care, that he may either verify Mr. Tenant's results, or detect his errors. Mr. Headrick's remark, that it must appear strange to any one endowed with reason, that magne- sia, which is evolved by the putrefaction oi'all animal and vegetable substances, should operate as a poison to plants, seems liable to a number of objections. I shall only, however, give a general answer. A certain proportion of magnesia may not be preju- dicial, but even useful to plants, as we have reason to suppose it is, from its always forming a compo- nent part of them. But an overdose may here, as in other cases of animals and vegetables, prove mortal to vegetation. Water is a component part of all vegetables, and is required in more or less by every plant ; but the quantity useful to one plant is destructive to another ; what would be a moderate supply to a rush, would destroy heath. I shall here quote a remark of Dr. Pearson's, contained in a communication made lo the Board of Agriculture, on the use of green vitriol as a ma- nure. Speaking of the qualities of the ashes con- taining the green vitriol, he says, 'the quantity spread on land is said to be fiity bushels per acre, which I estimate at 22-50 pounds avoirdupois ; this will give near seven ounces and a half per square yard. If a larger quantity be applied, it is observed it will prove extremely deleterious. This is true also of every other manure, such as lime, alkaline salts, marine salt, nay, of the dung of ani mals ; lor if they be used in certain quantities, they poison plants, instead of promoting their growth. This is equally true in the animal kingdom, for there is not an article taken as food or as seasoning, which is not a poison, if taken in certain quanti- ties. A human creature may be poisoned or ali- mented by beef or pudding, according to the quan- tity of them taken into the stomach. He may be poisoned, or have digestion greatly assisted by salt or pepper, according to their quantity. Jn brief, the vulgar notion of the term poison is erroneous ; for by it is conceived, that substances so called are in their nature positively destructive of life; but the truth is, that the most virulent poisons are, in all reason and fact, only deleterious according to the quantity applied. W hite arsenic, swallowed in the quantity of len grains, or less, will destroy life; biit m the quantity of one sixteenth of a grain, it is as harmless as a glass of wine ; and further, in that dose is a remedy for inveterate agues.' What has been asserted, therefore, concerning the prejudicial qualities of magnesia, applies only where the magnesia is in very considerable pro- portion to the calcareous earth. In the course of my analysis of limestone, I have generally, in the very best stratified specimens, defected a certain proportion of this earth ; and from experience can say, that where it exists in the proportion of one tenth to the calcareous earth, such lime may be used, upon fields of a light loam, at the rate of 500 Winchester bushels, slacked, per acre, with great advantage. As to what is said by Mr. Headrick respecting the use of ashes containing magnesia in the state of sulphat, he must readily perceive that this by no means determines against the prejudicial etlects of carbonated or pure magnesia. Every one al- lows the efficacy of pure or carbonated lime as a manure; many doubt that of sul})hat of lime or gypsum. Clay is a good soil ; but sulphat of clay, or alum, (I take no notice of the portion of alkali contained in this salt,) as Mr. Headrick himself acknowledges, is destructive to plants ; wherefore, although sulphat of magnesia may be useful to vegetation, it does not follow, that pure or carbo- nated magnesia is not hurtful. # * # » # A BAKFFSIIIRE AGRICULTURIST. III. 3Iagnesia not hurtful to Vegetation. I beg leave to express my obligations to your Banilshire correspondent, for having brought for- ward the original documents on which the alarm respecting the deleterious effects of magnesia has been founded. But though I give full and implicit credit to the statements bothof 3/r. Smifhson Te- nant, and of your correspondent, I am disposed to draw conclusions from their premises very dif- ferent from those which have occurred to them. It appears from Mr. Tenant's experiments, that plants grew in the magnesia, and in the common limestone, when reduced to powder, equally well as they would have done in sand. In this case, I pre- sume, both the lime and magnesia were in the state of carbonate, or saturated with what was former- ly called fixed air, now carbonic acid. It appears, then, that the carbonate of magnesia, even when combined with the carbonate of lime, exerted no pernicious influence on the growth of plants. It was only when the carbonic acid was expell- ed, by burning the stone, that the deleterious pro- [)erties of the magnesia began to manifest them- selves. Now, 1 do not see how pure magnesia can exert any influence whatever on the growth of plants. It is nearly insoluble in water, and hence cannot enter into their roots. It recovers its car- bonic acid much more slowly than lime ; and un- less it meets with some vegetable, animal, or mineral acid in the soil, with which it may com- bhie, and become soluble, it is only after it has combined with an excess of cai'bonic acid, that, like lime, it becomes soluble in great quantity, and can enter, with water, into the composition of plants. But it is unnecessary to enter into any theoreti- cal reasoning to account for the facts stated by Mr. Tenant. It is well known that different soils re- quire a very different management in the api)lica- tion of lime. Some soils would be much bene- fitted by small doses frequently repeated ; but would be utterly destroyed by an excessive appli- cation. On other soils, again, it is hardly possible to lay too much lime. But I shall endeavor to il- 430 FARMERS' REGISTER— MAGNESIA. lustratethis position, by stating two cases in point, ■which fell under my own observation. In the neighborhood of Sterling, soils arc dis- tinguished into carsc and dryfidd. The carse is a tenacious alluvial clay, which occupies the exten- sive plain through which the Forth performs his whimsical meanders. It had been an im- memorial practice to lay great doses of lime on this soil ; but my flither Avas the first person, in the district north-west from Sterling, who ventured to put lime on dry field land. PI is soil had been mostly formed from the decomposition of red and brown sandstone, and was a friable loam inclining to sand, and in some cases to gravel. A field be- ing fallowed, and put in good order, the lime- shells were dropped over it in heaps ; and, after they had slacked in the air, the lime was spread over the surface with spades. The same quantity was applied, and the same mode of application was adopted, that had long been practised in the carse lands. Wheat was sown; but except in a few spots, which had escaped an excessive dose oi lime, none grew. It was long before this field recovered its fertility ; and the bottoms of the heaps remained steril during many years. The opinion of the people there, that lime would de- stroy dryfield land, was completely confirmed. But the fiiilurc of his first experiment had no ef- fect upon my father. In his future operations, he slacked his shells beside a pool of water, and then spread the powder equably, and in moderate quantity, fi'om carts. The eliects were both striking and highly beneficial. The other case occurred in Lanarkshire. A flat piece of land, consisting of what farmers call a cold till, being mostly formed from the decompo- sition of blaes, and other clay strata which usually accompany coal, was contiguous to a risuig ground, consisting of what farmers would call a sharp turnip soil, in some places shallow, and in- cumbent on red and brown sandstone. About two thirds of each of these pieces of ground had been limed on the sward, while in pasture in the heap way, already described. The remainder of both was limed, by spreading the powder from shovels. They were both ploughed at the same time and sowed with oats. Where the lime heaps had stood on the till soil, the crop grew with the utmost luxuriance, and continued green after other parts of tlie field were ripened; but where the heaps had stood, or an excessive dose had been applied to the other soil, nothing grew at all ; and this distinction remained clearly marked, not only while the fields remained in crop, but even after they were thrown into grass ancl pasture. The parts lined by shovels, exhibited an equable fer- tility, though greatest in the till soil where most lime had been applied, and diminished in the other, where more than a certain quantity had been used. This limestone contained a small portion of mag- nesia, though not apprehending any evil from it, I was at no pains to ascertain its proportion. It is not stated that any bad consequences re- sulted from applying the magnesian limestone of Doncaster in moderate quantities; but the contra- ry. In the cases I have stated, it appears evident, that the opposite effects of the lime did not arise from magnesia, or any poisonous ingredients what- ever in its composition. The effects can only be ascribed to the opposite qualities of the soils ; one requiring a very large dose, and the other being only capalile of melioration from a very moderate one. In short, what added great fertility to the one soil, was found utterly to destroy the fertility of the other. I am therefore inclined to think, that the pernicious effects of the Doncaster lime are not to be ascribed to magnesia, but to the quality of the soil to which it was applied, which rendered it incapable of receiving a large dose. But as I mean to show, positively, that magnesia, instead of being a poison, is a food of plants; to account f()r all the facts stated by your correspondent, I am inclined to admit, that an overdose of this sub- stance may prove more injurious to certain soils than an overdose of lime. Magnesia, and lime, and indeed any of the primitive earths, are known to be, of themselves, the most infertile of all soils. Though no soil is fertile without lime, its excess produces sterility ; and the most fertile soil is formed from a variety of the primitive earths, combined in certain proportions, yet unknown. It is extremely ])robable that a certain proportion of magnesia, as well as of lime, contributes to the fertility of soils ; though there may be some soils which an overdose of magnesia may more readily injure than an overdose of lime. From this sup- position, I am disposed to account for the fact, stated p. 150, that lime, which contained two parts of magnesia to three of lime, proved injurious, w hile an equal quantity of pure lime proved be- neficial : not that the magnesia Avas hurtful in it- self, but that the soil might have been previously saturated with it, so that a new addition proved hurtful. In all cases of this sort, the nature and qualities of the soil should be examined and stated, as well as of the substances applied to it. From the fiicts I have stated, it might as rationally be in- ferred that lime, as that magnesia, was a poison to plants, when applied to certain soils. There are certainly soils where an overdose of lime will prove as injurious as an overdose of magnesia. But that magnesia, so far from being a poison, is a pabulum of plants, or promotes their growth, in addition to the facts adduced in the paper which forms the sulyects of your correspondent's criti- cism, may farther appear from this circumstance — that the refuse of magnesian works, in this part of the country, is eagerly sought for and applied as manure. Are we to suppose farmeis so blind and stupid, as to persevere in applying poison to their crops, in place of nutriment.'^ If any doubt is entertained respecting the accu- racy of the experiments alluded to in my former communication, I shall proceed to detail them in the author's own words. 'J'hey were made by Andrew Steele, Esq. W. S. at the time the alarm about magnesia was at its height, and had found its way into your useful work. ' On 26th April 1801, I sowed two pots, con- taining the 1st, yV magnesia, the rest earth. 2d, yV lime, the rest earth. 'The plants in the pot containing magnesia, I find recorded in my book of experiments, throve better than those in that which contained the lime. ' This might arise from souie particular and im- perceptible circumstances; but I esteenied it suf- ficient for my purpose to have ascertained, that magnesia is neither poisonous to the seeds, nor ob- structs the growth of grain. ' The same year I tried magnesia spread on the FARMERS' REGISTER— MAGNESIA. 431 surface of f^rassy turf, and an equal quantity of lime spread on a similar extent of other grassy turf; but could discern no difference in their ef- fects during the summer.' After we had considered your correspondent's criticisms, the same gentleman, in conjunction with myself and others, instituted a new set of ex- periments. On 22d May 1806, six pots were sunk in a gar- den plot, and each had inserted nearly an equal number of the seeds of oats and peas. No 1. The standard, contained simple earth. 2. Magnesia, by measure yV mixed with earth. 3. Do. _ _ I do. 4. Sulphate of magnesia -^^ do. 5. Do — — ^V do. 6. Muriate of magnesia ~ do. This 30th June 1806, the peas are not so thri- ving in any of the pots as in Nos. 2 and 3, which contained carbonate of magnesia, or the [common] magnesia alba, of the shops. They are not so vi- gorous in No. 2, which contained only jV of mag- nesia, as in No. 3, which had }, where they are more than a loot in length. This shews, that magnesia is analogous to lime, in powerfully pro- moting the growth of leguminous crops. The oats in No. 2 are taller, more vigorous, and of a deeper green, than in No. 1. In No. 3, they considerably surpass the two others in these particulars. This clearly shews, that carbonate of magnesia powerfully promotes the growth of oats and peas; and that, in this particular case, the greater the quantity applied, the more striking the eflect. Nos. 4, 5 and 6 remained long dormant, proba- bly owing to an excessive dose of the magnesian salts. The oats in No. 6 first began to spring; and, though not so tall, are vigorous, and of a lively deep green color. This shews, that though muriate of magnesia may be applied in excess, it is not in itself hurtful, but beneficial, to vegeta- tion. The oats in No. 5 have lately begun to spring; and those in No. 4 are now making a rapid pro- gress. Their retardation does not shew that tiie sulphate of magnesia is hurtful; but that too much of it has been applied. I suppose earthy salts, especially those of mag- nesia, operate chiefly by their strong septic power, in promoting the putrefaction, and converting into nourishment for plants, those animal and vegetabe substances which exist in the soil. It is well known, that sea-salt, which is much contaminated with muriate of magnesia, instead of preserving, promotes the putrefaction of meat, and especially of fish. It is also probable these earthy salts may promote vegetation, by their deliquescence and attraction for moisture. This remark is par- ticularly applicable to the muriate of magnesia, whose plants are now making a very rapid pro- gress, and the earth seems moist. But whatever errors we may commit in ac- counting for the mode by which these substances operate, I think the facts adduced clearly establish this position, — That magnesia, and most, if not all of its saline combinations, so far from being hurtful, are beneficial to vegetation, if used in due proportion. # * * » # JAMES HEADRICK. .Edinburgh, 30th June 1806. IV. Magnesia and JSIagnesian Limesiones. From Davy's Agricultural Chemistry. The subject of the application of the magnesian limestone is one of great interest. It had been long known to farmers in the neigh- borhood of Doncaster, that lime m.ade from a cer- tain limestone applied to the land, often injured the crops considerably, as I mentioned in the introduc- tory Lecture. Mr. Tennant, in making a series of experiments upon this peculiar calcareous sub- stance, found that it contahied magnesia ; and on mixing some calcined magnesia with soil, in which he sowed difTerent seeds, he found that they either died, or vegetated in a very imperfect manner, and the plants were never healthy. And with great justice and ingenuity he referred the bad effects of the peculiar limestone to the magnesian earth it contains. In making some inquiries concerning this sub- ject, I found that there were cases in which this magnesian limestone was used with good effect. Amongst some specimens of limestone which Lord Somerville put into my hands, two marked as peculiarly good proved to be magnesian lime- stones. And lime made from the Breedon lime- stone is used in Leicestershire, where it is called hot lime ; and I have been informed by farmers in the neighborhood of the quarry, that they employ it advantageously in small quantities, seldom more than 25 or 30 bushels to the acre. And that they find it^ niay be used with good effect in larger quantities, upon rich land. A minute chemical consideration of this ques- tion will lead to its solution. Magnesia has a much weaker attraction for car- bonic acid than lime, and will remain in the state of caustic or calcined magnesia for many months, though exposed to the air. And as long as any caustic lime remains, the magnesia cannot be com- bined vTith carbonic acid, for lime instantly attracts carbonic acid from magnesia. When a magnesian limestone is burnt, the mag- nesia is deprived of carbonic acid much sooner than the lime ; and if there is not much vegetable or animal matter in the soil to supply by its decompo- sition carbonic acid, the magnesia will remain for a long time in the caustic slate ; and in this stale acts as a poison to certain vegetables. And that more magnesian lime may be used upon rich soils, seems to be owing to the circumstance, that the decomposition of the manure in them supplies car- bonic acid. And magnesia in its mihl state, i. e. fully combined with carbonic acid, seems to ])e always a useful constituent of soils. I have thrown carbonate of magnesia (procured by boiling the solution of magnesia in super-carbonate of potassa) upon grass, and upon growing wheat and barley, so as to render the surface white; but the vegeta- tion was not injured in the slightest degree. And of one of the most fertile parts of Cornwall, the Lizard, is a district in which the soil contains mild magnesian earth. The Lizard Downs bear a short and green grass, which feeds sheep producing ex- cellent mutton ; and the cultivated parts are amongst the best corn lands in the county. That the theory which I have ventured to give of the operation of magnesian lime is not unfounded, is shewn by an experiment which I made expressly for the purpose of determining the true nature of 432 FARMERS' REGISTER— FATTENING HOGS. the operalion of this substance. I took four por- tions of the same soil; with one I mixed tt',, of its ■Nveis^ht of causlic niai^ncsia, with another I mixed the same quantity of magnesia and a proportion of a lat decomposing peat equal to one-fourth of the weiglit of tlie soil. One j)ortion ol soil re- mained in its natural state ; and another was mix- ed with peat without magnesia. The mixtures were made in December 1806 ; and in April 1807, barley was sown in all of them. It grew very well in the pure soil, but better in the soil contain- ing the magnesia and peat ; and nearly as well in the soil containing peat- alone : but in the soil con- taining the magnesia alone, it rose very I'eeble, and looked yellow and sickly. I repeated this experiment in the summer of 1810 with similar results ; and I found that the magnesia in the soil mixed with peat became strongly effervescent, whilst Ihe portion in the un- mixed soil gave carbonic acid in much smaller quantities. In the one case the magnesia had as- sisted in the formation of a manure, and had be- come mild ; in the other case it had acted as a poison. It is obvious, from what has been said, that lime from the magnesian limestone may be applied in large quantities to peats; and that where lands have been injured by the application of loo large a quantity of magnesian lime, peat will be a proper and elficient remedy. I mentioned that magnesian limestones effer- vesced little when plunged into an acid. A sim- ple test of magnesia in a limestone is this circum- stance, and its rendering diluted nitric acidbr aqua forlis milky. From (he analysis of Mr. Tennant, it appears that the magnesian limestones contain from 20.3 to 22.5 magnesia. 29.5 to 31.7 lime. 47.2 carbonic acid. 0.8 clay and oxide of iron. Magnesian limestones are usually colored brown or pale yellow. They are found in Somersetshire, Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Shropshire, Durham and Yorkshire. I have never met with any in other counties in England ; but they abound in many parts of Ireland, particularly near Belfast. For the Farmers' Register. ANOTHER WAY OF FATTENING MOGS. It has been often said of the Dutch farmers in the Stale of New York, and of the German farmers of Pennsylvania, that in many very important branches of their business, they indolently follow, from generation to generation, those imperfect customs and ways of their forefathers ; which grew out of that rude state of things, belonging to the settlement of an interminable wilderness, and which were adopted from the necessity of the case. I think the extraordinary manner in which hogs are permitted to run at large in Virginia, is as strong an instance of veneration for ancient cus- toms, as can be produced in the more Northerly States. Certainly as flir as that laudable feeling has any thing to do with the matter, the ancient dominion maintains its reputation well, for the ob- servation is not united to particular localities, but appears to apply to every part of the State, east of the mountains. The custom of letting sows pig in the woods. and then suffering them to get a precarious living there li^r the next twenty months, grew out of the necessity of the thing, when the tirst settlements were made. The planters in those times had con- stantly to provide against dangers which even menaced their lives. It would be unreasonable to suppose that the sort of management and economy of means which are successfully practised in our days, could be carried by such men into the de- tails of their farming affairs. They were too much engrossed with keeping ihe coiuitry for their jiosterity. Eacon, however, they could not well do without, and it was the least disadvantageous way to procure it, to let the hogs run at large and feed upon the mast, which sometimes, but not every year, is very plentiful. Yet even this advantage was purchased very dearly. It we look back to the various legislative enactments on the subject of these animals, we can form to ourselves some idea — far short of the truth I imagine — of the anxiety, the trouble, the loss of time and temper, the quarrels, the occasional loss of life, which pro- duced these enactments. In the Statutes at Large, it ajipears, in 1632, only twenty -six years after the first settlement of Virginia, no man Avas allowed to kill a hog except on his own plantation. This enactment no doubt was suggested by the misun- derstandings of the planters. In 1642, any man killing hogs on his own land, was obliged to call in two witnesses to ascertain that the hogs were unmarked. Any man convicted of killing a tame hog, not his own, was to " suffer as a felon." This punishment was afterwards commuted to a fine to lie paid to the owner of the hog, of one thousand jx)unds of tobacco, and another thousand pounds to the informer. In case of inability to pay, the offender was to serve the owner of the hog one year, and the informer another year. And any person bringing home a hog or hogs without ears, was to be proceeded against as a hog stealer.* In 1674, the Indians were ordered to put such a mark on their hogs, as the county courts should direct ; and that Indian proof was in future to be good against Indians, to convict them on the act against hog stealing. In 1679, these laws not being sufficient, it was enacted that any one taken a third time stealing hogs, should be tried by the laws of En- gland, as in case of felony. We are now almost in the middle of the nine- teenth century ; every man who has got a home, can live under his own vine and fig-tree, secure in his possessions, fearing no violence, and not under the necessity of intending any to others ; still the sows pig in the woods, still the unhapp}- shoats that have survived one winter, are running, three quarters legged, up and down the woods hunting and screaming for the mast thai did not happen to grow this year ; some with their ears notched on one side, some on both, some a quarter clipped off, some half, some without ears as if they had stood in the pillory. Then comes November, that hog trotting month, to the small farmer. " Have you seen my old white sow.^" * In 1666, it was enacted that if any Indian crossed the bounds of Henrico county, after notice given of the establishing of the bounds, " it shall be lawful for any Englishman to kill such Indian or Indians so transgress- ing." Thus an Indian looking for his hogs over those hounds, might be killed according to law. This law was not passed in relation to hogs, but private murders com- mitted on the English. FARMERS' REGISTER— FATTENING HOGS. 433 " I can't say I have." " Well, they telled me slie was seen at your place about harvest time." " Why there was a strange sow rooting in my sweet potatoes in August: what marks had slie.'"' " Her left ear rotted off last winter, and she had a considerable gash in the right one." " Ah, I guess that was not your sow then, for this had lost both her ears, and had seven shoats, mighty bad varmint all of them for squeezing through the rails." " Well then that was my sow, for when she lost her left ear, she looked so like Jim Carpenter's, that I cut her 'tother ear off too in March last, when she had six good shoats and a runt with her." "Well, I don't know where she is, I know nothing about your hogs. Here, Paul," (calling his black man) " have you seen Mr. Smith's hogs .'" " No masser, I nebber see him since we turn him out of 'tatoe patch." Now Paul being a leading man in the church, Mr. Smith had nothing left for it but to believe him ; and as soon as his master went to the house, having a high opinion of Paul's stock of veracity, he thought he would purchase some of him, and taking him to the edge of tlie woods, he said " Paul, I'll believe what you say, and here's a quar- ter if you'll tell the truth. Where's the hogs now.' I'll never say you told me." " Well den massa, de faC is, de sow and de runt, is in de old field by de branch at Mr. Jinkins'. I seed em day before yesterday. But where de oder shntes is, dat is unpossummel to tell." " Will you help me to drive 'em home.'" " It an't not possummcl to drive neider of em, dat is de fac masser — lor de runt hav lost bote de fore feet, and old sow have he leg broke." " Well now who the devil has done this.'" " I think he is possumniel masser, somebody fire buckshot at em. Old sow masser and all de shotes was so mischievous, and thin, and so hun- gry, ere is no fence to stand 'em. By goly, I neb- ber see de like, he turn him on his side, and squeeze him trough de fence jis as a par of tongs." " You're an infernal set of devils as ever lived. I was told that you and your master had shot three of the shoats, and had sold their carcases to a wa- goner that was going along. But I'll sarve you all properly for this." This is no sketch from fancy, but a relation of what occurred between neighbors this fall, and part of the dialogue took place in presence of the writer of this paper. Then the planter with his large family of ne- groes to sustain. He, to be sure, gives his shoat something to eat the first winter; but it is waste- fully done. Corn is thrown to them in the ear, and most of it is swallowed uncracked, and is never digested. Many of them, however, are kept alive, and though thin enough, they count for hogs. It would be bad policy to turn them into the woods in good order. The negroes are very apt to take a severe tilhe of them. But what trouble, what loss has the planter to encounter be- fore his pork is killed, and then what sort of hogs does he put up for bacon .' Miserable things, weigh- ing 120 to 140 lbs. How long does his raised ba- con last.' How many hundred dollars have too many of the large planters to pay for purchased Vol. 1—56 bacon to keep his gangs with .' Is it not possible for him to raise his own bacon, and save all tliis money.' Is it not a reproach that all this should be so, in a country where the soil and the climate are so favorable to the production of Indian corn, that it may be considered the staple commodity, from which another great staple miglit be made for exportation — pork. Although what is now about to be stated, may be considered by some readers as a gasconade, the writer will notwithstanding close this paper by communicating another icay of fattening hogs, which any one can imitate, and every one can suc- ceed in if he chooses to try the experiment. He is not going to propose an experiment, he is going to narrate a method he has often seen practised, and often witnessed the success of. It must be remarked that the breed of hogs and cows neces- sary to the success of this process, is not that which offends the eye of every man accustomed to good stock, and of which too much is seen in Virginia, The hogs may be of that mixture of the Chinese and grass breed, so abundantly found in the State of New York ; and the cows must not be starved neglected animals, hardly alive when the spring opens, and of which it takes seven to give six quarts of milk. There are good cows in Virginia, and they only require to be kept up in hard weather, and well kept through the year, to keep tlieir own- ers. Such cows ought to give twelve quarts of milk a day each. No hog should run loose, the styes should be convenient, warm, and easy to clean out. Only one sow in a stye large enougli to contain eight or nine well grown animals. It should be contrived that the sows pig about the lime the calves are taken from their mothers, or not later at any rate than the cows calve. Every sow about to pig must be well fed three times a day, with coarse meal, potatoes, garbage, &c. mixed up in the swine tub: they will then have plenty of milk for their pigs. Have your inferior and other grain, such as corn and rye, ground coarsely in sulticient quantities, and put into one or more hogsheads mixed with water, and stirred well ; if it is a little sour the better. As soon as your pigs begin to grow and drink at the trough, give them a little of this mush mixed with new milk, and increase the quantity as they grow, until you give them every day as much as they seem to require. To be able to do this, you must have three or four sj)are cows, the whole of whose milk for the first ten weeks may be given to the pigs. When the sow finds the pigs strong and troublesome, she will fight them off; it is best then to take her off, and put the so\\s in a stye by themselves. If )ou wish to fatten them and change your sows, or breed the next year from favorite sow pigs, feed them out of the hogshead. Swine fatten much faster in warm weather, and do not eat much when they are taking on fat. A stout sow, one of those deep bodied and short legged animals, will rai.se, if well fed, eight pigs. Pigs thus treated, which have been pigged about the 25th of March, will at Christmas, when at nine months old, average four hundred pounds weight each; and pork of this kind will fetch the very liest price to put up for mess pork, perhaps double what you have to pay for such as it may be preferred to consume on the plantation. The writer of this paper rejwafs that he has seen this done for many years in succession : once he saw a 4U FARMERS' REGISTER— GRASS SEEDS— FARMING, &c. lot of pijis averaf^e four hundred and ten pounds. Let the planters think of this, and some of them try the experiment fairly for one year, and publish the result. And let them not forget the real plea- sure they felt at seeing business properly done, at observing fine animals daily prospering, with a promise of sure reward. Let them not forget how much anxiety and trouble they have saved ; how much destruction of crops and fence-mending they have prevented. Neither let them forget what an advantage this system of pork feeding may prove to Virginia. Let something be done for the sake of the country : there would be some patriotism in an experiment of this kind, better than a good deal of that Roman patriotism, sometiiAes talked of in the newspapers ; at least, it is my opinion, and I am of Roman descent, as my signature will show. MAUK-US, PORK-US, BRUT-US. I find the grass is sowed more regularly, that much time and labor is saved, and it is almost impossi- ble for the wind to affect the seed at all, since they are nearly touching the ground by the time they are out of the box. I should be very much pleased for some person to furnish the Farmers' Register with a full and correct mode of the management of meadow lands ; and also, the best time for seeding and the most approved manner of curing the different kinds of hay. B. s. AN KASY METHOD OF SOWING GRASS SEEDS. To the EJitor of Farmers' Register. To fulfil a duty which, I consider every subscri- ber to your valuable paper owes, I send you the following description. of a box or machine which I have used, and still continue to use, for sowing Herd's and other similar grass seed. It is true, 1 am but a novice in farming as well as in most other things; but as the following remarks are not cal- culated at least to do much injury, and it is possi- ble they may be of service to some, I have deter- mined to write them, right or wrong. From the commencement of my farming career, (which, however, does not exceed five years,) I have found the sowing of grass seed to be exceedingly tedious ; and, indeed, unless in very favorable weather, very difiicult to soAV with any degree of accuracy or re- gularity. This dilTiculty and uncertainty induced me to inquire, if there was no other way to sow them, except with the hand, as they are commonly sowed ; but could get no satisfactory information. I then attempted to use a long box with a tin bot- tom, having holes punched through it at distances of half an inch each way. With this 1 found I could sow much faster than with the hand, but with no more regularity, because the wind had the same chance of blowing the seed about, before they could reach the ground. Throwing the box aside ; I had a piece of sheet iron about four feet long and twenty inches wide, punched with small holes at distances of about half an inch or three quarters each way, and then made into a cylinder similar to a stove pipe. An axle passes through the cylinder, on each end of which is attached a wooden wheel of double the diameter of the cylinder, and on each end of the axletrec are fixed the handles or frame by wliicli the machine can either be pulled after, or rolled before the seedsman, as he may prefer. A cylinder four feet long and six inches diameter, will hold rather more than a half bushel of seed, and will sow about a bushel to the acre.* Here let me observe that the seed should be very nicely sifted — for if there be much filth or chatt" left in the seed, they will not be sowed thick enough. The seed may be put into the cylinder either by taking off one wheel or by having a door cut in the cylinder after the manner of the barrel cluirn. Since using this grass sower, (if I may so call it,) * The lioles should be about the size of thoue com- monly punched in tin for safes. PRACTICAL EFFECT OF SEASONABLE FARM- ING. From the Columbia (Kinderhook) Sentinel. I have heretofore enjoined the necessity of sea- sonable farming, because I have repeatedly com- pared the appearance of farms thus cultivated with others, perhaps naturally as good, but which by a different course of management — that is when all the work was done late in the season, or in other words, not until the owners were driven to it — the difference made in every instance is so manifest, and so much in favor af the " go ahead" farmer, tiiat I have often been astonished that the example of the latter was not always followed. Reflections of this nature have occurred to every farmer of the least observation ; and if there are some who yet practice delay in their work, I trust they will not also advocate it as the best method. It is not in one branch of agriculture alone that the effects of this kind of management have been observable; it extends through all the operations of the year, and uniformly results in this — while the one makes money, the other is gradually becoming poor. I now design to give a practical illustration of this rule, exactly as it has occurred in this vicinity, and as I mean to state simply facts, I trust no one will accuse me of exaggeration. Within a few miles of my residence are two farmers, who each have a field of corn, and as 1 have often seen them at work in their respective lots during the season, I am enabled to state the method of cultivation pursued by each. First, the soil of both was that of our pine plain — a mixture of sand and gravel, but the largest proportion is sand. The two pieces were both sod, or land put down to grass ; one had been in grass two years, the other longer, but in both, previous to plough- ing, the grass was abundant and vigorous. If a choice had been offered me of either of the lots for a crop of corn, I would have selected the one which had been the longest in grass, not only on this ac- count, but because I thought it more inclined to loam than the other lot. Now what I will call the best lot, for 3uch I really conceived it to be, was ploughed late and with two horses. It then lay sometime before planting, and the grass was be- ginning to sprout. It was now furrowed and planted. The corn as it came up had to encounter the grass, which had the start of it, and was per- mitted to grow sometime, so that at the first hoeing the former was small and sickly. However, at a late day this operation was performed, and before the last of the field was finished, the grass in the part first hoed liad become vigorous. The plough was after this occasionally used, but never until the grass shoots were so numerous and large as to interfere with the young sprouts of corn. This field has now come to maturity, and if the owner FARMERS' REGISTER— DITCHING, CANALS, PONDS, &c. &c. 435 gathers fifteen bushels to the acre, it will be more than he has a right to expect, and certainly as much as he can possibly gather from it. We will now go to the other field, which has been subject to another kind of management, and see the difference in product. The poorest lot as I call it, ■was not ploughed early, though in good season, with three stout horses. Immediately after the ploughing, the harrow was applied, and after that it was furrowed and planted. As soon as necessary the corn was ploughed and hoed ; the plough was likewise used once or twice afterwards, and always in season, for the object was to keep the young plant clean of grass and weeds, and thus give it not only the entire surface of the ground for its growth, but the roots all the strength for their nourishment that the soil would afford. This field of corn having come to maturity, is a good, though not a heavy crop. It will yield, I think, between forty and fifty bushels to the acre. Com- paring the two fields together, therefore, the advan- tage is two-thirds in favor of the seasonable farmer over his more tardy neighbor. Should I be asked which of these two farmers labored the hardest on his farm, I would answer promptly, the man who has the poorest piece of corn ; because I notice he does all his work late, and is driven by it so that he is always in a hurry, whilst the other, taking "time by the forelock," seems to have plenty of leisure and takes things easy. In circumstances they are much like their respective pieces of corn; and the disparity between them must become greater and greater, unless the one will imitate the example of the other. Reader, I have not amused you with a fictitious story. I have stated only the naked truth, without a particle of exaggeration ; and it is not necessary for you to visit these two fields of corn to corrobo- rate what I have said. You have only to look around you, and by drawing a comparison you will see the difference between a field of corn or every other kind of grain on which the work has been done properly and in good season, and another where the labor !ias been performed not only out of season but in an improper manner. A. ECONOMICAL METHOD OF EXCAVATING DITCHES, CANALS, PONDS, &C. Translated for the Farmers' Register, from the Journal d''Jlgri- culture, etc. des Pays-Bas. Seven or eight years ago, having a considerable number of ditches to make, I sought a mode of lessening my expense. As I had had occasion to compare the small quantity of earth removed by any digging tool with that which is displaced by a plough, I thought of employing the latter instru- ment for the excavation of my ditches ; and I was so well satisfied with it, that, from that time, I have alwa)'S used it with success in cleaning out my ditches, or loosening the earth for the establish- ment of new courses. The process is very simple: I set up stakes at convenient distances, and stretch a cord along them that the horses may exactly follow the desired line ; men with shovels afterwards throw out the earth loosened by the plough; and, to avoid confusion, a certain number of stakes is allotted to each of these men, and within the limits of these, his labor is confined. As the plough sinks deeper, it is withdrawn from the edges of the ditch according to the slope intended to be given. The plough is laid aside when it has reached to within two or three inches of the required depth; and then the workmen make use of the customary tools to level and finish off the work. [We have had some experience in using the plough for cutting ditches, and have found its operation to sur- pass that of spades, in efficiency and cheapness, as much as horse labor in other things is preferable to that of man alone. The plough, however, cannot be used in situations where ditching is most often required. Our northern coimtrymen liave long known and pro- fited by the use of the plough and scraper for such ope- rations as making and repairing roads, digging canals, constructing, dams, &c. whicli are executed in Lower Virginia, almost exclusively by hand labor. In this, as ill many other respects, we might greatly profit by tlie example of our northern brethren, whose necessity, in the scarcity and liigh price of their labor, has served as the faithful mother of many valuable inventions.] REMARKS AND QUERIES ON IMPROVEMENTS IN FARMING. Caroline County, Noveviber 12, 1S33. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I have known a physician who could astonish the admiring multitude, seated around him, with his intimate acquaintance, with the causes, symptoms and treatment of the various diseases to which the human body is subjected; he could relate the dif- ferent symptoms belonging to each stage, name the remedies, he could allow for the difference of constitution, age and temperament. All derange- ments could be so exactly described, and the ap- propriate remedies named, that you would have supposed this must be an excellent physician ; but he was not : when brought to the bedside of a pa- tient, you might see him frown" and twist, and turn, and seem impatient and anxious. Why.? He was puzzled to find out whether thii patient, was in this or that state, in which this or that remedy is proper ! I have known the same ofa lawyer : seated by a good fire of a winter evening, he could tell you so much of law, &c. that you might suppose in law matters, you might venture your all upon him ; yet, put a case in his hands, lie would appear at a loss and scarcely be able to manage the plain- est cause. So it is with farmers : I have observed, that those who may talk most jilausibly about the management of a farm, are not always the most successful agriculturists. Some farmers have their minds so much occupied with the ivhole system of agriculture, that they are not successful in any one part ; others are so engaged in one particular branch, that there is a total failure in the system as a wliole. I am reminded here of an expression of Bonaparte ; he said, " with him, Murat was every thing; without him, he (Murat,) was nothing." It seems from this, that Murat could execute with courage, but could not plan ; yet we cannot say of the other, that he could plan and could not execute, for we know he could do 1 oth. So I presume, there are some farmers, who have both planned and executed, and from such would I gladly learn, for in such would I have confidence. After premis- ing so much, I will co'me to the point : being more like Murat than Bonaparte, I will be thankful for a Bonaparte of a farmer, to plan for me the man- 436 FARMERS' REGISTER— METEORIC PHENOMENA. agement of my farm. I suppose there are 400 acres rich and poor which may be ploughed ; it may be conveniently divided into four fields. I liavc not more hands tlian enough to cultivate about 100 acres a year ; upon these 400 acres, I must keep my horses, hogs, cattle and sheep, the number of eadi I wish to know. The farm lies on the North Anna River, it has been a first rate farm for the section of country — but little fiat land on it, scarcely an acre for wet meadow. The land waving and some steep, and where not worn by improper cultivation and washing, very strong, well adapted to corn and wheat. Plaster I am told acts well upon it. Well watered with a number of excellent springs, and perhaps (lying in a great bend of the river,) it is f or more surrounded by the river. One shift was cultivated this year, 1833, in corn; it is not shucked out; therewill be at least 150 barrels of corn ; most persons who have seen the corn, think near 200 barrels. We have seeded the corn land in wheat ; it is nicely put in, 65 l)ush- els seeded. A good part of the shift for corn the next year, 1834, is in clover, ribwort, running briers, &c. &c. We are fallowing it at this time with a McCormick plough. No. 10, three strong horses to it. I think where the land is rich and the coat thick, it is ploughed six or seven inches deep : where the land is thinner, it is directed that the ploughing be not so deep. Now I want a sys- tem which will not suffer the good land to deterio- rate, and which will enrich (he poor. I am willing to resort to some extra labor uj)on the very poor, especially such as is in sedge. What is best to be done with that for speedy recovery ? I am willing to clover and plaster. How ? Should any other grass be seeded with the clover in February ; on the wheat land, I suppose I shall be compelled to graze one shift for a longer or shorter time. How .'' How must hogs be managed, &c. &c..' 1 hope some experienced farmer will make the case his own, and for my benefit, and for a thousand more, lay down a plain practicable system for me, and 1 will promise him if I am convinced, I will steadily pursue his plan. t. b. a. TVhat is the smallest water power that can be pro- fitably applied to the grinding of Grain or Gyp- sum ? Please insert in the "Register," and recom- mend its solution by some competent person, the following query, as your intelligence will at once see its connexion and utility with the farming in- terest. Mills both for grain and plaster are abso- lutely necessary. Verbum sat. A gentleman wishes to build a small mill, on a very small but never failing stream, and fears the streavii is not sufficient ; he can readily catch the water in a barrel as it runs, and measure by time. Query.'' What is the smallest quantity of water (by gallons,) per minute, should a stream vent in its ordinary course (no dam,) to drive with sufficient velo- city and power, a four feet stone by a 20 feet over- shot wheel, with tiie ordinary geer? t. b. a. From the Alexandria Gazette. We are pleased to learn that scientific gentle- men, who have lately visited the newly discovered Coal Region on the liorders of the Potomac, in Berkeley and Morgan counties, have expressed their opinions that the coal is of a most excellent quality, and the supply is likely to be inexhaustible. REMARKABLE METEORIC PHENOMENA. For the Farmers' Register. So numerous have been the published accounts of the meteors which appeared on Nov. 13th, that nothing now can be offered either interesting or novel on that subject. But so wonderful an ap- pearance ought to be recorded in a work like the Farmers' Register ; and I offer my own impres- sions, as they were written in the course of the same day, and before any other person's account had been heard, to confirm or contradict them. More full and perhaj)S more correct observations may have been made by others — nevertheless, I have chosen to present merely what I then saw and believed, without remarking on any different imi)ressions made on other observers, or adding any later opinions. I will only observe generally, that in all the accounts yet seen, there is a remarka- ble general agreement in description : and though many particular facts are made to vary, or were noticed by only a few persons, there is no greater difference of testimony than is inevitable under such circumstances. It was impossible for the eyes of any one person to see one tenth of the space which was filled with these appearances, even if full and accurate observation coidd have been be- stowed on all that actually met each person's view. A digest of many difTerent accounts, proceeding from various parts of the great region of the globe over which these meteors were visible, may be prepared hereafter, for publication. I was called at the earliest dawn of day, (Nov. 13th,) by a terrified servant, to see what a number of " stars were shooting." I quickly went out of doors, and beheld the most magnificent as well as the most strange appearance of the heavens, that I had ever heard of, numerous and Avonderful as are the recorded accomits of meteors. Streams of light, similar in brilliancy and swift- ness to what are well known as shooting stars, were flashing into view and immediately disappear- ing in every quarter of the sky. During the whole time that I continued to watch, perhaps half an hour, it seemed that there was never an instant in which some one of these arrows of light was not visible in every quarter, and generally at least three or four— sometimes a much greater number. But this estimate was not made at the moment, and indeed astonishment and admiration at wit- nessing so glorious a sight, left little opportunity for calm calculations, even if the eye was to be trusted to estimate such numerous and evanescent appearances. It seemed as if every light proceeded in direction from one common point in the heavens, which was about the same as the sun's meridian place, at mid- summer. But that place was marked by fewest of the streaks of light, and indeed, I am not sure that any began to show precisely at the imaginary centre, from which they diverged equally to every quarter. The whole horizon was also compara- tively without them : but every intermediate part of the sky, between the horizon and the central space, seemed equally filled with the glancing lights. Their course was always in straight lines, but the fainty traced light which often remained after the brilliant flash was extinguished, some- times became crooked. The lights were generally mere streaks, equal in size and brilliancy through- out their extent; and their most luminous duration, FARMERS' REGISTER— FARMERS AND MECHANICS. 437 was generally for a very short time. But a faint mark of the tracks often remained visible for some time after. Their apparent length varied from five or six diameters of the full moon at its rising, to perhaps one fifth the visible arch of the sky. Bui I repeat that these estimates must be far from ac- curate. Sometimes a flashing and far more bril- liant burst of light, like the explosion of a rocket, would take place during the course of the longer streams. In these cases, the resemblance was striking between these liglits and so many sky rockets, if the latter could be supposed to fly down- ward, and always in straight lines. I mentioned that a faint line of light would sometimes remain awhile, to mark the course of the more brilliant track of the meteor. The most remarkable effect of this kind observed was this : — A long stream in the south was accompanied by one of the strong- est bursts or explosions of light, and left a faint line, which from straight, gradually became crook- ed, first with two angular bends, and finally assumed the form of the letter S, very distinctly, though irregularly traced. A friend whom I had called up, was dressing when the flash took place, and which, though not visible through his windows, was very perceptible to him by tlie general illumi- nation it ditTused through the apartment. When he joined me in the yard, the figure of the S was still visible to us both, and our different suppositions of the lapse of time between the bright explosion, and tiie last distinct remains of its train, agreed in making it to be not less than two minutes. I thought it longer. No sound was heard of any kind. The lights disappeared gradually with the stars, and apparently from the same cause, the ap- proaching light of the sun. Of course this would first conceal entirely the smallest, and lessen the appearance of the greatest, until none would re- main visible. Therefore, there is no reason to think that the meteors ceased to be produced, when they ceased to be visible. If I can rely on tlie re- ports made by some of my negroes, this beautiful scene had been observed for some hours before I knew of it — and indeed, one says, that he saw its commencement before he went to sleep, perhaps before midnight. I have never before had a good view of even a single shooting star, though my eye has often caught an indistinct glimpse of their lines of light. In this case, in half an hour, I must have seen several thousands : and by looking towards any point in the heavens for a very short time, one at least, would be seen to start into existence, rush through its course, and vanish. These lights were nothing in appearance like lightning, except in the flashes or explosions. Bright as they were, they seemed of a white or silver splendor, like that of the moon rather than the glaring yellow of the sun. It was a clear star lit morning. The weather had been very warm the previous day, with appearance of rain — but a brisk west wind had cleared awa}' the clouds, and cooled the temperature. The earth was but slightly frozen in the places most exposed to cold this morning. The wind was from the west at sunrise, but was not noticed earlier in the morning. E. K. FARMERS AND MECHANICS. From the Portland Gazette. An opinion both dangerous and pernicious to the farmers and mechanics of our country is prevailing among the majority of them. They imagine that literature, science, and' general information are unnecessary to them ; and that if they are acquainted with the commonest rules of arithmetic, reading, writing, and the trade to which they are called, they liave all the acquirements their business de- mands. What have we to do, say they, with po- lite literature and history, with the deeper branch- es of mathematics, the art of composition, elo- quence, &c. They have nothing to do with our profession, we are to get our bread by the sweat of the brow ; and we leave these branches of edu- cation to the ministers, the doctors, and lawyers of the land. Now as long as sentiments like these prevail among mechanics and the laboring classes of the community, so long will tliey be doomed to an in- tellectual and political slavery of the better educa- ted classes ; so long they are doomed to be stripped of their power, and to be ridden by ambitious and designing men. When they are really convinced that knowledge is power, and that the educated part of society gives laws to the rest, tliey will wake from the stupor, and bestir themselves to get this power into their own hands. It is not the wealthy that rule in our legislative councils, in po- litics, in town meetings, and every day concerns of life ; it is not the aristocratic part of the com- munity that have sway over the rest ; but it is the educated, the active, the intelligent, who are the Emperors and Kings of our country, men of su- perior intelligence, who feel the power within them, and who exert it to sway the rest. As matters are now arranged in our country, the lawyers are the only men of whom we have to complain ; they get into all the seats of power — give law s to the community, and then set about executing them ; they are invested with both the legislative and executive power, the abilities to make what laws they please ; and the power to execute them as they please ; they frame our laws, sit in our councils, are our judges, our presidents, our governors, our selectmen, our overseers ; they creep into every seat of power; from the lowest grade, till they reach the last goal of their am- bition in the highest ofiice in the gift of the people. The question now arises, from wiiat source do they derive this immense power ? Is it from the supe- rior talents of the profession, from the superior worth, or superior wealth? We think not. This profession is undoubtedly the most intelligent por- tion of the community ; and to this source may be traced all its influence over society in general. Divinesand physicians are equally intelligent; but their avocations do not lead them to mingle so much in the busuiess, the uproar, and the excitement of the world, and as they are less active, they con- sequently have less influence. Lawyers are not only the most intelligent part of the community, who mingle in the affiiirs of the world, but they are far the most active — they exert themselves the most in order to obtain the most influence. Farmers might have this power; yea, much more, for the feelings of the majority of the world are on their side: they have an interest too, in propping up themselves, in building up their own 438 FARMERS' REGISTER— WATER PRODUCTIVE OF HEAT AND LIGHT. profession, and now if Ihey had the information to direct their energies ariglit, they would have witli- in themselves an irresistible influence over the destinies of others. Farmers, &c. do not hold that rank in society, they might hold if they please, which they are entitled to hold by the good they do to mankind. But make every man feel the deep necessity of cultivating his mind, and draw- ing out his hidden treasures ; make him feel that his mental powers over society, as in fact it does, depends upon the quantity of information he ac- quires; let him believe that tact and skill, and a knowledge of the human character, are as neces- sary to him as a knowledge of his tools, and you give that man his due proportion of influence with the world. But we are stopped at once and told by him, that he has no leisure to cultivate his intellect ; his every day vocations demand all his attention and time. Every man, even the busiest, the most in- dustrious, has leisure enough, if he is disposed to spend that leisure as he ought, instead of whiling it away in trifling and idleness. Put these ques- tions to yourselves, and see if you have no leisure. How many evenings do you spend in idleness, in laughing, in useless talk, in beating the streets.' How many more hours are devoted to sleep than is necessary for your health.' It is a fanciful idea that people have, when they say that education cannot be obtained without money and teachers. The idea about the want of time is a mere i)lian- tom. Franklin found time in the midst of all his labors to dive into the hidden recesses of philoso- phy, and to explore an untrodden path of science. The great Frederick with an empire at his direc- tion, in the midst of war, and on the eve of battles which were to decide the fate of his kingdom, found time to revel in all the charms of philoso- phy, and of intellectual pleasures, — Bonaparte, with all Europe at his disposal, with kings in his anti-chamber, begging for vacant thrones, with thousands of men whose destinies were suspended on the brittle thread of his arbitrary pleasure, had time to converse with books. Let laboring men then make use of the hours at their disposal. They are the life blood of the community ; they can, if they please, hold in their hands the destinies of our republic; they are numerous, and respectable, and powerful ; they have only to be educated half as well as other professions, to form laws for the na- tion. WATER USED TO PRODUCE HEAT AND LIGHT. [Annunciations of the curious and perhaps impor- tant discovery in the arts ■which will be stated below, have been made in both England and America so nearly at one time, as to leave in doubt who lias the best claim to the priority of invention. Without exj^ress- ing any opinion on this head, (for whicli it will be early enough when the value of the discovery is fully estab- lished by experience), we present the first notices that have reached us from both sides.] Correspondence of the Journal of Commerce. London, jiug. \Ath, 1833. I cannot refrain from here calling your attention to a most important discovery, one which, if it re- alizes the anticipations of the inventor, must re- move the only obstacle to the triumph of steam navigation. This is a new mode of producing heat, by which both wood and coal are to be su- perseded. I find the account in a Salisbury pa- per, and if it had not such an appearance of ho- nesty, I should doubt its reality. It is as fol- lows : — " The principal ingredient is water. The only material required besides, is something in a liquid form, which contains a large quantity of carbon : whale oil, tar, or almost any thing of a similar kind will answer the purpose. As these materials are put into the furnace simultaneously, and in combinaiion with each other, the one yields its carbon, while the other gives out its hydrogen, and a small portion of atmospheric air is the only thing then required to keep them in a state of perfect combustion. The whiteness and in- tensity of the flame can hardly be imagined by any one who has not seen it, and yet it is so completely under management, that in one second it can be reduced or augmented as occasion may require." The account then states that from the absence of all smoke, chimnies can be got rid of, and that a vessel may ivithout inconvenience carry enough fuel to enable her to circumnavigate the globe. The statement is in such a creditable shape, and put forth upon the faith of the editor as a leader, that it is imjX)ssible not to rely upon its correct- ness. The editor also states, that at the Gas Works at Lymington it has been in successful operation during the last three months. From Sil'.iman's Journal of Science and Arts. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir, — It is now more than twenty years since I have been in the constant, I may say daily practice of making experiments on the decompo- sition of water, by mi.xing Avith its vapor that of spirits of turpentine, and a great proportion of at- mospheric air. In its decomposition by explosion, the object was to obtain, for mechanical purposes, a new and hrst moving power that should be per- fectly safe, and altogether lighter and cheaper than that from steam. With a much less proportion of air, the object was to furnish a steady and pleasant flame like that from oil or gas ; in both of which objects I have succeeded. The evidence I often observed in the effect of water in combustion, made it very certain in my mind that it woidd be of immense benefit to the community if it could be effected in a way that would be regular, simple, and free from difficul- ties. It was this, together with an unconquerable inclination and determination to follow it through life, if I did not succeed short of it, which made me persevere fur so great a length of time. This resolution was perhaps, imprudent; it certainly would have been so had I not supposed I had the means within my own reach. I have no doubt that I have tried lamps, stoves, and machines in more than four thousand different forms, for effect- ing these purposes, and yet not many months have elapsed since I have felt entirely satisfied. The experiments which I have made, have proved practically, that an engine with a power equal to driving a boat four jniles per hour, and a rail road car twice that distance in the same time, with ten or twelve passengers, may be made for one hundred dollars ; and that the engine, with its preparing vessel, (a substitute for the boiler in the FARMERS' REGISTER— EXTRACT FROM BARTON'S ADDRESS. 439 steam engine,) need not weioh one hundred pounds, and the expense of working it will not exceed ten or twelve cents per hour. There are certainly no difTiculties to be removed. These facts have been verified practically and repeatedly before hundreds of people. Some recent improvements in the mode of con- structing lamps for burning water to produce light and heat, have perfected the operation for these purposes. It now carries demonstration in every form. For instance, when you put but one-fourth of a gill of spirits of turpentine into the lamp, and as much water, and raise tlie temperature to less than that of boiling water, the vapor that comes over will be in the ratio of about equal parts of each ; if, in the combustion of those vapors, a due proportion of air is mixed and inflamed, it will in a few minutes boil a two-quart copper tea-kettle ; if small brass wire is brought over and in contact with the flame, it instantly drops in pieces ; small copper wire is readily melted : fine iron wire, if the proportions be right, is instantly inflamed; and thin sheet copper with a small piece of silver or silver solder on it with borax, being exposed to the flame, the silver melts in a few seconds, and the copper very soon; and this is done while the vapor is not concentrated in any way, and issues only with a velocity about the same as that of gas in gas lights. This discovery gives every promise of supply- ing much cheaper fuel, (as a fuel,) exclusive of a clear saving ot^ light than any now in use. It is my intention to introduce my lamps, &c. into use as soon as I conveniently can. This must be post- poned until I can again leave home, which I trust will be early in the ensuing summer. Oxford, April Uth, 1833. Rebiarks. — We have seen some of Mr. Mo- rey's experiments, and can testijy to the correct- ness of his statements, as regards the great amount of heat and light evolved by combustion of the vapor of water mixed with that of spirits of tur- pentine or alcohol, and duly modified by common air. The results are very striking and beautiful, and we can see no reason why they should not prove of great practical utility. — Editor. EXTRACT FROr.I AN ADDRESS Delivered before the Rockbridge Jjgricultural So- ciety, at their Shoio and Fair at Fancy Hill, on the \%th October, by jDoct. Robert R. Barton, President. The task of finding fault and detecting error, is an invidious one, but much easier than the appli- cation of the appropriate remedy. But I hope you will always find me ready to render my feeble aid towards correcting as well as pointing out the de- fects of our system. In the first place then, I will remark, we all cultivate too much land. Half the quantity, well managed, and cultivated on the Pennsylvania or New England system, would yield us double the product, whilst the balance of our farms might be set in clover and other grasses, and be improving even under pasture. From forty acres of wheat land, a northern farmer will gener- ally expect one thousand bushels, or at the rate of twenty-five bushels an acre.* Yet there is not one of us who averages the half of this, with a soil + This is on a clover lay. equally good, naturally, with only a little differ- ence in climate in their favor. But even in corn, to which our climate is decidedly more congenial, they can and do excel us. I am willing to allow them some advantage in having white labor to work their lands; but still the difference is too much against us, and as we cannot substitute the white for the species of labor, which is certainly the bane of agriculture and the general prosperity of our country, yet we can bestow the same labor on half the quantity we now cultivate. When we compare the difference in the profits of agriculture, both in Europe and amongst our brethren of the north, with those of the southern and middle states, our aml)ition will be roused and a determination excited, both lor the sake of patriotism and indi- vidual interest, to imitate the good example they have set us. In England, we are told, the annual produce of their lands is often worth from ^30 to $40 per acre, and rent annually for a sum sufficient to pur- chase thiee or four acres in our country. But there, when a farmer lays out -S 10,000 in the pur- chase of land, he always expends several thousand dollars in the purchase of lime, marl, &c., which cost them about double what the cost with us would be. (And here I would remark, that large beds of shell marl abound in this county, in the neighborhood of Mr. Weaver's forge, Mr. Baggs', and Mr. Rogue's, which, if hauled to the clay hills, would richly reward them for their labor.) Capital is considered as indispensable to the En- glish farmer, as it is hereto the merchant; and they always expect their profits to be in the ratio of the capital expended in improvements, yielding them generally from 10 to 15 per cent. In Italy, where their farms are still smaller than in England, averaging from five to ten acres, tenants can afford, and do pay to their landlords, one half of the products of the soil. And in Flanders, where, perhaps, agriculture has been carried to as high a state of perfection as in any other part of the world, thequantity produced per acre would be considered incredible. To what then is this difference ascribable.' It cannot fairly be attributed to climate, or to soil, for in both nature has been bountiful to us ; and however mortifying it may be, we must admit it is mainly owing to our wretched system. We must cultivate less, and cultivate belter. Plough deep, that our crop may not ]ye drowned in wet seasons, and that there may be a receptacle for moisture, when too dry. If your soil be too stiff, lime it, or use marl, or plough and expose it to the action of the winter's frost ; or what, peihaps, will mellow it still more effectually, turn under a green crop of clover. By one mode, you have it prepared for your spring crop of corn, or oats, and in the other it is exactly in the right state for a crop of wheat, which is nourished and suppopled through winter, by the fermentation and decomposition of the clo- ver. If too loose and permeable to the action of the sun, deep ploughing and lime are still the ap- propriate remedies. Our loose lands have gener- allly a substratum of clay, and by deep ploughing, sufficient tenacity is readily given to the surface soil. If too sandy, a few loads of clay is the best manure, and will soon correct the evil; and we all know a union of sand and clay will form that stiff soil called moi'tar. But I liave not touched on a subject, perhaps of 440 FARMERS^ REGISTER— EXTRACT FROM BARTON'S ADDRESS. the greatest importance to the farniei-. t mean the alternation, or as it is more fiimiliarly calieil, the rotation of crops. From the want of due attention to the regular succession of our crops, much labor is lost, and our fondest hopes frequently blasted ; and there cannot be a more convincing evidence of bad farming, than the growing of two succes- sive crops of the same kind on the same ground. Wheat may succeed after wheat, and corn after corn ; but this does not prove it to be right. It merely proves how bountiful Providence has been, to supply us with a soil which will stand so mur- derous a system. I know not that it matters much whether corn be followed by wheat or oats, pro- vided it be planted on a clover lay, or an abundant supply of manure ploughed in, until our fields are better set with clover. But one or the other is indispensable to insure the succeeding crop, and the steady improvement of the land. We may, then, follow corn with oats, that with wheat, and lastly, with rye, sown the last week in August, or first week in September, with clover, or what is better, with clover and timothy mixed. A crop of clover is then succeeded by four grain crops; and this advantage may arise from oats, instead of wheat after corn, that more time is allowed to us. We are sometimes compelled to cut our corn too soon, or to postpone the wheat crop too late. The chief danger, I apprehend, would be, that not being under the necessity to cut up our corn, it would be neglected, and much valuable provender lost, and without which the barn-yard cannot be properly supplied with manure. One of the evils of wheat after oats, arising from the volunteer growth of the latter, may be avoided by pasturing hogs and other stock, immediately after harvest, harrowing it soon after, and then giving it a deep ploughing about the middle of September just be- fore sowing the wheat. In this way, what is left by the stock is buried beyond the reach of vege- tation. But we raise too much corn and too little wheat. We ought therefore to divide our farms into seven or eight fields, so that we could select one of the poorest every year, which had been laying three years in clover, to fallow up in Sep- tember, and harrow in wheat.* And by fallowing this again with rye, the clover seed of the previ- ous crop would be brought to the surface, and the labor and expense of sowing be avoided. This system difl'ers Avidely from the four-field shift sys- tem of Mr. Carter of Shirley, to whose valuable communication on the subject of the rotation pur- sued by him, I would beg leave to call your atten- tion. You Avill find it in the 3d No. of the Far- mer's Register, an agricultural periodical, ably edited by Mr. Ruffin, author of a work on cal- careous manures, that ought to be read and stu- died by all of us — and I am sure I could not do you a better service than by inducing you to take the Register above alluded to, or any other ably conducted paper on agriculture. Reading of this kind will excite observation and inquiry — will elicit new ideas on this subject, and as we are now half a century in the rear of agricultural improve- ment in other parts of the world, enable us with rapid strides to take that station to which our ge- * In a country abounding, as ours does, with fine rail timber, thelabor would be counterbalanced by the many ndvantagcs arising from 7 or 8 distinct enclosures. nefal intelligence, and the fertility of our soil, en- title us. I will detain you a little longer on the subject of grasses, These have been too much neglected by us all. Our ricfi .soil, if not better employed, will throw up rank and noxious weeds, and though un- der the system recommended, every field will be constantly in clover, or in grain, yet occasionally there will be a partial failure of the former ; and we ought to mix some other grass. Timothy an- swers the purpose better with me, than any other 1 have tried. I am confident I have added a fourth, perhaps a third to the quantity of my hay, by this admixture. It seems to support and sustain the clover, and, if we cannot get through our mowing before harvest, it shades it, and still enables us to turn a heavy swath after we have disposed of our wheat. For pasture, the advantages will at once strike you all. Moreover, I conceive the timothy a clear gain, as it does not seem to interfere with the clover, and only occupies the place of weeds, or less valuable grass, particularly the third sea- son. The soil requires a change of grass, as well as grain, and affords nutriment j)eculiarly adapted to each variety. And here, as in most other in- stances, nature indicates the proper course. Most of us, no doubt, have observed the regular succes- sion of weeds and plants, in our fields, left to a state of nature. It is even said, the common mushroom will not grow two successive j'ears in the same ground. Let us profit, then, by the hint, both in our grain and in our grasses. I have, how- ever, omitted to mention what I esteem, and it is so esteemed both in Pennsylvania and Maryland, a valuable grass; I mean the orchard grass. I would not recommend it in our fields which are to undergo a regular rotation ; because it will improve for ten or a dozen years, and it grows in such tufts as to render the ground difficult to be ploughed. But for lots, and all who have not them, ought to have three or four convenient to their barnyards, for soiling until the pastures get a fair start in the spring, it is an invaluable grass, both for late and early calves and colts ; it grows equally as well under the shade, as in exposed situations; and is extremely well adapted to orchards, if any grass is admissible there, and to groves of every descrip- tion. It would be well adapted to groves of locusts ; and I am glad to see your attention has been called to the rearing of this valuable species of timber, by one of the worthy members of this society. Some of us, too, have small spots of ground too wet and marshy for cultivation, and these are pecu- liarly adapted to what is called herds grass,* or red top. But it is said, there are upwards of 200 grasses, and surely out of this number we can find some adapted to every variety of soil, and proba- bly no country can boast of such a variety as Rockbridge. But, gentlemen, a new spur must be given to agriculture, before we can profit much by the natural advantages we possess, and which have been most bountifully lavished on us. We must emulate the north, particularly New York, where an agricultural society is supported in almost every county, diffusing intelligence, and conse- quently wealth, into every corner ; for in nothing else is that axiom more correct, that "know- ledge is power," and without it the farmer is fre • + Timothy, m New England, is frequently improperly called herds gras.s. FARMERS' REGISTER— TOBACCO, &c. 441 quently groping; in the dark. It enables him, with but little labor and expense, frequently to accom- plish what might otherwise present insurmounta- ble difficulties. It was before observed, we must, like the industrious bee, pick and cull from every source, and bring to the general store. What would be impossible for any of us to effectj will be easy, by associating together and exchanging views and comparing the experience of each. But the utility of agricultural societies is too obvious to require further elucidation. Physicians, more jealous of each other than any other class, associate together for mutual improvement, and to advance the interest of all. So of lawyers, the clergy, me- chanics and all. And is it not more incumbent on us in whose prosperity all are so deej)ly interested .' The farmer is certainly the most important link in the chain which binds society together. When his interest droops, all must sympathise, and all must be depressed; and when he is prosperous, life and animation is imparted to the whole community. The statesman, the warrior, and the professional man, all long for the happiness and innocent plea- sures of rural life. In ancient times, Cincinnatus exchanged his sword for the ploughshare and pruning hook ; and our beloved Washington, great, both in the cabinet and in the fieSd, most glfdly retired to the peaceful and quiet pursuits of nis farm. But after all, what avails it, that we have a fine climate and fertile soil, intersected with two noble streams, and abounding as it does with much mine- ral wealth, if half our produce is consumed, to get the other half to market.^ While we turn our at- tention to a more judicious system of crops, we must keep an eye steadily fixed on the improve- ment of the great thoroughfare nature has given us to market. Who would hesitate to give a por- tion of his profits to its improvement, when both patriotism and individual interest so loudly call for it.' Such an improvement as is contemplated by the charter of the James River and Kanawha Company, most liberally granted by our legisla- ture, would soon reduce the freight to less than one-half it now costs us, and a new source of wealth would soon be opened to us in the quarries of lime- stone and niarble,* found so abundantly through our county. At is a fact which, perhaps, you are not all apprised of, that Richmond is almost entire- ly supplied with lime from New England, and often at a cost of fifty cents per bushel ; while the cost of it here would not exceed three or four cents. But besides, we abound in iron, and it is not improbable, in copper and lead ;t ^nd judging from the formation of our country, I would expect to find stone coal, and, perhaps, salt and gypsum. The last is indispensable to the raising of clover, and if not found amongst us, must still be brought from Richmond at an expense of about -920 per ton, until our rivers are improved. * Large quantities of pink, blue and gray marble, are found in the neighborhood of Mr. Doniho's Forge, and on several farms in the southern part of the county. f Both are found in several situations on the Blue Ridge, more particularly in the neighborhood of Thorn- ton's Gap. Vol. I.— 56 THE CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO NOT OPPOSED TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF LAND. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Amelia, Nov. 7th, 1833. I shall offer no apology for affording some small aid to your labors, in the shape of a few observa- tions on the culture of tobacco, &c. The part of Virginia in which I live and where all my interest lies, has been, and for a long time to come, must be a tobacco growing country. This we well know, and must lament, (if, as has been so often of late asserted) the culture of tobacco be incompatible with the proper care of the soil. But i.s this the fact.' I will attempt to show, (not from any theoretical reasoning, but from some plain matters of fact,) " that it is very practicable to grow large and^ne crops of tobacco without the aid of a load of manure, or the cultivation of a foot of new land ; and I think it will follow as a matter of course that the farm may be improved almost as much with the tobacco as without it. Mr. William Old, of Powhatan, has, for the last ten or twelve years, made as large crops of tobacco, (I mean for the quantity cultivated,) as any man in the state,^never or very rarely less than 1000 lbs. to the acre — sometimes a great deal more ; and this too always commanding a high (relative) price. He has two lots for tobacco, one of which is planted every year, followed the next spring with oats, which, when ripe, are rolled down, or turned under with the plough, as he thinks best. This crop of oats not only supplies as much fertility as the tobacco may have exhausted, but the lots are becoming richer every year. On these lots he uses no manure ; that is reserved for his corn and wheat. The cost of the seed oats is about fifty cents the acre. The labor of sowing and after- wards rolling down is very trifling — not equal to the expense of carting the manure on the lot if it was given to him. What I would principally call your attention to, is the fact : — That the general character of his farm has been more improved in the last ten years (whether you regard its appear- ance or its product,) than any other farm, save my friend Wm. Finney's, within my knowledge — during the whole of which time he has cultivated tobacco successfull}'. Nor are there any peculiar circumstances of a favorable character vrhich ap- ply to his farm and situation, more than to others. On the contrary, his predecessors were literally unable to support their families on the farm which he has thus improved. These are the facts on which I rely to prove the position, viz. That the culture of tobacco is not incompatible with the improve- ment of the land ; and I think they will be allow- ed fully to sustain it by all who will take ihe trou- ble to inspect Mr. Old's estate. I do not know whether the above is to subserve any other useful purpose than to fill a column in the Register, — for the spirit of radicalism is so ))redominant in these days, that amelioration is deemed worthless. Revolution is the remetly for every evil. Thus if you would succeed in agricul- ture, get rid of slave labor and tobacco. If a law oppresses you, (really or in mnagination,) nullify it. If your legislature vexes you with its long and useless sessions, call a convention. This is the order of the day ; and under these impressions, thousands are yearly abandoning their native state, who, did they but view the matter correctly, would 442 FARMERS' REGISTER— PEEWEE— EARL STIMSON'S FARM. see thai half the energy and industry they are obliged to exert in removing and fixing themselves in the west, if applied to their farms at home, would secure to them a good income and an improving capital. I am respectfully yours, II. BIEADE. P. S. Mr. Old has, within the last year, added another tobacco lot, (lor reasons connected with the general arrangement of his farm,) but still uses no manure for tobacco. I had for several years past cultivated two lots in tobacco and wheat al- ternately, in the hope that a crop of peas sown on the stubble immediately after harvest would keep up the fertility of the lots. But the dilTiculty of getting the ])eas sown in time have forced me to abandon tlie system, which otherwise I have no doubt (on land lying well, and made rich at first,) would be a very good one. H. M. THE PEEWEE. From the Genesee Fanner. None of our feathered songsters are more in- clined to become domestic that the Peewee (3Ius- cicapa fuscow . ) When not disturbed, they soon become unsuspicious of evil designs ; and take up their lodgings on the outside of the house without caring who lodges within. This summer one has chosen to roost on the limb of a tree about two feet from our chamber window. He must often see us moving about within ; but his business is to catch the flies without; and he has performed this ser- vice greatly to our comfort and satisfaction. With the nature of Hass, however, he is not yet fully ac- quainted ; and seeing flies on the inside, he often raps against it with his bill to no purpose. Since the brooding season is over, his mate also comes round ; and late as it now is in the season (the 18th Oct.) and cool as the weather has become, they seem to feel very much at their ease ; and in look- ing at them through the glass where they sit at tiie distance of five feet from me, I perceive nothing that would indicate their prospect of shortly jour- neying to Carolina. It has been said that they eat bees ; and many of their race have been destroyed in consequence of this suspicion. I should be very unwilling to lose mine on such an idle charge. They are really use- ful birds ; and I shall feel a sense of lonesomeness when they take their departure. When we under- take to kill birds, we ought to know for what ; and we should remember that in charges against them as in other cases there are two sides to a story. EARL STIMSO?j's FAR 31. From Stuart's Three Years in America. On the 18th of November, made an excursion to the township of Galway, with a view to see Mr. Stimson's farm, about eleven miles from Ballston Spa. Mr. Stimson is a very enterprizing person, has an extensive fiirm, a large hotel, and great stores as a merchant. We are told that there is no farm within our reach at present so well enti- tled to notice. Mr. Burtis, our Saratoga chariot- eer, carried us to it. We were unlucky in not finding Mr. Stimson at home, but Mrs. Stimson was extremely communicative and obliging, more especially considering that we had no introduction to her. The situation of the farm is very elevated, with the highway running through it. Of 800 acres, of which the farm consists, Mr. Stimson has about one half in cultivation. His fences, horses, farm- houses, and the whole establishment, are good, and in good order ; and there is an appearance of ac- tivity and attention about the place that would do credit to the agriculturist of any country. The whole land has been improved by Mr. Stimson ; it is laid off in fields of about eight acres, enclosed with stones gathered from the land in the lower part of the fence, and a frame of wood on the top of them. There are two rails above the stone, and about twenty miles of this sort of fence. The soil is generally light, but Mr. Stimson ma- nures, though perhaps not so much as might here be done with advantage, yet a great deal more than most farmers in this country, and of course raises better crops. His general rotation is, 1. Maize or Indian corn, with patches of potatoes or turnips on the edges of the field; 2. Barley, or sometimes oats ; 3. Wlieat, in which he sows five pounds clo- ver seed, and two quarts timothy per acre. Then he puts the timothy for two years and pastures for one. He breaks up the pasture for wheat, then takes a crops of maize and follows the above rota- tion, manuring either on breaking up or with the maize. Land is less overrun with weeds here than in Britain, and for some time after being cleared, much richer in point of soil. In this view, the ro- tation by which crops of grain are taken consecu- tively may admit of justification to some extent. Yet I cannot but suspect that the return would, on the whole, be greater, if the manure was always applied to the maize or green crop, followed by only one grain crop of wheat, or oats, or barley, with whicli grass seeds are sown. The land would thus constantly be clean, and in good tilth, and the lesser number of grain crops would be compensa- ted by their superior quality. Mr. Stimson has reported his produce from 85 acres to be what follows, after actual survey and examination; and while he can obtain such a return, he is well entitled to adhere to his own sys- tem. 10 acres of Orchard ground produced 25 tons hay 8 do. Maize, 560 bushels. 8 do. do. 720 do. 10 do. do. 300 do. and 16t. hay 4 do. Wheat, 140 do. 1 do. Flax, 600 lbs. 8 do. Oats, 560 bushels. 8 do. Hay, 32 tons. 8 do. do. 36 do. 1 do. Barlev, 60 bushels. 3 do. Hay," 101 tons. 4 do. do. 12 do. 8 do. do. 24 do. 2 do. do. 1000 bushels potatoes 2 do. in vegetables raised 400 chickens. Mr. Stimson has gained almost all the agricul- tural premiums in the county ; for having the best managed farm; for having raised 62 bushels of barley on an acre ; for having raised 357 bushels of potatoes on half an acre; and for having raised five tons of timothy hay per acre. The field of maize on this farm, when well hoed FARMERS^ REGISTER— HONEY BEE MULBERRY, &c. 443 .nnd cleaned by the plough, cannot fail in summer to give a very gay appearance to the field, — even superior to that of the best dressed green crops to which the eye of a British farmer is accustomed ; but at this season, the want of those green crops of turnips, mangel wurtzel, rata baga, &c. which as well as potatoes, arc only raised in small por- tions in the margins of the fields, creates a great blank. The maize is the great article used not merely as the cleaning crop, but for feeding horses, cattle and poultry, for which it is admirably adapt- ed. When we returned from the fields, we found a very nice dinner prepared for us, and a bottle of wine on the table. Mrs. Stimson had previously dined, but gave us the pleasure of her company ; and was, I believe, not less inquisitive in putting questions to us respecting land management in Scotland, than we respecting that in this neighbor- hood. On coming away, we found that there was no bill to pay for ourselves, Mr. Burtis, or horses. Mrs. Stimson could make no charge on strangers who had paid lier a visit, in order to see the farm ; slie only regretted that we could not stay some days with them. We find all the farmers in this part of the country, whom we meet in our pretty ex- tensive perambulations, communicative and well- informed on the subject of their management, per- fectly aware of the importance of fallows and green crops ; but generally of opinion that they dare not attempt that system, on account of the high price of labor in this country in relation to the value of land, ne s umpt as fr actum superet, ac- cording to the sound advice of Varro. The })rice of labor too, is the great ol)stacle to all sorts of or- namental improvement, such as the formation of gardens, and keeping them up. Making, there- fore, the necessary allowance for change of cir- cumstances and situation, there does not seem to be any ground for charging the American agricultu- rist with want of knowledge, or of activity and enterprize. A PARASITE OF THE HOIVEY BEE, ( jipls Mcl- lifica.) From the Journal of Science. For a few years past, many of those people in this vicinity, who have apiaries, have found that in the months of April, May and June, an unusual mortality had prevailed among their bees. This circumstance has led to a thorough investigation of the cause by those who iiave felt a particular interest in the products of this valuable insect ; and the result has proved that this mortality has been produced entirely by a parasite. More than two years since, one of my neighbors suggested to me his conjecture, that thei-e was a parasite fiy that was injurious to the honey bee : since which time we have fully ascertained the fact. I have a box now before me containing a great number of bees, in which may be found the parasites, in both the pupa and the perfect state. Usually the bees become sickly and unable to ily, when the parasites are in the larva slate ; but they sometimes live till tiie perfect insect emerges from the pupa. The larva is fi.xed at the inosculations of the dorsal segments of the al)domen of the bee, and is hardly discoverable by the eye unless the abdomen be dissected. The larva is white, near- ly two lines in length, and very much resembles a small worm or maggot. The pupa is nearly the size of the larva, and of a reddish l)rown color. The perfect insect is a nondescript, and bears very little resemblance to the [^Styhips] or [A'e/ios] or any other insect, tliat has been found to be a para- site of the bee or wasp. It is of the class Dip- tera of Lin., is little larger than the Hessian fly, but in color and form it is very unlike that insect. Kirby, many years since, discovered that the in- sect (Stylops) was a parasite in the black-bronze bee, (ilndrena nigrooinea,) in England, and Pro- fessor Peck afterwards found that the (A'enos) was a parasite in wasps, in America; but I am not aware that a parasite of the iioney bee has ever been discovered till of late, and in this vicinity. In conclusion, I would most sincerely request those who have apiaries to examine their hives du- ring the spring and summer months, and if this parasite is discovered, to investigate the history of the insect, and if possible, to find a remedy for the injury it may produce. MARTIN FIELD. FaydtcvilU, Vermont, May 15, 1833. MULBERRY. From the Northern Farmer. I wish to communicate a fact in relation to the propagation of the white mulberry, which I think is worthy of notice. During the season of feeding the silk worm, I trimmed my trees very liberally, yet I found it necessary in August to give them a second pruning. The branches separated were of this season's growth, and by way of experiment they were placed in the ground in the usual man- ner of setting out cutttings. In a short time the buds beoan to oi)en, and have now sent forth branch- es from half an inch to two inches in length, con- taining from two to six leaves each. If the season is llivorable, they will not only form buds for the next year's wood but gain sufficient firmness to endure the winter. Would it not be t!ie most eco- nomical and expeditious mode of increasing a mul- berry orchard, to pursue this course. Raising trees from the seed is frequently precarious ; and if cuttings set in the spring will grow to the height of twenty or thirty inches, they will, by getting a start in the fall, far exceed the second year's growth from the seed, which surely reaches four feet. " Cut and try." SPLITTING ROCKS BY LIGHTNING. From tite Bmiker Hill Aurora. The first experiment of splitting rocks by means of electric fluid, was made in Prussia, in 1811. The process was very simple — into a hole in the centre of the rock is placed a long rod of iron, as a conductor, terminating in a point. When a thun- der cloud passes over the stone, within its striking distance of the earth, the lightning from the cloud strikes the ui)per part of the conductor, and is con- ducted downwards to the heart of the stone, which either rends it in diffei-ent places or splits it at once into a multitiide of fragments. The experiment in Prussia was attended with complete success, during the first storm that passed over after the conductor was inserted in the' stone. 444 FARMERS' REGISTER— GLEANINGS IN NATURAL HISTORY, &c. NEW COTTOK FACTORY IN RICHMOND. From the Richmond Whig Mr. P. J. Chevallie ^ave notice, tlie day before yesterday, that he would on that day open a sub- scription for a thousand shares of stock of iSlOO each, to erect a cotton nnanufactory on his property near the immense flour mill he is now building at the foot of the basin, in the centre of the city. The first day about two thirds of the amount was sub- scribed, and the balance was taken yesterday. THE SUGAR CROP. The New Orleans papers state that the early frosts have done much damage to the sugar cane ; in many places half the quantity of sugar which had previously been calculated upon will not be made. On one estate alone, it is estimated that the frost had caused a loss of three hundred hogs- heads. The injury to the cotton crops was repre- sented to be inconsiderable. EFFECT OF A RAII^ ROAD, OR THE VALUE OF PROPERTY. From the Petersburg Intelligencer. The lot ground on BoUingbrook street, upon which the Columbian Hotel formerly stood, was sold a few days ago at public auction, for tlie sum of .^6,300. Two years ago it could not have com- manded half that sum. Subsequent sales of real estate have been made at equally advanced rates. We mention these facts as evidences of the increas- ing prosperity of our town. EXTRACTS FROM J ESSe's "GLEANINGS IN NAT- URAL HISTORY." Bees — Language of Insects. My bees are a constant source of amusement to me; and the more I study them, the more I am led to admire their Avonderful instinct and sagacity. Few things, however, surprise me more than the fower which they possess of communicating what can only call 'intelligence' to each other. This I observe to be almost invariably the case before they swarm. Some scouts may then be observed to leave the hive, and for some time to hover round a particular bush or branch of a tree, after which they return to the hive. In a little while the new swarm quits it, and settles on the branch which had been previously fixed upon by the scouts. The same power of communication may be observed in the ant. I have often put a small green caterpillar near an ants'-nest; you may see it immediately seized by one of the ants, who, after several inetfect- ual efforts to drag it to its nest, will quit it, go up to another ant, and they will appear to hold a con- versation together by means of their antennae, after which they will return together to the caterpillar, and, by their united efforts, drag it where they wish to deposit it. I have also frequently observed two ants meeting on their path across a gravel-walk, one going from, and the other returning to the nest. They will stop, touch each other's antennae, and appear to hold a conversation ; and I could almost fancy that one was communicating to the other the best place for foraging, which Dr. Franklin thought they have the power of doing, from the following cir- cumstance. Upon discovering a number of ants regaling themselves with some treacle in one of his cupboards, he put them to the rout, and then suspended the pot of treacle by a string from the ceiling. He imagined that he had put the whole army to flight, but was surprised to see a single ant quit the pot, climb up the string, cross the ceiling, and regain its nest. In less than half an hour several of its companions sallied forth, traver- sed the ceiling, and reached the depository, which they constantly revisited until the treacle was con- sumed. Huber says, 'that Nature has given to ants a ' language of communication by the contact of ' their antennae ; and that, with these organs, they ' are enabled to render mutual assistance in their ' labors and in their dangers ; discover again their ' route when they have lost it, and make each other ' acquainted with their necessities. We see, then,' he adds, ' that insects which live in society are in ' possession of- a language; and in consequence of ' enjoying a language in coamion withus, although 'of an inferior degree, have they not greater im- ' portance in our eyes, and do they not embellish ' the very spectacle of the universe ?' What I h^ve said respecting the power of com- municating intelligence to each other, possessed by bees and ants, applies also to wasps. If a single wasp discovers a deposit of honey or other food, he will return to his nest and impart the good nev.'s to his companions, who will sally forth in great numbers to partake of the fare which has been discovered for them. It is, therefore, I tliink, sufficiently clear that these insects have what Hu- ber calls an 'cntennal language, — a language, we can have no doubt, that is perfectly suited to them, — adding, we know not how much, to their happiness and enjoyments, and furnishing another proof that there is a God, — all-mighty, all-wise, and all-good, — who has ' ornamented the universe' with so many objects of delightful contemplation, that we may see him in all his works, and learn, not only to fear him for his power, but to love him for the care which he takes of us, and of all his cre- at d beings. yinecdotes of Bees. A large brown slug made its way into a glass hive, where the operations of the bees could be distinctly seen. Having killed the slug, and find- ing that they were unable to get it out of the hive, thfjy covered it over with the thick resinous sub- stance called propolis, and thus prevented its be- coming a nuisance to the colony. Info the same hive one of the common brown-shelled snails also gained admittance. Instead of imbedding it in propolis, the bees contented themselves with fixing it to the bottom of the hive by plastering the edge with that substance. I have now in my possession a regular fortifica- tion made of propolis, which one of iriy stocks of bees placed at the entrance of their hive, to enable them the better to protect themselves from the attacks of wasps. By meansof this fortification, a few bees could effectually guard the entrance, by lessening the space of admission, which I had ne- glected to do for them. Bees show great ingenuity in obviating the in- convenience they experience from the slipperiness of glass, and certainly beyond what we can con- ceive that mere instinct would enable them to do. I am in the habit of putting small glass globes on the top of my straw hives, for the purpose of having FARMERS' REGfSTER— COMMERCIAL REPORT. 445 them filled with honey; and I have invariably found that before the bees commence the construc- tion of combs, they place a great number of spots of wax at regular distances from each other, which serve as so many footstools, on the slippery glass, each bee resting on one of these with its middle pair of legs, while the fore-claws were hooked with the'hind ones of the next above, thus forming a ladder, by means of which the workers were enabled to reach the top, and begin to make their combs there. I was glad to find this circtmistance recorded in Dr. Sevan's very agreeable work on the honey bee, in which another very striking illustration of the reasoning powers of bees is men- tioned. Dr. Bevan says that a friend of his, on inspecting his bee-boxes, perceived that a centre comb burdened with honey, had separated from its attachments, and was leaning against another comb, so as to j)revent the passage of the bees between them. This accident excited great activity in the colony, but of what nature could not be ascertained at the time. At the end of a week, the weather being cold and the bees clustered together, it was observed through the window of the box that they had constructed two horizontal pillars between the combs alluded to, and had removed so much of the honey and wax from the top of each, as to allow the passage of a bee : in about ten days more there was an uninterrupted thorougiifare ; the detached comb at its upper part had been secured by a strong- barrier, and fastened to the window with the spare wax. This being accomplished, the bees had re- moved the horizontal pillars first constructed, as being of no further use. Huber relates an anec- dote something similar. The power which bees possess of ventilating their hives and of producing such a temperature as will prevent the wax from melting in hot weather, is, I think, another proof that something more than mere instinct influences their conduct, as, in their natural state, bees are probably not in so confined a space as they are in our common straw hives, or exposed so much to the heat of the sun. In hot weather, a number of bees (the number probably being regulated by the state of the atmosphere) may be observed busily employed at the bottom of the hive, moving their wings with so much rapid- ity, that the motion of them is almost impercepti- ble. If, while this action is going forward, a lighted candle should be held at an opening on the top of the hive, it will immediately be blown out, a fact which will enable you to form some idea of the current of air produced by these insects from the motion of their wings. I have, however, known instances in extreme hot weather, when all the labors of the bees to keep the iiive in a proper temperature have failed, and a part of the wax has melted. In this case it is dangerous to go near the hive. The bees are in a state of extreme irrita- tion, and though I fancy that mine know me and receive me as a friend, and allow me sometimes to take liberties with them with impunity, yet, at the time referred to I have suffered from their stings in endeavoring to shelter them more effectually from the heat of the sun. For the Farmers' Register. COMMERCIAL, RKPORT. November 25, 1833. There have been few occurrences during the present month that had any important bearing on commercial transactions generally. Such commo- dities, either of domestic or foreign product, as had previously borne high prices, have in most in- stances, and as a natural consequence, declined in value. This remark applies more particularly to cotton, sugar and coffee, but not to tobacco, the crop of which is believed to be small ; and as the previous one Avas very deficient in quantity, it is believed that the stocks of this article in foreign markets will be very light in the course of next year. The planters will no doubt be well remu- nerated for their present crop and also for the suc- ceeding one. An increase of cultivation will fol- low of course, and as no increase of consumption has been apparent for many years, the production of one or two large crops will reduce the price from its present rates (extremes $4 50 to ^12,) to its former ones of .^2 to $S. In this range of prices, the fancy tobacco, used by a few manufacturers, is not included, Tlie confidence which prevailed in Europe and in this country a few weeks ago, that cotton would maintain a very high price, has given way to an almost opposite impression. The injudicious ad- vance is likely to be succeeded by a decline in price, tending to the opposite extreme. Thus far, the highest rate of the present crop in our Virginia market has been 16 cents, and the lowest 13 cents. The depression is caused principally by the belief now entertained that the crop will prove too large for the demand, the general estimate of it being 1,200,000 bales. The very low rates of foreign exchange, the diminished facilities in the negocia- tion of domestic bills, and the pressure for money in our large commercial cities, have also an effect on the prices of cotton and other articles. This effect may be ascertained with more certainty by adverting to the great decline in bank, road, canal and othe'r stocks, in the New York Exchange, many of which are now from 5 to 15 per cent, lower than they were after making dividends in July. Exchange on England, which for several years past was at 8^ to 10 per cent, premium, is now but 5^ to 6, being actually below the par value, taking metallic medium as the standard. This derangement of money matters grows out of differences existing between the government and the bank. The latter cannot grant its usual facility, because it is in the power of the former to take advantage of any increased issues; and should the bank then be compelled to reduce its discounts, the consequences would be ruinous to its custom- ers. While the United States Bank is thus kept on its guard against runs for specie, the State banks are necessarily obliged to use similar caution, and thus the commercial affairs of the country are straitened, which would otherwise be in the most prosperous condition. The prices of grain and flour have scarcely varied during the present season. There has been a more limited demand than usual for foreign ex- port; and on the other hand, the surplus beyond the quantity required for home consumption is very moderate. Canal Flour is worth about ^5 75_City Mills $6 50— Wheat 112 to 120 cents. Our merchants are becoming larger ship own- ers than formerly, and a number of fine vessels are now owned in Petersburgand Richmond. This and the increase of manufacturing establishments are evidences of commercial capital and prosperity. 446 FARMERS' REGISTER—" FARMERS' REGISTER AND ALBANY ARGUS." THE ALBANY ARGUS AND THE FARMERS RE- GISTER, From the Albany Argus. Having taken some pains to recommend to the notice and patronage of" our readers, Mr. Ruffin's " Farmers' Register" of V irginia, we have not been, we confess, altogether inattentive to its pro- gress. It is due to its respectable editor and pro- prietor to say, that in the character of a publica- tion " devoted to the improvement of the practice, and support of the interests of agriculture," it has fully justified the high anticipations of its friends. In this respect it is all that can be wished ; and is admirable both in the matter and the manner. We notice therefore with the more regret any thing in relation to it that will, if persisted in, derogate not only from the imi)artial and non-political charac- ter of the work, but from its general circulation and positive utility. Appended to the lifth num ber, is the prospectus of a new political paper, to be issued in the city of Richmond by the publish- er of the Farmers' Register; and this prospectus is not only a. political tract, in the ordinary accep- tation of the word, but a gross attack ujjon the ad- ministration, and particularly upon Gen. Jackson and Mr. Van Buren, unwarrantable both as to the manner and the facts. It will not be denied, Ave presume, that the appearance of such a political diatribe, or the introduction of political articles of any sort, in the body of the Register, would be an inexcusable departure from the alleged purposes of the publication, and from the avowals of the editor, expressed, or implied, at the start. We certainly do not discover the difTerence between the circulation of such exceptionable matter in the body of the work, and in pages precisely si^nilar to the body, and so directly incorporated with it as to render the dividing line scarcely perceptible even to practised eyes. But we prefer to adopt the lan- guage, on this subject, of a correspondent, a high- ly respectable and intelligent agriculturist of this state, a subscriber if not a correspondent of the Register, and whose attention, we believe, was first directed to it in a letter from ourselves : — " Let me direct you to the latter part of No. 5, for proposals by Mr. R's printer, Mr. White, for pub- lishing a political newspaper decidedly opposed to the present administration. Mr. W. has doubt- less adopted this mode to give etfect and circula- tion to liis political sentiments. I cannot thnik Mr. R. was apprised of what was intended to be done. The publisher probably chose, on his own responsibility, to turn an agricultural journal pure- ly and creditably so, into a vehicle to disseminate political opinions and prejudices. The plea that it was added only as an advertisement, does not meet the objection. The effect of it is as palpable, and as mischievous, as if it had been inserted as a com- munication in the body of the work. It is excep- tionable in any sense." We have extended these remarks, because we conceive the Register to be highly serviceal)le to the agricultural interests of the country, and be- cause we are unwilling to see its utility marred by a departure from its legitimate purposes, in fur- therance of any scheme of its publisher, political or pecuniary. The kind and complimentary manner in -which tlie Farmers' Register has been more llian once referred to by the editor of the Albany Argus, and the still more marked expressions of favor from a correspondent of that paper, whom we have some reason to consider as the same who now joins in the censures quoted above, hiduce us to offer some remarks in explanation of the act thus called in question. It accords with our inclina- tion no less than our duty, to hear respectfully, and to profit by all friendly strictures. In this case however we have not to apologize for having given just ground for offence, or for a departure from the proper and pre- scribed course of the Farmers' Register. The covers of many periodicals are used as vehicles for advertisements and notices, which no one supposes' to have been subjected to editorial scrutiny, or even ob- servation, and which have not been considered (it is presumed) by their readers, as having any relation to the works to which they are thus attached. Entertain- ing this view, we certainly did not expect that it would be necessary to declare that the advertisements on our covers form no part of the Farmers' Register, and have no connexion with its contents, or its objects — and sel- dom come under our view or notice, except when each number is finished and sent abroad. When this channel for advertisements was offered to the public, it was not anticipated that proposals for po- litical newspapers might be required to be inserted, and no general rule for tlieir exclusion was either announc- ed or thought of ; and of course there existed no sufE- cient reason for refusing their admission, whatever might be their political or party character, unless indeed, the manner of any such paper was so contrary to propriety and common usage, that any other respectable adver- tising print would be justified in rejecting it- It is not our business or intention either to defend or condemn the manner or doctrines of Mr. Wliite's prospectus. With its object and purport we have no concern. It is suflicicnt that it was not considered improper for inser- tion in .some of the most respectable papers in Virginia, and as a matter of voluntary courtesy, was published in all the commercial and political prints in Richmond, not excepting the Enquirer. The editors of the Enqui- rer will certainly not be suspected by the Argus of be- ing partial to the principles and proposed course of Mr. White's intended publication — and the general decorum and propriety of manner for which that paper is de- servedly distinguished, is a sufficient guarantee th«t a prospectus thus voluntarily published, and widely dis- tributed, was not considered by the editor as contrary to what had been sanctioned at least by common usage. If Mr. White's prospectus, or any other offered for pub- lication, had expressed opinions directly the reverse of those exhibited, it would have been as freely inserted. The most prominent person and the most important of the opinions which it advocates, are as far from having our individual approbation, as those that might be the most pleasing to the Argus. In every point of view, there is as little reason to make us responsible for im- proper participation in the publication, as to charge the editor of the Westminster Review with the puffs of Warren^s Patent Blacking, which are so conspicuous on the covers of the English copies of that work. It does not affect this statement in any way that Mr. White is the publisher of the Farmers' R,egis*er, and receives the sums paid for advertisements. The inser- FARMERS' REGISTER— SEASONS AND CROPS. 447 lion still was made at his cost •- and he had an equal right to insert any advertisement that could not have been refused, if coming from another person. The pro- prietor's interest is but remotely and indirectly concern- ed in the advertisements, and even the lists of receipts, editorial notices, &c. on the cover, are paid for as are other advertisements. The Farmers' Register has not been, and shall not be connected in any manner with the support or denuncia- tion of party measures, or individual struggles for of- fice. This course is not more strongly dictated by a sense of duty to our subscribers, and the work we have undertaken, than by feelings of contempt for the game of party, and for those who are the players for personal gain, or aggrandizement. But though politics in this sense will receive neither admission nor countenance, there are important political questions which are inti- mately connected with the interests of agriculture, and which will be discussed in the Farmers' Register freely and fully. To treat of the great interests of an agri- cultural people, without considering in any manner the influence of laws, and of the policy of the government, would be as great an omission as to treat of tillage, and forget the influence and inequalities of heat and mois- ture. Whatever measure of government, or operation of law, may tend to the injury of the interests of agri- culture, is a proper subject for examination and discus- sion in an agricultural journal. But so far as it can be done, such discussions shall be confined to their relation to agriculture, and not converted to questions of con- stitutional law, or used to subserve party or personal views. This course was indicated in our prospectus, and our opinions on such subjects on all proper occasions will be advanced and maintained without regard to conse- quences, or to any personal considerations whatever. REPORT OF SEASONS AKD STATE OF CROPS. The department of " Agricultural Intelligence'''' has as yet been very badly filled, or rather has had no place in the Farmers' Register. We now ask the assistance of correspondents for the purpose of supplying this defi- ciency. It will serve the interest as well as add to the information of many of our readers, if we can obtain and publish general reports of the weather, and pros- pects and products of crops in every region of Virginia, or as far as the Farmers' Register may be extensively circulated. There is nothing easier than to be mistaken on these subjects, and to make incorrect reports, notonly from want of accuracy in making observations, but also from extending too generally the particular facts which have been correctly observed. The fear of falling into these errors, from relying on information which was li- mited and imperfect, has prevented our offering any re- ports of the kind referred to, but which it is now thought may be easily prepared, and safely and advantageously published, if a sufl[icient number of our friends will concur in the attempt. In addition to other obvious considerations, reports of the state of agriculture in every district, from respecta- ble and known individuals, made with as much accura- cy as a subject necessarily so uncertain will admit of. would prevent much of the fluctuation of prices which is caused by erroneous views of the effects of seasons and amount of crops, and which is always injurious to both producers and consumers, as well as to the regular trader who deals between them, and is beneficial only to crafty or lucky speculators. The general interest of farmers requires that the prices of their products should be fairly fixed according to the real demand, and not above that rate, any more than below it, on account of mistaken opinions as to the amount of the supply. For this as well as for other purposes, it is desired that as many of our readers as may find it convenient will furnish concise general statements of the weather, state of growing crops, and the estimated products of such as have been secured, together with any other ag- ricultural intelligence which is worthy of notice, in the particular county or district undertaken by each repor- ter. In this manner many things interesting to most readers, will be conmiunicated, or commented on, which would have been considered (improi^erly) of too little importance for independent communications. It will be proper that every statement of facts intended to form part of these reports, should be accompanied by the au- thor's name : though unless sent in the form of a re- gular communication for the Farmers' Register, the name will not be published. It will, however, be de- sirable that each one who may propose to correspond with us for this purpose will permit the use of his initials, or some other letters as a signature, and as a uniform designation for the same person. It will be most convenient and proper for these re- ports to be published quarterly. The number for Jan- uary (if our proposal is approved and seconded,) may contain the report of the weather, and of general ope- rations for the preceding three months, embracing the sowing of wheat, and the harvests of corn, tobacco, cotton, &c. with any general remarks on the whole pre- ceding year, which will most properly belong to the re- port of the last quarter. In April, it might be stated in what manner the various preparatory labors, which belong to the first quarter of the year, had been either favored or retarded by the weather, and its general in- fluence on the prospects of crops. The report for July would embrace the important harvests of hay, wheat, oats, &c. and that of October, the then known results of those crops, and the prospects of all others then standing on the land. It is always most agreeable to publish whatever may be communicated in the language of our correspond- ents. But if any do not choose to furnish more than materials for constructing a report, that aid will be not the less welcome. Indeed, no report of the kind contem- plated can be expected to owe much of its value to its form and style. The materials will neceesarily be re- ceived late in the quarter, and must be put together in haste. We shall use the whole, or only extracts of se- parate communications — the substance only, when the same general statements have several authors — or both the words and matter, when the case may require it. In short, as the whole scheme is an experiment, the means for conducting which must be furnished by others, we can only now state what we wish, and not what will be performed. Of course the aid we ask will be acceptable from any 448 FARMERS' REGISTER—GRAPE VINES— TO CORRESPONDENTS, &c. and every quarter : but more particularly it is request- ed from our many intelligent subscribers who have here- tofore furnished nothing to aur pages. Among them, there are many not only qualified for these humble ser- vices, (which indeed require nothing but habits of ob- servation and correct statements of facts,) but for those of much higher order, who, because farming is not their most important pursuit, deny that they can aid an agri- -cultural journal with their pens. To professional gen- tlemen, and particularly to members of the bar who practice through a country circuit, it will be easy to col- lect the information desired, and still more easy to com- municate the results. We hope that many will in this manner aid our work, by rejDorting any information that may be collected within any certain named limits, as a senatorial district, or a single county. Any com- munications for this purpose must be transmitted in the course of the month preceding the quarterly publication, and of course in December, for the report to be made in the beginning of January, MR. HERBEMONTS GRAPE VINES. We request the attention of such of our readers as may wish to form vineyards, to the advertisement of Mr. Hebemont on the cover of this number of the Far- mers' Register. His offer to send vines for sale to Rich- mond has been thus made partly upon our suggestion, and we will be glad to convey to him any orders, as a small return which we, in common with the agricultural interest in general, owe for his services to the cause of agriculture. Mr. Herbemont has long been advanta- geously known for his zealous efforts to improve the grapes of our country, and the culture of the vine has been thereby greatly improved and extended. Like most other pioneers in pursuit even of greatest general utility and profit in after times, his many experiments will give their beneficial results to thousands, while he alone will sustain all the loss inseparable from such a course — and before his sales had been commenced, he had gratuitously and widely distributed the plants which he had either first introduced, or of which he had proved the fitness for our climate. TERMS OF THE FARMERS REGISTER. The Farmers' Register will be published in month- ly numbers, each to contain 64 pages, large octavo, at $5 a year. Payments forsubscriptionsmay be made to the editor, and at his risk, through the mail. Any person who shall hereafter procure four new subscribers, and transmit their first year's subscription with their names, shall receive a fifth copy of the Far- mers' Register for the current year, without additional charge. If fewer»than four subscriptions are sent at any one time, and the extra copy is intended to be claimed when that number shall be completed, such in- tention must be expressed at first, or the claim will not be admitted. No subscriptions will be permitted for less time than a year: nor will any be discontinued unless directed by the subscriber — nor while any thing is due thereon, un- less at the choice of the editov. editors' address. All papers, letters and communications relating to the Farmers' Register, must be addressed to Edmund Ruffin, P. M, Garysville, Va. It is again earnestly requested that this often repeated address may be always used, as the direction to Richmond of letters to the editor, continues to cause ynuch delay and trou- ble, as to ell as additional expense in postage. TO CORRESPONDENTS. Communications on Encouragement of ^gricultureby the Legislature, on the Culture of the Fine, and on Differ- ent Varieties of Grapes, 4-c. have been received, and will be published in our next number. COIVTEKTS OF FARMERS' REGISTER, No, T. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. On Draining, 385 — Existing Establishments for Agricultural Instruction, 390 — Preparation of SeedWlieat, 391 — Buckwheat, 391 — Gleanings in Natural History, 394 — Remarks on Farming and Grazing in Lower Virginia, 394 — Plan for a Cheap and Du- rable Road, 305 — Cultivation of Corn, 395 — Comparative Effects of Lime and Marl, 396— On the Law of Enclosures, 396— To measure the Contents of Corn Cribs, 398 — Sassafras Bushes — Murrain, 398 — Artificial Grasses in Lower Virginia, 398— Cheat or Chess, 400 — Extracts from Private Correspondence, compris- ing Clover on Poor Lands, AVild Pea Vines, Gama Grass, Hes- sian Fly and Smut, Marling, &c. 400— A Plea for Snakes, 402 — Marl Discovered in the Granite and Coal Region, 424 — Jtfagne- sian Marl, 425— Fattening Hogs, 432 — Easy method of Sowing Grass Seeds, 434 — Economical method of Excavating Ditches Canals, Ponds, &c. 435 — Remarks and Queries on Improvements in Farming, 435 — Grinding Grain or Gypsum, 436 — Remarka- ble Meteoric Phenomena, 436 — Water Used to Produce Heat and Light, 438 — The Cultivation of Tobacco, 441 — Commercial Report 445 — The Albany Argus and Farmers' Register, 446 — Report of Seasons and Crops, 447— JVfr. Herbemonfs Grape Vines, 448 — To Correspondents, Terms of Farmers' Register, Editors' Address, &c. 448. SELECTIONS. Large Vegetables, 403— Soils in Western New York, 403 — Salt Your Corn, 404— Petersburg Rail Road, 404— Effect of Electricity on Vegetation, 404 — Refugee and Emancipated Slaves, 405 — Avalanche in the White Mountains, 406 — Bar- naby Googe's " Whole Arte and Trade of Husbandrie," 407 — Gathering and Preserving Fruit, 409 — Culture of Silk, 410 — Value of the Study of Entomology to Agriculture, 411 — Pruning Grape Vines, 412 — Improvement in making Flour, 412 — Rearing Silkworms, and Culture of the Grape Vines, 413 — Orchard Grass, 413 — Sheep Husbandry, Nos. I. II. and III. 414 Odoriferous Substances offensive to Insects, 417 — Insects Inju- rious to Fruits and Fruit Trees, 417 — Cheese making, 418 — Bay- berry or Myrtle Wax, 419 — Result of Experiments on Wheat, 420 — Fall of a Cliff in England, 420 — Natural Hisrory, compris- ing Tame Bat, 421 ; Harvest Mouse, 421 : Viper, 422: Noxious Insects, 422 : House Martins, 423 — Effects of Magnesia in Diffe- rent Forms, on Soils, 426 — Strictures on Magnesian Limestone, 428 — Magnesia not Hurtful to Vegetation, 429 — Magnesia and Magnesian Limestones, 431 — Practical Effect of Seasonable Farming, 434 — Coal Region in Berkeley and Morgan Counties, 436 — Farmers and Mechanics, 437— Dr. Barton's Address, deli- vered before Rockbridge Agricultural Society, 439— The Pee- wee, 442 — Earl Stimson's Farm, 442 — A Parasite in the Honey Bee, 443 — Mulberry, 443— Splitting Rocks by Lightning, 443— NevvCotton Factory in Richmond, 444— The Sugar Crop, 444— Effect of a Rail Road on the Value of Property, 444— Extracts from Jesse's "Gleanings in Natural History," comprising Bees: Language of Insects---Anecdotes of Bees, 444. »^;*^fc^^. ■^-'<*— *^ /^. / .^C'^-'^C^C^^ •^ -^mh^ aa rtvm^t^ :> ^0lsta^ :) i7(Do Qj A MONTHl^Y PUBL.lCATIO]V, Devoted to tlie Improvement of tlie Practice^ and Support of tUc Interests of Agrieultiu:e« EACH NUMBER CONTAINS 64 PAGES, BEING 4 SHEETS....ExcIusive of the aelvertising cover. RICHMOND, JANUARY 15, 1834. PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR BY THOMAS \i . WHITE. TER.3IS.— The FARMERS' REGISTER is [niblished monthly, each number to consist of 64 pages of large octavo, neatly- covered. Price ^o a year. Payments may be made to the editor throngh the mail, at his risk : or may be handed to the printer. Any person who shall hereafter procure four new subscribers, and transmit their first year's subscri^ition in advance, shall re- ceive a fifth copy of the FARMERS' REGISTER for the current year, without additional charge. DIRECTION OF LETTERS. All communications for publication, or on business connected with the Farmers'' Register, [except advertisements,] must be di- rected to Edmund Ruffin, P. M. Garysville, Va. Advertisements for the cover, or orders respecting them, must be di^rected [post, paid] to T. W. White, Richmond. lii^Advertisements of one square, or less, first insertion, 73 cents; each continuance 50 cents. i'UP'The publisher owes it alike to the subscribers to the " Farmers' llegister," as well a.s to himself, to say, that the non-appearance of this Journal on the 1st instant, {as pro mis eU,) was owing entirely to the unex- pected loss of one or two workmen, whose places could not at once be filled at this season of the year. He hopes, however, to be able to issue the February No. on or before the lOlh day of that month. Payments (from Nov. 26th, to Jan. 6th,) of sub- scriptions to the Farmers^ Register, Vol. 1. [Should any payment be omitted, from inadvertence or error, or be inserted incorrectly, the editor asks to be apprised of the fact, and the necessary correction will be made in the next monthly receipt.] Dr. William Colluis Portsmouth, Va. John Walker Sussex Weldon N. Edwards Warren, N. C. George D. Baskerville do. William P. Taylor Caroline, Va. Thomas Tredway Prince Edward H. W. HoUeman Surry H. Meade Amelia Dr. James Davis Columbia, S. C. John Pratt Caroline, Va. Thomas Simpson Surry Alfred Darden Murfreesborough, N. C. John Tabb, for 2 years Gloucester, Va. Henry N. Watkms Prince Edward B. Trueheart Powhatan Parke Poindexter Chesterfield Col. Thomas Sillington Baih Dr. Theophilus Strachan Surry Richard G. Baylor Norfolk Henry A. Watkins, (for one year, beginning with No 7,) Charlotte Thomas Whitworth Petersburg Walker Jones Gloucester Dr. Robert R. Barton Rockbridge William R. Smith, Sen Halifax co. N. C. William R. Clarke do. Whitmell H. Anthony do. Thomas H. Norfleet Bertie, N. C. Bryan Randolph Northampton, N. C. Richard Croom Lenoir co. N. C. Major Geo. Wilson Danville, Va. Dr. Joseph E. Muse Cambridge, Md. Robert Leslie Petersburg, Va. James Dunlop London, (Great Britain) .Tesse Cole Williamsburg John H. Batte Prince George James H. Godwin Nansemond Marius Gilliam Prince George Dr. S. P. Hargrave Hanover Wm. H, Roy Matthews Gr. Moseley Buckingham John Dickhison Caroline Thomas Atkinson , Dinwiddle James M. Manning Mecklenburg Josiah M. Jordan Prince George Wm. Henry Harrison do. Dr. John S. Epes do. John Avery Surry Nathaniel Welsh Madison Moore F. Brockenbrough Richmond co. James B. Newman Orange Robert McCandlish Williamsburg Wm. H. Foote Fairfax Charles C Stuart do. Lawrence Lewis do. Mordecai C. Fitzhugh do. Richard Foote Prince William Charles C. Browne Q,ueen Ann's co. Md. John E. Page Frederick Dr. John R. Archer Amelia Dr. George Morton Orange Joseph S. Watkins Goochland Thomas Marshall Fauquier Thomas H. Harvey Northumberland William Harding do. Edwin Nelms do. John Carter Richmond Wyndham Robertson do. Joseph C. Cabell Nelson Charles A. Stuart Greenbrier Armistead Barksdale Halifax Philip Michaels Richmond E. W. Skelton Powhatan Thomas M. Ambler * Fauquier Edward C. Mayo Richmond William M. McCarty Fairfax co. Thomas Smith Gloucester Col. John Hooe Prince William Thomas S. Lyell, (forone year, beginning with No. 7,) Richmond co. James Craxton King William Thomas A. Rust Richmond Thomas A. Spears Chesterfield Wheaton C. Bradish Richmond Volney Walker King and Clueen C. G. Henshaw do. Dr. Benjamin Lewis Mecklenburg Dr. Henry P. Dangerfield Alexandria, D. C. Francis Nelson , , . . Hanover Benjamin Griffin Southampton Lewis Crouch Trezvant do. John S. Lacy New Kent Daniel Higginhotham Nelson Rev. William Todd King and Clueen^ ■ Thomas Taylor Charles City* George Sizer King William ERRATA. — No. 7, in the last line of the editorial paragraph, page 485, for "fiiit/iful" read " fruitful.^ No. 6, the^letter from Wm. R. Smith, senr. on Extirpating Sassafras, sBould have been marked as taken from the American Farmer. ^ ., ->.>.^>--K. :> .: FARMERS' REGISTER— ADVERTISEMENTS. THE SUBSCRIBER OFFERS FOR SALE THE FOLLOWING Just received from those Celebrated Seedsmen I). «fe C. L.ANDRETH, Of Philadelphia, ITH whom he has made arrangements for a re- gular supply, CCf-WARRANTED GENUINE. 4)0 w Asparagus Seed Large Globe Artichoke Long Red Beet Early Turnip do. Mangel Wurtzel Large Windsor Beans Long Pod do. China Red Eye do. Early Yellow do. Six Weeks do. Lima do. Carolina do. Fine Purple Cape Brocoli Scotch Kale Early York Cabbage Large do. Early Battersea Large Drumhead Green Curled Savoy Drumhead Savoy Long Orange Carrot Early Asiatic Cauliflower Late do. do. White Solid Celery Red do. do. Curled Cress Long Pickling Cucumber Large Purple Egg Plant Curled Endive London Leek Royal Cabbage Lettuce Early do. do. Green Curled do. Brown Dutch Nutmeg Melon Citron Melon Okra Silver Skin Onion Large Yellow do. Curled Parsley Sugar Parsnip Duel's Extra Early Pea Early Frame do. Large Marrowfat do. Dwarf Imperial do. Bishop's Dwarf Prolific do. Long Scarlet Radish Red Turnip do. Yellow Turnip do. White Spanish do. Black Spanish do. Long Salmon do. Salsafy Round Savoy Spinach Prickly do. Early Dutch Turnip Red Top do. Early Stone do. Canary ) Hemp > Bird Seed Millet ) ALSO, Transplanting Tr6wels Four Prong Socket Manure Forks Pruning Knives Pruning Saws GRAPE SLIPS. Catawba, Isabella rs'orton's Vn-ginia Seedling ) y Valuable C/unnm^ham, Woodson ) ■' Cooper's Wine Grapes, Scuppernong Vines RASPBERRY BUSHES. Antwerp, English, Red and Purple LOCUST TREES. Twice Flowering and Common do. Dutch Elms Small Tulip Trees, or Wild Poplar, raised from seed SNOWBERRY. Roots of the Purple Phlox Dahlia Roots, of the Early Flowering kinds Double Flowering Althia, White and Red — the Slips for same Corcurous Rooted Plants Chinese Mulberry Grafts of all the Finer Fruits, warranted genuine AS USUAL, •Igricultural I^npletnents, M'Cormick, Improved Barshare, Davis and Freeborn Ploughs Cultivators, Harrows, Wheat Fans, and Corn Mills. WM. PALMER, Market Bridge, Richmond, Jan. 15, 1834. — ts JUillet, Uerds^ and Orchard WM. PALMER, Market Bridge. Richmond, January 15, 1834 — ts DIXOX & CLELAND, *lnd Commission Jfler chants, WILL attend to all sales of Real Estate, Slaves, Horses and Carriages, Groceries, Dry Goods, Hardware, Household Furniture, Watches and Jewelry, Books and Stationary, <^c. fyc. either in the city or coun- try, on the most reasonable terms; and flatter them- selves, from their long experience in every department of their business, that they cannot fail giving entire satisfaction. EVEXING SALES. About the first of October, they will commence their Evening Sales for the winter, and having made arrange- ments wiih extensive houses to the North, for a con- stant supply of Hardioare, Watches and Jtwelry, Cutle- ry, Books and Stationary, arid Fancy Goods, they will always have it in their power to offer an interesting and extensive variety, sufficiently so as to make it an object for dealers and others to attend. |t:3^ Liberal Cash advances made on all consign- ments. Richmond, Oct. 9, 1833.— tf Is wanted immediately on my Coggins' Point Farm, on James River. High wage* will be given to one who possesses aU the qualifications of a Good Manager^ And who will discharge the duties well and conscien- tiously, and with proper care and attention to the wel- fare of the slaves, as well as to the interest of their owner. No general recommendations, or testimonials of character, will have any weight, unless accompanied, and referrrd to, by letters addressed specially to myself •Ibout 20 Ijdborers Will be employed on the farm. Corn and Wheat will be the only crops made for sale — on the four-shift rota- tion, with the general use of Clover and Plaster, and of Clover Fallow for Wheat, to some extent. EDMUND RUFFIN. Shellbanks, Prince George, Jan. 15, 1834.~ts Til US C. RICE, Tin & Slieet Iron Manufacturer, MARKET BRIDGE, Keeps constantly on hand an excellent assortment of all articles in his line — such as sheet iron Stoves, Stove Pipes and Kettles, with many varieties of Manufactur- ed Tin Ware. Also, Cast Iron Stoves of various pat- terns— all of which he will sell on liberal terms, and at reduced prices. N. B. —Painting and Japanning done at the shortest notice. Oct. 9, 1833— tf. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. VOL. I. mn^mm^wiD^ ^^mv^<^m^ n^'ua^ NO. 8. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR.— T. W. WHITE, PRINTER. ON HORIZONTAL PLOUGHING AND HILL-SIDE DITCHES. To ihe Editor of the Farmers' Resister. Horizontal trenchino:, the subject of a commu- nication in your last No. (6,) is an improvement of cardinal importance to the ao-riculture of a o-reat iiart of Virginia ; perhaps of the whole soutliern division of the union. And I was nuich pleased, in common I doulit not with many of your read- ers, in meeting with the description of tiie process furnished by your correspondent— a description which would enable an intelligent farmer to in- troduce it on his own estate, witliout the guidance of a successful example before him, or other aid than the directions there laid down. This, or some otlier mode based on the same principle, is, as for as the writer knows, tiie only one which has heretofore been used with perfect success for the preservation of soil on steeps. I have long been aware, that in many cases, horizon- tal ploughing alone, would not suffice for this pur- pose. It had fliiled of its promised advantages m so many instances, even when accurately and deeply done, as to discourage many judicious and enterprising farmers from adhering to its practice, without some partial change or addition. 1 he very exactness with which it was executed, often proved injurious — in retaining too much water — if not in producing gullies of which it was proposed as the preventive. This may at first appear strange; but let us present an illustration. Let us suppose a conical hill, which has been ploughed around from sum- mit to base in successive, concentric, horizontal circles. It is obvious here, that the soil, if of a re- tentive character, would often be nearly as much saturaled with the water falling on it, as if the whole were reduced to the level of its base. And if the furrows remained unbroken, and so no gully formed (which is quite imi)robable,) the redun- dant water would have to percolate by its gravity to the bottom ; which would generally leave it too wet, long after each heavy rain. Hence the pro- prietv of a graduated furrow, descending spirally from'top to bottom, to conduct off the superfluous water. Again. Attentive observers will have remark- ed that gullies are formed on hill-sides, when hori- zontal ploughing has been attempted, not always, (as is generally supposed,) by the water collecting at some low point in a badly executed furrow, and breaking through this to unite its force with that of the next succeeding one, and so on down. This is the continuation of the process; but it usually commences at a higher point. The rain which falls on the flat, or table land, on the top of a hill, will, in seeking its level, tend to the lowest point, so as to reach the heads of the small ravines which seam its side, where the surface is undulating; or so as to scrape the edge of the hill next its brow, where its side is uniform. No.w if this useless water escaped over the surface alone, the danger might be at once seen and guarded against. But Vol. I.— 57 it is chiefly absorbed by the soil ; and penetrating between it and the subsoil, collects in quantities, and presses heavily at some point near the heads of the above-mentioned ravines, and so breaks its way down. The astounded farmer sees the de- parture of his soil, and exclaims against horizon- tal ploughing as its cause. Whereas if he had combined with it the horizontal trenches or gra- duated furrows, as I have henrd them more pro- perly termed, his loss might have been averted. U any additional suggestion were necessary to those of JVlr. Bruce, I should suppose that the de- scent need not be arbitrarily fixed at the same de2:ree for all cases, but might vary with the cha- racter of the soil. It might be greater in propor- tion to its stiffness; sometimes admitting a fall of one inch in a span of the rafter level. I should propose too, that in no case where it could be avoided, a fiirrow be made perpendicularly down the side of a hill, but that the graduated one be carried " to the nearest branch or ravine," al- though half a mile off, or more. And when the arable surface of a farm is of an irregular charac- ter, it might be desirable to lay off the fields with reference^o this object. The hill-side plough is a superior implement to the common one lor making the furrows, as it always presents the mould-board to the base of the hill, and thus leaves less work for the hoes. The S[.ade-ditches require a needless expenditure of labor and are moreover inconve- nient for the reason assigned by Mr. Bruce. The writer knows of a number of hill-sides which have been prevented from washing by the use of the graduated furrow alone. Proverbially slow as any impro-vement in agri- culture travels, it is passing strange, that the pace of this in particular, should not have been quick- ened, wh«n the farms of so many who have heard of it, call so loudly for its adoption, and it so cheap and simple withal. Highly as the virtues of hori- zontal ploughing have been extolled, and far as they have been trumpeted, I do not remember to have seen this, its valuable auxiliary, alluded to in print more than twice, since its first trial in Vir- o-inia. The first instance, is in the American Farmer, Vol. 13th, page 43d ; where a correspon- dent (over the signature of Re Rustica,) gives a sketch of Mr. Skipwith's mode, and mentions another instrument for levelling. The other ap- pears in page 115th of the same volume, to which an article is transferred from " the Southern Ag- riculturist;" describing a similar process more particularly, but without any thing on the face of it, to enable the reader to judge whether the cor- respondent of the latter journal, was aware of its being practised elsewhere than in Georgia, from whence he dates his communication. The follov?- ing extract will give an idea of his plan. " No planter can wish to retain it, (the redun- dant rain,) but rather to pass it oil as quickly as possible, and with the least detriment to his soil, which cannot be so well done by any other ineans as horizontal ditches across his fields. By hori- zontal ploughing, the moderate and fertilizing 450 FARMERS' REGISTER— LAW OF ENCLOSURES, &c. showers of summer are retained for the benefit of the growins: crop or pasture ; and by horizontal ditches so located as to pass off to a "^neighboring: branch or ravine, the redundancy of ^^•ater that foils at any season of the year, the soil on our liill- sides may be made almost as safe and as durable as that on the level plains. This is not specula- tion. Several experiments are now making in this country, which have thus far abundantly established the utility of coml)ining the two, hori- zontal ploughing and ditching, and clearly show that the labor and expense of the latter is no im- pediment to its universal adoption. From the trial I have made, I suppose tliat half a dozen men, with .spades, aided by a good horse and plough, can make at least a quarter of a mile of such ditching a day. Ploughing up the eartli on the line marked out for the ditch, greatly facilitates the work, for it leaves the men Avith spades or shovels, nothing to do, but lift up the pulverised earth to the ejiibank- mentonthe lower side of the ditch, which need not be cut more than about one foot deep, and eigh- teen or twenty inches wide. The size, however, and the direction of every ditch cut for the purpose of protecting valuable iields from the destructive action of heavy rains, must be dictated by the ex- perience, and the discerning eye of the master, or manager. They should not be perfectly horizon- tal, but have such an inclination as to give to the flowing water a gentle current ; otherwise, a rapid accumulation might break the embankment below ; or without sufficient current to carry olF the gradual deposites of sand, &c. the ditch would be filled up." Mr. Bruce's communicatk)n will now dissemi- nate the knowledge of it to many a quarter, where it cannot fail to be useful. Perhaps the same principle might be advanta- geously applied to hill-side pasture land, as well as arable. Not, indeed, for preserving the soil, but for benefitting the turf, by retaining in shallow furrows more nearly horizontal, the surplus rain which ordinarily flowing off the surface, by tliis means might penetrate the soil and afford a supply of nourishment to the roots in seasons of dronght. The verdure oi' sloping yards or lawns could be improved in the same way, as Ave know that even meadows are made on hill-skies by taking the wa- ter out of some branch or creek at a hi-jher point, and conducting it around by a level ditch, so that by overflowing at selected jilaces, it may irrigate the land below. But it is time to stop a"^s my'^pon is ramblinir. MOTH WEEVIL IxV CORN AND WHEAT. To the Editor of the Farmers' llcgister. ■ Maijcox, Oct. 20{h, 1S33. When I Vv'as last at your house, I believe I j)ro- niised to give you the result of my observations in regard to v.eevii. Upon examination, I find my old coi-n to have very few, and the present crop to have decidedly more llian I have ever before ob- served. I am sure, that early thrashing and clean- ing, is the best way of preserving wheat fi'om in- jury by weevil : I think it not material whether i: be spread tlrin or Ijulked, if tiie wheat is dry. From a fear of getting my seed wheat mixed, I was later this year than usual in thrashing it, (though it was got out in August;) a part of it was nicely clean- ed as soon as thrashed, the remainder was suffered to lie in the chaff until the 1st and 2d of October ; in that which was cleaned I have not seen a weevil- eaten grain, whilst that remaining in the chaff, ex- hibited many before cleaning, and a very great increase since. Tn the course of my farming life, I have frequently entertained fears, that my seed wheat would not come up uell, from being too Vi'arm in the bulk; this month, in ciiaffingout my seed, I found a spot near the middle of the bulk, that was remarkably hot; from this, I selected fifty grains and planted them on cotton in a glass of v.ater, thirty-five came up and flourished, the remainder did not germinate. I have put seed wheat in water that ivas boiling hot, and suffered it to remain twelve hours, when it was sowed and came up well. This was done with a view of de- stroying the eggs of the Hessian fly, that I sup- posed might be on the grain. This very wheat was more injured in the spring than any I had. If tliese observations are worth your notice, you are at liberty to use them as you like. Very resjiectiully, ■VV. T. COCKE. ON THE I^AW OF ENCLOSURES IN VIRGINIA. To the Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. You have but lately set out in the publication of a j)criodical for the promotion of the interests of agriculture ; and truly the general circulation of such a work is desiiable. Most men are willing to receive instruction in the various farming ope- rations, by which they can not only labor with most ease and convenience to themselves, but make that labor most productive, and profitable. Yet, how often are our labor and capital misapplied, or even made subservient to the use of others, be- cause we have not been made sensible of the ad- vantages of change in our plans and practices. Custom and the example of our fath.ers have ri- velted upon us practices, which although they are injurious to our interests, are nevertheless unnoti- ced, because they are familiar. Such has been tiie blind devotion to old customs, that our law- givers seem never to have thought of protecting by legal enactments, the rights, property and in- terests of agriculture ; at least, they never seem to have thought it necessary to secure to the farmer tlie full and entire enjoyment of his rights and his property, v/hich other classes of our citizens enjoy. The mechanic can lay aside his tools, and no one dare take them up. But the farmer forsooih, can no sooner decide that a portion of his land wants recruiting and rest, than it is taken possession of, and ownership exercised by " Tom, Dick and Harry." Our systems of moral })hilosophy, teach us that no man has a right to use that, by the use of which, lie does an injury to his neighbor who has a better right to it than himself; but our code of laws have refined so much upon all moral obligations, and have extended their democratic principles so far, that no man's property can remain unoccupied by himself, with.out becoming the property and being suljected to the use of others. Is there any more reason that my land should be applied to tlie use of others, to my detriment, when I may choose for a season to dispense with its use, than that any arti- cle of my wardrobe, because not under lock and key, should be worn by another, as hen off my FARMERS' REGISTER— LAW OF ENCLOSURES. 451 shoulders? Or (hat any of my teams should be harnessed by another, when not actually ]aborins, I should more properly say, the want oi protection lor private property. Why, as has been before asked, should my land which I may choose to turn out to improve by rest, be taken possession of, and imj)overisr.ed by other people's stock? Or, why should I be compelled for th.e protection of my own crop, (o be at a greater ex- pense to enclose it, than my nci2,hbor's stock , which would otherwise prey upon it, would sell for? When, perhaps, my own stock, (as every farmer's should be,) are kept in an enclosed pasture, and are an expense to no one but myself Why do not our laws protect our property, even though it may not be in our immediate use? In many parts of Virginia, and even in many neighborhoods in this county, it is notorious that those frequently have the largest stock, who h.ave the least land to graze; and many are in the habit of buying up poor caltle at a reduced price, to sell out as beef, after being fattened on their neighbors' lands. I understand that in the northern states, where the rights of property have always been better under- stood, and better protected than with us, men arc expected and compelled to support their slock at their own expense. If they are iound on the com- mons, they are subject to a tax. I think it highly probable, moreover, that the disease called the Carolina distemper, which desolates many of our farms, may be kepi up by the mixing of the herds on the commons. It is in vain that we improve or.r lands by marl or other means, without some better leg;d regula- tions, whereby the industry and enterprise of som.e, shall not be thrown away for the benefit of others; otherwise, Virginia must ever feel the inconvenien- ces of improvement, hov/evcr slie may beast of her superiority. It has always been a matter of surprise with me, that our legislature, composed as it is of so much intelligence, and of men too, taken from tlie farm- ing interest, should while away so many long win- ters in proposing, and in gravely discussing the enactment of laws, many of which, with the well informed and practical farmer, only to serve to excite his risibility. Examine our code, and the still more useless proposals for enactments, and you scarcely find one for the protection of the farm- ing interest; and yet legislators and all, are ever deploring* the depressed state of agriculture. When I look over the list of our representatives for the next legislature, I see men who could do much on this subject, and uhy may we not expect that tiiey will? 1 know that the subject is a new one, and that it requires some independence to urge such innovations. But I hope th.at we have men who liave other, and higher objects, than mere popularity. Such a scheme might at the first blush be thought ruinous and impractieaM" ' m^ some reflection and calculation will convince the better informed of the contrary. In the first place, on the score of right and equity, no man should be iiermitted to use his neighbor's properly, because Ae docs not choose to be at the expense to enclose it — for what is his neighbor's, is not his, though it be nothing more than grass. It Vi'ill be found, moreover, that every farmer spends at least one 12th part of his lal.or, (to say nothing of the waste of tindier) in keeping up fences, not for the exclusion of his own, but his neighbors' stock; for I will venture to say, if there were no other stock than his own, he would make some other arrangement, V.' hereby he would save labor enough (aiid with a farmer, time is money,) to buy double the pork he uses. I have no hesitation in believing', that the time which is now spent in fencing, in Virginia, would be so employed as to buy double what the stock in the state would sell for. A fiirm for instance, v.hich would yield an income of :§2,000, under the present necessities for expending labor, would, were those necessities re- moved,' be capable of bringing in by fair estimate, one 12th more, or 5^2,166 (36. This additional amount of '^IQQ 66, would buy 3,320 pounds of jiork, which under ordinary circumstances, would 1)6 sufficient to supply tlie family of such a farm. I have gone upon the estimate that no hogs should be raised on our farms ; but that is by no means necessary. It is believed, that every farmer will find it to his interest, if he will make the ex- periment, to enclose a certain portion of his lands for grazing and pasture, and leave unenclosed all that which is under cultivation. In that way, each man labors for himself, and reap." the profits of his own labor and of his own property. Although the thing may appear to be a novel experiment to many, yet it has l;ecn put into practice in oth.er states, where the interests of agriculture are better understood and the profits more abundant than in Virginia. The estimate which lias b.cen made of one 12th of the profits of the fiirm which is now taken for fencing, any intelligent and practical farmer will allow to l;e moderate enough. Every farmer knows in what way he could spend that jjortion of his time most profitably. Were each one to de- vote one 12th of the year to the making manure, in addition to t!ie time now given, our farms would exhibit a very different appearance, and we could all very well afford to buy the whole of our pork, even if we should determine not to raise it. We should then not feel tliO absolute necessity of marl as a manure, however valuable it may be. The value of the timber which is annually con- sumed by fencing, is no inconsiderable item in the calculation, particularly in the tobacco growing district of Virginia, and should the present de- structive system be continued a few years longer, the timber alone will be consideretl a heavy ex- pense in fencing. No public enterprise has ever been undertaken, witliout first having it brought before t'le public mind for consideration and discussion. It is with this viev,',that these suggestions have been made, and I hope that some persons more competent than I am, will take up (he subject and press it upon the atten.lion of our legislature. It is time for justice to be done to that portion of our community, vvhich is the very nerve and lifeblood of the com- ■rionwealth. By it all (ho burdvns of governmenl 452 FARMERS' REGISTER— COTTON— AGRICULTURE, &c. are sustained. By it the naked are clothed, the hun^^ry are fed. And why should there be induce- ments held out by law for those who have not land, to prey upon him who has, or to compel him to labor at immense expense to secure to himself his crops, which the law should secure to him.^ A farmer may not wish to raise stock, or oven prefers enclosing them, and yet according to the existing state of things, he is compelled to labor to protect himself against those who have no right in equity to the privilege they now enjoy. w. j. n. Nottoway, Nov. 25th, 1833. [It is proper to state, that the foregoing communication was received, before the article on tlie same subject in No. 7, had issued from the press, and that neither of the two writers knew that he had an auxiliary so near. We are gratified that this subject has already engaged the attention of several of our correspondents.] ANSWER TO QUERIES ON COTTON. JVovember I9th, 1833. To the Editor of the Farmers' Recister. Feeling myself largely a debtor for the pleasure and valuable information I have received from reading the Farmers' Register, I will offer a small payment, by answering a few of the queries on the subject of cotton, contained in your last number. The best mode of planting cotton with which I am acquainted, is to wet the seed, roll them in old ashes until they are separated, and sow them with the hand on small ridges that have been o])oned with a wooden shank in the beam of a common plough ; then cover them with a coverer drawn on the top of each ridge by a horse. The coverer is made of a block of timber two feet long, sixteen or eighteen inches wide and four inches thick, hol- lowed out on the under part of the front end, to gather the loose earth over the seed, and left tlat on the after part 'to press down and smooth the earth — and having a hook or staple in front to draw by, and a pair of handles. The best time of planting, is from the 15th April, to the 1st of May: — The liest distance, is to have the ridges three feet apart, if on medium land — if richer, give more distance — if poorer, give less — and chop out with a common sized weeding hoe. The best kind of soil, is that commonly called good corn and wheat land— neither stiff nor very light. The method of cultivation that I prefer, and have successfully practised, is so soon as the cotton is well up, to run a small five-toolh cultivator, drawn by a single horse, as near the cotton plants as possible, going twice in each row. When the earth has selllod about the roots, either from rain or some days standing, then chop out as bef()re directed, leaving some ten or fifteen stalks between each chop, and removing all the grass that can be got at wilh the hoe : in a few days after, thin out to two stalks in each station, carefully pulling out all the grass that was left by the choppers. The second working I would also give with the culti- vator before the grass gels too strong. The third ploughing with a trowel-hoe plough, having long and narrow mould boards set level with the bottom of the hoe and reaching well behind it, and made to run so near the cotton, as to give it a small and neat ridge. 'J'hc fourth and last plouglsing may be performed with the same j)lough going three times m a row, or a single horse "turning" plough of the bar-share, or dagon order. Little or no hand- hoeing is necessary after the chopping, if the plough- ing be well executed. Top the plants from the first to the tenth of August. Many years experi- ence have convinced me that the stalks and hulls of the cotton, though turned under in time to rot, will not keep up the land, and that an occasional manuring is necessary. Well rotted stable ma- ntire, or old ashes, are the best kind of manure. Cow penning on cotton land, generally gives a largo growth of stalk the first year, but little in- crease of cotton. The third, fourth and fifth que- ries of your correspondent, I am unable to answer. W. T. C. For the Farmers' Register. ENCOURAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE BY THE LEGISLATURE OF VIRGINIA. The legislature of V'irginia, has always been peculiarly averse, to interfering in any way with the great and important subject of agriculture. This aversion may be traced to two grand causes. First — To that fundamental principle, which has always both in the state and federal legisla- tures, guided the Virginia politicians, viz : That government should leave tlie management of the internal concerns of the people entirely to them- selves, and that thus left, their affairs were most prosperous. Secondly — Along with this jealousy against the powers of government, one great rea- son why laws for the encouragement of agricul- ture are " so few and far between," may be traced to the character of the members of our legislature as agriculturists. Our legislative halls for years, have been filled with men, totally unacquainted with agriculture, and consequently, unable to pass laws for its encouragement. Our representatives have been taken, not as was Cincinnatus, from the plough, but from the bar. Not from the corn crib, but from the couilhouse, and thus we have more laws, on the subject of how laws are to be made, than useful enactments, bearing at once on the in- terests of the people : more debates on the reso- lutions of '98, or the resolutions of any other period, more flir-fetched arguments to support legal quibbles, than well applied truths to effect valua- ble results. And here 1 will say, that these characteristics in our legislators, may still be traced to deeper causes, lying at the very root of our internal concerns. The cause and effect act- ing and reacting in one another. Fathers do not make their sons agriculturists, and they do not make themselves such. Their ambition is directed not to pull fodder, and to secure the stafFof life, but, as orators, to gather laurels, by making long winded speeches, and to have their names in the newspa- pers either as A'^uZZ^yiers or i'"/n'o7i me?).: to make a noise in guarding the phantom of liberty with the sword of oratory, while lank poverty comes in like a strong man at their backs. But I will speak farther of the.se two causes. The first cer- tainly orignates in a principle which is sacred, and which should ever guide the counsels of the legis- lator. And honor is due to Old Virginia, for the firm stand she has taken on this subject. Go- vernment should be extremely cautious how it meddles in the internal affairs of the people — and the overwhelming energy and enterprise of a por- tion of our confederacy, has sacrificed too much prin- ciple on this subject. Good present results, should never warrant a sacrifice of principle. For the bad effects of the sacrifice, will ultimately overbalance FARMERS' REGISTER— ENCOURAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE, &c. 453 the present good effects. The most despotic decrees of Napoleon, could never have made France lo com- pete with the West Indies in the production of sugar, nor prepared the French people for a new em- ployment, to Avhich they had not heen previously hy habit accustomed. This principle, I say pro- perly applied; is correct. But Virginia has car- ried it too far: and while she fled from the evils, which always flow from a sacrifice of correct prin- ciples, she has neglected her real interests, in not applying the energy of laws, to the encouragement of agriculture. And thus great evil has resulted to the state. That the legislature of Virginia has the right to encourage agriculture by laws, I do not for one moment doubt : and it is not dilficult to make it appear. The great object of all laws, is to ad- vance the real interests of the people, and the real interests of the people, consists in the advancement of all those arts and sciences, which tend to their comfort ; and of all sciences there is none of more importance than agriculture. It is the science of sciences : The mighty Ajax which upholds and supports all. Has the legislature the right to en- dow a University, where the professions of law and medicine are taught.' This right is admitted. But upon whom pray does this knowledge thus acquired act.'' On the agriculturist, who must actually support those who practice these ;)rofe>sions. And amongst whom does the teacher find employment .'' The agriculturists. The husbandman suj)ports him. And shall we pass laws for the purpose of giving the teacher knowledge, while the taught are left neglected.' Shall we favor the supported, while the interests of the supporter are neglected.' But I may be told that the legislature cannot en- courage agriculture by laws. Here we are pre- pared to meet the objection with facts. I have heard this argument advanced in the legislature, and successfully answered. But we are now speaking of the power. And is not the power necessary to pass laws on the subject of agricul- ture, admitted every winter in the legislature.' Does it require more moral or physical power to cut a ditch, than to make a tobacco barn or clear a new ground.' And has not the legislature the same right to encourage the means of increasing the quantity of agricultural products, and the ju- dicious application of labor in farming, that it has to provide means of conveyance, or improve the facilities of conveyance. Nay, is it not a contra- diction in terms, and contrary to the true princi- ples of political economy, to pass laws for the pur- pose of cutting canals, and making roads, while nothing is done, to improve the agriculture of the very country for which these canals and roads are provided.' I know that improvement in convey- ance, will improve agriculture. But we must re- collect, that the very means for making the con- veyance, must come from the country lor which it is provided, and we must increase our means be- fore we can expect the conveyance. Then as the object and effects are the same, the legislature has an equal right to provide for both: The same right to encourage agriculture, that it has to make roads for the farmer to carry his produce to mar- ket. But let us reduce the idea to its first principle, and illustrate it by a simple comparison. To which subject does the individual farmer at home pay most attention ; To the improvement of his fields, or the making of roads and wagons.' The answer is obvious. Then, suppose for a moment, that all Virginia belonged to one man,Avould he not consider it his firsl duty to improve his poor lands, and would he not feel conscious that by so doing, he would increase his ability to make good roads and canals.' Now change this one man into a community of farmers, and divide this state amongst them : And have not this community of farmers, by their united power and wistlom, the right and j)Ower to pass laws for the improvement of their common country.' Certainly they have. But, can the legislature clo any thing for the im- provement of agriculture, by the enactment of judicious laws.' That it can, could be proved by a reference to jjrincijile. But here we have abun- dance of facts. And I would just turn the eye of the reader to all of the New England States, and to New York and Ohio. In these stales their le- gislative halls frequently assume the character almost, of agricultural societies. And while they provide for the security of the peace and the faith- ful administration of the laws, they ])ass enact- ments for the encouragement of agriculture ; Avell knowing that vice and idleness, will flee apace from the smiles of honest and untiring industry. Their law s fend to prevent sickness, in the body politic, nol to play the quack on a dying patient: Examine their codes and see their laws, and then turn to their country and see their infernal pros- perity, and say whether the legislature can do any thing to promote agriculture. Are you jealous of oppression.' Ask them if they feel their laws for the encouragement of agriculture to be oppressive, and they will tell you, that they owe all their j)ros- perity to these judicious laws. But, asks one, what kind of law s do you want.' In the first place, as the mind must be worked before the soil, we want the legislature to encourage agricultural so- cieties. The legislature of New York, has incor- porated a state agricultural society, and Ohio during the last session of her legislature, passed laws for the encouragement of countv agricultural societies. No community is better adapted to the formation of county societies, connectecl in one grand state agricultural society, than Virginia. Let this subject be once brought up before the le- gislature, and the sorts of encouragement to be given by the legislature will suggest themselves. Let us by legislative enactments, encourage socie- ties, and other judicious laws will follow in the wake. And let the first principle of these laws, be voluntary and not restrictive or compulsory. Let their tendency be, to throw open the doors of knowledge, ?/jw7n?o: entrance, while at Ihe same time, we are not driven. Let them be such, that those men who prate so loud of liberty, will have nothing to fear. Leaving each one perfectly at liberty, either to improve his own lantls, and raise his own bacon, or buy from Kentucky. These imperfect views lamely put together, have been suggested by the article in your October No., signed " R. N." on the "Spanish Thistle." I would fain add " my thunder" to his, in thunder- ing away those political wiseacres, who quarrel over the chaff, while the wheat is suffered to rot. I do sincerely hope, the day is not far distant, w hen " w indy orators," who " plant in their memories an army of good words," will give way to those who at home can plant corn, and in Richmond, can pass good laws, without so much gab. Political 454 FARMERS' REGISTER— NATIVE AND FOREIGN GRAPES. wisdom consists not in words, but in t!ie disposi- tion of things. I cannot conclude this article better than by giving; a quotation from a work by De Witt Clin- ton, Esquire, on New York. Speaking of the encouragement of agriculture by the legislature; he uses the following striking language. " Why do we refer to t!ie reign of the Antonines, when they guided the fortunes of the Roman Empire, and to that of Plenry IV, and Louis XIV, of France, as glorious periods in the annals of mankind.' Not for the fields that were contested, or the triumphal coKunns that were raised ; but for the cultivation of those arts and sciences that produce refinement, that multiply the blessings, the comforts, and the charms of civilization, that reveal the powers and faculties of a state, in every department of genius, enterprise and industry. Liberal disbursements on the part o/" government are requisite to produce these results. Agricultukk is the grand source of national wealth ; and there' is no science that makes a greater return for patronage. Our board of agriculture, holding a supervision over more than Jifiy county associations, which combine the talents, wealth and respectability of the state, furnishes an evidence of what may be done." And what is to give a great epoch to the history of Vir- ginia.^ Is it that from her Iiosom some of our gi-eat- est and best men have sprung.'' Baeotia can boast as much. Is it that she first agitates the presiden- tial question ; and rants early about politics. Pre- sident making and putting down.'' Is it that, Henry or Randolph or JeiTerson or Washington are the sons of Virginia? Is it that her sons have genius.' The boast of glorious ancestry is an empty boast, and [ may add disreputalile, where we have not inherited their wisdom. The history of Henry, Randolph, JeiTerson, &c. will not be the history of Virginia. But the light which their lives will shed forth in time to come, will but make the darkness of our history, as a state, more visible to posterity, and point out the radical de- fects ill our system of legislation and the empty qualific^ions of our legisiators. The laurels gathered by the display of eloquence, and mere acuteness of mind, where no eifects are produced, are constantly lading ; while talents applied to use- ful purposes, calling forth the energy of a i)eople to the accomplishment of great plans of internal im- provement, tell to the latest posterity, and engrave the names of such men, not merely on the tablets of fame; but on every mountain and plain in their country. V/ho is there wlio v.ould not be proud of the fame of De Witt Clinton.'' The farmer as he turns over the productive sod, and gives bread to his prattling infants, thanks heaven that he ever lived. Tlie boatman as he hastens on to market ladened with wealth, recalls his name. The dis- tant forests by the magic of his powers, brought as it were to the immediate neighborhood of mar- ket, resounds with his praise. The sailor, tar out on the ocean, with sv.eliing sails, and a rich cargo, destined for a foreign maiket, thinks of Clinton. From one corner of this i'epu1)lic to the other, and from one kingdom to another, he is called great. For what he said.' No. But for what he did. Improvement in agriculture, is to give an epoch to the charactei'^f our state — to its history. But until strict attention is paid to this subject, and the people in their legislative capacity take it up, we cannot do much. Are we inferior to New York, in local and moral advantages? In the first, we are superior; in the last, equal. Our climate is delightful. Our products, various and rich, con- Inning the productions of the north and south. Our soil so fertile, that, like a strongman in self defence, it has risen up against the knives of its murderers, and in spite of a sj)irit of impoverish- ing devastation, presents its native energies as the means of restoration. And if the same hand, which was raised to strike the blow, will now come up to its aid, what may v*e not expect? There is evideiitly a great change effected in Virginia, on the subject of agriculture and gene- ral internal improvement. Many causes are com- bining to hasten results. There is in many places increased attention to agricultural societies. New societies have been formed, and old ones which v.ere long neglected have been revived, and pro- fessional young men, of first rate abilities, have in many parts of our state, come out the friends of internal improvements; and become practical and experimental agriculturists. And may I add, your excellent publication, is evidently deepening the impression and arousing the sleeping energies. And if our legislature will take up this subject, we may expect great results. What may we not ex- pect with our present advantages. "Human strength is never known until tested. The com- pass of national power is proved, when the hour of trial arrives." When Virginia awakes, it will be with the strength of a giant, and when her powers are brought fully into play, and a spirit of improvement is fully diffused amongst her people, then, and not till then, v/ill she take her stand, the first in this confederacy — the key stone of the arch binding all together — the rock upon which shall be reared the strong hold for liberty, happiness and independence. The coming legislature in Virginia, will be ever remembered in the annals of this state, for I pre- sume it will give the finishing stroke towards the completion of the scheme of the James and Kena- wha improvement. And shall we find no one there, who will breathe the name of agriculture ? Will there be no practical farmers in the next le- gislature of Virginia, feeling the importance of this subject, and ready to aid it, by legislative en- actments. If nothing else can be done, let the subject be introduced and discussed; and the light tiius shed on it, must have the most favorable re- sults. Discussion must call out facts, and facts constitute truth ; and truth fully known, must have its legitimate effects. " Truth is powerful and must ])revail." T. B. McR. November 29, 1833. NATIVE AXD FOREIGN GR.\PES. To the Etlkor of the Fanners' Register. Essex County, Nov. IGih, 1833. The culture of the grape has excited considera- ble interest in the United Slates within the last ten or fifteen years ; importations of tiie vine have been made from almost every vine-giowing coun- try ; several hundred varieties have been offered for sale, and not unfrequently we have been told, that they are adapted to our country, climate and soil. In 1823, from the flatterino- accounts I had seen published of the success of the culture of the grape in the United States, for wine, eating, &c., I FARMERS' REGISTER— NATIVE AND FOREIGN GRAPES. 455 was induced to try its culture. Vines were order- ed from those nurseries that were considered best, some of wluch were in oUier slates. The kind mostly ordered was of the Caiawba, for wine; the other varieties were those that had been highly recommended for eating". My g'rape bill f()r that year was ^21 70. Next year, 1824, I ordered a much larger number of vines, mostly Cafawba again, for wine; luit the number and variety of those for eating were considcral)]y increased. My grape bill for that year was .§83 25. Tliose for eating were })laced in the garden ; those for wine on a poor piece of land, which was intended to be improved; l>utl became unsettled in mind wheth- er I should move to the west, or remain inVirginia ; and one or two years elapsed without much atten- tion to the vineyard, during which time some re- marks were tlirown out in congress, which indu- ced me to believe, that the high duties on win ' would be very much reduced, if not entirely ta- ken off, at some day not far distant. I therefore pulled up the vineyard, and distributed the vines amongst my acquaintances. Those that had been planted in the garden had received more attention — they came to hand labelled, and as they were j)lanted out, they were carefully noted, so as to know the different varieties ; and before they be- gan to bear, a good many of the cuttings had been given away, under the impression that they were what they had been received for; but in this there was a great mistake. Not one half of them were what they had been received for; but as the mis- takes were detected, others were ordered to supply their places ; but the Isabella and Catawba (native grapes,) so far surpassed the others, one year with another, in productiveness, and maturing their fruit, tliat I had nearly all the other varieties, both native and foreign ones, dug up and thrown out oi' the garden. JNIy unfavorable ojjinion of foreign grapes, I believe, is similar to that which has been, within a few years, expressed by many others living in different parts of the United States. For wine, the native grape is considered decidedly su- perior. Even in Florida, it is said the French and Spaniards have in many places dug up their imported ones, and are turning their attention to the culture of the native grape. Of the Ibreign kinds I should prefer the two white varieties v,e had before the recent importations, the Summer Sweetwater and White Sweetwater ; they were generally called English grapes, by way of dis- tinguishing them from the common grapes of our country ; and for aught 1 know, were brought here by the first settlers of our country. If so, and time can acclimate them, they may be considered as acclimated, and should be preferred to those of the same kinds that have been recently imported. These two varieties, when well matured, I believe, arc generally esteemed as the finest grapes known in our country ; but I have seldom seen them come to that state of maturity to render them superior to some of our native varieties, and the product is al- ways small compared to them. They are said to succeed better in our large towns than in the coun- try ; and I should suppose so from some pulilica- tions that I have seen. A description of these grapes is unnecessary, as they are so generally known ; but it may not be amiss to state the many names by which they are known. Mr. Prisice, in one of his old catalogues of grapes, calls one oi these grapes Early Wliite Muscadine, or Summer Sweetwater ; the other White Sweetwater. In one of his late catalogues, he says the names given to the Chassclas grapes, by European publicatioiis, contain such a heterogeneous mass of contradic- tions, that no correct decision can be formed from them. He then proceeds to give a good many names by which they are called, some of wliich I will repeat, viz : Early Sweetwater, Ji/ugust Sweet- icater, White Sweetwater, (names used in the United States and in England,) Early White Muscadine, IVliHe iMuscadine, jJmber Muscadine. The other one, fVhite or Golden Chassclas — in England, jD. ^Jrbois, or D. j:/royse Royal Musca- dine. Of the native ones, I should prel'er the Isa- bella and Cataw b.a as I have slated. Mr. Prince, in his catalogue of grapes. No. 385, says the " Is- abella grape is said to be a native of South Caroli- na, and was introduced to this state (New-York,) by Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, the lady of George Gibbs, Esq. of St. Augustine, who then resided at Brook- lyn, Long Island, and in honor of that lady has been called Isabella grape. It is a dark purple fruit, of a large size, oval form, and juicy, and equals some of the secondary European grapes ; and for vigor of growth, and an abundant yield, exceeds any other yet cultivated in this country, and requires no protection during the winter season. General Joseph Swift informed me, that a single vine in his garden produced above eight bushels, during several successive seasons. In some in- stances vines have been stated to have produced a still greater quantity, and large vines of this kind, producing astonishing crops, are now to be met with in -various parts of our country. There is no grape which will yield a greater quantity on a giv- en space, or that can lie made more lucrative in cultivation for market, than this kind. It also promises to t ike an important stand in tliis coun- try for the purpose of making wine, as it possess- es the requisites to insure success in making wine of a fiiir quality, or for making brandy equal to that of France. I have made wine from it of ex- cellent quality, and which h.as met the approbation of seme of the most accurate judges in our coun- try. Indeed this grape, of which but a single vine existed in any garden in 1816, and which I, at that time, met with in tlie possession of the gen- tleman before mentioned, and deemed worthy of notice and a name, has now become disseminated to the remotest parts of the union, and has been sent to a number of the countries of Europe, and to Madeira, &c. ; although it has never been offer- ed to the public as on an equality with the highly cultivated and delicious table grapes of France, still it offers to any one who chooses to plant it, a plentiful crop of j)leasant fruit, without requiring from him the least care, or needing in winter the least protection, however cold may be its situation. I have also ascertained that the bunches may be dried, as raisins, with the greatest facility, and that they may be preserved in dry sand, sav^-dust, or any other similar substance, for months, in the most perfect state. In regard to pruning, which, to a certain degree, is advantageous with all vines, it has been remarked in relation to this, that if the vines are much trimmed at the summer pruning, the fruit is very apt to rot and fall off. A peculi- arity exists with regard to several of our native varieties, which is particidarly exemplified in the Isabella; it is that of being twice-bearing, or of producing a second crop of fruit on the shoots of 456 FARMERS' REGISTER— NATIVE AND FOREIGN GRAPES. the same year, which is frequently the case witli this vine ; but the grapes seldom attain to maturi- ty, unless in a season when the autumnal frosts are long protracted." The berries of this grape are about three-fourths of an inch in length, and between one-half and three-fourtlis of an inch in diameter. They com- mence ripening with me about the 25th of August, and continue until sometime in October. Pr. Cat. No. 377, " Catawba. — Tliis is a large grape, of a lilac color, and in some situations, co- vered with a beautiful bloom, giving to it a blue- ish j)urple appearance. The berries have a slight musky taste and delicate flavor, hang loosely on the bunches, which are of good size; and in tact, they are beautiful to the eye, very abundant bear- ers, make excellent wine, and are tolerable for the table. The pulp diminishes and almost disappears when they are left on the vine until they attain to perfect maturity. The color of the fruit is much varied according to its relative exposition ; such as are fully exposed to the sun's rays is purple; that but partially exposed is of a lilac hue, and those clusters that are completely obscured and shadeil, are nearly white, and the berries almost transpa- rent; even in this latter position, where, of course, the maturation is retarded, the fruit is sweeter, but is devoid of that musky flavor which is acquired by that portion fully exposed to the sun and heat. It is more early in ripening than the Bland, and the berries and clusters are of equal, and often ra- ther large size. Although this grape is said to be from the Catawba, still there is much uncertainty on that point, as I am informed by Thomas M 'Call, Esq. of Georgia, a gentleman now far advanced in years, that in his boyhood he knew the Cataw- ba from its source to where it loses its name in that of the fVateree, and (hat no such grape was known there. Mr. Adlum states, that he procured it from Mrs. Schell, at Clarksburg, Montgomery County, Maryland, and that the family informed iiim it was called by this name by the late JNlr. S. ; but they knew not whence he procured it. The vine in Mrs. Schell's garden has produced, in one season, about eight bushels of grapes ; and eleven vines, belonging to Joshua Johnsonstone, Esq. of the same state, and which were reared from that o( Mrs. S., have already produced about thirty bush- els of fruit at one time. The grape called by Mr. Adlum, Hed iMurray, and found by him wild in Maryland, and also in Lycoming County, Penn- sylvania, proved to be very similar to this kind. Mr. A. considers this grape to be worth all others, indigenous or exotic, as a wine grape, and that a greater variety of wines may be made from it than from any other." The berries of this grape are rather over one- half inch in diameter. They ripen about the tiine of the Isabella, and I find some prefer eating this to the Isabella; but it is not so with me. I will make one more extract respecting these grapes, which is from the Albany Argus, as re- published in the Richmond Enquirer of 1829: — " Of the wine grapes, Capl. Fay prefers the Cataw- ba, concurring with Maj. Adlum of Georgetown, in this respect. This is a native of North Caroli- na, and is considered the best wine grape in tlie United States. It is a very great and certain bear- er. But of the grape, the preference is given, among us, to the Isabella : indeed, of all the vari- eties for our yards, piazzas and small gardens, it has obtained a decided preference. As an article of diet, few fruits are so palatable, nutritious or harmless, as the grape. If ripe, they may be free- ly taken on the most delicate stomach, and in some countries— say Italy, Switzerland and France — they constitute, during their season, the most im- portant article of diet. A gentleman assures us, that twice, during attacks of severe bilious fever, he literally lived upon Isabella grapes for a fort- night; that he ate them without restraint, and without any ill elTect ; and that they were the only food his stomach craved, or retained without in- jury." The JVhite Scuppernong grape is said to be a native of the southern part of the United States. In my attempts to raise this grape, 1 have been very unfortunate, having repeatedly purchased vines, but never succeeded in getting but one to live before last spring, and that one was ingrafted the year before upon a *S7oe grape, that had thrown out a good many shoots a little below the surface of the earth, and though many were inserted, only one lived. I am told it will not succeed when in- grafted upon our common vines. The Sloe, I ima- gine, belongs to the Scuppernong family, for the vine and foliage very much resemble the Scupper- nong. The White Scuppernong, in the 9th vol. of the American Farmer, is stated by a gentleman living in North Carolina, to be of the "dioecious species, and in order to obtain crops, it is necessa- ry to have vines of both sexes." Some time after the publication of this piece, I wrote to one of the most intelligent horticulturists of our state, to know his opinion : in reply, he said all his were females or bearing ones, and he had not found it necessary to have both sexes, for his bore abundantly. I hope some of the readers of tlie Farmers' Register will give us some infor- mation on tins subject, as this grape is held in such high estimation to the south. Let us have some facts: Are there no White Scuppernong vines to the south, that are remote from all other grape vines of every kind, and that are productive.'' As a description of this grape may be interest- ing, I will give the shortest one I know — it was written by a Virginian, Pr. Cat. No. 398, imme- diately after the one written by a gentleman in North Carolina. " The wood is smooth and re- markably hard, rarely exhibiting that shaggy ap- pearance of the bark usual with most other vines; the bark of the old wood is of a light iron color — that of the young wood, is of a bright hue, mark- ed with small specks of a grayish white ; the leaf is finely indented or serrated, and highly glazed, both above and below ; it is tough and durable, re- maining attached to the stem until the hardest frost. The lierry is of a greenish white color, the skin of a satin-like texture, varied by minute chocolate colored dots. It is pulpy, but easily dissolves in the mouth, and is of a honey-like sweetness, and musky flavor and scent. The berries are congre- gated in bunches of from two. to six each, the weight of the largest being eighty grains, and the smallest forty grains. The vine is a great grower and abundant bearer ; its flowers have nootlor; and it ripens its fruit here (Virginia) the last week in Sejjtember. The fruit differs from the Black Scuppernong only in respect to color." It appears from the foregoing statement that the Scuppernong does not ripen as early as the Isabella and Cataw- ba ; if so, it would be valuable to cultivate with FARMERS' REGISTER— NATIVE AND FOREIGN GRAPES. 457 them, as it would form somewhat a succession of valuable fruit. Cons/ani ("a.— This f>;rape I received of Mr. Ad- lum. The growth of the vine, the foliage, and the appearance of the grape, a short distance off, resembles the Isabella, but it proved an inferior eating grape to that; and I had the vines dug up and thrown out of the garden. It has long been considered one of the tinest wine grapes in the United States. Mr. Prince considers this variety the jflexaiider Schuylkill Muscadcl, Spring- 3Iill Constantia, Cape of Good Hope, Zasker's grape, and states it is a native of the vicinity of Pliiiadel- phia. But Mr. Adlum differs with Mr. Prince in thisopinion : hethinksthe Alexander or Schuyl- kill Muscadel,and the Spring Mill Constantia, dif- ferent varieties, but very much alike ; but liis im- pression is they are native grapes. Bland's Grape. — This grape, I am inclined to believe, is the same grape that has been cultivated in this part of the country for many years, under the name of the Purple English — it was one of the few that was suffered to remain in my garden when so many varieties were destroyed ; but sub- sequent experience has proved it a very unprofita- ble grape to cultivate, compared to the Isabella and Catawba. Mr. Prince, in his Cat. No. 374, says this grape is known in different parts of the United Stales, by various names: Bland's Pale Red, Powel's Powal, Bland's Fox Grape, Bland's Virginia, Bland's Madeira, Red Scuppernong, Carolina, Mazzei Grape, and in some districts of Virginia, called Red English Grape. He states " the foliage of the vine is of a pale green hue, the bunches are shouldered or divided, and are five or six inches in length, and sometimes more. The berries are of a round or oblate form, of a pale red color, good size, juicy, sweet, and of very pleasant flavor. In some cases they are said, at full ma- turit)% to become of a dark purple or red wine co- lor. It is an agreeable table fruit, with a thin skin, and little or no pulp." He suj)poses it a na- tive grape, and says it was first discovered by Col. Bland, on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, and that he strongly suspects further examination will prove that this variety is found wild in more than one state in the union. I imagine it is unnecessary to proceed any further with a description of the dif- ferent varieties, as I believe I have enumerated those varieties that have gained the highest repu- tation in the United States ; but there are other varieties held in high estimation by some. The grape is frequently propagated by cuttings. This is done by making choice of such shoots as are strong, with short joints, and well ripened, of the growth of the preceding season, in length ten or fifteen inches, and planted with one end as deep as it can be, to leave one eye or bud above ground. In this way I have planted a great many, and they succeed very well if a wet spring; but I have found but few to live in a dry spring. Some, it is said, raise them from single eyes or joints, by cut- ting the vine off about an inch above and i>elow the joint, and planting them a few inches below the surface of the earth, and keeping the place moist until they come up. I have never tried this way, but I think it not improbable it would answer very well. Propagating by layers is a very convenient and sure way, and one that I have often tried. This is done by covering up a part of the growing vine Vol. I.— 58 to take root, and the young green shoots of the same season will serve as soon as they are long enough. They should be buried a few inches be- low the surface, leaving a few inches of the top out. They will soon take root; and if it be done in the spring or sunmier, they will have fine roots by the fall to plant out. Propagating by ingrafting is also a very conve- nient way, and probably the most speedy one of getting abundant crops. Some years past I had some large old native vines, sawed off a few inches below the surface of the earth, and tlie roots cleft and grafts inserted; but few lived, and those did not grow off well. Shortly after, a piece appear- ed in one of our agricultural papers, recommend- ing gimlet grafting ; and as well as I now recollect, the piece was written by a jMJrson living in the north-west part of New-York. He directed the vine to be sawed off a few inches below the sur- face, and a gimlet hole bored about one inch and a half deep into the root, the scion to be trimmed to fit the hole, and gently driven in; then the root to be covered with well tempered clay, over which the loose earth was to be drawn, taking care to leave the bud of the graft a little above ground. After this publication, a person owning an exten- sive nursery to the north, recommended the same^ which induced me to try the experiment largely. In large roots fixe and six grafts were insci-ted. The number inserted for myself and others, mostly of the Isabella and Catawba, could not have been less than five hundred, out of which only one lived the summer through, and that one perished away in the fall for want of nourishment. Since then, a gentleman living in the state of South Carolina, and said to be one of the most successful cultiva- tors of the vine in our country, has recommendetl this way in a letter dated in 1829, and published in the American Faimer. But if this be a good method, I cannot account for my complete failure. The ingrafting was commenced very early, and occasionally continued through the season ; and I think the directions were fully complied with in all respects. Some few of the roots that had been ingrafted, died in the course of the year; the oth- ers threw out a great many fine sprouts, and the succeeding year they were cutoff within about an inch and a half of the old root, and in them were inserted grafts of the same varieties, that were tried the preceding year, and in all other respects treat- ed as they were before. They grew off finely, and all but one on each side of the large roots were pulled off, and before the frost had set in, mfjst of them were from ten to fifteen feet long, and some few from twenty to thirty feet. I am therefore inclined to believe, it is best to cut the vine off, and let it throw out sprouts and ingraft to them. The winter, I should suppose, to be the best time to cut them off; but as some few vines are apt to die from being cut, and it may be important to save them on account of tiieir favorable situation, they can be cut parlly off, which will cause them to throw out sprouts and prevent their dying. As the young vines are apt to be injured by grazing animals, they should be cut off the winter preceding the one that the land is to be fallowed for corn. The sprouts will then be ready to ingraft upon when the field will come under cultivation; and they will also be more convenient to attend to, as the sprouts from the old roots will require pulling off the first year, to prevent their over-running the 458 FARMERS' REGISTER— NATIVE AND FOREIGN GRAPES. grafts. Not unfrequently are seen a great many large, flourishing, worthless vines, near buildings, that could be so easily converted into profitable ones, that it is a pity they should be suffered to re- main as they are. At a farm I have, within two hundred yards of the buildings is an old grave- yard, in which no person, I belie\ e, has been buri- ed for the last fifty years; but not wishing to culti- vate over it, and as it had grown up in trees and vines, and looked unsightly, a few years past I liad the large trees cut down, the small ones topped, and the vines ingrafted. The spot now adds to the beauty of the farm, and is becoming profita- ble. 1 have found no advantage from ingrafting the foreign grape on the native: (he first ones in- grafted grew off finely, and the prospect was truly flattering; but the winter killed them. They were again ingrafted as before; the weeds and grass were kept from shading the grafts, and the leaves of the graft, for several feet from the ground, were stripped off, so as to let the sun mature tlie wood as much as possible. The growth proved luxuriant, the wood soft and spongy, and they Mere again mostly killed during the winter. Those that lived were seriously injured, and killed nearly down to the ground, since which, they have con- tinued very unpromising. "With respect to the future management of native vines, after they are planted or ingrafted, it is unnecessary to say much, as they require but little care or attention compa- red to foreign ones; and I must refer those who wish to cultivate the foreign ones, to those who have written on the subject. The ingrafted root, as I have stated, must have the sproufs pulled oft' the first year, to prevent their over-running the grafts ; and if the ingrafting be done several inches below the surface of the earth, and the sprouts carefully pulled off from the old root, (and not broken off" near the surface of the earth,) and the grafts should grow off finely during the year, the old root will seldom if ever throw forth another sprout. Those intended to run on living trees, should have the trees topped to ten or twelve feet in height, so as to give tiie vine a chance to overrun them. If the root be vigorous, several years will elapse before the vine will require trimming. 1 have none that I think yet require it ; but when they do, I think it probable I shall make short work of it, by cutting off some of the largest and oldest branches, with a saw or hatchet. Vines planted in a garden should receive more care and attention than those planted at a distance from build- ings. Probably it would be as w ell for me to state how I have managed mine; others can adopt a dif- ferent plan if they think best. My garden con- tains one acre of land ; it is divided into six squares of equal size, through the middle of Avhich is the main Avalk, ten leet w ide, opposite to the south door of my house. Along this walk I determined to plant my vines, and after some reflection, I came to the conclusion to plant them fourteen feet apart, across the walk, and to have a post on the inside of each vine one foot, making, from the outside of one post to that of the other, twelve feet, and to have them apart, the other way, eight feet. After fixing the distances, a great difliculty presented itself I had ordered the finest varieties, both of the native and of the ibreign ones, sui>posed in our country ; but the order in w hich the dillerent varieties should stand along the walk, and the number of each va- riety, was far^ very far_, beyond my sight ; but one thing was full in view — any vines proving worth- less would have to be dug up, which would destroy the beauty of the walk for years. The nature of the didicidty was such as not to be overcome Init by exiicrimcnt ; and to relieve myself from a state of pcr|)lexity and vexation, 1 came to the conclusion, as tlie native grapes were said to be the most flour- isiiing, to begin with them next to the house door. The Catawl)a was first planted on each side of the walk, opposite to each other : after the Catawba, the Isabella in the same way ; after which the other varieties. After a few years, the Catawba and Isabella pro- ved so much more i)roductive than the others, that I had all the others, except a lew at the Air end of the walk, dug uj), and the Isal)ella planted where liiey stood. They are now becoming very pro- ductive ; but as yet no frame for some of them has been erected. The Isal)ella and Catawba that were first planted, have an excellent frame, ex- tending in length about one-third the length of the walk. It is supported by cedar posts, from eight to ten inches in diameter, the ends of which, previous to their being planted, having been suffi- ciently charred to destroy the sap, without which the saji would have soon rotted, and the posts would have become loose. The charring will probably also add to their durability. The plates are made of chesnut, and five I)y seven inclies square, and run lengthwise of the walk. The cross pieces are also of chesnut, three inches square, and twelve feet long, and are nailed to the plates at each end, two feet from the centre of each other, making twenty-one inches apart. Across these pieces, lengthwise of the walk, on the upper side, were nailed cedar poles split in half, at the same distance apart as the cross pieces. The poles selected were those that had the most heart, and about three inch- es in diameter. The height of the frame is seven feet to the top, so that a person standing on the ground, can select any bunch he desires. I would recommend to any person erecting one like this, to place their cross pieces each way six inches nearer than I have mine, as I find that heavy rains are apt to beat some of the ends of the branches through. The fi-ame, or trellis, if desired, can be (en feet wide, instead of twelve ; but less in width would not look well, nor would it give sufficient room for vigorous vines unless planted further apart than I have recommended. A flat frame, I think, should he preferred to one raised in the middle, ihr it is more easy to make ; the fruit is more convenient to get, the free circulation of the air in the garden is not so much obstructed ; the vines are not so easily injured by the winds; and it looks as well or bet- ter, as it has fewer naked places, and those few not so much exposed to view, and the vines are more easily trimmed, and do not require one half as much tying to keep them in their places. In trimming, we o^et upon our frame or trellis in the winter, and walk all over it, and cut out as much of (he old wood and the immature shoots as possible, but ta- king care to leave as many of the finest shoots of the growth of the preceding season as will do to tie down to (he frame from twelve to eiglfteen inch- es apart, which shoots we generally shorten (o ten or fifteen eyes ; but sometimes Ave are compelled to have more, sometimes less, so as to fill up inter- vals. As the frame or trellis which I have described, may not suit the convenience of all, I would sug- FARMERS' REGISTER— TILLAGE OF INDIAN CORN. 459 gest a more simple one. A frame only five feet liigh, so as not to obstruct the view of the garden ; the posts of wliich sliould be about six inches in diameter, and made of cedar, locust, or some otlier durable timber; and the ends intended to go into the ground, should lie charred and planted ten feet apart. There should be three rails from post to post, one of which shoukl be two feet from the ground; one within a few inches of the top; the other, half way between them. They should be let into the posts and pinned, to prevent their slip- ping out. Good heart cedar poles, about three inches in diameter, will be found very convenient and durable for tlie rails. ^ ines for a frame of this kind, I should suppose, ought to be topped and tied to the post, as soon as they are long enough to reach the upper rail, and all the buds rubbed off of the stem except six, two of which should be left near each place where the rails enter the post, so that the branches from the six buds could be easily trained to the railings on each side of the post; the branches to each rail should be tied in three places — once, half way between the posts, and again, on each side of that, half way between that place and the post. But vines tied in this way, I have found, are apt to keep slipping, until they get to the under side of the rading, alter whicii (he strings alone have to support them ; and not unfrequently, from the weight of the grapes and vines, the strings give way, and the grapes are ruined. I would therefore suggest another way to tie them, which I think preferable to the foregoing, and one that I have never seen recommended. Let each rail have three auger holes bored through it from the top to the bottom, at the same places that they have been directed to be tied; then put the vine over the au- ger hole on tlie upper side, and take a white oak split, or bark of some kind, and run the two ends through the auger hole, one on each side of the vine, and bring the ends up on each side of the rail and tie tliem at top. The middle tie should confine the ends of the two branches, each one of which should pass (he auger hole one eye or bud. This would confine the branches to the top of the rail, and the shoots from the branch would hang on each side of the rail, and balance each other, even if the strings should give way. The ensuing winter, as these branches must be cut off, provision should be made to supply their places, which can be done by leaving in the spring one of the finest shoots on each of the six branches, within an inch or less of the stem, and rubbing off (he other shoots near it. The branches lied to the railing should be cut off within about an inch of the stem ; this will form six spurs about an inch in length, fi-om each of which a shoot should be annually raised to sup- ply the place of the one to be cut olF. The reason why shoots should be raised annually, is because nearly all the fruit is produced from the shoots of the year, thrown forth from the growth of the pre- ceding year — each eye generally producing a shoot with three or four bunches. But should there be any barren shoots, they should be rubijed off. 1 do not know that it is necessary for me to say any thingon the culture of the vine, as my remarks have been mostly confined to those ingrafted upon the native stock, which will require none, and those planted in a garden, Avhich will of course be cultivated as the garden is. But I will merely state it is the opinion of European writers, that working vines when in bloom is apt to cause tlie blight of the blossoms. How far this is applicable to our native grapes, I am not prepared to say ; but I have frequently observed them, not only to shed their bloom, but even their young grapes, in those places where the vines are left so thick as, in a great measure, to exclude the sun and air from the bloom. Decayed vegetable matter, lime, ash- es, &c. are thought valuable manures for vines; but not animal manures, unless applied in small quantities at a time. These are said to cause the grapes to rot. This I believe correct, for I think I have seen this the case in my own garden. The longevity of the vine is said to be very great — that of several hundred years — if so, we l)lant not only for ourselves and our children, but tor generations to come. I hope you will excuse the length of this com- munication, as the grape is more generally esteem- ed than most any fruit we have, and as yet but lit- tle lias been said in the Farmer's Register on this subject. Yours, respectfully, EDMUND F. NOEL. Oy THE TILLAGE OF INDIAN CORN. To the Editor of tlie Faniiejs' Register. In the sixth number of the Register, from an essay on corn culture, 1 perceive a request for the information and experience of others on this head, which induces me, though it may appear like pre- sumption in one whose knowledge is so limited, to offer his system, or opinions, as a criterion for oth- ers ; nevertheless, 1 am emboldened to take this course ; first, by a disposition to lend my feeble aid in support of a puidication from which much good has already been derived, and ?io doubt, much more may be anticipated : secondly, as the Al- mighty has created men dependent creatures, and established among them social relations, I deem ic a duty incumbent on every member of the human family, to impart that information to others from which benefit has been derived, and which it is no longer their interest to withhold; for, doubtless, there is scarcely any one, however limited his sphere may be, who, in the course of life, has not stumbled on something original, worthy of being made public. When I commenced farming, it was without theory or practice — indeed, like one on the ocean, without quadrant, chart or compass. My farm was the mere skeleton of an originally fertile soil, which had been reduced by the old fashioned three- shift and grazing system, in addition to other bad management. It is very broken, and has a great variety of soil, generally stiff, and a considerable portion of it red clay. The first year, I Iiad no opportunity before Christmas, of making prepara- tion for the succeeding crop : in January, the fal- lowing for corn commenced, with what is called the 1-| D plough, using two or three mules, ac- cording to the difficulty of draught. By the first of April, with "scuffling," and hard driving, I managed to get through with the fallow : the next thing was, to get my corn in the ground, which was commenced by laying off my land one vvay, with the trowel plough, the rows five feet and a half asunder, running E. N. E and W. S. W., which is the course to be preferred, where the land will readily admit of it, for the following reasons — that, in the latter part of spring, and early in the summer, the prevailing winds with us, are from 460 FARMERS' REGISTER— LITERARY MARKET OF THE U. STATES. the southward and westward, and in the latter j)art of summer, and early in autumn, the heavy oales, from Avhith most evil is to be apprehended, are from the northward and eastward, so that the air has free circulation, and the corn is not as liable to be blown down ; and if it should, one stalk will support the other. Another reason is, that the corn, by affording a partial shade to the roots, is not as much exposed to the scorchin Crucible and convert- ed into Carbonate, of which there resulted 31 grains. 4. To the remaining solution, a solution of pure Carbonate of Potash was added. The mixture was transferred to a large flask, and boiled until the odor of Ammonia ceased to be exhaled. More Carbonate of Potash was added, and the boiling renewed; the odor of Ammonia soon ceased, and a further addition of the Carbonate produced no smell of Ammonia. The liquid was filtered while hot, and the white precipitate of Carbonate of Mag- nesia, collected on the filter, when dried and weigh- ed, amounted to 18 grains. The results, though not accurate to a small frac- tion of a grain, may be summed up as fblloAvs : Carbonate of Lime, - - 31 grains. Carbonate of Magnesia, - 18 " Silica, - _ _ - 7 'c Alumina, - - - - 3 " — 59 grains. Loss, - - - - 1 " — 60* grs. * similar proportions of lUU grams, (inste.ul of 60,) would stand as follows : Carbonate of Lime, - - - - 51 § Carbonate of Magnesia, - - - 30 Silica and Alumina, - - - - 16| Loss, -.-.... ij —100 [Ed. F. R. Should the above account of this analysis be thought likely to subserve the objects of your Re- gister, you are at liberty to assign it a corner in the next or succeeding number. I think, howe- ver, that the details would probably have but little interest lor general readers, and therefore the sum- mary may be sufficient. The processes I have pursued are the most accurate that have yet been devised for that difficult operation in analysis — the separation of Lime from Magnesia. May I ask you for a further supply of the marl, and for a more particular account of its locality, &c. Geo- logically as well as economically, it is a depositeof great interest. I am just now particularly anxious to procure all the information which can be obtain- ed with respect to the marl deposiles of this State. All organic remains, of whatever character — from the bones of the Mastodon to the lancet tooth of the Squalus — would be received by me from any of your correspondents, w ith the most grateful ac- knowledgments. May I ask you to give me such information as you may possess at present, or as may hereafter fall in your way, respecting fossils recently disinterred in Virginia. Respectfully, your friend, WM. B, ROGERS. For the Farmers' Register. EXPERIMENT ON MOTH WEEVIL. ( Continued.') Since the publication of my observations on moth weevil, (No. 6, p. 325,) an additional fact has served lo make one of my experiments more complete, and to furnish more proof that my views of the propagation of this insect were correct. By reference to the experiments reported, it will be seen that a particular ear of corn (C) which had been carefully secured from the approach of wing- ed weevil, from the 10th of June to the 16th of Sejdember, remained perfectly free from any ap- pearance of young weevil during all that time. On the 16th of September this ear was put into another drawer with other corn well stocked with weevil. On October 19th,ihree weevil in the mag- got state were observed in grains in this ear, enough advanced in size to make their cells visible through the transparent skin of the grain : and on December 7th. there were 18 grains, showing cells either containing maggots, or from which the mature insects had already escaped. A fire hav- ing been generally kept in the room, had maintain- ed enougli heat to continue the hatchuiglong after it had ended in corn cribs and barns. The former report of the experiment made with this ear, proved that there was no hatching of wee- vil as long as no parent insects were permitted to have access : and the continuation shows, that the same ear became productive of weevil even at that advanced season, as soon as other mature insects were put with it. Thus, besiiles all the other fiicts offered before, this experiment serves to prove, both directly and indirectly, that the moth weevil continues to propagate its kind by succes- sive and rapidly produced generations, as long as the weather is warm enough — and that all the re- ceived opinions of its origin are entirely unfound- ed. E. R. 464 FARMERS' REGISTER— FECUNDITY OF INSECTS, &c- For the Farmers' Regisler. FECUNDITY OF INSECTS. A calculation was submilied in No. 6, (p. 329) of Uie Farmers' Re<4-ister, to show tiiat two hun- dred millions of moth weevil might he produced in successive o-cnerations from the eggs of a single, pair, during the v/arm season of one year. The estimate was founded on the supposition that each pair produced two iiundred eggs, and that one month was sufiicient for tlie {)roduction and ma- turing of each generation. The nundicr of egg-s supposed to 1)0 deposited by a (ijmalc weevil will not be considered very unusual, and tl;e estin)atc therebv exaggerated, if we judge by comparison with nianyolher insects which ))ropagate by ])airs, even if we pass over the more remarkable cases of such females as singly produce a \\ hole swarm or race, as the queen" bee, and the queen oi the white ants. The following facts of this kind are selected from the work on' the Transformation of Insects, which forms part of the Library of Useful Knowledge. "A common fly will lay 144 eggs— a spider 170. I have seen a hydrachna produce 600 eggs, and a female moth 1100." — " A gall insect has laid 5,000 eggs" — '' and 10,000 have been found in the ovaryVor what is supposed to be that part, of an ascarides." — " An insect very similar to an ant (mutilla 1) has produced 80,000 in a sin- gle day." — " It is this extraordinary fecundity which, under favorable circumstances, produces countless swarms of insects, that give origin to the opinion of their being spontaneously genera- ted by putrefaction, or brought in some mysterious Avay by blighting winds." pp. 47, 48. An earlier passage is as follows : " In the case of the aphides, also, the fecundity is almost incalculable. Reau- mur proved by experiment, that one aphis may be progenitor of 5,904,900,000 descendants during its life ; and Latreille says, a female during the sum- mer months usually produces about 25 a day. Reaumur further supposes that in one year there may be 20 generations." p. 19. The female of the common gnat {Culex pipiens, Linnjeus,) depo- sits her eggs in a connected body so as to form a kind of boat or raft which floats securely on the water where the mother places them, and they vary in number from 250 to 350, pp. 72, 74. One kind of flesh-fly (Sarcophuga carnaria, Meigen) is viviparous, that is, it hatches its eggs in an ab- dominal pouch, and instead of eggs, deposits mag- gots on dead carcasses." — " The arrangement of the numerous minute larva; in tlie pouch is very remarkable, and resembles the coil of a watch- sj)ring, or a roll of ribbon. Reaumur had the patience and perseverance to uncoil this nmltitudi- nous assemblage of flies in end^ryo, and found it about two inclies and a half in length, though the body of the mother fly herself was only about one third of an inch, and he computed that there were about 20,000 young in the coil." pp. 110, 111. The queen of the white ants of (Termites,) Hin- doston, as before observed, cannot be cited as an ordinary case of fecundity, she being the only fe- male of her tribe, and designed by nature to be the mother of a countless race : but as the most won- derful instance of insect fruitfulness, I willstatethe opinion of Smeathman that this female " lays 60 eggs in a minute, which will amount to 86,400 in a day, and 31,536,000 in a year," p. 15. memorakda of crops made in 1789. The following memoranda of "old times" in Virgi- nia, may be intc-esting to some of our readers. The statement, (which seems to have been written at the ume wlien the crops were made,) was furnished forpub- lication in the Farmers' Register by Richard Randolph, Esq. of York, Va. Raised by William Johnson, overseeer to Rich- ard Randolph, of Curies', Henrico county, Va. in the year 1788, from 36 acres of ground, 14 of which tilled, viz : 256h bushels buckwheat, - at 2s. £25 13 0 170A — barley, 4 6 38 5 0 139 — rye, - 3 9 25 1 3 56 — wheat, - 8 22 8 0 180 — Indian corn, - 3 27 0 0 250 — potatoes. 1 6 18 15 0 100 — turnips. 1 6 7 10 0 50 tons hay. 50 125 0 0 20 — pumpkins, - 5 5 0 0 1 acre flax. 5 0 0 £280 12 3 Raised by Col. Francis Lightfoot Lee, of Mana- kin, King William county, in 1789, from 49acres of land, (37 tilled.) 112 barrels Indian corn, - at 18s. £100 16 0 150 bushels wheat, - - 10 75 0 0 360 — barley, - - 3 54 0 0 500 — potatoes, - 16 A large quantity pumpkins, worth Some turnips, supposed £274 6 0 Teste, WM. CARTER, of Shirley, Va. The corn blades should be valued, in addition to the above. 37 10 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 UNDULATING RAILWAY. [In a former number of the Farmers' Register we pi-esented a view of the plan and theory of undulating railways, and now are enabled to add the following statement of practical experiments, made to test the truth and value of the theory ] A series of experiments have been sometime in progress, on a part of the Liverpool and Manches- ter railway for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability of a scheme suggested and very strongly entertained by Mr. Badnall, of impelling carriages upon a railway by means of a power de- rived from the inequalities or undulations of the line. The directors of the railway liberally al- lowed Mr. Badnall the use of two engines, the Rocket and the Caledonian, and though the tem- porary defects of the former engine dkl not at first allow of the experiments being carried to the cer- tainty that the projector desired, they were yet am- ply sufficient to justify his confidence in the prin- ciple. " I consider," says Mr. Badnall, " the re- sults in practice to confirm most fully the advan- tages shown on the models, and I have not the slightest doubt that it will be found practicable to convey far greater loads from one summit of a curve to another, whose angles do not even exceed that of the Sutton inclined plane, than any locomo- motive engine can move upon a level road." FARiMERS' REGISTER— SAFETY ON RAILWAYS. 465 There appears lo us to be something extremely feasible in this plan ; and being one which can be tested by actual experiment, no extraordinary cre- dulity is involved in giving a serious consideration to its practical applicability. It rests upon one of the simplest laws of nature, which is within the daily experience of almost every individual, but heightened, by the facilities of the railway into a greater efficiency of operation. We all know that a wheeled vehicle, or any other body, moving free- ly down a declivity, accumulates a degree of ve- locity within itself which will propel it a certain distance after it has ceased to be acted upon by the descent of the road. This momentum will be greater in proportion to the greater weight of the body, which is all in favor of the object to wliich Mr. Badnall purposes to apply it. In order to dis- cover how far the impetus acquired in fullingdown one slope of an undulating railway would be avail- able in impelling a train of carriages over the next, the experiment is very simple: a certain de- gree of velocity being given to a load at the foot of an ascent, sufficient to carry it to the summit, we have only to ascertain whether an equal degree of velocity could be given to the load by its own pas- sage down a plane of the sante inclination. For this purpose it is only necessary to allow the load to traverse the plane in a reverse direction, and as- certain the velocity with which it again passes the foot of the ascent. The experiments made upon the Sutton inclined plane have fully borne out the correctness of this test, and the result has been so clear and uniform as to leave no doubt as to the soundness of the principle. Admitting the possibility that the use of steam may be ultimately superseded by this plan, the im- mense saving which would be accomplished in fuel, carriages, machinery, &c. fills an amazing space in the contemplation, and would be sufficient to counterbalance many attendant disadvantages. — Among the principal of these would undoubtedly be the additional capital and labor required for the peculiar construction of such a line of railway, in which a level tract of country, so important a de- sideratum under the present method, would pre- sent one of the most formidable obstacles. We trust, however, that the subject will meet with that serious attention which it unquestionably merits, and in the meantime we publish, with Mr. Badnall's authority, the result of his experiments on Wednesday last. The following engineers were present, viz. Mr. R. Stephenson, senior, the Messrs. Dixons, Mr. Daglish, and Mr. Badnall, who agreed that the truth and validity of the principle would be effec- tually determined by the following test : As great a velocity as possil)Ie being attained by the engine before reaching a given point on the in- clined plane, the time was to be accurately ascer- tained which the train occupied in ascending from that point to a state of rest. The power being then reversed, the time was to be accurately measured w hich the train occupied in descending from a state of rest to the point from Avhich it had previously ascended. Hence it was obvious, that if the de- scent was made in less time than the ascent, the velocity generated at the foot of the plane would be proportionably greater than the velocity of the ascending train at (he same point, and consequent- ly, the demonstration would be clear, that the en- gine and train would not only have ascended to an Vol. I.— 59 elevation equal to that from whence it fell, but to i greater one, the extent of which would be in pro- portion to the velocity attained. Experiment 1. — The Liver engine, and a load of 13 wagons, (weighing in all about 72^ tons,) after traversing a distance of threie fourths of a mile id acquire a sufficient velocity, ran up the inclined plane 278 yards ; the time occupied in performing the latter distance being 90 seconds. Experiment 2. — The power being revefsddi tlifi engine and train descended 278 yards ; the time oc- cupied in the descent, viz. from a state of rest to the point from wliich the time of ascent had been calculated, being only 50 seconds. Experiment 3. — The engine and train having traversed three fourths of a mile to generate a sufficient velocity, ascended 278 yards in 75 se- conds. Experiment 4. — -The powef being reversed, the" descent of 278 yards was accomplished in 40 se- conds. Experiment 5. — The ascent of 278 yards was? made in SO seconds. Experiment 6. — The descent of 278 yards was made in 49 seconds. AVERAGCv Total space passed over to T me occupied in ascend fienerate the velocity. ing 279 yards. Exp. I, 1,320 yards. 90 seconds Exp. 3, 1,320 — 75 — Exp. 5, 1,320 — 80 — Total, 3,960 — 245 — Average , 1,^0 — 81| - Total space passed over irr Time occupied iit generating velocity on descending fnclined plane. 273 yards. Exp. 2, 278 yards. 50 sec(»id8. Exp. 4, 278 — 40 — Exp. 6, 278 — 49 ■— Total, 834 139 46h Average, 278 It is almost needless to add that these experi- ments have most fully confirmed the undulating principle, and proved, beyond all doubt, that a lo^ comotive engine and load can traverse a curve or undulation whose two summits are of equal altitude with much greater rapidity, and consequently, with far greater economy of time and power, than a le- vel road of proportionate length. Mr. B.idnall having intimated his opinion, that if a velocity of twenty miles an hour were attained at the foot of the plane by two engines, it would be proved by experiment that an engine could move from one summit of an undulation to anoth- er summit, nearly, if not quite, double the load which that engine was capable of moving on a le- vel, it was determined by the gentlemen present to decide this important question in the course of a few days. IXCREASED SAFETY ON RAILWAYS. From the Philadelphia Gazette. We understand from a gentlemen who has just passed over the Camden and Amboy Rail Road, that by a very simple contrivance, adopted since 466 FARMERS' REGISTER— GENERATING HEAT. the recent accident, the recurrence of a similar event need not be apprehended, as in case oi' break- ing an axle, or even a wheel, the car will be sus- tained, and the progress of the train be uninter- rupted. We are happy to learn also, that the trou- blesome annoyance arising from the sparks and cinders is entirely removed on this road, as well as on the Newcastle road, although by a dillerent con- ti'ivance. & NEW PROCESS FOR GEXERATING IIE.4T. From the London Mechanics' Ma^^azine. We have now the pleasure of laying before our readers the tirst detailed and authentic account which has yet appeared of the new mode of gene- rating heat, discovered and patented by our es- teemed friend, Mr. Rutter, and whicli, to use the words of a carrespondent, quoted in our last num- ber, seems destined " to change the face of the world." The heat obtained is, we understand, ex- tremely intense, very uniform, and, what we scarcely expected to find would l)e the case, per- fectly manageable. The process has been in suc- cesssful use at the Salisbury Gas Works ever since the patent was taken out, and it has also been tried on board of a steam vessel, oiT Lymington, with equally gratifying results. The following details of the process we extract from a copy of Mr. Rutter's Scotch specification, with which he has obligedly favored us — his English and Irish specifications have yet to be enrolled : " My invention of an improved process for ge- nerating heat, applicable to tlie heating of boilers and retorts, and to oilier purjwses for which heat is required, consists in the emploj-ment of bitumi- nous, oleaginous, resinous, waxy, or fatty sub- stances, in a liquid state, and in conjunction with water as fuel, in manner hereinafter described. I carry my said improved process intocHect in man- ner following, that is to say, by allowing or caus- sing one or more of the said bituminous, oleagi- nous, resinous, waxy, or fatty substances, as coal tar, for instance, to flow from a cistern or other ves- sel suitably placed, through a pipe or other conve- nient channel, into a spout or funnel communicat- ing with the interior of an enclosed fire-place or furnace, and at the same time allowing or causino- Avnter to llow from a cistern or vessel, placed in a suitable or convenient situation, through anotlier pipe, or other convenient channel, into the before- mentioned spout or funnel, in which spout or fun- nel the}' are allowed or caused to flow or diop si- multaneously upon a fire previously kindled and burning witiiin the befbrementioned inclosed fire- place or furnace, subject to tlie regulations herein- after mentioned or described. It is not essentia! that the coai tar, or other of the beforementioned substances, should first come into contact with the water in the spout which communicates v. ith the interior of the enclosed fire-place or furnace. In- deed, I rather prefer that they should first come in contact with each other in a funnel at some little distance from the furnace, and from thence be al- lowed to flow together, through a convenient chan- nel, to the spout by which they are admitted into the interior of the fire-place or furnace ; but the tar or other substance, and the ^\-ater, should be in contact prior to or at their entrance into tlie fire- place or furnace, and being so in contact should fall simultaneously upon the fire so burning with- in the fire-place or furnace; and if tiie fire-place or furnace be large, two or more of the spouts or channels for introducing the coal tar or other sub- stances, and water together, may be adapted to such fire-place or furnace in such manner aiid at such distances from each other as may be found most convenient. The stream of coal tar, or otlier of the befbrementioned substances, and of water respectively, is or may be regulated by means of stop cocks or valves, either in or attached to the cistern or other vessel, or in any of the pipes or channels beforementioned. The spout or other channel through which the coal tar, or other of the befbrementioned substances, and the water, are introduced into the interior of the enclosed fire- place or furnace, should be left open, so that a sup- ply of atmospheric air may thereby be admitted to the said enclosed fire place or furnace, care be- ing taken that too large a supply of atmospheric air be not admitted. Although I prefer the heat- ing, inflaming, and decomposing surfiice of a fire, burning within an enclosed fire-place or furnace, as aforesaid, in carrying my said improved process into effect, as most favorable to the complete and etlectual combustion of the coal tar, or other of the beforementionetl substances, in conjunction with water as aforesaid, yet the same is not absolutely essential to the said process, for the combustion of the coal tar, or other of the beforementioned sub- stances, in conjunction with water, may be effected in a furnace, oven, or other close vessel, previous- ly b.eated, and afterwards kept at a proper degree of heat, either by heat disengaged within the said furnace, oven, or close vessel, or by heat being ap- plied externally, or in any other way that shall be found most convenient. It is not essential tlial the water employed in my said improved process should be fresh or pure water, for sea water and impure water, such as the bilge water in ships, and the an^moniacal liquor in gas works, will answer the purpose. The respective quantities and pro- perties of coal tar, or other of the beforementioned substances, and of^ water, proper to be admitted or introduced into the enclosed fire-place or furnace, oven, or other close vessel, will le found to vary according to circumstances and the materials used. The proportions of coal tar and water, which I have found productive of a good result, are one gallon of coal tar, to be used simultaneously with one gallon and a half of water, and these qualities should be so regulated as not to fall upon the fire or other heated surface, as beforementioned, in much less than two or three hours; but the pro- per proportions to be used may be ascertained by observing the interior appearance of the said en- closed fire-place or furnace, oven, or other close vessel ; (which may be done at or through one or more of the spouts or other convenient channels provided for the introduction of the coal tar or other material and the water, or at or through one or more convenient apertures made for the purpose) for if w ater be in excess the flame will be weak- ened or extinguished ; or if tar, or other of the beforementioned substances be in excess, then the flame will be obscured by smoke." Mr. Rutter does not lay any claim to the appa- ratus or machinery employed in the process, but limits his patent right to "the mode or process of generating heat, by subjecting bituminous, oleagi- nous, resinous, waxy, and fatty substances, or a FARMERS' REGISTER— MEMORANDA AND SCRAPS. 4G7 mixture of two or more such substances, in a li- quid state, in conjunction with water, ignition, combustion, and decomposition, in tiie manner be- fore described." STEAMBOAT DISASTERS. Frum the New York Journal of Commerce. Tn looking overour file for the last six iceeks, we find we have recorded no less than twelve steam- boat disasters, attended with a loss, in the aggre- gate, of more than a hundred lives ! They are as follows : New England, — boilei-s burst, - 16 lives lost. St. Martin, burnt, - - - 30 or 40 Illinois, boiler burst, - 13 to 20 Thomas Yeatman, do. do. - - 7 Columbia, sunk, - - - 4 Paul Pry, boiler burst, - 1 71 to 88 Total, George Washington, wrecked ; Rapid, sunk; Black Hawk, burnt; Peruvian, sunk ; Chijjpewa, sunk. With the exception of the New England, George Washington, and Paul Pry, all the above boats plied on the western waters. I'he New England plied between this city and Hartford; the George Washington and Paul Pry, on the Lakes. During the former part of the season there was an unusual exemption from accidents of this kind, considering the great number of steamboats (more tlian three hundred) constantly afloat in one pari of the countrj' or another ; but the frequent and appalling disasters which have occurred within the last few weeks, will render the year memorable in quite another manner. Is there no way to prevent the recurrence of such disasters ; or at least, the destruction of so many lives.'' In tlie case of boats sinking or burn- ing, except wlien suddenly blown up, a supply of cork jackets would save every life on board. And in case of the bursting of boilers, the safety of passengers might, we think, be effectually secured by adopting the mode of construction recommend- ed by Professor Hare, of Philadeljdiia, i. e. by placing the boilers on the guards, with a strong lireaslwork of timbers between them and the body of the boat, and only such a thickness of plank outside the boilers as shoukl be suflTicient to pro- tect them from the water. Tlie shipping of pow- der on board steamboats employed for the convey- ance ol passengers should be prohibited under the severest penalties; and the smuggling it on lioard without the consent of the captain should be pun- ished w ith death. But our object is not so much to suggest means of preventing such disasters and securing the safety of passengers, as to express a hope that Congress will take up the subject in good earnest at the approach- ing session, and adopt such measures as the col- lected wisdom of the nation may devise. We own we should wish, if possible, to avoid legislative in- terference in such a matter, — but things liavecome to such a pass, that something must be done, or this expeditious and delightful mode of travelling will lose its attractions. Why is it that English steamboats are so safe to travellers, and American steamboats so unsafe.'' Why is it that more lives are lost on board American steandooals in one year, than on board English steamboats in ten years ! Cannot the difference be partly accounted for by the fact that, in England very strict regula- tions are prescribed and enforced by the govern- ment in relation to steamboats, and in the United States none.' If not, can any man tell how the fact is to be accounted for .' For the Farmers' Register. ME3IORANDA AXD SCRAPS FROM A TRAVEL- LER'S NOTE BOOK. Meeting of the Internal Improvement Convention. Raleigh, Nov. 26th. Tlie Internal Improvement Convention of North Carolina commenced its session yesterday even- ing. This body is distinguished, no less for the large proportion of the talents of the State which it contains, than for the importance of its objects, and the magnitude of the results expected from its la- bors. Almost every man of distinguished ability belonging to North Carolina, is now in Raleigh. Still tliere are a few of the highest reputation, who are neither in the convention nor in the legislature, and whose absence is the more marked, because so lew are wanting to complete the list. The meeting of this body was recommended by a preparatory convention, held in this place last July, and ai)proved by districts or county meet- ings, in almost every part of the slate. County and town meetings were formally called to elect delegates, and some, or all the delegates who were then chosen, have appeared from every congres- sional district, save one. The exception is the Bertie district, the delegates from which, though present, are also members of the legislature, and do not think it proper to act in both capacities. The deliberation and caution which have been used to bring this body together — the means previously used to inform the people of its olyects — the zeal and ability of its members — aided by the gen- eral conviction of the importance to North Caro- lina of constructing public works for facilitating the transportation of !ier products — all serve to at- tach the highest interest to this convention, and to promise valuable results from its labors. Its pro- ceedings, in the customary form, will no doubt be presented fully to the public, and therefore I shall not attempt the task of ^.reporter, which can be so much better performed by others. The observa- tions which I shall note, without order, or perhaps connection, may serve as an informal addition of such matters as attracted the attention of a stran- ger and by-stander, and would be inadmissible in a regular report of proceedings. Nothing was done yesterday except organizing the convention, and the delivery of an address from its president. Governor Swain. He stated at length his views of the wants and the capabilities of North Carrdina for public v.orks, on an extended and costly plan. These views are of course those only of one individual, (distinguished as that individual may be,) and perhaps may not be altogether ap- proved by any other. But still it augurs well of the future movements of the people, that their cliief magistrate, who owes every thing to their sense of his merits, should show such zeal for the construction of great public works. This day, (26th) a general committee (composed of one del- egate from each represented district,) has been appointed to consider the various schemes propo- 468 FARMERS' REGISTER— GRANITE AND LIMESTONE. sed for roads, railways and canals, and to report a general scheme for public works, to be recom- mended to the legislature. Many such plans have been already referred to the committee, and many others are warmly advocated out of doors. As is usual, each one thinks the plan which will bring a railway or a canal nearest to his own town, if not to his own fiirm, promises most prorit, and is most deserving of state patronage. Nov. 21th. — The general committee still are in session, and not ready to report. The convention, after some discussion on incidental matters, ad- journed. Railway to convey Granite. Limestone near Ra- leigh. The state house of North Carolina, which (to- gether with a large portion of the town,) was de- stroyed by fire, is now in the course of being re- built, with the beauliful and excellent granite fur- nished by the neighboring quarries. This stone is as hard as is at all desirable, and will form so large a portion of the whole structure, that it may well be considered as imperishable. A railway of 1^ miles, Avas made from the quarry to the state house square, solely to bring the stone, and has yielded profitable dividends to tlie proprietors, and at the same time enaVjled the transportation of the stone to be effected at one third of the expense (as I heard,) that it would otherwise have cost. This facility, also, induces a much larger use of granite for the new houses which are erecting on Fayette street, and will ultimately cause the town of Ra- leigh to show more beauty than many others of thrice its wealth and population. This little rail road has doubtless had much ef- fect in promoting the present zeal for similar and more extensive works. We are much more ready to be impressed by what we see, than what we on- ly hear, even if we hear truths demonstrated, and made undeniable ; and very many, who have come to the seat of government from every quarter of the state, have been first convinced of the advanta- ges of railways by seeing the enormous masses of stone conveyed as fast and as easily as the empty car could be drawn on good common roads. Of the 2200 yards of the whole road, 1304 required either excavation or embankment, the greatest depth being apparently four feet, and the greatest height eight, judging by my eye. The length ol the places excavated and embanked, was counted by the sills. The total cost of the railway, 2200 yards, including every material, and every source of expense, amounted to only -92,700, or S2,160 the mile. It is true that the sills are not of as large, nor of as good timber, as a work intended for permanent use would have required, and that the iron strips are not more than one-sixth of an inch in thickness. But if the timber and the iron had been such as was used on the Petersburg and Roanoke railway, it would scarcely have made this cost S3,000 the mile ; and yet this work, from the far greater unevenness of surface, must be more costly for its extent, than would be a railway from Roanoke, by Fayetteville, to South Carolina, ex- clusive of the viaducts over rivers. \ was surprised to hear that limestone had been found within fifteen miles of Raleigh, as I had not supposed that it so nearly approached the granite ridge. Mr. Prummond, the architect and super- intendent of the building of the state house, gave me some specimens of the stone, and supplied me with the information concerning it. A parcel of the stone was quarried and burnt, and the mortar made from it is now in the state house yard, and is intended to be used in the building, though none has yet been tried. The upper part of the body of stone hatl only been used, and the lime was much mixed with other earths, in detached lumps; but Mr. Drummond thinks that the lime will make good cement, and that deeper quarrying would have furnished a material sufficiently pure. Notwith- standing these promising indications of success and profit from this discovery, no farther effort has been made to bring this lime into use. The quar- ry is abandoned, and its existence seemed to be known to very few of those who had no immediate concern with it. The neglect of this lime, in a region otiierwise destitute of any such material, and which would be so valuable for manure, as well as for cement, is made the more remarkable by the following facts. All the lime required for building the state house, (except the small parcel spoken of from this quarry,) has been brought from Maine, and other places to the north, by way of Wilmington and Fayetteville, and has cost at Raleigh, on an average, .^l the cask : five or six hundred casks have been already used, and 2,500 or 3,000 more will be required, to complete the building of the state house — or an expense of at least .* 12,000 in lime alone. Surely " internal im- provement" is wanting here. It would he cheap- er lor the state to pay a third of this sum (if so much would be necessary) to some person capable of ascertaining the quality of the limestone in the neighl)orhood, and of constructing proper kilns for reducing it to lime. The limestone which has been so imperfectly tried, is on the land of Wm. Boy- Ian, Esq. ; and at another place, in the same neigh- borhood, Mr. Drummond supposed the stone to be still more accessible, and more profitable to quar- ry. If a few grains of go/d had been discovered on either of these tracts, 1 have no doubt a thorough examination would have been commenced, and the value of the discovery ascertained : yet, if this body of limestone is indeed abundant, and is not lessen- ed in value by some rare cause of injury, it might be made of more value to the commonwealth than all tiie gold mines which are now worked within its limits. My remarks on this subject are dictated by an earnest desire that an article of so nmch value should be brought into full use — first lor cement, and afterwards (for this would certainly follow,) for manure. I cannot understand why lime may not be burnt and applied to soil, ascheaply in North Carolina and V irginia, as in Pennsylvania — and there is every reason to believe that such lands as surround Raleigh, would be even more benefitted by that manure, than the soils of Lancaster and Chester counties in Pennsylvania. If my object in finding fault was merely the pleasure of doing so, there was no neetl of going so far from home, as will be evident from the following statement. A few years ago, I learned from a very intelligent and wealthy farmer, on James river, who lived not many miles below the (undoubtedly pure) lime- stone which runs east of our mountains, that the lime required for erecting his extensive buildings, was brou gilt from New-England; and that even the gentleman through whose estate the limestone passed, and wluo is one of the most zealous and dis- FARMERS' REGISTER-PUBLIC WORKS FOR NORTH CAROLINA. 469 tinguishcd friends of " internal improvements," was supplied with lime from the same distant source. I do not know whether this state of things remains unaltered. I hope not. Hook Stores. There is one " internal improvement," as evi- dent in Raleigh, as it was unlooked-lbr in a mere inland village, which owes its importance, and even its existence, to the site being selected for the seat of government, and not to any commercial ad- vantages of situation. I mean the book stores, Avhich, in number, extent, and general appearance, are not only remarkable for such a place as Ra- leigh, but surpass any that are to be found in the towns of Virginia. Tiie store of Messrs. Turner and Hughes especially attracted my attention. It not only offers a very large collection of books, but is fitted up so handsomely, and willa so ma- ny inducements to attract the curious, that it is crowded at every hour of the day with those who come to pass an hour in the plcasantest lounge that can be imagined. Every newly published work, a great variety of literary periodicals, the daily pa- pers, port-folios of prints, are offered freely for the amusement of every visiter, and every one is made welcome. The extent of the bookselling business in North Carolina, proves the existence of more literary taste than I had given the people credit for — and a general fondness for reading, among any people, whether for mere amusement, or more solid gratification, cannot fail to produce a knowledge of their true interests, and correspond- ing exertions to promote them. Schemes for Public IVorks in North Carolina. JVov. 28th. — The report of the general commit- tee was presented, and sustained by a clear, con- cise and forcible speech from the chairman. Judge Cameron. The plan embraces several distinct public works, designed to benefit every different section or interest of the state, by which the com- mittee, no doubt, hoped to allay the jealousy of the different sections, the conflicts of which form the great obstacle to all such improvements in North Carolina. The different schemes proposed to be executed are these : 1. A canal from Edenton to the Dismal Swamp Canal, or a railway from the neighborhood of that town, to connect with the Portsmouth and Roanoke Railway — the intention of either being to facilitate the transportation of the products of the counties noith of the lower Roan- oke to Norfolk, their best market under any cir- cumstances. 2. A ship canal to be cut through the nine mil(^ of low marsh which separate tTie lower part of Neuse River from the harbor ol Beaufort, the only good and deep harbor on the coast of North Carolina — but which at present has neither a town or commercial capital to invite trade, nor an accessible back countiy to supply such a demand, if it existed. 3. A rail-road from north to south, extending through the state from Virginia to South Carolina. The precise location of the route is not named ; but it may be supposed that the most eligible is through the flat alluvial region, and connecting with one or both the rail- roads of Virginia. 4. A central rail-road from Beaufort harbor, running by Fayetteville, to Ten- nessee, which is designed to draw the western trade to the sea coast, and is sustained by the estimates of an engineer of New- York, subajiiled by Gov- ernor Swain to the convention. My description | of these great works is perhaps built as much upon private information and general conversation, as upon the words of the report, which I had no bet- ter opportunity of understanding than from hearing it read to the meeting. The committee did not report in favor of continuing the canal for sea ves- sels, (as recommended by Governor Swain, in his address,) from Neuse River, through the low marshy land of Hyde and Tyrrel counties, and which, if dug, would only make a somewhat short- er route than what is now offered by Pamptico Sound, and its connection with Albemarle Sound. It seemed to me not a little remarkable that the most extensive, and by far the most costly of these schemes, should have occupied the least space in the report, and was scarcely made more prominent in the debate of that day, which was all that I could remain to hear, but during which, there was a very full expression of opinion in the many speeches de- livered. I allude to the rail-road from Beaufort to Tennessee — a scheme which, if its usefulness in operation should be as great as the magnificence of the design, and the probable cost of construction, will surpass in value all the rail-roads now in ex- istence. But it appears to me, perhaps owing to my want of information, that the probable advan- tages to be gained, will bear a very small propor- tion to the magnitude of the labor, and amount of necessary expenditure. Asa sincere well-wisher to the internal improvement of the state of North Carolina, and as a firm believer in her peculiar fit- ness to be benefitted by works for this purpose, I hope that this great plan will be maturely consid- ered before it is commenced. It would be out of place here to discuss its merits — or otherwise I think it might be shown that even if it was com- pleted through its 400 miles of length, that the products of the west whicli it would bring, would not reach Beaufort, but would be either directed through Fayetteville to Wilmington, and tlience to New- York, or by a still shorter route, through Columbia to Cliaileston. The natural features of North Carolina are re- markable and peculiar : and Avhile they serve to render improvements in transportation and the formation of good markets for lier products most desirable, they also serve to offer so many different objects, as to impede all, by th.eir opposite and con- flicting claims. With more than three hundred miles of sea coast. North Carolina has not one good commercial port — and only one in use (Wilming- ton) to which vessels of as much as twelve feet draught can be brought. Her two Sounds, which in superficial extent might be called inland seas, are abiiosl closed to navigation, by impassable and shifting sand bars, and islands, which separate them fiom the ocean, and Die obstructions in the rivers which are emptied into them. The Roanoke is bordered witii a more extensive body of fertile lands than any other river of the United States which runs into the Atlantic, and yet has not been able, and perhaps never will, to transport their rich pro- ducts on its o\\ n waters to market. The eastern part of the state contains millions of acres of rich swamps, which might produce more value than half the state now does, but which remain worse than useless, for want of draining : and the west- ern counties, fertile, and much more valuable for their agricultural products than some are for their gold mines, are so distant from market, that Ihe cost of carriage is as great as their nett profits. 470 FARMERS' REGISTER— VIEW OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMETS. These and many similar considerations strongly prompt to the improvement of transportation, and the creation or cncouragcmciit of markets ; but at the same time serve to distract the views, and cramp (if not en'ectually repress,) the etTorls of those most fi-iendly to the prosperity of North Ca- rolina. Properly speaking, North Carolina has no sea port except ibr the small vessels which trade to the West Indies. Her European trade from Wilming- ton and Newbern is carried on through New York, as that which is transported on the Dismal Swamp Canal is through Norfolk. It is therefore one of the most generally favored schemes among the many advocated through the state, to provirtant, but one of many advantages incident to an improved condition of life. Ex(ended commer- cial facilides will stimula(e to agricultural exer- tion ; — increased produ( tion alTord the means of education ; and (lie diffusion of knowledge operates as the most certain preventive of crime. A more liberal scheme would be belter suited (o the condi- tion of older and richer communities, and I trust the day is not very distant when it will be so to ours. From the phraseology of the act establishing the literary fund, doubts are entertained whether the intention of the legislature w as to transfer to that corporation , (he proceeds of (he vacant and unappro- priated swamp lands, or the other lands themselves. Acting upon the latter impression, the directors have prepared a plan, by which it is proposed to drain and bring into market^ a particular tract of 472 FARMERS' REGISTER— VIEW OF PUBLIC WORKS, &c. IN VIRGINIA. country, and thus test by experiment, the propriety of entering: upon a jjeneral system of improvement. This phm will accompany the report l^eibre alluded to, and the importance of the subject, will insure for it a favorable consideration. This reupil is to follow for life, and in which he ought to feci an ambition to excel. One business is all that a boy can be expected to learn w ell at a time ; and if he is destined for the desk, or the bar, or expects, as many do, to live on the bread of idleness, I FARMERS' REGISTER— FOOD FOR SWINE AND CATTLE— CHEMISTRY. ilB would not give a fig for all the scientific or prac- tical knowledge which lie will obtain in agriculture, bfeyond that obtained by a common laborer on a farm, however his health may be promoted, and his mind invigorated, by the manly exercises of the field. I commend the school, but dislike the name. Theological school, medical scliool, And law school, are terms that suflicienlly imply the studies which are pursued in them ; and young men who go to them for an education, do not ex- pect to become farmers. And if they do, they Avill seldom find the instruction or the teachers that they stand in need of. An agricultural, like other i)roressional schools, should be devoted to a single object: It should he particularly a school for farmers. We should scoff at the pretensions of a surgeon who had ne- ver studied anatomy. Geology is the anatomy of agriculture ; nor is a knowledge of physiological science less important to the husbandman than to the medical practitioner. 1 hope yet to see a truly agricultural school established in our country, and in our state. I hope yet to see all the aid and all the light wliich science can afford given to agri- cultural labor; and I hope yet to see, especially, our young farmers better qualified, in such a school, for the higher duties of civil life, in order that these onerous burdens may no longer rest ex- clusively upon the shoulders of the lav/yers. PRKPARATIOX OF FOOD FOR SWIXE AND CAT- TLE. From the New England Karmer. It has been observed by an English writer on agriculture, that an apparatus for steaming food for cattle should be considered as a necessary appen- dage to every arable and dairy farm, of a moderate size. It has been long known that many sorts oi roots, and particularly the potatoe, become much more valuable by undergoing this sort of prepara- tion. And it is equall)' well known that when thus prepared they have been employed alone as a substitute for hay, and with cut straw both for hay and corn, in the feeding of horses as well as otlier animals. To a farmer who keeps manj- horses or cattle, or even swine or poultry, the practice of boiling their food in steam is so great a saving and advantage, that it deserves the most particular at- tention. Though potatoes have often been given raw to both horses and cattle, they are found to be infinitely ijreferable, when cooked by steam, as they are thereby rendered much drier, and more nutritive. This has been long since shown by the, experiments of Wakefield of Liverpool, who, in order to ascertain it, fed some of his horses on steamed, and some on raw potatoes, and soon found the horses on steamed potatoes had greatly the ad- vantage, in every respect. Those on the steamed potatoes looked perfectly smooth and sleek, while the others were quite rough. The following description of a root steamer is from the " F'arrner's jlssistant .•" STEAM BOILER. This is an implement that no iltrraer or planter should be v/itliout, as potatoes, particularly, are nearly doubled in value, for feeding and fatting, when boiled. Turnips and other roots, and pump- kins, are also much improved, as food for cattle, by a similar process. Boiled clover hay is found very good for keeping swine during winter; and we are of opinion, that if fed to milch cows during that season, it would greatly improve the quantity of tlieir milk, and keep them in better order, than when fed dry to them. W^e believe this to be well worthy of a fair experiment, by having a vat, or box, to hold the hay, sufficiently large for the purpose. A steam-boiler is commonly made by setting a kettle, holding twelve gallons or more, in a furnacej of brick or stone; and over this a hogshead, with one head taken out, and the other bored full of holes, is set so close that the steam of the kettle, when boiling, can only rise through the holes, and thence ascend among the articles to be boiled in the hogshead, and pass off at the top. In this way a hogshead full of potatoes will be nearly as soon boiled, as a small part of them only could hate been, if placed in the kettle underneath. As the kettle must be so closed as to prevent any steam passing off but through the bottom of the hogshead or vat, a pipe or tube must be set in one' side, through which, with the aid of a tunnel, the" water is to be poured into the kettle, as often as occasion may require. When poured in, the tube is to be stopped, with a plug for the purpose. Grain of all kinds may be steamboiled to greafi advantage, for feeding and fatting cattle; but, in that case, it is requisite to have the bottom of the hogshead covered with a cloth, to prevent the grain- rumiing dcwn through the holes. By experiments which have been accurately made in Pennsylvania upon Indian corn and pota- toes used for fatting swine, it was found that they increased in weight one-third faster on the boiled than on the unboiled food ; or, in other Avords, they gained three pounds when fed on the former, where they only gained two pounds when fed on the latter.- We are fully of opinion that steam-boiling food,- for feeding or fatting all sorts of caltle, generally increases the value of the food, as much ai forty or fifty per cent. We are induced to lay this down, as a general rule, that all kinds of food, whether for man or beast, is more or less improved in its nutrimeiitaf qualities by being boiled. This is evidently the' case in regard either to grain or roots ; and we be- lieve that every kind of vegetable matter, even green grass itself, will be found much improved,- as a food for cattle, when it has been sufficiently subjected to the operation of the steam-boiler. But whether the additional ex})ense thus incurred would, in all cases be found overbalanced by the additional value thus given to the food, must depend on the' results of experiments to be fairly and properly made. ox THE IMPORTANCE OF CHE3IISTRY, AS CONXECTED WITH AGRICULTURE. Prom Parke's Chemical Essays; W'ere I addressing myself to the father of a fa^ mily, I would say, — is your son born in opulence ; is he an heir to an extensive domain, — make him an analytical chemist, and you enable him to ap- preciate the real value of his estate, and to turn every acre of it to the best account. Has he a barren tract of country, which has been unpro- ductive from generation to generation ; he will then carefully explore it for hidden treasures, and will probably not explore in vain. By analysing the minerals which he discovers, he will ascertain with 476 FARMERS' REGISTER— POTATOES— BIRDS AND INSECTS. facility and exactness what proportion of metal they contain, and which of them may be worked to advantage. Thus he will operate on sure grounds, and be prevented from engaging in ex- pensive and unprofitable undertakings. Chemistry will teach him also how to improve the cultivated parts of his estate; and by trans- porting and transposing the diflcrent soils, he will soon learn some methocl by which each of his iields may be rendered more productive. The analysis of the soils will be followed by that of the waters which rise u|X)n, or flow through them; by which means he will discover those pro- per for irrigation ; a practice, the value of which is suflBciently known to every good agriculturist. Should he himself occupy the farm, become him- self the cultivator of his own estate ; he must of necessity become a chemist, before he can make the best of his land, or put it into a high state of cultivation, at the smallest possible expense. It will be his concern, not only to analyse the soils on different parts of his farm, but the peat, the marl, the lime, and tlie other manures, must be subjected to experiment, before he can avail himself of the advantages which they possess, before he can be certain of producing any particular effect by tlieir means. The necessity of analysis to the firmer is evident, from a knowledge of the circumstance,, that some kind of lime is really injurious, and would render land, which had been hitherto very productive, actually sterile. I allude here to the magnesian limestone, which is common in many districts in England, }>articu- larly at Breedon in Leicestershire, where the cal- careous earth contains 50 per cent, of magnesia. But, as the Earlof Dundonald has remarked, such lime will be extremely usetui on what are called sour soils, or such as contain sulphate of iron from the decomposition of martial pyrites, as the magne- sia will unite with the acid of that salt, and ibrm sulphate of magnesia, (Epsom salt,) which great- ly promotes vegetation. Besides, a knowledge of the first principles of chemistry, will teach him when to use lime hot from the kiln, and when slacked ; how to promote the putrefactive process in his composts, ajid at what period to check it, so as to prevent the fertil- izing particles becoming effete, and of little value. It will also teach him the difference in the proper- ties of marl, lime, peat, wood ashes, alkaline salt, soap waste, sea water, &c. ; and consequently, which to prefer in all varieties of soil. A know- ledge of the chemical properties of bodies will thus give a new character to the agriculturist, and render his employment rational and respectable. CULTURE OF POTATOES. From the Brilish Farmers' Magazine. A frequent change of seed is necessary. Any sort may be continued fertile and profitable by re- moving them from one county to another every fourth or fifth year, or by raising them alternately on very different descriptions of soil. In the culti- vation of this useful plant, it appears ti-om many experiments, that it requii'es ample s{)ace. In field culture, placing the sets of the strong grow- ing kinds in every third furrow, and those of the dwarfer sorts in every second, are eligible distan- ces. There are different opinions held respecting the necessity of earthing up potatoes. On very thin soils, however, it is absolutely necessary. On deeply ploughed, or trenched ground, earthmg up the stems is certainly less necessary, because, as the under ground runners, which produce the tu- bers, are inclined to extend themselves as deeply in the soil as the roots, they do not seem to require any additional depth of earth immediatel)' over them. But this depends entirely upon the open porousness of the soil, and the manner oi growth of some of the kinds. Plucking off the flowers increases the size and number of tubers. It is founded on a law of nature, disposing a plant, con- stituted to produce at the same time both seeds and tubers, to yield either one or the other more abun- dantly, accordingaseitlier is destroyed. If tubers be not allowed to form, many flowers and apples will be the consequence ; and if the flowers be destroyed as soon as they appear, the tubes will be increased. It is bad management to plant the re- fuse, or odds and eiuls of last year's crop, for the sets of this. It' potatoes are planted at all, they should be planted well. BIRDS AND INSECTS. From the Library of EiUertaining Knowledge, There cannot be any question of the immense number of insects required by birds during the breeding season. It is stated by Bingley, that a pair of small American birds, conjectured to be the liouse-wren, were observed to leave the nest and return with insects from forty to sixty times in ar» hour, and that in one particular hour they carried food no fewer than sevent)^ -one times. In this bu- siness they were engaged during the greatest part of the day. Allowing twelve hours to be thus oc- cupied, a single pair of these birds would destroy at least six hundred insects in the course of one day, on the supposition that the two birds took only a single insect each time; but it is highly probable that they often took more. In the case of swallows, on theolherhand, it has been well remarked by an excellent naturalist, (the Rev. W. T. Bree,) that they are to us quite inoffensive, while " the beneficial services they per- ibrm tor us, clearing the air of innumerable insects, ought to render them sacred, and secure them from our molestation. Without their friendly aid, the at- mosphere we live in would scarcely be habitable by man ; they feed entirely on insects, which, if not kejit under by their means, would swarm and torment us like another Egyptian plague. The immense quantity of flies destroyed in a short space of time by one individual bird, is scarcely to be credited by those who have not liad actual ex])eri- ence of the fiict." He goes on to illustrate this •from a swift, which was shot. "It was in the breeding season when the young were hatched ; at which time the parent birds, it is well known, are in the habit of making little excursions into the country to a considerable distance from their breed- ing places, for the purpose of collecting flies, which they bring home to their infant progeny. On pick- ing up my hapless and ill-gotten prey, I observed a number of flies — some mutilated, others scarcely injured — crawling out of the bird's mouth; the throat und pouch seemed absolutely stulTed with them, and an incredible number was at length dis- gorged. I am sure I speak within compass when I state that there was a mass of flies, just caught by this single swift, larger than, when pressed close, could conveniently be contained in the bowl of an ordinary table-spoon." FARMERS' REGISTER— QUERIES ON BUCKWHEAT— SILKWORM. 477 For the Fnnncrs' Register. QUERIES ON BUCKWHEAT AS AN IMPROVER. 1. Have any decisive eNperiments been made in Eastern Virginia, to te.st the value of inickwiieat, as a fallow .' How does it compare with clover in this respect, esjjecially on thin lands.^ 2. What is the proper time for sowin>!: it, and how much should be put upon an acre.^ In what stage of its growth should it be turned in? What is its ordinary yield to the acre, when allowed to ripen ? 3. When sown between the rows of corn, at its last ploughing, does it materially injure the growth of the corn ? 4. May it not be profitably sown upon oat land, immediately after the removal of the oat crop, with a view to a fallow for wheat in the fall? E. s. n. DIRECTIONS FOR REARING OF SILK WOR3IS, AND THE CULTURE OF THE WHITE MUL- BERRY TREE. Published by the Pennsylvania Society as-ociated for the pro- motion of those objects. PREFACE. The Acting Committee of the Society recently formed in Philadelphia " for the promotion of the culture of the Mulberry Tree, and rearing of Silk Worms," desirous of forwarding the views of the association, have abstra* ted from the manual pre- pared by order of the Secretary of the Treasury, in obedience to a resolution of the House of Re- presentatives, the following directions for the man- agement of the worms, which they recommend to the attention of those who may be desirous to en- gage in the business. DIRECTIONS FOR THE REARING OF SILK WOR3IS. Procure eggs in February and March, and choose those of a pale slate or clay color; avoid all which are yellow, as they are imperfect. Keep them in a cold dry ])lace, (where water will, how- ever, not freeze,) until the leaf buds of the mul- berry begin to swell. If the eggs be soiled, dip the paper or cloth to which they adhere, in water once or twice, to wash off the coat with which they are covered, and which will impede the hatching of the worms.* Dry tliem quickly in a draught of air, and put them in one or more shallow boxes, lined with pa}>er ; which place, if possible, in a small room, of the temperature of 64°, and keep it up to that degree for the two first days, by means of a fire in the chimney, or still better, in a brick, tile, or porcelain stove ; or for want of these in an iron stove; and use tanners' waste-bark, turf, or charcoal for fuel, to promote and keep up a, regu- lar heat day and night. The third day increase the heat to 66°, the fourth to 68°, the fifth to 71°, the sixth to 73°, the seventh to 75°, the eighth to 77°, the ninth to 80°, the tenth, eleventh and twelfth to 82°. It is impossible to expect regu- larity in hatching, if reliance be placed upon our variable w eather ; and it is the regularity of the worms coming forth, which will insure their uni- form growth, save much trouble in feeding and attending those of various ages, and cause the whole or the greater part, to form their cocoons at * It is not necessary to scrape off the eggs from the paper or cloth on which they have been deposited. the same time, provided proper care be given du- ring their piogress. When the eggs assume a whitish hue, the worm is formed : cover the eggs with white pa})er (never use a news]iapcr) pierced full of holes the size of a large knitting needle; the worms, when hatched, will creep through them ; turn up the edges of the paper to prevent their crawlinc: ofT. Lay twigs of the mulberry, having two or three dry and youiig leaves, on the paper, to collect the worms, and more as they continue to mount. For v>ant of mulberry leaves, feed for a short time upon lettuce leaves perfectly dry; if large, they should be cut in strips, and the mid- rib thrown away: or still better, feed with the twigs of the white mulberry tree cut up fine. The worms first hatched are the strongest ; nevertheless, if only a few come out on the first day, give them away, to save trouble, and depend upon those which appear on the secontl and third days.* Give away also the produce of" the fourth day, and then the whole stock will go on regularly. If it be wished to rear all that are hatched, endeavor to keep the produce of each day separate, by numbering the boxes and shelves. When the leaves on the twigs are loaded with worms, they are to be gently placed on clean stout white i)aper laid on frames with crossed rattans, giv- ing them a plenty of room. The shelves over which these frames should slide, may be four feet square, and fixed to upright posts, they may be multiplied as required. Whether a distinct build- ing or apartment in a dwelling-house be devoted to a large parcel, it is absolutely necessary to se- cure the command of a gentle circulation of air, by having ventilators in the windows, floors and doors. One or more tin circular ventilators in place of panes of glass, would always insure a regular cir- culation in the apartment : they may be stopped when their motion is not re(|uired. Red ants are deadly enemies to silk worms; to prevent their attacks, the posts containing fixed shelves must not touch the ceiling, nor must the shelves reacii the walls; the lower parts of the posts should be smeared with thick molasses. If the worms are fed on tables or movealde frames, their legs may also be smeared with molasses, or |)ut in a dish of water; guard also against cockroaches, mice, and other vermin. The worms being all hatched, whether they are to remain in the first apai'tment, or be removed to another room, or distinct building, the heat must be reduced to 75°; for, as the worms grow older they require less heat. It is imi)ossible to insure the regular hatching of the worms without the use of a thermometer. First y/ge — that is, until the worms have passed their first moulting, or changed their first skin. The apartment must be light, but the sun must not shine on the worms in any stage. Feed the worms with the most tender leaves, four times a-day, allowing six hours between each meal ; give the smallest quantity for the first feed- ing, and gradually increase it at each meal between the moultings. In about an hour and a half, the silk worms de- vour their portion of leaves, and then remain more or less quiet. Whenever food is given, widen the * This is important advice — much labor will be saved by attending to it. 478 FARMERS' REGISTER— SILKWORM. spaces for tliem ; staltcred food may be swept into its ]>la( e. Experiments may l;e made as (o tlic compara- tive advantap;cs of usin^ cliopped.or wliole younsj; leaves. If clioppcd, a sliarp knife must lie used, to prevent the leaves from bein;in casting tiie floss. This period will be sliorter, if tlie silk worms spin the silk in a higher temperature tl)an that which lias been indi- cated, and in very dry air. It will lie belter not lo take o!T the cocoon be- fore the eighth or ninth day, reckoning from the time when the silk worm first rose. They may be taken off on the seventh, if the laboratories have been conducted with such regularity, that the time may be known with certainty, when this may be done. Begin on the lower tier of hurdles, and take the cabins down gently, giving them to those who are to gather the cocoons; place a basket between two of the gatherers, to receive the cocoons; anotiier person should receive (he stripped bushes, which may be laid by for another year. All the cocoons that want a certain consistency, and feel soft, should be laid aside, that they may not be mixed with the better. Empty the baskets upon hurdles or trays placed in rows, and spread the cocoons about four fingers deep, or nearly to the top of the feeding frame. When the cocoons are detached, the down or floss in which the silk worms have formed the cocoon, should be taken off. If the cocoons are for sale, weigh them, and send them to the pur- chaser. The baskets, the floor, and all things used, should be cleaned. When gathering the cocoons, make four assort- ments:— 1st. Those designed for breed. 2d. The dupions, or double ones. 3d. The firmest of those which are to be reeled. 4th. Those of a looser tex- ture. //. Choosing the Cocoons for the produclion of About two ounces of eggs may be saved out of one pound and a half, of male and female cocoons. The small cocoons of a straw color, with hard ends, and fine welis, and which are a little depress- ed in the middle, as if tightened by a ling or cir- cle, are to be preferred. There are no certain signs to distinguish the male from the female cocoons : the best known are the following : The small cocoons sharper at one, or both ends, and depressed in the middle, generally produce the jnale. The round full cocoons without ringorde- pression in the middle, usually contain the female. These may be distinguished from the dupions by the extra size, the clumsy shape, rather round than oval, of the latter. As, however, all marks may fiiil, an extra number may be kept, of the best of those which are spun double,and when the moths come out, the males and females being easi- ly distinguished, an addition can be made from tliem to the defective side. By shaking the cocoon close to the ear, we may generally ascertain whether the chrysalis be alive. If it be dead, and loosened from the cocoon, it yields a sharp sound. When [not] dead, it yields a muffled sound, and is more confined in the co- coon. ///. Preservation of Cocoons intended for Seed, or until the appearance of the Moth. Experience shows that where the temperature of the room is above 73°, the transition of the chrysalis to the moth state would be too rapid, and the coupling will not be productive ; if below 66°, the developement of the moth is tardy, which is also injurious. Damp air will change it into a weak and sickly moth ; the apartment should therefore kept in an even dry temperature, between 66° and 73°. When collected, spread the cocoons on a dry floor, or on fables, and strip them clean of down or floss, lo prevent the feet of the moth being entangled in it when coming out. While cleaning them, all those that appear to have any defect should be laid aside; this is the time, also to sepa- rate the male and female cocoons, as far as we can distinguish them. Select an equal number of males and females, and keep the cocoons of the same day's mounting separate, that the moths may pierce them at the same time. If the good cocoons taken from the whole parcel, are all first mixed, and the selection for those intended for breedmg, be made from this general heaj), many will beset aside, which were formed by worms that had mounted upon different days, and which will be pierced by the moths une- qually, and hence there will not be an equal num- ber of males and females i)roduced at the same time ; this irregular appearance may cause the loss of a great many moths, or of several thousand eggs. When the selection has been made, the sorted cocoons must be put on tables, in layers of about two inches, allowing the air to pass freely through them, that it may not be necessary to stir them frequently; but it is beneficial to stir them round once a day, if the air be moist. When the seed cocoons are not very numerous, they may be strung upon threads, and hung against a wall, or suspended fi-om abeam. Just so much of the mid- dle of the cocoon is to be pierced with a needle as is sufficient to attach it to the thread. The mid- dle is chosen, because it cannot be ascertained at which end the moth will pierce the cocoon. Place a male and female cocoon alternately upon the thread, that they may be near each other when they come out. If the heat of the apartment is above 73°, every method of diminishing the heat should be tried: such as keeping all the apertures to the sunny side carefully closed, to cause thorough drafts of air to dry the humidity that exhales from the chrysa- lides. Should the temperature rise to 78° or 82°, the cocoons must be put in a cooler place, as a dry cellar. Seventh j^ge of the Silk TJ'orvi. The seventh, and the last age of the silk worm, comprises the entire life of the moth. Tlie formation of the moth, and its disposition to issue from the cocoon, may be ascertained when one of its extremities is perceived to be wet, which is the part occupied by the head of the moth. A few hours after, and sometimes in one hour after, the moth will pierce the cocoon and come out ; occasionally the cocoon is so hard, and so wound in silk, that the moth in vain strives to come forth, and dies in the cocoon. Sometimes the female deposits some eggs in the cocoon befoi'e she can get out, and often perishes in it; this circum- stance has induced some to extract the chrysalis from the cocoon by cutting it, that the moth may have only to pierce its thin envelope; but the ex- perienced Dandolo disapproves of the practice (al- though he has performed the operation with suc- cess,) because it is tedious; and should the moth be put on a plain surface, five in a hundred will not be able to get out, but will drag the envelope FARMERS' REGISTER— SILKWORM. 481 along, and at last die, not being able to disencum- ber themselves. If the surface be not smooth, the moths vi'ill issue wilh greater ease; it is very fa- vorable to the moths v/hen they put forth their head and first legs, to find some substance lo which lliey may fasten, and thus facilitate clearing out of the cocoon by the support. For this reason, they should be spread out very thin on tables covered with a muslin or linen cloth. The life of the moth lasts, in Italy, fen, eleven or twelve days, accord- ing to the strength of its constitution, and the mildness of the atmosphere. With IMr. Dusar of Philadelphia the moths lived from five to eight days; a hot temperature accelerates their opera- tions and the drying which precedes their death. Hatching of the Moths, and their Preservation. Cocoons kept iu a temperature of 66° begin to be hatched after fifteen days ; those kept in a heat between 71° and 73°, begin to come forth after eleven or twelve days. The room in which the moths are produced should be dark, or at least there should be only sufficient light to distinguish objects. This is an important rule, and must be carefully attended to. The moths do not come forth in great numbers the first or the second day, but are chiefly hatched on tlie fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh days, according to the degree of heat in which the cocoons have been kept. The hours when the moths burst the cocoons in the greatest numbers, are the three and four hours after sun- rise if the temperature is from 64° to ^Q°. The male moths, the very moment they come out, go eagerly in quest oi the female; when they are united, they must be placed on frames covered with lin.en, and made in such a manner as to allow the linen to be changed when soiled. Much care must betaken in raising the united moths; they must be held by tiie wings in order not to separate them. When one small table is filled witli moths in a state of union, they are to be carried into a small room, sufficiently airy and fresh, and wliich can be made very dark. Having employed the first hours of the day in selecting and carrying tiie united moths, the males and females which are found separate on the tables, arelo lebiought into contact, put on frames, and carried into tjie dark room. It is easy to ascertain if there are more males than females. Tiie body of the female is nearly double the size of that of the male ; be- sides, the male which is single, beats ab,out its wings at the least approach of light; the hour amst be noted at w liich the tables containing the united moths are placed in the dark room. If, after this operation is over, there still remain some moths of each sex, they are to be placed in a small box with a perforated cover, until the mo- ment favorable for their union arrives. From time to time, they must be looked at, to see if they se- parate, in order that they may be brought anew into contact. When any thing is to be done in the dark cham- ber, as little light as possible must be admitted; only sufficient to distinguish objects. The more light there is, the more the moths are disturbed and troubled in their operations, as light is too sti- mulating for them. The boxes are very conve- nient to keep quiet the males which remain, and thus prevent tlie fine powder adhering to their wings from flying about, and the destruction of their wings, and consequently (heir vital power. Vol- I. -61 The cocoons must be removed as fast as they are pierced by the moth, for being moist, they commu- nicate their humidity to those which are still en- tire. The paper, also, on the trays, when soiled, is to be removed, and fresh supplied. Constant attention is required during the whole day, as there is a succession in the process of hatching, and union of the moths, which occasionally vary in relative proportion to one another. Instead of a frame, paper may be used for the purpose of re- ceiving the eggs. A few good cocoons will not not produce a moth, owing to their hardness, which prevents the moth from making a hole by- which to come forth. Separation of the Moth, and Laying the Eggs. If there be an excess of males, they must be thrown away ; if of females, males must be allot- ted to them, which have already been in a state of union. Great care must be taken, when the cou- ples are separated, not to injure the males. The male ought not to remain united more than six hours ; after the lapse of that time, take the moths by the wings and body, and separate them gently. All the males which are no longer in union, must be ])laccd upon a frame; the most vigorous after- wards selected, and united with those females which have not yet had a mate. Other vigorous males must be preserved in a separate box, and kept in darkness. When there is a want of males, let them remain united to the female the first time only five hours instead of six ; the females are not mjured by waiting for the male even many hours ; the only loss sustained, is that of some eggs, which are not impregnated. Before separating the tAvo sexes, prepare, in a cool, dry, airy chamber, the linen on which the moth is to deposite its eggs. Six hours, as just said, is the usual time for the moths lo remain united, for in that time the eggs of tiie female will be fully impregnated. It is also the general practice not to use the male for another female; but Mr. Delonchamps* assures us, that in the event of having more female than luale moths, the latter may be again used to profit. In the year 1824, he raised many worms from eggs, the produce of a sixth coupling, which were fully equal to those produced from eggs at the first; the union continued never less than from 20 to 24 hours; the male alter a sixth union appeared as lively and brisk as at first, but he had no more fe- males. The eggs from even a thirteenth union of the same male with different females, had all the characters of those of the best quality. In these cases, the disunion of (he pair v/as, moreover, ne- ver spontaneous, but always required to be eflett- cd l>y the hands. The following is the manner in which the cloth must be arranged : At the bottom of a tressel or frame, which must be proportioned to the number of moths, place horizontally, on each side of the length, two boards, so arranged, that one of their sides maj'be nailed lo the tressel, about five inches and a half high above the ground, and that the other side of the board shall be a little higher, and project out- wards. Upon a tressel lay a cloth, so that it may liang equally on each side. The ends of the cloth must cover the boards below ; the more perpen- * Essai Sur I'llistoire des Muriers ct dcs Vers a Soie. p." C2. Paris, 1824. 482 FARMERS^ REGISTER— SILKWORM. dicular the lateral parts of the tressel are, the less solid will be the cloth by the evacuation of tiie li- quid from the moths. The moths which have been united six hours arc then to be gently separated, the females placed on the fraa^iC, and carried to the tressel and placed on the cloth, one over another, beginning at the top and going downwards. Note the time at whicli tlie moths are placed on the cloth, and keep those which are placed afterwards separate, to avoid confusion. The females that have had a virgin mate must be treated in the same manner as those which have been united with one that had been coupled previously five hours. The females should he left on the cloth 86 or 40 hours, without being touched; at this time, if it be observed that the linen has not been well stock- ed with eggs, other females must be j)laced upon it, in order that the eggs may be equally distri- buted. When the heat of the room is 77° or 79°, or when at 63° or 65°, the eggs will he yellow, that is unimpregnated ; or of a reddish color, that is imperfectly impregnated, and will not j)roduce worms : the temperature ol' the room must there- fore be kept between these extremes. Sometimes a female moth will escape from its mateLe.'bre im- preo'nation, and produce many useless eggs. 1 he female cocoons, as belbre noted, are gene- rally larger than the males, and not so much point- ed as these are, and arc without the ring or de- pression in the middle, which commonly distin- guishes the cocoons containing the latter. Eight or ten days after the deposition of the eggs, the jonquil color peculiar to them will change to a reddish gray, and afterwards into a pale clay hue; they are of a lenticular form, and on both surfaces there is a slight depression. Preservation of the £ggs. Collect the eggs which have fallen on the cloth covering the shelves of the tressel, when quite dry, put them in a box, and, if numerous, in layers not more than half the breadth of the finger. The cloths raised from the tressel when quite dry, are to be folded and placed in a dry room, the tempe- rature of which does not exceed 65°, nor bclov/ the freezing point, 32°. During the summer, the cloths must be exam- ined, every month, to remove insects ; and to pre- serve the cloths always in fresh air, if the quanti- ty be large, place them on a frame of cord attach- ed to tlie ceiling, or a rafter.* There exists a notion that every two or three years the eggs should be changed. It requires little to be said on this egregious error. To sup- pose that the good cocoons of a cultivator, after a few years, are no longer fit to produce seed, and yet that these cocoons can give good seed for the use of another, would be to admit a superstitious contradiction, which reason, ])ractice and science alike condemn. A change of seed can only be ne- cessary, when from great neglect, for a series of years, of the worms, a diminutive race has been produced. Worms properly treated, will never degenerate. On the subject of the degeneracy of silk worms, in the United States, the most positive information can be given. Mr. Sanmel Alexander, of Philadelphia says, " I am convinced that silk worms, cultivated in Pennsylvania, instead of degenerating, impro\e; proof of which I possess, in comparing the cocoons of four years since, w ith those of the last year. I can say with truth, the worms hatched from the eggs I brought from the south of Europe, have produced annually belter silk." The testimony of Mr. Sharrod M'Callof Galaden county, Florida, is still more decisive. A samjde of beautiful sewing silk, sent with his communication, to the secretary of the trea- sury, was part of a parcel produced by ^vorn)S,lhe stock of which he has had thirty years; and they V, ere obtained from a maternal ancestor, who had possessed them many years before. During all this long period, no degeneracy has been observed. Let proper care be taken of silk woims, and no deterioration will take place. The time has pa,«sed when the idle reveries of ButTon, Holie]-tson, De Pauw, and others, respect- ing the tendency of nature " to belittle" and de- generate every thing foreign in tlie new world, were received as truths. Facts, proud facts, de- monstrate not only the absurdity of their positions, but the superiority of every American animal and vegetable, when compared with similar produc- tions in the old world. 'To Bake Cocoons. Cocoons reel* mo.'-e readily, and yield silk of a superior quality, without killing the insect by either steam of hot water, or by baking them ; but those who have not the means of reeling off their cocoons in two or three days after tliey are formed, or of selling them, must kill the insects they con- tain, or they will eat through, and spoil the cocoons, by breaking thecontinuity of thethread. Theeasi- est way to do this, is to bake them in an oven, which must be about as hot as when bread has been taken out of it. After picking out all the spotted cocoons, put the rest in flat baskets, filling them within an inch of the top; cover them with paper, and a wrapper over it : put these baskets in the oven, and after an hour, draw them out, and cover them with a woollen rug, leaving the wrap- per as it was. Let them stand five or six hours, to keep in the heat and stifle the chrysalis. Then spread them in thin layers on shelves, and move them everyday (to prevent their becoming moul- dy,) until perlisctly dry. It may be important to state, that the birth of the moth may be prolong- ed a month by keeping the cocoons in a very cold dry cellar. If the cocoons are kept over summer, they must be protected from ants, mice and cock- roaches. * A barrel hoop, crossed vj'uh stout pack-thread, will make a good frame. A small quantity may be kept in a tin case. If a board box be used, the joints and edges pf the top should he pasted with paper to exclude ants. + Mr. D. Teen, No. l.'>0. North Front Street, and B. F. Pomeroy, corner of VVidnut and Dock Streets, Phi- ladelphia, are recommended to these who wish to have silk reels made. FARMERS' REGISTER— SILKWORM. 483 !? ^ H 0 I? ■q o c^ 5 3 H ^3 0 0 •s > O n > 0 n > M Q H f/i ^ ^. — ^ ,. '^ "~-^ f — — ^ ^ ^— — — *— — . — ^ --1 o; oi ■'^ t.^ 1-2 — C- EI- c =- c- — S. c. c^ S- ^ '^^ 5- rr p p p ? ? P^ *. Oi fO — j:. a. o, CO jfe. tj5 to '— g- E. C to 2_ CL 2. a. en J:^ 0; to — a. S- o-o. a. p p .= .= ?^ 0 0 0 P P P .= .^^ J V ,. ' ^ _.^ .,. ^ , ' ' . ' V V 3- S-. =. ^ -^ a to o C5 CO co r* 5 § ^ § S.^ — ;;^ «- 3 re w "0 s 2|'§r? 05 05 ^l ^ M S £ "-S 03 00 >— ' w Oi CO 2 re* (» ^ ^ r. g- P S-- J O o O 0 C'q re" ;:;• fr^ re C5 ^ <» "^ O w tn " §- ? . _^^ ^^ ^.^ — — k; ts — — f ^ ' ' ' ' ' P oi k; oi — f-i cc o; CO Ci Ji. to Ct tr. W to >— to to .— C OJ O o *. w ci O w t, 6a 1 o « cc ts to W 1 05 to to 1— o to ^ C5 *. 0 — w — c c ^ _ , ^^ ^ ^^ ^ c re "• A*.OOOCCOOOO 1 t« rfi. *^ CO O Ji. 1 CC CO CC CO lO kU 00 to QD c: c; 0 a-. "^ ■' 0 ^ , ., ' ^ — V-— r\ re -n >^ «. ^-J 6S bO *p^ g-5 g 00 o to c~ o o ^ .« » CO — a? «* 0 re C ~v 5z; o ?;■ *^ re — P . S- 3" ^ P ~ 03 H H re' " 3 — CT! 3- re 3 re - - 3 p 3 . . ^3 "> s . 2 " C- 3 a. "^ re r- .-..--ire - - _ 3 re a re"? " 're re r *< ches and half leav ves, four meals ; t the first meal four meals, th four or five m distributed as JO 5 P re ■< ~- PS ? IS, 1 £.0 ~ 3^ -^ re 0 " - P 1:3 CO " <; . .^ re . P'' re B ='-' re p5 P 3 cT a. ^ <- !- E. m' G re „ JJ ^ ^ re o" ■^ 5 a es. Enl he first 1 22 11.!^ t 27 lbs 1 37^ lbs. e last til the first eals, the wanted. o re ^ ^ ^ m S — re S- tt ' 0 ^"^ 0 ^ ^ p En 0 0 " 3 3 re^ <^ arge the spaces :hc t;mallcst, 12 he last 27 lbs 1 2 oz. the last 37 the .second 46 11 e most abundan meal the larges first the larges Worms appr If not, ennntrh o - a-. " ,-. g s . 0 0 — g »>»-" w _« "■ 3 2 ^9•^~'• '■? — S " = ^ P n S 52 re i-ff c^ = a. re - -. y M CJ. re ^ -T- re -_- P re to 3 3 — ^ re « 5 "> ^ ?• ^ 3 ? 3 <- 0 H.^ p, ^^ li s g =• 3 ^ re s i-i 0 re r re -^ rfS ^ £• '^^ m -J p- i. re re 0 <-. N ST • re re ^ 3- 3 « 0 p re" CO "^ T 5' P re re 3- .=* re- co p re 5" 3 P 5»" 1 4Si FARMERS' REGISTER— SILKWORM. The table is taken from the v.'ork by Boiiafous, of Piedmont, on Silk Worms, Lyons, 1824. The measures and weig"hts are French. The French foot is divided into 12 inches, and the inch into 12 lines. It is nine lines more than the American foot, or one foot 78-lOOlhs, Ameiican. Six Frencli feet are six feet four inches American ; twelve French feet are twelve feet nine inches American, fractions omittted ; 93.89 French feet make 100 feet American. Those who intend to regulate tiie spaces by the rules of Bonafous, may easily do so by noting the dimensions of each hurdle or feed- ing frame. It cannot be too often repeated, that the constant rule to be attended to, is to give the worms ample space, and never to permit their be- ing crowded. The spaces as set down in the ta- ble, when reduced to American measure, are as follow, fractions omitted : Feet. Inches, Feet. 9 6 10 19 21 46 52 109 124 239 272 The quantities of leaves marked for the several days and ages, are those which have been found sufficient. The knowledge of the precise propor- tions may be useful, if a great cjuantity of worms is reared, Avhen leaves are bought, or when per- sons are hired to collect them, by enabling the proprietor to make his contracts for the daily sup- plies; and by preventing the unnecessary waste of leaves, and surfeiting the worms, when he owns the trees. It should always be kept in mind that, besides these reasons, a superabundance of food gi'eatly increases the trouble of the attendants, from the unnecessary litter it produces. The propor- tions prescribed by Bonafous, when reduced to American weights, are as Ibllow, omitting frac- tions : lbs. lbs. oz. 7 7 12 21 23 4 69 76 9 210 229 8 1281 1400 ON THK CULTURE OF THE WHITE MU LBERRY TREE. The proper soils (or this tree are dry, sandy or stony; the more stony the better, provided the roots can penetrate them. Tlie situation should be high : low, rich, and moist land, never produce nourishing leaves, however vigorously the trees may groAV. They are always found to be too watery. The same remai-k may be made upon the leaves of young seedling plants, which v/ill not produce good or abundance of silk, and are only pro]ier when the worms are young ; say in their two first ages. It may be useful to have a parcel of these growing in a warm situation, that they may come forward before large trees, and serve for early food. Mulberry trees may be propagated by — 1st, seed; 2d, grafting; 3d, budding; 4tii, layers ; 5th, cuttings; 6th, suckers. The ripe fruit may be sown in drills, in ground previously prepared; or the seeds ma}' be washed out of the pulp, and mixed with an equal quantity of sand or fine mould, and then sown. They should be covered about a quarter of an inch deep. The seeds will soon vegetate if the ground be rich, and will live through the winter, unless the cold should be unusually severe. A quantity of plants from seeds thus treated, lived through the cold winter of 1825-G, in Philadelphia. In very cold weather, the young plants may be covered with straw, or long manure. The following spring, thin (he plants so that they may stand one (bot apart at least. Seeds intended to be sown in (he springs or to be kept, should be washed out, as they are apt to heat, or to mould, if permitted to remain in the fruit. Land destined for spring sowing should be dug or ploughed in the preceding autunm, left rough all winter, and be harrowed or raked tine, as soon as the season will permit, and the seed sown in drills. The young plants must be watered in dry weather, and weeds carefully kept down. Weeds will not only stint the growth of the plants, but cause disease in them, which may affect the future vigor and health of the tree. In the second year transplant them to two feet distance from one another, to give room for cleansing and dressing the land. When transplanting, cut off some of the roots, especially those that are ragged or de- caj'ed, and the tap root, to force out lateral roots ; and also the tops, at six or seven inches from the ground. When the plants in the nursery have sprung, strip o(f the side buds, and leave none but such as are necessary to form the head of the tree. The buds which are left should be opposite to one another. If the plants in the nursery do no) shoot well (he first year, in the month of March (iillow- ing cut them over, about seven inches from the ground, and (hey will grow briskly. They should be watered with diluted barn-yard water. When the plants ha^e grown to the size of one inch in diameter, plant them out in fields or places where they are to remain, and make the hole six feet square : trim the roots, and press the earth on the roots as the holes are filled. During the first year of planting out, leave all the buds which the young trees have pushed out on the (op, till the following spring, when none are to be left, but three or four branches to form the head of the tree. The buds on those branches should be on the outside of them, that the shoots may describe a circle round the stem, and that the interior of the tree may be ke{)t open : and as the buds come out, rub ofi' all those on the bodies of the trees. For several years after, every spring, open the heads of the Irees when too thick of wood, and cut off any branch which crosses or takes the lead of the rest, leaving two buds on the outside of every trimmed branch. Count Verri, of Italy, an experienced cultivator of the mulberry tree, recommends to leave only one bud at the end ot every branch, preferring (hose which are ou(side, and opposite to each other; and when three buds appear (ogedier, (o leave (he middle one, which is always most vigorous, and to detach the two on each side of it. If the superior buds do not push well, the two next lower on€s must be left. Every far- mer knows the very great importance of dressing ground round young trees twice in the course of a year, and of securing them to stakes, to insure ark upright straight growth, and to prevent their be- ing siiakcn l)y winds, or levelled by storms. The trees may be" planted at (he usual distance of apple trees, 'i'he intervals may be cultivated in cab- bages, turnipsj or mangel wurtzel. The atteu- FARMERS' REGISTER— FALLOWS— ROCKBRIDGE FARMING. 4c dance necessiiry to Indian corn, would endanger tlie young trees. It is so much (he practice in the United States to let trees take their chance for growing, afler tliey have been ])lanted, or sprung up from see:!'* or stones, that these particular directions may be disregarded. But let a comparative experiment be made with mull)erry trees permitted to grow al will, and others treated as here directed, and tlie difference in their beauty and growth will be ob- vious. The advantage, in tiiese respects, will be decidedly in favor of trees which have been at- tended to. Without deciding upon the superiority of the various modes of propagating mull erry tiees, it is tliought proper to mention the great advantage of the mode of budding. In the year 1S26, Mr. Millington, of Missouri, "budded tiie white mul- berry on stocks of native trees ; and such as were done before July, were forced out immesliately by cutting off the stocks above the buds. Some of these buds made limbs more than two feet long by the 27th October. The buds put in after the middle of July, he did not intend to force out un- til the following spring. He thinks budding more expeditious and surer than engrafting, and when it tails, does not injure the stock so much as this mode. Native stocks, to engraft or bud on, can be procured with ease; and the trees thus raised would not be lial)]e to disease in their roots, like foreign trees: and these engrafted or budded trees would grow much faster, and furnish leaves much sooner, and of a larger size, and better qualitv. This will not be doubted by those who have ob- served how much faster an engrafted tree grows, and how much larger its leaves are than those of a seedling tree."* Experience has fully shown that the leaves of the native mulberry tree produce good and strong- silk, although not so fine as that from the white mulberry. Those, therefore, who have only the native tree, may begin tiieir operations with it; and they will acquire a knowledge of the business of rearing silk-worms, while the foreign species is CTOwinsr. Oy MAXURIXG FALLOWS FOR WHEAT. From the Genesee Farmer. We are always gratified to obtain the views of practical farmers on any parts of their lousiness, especially where the contributor differs from the common practice around him, — for whether he be right or wrong, if he makes careful experiments, he is on the high road to knowledge ; and may eli- cit something valual)le from others. It is there- fore with pleasure that we lay before our readers, some extracts from our corresj)ondence. " The result of a series of experiments for more than ten years, have satisfied me that a very great error prevails among farmers with regard to the spreading of barn-yard manure preparatory to seeding in the fall with wheat. Many haul it out and leave it lying in heaps for v.eeks, and only spread it immediately before the plough. Tlie best plan is to haul, spread, and plough under in the sameday ; but this course is impracticalde, un- less the farmer has more teams and hands than would be profitably employed the rest of the year. *Silk Manual, p. 1 14. The next best course is to haul, and spread off the wagon, or directly after it; and not to suffe*' tbe manure (o lie in small heaps over night. Thecus- tom is, to take out all the manure before any is spread. On (he contrary, I have pursued my pla;; (or years, and have not seen any difference in the crop, whether the manure had iieen spread three weeks, or only one day before it was ploughed under. " After manure is disturbed, and (lien lUrown in- to heaps, fresh fermcn(ation takes place, which I presume is not the case wlien it is thinly spread over the ground. I am an unlielicver in (he deic- (rine lha{ (he nu(ritive parts of manure, constitu- ting the food of plants, is exhaled. Some say that after barn-yaid manure has laid in heaps for some time, and become dry, it loses its strength. This has been my experience; but never has this loss happened (o manure thinly spread over the field as it was hauled from the yard : in other words, fer- mentation is injurious, but simple exhalation is not. "Some may think that spreading manure off a wagon is more tedious than to throw it down in heaps, and then spread it. We mostly spread it directly off the wagon. A man and boy hauled out and s[)read in this manner eighteen two-horse loads, between ten o'clock in the morning and sun- set, which, it must be admitted, was good speed. If the time occupied in throwing it down in heaps, be added to (he (ime necessary for spreading i{ af- terwards, a balance will be found in favor of m}' method. This is not idle theory, but the result of experiments on a large scale." ROTATION SUITABLE TO ROCKBRlDGi: COUN- TY. Ilerd^s Grass — Lime and Calcaremis Tufa — Lo- cust 'J'imbsr — lUeade's Improved Stock, Sfc. Rockbridge, Dec. 3rd, 1833. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Finding but few of your correspondents are fi«om this side of the ridge, and being anxious to contribute my mite towards rendering (he Register interestingand useful in every part of ihe state, I am induced to ofier you a few crude and desultory re- marks, of which you may make what use you please. I have some objections to the four-shift system of Mr. Carter, and others, among the best of jour farmers. Mr. Carter's valuable essay, by the bye, I doubtnot, Avill tend much to renovating the whole tide-wafer country ; and I would not grudge (he amount rf my subscription for the gratification its perusal alone has given me. My objections ex- tended to our hilly and broken coimtry only. It is here a difficult matter to find one hundred acres in a body, sufficiently level for the cultivation of corn; and it would therefore be injudicious to cur- tail our farms to (bur fields. Besides, our soil is much be((er adap(ed to grass, than (hat of the low- er country ; and good policy requires we should turn our a((cn(ion more (o s(ock. For (hese rea- sons, I would prefer seven fiehls — selecfing four of (he most level (o keep under JMr. Car(er's ro(a(ion, and (he remaining (hree to be laid down in grass — say clover, timothy, or orchard grass — (o all which our lands are remarkably well adap(ed. We are happily exempt from the annoyance of the onion, and our clover is rarely encroached upon by any 48G FARMERS' REGISTER— HERD'S GRASS, LIME, LOCUST. thinjr until tlie lliinl year, when the srroeii sward sometimes takes jjossession. These fields I wouhl then retain altofjethcr for p:rass, wheat, rye and oats — as circumstances mis^ht seem to imlicatc one or the other, reserving all my manure for the codj crop. But exclusive' of these seven distinct enclosures, I Avould stronj^ly recommend three or four small lots contiijiious to the barn-yard, well set in clover and orcl;ard <:;niss, for soiling,". (These to le enclo- sed with locust posts, and planked, and white wash- ed.) By this mode, in my opinion, one acre will j;o as far as six or seven trodden under foot early in the spring, whilst the herbage is yet very tender, and tlie ground liable to he poached. I believe, too, by this mode, we can nearly double the quan- titv of our manure ; and our pastures will certain- ly support double tlie stock, if they are not turned in until the clover is in full head. It seems to me the Herd's grass, or red top, has not yet been introduced into tiie lower country. If it has not, it will certainly be a valualile acqui- sition to you, as no gn^ss can be better adapted to wet and marshy ravines, or slashes, as I think I have heard them called. In a few years, its sod will be so compact, as to enable a wagon and team to be driven over what was before a mirey bog. The orchard grass,too, would be well worth a trial with you. Some of your correspondents inquire the best mode to extirpate sassafras hushes. This is cer- tainly no easy matter, either with the plough or the grubbing hoe; but may elTectually be done by close grazing with sheep, followed w itii a summer fallow for wheat. This must be well set in clover; -after which the use of the scythe, for two succes- sive seasons, Mill effectually eradicate them. I have found this also the best method ut extermin- ating all sorts of briers, which, in old fields, are often very pernicious, and the growth of which seems often to be extended l)y breaking the roots with the plough. If the appetite of the sheep is promoted by regular salting, tl;ey will nip the leaves and buds of bushes and briers, so close, as of- ten to destroy them in one season. i have lately read your v.'ork on calcareous r/ia- nures, with much interest, though hastily, and have been endeavoring to extend the use of lime and marl as much as possible. So Air, ifliasbeen ra- ther an vp hill business ; and where 1 do not meet with aclive opposition, I at least have to contend wiih apathy, and an aversion to depart from our ancestral path. Limestone and timber abound with us, and immense beds of a calcareous deposite, Avhich, if not a true shell marl, is certainly equally valuable. On the margins of some of our little rivulets, whole acres are covered with it, to the depth often of several feet, sufficiently pulverized or decomposed by the action of the air, for immedi- ate use, without lurther preparation. In some in- stances, it is true, it is /bund in large masses of per- haps half a ton in weight, which would require the use ol the j)laster mill, or perliaj)Sthe action of fire for twenty-four hours. These beds, in some in- stances, are calcareous in so high a degree, as to be almost unfit for vegetation ; and this has been urged as an objection by some to the trouble of hauling it out. I have no doubt it would yield from filty to eighty per cent, of lime ; but from i)erceiving many shells, (the common land snail, '. suppose,) I was unluckily induced to call it " shell marl," without a more minute examination ; and we are now engaged in discussing the propri- ety of the term, instead of enricliing our lands by its use. It efiervesccs copiously with vinegar ; and though I do not entertain a doubt as to its great value as a fertilizer, I sliould like to know whether it is merely the deposite of carbonate of lime, for- merly called tufa, or whether the term marl would be inappropriate. The whole lower country might be supplied witli lime from this county alone; and from my experience in the burning of the stone into lime, I am induced to believe it can be done for three, pos- sibly four, cents per bushel. What it would cost to transport it to Richmond, I am unable to say ; but I have no doubt the contemplated improvement of James river, if carried into effect, would make it an object of profit, both to us, and to the fiirmers of Lower Virginia. Lynchburg, I believe, is al- ready chiefly supjdied from this county. Large beds of the calcareous deposite-5, before spoken of, are also found on both the branches of James river, intersecting our county. Although your attention has already been called to the cultivation of that valuable tree the locust, by Reuben Grigsby, Esq., and Mr. Shands, of Prince George, as well as by the Notes of a Rustic, yet the importance of its culture will justify a few- additional remarks. Where this tree already ex- ists, the most simple and safe mode of propagating it is, to cut down one of the growing trees, where you desire its extension, during the winter season, or whilst the sap is yet in the roots. If the nature of the ground will admit of the use of the plough, this implement, by b:eakingthe roots, will soon cause a luxuriant growth of sprouts, which may be either trim.med up and sutTered to grow, or transplanted. The thicker they stand, the more stately will be their growth, as they are otherwise prone to spread too much. I am perfectly satisfied that their growth is not injurious, either to grain or grass, and is so rapid that I believe the sprouts from the stumps will often make good posts in ten years. Some which I trim.med four years since, and were then of a fine size for transplanting, will, in another year, make good posts. I was much pleased with the suggestion of Mr. Shands, to plant them along rail-road routes. If planted near those already constructed with timber, I do not entertain a doubt that in fifteen years, they would be large enough for all repairs; and I believe will last half a century at least. Anticipating that the plan pro- posed by both Hartman and W^illianis, will be found to answer well, it would be good policy to encourage the growth of this very durable timber, in the vicinity of all routes, through which the population ^nd wealth would probably justify rail- ways in a few years. In answer to the inquiry of your Nottoway cor- respondent, I can inform him that tlie late Mr. Meade procured the full blooded Durhams from John Hare Powell, of Pennsylvania ; and with his usual sagacity and enterprise, was engaged in im- proving them, by crossing with native cows re- markable for their milk, and other good properties, selected with great care, and at great expense. His sheep, acknowledged by all to be equal to any in the union, were originally the pure Bakewell stock ; but dth putrescent nianures. Freely as the locust grows on our river banks, where the soil is, or has been, of great fertility, very few are to be found a mile off, and not one, of natural growth, upon the whole extent of the inland pine lands. Tho.?e reared about houses, for ornament, on soils of the latter kind, sometimes thrive and grow well ; but this is owing to the soil about our dwellings being supplied with lime from a.shes, and also in a less degree, from every kind though by other means would beief^uired bticreicci!.-^ts :.iuld be made to live alon^: the routes of radways pass- ng through a p ne country. The "marl" of which our correspondent speaks, or ca'cctreous tufa, is no doubt a most valuable resource for manure; and we have bef re stated its value, and le- commended its use in a communication, from which an extract v/ill be given below. The name "marl" is cer- ainly as mvch misapplied to this substance, as it is to our beds of fossil shells; but as it is principally compo- ed of pure calcareous earth, (carbonate of lime,) it has, in a high degree, all that renders valuable any marl, or any calcareous manure. This calcareous tufa is found at the rapids, or falls, or vl.ere there were once falls of limestone water. The ime held in solution by water is in the form of super carbonate, being combined with a double portion of car- bonic acid. When exposed to the air, as it is by dash- ng over falls, the efLct of that exposure is to throw off ;he excess of carbonic acid, leaving the compound sun- ply a carbonate of lime, which, being insoluble in water, ildl to the bottom, and in the covtrse of ages, forms the anmense accumulations of calcareous tufa on the lime- -Uone streams. The increase of these deposites serve n time to oppose the passage of the water, as a dike would, so that the stream gradually shifts to another part of the lowland, and thus continues to extend the space covered by the dcposite ] DIFFERENT CALCAREOUS ROCKS PROPOSED FOR aiAKURE. . Extract of a letter from Edmund Riiffin to JVm. B. Page, piihlishedby order rfihe j/gricultural Society of the Valley, May 29, 1826. Fri'm the Wiiicliester Republican. * * * " You state the general objection to liming in Frederick to be, tirst, the belief that your soils are already sufblcientlj' calcareous, and secondly, the cost of fuel. I have before offered you reasons for my belief tliat your soils generally are not even slightly calcareous, and on the mo.st accurate examination, I do not think that you will find atv>entieth part of even your limestone soils to contain the smallest proportion of calcareous earth. The expense of burning I cannot estimate even on tlic practice of neighboring farmers, of whom I h^ve in vain made inquiries. But even if your fuel should be ratl.er more dear than on James river, you would obtain the material for lime at far less cost. Oyster shells taken from vessels off the landing places, cost 62| cents per hogshead, (yielding eighteen bushels of lime,) while you would quarry the rock on the farm, or perhaps the field, where the lime was to l;e spread. But I doubt whether burning will be necessary in every case where you may manure with lime. As its sol- vent power is seldom used or wanted, it will serve as well mild as caustic, if it can be broken down fine enough without heat. Limestone gravel is used to great profit in Ireland, and perhaps may be found in our limestone country ; and from my own limited observation, I know that substitutes for it may be obtained in various places,.if they should be found to suit as well in their quantity, as in their richness. Yv ith a view to answering your inquiries, I paid some attention to this subject du- ring my recent visit to tlie mountains, and would have examined many supposed materials for ma- of accumulation there made. A like change in the soil, | nure, but for the want of the necessary tests : as it 488 FARMERS' REGISTER—CORN AND TURNIPS— MANURING. was, I bro'jfrhl home, and have analyzed, cifjhlor ten s[)ec.imens of rotks, which, from Iheir softness and si'.pposcil aliundance, seemed to promise calca- reous maniiie of some value, witlioiit the cost of burninLi:. Oflhese, one, frequently seen in the roads, is like liniesion.c in color, but more like slate in softness, and easily broken into thin layers; and what is exposed to the eye might be pounded to gravel without much labor. A specimen of this, taken about midway between Waynesborougli and Staunton, contained j\^~ of calcareous earth ; anotlier, taken near Ijexington, on the road to the Natural liridge, contained f';'^. The stone which covers a consideralde portion of tiie arsenal lot has y'fv'V, and though much harder than the others, is so soft as to be considered of no value for common purposes, and which can be cjuarried, and broken down, with a ])ick only. A stone, which is very abundant about the Salt Sulphur Springs, is so hard when in the earth, as to yield only to the force of gunpowder, yet crund)les to small gravel after a few weeks' exposure to the air. This contains only yy^, and is too poor to pay the expense of blasting, but would be w ortli using, if already ex- pensed to the air. These specimens were selected almost by chance, and even if sonse judgment had been exercised, it would have required many more examinations to prove the strength or worth of any large bodies of such suiistances ; and they are men- tioned only to shew that such manures may be found, and are worth your seeking. Another cal- careous rock is Ibund in limestone streams, which is richer than Jiiy best shell-marl, and nearly as soft : I mean that deposite of limestone water, to which the name of 7narl is as incorrectly applied m the upper country, as here to our fossil shells — [calcareous tula ] This is nearly pure calcareous earth, and so (ar as its quantity will go, it must be a very cheap as well as rich manure. In tliese rocks I should expect to find resources for the im- provement of land; but at the same time that I offer them to your notice, I am sensiiile that the ■very descriptions giver), most probal)ly shew how little I am acquainted with the substances recom- mended." jDOaiPARATIVE PRODUCTS OF RARE-RIPE, AND THE CO.'MMOX LARGE CORN. EXHAUST- ING EFFECTS OF TURNIPS. •To tlie Editor of the Farmers' Register. I comply with your request to report the result of my experiment, on the cultivation of Madeira (or early flint) and gourd-s?ed corn, and F do so the more cheerfully, because I derive from the experience of others, flirough the medium of the Farmers' Regis- ter, invaluable information in my agricultuial pursuits, and therefore am not justified in with- holding any experiment of my own, although of little importance, from those w ho may be desiious of information as to the result. On land, as I then suppo.sed, of equal fertility, and when in the regular progress of planting my corn crop, I planted eiglit rows through the field with the Madeira corn, having on either side of it the gourd-seed. Of course, equal attention was paid to the cultivation, and the only di-ffei-ence made, was that double as many stalks of the former kind were left to stand. On the ISfh of October, a space thirty-five yards wide, containing twenty- four rows, north and south, having the efght rows of Madeira corn in the middle, and 140 yards east and west, was accurately marked off, and the'corn gathered and measured. The result w as that eight rows of the gourd-seed, on the north side of the Ma- deira, yielded ten bushels and one gallon of sound corn — the eight rows of Madeira, nine bushels and seven gallons, and also one gallon of short and rot- ten corn — and the eight rows on the south side i)ro- duced only eigiit bushels and six gallons of sound, and one bushel of short and rotten corn. If seems that I did not correctly appreciate the strength of the soil, even on this small space. As it is, howe\er, the Madeira corn has produced about the same (in measure,) as the average of the gourd-seed on both sides of it— and neither kind shows any advantage over the other. I tried also, as you requested, to show by mea- surement of the corn, what was the effect of a tur- nip crop on my cow-penned land of the last year ; but hogs having gotten into my field and destroyed a part of that parcel just I efore the corn was gathered, I am deprived of the means of making an accurate statement, and can only report on con- jecture. My land cow-penned to the 10th of Au- gust, 1832, (which was littered from the woods, and the pens moved once in fourteen days,) w-as seeded in turnips on the eleventii. The cowpens there- after, were treated precisely in the same way — and the last spring, the w hole was planted in corn, together with the land adjoining the cov/pens sown in turnips, which was not at all aided by manure. In May, the growth of the corn on the land cow-|)enned after the 10th of August, was very luxuriant, and sustained its superiority through the .season ; but the turnip land, (although the tur- nips had been taken off before April, and of course i)efbre tlieir seeding,) presented coni})aratively a gloomy aspect, and its product I confidently believe did nol surpass the adjoining unmanured land twenty-five per cent. j. b. c. ON SURFACE MANURING. To the Editor of the Fanners' PiCgifter. December Ath, 1833. The deep interest which I feel in your very val- uable work, together with the conviction that it will he im})ossible to sustain it without the aid of contril)utions from others, induce me to assume the unwonted character of a writer for the public eye, and to endeavor to furnish somewhat to the filling your next number. What I shall say, I know will be familiar to many of your readers; but, perhaps, there are some who have so lately entered upon the labors of agriculture, as' to derive some advantage fi-om my suggestions. It will be readily admitted, that the hope of re- storing our exhausted lands to any thing like their f()rmer fertility, rests mainly on the use of manures, in some shape or other, and in a large portion of \ ii'ginia, (wheie lime, marl, and even gypsum are unattainable, or attained at too great an expense,) on the use of fermented manures, made from such vegetable matter, as we may be able to collect. It is, therefore, of vital importance, not only to in- crease the quantity of our manures, but to make such ap|>!ication of it, as will insure the greatest possilde benefit I believe there is no subject con- nected with agriculture, on which there exists such diversity of opinion, as on the best mode of apply- ing manures to the soil. Until very lately, the - FARMERS* REGISTER— TRAVELLING BY STEAM— WHEAT, &c. 489 opinion was very general, if not universal, that fermented manures should be turned under with the plough as soon as put on the land;— and that otherwise, their value would be much impaired, if not totally lost by evaporation. This was thought especially necessary, if the n)auure used, was rough or half rotted. I iiave thought much on this subject, and for the last twenty years, marked the elfects of manure in all its various modes of application, both on my own farm and on my neighliors'— and now propose to give you the results of my observation, leaving it to persons more learned than myself, to reconcile these results to the principles of philosophy. Fifteen or twenty years ago, I observed an old man of good practical sense, and successful as a farmer, carting manure out in the month of July, on a field intend- ed for Indian corn the next year: tliis was spread as fast as carted, and remained in that situation until the spring following. He justified this prac- tice by a perfectly unanswerable reason, viz. that continued experience had taught him, that both Ids crop and his land were more improved by the use of his manure in that way, than any other he had tried. The confidence I had in the integrity and good sense of this old gentleman, induced me to make repeated experiments on this suliject, all of which have been decidedly favorable to top dress- ing, or surface manuring, and proved to my entire satisfaction, "that manure, when in contact with theearth, does not lose its strength by evaporation." This, I was exceedingly loth to believe, and I made many efforts to account for the fact— (for that I could not doubt — ) and at length came to the con- clusion, that the chemical affinity between the par- ticles of manure and the earth, was too strong to he overcome by the power of evaporation ; and that the apparent evaporation, is nothing more than the passing off of the water, which had been con- tained in the manure. Whether this is so, or not, I am sure 1 do not know. But I do know, that in the many different experiments I have made, both the land and the crop, are more benefitfed by the application of manure on the land, than by turning it under the land. I hope young farmers who are not yet wedded to any set of opinions, will be in- duced (at least,) to make the experiment. Not having fame as a farmer, to give weight to my opinions, i shall sign myself arator. jYote.— The late M r Thos. West, brother of Sir Benjamin West, settled on a farm in New- Jersey, after he had reached the age of forty. His object was to make it a grazing farm He used no plough whatever, but the hoe and scythe to eradicate briers, weeds, &c. He top dressed his fields, or some of them every year, and in a few years, he had the richest farm in the whole country firound (See Memoirs Philadelphia Agricultural Society.) TBAVELLIKG BY STEAM OX COMMON ROADS. From the London Spectator. On Saturday morning, September 7th, a steam carriage, constructed by Colonel Macerone and Mr. Squire, started from the wharf. No. 19, at Paddington, with a view of running to Windsor and back. The carriage contained, including Col. Macerone, Mr. Squire, who guided it, and two working engineers, one to look after the fire be- hind, and one riding on the box before, eleven per- Voiv. I.— 62 sons, and might weigh about three tons and a half. The place of starting is about one mile from Hydei Park Corner, making the distance to Windsor I wenty-four miles. The carriage reached the new fun at Windsor in two hours and fifly-six minutes. Including stoppages it went at the rate of nearly eight miles an hour; excluding the stoppages, it travelled at the rate of twelve miles an hour. The time was carefully marked between the mile- stones; and it was found that the speed was at the rate of ten, twelve, thirteen, eleven, and at one time at fourteen miles per hour. On its return, the axle broke, and its progress was stopped ; but this is an accident which can be easily guarded against in future. The carriage with which this trip was made, consisted of an open chariot placed belbre a steam boiler. The merit of the invention consists, we understand, in the boiler. The engine is of the high pressure kind, and has generally been worked at the pressure of one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch ; but on the trip to Windsor the pressure was not equal to that. The whole of the machinery, except the boiler and fire- place, which are beiiind the chariot, is placed hori- zontally beneath the carriage, and between a strong frame of wood-work. The size of the whole is not greater than that of an omnibus, and the carriage is capable of being made ornamental. Colonel Macerone, in a letter to the Morning Chionicle, says : " I do not know what it may cost to work other steam carriages, but it is essential that you should be informed that, in our journey to Windsor and back, (forty-eight miles,) we did not consume so much as five sacks of coke ; which, at two shillings a sack, makes ten shillings, the expense of pro- pelling a carriage which "is capable of carrying many more passengers, besides luggage, than a four-horse stage-coach." He also adds, in allusion to the comparative cost of running steam or horse carriages: " The former are exempt from all tax, while the latter have to pay three pence or more per mile, which alone, as I have shown above, is equal to the whole cost of the steam coach's pro})elling power-— the fuel ! Lord Althorp positively assured us, in the House of Commons, in July, 1832, that he ex- empted steam carriages on common roads from all tax, for the sake of encouragement — '' not that he Avas very sanguine as to their being speedily brought to answer." As it is, we pay turnpikes equaf to a four-horse carriage, although we have no horses' feet to pound up the road, and our broad vertical cylindrical wheels do more good thaij harm. THE FIRST WHEAT IN NEW ZEALAND. From Poulson's Daily Advertiser. The difficulty of introducing the greatest im- provements among people who need them most, is prettily illustrated by Williams' account (in the vegetable world,) of the manner in which wheat was first cultivated in New-Zealand by a native chief who had visited the English settlements in New-Holland. On leaving Port Jackson the second time, to return home, he took with him a quantify of it, and much surprised his acquaintan- ces by "informing them that this was the very sub- stance of which the Europeans made biscuit, such as they had seen and eaten on boai'd of their ships. 490 FARMERS' REGISTER— GRAZING— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. He gave a portion of it to several persons, all of Avliom put it into the ^round, and it grew well ; but before it was well ripe, many of Ihem were impatient for the produce ; and, as they expected to find the grain at the roots of tiie stems, similar to their potatoes, they examined them, and finding no wheat under the ground, all except one pulled it up and burned it. The chiefs ridiculed Duaterra about the wheat, and all he urged would not convince them that wheat would make bread. II is own crops and that of his uncle, who had allowed the grain to re- main, came in time to pcriection, and were reaped and tlirashed ; and, tiiough the natives were much astonished to find tiiat the grain was produced at the top, and not at the bottom of the stem, yet still they could not be persuaded that bread could be made of it. A friend afterwards sent Duaterra a steel mill to grind his wiieat, which he received witli no little joy. He soon set to work before his countrymen, ground some wheat, and they danced and shouted Avith delight when they saw the meal. He after- Avards made a cake, and baked it in a frying pan, and gave it to the people to eat, which fully satis- fied them of the assertions. From this time there was of course no difficulty in making the culture a fashionable one. As I am situated, I have to keep three fields, of one hundred and fifty acres each, in clover tor pasture, and they are fallowed alternately. One more field of the same size is divided, upon which I make corn. U]jon those two fields I put the greater part of my manure, and they are necessa- rily divided by a ^ood fence, as I feed my cattle for the most part in the field. Now sir, look at the difference in expense and results between me and Mr. Selden. He cultivates under a single enclosure three fourths of his land, and I, by vir- tue of the act of General Assembly, two hundred and twenty five of wheat on fallow and corn land, and seventy five in corn, with the very heavy charge of four division fences; — out of four hun- dred acres, he derives profit from three hundred, and out of six hundred, I can only have the same, for whicli I am indebted to the concentrated wis- dom of the state. If it be true that tlie strength and virtue of an agricultural community depend upon its agricultural abundance, why legislate land into common? why is one half of our land under civilized rule, and the other half entirely savage or Indian.'' To provide against unwise and evil legislation, I am constrained to use one hun- dred and fifty acres of land for pasture, or enter my own domains in common with those who would mark and appropriate every thing fat as their own. JEREMIAH. THE RIGHT OF GRAZING IN C03IBI0N. To the Editor of ihe Farmers' Register. If I were able, I would send your Register into every county in the state. Your correspondents are numerous, and they delight me ; their spirit augurs well — f(:)r if wrong, pride and perseverance will soon jHit them right, the more especially as they put their proper names to their communica- tions. Poor Jeremiah has no nerve for this : he must be permitted to speak as from his grave, and having said what he believes from experience, and poured his mite into the general treasury, let his remarks })ass, with those concerned, for what they are worth. Men seeking profit, care not from whom it is derived, nor stop to ask for names; — rest assured of one thing — that what he states as fact, he will always be ready to prove before a court of record. I tender my acknowledgments to many of your correspondents; but to Mr. Selden I am a great debtor. In 36 years of watching and toil, I have seen nothing, heard nor imagined of nothing, like his practice. If I were an emperor, his practice, like the cut of a Chinese coat, should be fixed and unchanged for one thousand years ; for sir, if in the sap and green tree it is thus productive, what will it it not do in time.' Like the queen of Sheba, I must pack up and regale my senses with the practical wisdom of Mr. Selden. My arrange- ments from necessity must materially differ from his. The right of common created by the General Assembly, and so long enjoyed by the good people of this state, puts it out of the power of any far- mer in this county to enclose a standing pasture. His servants are not lawful witnesses, and the whole profits of an ordinary fiirin Avould not em- ploy a sufficient number of competent witnesses to protect a fence enclosing three or four hundred acres of land. I may therefore, with strict pro- priety, charge the General Assembly with spoiling my estate full one thousand dollars per annum. PLANTING IN GEORGIA. Putnam County, ^ Geo. I2lh Nov. 1833. From the limited examination I have been ena- bled to give to my numbers of your work, I am highly pleased with it. I tliink it will be highly beneficial to the farming interests of your state. It is designed and better ad-^jited to the mode and manner of Virginia farming than that of Georgia. The difference of climate in the two states, the difference in the articles cultivated, render it a more useful paper to your farmers than to ours — though we can draw many valuable lessons from it, that will be immensely profitable to us if we will put them to practical use. Farming, as a science, is in a bad condition in this state. We appear to have but one rule — that is, to make as much cotton as we can, and wear out as nmch land as we can. We have not yet learned how to redeem land, or to improve it by any system of manuring. We have always (till now) had a fresh country on our border to which the farmer could retreat when he found his lands any way failing in their usual productions, with- out the aid of manure. Hence in riding through our state, waste plantations, fields turned out and grown up in broom sedge, every where meet the eye. We have most prodigally and carelessly used and abused one of the finest countiies for soil and climate in the world — a soil that paid better for the labor bestowed upon it than any north of the Mississippi river. This state of things is fast changing with us. The opportunities of a fresh country will present- ly cease — our whole system of agriculture Avill have to undergo a change ; — we are obliged to re- main where we are, and make the best we can of our lands. They are exhausted ; lands that once proiluced one thousand pounds of cotton to the FARMERS' REGISTER--PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. 491 acre, will not now bring more than four hundred pounds. Under the Iiighest production, we adopt- ed habits of luxury and extravagance that we find it hard to part with. These habits remain — the means to support them lessening every year, will compel us to improve our farms, and endeavor to bring them back to their original fertility. How this is to be done is the question. We caiTiiot give up our splendid travelling equipages — our fine furniture — or ceass to build fine houses, while our neighbors have them. I did hope that your Re- gister would have brought us some relief, and that you Avouldhave made yourself acquainted with our productions, manner of cultivation, the condition of our farms, and have given us the panacea to all our errors in farming: and I trust that, as your subscription list increases in this and other cotton growing stales, you will be enabled to shed mucii valuable liglit to our larmers. Wheat, which ap- pears to be the staple with you, we raise but little of; and that for home consumption. AVe go for cotton — cotton — cotton, with a little corn. I had taken up my pen merely to say that I had receiv- ed your Register, and sent you the money ; and find I have written you lengthily — perhaps too inuch so. [It is not more the wish of our correspondent than our own, that we may be enabled to offer information suit- ed particularly to the condition of the planters of Geor- gia, as well as to every other part ofthe United States, in which our work finds readers. We say suited particular- ly— because we hold that much valuable information suit- ed to the agriculturists of Georgia, in common with all others, has been alrer>dy presented, and we hope will continue to be presented in every succeeding nimiberol the Farmers' Register. The general principles of agri- culture are every where the same. Judicious and cor- rect rules for tillage of crops, preserving or increasing the fertility of soils, the management of live stock, &.c. whatever country or climate they may have been in- tended for, will be valuable to the farmer of any other and different region, provided he makes due allowance for diffc^rence of circumstances: and if he does not make such allowance, he may be, (and frequently is) led astray, by following blindly the practice of his near neighbor. It is only within our power to dispense light and in- struction after it has been elicited from other sources : and if our southern friends will permit us to draw from them a little of the information which so many of them can supply, they would soon see an accumulation in the Farmers' Register equal to their wishes, and surpassing our hopes.] THREE SHIFT SYSTEM OfARL IIV GLOUCES- TER COUNTY. Gloucester County, Idih Nov. 1833. # # # * Although advanced in years, I have but recently commenced the occupation of farming — and have just had experience enough to know that it is a most complicated business, and will require many years close attention to be- come tolerably proficient. I have therefore every thing to learn, and nothing to communicate; in- deed, I have scarcely as yet had practice enough to indulge at all in theory — for in my opinion, dif- fering from most other occupations, practice should precede theory. I have never known a good far- mer who commenced with books. I suppose it is an evidence of approaching old age, that I do not consider the present generation so much wiser than those wlio preceded them as is generally supposed. I observe that your corres- pondents entertain a different opinion, and unite in abusing and denouncing the old Virginia three shift system ; whereas, after some observation and reflection, 1 have, with a little variation, adopted it as best suited to my situation. The arrange- ment I have made is this — the old division into three fields remains ; about two thirds of one divi- sion is cultivated in corn ; the remaining third is fallowed for wheat or barley, (as best suits the land.) When that shift comes into cultivation again, a different part is fallowed — and when it is next cultivated, the balance of the shift ; and each division treated in the same waj^ ; so that in nine years every part will have been fallowed, (one third of each division every year,) and thereby burthened with but one, instead of two crops. This gives time, and affords opportunities to improve, particularly the part that is left lor fallow. In sowing clover seed, which you know is generally done on small grain in the spring of the year, I take care th.at that jiart of the field is clovered which will be fallowed when the shift comes next in cultivation ; and being that year in the corn field it is of course not grazed, and the whole growth of, clover returned to the land. I have under enclosure at this flirm about two thousand acres. It is therefore desirable to have the land in cultivation each year as compact in form as possible ; this is an advantage attending the system I have adopted. Our lands become foul and rough very soon, abound in wire and oth- er natural grasses, and throw up an immense growth of weeds, requiring therefore frequent cultivation to cleanse them. So far from the corn crop being lessened by reserving a part ofthe shift lor fallow and improvements, it has increased. The great secret I think consists in perceiving the ad- vantages of manure, and acting upon it, making and carting out as much as possible. In this sec- tion of country I am sure there is now more land manured by marl, &c. in one year, than was for- merly in fifty, going back ten years. I have used marl to some extent for several years on a highland estate in this county, and I think to great advan- tage. It is to be found in almost every situation, and I have no doubt is destined at some day (I hope not very distant,) to regenerate the whole tidewa- ter country. It is to be found in every direction upon this estate, both on the hills and the low grounds. In ditching the latter, we find it at the bottom of most of the ditches. If it suited your convenience to make an occa- sional tour through the eastern part of the state, I think you could render essential service to the ag- ricultural interest. We know very little of the quality and value of the various kinds of marl to be met with, and no description that we can give will answer as well as an examination in person. IIORKCLEXDE, AND OTHER SUPPOSED MA- NURES. Prince Edward, 2M Nov. 1833. I have long tiiought that the Creator had sup- plied every arable part of the earth, perhaps, with 492 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE, the means of improvement. The clay, &c. ob- tained from ccHars, ice-houses and wells, I have found always to improve the lands on which it was applied. The dirt thrown from ditches, even in poor highland, is constantly seen to invigorate f lie vegetation about which it is cast. Removing eartii from one spot to another, by increasing tlie number of chemical agents, increases the chances of combination with putrescent manures. I think I once added much strength to the constitution ol a soil, naturally weak, by spreading on it a vast bank of cinders from an old smith's shop. For some time past my mind has been much occupied Avith surmises on the probabdity of fertilizing pro- perties in many of our ordinary rocks. Some of them are a mass of heterogeneous materials very firmly agglutinated. Could lime, rendered latent by combination, have been the universal cement- ing principle.? If not, might there not be others, consolidating other rocks as lime does lime rocks, and which might be rendered subservient to ag- riculture and the arts.'' 1 also observed that the lands in the vicmily of certain rocks, particularly those of a dark color, were richer than other lands not thus accompanied. In the midst of these doubts, I was much pleased to meet with Profes- sor Eaton's remarks on the application of geology to agriculture in your fourth No., in which lie states that land may be speedily enriched by the application of hornblende and other rocks in a finely pulverized state. On examination, I found there were great quantities of hornblende* on one of the finest veins of land in this county. This kind of rock is said to contain eleven per cent, of lime; and I cannot help hoping it will afford an important source of agricidtural imjirovement. Some of these lands are owned liy enterprising gen- tlemen— some of them your subscribers — who will give a fair experiment to a matter of such pro- mise. Might it not be beneficial to the interests of ag- riculture, if a cabinet of the objects of geology and mineralogy, as connected with agriculture, were kept in iiie office of the Register, in which might be deposited numerous specimens, either for inspection or distribution, of articles belonging to these sciences, su})posed to possess manuring pro- perties? A field .so wide seems to open in this branch of agriculture, as to give rise to the hope, that at least in a physical sense, the whole earth might speedily become a garden. GABIA GRASS ON ROANOKE. Southampton, Dec. 5th, 1833. Though the gama grass has been growing on Mr. Norfleet's farm [on the lower Roanoke] fi^r the last forty or fifty years, he had never esteemed it valuable, but has rather looked upon it as a noxious weed, more an inconvenience than other- wise. His attention was called to the grass by the late accounts of its enormous product and great value — since which time he has oliserved that stock are very fond of grazing on it, while it is young. I take great pleasure in sending you half of my present slock of seed. *I think it is very abundant in many parts of th State. The same may be said of argillite. GAMA GRASS SEED AND BYEFIELD PIGS. Northampton, Va. Dae. 10, 1833. Having seen several communications in your " Register" concerning the " Gama Grass," I am desirous of procuring seed enough to plant three or four acres — and I now take the liberty of ask- ing the f»vor of you to procure for me a sufficient quantity for that purpose, without regard to the ])rice. Should you succeed in procuring the arti- cle, it may be sent to Norfolk to the care of Rich- ard Drummond. Can a pair of pigs of the Bye- field or Swiss breed be conveniently obtained ; and at what price.' [Should any reader be able to supply either the seed or the stock asked for above, we will tal ber of one hundred and thirty, Greeks, Romans, Indians, Egyptians and Arabs, that have written on agriculture, or at least in their works alluded to the subject, the whole spiced with a good dose of superstition. For instance the author is very circumstantial in giving very precise rules for the manufacture of particular manures for every sj)e- cies of trees and shrubs; and after having taught you how to make the manure, the chief ingredient of which is excrement urn hominis, he makes it in- dispen.sable that you should add some ashes of the wood of the tree to be manured,- without which the manure would be of no account. How cun- ning ! the tree must be pruned to get the wood — to burn the ashes — to make the manure efficacious ! In another place, having given rules for the culti- vation of wliat I think is tlie cornfield pea of this country, he savs : " Gather a quart of peas, and put them at nigiit in a place where the increasing moon may shine upon them, and take ihem away again be- fore sunrise ; by keeping them afterwards in soft wa- ter two hours, and boiling them in the same water till they are done, you will find them, when eaten by you either hot or cold, to possess a peculiar vir- tue, viz. that of cheering up your mind, of mak- ing you forget all care and anxiety, of strength- ening your heart, and removing every gloomy thought from your head." I suppose that the per- son whoshould wish toexpcrience these effects must, in propria persona, go through all the necessary process from the gathering to the eating, especial- ly that of getting up beft)re sunrise to get his peas out of danger from the sun ! However, there are some parts that have pleased me very much; and it would be well if our farmers had a little of that larti(ular, that, although it had not be- gun to push before June, grew afterwards so vig- orously as to cover, nearly all over, an arbor of more than tv. elve feet square. The stock on which this had been grafted, was a native vine, and a large one, so that the whole force of its extensive roots was thrown into the graft. I do not recollect now, to a certainty, whether this graft had been made according to the last described method, or according to the following, which is the other of the two I promised to describe and recommend. Vv'hcn the stock, or the vine into which you wish to insert a graft, is too large to be conveniently split as in the last mode of grafting, as when they are several inches in diameter, after having sawed it two or three inches below the surface of the ground, nearly horizontally, I take a gimlet, or (which is best) a carpenter's stock and taper-bit, and bore one or more holes, according to the size of th.e stock, aliout an inch and a quarter deep. I then prepare the scion, (which in this case ought to be selected pretty large,) and by cutting the bark and a little of the wood all round, within an inch and a quarter of the lower end, fit it to the hole and push it in till the shoulder of bark made by the cutting, as here above described, comes down to the sawed surface of the stock; and if the stock is large enough to require two or three grafts, alter having fitted them all in, I return the earth, leav- ing only one or two buds at most above the ground, as above, and the grafting is done. As this last method of grafting usually succeeds as well as the first, it would seem to indicate that it is not neces- sary in grafting the vine, as it most undoubledly is for all other fruit trees, that the bark of the stock, and that of the scion or graft meet and coincide ex- actly ; for in the latter case, the scions are inserted in any part of the stock. FARMERS' REGISTER— LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 495 All that remains now to be attended to is, as to the best season for g:raftiiig the vine, and the best manner of keeping tlie scions until that time. I have generally succeeded best when I have graft- ed late in the spring, and just before the buds of the vine burst into leaves ; that is, when the sap is flowing pretty freely. It is, however, a matter of some im|)ortance, that the scions should have been kept back, if possible, so that iheir buds are only beginning to swell, and this must regulate tiie time of grafting. The scions may be kept liack, and their vegetating retarded, by burying them in as cold a place as can conveniently be fbun;i — such as the north side of a hill, of a house, fence, &c. ; in short, where the ice and snow remain the longest. A small trench, a few inches deep, is made — the scions laid flat down in the bottom, and entirely covered. I think a lietler way still, (one, how- ever, which I never had an opportunity of trying,) Avould be, to put them in a box of sand somewhat moistened, and deposite the box in an ice-house. The scions being thus kept l^ack, may be used for grafting with complete success, so late as when the vine for the stock is in full leaves. I have thus grafted vines sent me by mail from the north as late as June, and they grew well. 1 should always pre- fer, however, to do it earlier, when it can conve- niently be done. It is evident that by using the above means, the nature and quality of a vine, or of a vineyard, can speedily be altered; for many of the grafts bear fruit the first year, and certainly, except in case of accidents such as may affect all vines, the second year. I am not aware that I have here omiltcd any thing of material importance as to the best manner of grafting the vine with success; and I wish it may be fully tried, and the full benefits enjoyed by all vvfho will take tlie little trouble the operation requires. k. iierue.mo^t. P. S. From the experience T have of grafting the vine, according to any of the modes here re- commended, it may not he useless to repeat one condition, which is very necessary to be kept in mind to insure success, viz: That the operation be performed as late as practicable, and only when the buds of the scions have begun to swell, and that these should be kept back by being buried, or otherwise kept in as cold a place as can well be selected. It does not matter that the stock is more advanced; for if the buds had already pushed, and had leaves fully expanded, jirovided the buds of the scion or graft be not more forward than tlie begin- ning of the swelling of the buds, the grafts will most generally succeed. As to the mode by boring, it may he only necessary to remark, that I never gave it the preference, except when the stock was too large to be conveniently cleft; and that in bo ring, it is well to use a bit or other instrument that cuts as smoothly as possible ; for a dull or rusty gimlet makes, in green wood, a very ragged hole. Care ought also be had that the shoulder left to the scion, after having fitted it totiie hole, comes down to the sawed and smoothed face of the stock. W ith these precautions, I have very seldom failed ; and many of my acquaintances have likewise generally succeeded, though failures by this mefhotl is rather more frequent than by the cleft. I do not even think it necessary to cover the stumps and lower part of the graft, as I have formerly recommend- ed, with prepared clay ; but merely to return ihe earth to its place, and raise it so as to form a small hillock, according to tiie height of the bud, wiiich should be at least half an inch above the ground; for the cut-worm is very fond of eating the young slioot as it begins to grow. The earth should be pressed gently all round the graft. It may be Vvcll to oliscrve that scions for hole grafting, should be selected of the ripest wood, and with as small a pith as possible. n. h. I'ERFORMAKCE OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES OX RAILWAYS, WITH DIFFERENT GRADES, LOADS AND VELOCITIES. From the Rail Pioad Journal. We have lieen politely furnished by Cf)lonel Long, with the following tables and explanations, showing the performance of engines of different capacities, on difTerent grades, at different veloci- ties and with different loads, which we submit to our readers without having had leisure to examine, or even to read them. They will, however, lose none of their value on that account, as the source Irom whence they come will insure them attention. Tx\ELE I. — Peiform.ance of a four ton engine on diiferent grades, at different speeds, and with dif- ferent loads. • State- ments ' 2 3 4 5 6 ^ S 9 10 11 speed level 5 ft 10 ft 15 ll 20 ll >5fl 30 ft r,5 ft 40 1 tons 22 4 11 i 10 « 9 r 7 4 4, ft No. 1 2 3 4 5 miles slow 5 10 15 20 tons CO 30 28 25 20 tons 49 4 24 7 23 20 6 16 5 tons 42 21 19 6 17 5 14 tons 35 6 IS 3 17 1 15 3 12 2 tons 32 4 IG i 15 1 13 c 10 8 tons 29 14 5 13 0 12 1 9 7 tons 2fi 4 13 2 12 3 11 S S toils 24 12 11 i 10 S tons 20 6 10 3 9 6 8 6 9 9 Table II.- — Performance of a five ton engine on difTerent grades, at different speeds, and with dif- ferent loads. 1 2 3 4 5 ti 7 8 9 10 11 State- ments siieed level 5 ft 10 ll 15 ft 20 ft 25 ft 30 ft 35 ft 40 ft 15 ft miles tons tons tons tont tons tons tons tons tons tons No. 1 slow 70 9 1)3 2 34 46 S 41 6 37 2 2S 8 31 27 6 20 2 5 33 4 31 6 27 23 4 20 S IS 6 16 9 15 5 13 8 13 S 10 35 H 29 5 25 2 21 9 19 4 17 4 15 8 14 4 12 9 12 2 4 15 32 26 4 22 5 19 6 17 3 15 .5 14 1 12 y 11 9 10 7 a 20 25 6 '21 lll8 • 15 6 13 S 12 4 11 3 10 3 9 0 8 5 Table III. — Performance of a six ton engine on different grades, at different speeds, and with dif- ferent loads. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ptate- niPius speed level 5 ft 10 ll 15 ft 20 ft 25 ft 30 ft (5 ft 10 ft 45 ft miles tons tonf tons tons tons tons tont tOllF tons tons No. 1 slow 96 79 2 67 4 58 G 52 46 f 42 2 38 6 35 fi 32 8 2 5 48 39 6 33 7 29 3 26 23 8 21 1 19 S 17 S 16 4 3 10 44 8 36 9 31 5 27 4 24 2 21 ', 19 7 18 16 6 15 3 4 15 40 33 28 1 24 4 21 6 19 4 17 C 16 1 14 S 13 7 6 20 32 26 4 22 5 19 6 17 3 15 5 11 1 12 9 11 8 U Explanations of the Tables. The computations exhibited in the foregoing ta- ides, relate to the peilbrmanceof engines of differ- e;it weight, and to various other circumstances intimated in the titular heading of each table. The vertical column, headed col. l,exhilu'ts the rale of speed in miles per hour for which the com- putations j)roviile. The other columns headed col. I 2, to col. 11, inclusive, exhibit the grade of the 496 FARMERS' REGISTER— ROT IN COTTON— LONG-LEAVED PINE. road, ascending;, in feet per mile, tofrelher with the <:;ross load expressed in tons and parts, that may he conveyed u|)\vard, at the various rates of speed presented in col. 1. The statements are exhiiiited in series runninS 1-3 per cent, of that pressure. The series of statements desig;naied No. 1, in each of the tables, exhibits the elTective perfor- mance as just mentidned, without reijard to the condition of the road, with respect to the adiiesion between the rails, and the wheels of the engine. This performance can only be expected when the road is in a condition to afford the requisite adhe- sion. With the steam power here contemplated, the wheels will be liable to slip on the rails, when tiie latter are covered with mud, frost, or snow; but in the best ^ate of tlie road, such a j)erforniance may be effected. The other statements exhibit the efBciency of the three classes of engines, which may safely be counted on, in all states of the road and weather, frost and snow exceptcil ; it being- always under- stood that the road must be well made, and free from abrupt curvatures. An inspection of the tables will show the loads that may be drawn on a level ro:ul, at different rates of speed, as also, the loads that may be drawn upward on acclivities, and at different rates of speed, and by traversing either table diagonally, the approximate load that may be drawn on a road of various grades from a level, to 45 feet per mile, may be found ; for example, let it be required to determine the load that may lie drawn upward on a road varying in its grades, from a level to 45 feet per mile, by an engine weighing five tons. In Table No. 11, statement No. 2, and col. 11, we have 13 tons drawn upwards, at the rate of 5 miles per hour, on an astent of 45 feet per mile. In statement No. 3, and col. 10, of the same table, we have 12.9 tons, or about 13 tons, drawn at the rate of 10 miles per hour, up an ascent of 40 feet per mile. In statement No. 4, col. 9, we have the same load, at a speed of 15 miles per hour, up an ascent of 35 feet {)er mile, and in statement No. 5, col. 6, we have a little more than 13 tons, drawn at the rate 20 miles per hour, up an ascent of 20 feet per mile. In the same table, we find in state ment No. 1, col. 11th, that a five ton engine, w hen the road is favorable, is able to draw up an ascent of 45 feet per mile, 26 tons; and it may be readily inferred, that it is ai)le to draw upwards on more moderate acclivities, the same load, at increased rates of speed. By an inspection of Table III, it will appear, that a six ton engine is able to draw upwarcl, on a road ascending, at the rate of 45 feet per mile, a gross loid of nearly 33 tons at a slow speed, also that with nearly the same load, viz: 32 tons, the engine is able to travel at a speed of 20 miles per hour on a level road. It should moreover be remarked, that all the statements except No. 1, of each table, are consi- derably within the limits authorized by the power of adhesion between the w heels and the rails, even in tlie worst state of the load, frost and snow ex- cepted. OBSERVATIOIVS OJV THE ROT IN COTTON. From the .Southern Agriculturist. Georgia, October 4, 1833. Dear Sir, — I have planted my whole crop of cotton this year with Alvarado seed, and there is no rot in it. I have read numerous essays in the papers as well as those in your work, on the sub- ject of I'ot in cotton. None of them are satisfac- tory to me, or do 1 believe, to the public, for public sentiment is still unsettled with regard to it. As to an insect perforating the boll, I have never be- lieved. Why in some latitudes do grapes blight differently in different places.' Soil and difference of culture produce a great difference in the same neighborhood. I am now more satisfied than ever, that the natural operation of soil, or climate, or both combined more probably, on the plant, pro- duce the disease. Why else is it that cotton from these seed do not rot until three or four years. A sufficient time for the constitution of the plant to become changed by the influence of these causes. If produced !iy an insect, why should they avoid the bolls of Alvarado cotton, and prey exclusively on the liolls of our common cotton in the same field.' A fact ))roveable in every instance where it has been tried, both here and in your state. If it be urged that there may possibly be some- thing unj)alatalde to these marauders in the Alva- rado, which is not in the other plant: — then it proves the theory. But, sir, there is a marked dif- ference in the growth of the cotton. The leaf of the Alvarado is more delicate, and there appears fewer of them on the stock, which ap|)earance is probably produced by the more delicate develope- ment of the leaf I am inclined to believe, that the effect of our soil and climate is to produce a larger and more luxuriant foliage, which shading the fruit too much, produces the disease. In Caro- lina, some of your planters have been planting this cotton for four or five years, and they can say whether this alteration takes place in that soil. I have thrown out these hints to you, that you may, if you see proper, and judge them of suffi- cient import, place them in such light before the puldic, as will call their attention to the subject. Having a cotton plant among us exempt from this disease, offers a fair field for investigation to the inquiring and observing mind, and increases the probability of arriving completely at the truth. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, [Will some southein sulMcriber state more particu- laily, what is the Alvarado cotton, and whence it lyas first procured?] — Ed. Far. Reg. RE-MARKS ON THE LONG-LEAVED PINE. From the Southern Agriculturist Newbeni, (N. C.) September 1833. Dear Sir, — In the 9th number of the present volume, " An Inquirer," proposes to cultivale, for domestic use, the long-leaved pine, and in order to propagate it, he proposes to *' strew the old fields FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGICAL REMARKS, &c. 497 with its seeds." If he should proceed in this way to propagate this tree, in'all probalMlity I'-e will he disappointed in t!ie result. Every old field that I am acquainted with, invariably pi-oduccs the .short- leaved pine, althou;i;h they may be surrounded by the long-leaved ones. It is singular, but it is cer- tain, that the pines, which spring up and grow in our old tields, are always of the siiort leaved sort. I have never known an instance to the contrary. - The seeds from which they germinate, must, in all probability, have been of the long-leaved pines, as it is unreasonable to suppose tliat none but those of the other species could have been dejjosited there, when in many instances, tlie old field is surround- ed with the long-leaved pines exclusivel}-. The cuk+vation of tlie soil seems to unfit it to produce the long-leaved variety. They never grow upon land that has been cultivated in this section of North-Carolina. On the contrary, the short, and the long-leaved varieties will both grov»', side by side, in the same forest. Nature loves change and variety. Are they not " ihe spice of life.'" We know that both soil and climaie have their influ- ence on vegetation : and the ibrmer certainly does influence the long-leaved pine. No one can doubt it who has observed the facts — of an old field sur- rounded by the long-leaved pines, and its producing none but the short-leaved ones. We have the varieties of this latter pine — the short-leaved, and the rosemary, of a stiii shorter leaf. Also two varieties of the long-leaved— the pitch i)ine, with a small top, making our best lumber, and the tur- pentine pine,Avhich is more sappy, and has a large top. They all grow in the same forest; some- limes the one, and sometimes the other variety, predominating. I give these facts that "'An In- quirer" may investigate them before he proceeds to " strew his old field." Let not "An Inquirer" too hastily condemn the " th.ousands of acres ofold'field,nov/ overgrown with loldolly," nor proceed to " to cut them down" before he takes counsel of his prudence ; for, al- though they be not of equal value with better trees, yet they are of mtich more value than no trees, as, by their shade, they enrich the soil, and their annual droppings, if sedulously collected and applied to his exhausted acres, will (from my ex- perience of their good edect) gradually enrich them. And, sir, I have thought that so soon as a planter has land enough cleared to admit of a judi cious cultivation, bj" a proper rotation of crops, he should, by all means, clear no more, but spare his frees, for fencing, fiiel, and for other purposes, and above all, for their annual supply of vegetable mat- ter, from tvhich to manure the cultivated land, con- tinuallv exhausting from croi)ping it. Tire trees, in the mean time, are growing in size, and adding to their annual value, and the value of the cleared land, by affording a constant resource of enriching materials, increasing, by a handsome per centage, the yearly income of their provident owner. Besides these advantages, is there a man, or a woman, of the least sensibility, or taste, \<\\o is not agreeably excited at seeing these children of the forest — the deciduous oak, the green pine, and the many other trees, which, generally beautify the landscape. And who does not intuitively shrink from a view of a barren waste — an unlimited ex- panse of nothingness — a gloomy, interminable, sameness of an exhausted, and a barren nature, where all is dead and dying. Vol. I.— 63 Spare the trees and manure the soil, and cease to be a destroyer of nature's fairest works. Your friend, ciiei.sea. n Ear AUKS, — ToroGRAPHicAL, Geologic aLj AKD GENERAL, RESPECTING PRESTOn's ANU king's SALT^VORKS, AND THE SUR- ROUNDING DISTRICT OP COUNTRY. From the Abingdon Bepubliean; The place called Saltville, is situated in a narrow plain of about 700 acres of land, between the Rich Valley and the North Fork of theHolston, having its greatest length from the northeast to the south- west, bounded on the eastern side by conical peaks and ridges which are appendages of Walker's Mountain: and on the western siile by conical jieaks and highland intervening between it and the North Fork of the Holston river, which washes their bases many miles. This branch of the Hol- ston is declared a public highway, but has many obstructions, which it is believed could be remov- ed by expending is6,000, so as to be suitable for batteaus and flat boats from Saltville to its mouth at Kingsport, a distance of 65 miles by water. The present point of manufacturing salt is on the bank of the river, to which for convenience of tim!)er and fuel the water is conveyed, about two miles, in a northwardly course, in wooden tulies. On the opposite bank of the river lies Little Moun- tain, an appendage of Clinch Mountain, and is pa- rallel and continuous with that mountain for hun- dreds of miles, and between which, lies a narrow stoney valley, commonly called the Poor Valley. The numerous streams having their source in the Clinch Mountain, pass through the breaks of Lit- tle JMountain into the North Fork, along its course. To the northwest of Clinch Mountain, and paral- lel with it, lie Copper Ixidge, Powel's Mountain^ Cumberland JMounfains, and the Log Mountains, having narrow valleys, and the rivers Clinch, Pow^- el's, and Cumberland, and their waters interspers- ing, beautifying and enriching these inviting, but for the j)rcsent, neglected regions. Beyond Log Mountains and the adjacent ridges in Kentucky, lie streams emptying into the Ohio, on one of which is the Goose Creek Salt Manufactory, about 150 miles from Saltville. Viewing the country from Saltville, towards the south of NValker's Mountain, fine valleys and fer- tile ridges are passed before you reach the middl© and south fork of Holston river, and thence to- wards the southwest ; passing many tributaries^ you cross the Watauga, French Broad, Nolachuc- ky , and the hundred streams rising in this mountain district, and winding their way westward, to form the broad and beautiful Tennessee river ; whilst those running from the same quarter eastwardly, compose the bold and restless waters of the Great Kenav.ha — all, all, adding utility and beauty, whe- ther to the valleys borderingon the large rivers, or the irregular but level depressions called coves, hemmed in all around except a single passway, and that sometimes exhibiting a cataract of its little stream. East of the New River waters, the Alleghany mountain difects the streams to the Atlantic, and at some points you might stand with one foot in the waters of the Atlantic, the other in that which wends its weary way to the hot Mexican gulph, and the great mart for the effective industry of the 49S FARMERS* REGISTER-GEOLOCilCAL REMARKS, &c. millions of people which the valley of the Missis- sippi, that pap of mother earth, is inviting from other extremes to those parts. Standing at such a point, your admiration would be excited, that amidst such a boundless view of masses beyond masses, of high parallel and irregular mountains, the rivers should all find their way to their desti- nations, without falls or other impediments to navi- gation, which the skill and energies of man, at trifling expense, may not remove, thus adding vi- gor to the giant heart, the Estuary of our thousand rivers, which is to receive, commercially cherish and return, as it were, the vitalized fluids to all the extremities. Witli amazement still heighten- ed, would you behold from the great AVhite Top, (the neutral ground of North Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee,) the Spinal Alleghany and the Blue Ridge, with its granite cliffs and basaltic rocks, running diagonally athwart each other, and as if in the formative day of their creation, each of these huge columns of uplifted matter had been shot forward from the north and northeast; and neither having the advantage of force over the other, a contest terrible commenced, in which the champions both discomfited, glanced; each tak- ing its own path southwardly, le-aving their cast away remnants piled fearfully " Ossa upon Pe- lian, and Pelian upon Ossa," rolling confusedly into thousands of rude shapes. But in Ihis field of old warring elements are every where, as you would also perceive, evidences presented, that the principle of order has been passing and nestling, has changed and given new capacities; striking the waste " rocks with the rod," millions of springs of purest water gushed forth ; the uplorn hills be- came verdant, and all the glories of redundant ve- getation do more than honor to the silent moun- tains; thousands of choicest animals browse and revel on the spontaneous herbage ; and man in- vited last, has made his home in these high places; and being far removed from the great commercial haunts of luxury and vice, hope may long rest in security, that here at least, some share — a large share, of health, happiness, independence and free- dom will be enjoyed? Why do the inhabitants of these regions, so bounteously fitted tor their use, desert them for Eldorado's in the great and labor- ing, and slave holding and money grasping west.'^ Too many have quit, have left their mountains, but the day of reversion is commencing in our fa- vor; it was not so with those who listened to the song of William Tell; for deeds of arms when necessity calls; or for hearth-talks 'in piping times of peace,' there is no ' place like a home in the mountains and in the valleys.' You have no doubt seen the surprise of strangers on the high- way, when reaching in some parts of this country (as Burk's garden with its ten thousand elevated level acres) the first view of valleys below^ in fog- gy mornings; whilst on the mountain the sun is brilliantly beaming, the stranger's eye will be ar- rested with what he supposes is a broad and length- ened lake below. The deception is perfect, the very waves are seen rolling and tempest tossed, nor will the appearance of islands and of trees breaking through the mist as it evaporates, nor the sounds of ploughmen, the screaking of iron works, or the monotonous beat of the forge ham- mer, issuing from the gulph below (till then un- heard of,) dispel the optical illusion — the rolling mist must be dispersed before he tan believe the deception. Let the James River improvements have an arm extended towards the Tennessee, and the latter be improved with that spirit which has characterized Tennessee for the last twelvemonths ; or let a Mac- adam road be constructed through this natural de- pression of all the mountains, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi; and it requires only the slightest knowledge of things, to be convinced, that in in- ternal resources no part of the union can vie with this, especially in minerals. Preston's salt-works are in Smyth County, and King's in Washington, and the same counties abound in innnense banks of iron ore. In the adjoining county of Carter, are above twenty iron making estaljlishments now in operation, some of which are small bloomeries, and in some places solid masses of ore, containing seventy-five per cent, of metal, are exposed thirty or forty feet high, like cliffs of rock. Tiie coun- ties of Green, Washington, Svillivan, Campbell, Claiborne, Anderson, Knox, Rhea, Hamilton in Tennessee, Harlan Ky., Ash, Buncomb, Ruther- foord and other counties of North Carolina, and Monroe, Giles, IMontgomer}-, Floyd, Grayson, Preston, Wythe and other counties in Virginia abound in exhaustless quantities of iron, and many of those counties have quarries of various sorts of stone coal and innumerable seats for water power. In Grayson and Wythe are large bodies of rich copper ore, not yet fully tested, and in the latter county, lead ore of the best quality, and worked by Col. James White and Alexander Pierce; what amount of lead could be made is unknown, as the ore bank seems inexhaustible, and coal in abun- dance, as near as Graham's forge and iron furnace. The capacity of the soil to produce different sorts of timber after the first is cut off is very remarka- ble in this country — those acquainted with the soi? and first growth of limber can foretell what will be the second and third growth on land once culti- vated or on new land. Preston's Saltville land contains a description of millstones, easily quarried, which are equal to the best French burr stones for flour mills; and at various points in the vicinity, and in Russell county are quarries of various marbles. In the valleys, buried in the soil, are innumerable rounded sand- stone rocks, some of which are flinty, others of marly ingredients, and many such loose stones, oc- cupy the shoaly beds of the streams ; but the chan- nels of all streams are chiefly bedded by limestone^ mica, sandstone, and slaty formations, whose lamella or divisions are seldom horizontal, until you arrive at the level of the great western rivers. You may here find ledges of rocks extending hundreds of miles in a perpendicular posture, occasionally broken where ridges transverse each other; but in the general, these ledges are either massive and of waving configuration and striated irregularly, or are inclined at angles whose medium may be 45 degrees of the horizon, and it wovdd seem, that they had perpetually sought to reach that angle, notwithstanding such prominent failures so to do. The declining direction is continuous through the body of the hills and ridges generally, and the upper plane is facing the south, as far as parallelism with the general course of the ridges will permit ; and in consequence of this southern exposure of the planes of the rocks in all the mountains west of the Alleghany to the verge of those mountains east of the Mississippi, chemical nature has not the same variety of surface to work upon, that it has FARMERS' REGISTER-rxEOLOGI€AL REMARKS, &c. 499 where tlie upward direction of the rocks expose their edges, on the northwardly side of the ridges; and as might be expected, the southern faces are comparatively barren, whilst the opposite side is rich and productive; and such differences are ob- servable even on the south side, where deep ravines expose the broken ends of rocks one side, and their rather plane surface on the other. This conforma- tion holds immense quantities of water and |K)urs it forth even on the pinnacles of the highest hills, decomposing the ground by winter freezes and summer drought, and adding fertility even to the rocks; the timber growing to enormous sizes, by passing its roots into the interstices of rocks. The region of North Carolina and Tennessee, in which gold is found, about 60 to 100 miles from Saltville, borders on the primitive granite and basaltic walls that rise under the Blue Ridge, and are rarely ex- posed on its western face; and in Virginia, the copper mines of Grayson and Wythe are not re- mole from similar constructions. The lead, iron and salt minerals, (for the basis of salt is a mine- ral,) are found in, or liedded upon, limestone, slate and other rocks of the transition kind, while stone coal and gypsum, and sandstone are evidently, all of a much later formation, as they do not run un- der, but stop short, on reaching masses of primitive and transition rocks. The great upper body of the Clinch and Cumberland mountains, and their ap- pending chains are chiefly formed of strata and irregular masses of sandstone, which is undergoing great changes, decomposing in some parts and in- creasing and liardening in others ; much of tlie limestone composing tlie basis of these mountains is a very coarse and impure carbonate. The mul- titude of sulphur and Chalybeate, hot and cold springs, and their various medicinal qualities in Bath, Monroe, Buncomb and other places that de- serve to have celebrity for their waters, exhibit astonishing chemical changes yet going on far be- low the earth's surface. After passing westwardly, beyond the verge of these broken ranges, you perceive great uniformity and order in the confor- mations of rocks and soils. The rivers and creeks are based with good limestone, lammellated hori- zontally, and having fissures at unequal distances, extending perpendicularly to great depths. Com- mencing at the surface, there will be found rich, loamy soils, and clays, often mixed with gravel or sandstone to the depth of six or ten feet, then limestone as described, next a white coarse lime- stone four to eight feet, in one, two, or three strata, next limestone of thicker layers, sometimes fifty feet; then a layer of gray, blue, or black flint, three to six feet; next blue, brittled limestone all fissured and lammellar, then slate of a dark brittle kind, horizontal and of considerable depth, contain- ing brilliant yellow, oval lumpsof sulphur and iron, below which are layers of hard, flinty, dark rocks, with occasional layers of slate. At places like these, and other formations of a standard kind, those who would undertake to classify rocks info difTer- ent ages, might form plausible theories which would ' vanish into thin air' wh«n tested by the mixed up productions of this mountainous country. Here rude shapes of simple organization are some- times seen in the transition, or what little agrees with the secondary limestone of the west. There the great mass of tlie rocks seem to be of organic shapes, and if so composed and not mere imitations by chemical action, the whole earth w'as once, or in process of time, in a state of animalization ; and why not so every where at places abounding in like ingredients.' Did animal life begin before vegetable, and both before chemical agencies.'' In the west the speculative geologist may find coal strata in primitive (not alluvial spots) earths, that would seem to be of undoubted vegetable ori- gin, the very timber with its bark and fibre pre- sent ; but how came timber in their inclined layers of equal thickness to be so deposited.'' Was it not as feasible in the original formative process that coal should be made in the shapeof timber, as that the latter should be transformed into coal.' In the bank of the Ohio, at Guyandotte, you may find layers of soil, of sand, of blue and other clays; of coarse gravel, and a dark thick layer of fine im- palpable sand and iron, having on near inspection, the appearance of masses of leaves which are par- tible, striated, and yet each leafit seems to have no trace of woody fibre, the form only or imprint of tlie leaf is there ; now if this was once a heap of leaves washed by water or driven by the wind, why did not the same powers which deposited above them heavier misses carry them away.' A more intimate acquaintance with the intermingling powers of chemical affinities, and the lowest efforts of vegetalde and animal life with their imitations of each others capacity to assume or direct shapes for matter, may perhaps in some degree, solve many geological difficulties. You know that very perishable and few elements enter into the struc- ture of lowest organization, and does not afford a basis of sufficient tenacity and durability for the effects assumed.' If wherever a mass of organic remains appear in rocky formation, there was in the beginning, a thin strata at the bottom, of suita- ble material to support the zoophile ; and then form stone and so on successively, it is more rational, Ihan to suppose an instant transformation of all the animal substances appearing in the rock; but is it philosophic to ascribe the perfection of animal organization to the direct impress of the Deity (as we always should do) and then assume that all otlier conditions of matter in the beginning was not directly, but only remotely the effect of creative effort.' lielter admit a general fitness of things, even to their shapes, commenced so far as we can know, all about the same time and since con- tinued under a set of stable rules. Those remarks are however, too discursive, and the following shall be confined to the locality and a brief history of the salt-making business. Salt- ville was the property of General William Camp- bell, the Hero of Kings' mountain, and after his decease his only child Sarah, married General Francis Preston, who rented the well and salt marsh to Wm. King, an enterprising young Irish- man, who conducted the business profitably, returned to Ireland for his father and brothers and sisters, and in a few years in partnership with the late Josiah Nichol of Nashville, and other worthy mercantile partners, on whom fortune has always smiled, had amassed very handsome profits. Wm. King apprized General Preston antl lady, that a tract of land adjoining theirs was for sale, and advised them to purchase, as salt-water could be procured upon it, and upon their declining, he pur- chased it for about .§2,000. King and Nichol then dug a twelve foot square well, cribbing it with tind)er,and paying the Rev. Mr. CoUey about 82000 for its expenses, until the 600 FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGICAL REMARKS, &c. openiuf^ was about two hundred feet in depth. Kinp^ liad marked out the spot and declared lie would g'o on till water was found, and ■Sichol withdrawing; from the concern, on di2:p;ing twelve ieet deeper, the well fdled to witliin forty feet of the surface of the earth, witli salt-water of which thirty-two gallons would make, on dryino- tlie salt, a measured bushel of 50 lb weight. This was on the 6th of April, 1797, and the quantity of water being inexhaustible, by any use made of it, salt was reduced from $5 to .§1 50 cts. per bushel; and a more liberal rent was given General Preston of .99,000 per annum, tor !)is w ell, Avhicli (hen ceased to be v/orked ; and the j)arlies continued on the most friendly terms towards each others' wel- fare. William King having in view to encourage every branch of industry, and calculating that thereby immense wealth would flow to him.self, enlarged his mercantile pursuits, dealt with great liberality, and becoming very ])opular, his wealth so increased, that at his death, the 13lh Oct. 1S08, his personal estate was estimated at above one million dollars. Preston's and Kii\g's works were then conduct- ed by his widow now Mrs. F. Smith, James King and Wm. Trigg, as devisees of a lile estate; and since by Col. James White ; at present by Wm. King & Co.; Mr. King being the only son living of James King and devisee oi' the estate in remain- der from his uncle Wm. King, who died without children. Gen. Prestons' and Kings' works in the first lease to Col. Whit# Avere rented at $30,000 each per annum, but have not been so productive of lato years as is understood. During the year 1832, Gen. Preston not being- satisfied with the goodness of his well, employed Mr. Anthony, an ingenious mechanic and partner of Dubrough's, in a patent plan of boring, to sink cast iron tubes of 5 inch bore 218 feet or the depth necessary, where was found a supply of salt-water, sufficient for 400 bushels of salt daily, the water being stronger than any known, 22 to 24 gallons producing 501b. salt. The space in which good salt-watei' can be pi'o- cured in large quantities is very small — in the vicinity of Saltville has been expended above $40,000 in fruitless digging and boring liy the owners of land. Preston's new tubed well is only . 40 yards irom Kings' and an experimenton King's land, within 40 feet of the old well made last month, produced no water at the depth of 270 feet, thouah the borings were for many feet through the salt rock, and })artly through gyj)sum, blue and red clay and half formed sand-stone. — The fijrmation below the depth of 200 feet, in which salt-water is found, seems to be on a slaty basis, at an inclina- tion of about 15 degrees facing the south east, and in King's old well, whence has been drawn water for 40,000 bushels of salt in the last 60 days, there are large irregular columns of jdasfer or gypsum, and a plaster roof supporting the ground above, the interior clay for 40 or more feel in some direc- tions having been washed away. Into these open- ings near 100 cords of v/ood were thrown, but all disappeared. From all the borings and the most careful observation, it is evident, at this place, that both the sand-stone and plaster arc above, and of more recent formation than the muriate of soda. TheCratur like sides of the transition rocks ex- posed around Saltville, at some points, into which the plaster never intrudes, has given rise to a con- jecture, that at some ancient period, the plane on which stands Saltville, was as higli as the adjacent hills; and that by a dissolution of the saline sub- stratum which, the river (being lower) may have received, the upper earth gave way, throwing the rocks into their present disjointed state, and the surficeof all which has been levelled by the v.'ash- ings from the hills, and by the imperceptible workings of time ; and this conjecture would seem to l:e supported by the numerous bones and teeth of the JMastodon and other animals found at any de})th yet approached. The surface of the salt-v.'aler being som.e thirty feet higher th.an the river v.ater, has suggested to Mr. Anthony, the use of a Sj'plion, half a mile in length to draw tlie water from the v/ell, without a force pump; and the facility of conveying the v,ater to u'ood or more convenient points of navi- gation, is nov/ clearly tested by its transfer in tubes two miles. Salt at the works is now reduced to two cents per pound, which will, no doubt, cause more economy to be used in its manufacture and transportation; so far, there ap]icars, however, to have been no advantage taken of the great evapo- rating improvements used at the salines in New- York, or the sugar factories of the South. At Saltville, the furnaces are trenches dug in the earth, the kettles several inches thick — the furnace doors large and open, and placed under open sheds ; and in some instances slrean^.s of fresh water sweeping from t!ie hills, issue out of the furnace flues; but doubtless the present proprietors will make the necessary improvements. The salt made is free trou) all impurity, its chryslals are large by slow, and line by rapid evaporation; and white and bril- liant, and when thrown from the basket, soon becomes as dry as corn meal ; never deliquercing or giviiigofTany water, even ivvihe wettest weather. No settling or clarifying process is necessary, the v>ater being a clear senu-transparenl, somewliat whitish fluid, which after being released from its great pressure in the deej) parts of the avcH, seems incapal'le of holding in solution, tlie former quan- tity of saline material. The slight excess of muriatic acid over the soda is united in the boiling with some free gypsum and precipitated to the bottom, where attaching itself to the mettle and becoming heated, additions of salt are constantly made, till it endangers breaking the kettle, and is very difficult (once weekly) to separate from the iron by pick-axes. In the v, hole process of manu- facturing this water, no trace of iodine or bittern water is to be found — and no species of settling or clarilying is necessary, the salt being deposited as soon as milk warm, is three or four times daily ladled out of kettles of 96 gallons each. At pre- sent, meadow lands, pasture and farming to the ex- tent of 2,500 acres ap])oars to be in use ; a saw mill, two gristmills and al. out 100 persons and as many horses compose the force of the place; but as the market is limited, and not more than four cords of wood are necessary to nmkc 100 bushels of salt, the apparatus of the place is unnecessarily large and wasteful. The gy]isimi-beds on the Saltville lands are per- haps the most convenient and abundant in the world, being only five to ten feet from the surface of the earth and of the very best quality. Hun- dreds of boats and wagons could be usefully employ- ed in its transportation, as the whole lands of this interior country arc admirably adapted to its use, FARMERS' REGISTER— GOLD MINES OF VIRGINIA. 501 There are few places in the world which can vie with Sallviile in beauty and novelty of scenery — the extended meadow s, rich rid2;eB, hi>i"h conical peaks, mountain coves, clear sprin(;s, and the re- markable verdure coverinfj the soil, setoff to great advanlaii'e the neiji-hborinji* lofty Clinch mountain. The Chilhowee springs are in tlie vicinity, and often the summer visiters add new interest, in their pur- suit of pheasants, deer, foxes, and other game. The fish, mutton, and beef are superior to any elsewb.ere to be found, all in the same region ; but why praise a country hardly ever thought of abroad, except in connexion with imagined mountains and wild beasts.' We verily believe our city friends know nothing about the good things of life till they find their way here. c. d. THE GOLD MIIfES OF VIRGINIA. [Several years have passed since gold was found in Virginia, in quantities sufficient to cause the pursuit to become a regular employment. Until recently, the pro- ducts obtained from mining adventures were so scanty, as to induce the belief, that the whole gain would scarce- ly compensate the wliole cost of the business. Now, however, it seems that this precious metal is found in great abundance in several places, and there is a strong indication that the gold mines of Virginia, will prove to be so rich, as to become an important Source of wealth to tlie country. Though somewhat doubtful as to ten- dency and effects of such discoveries on the community, there is no question of the good effects of. mining being increased, and the evil being diminished, in proportion to the productiveness of the mines, and the certainty of profit accruing from the business. If five millions of dollars worth of gold, could be produced annually in Virginia, with as little risk and uncertainty, as the pro- duct of any other branch of industry, the benefit to the commonwealth would be equally great. These five millions in gold, would as surely serve to exchange for its value in foreign commodities, as an equal amount of any other product. The evils caused to the community by gold mining, do not arise (directly) from the gains, but from the losses — from the uncertainty of the busi- ness, the gambling spirit engendered by the tempting prizes in this lottery, and the greater number of failures than of successful adventures. With these general views, we considered the first annunciation of gold be- ing found in Virginia, as prophetic of evil, and every ex- tension of the discovery of small and scattered parcels of the metal, as serving to hasten and increase the dreaded consequences. But rich mines and certain pro- ducts may have effects altogether different, and the later discoveries maybe considered as highly beneficial to the state, as well as to the individual proprietors; and as a moral, as well as a pecuniary advantage, to the region of country, through which, gold had been previously found in small quantities only. We present below several articles which will serve to show the present state of the gold discoveries, and the expectations thereon founded by men of science, as well as by the public. Still, error and delusion are much to be feared, and it will be tiie most pntdent course, to distrust these brilliant and tempting pros- pects] GOLD IS LOUISA. From t'lc RichmnnJ Whi,^. The annexed letter addressed by Peter Scales, Esq. to Col. Joseph S. Watkins, the Delegate from fjoochland, will be read with interest by every person. The account which it gives of the Louisa Gold Mine, exceeds any thing of the kind ever knov/n in this country. Wood Lawn, Orange County, Dec. 5, 1833. COL. JOSEPH S. AV ATKINS, of Goochland, Virginia. 3fy Dear Sir, — A ride of six or seven miles la.st Tuesday, placet! in my possession the following- facts, v/hich if you choose, you can have placed be- fore the public eye, for however humble our situa- tion, we shoultl not shrink from the public duly of giving intelligence calculated to shew the resources of our slate, arouse us to energy of action, or " brifflitcn tlie glorv of our commonwealth." On Friday, 29thNovember, 183.3, Col. William Robardsof Granville county, N. C. the head of the Gold Mining Company now operating at Tinders, in Louisa county, (known as the mine at Rattle Snake Den in our neighborhood) arrived, and the rich suiface deposite that had been discovered about two or tiiree weeks previous, was upon con- sultation re-opened, and on Monday last the 2d inst. with the labor of hvcrity-three hands, large and small, the result was as follows : 3,680 dwts. in the amalgam, and the estimated value of the specimens, together with some promiscuous pan washings, Avas believed, would upon a reasonable calculation be equivalent to 4000 dwts. The con- tents of a single pan of earth, estimated at three pints to two quarts by the operators, produced 125 dwts. On the 3d inst. I witnessed the washing of a pan of the earth, and the product weighed before me over 115 dwts. of the amalgam. The speci- mens that are thrown out by the rocker, shew the virgin matter in great abundance, and to use the expression of Col. Robards, the quartz seems to be imbedded in gold, instead of the gold in the quartz. Two handfulls of the earth were washed, from the most favorable part of the deposite, which produced 35 dwts. of gold after the mercury was burnt off, and ten barrows estimated to contain one-fourth of a bushel, 450 dwts. (Inirnt off like- wise.) The polite and courteous freedorii to communi- cate the result of the Company's labors tendered by Col. Robards, enables me to give the following result per week of the Conq^anv : 1st week, (Oct. 7th, 1833,) 381 dwts.; 2d do. 21)1 dwts.; 3d, 158.; 4th, 229; 5th, 1,601 dwts; 6th, 949 dwts.; 7th, 280; 8th, 941 dwts. The above I infer was the .promiscuous washing beibre the present rich depo- site was found. This extraordinary rich deposition of gold, is no delusion or visionarjf calculation, nor is it made public with any speculative object. The gentle- men now reaping this Golden Harvest are, we are informed, largely engaged in the like vocation in North Caj'olina, and have been led hither by the strong and rich indications of gold within our state, with the intention of making it a permanent busi- ness within our limits. , Their mode of operation is cheap and simple, using what they term the rocker, with an internal and external ripple (or rifller, as it is called by the miners,) costing about fifteen dollars. 502 FARMERS' REGISTER— GOLD MINES OF VIRGINIA. An extract of a note received from Col. Wm. Ro- bards of the 4th inst. is as follows: " Yield yes- terday 2,735 dwt. in the amal<;-ain. One panfull of two quarts of the grave! frave 125 dwts. This morninsi; one panfull of sand (the washines. GOLD ailN'E CHARTERS. The reader of the legislative proceedings will be struck with the number of petitions for char- ters, from those who propose to search for gold, in the gold regions of Virginia. The fact'is undoubted, that the counties of Staf- ford, Culpeper, Orange, Spottsylvania, Louisa and Goochland, contain a region richer in this precious metal, than perhaps any quarter of the globe. Rich as Virginia was ever known to be in almost every gift of a bountiful nature, the abundance of gold in her bowels, and that too in the cismontane regions of the state, is a fact comparatively new, and farther illustrative of the eminent liberality of nature to her. Induced V)y indications of the extreme richness of the veins of this precious metal which pervade the counties mentioned above, gentlemen , in various places, have associated themselves (or the jjurpose of mining, and have applied to the General Assem- bly, for charters of incorporation. These gentle- men for the most part, are inhabitants and Virgi- nians— of known worth, character and capital. The arguments in favor of granting their ai)pli- cations are, (to sum them in a few words) 1. 'I'hat the General Assembly have recognized the princi- ple, and cannot, without good reason, refuse to na- tive citizens what has been granted to others, and, in some cases, to citizens of another state, •2. That the general objections to corporations, iipply with diminished force to these. 3. That they employ numerous hands, and ex- pend large sums of money in their respective riieighborhoods, to the stimulation of industry, in- .crease of profitable employment, and diffusion of comfort. 4. That individual enterprise is unequal to devel- oping the mineral wealth of our state, which must be developed by corporate and united means, or re- main in the recesses of the earth. To these strong arguments, some gentlemen op- pose an undefniable terror of corporations, and particularly insist upon that feature of all corpora- tions, which exempts the individual corporator from pecuniary responsibility for the act of the cor- poration. This latter objection strikes at the soul of all corporations — (if they have a soul,) at least at the vital principle — and cannot, with any pro- priety, be urged after the state has granted many hundreds of charters, for various purposes, in all of which the principle is recognized. In no case, perhaps, is the contingency of the corporation contracting debts which they will be unable to pay, less to be feared, than in those cases to which we have had reference — expenses to labor- ers must be met weekly, or monthly, in most cases^ and the machinery, the principal expense, must be paid lor in cash, or by acceptances of the highest jnercantile credit. [/?>. PROSPECTS OF GOLD MIXING IN VIRGINIA. From the Richmond Whig. The author of the following letter is a gentle- man of much theoretical and practical knowledge in the matters of which he treats, and has been en- gaged in the superintendence of minnig operations in Mexico, Brazil, and the Ural Mountains in Rus- sia, and also in the United States. To the Editors of the Whig. 3fesfirs. Editors, — Having noticed in the Rich- mond Enquirer of the 14th inst., a letter from Mr. Featherstonhaugh to Mr. Madison, on the subject of the mineral resources of the Slate of Virginia, in which, with the intelligence and science, for whicli Mr. F. has so deservedly obtained a high reputation in Europe and the United Slates, some striking and important views are presented for con- sideration; I have felt induced to request your indulgence while in a kw remarks. I offer the opinion of one who has passed many years of his life in the operations of mining, in countries where those matters are carried on to an extent unparal- leled in the annals of human industry. xVs a transient visiter I ha\e lately passed some time in llie gold region of this state. Report which has spoken so favoralily of the mining prospects of that section, induced me to examine critically the developments in progress with the view of ascer- taining how far the belief was warranted that there did exist gold veins, which would ultimately re- ward those enterprising individuals who have appa- rently with many struggles and difficulties, the necessary consequences of their want of skill and caj)ital, applied themselves to the working of the gold veins of Virginia. It is a fact long known, that iron and gold are the metals most universally disseminated through- out all created things, animate and inanimate. Gold is found in almost every country of the world, from Sumatra to Iceland, from Siberia to the tropical climes of South America. It is not, however, generally met with in sufficient quantity to render it an object of research and interest to miners. Tiic important point, then, it would appear to me, that remains to be ascertained is whether the gold veins of Virginia, where the outcrop is exhi- i)ited or. the surface are such as can be compared with analogous veins in Mexico and the Brazils. The greater part of the gold of the Brazils has been obtained from the alluvial washings ; within late years, those alluvial washings or deposites of gold have been traced to their source. It has been dis- covered and fully established that they originated in veins of gold at no great distance from the allu- vial deposites of the precious metal — -the debris and siiattercd fragments of the outcrop of the gold veins, having in the course of ages been slowly imbedded .under the alluvial strata of the country. All these fcatui'es are presented in the gold re- gions of this State. Rich alluvial washings of gold are developed, the veins from whence they originate have been traced and laid open. The ore of those veins cojitains large amounts of gold dif- fused throughout the mass. In the Brazils unpre- cedented success has attended the opening by capi- talists of those discovered veins. Although it may be difficult precisely to decide what may exist at the depth of three hundred feet below the surface by mere superficial examinatioii FARMERS' REGISTER— CHINESE MULBERRV. 50a even if aided by much ^eolog;ical experience, yet this constitutes an important branch of the science of mining. In Mexico, I have seklom seen a vein, which would, until the shafts were sunk at least three hundred feet, pay its expenses, or at least leave any profit of notoriety. What then, may be asked, was the inducement of the Spanish miners to ex- pend larp:e sums in mere trials, by sinkinfj; deep shafts and driving extensive galleries? Was this eflfecled, because they found in the immediate vici- nity large pieces of massive gold? Was there gold ever visible in the outcrop spar of the vein? On the contrary, I recollect not one solitary instance of such flattering prospects being held out. The Spanish miners formed their conclusions of the propriety of their attempt at discovery from the character of crystallization or grain of the spar — from the concomitant mineral substances which are generally found in goUl ores and from geologi- cal data. What then, would a miner see in the gold region of Virginia, to encourage him in his arduous enter- prise? He would perceive the gold visible to the naked eye, in the numerous veinetors scattei'ed on the very surface of the earth ; and when a small depth of twenty feet even has been developed, large masses of ore are exposed to view, which, were they in a Mexican vein, would leave a Span- ish miner to conceive a perhaps too high and ex- travagant opinion of its value. Of the mines in the gold region at present develo- ping, several deserve to be held in estimation. Those belonging to the United States Mining Company, resemble the well known mines of Ekatberoneburg in Russia, where the malachite or green carbonate of copper predominates. Consi- derable research has also been made at the mines of the Mill Bank Mining Company, and their prospect appears to be deserving of much confi- dence. At the Rattlesnake Mine in Stafford, a •vvell executed drift has been driven several hun- dred feel at right angles to the vein, through a granite formation. Having been there but lately, I had an opportunity of remarking the character of the ore, at seventy feet in depth from the surface — it is of that class which cannot but encourage the enterprising operators. The brilliant specimens and rich workings of the gold vein of the Culpeuer Mining Company, are so well known in the State, as to require no comment. There are other mines;, among which the Rappahannock Mining Company of Stafford, and the Union Gold Mining Company in Fauquier, rank high; at the latter, I have un- derstood, that under the mana>- interest of the subject to the country at large, and particularly to that portion of the union over which you preside with so much dignity and discretion, a sufficient apology for oc- cupying so much of your valuable time, as will enable you to give the present communication an attentive perusal. I have recently returned from a geological ex- cursion to Virginia. I entered the state near the head waters of the Potomac, passed thence to AVinchester, followed the course of that fine Val- ley to the Natural Bridge; retracing my steps, ! turned westwardly at Staunton, crossed the moun- tain at Jennings' Gap, and visited the justly cele- brated medicinal springs in that region ; return- ing, I went from Staunton through ("harlottcsville to Richmond, and down the James to its mouth. When this tour is taken in connection with a for- mer visit to V»" heeling, it will be conceded that I have seen enough of the state to enable me to Ibrm a rough estimate of its geological and mineralogi- cal importance: and I do assure you sir, that al- though my anticipations were far from being mea- gre, I was astonisiicd at the vastuessand variety of interesting objects in that department of natural history, that were constantly developing them- selves, inviting th.e mind of man to reflection, and liis hand to industry, and displaying at every step the wisdom and beneficence of the Great Creator. I determined upon rcspectiully suggesting to your excellency, the expediency of a topographi- cal, geological, mineraiogical, and orgetological survey of Virginia. Should the enlightened rep- resentatives of the freemen of your state concur in tills opinion, it v.ill redound to the lionor of all concerned, by the encouragement it v. ill give to the study of the natural sciences — by the enhance- ment in the value of land in the interior, thereby enriciiing the state and its citizens, and giving a very proper check to unnatural migrations to the extreme west — by bringing to light and usefulness innumeral)le valuable crude materials, — thereby not only enlarging the field of manufactures and the useful arts, but furnishing carrying for the ca- nals and roads already constructed, and assisting in new internal improvements in locations of equal importance. That I may not appear to be too en- thusiastic, pardon me fiir pointing out sovae of the most obvious features in the geology of ".'irginia. Whether we consider the comfort and convenience of our species, or the industry and prosperity of a state, there is no mineral production that can out- vie in importance w itli that of coal. In this coun- try, where we have hitherto alwavs had a sujicra- bundance of fuel, o\\ ing to the vast extent of our natural forerts, the importance of a constant and aliundant supply is not felt, and we are too apt to neglect properly to appreciate its value; but it is not so elsewhere — and a moment's reflection will shew that it ought not to be so here. Without fuel, of what use would be to us the metallic ores? For instance iron, which is now moulted, drawn and worked into thousands and tens of thousands of useful instruments, from a knife, to tiie compli- cated machinery of a steam engine, would forever remain an indissoluble and useless mass of matter without the aid of fuel. Even the steam engine itself, that colossus of modern machinery, without the assistance of fire would be inactive and impo- tent. The Rev. Mr. Conybeaie, an eminent English Geologist, speaking of the coal veins, (or coal measures as they are there called) of his country, thus expresses himself: " The manufacturing industrj" of this island, colossal as is the fa!;ric which it has raised, rests princi})aily upon no other base than our fortunate position with regard to the rocks of this series. Should our coal mines ever be exhausted, it \\ould melt away at once ; and it need not be said that the etVect produced upon jirivate and domestic com- fort, would be eijually fatal with the diminution of public wealtii. We should lose many of the ad- vantages of our high civilization, and much of our cullivated grounds must be again shaded with fo- rests to-alibrd fuel to a remnant of our present po- pulation. "^Fhat there is a progressive tendency to a[)proach this limit is certain; l)ut ages may yet pass before it is felt veiy sensibly : and when it does approach, the increasing difficulty and ex- jiense of working the mines of coal will operate by successive and gradual checks against its con- sumption, through a long period, so that the tran- sition may not be very violent. Our manufactures would first feel the shock — the excess of popula- tion supported by them would cease to be called into existence as liie demand for their labor ceas- ed— the cultivation of poor lands would become less profitable, and their conversion into forests more so," Where is the State in this Fnion.' J might per- haps safely ask, w here is the country in the world, that can surpass Virginia iu the variety of posi- tion and abundance of supply of this valuable com- bustible? She possesses, not only in conmion with her sister states, a liberal quantity of bituminous coal in her Mestern and carbonaceous regions — where, according to geological calculations, bitu- minous coal might be reasonably expected to bo found ; but in the eastern division of the state,, within a few miles of the tidewater of a ma^jestic stream which empties its ample waters into the Atlantic Ocean — in a geological position where bi- tuminous coal never would have been sought af- ter, because bituminous coal could not there have ever been expected to have been found, bitumi- nous coal of a good quality, and apparently in great abundance has been found ; — nature seem-» ing, as it were, in this instance, to enable her fo favor an otherwise highly favored land — to have defied all her own rules, and baffied the skill of the gravest geologist, by depositingbituminous coal up- on the naked and barren bosom of the uncarbona- FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGY OF VIRGINIA. 505 ceous (granite ! I have often m ondered why this ano- maly did not strike the capacious and hi^ldy trill- ed mind of JefTerson ; and why he, or some other of the many reflecting; men of Virginia was not led by it to inquire, what else there mif^ht be in store for the jjood j)eople of that state? By ne- glectinfj to seek for tlicm, we unf^ratcfully reject the proffered kindness of our Creator; the laws of inanimate matter are, in this respect, in unison with those that tjovcrn animated nature: v,c are furnished with the material and means, but in or- der to stimulate us to useful and healthful industry, we must labor in their appropriation. God f^ives us the earth and the seed, but we must ploup:h and sow, or we can never reap; so he has bountifully placed within our reach innumerable valuable rocks, mmerals and combustibles ; but to enjoy them, we must delve into the bowels of the earth — and hav- in<^ found them, we must bj- various laborious processes render them fit for our use. To those who are accustomed to rojjard these thinfjs, it is ditTicult lo determine which causes the most pain- ful sensations, to oliserve how fcv/ coal mines, in comparison to what mief()re, in the same period of time. In regard to the latter, by the way, a fact has occurred in my own neighborhood, which furnishes additional proof to corroborate the opinions first advanced, I think, by old Mr. Pick- ering, of Massachusetts, that by making proper selections from our own native breeds of cattle, we should very soon obtain stock, possessing all the qualities we want, without a resort to foreign im- portation ; — a stock too, which in some respects would be found better suited to our soil and cli- mate. The fact to which I allude — is, that what we country folks call "a come by chance" cow, but certainly of the native breed, has been yield- ing this fall half a bushel of fine milk at a milking, with only some small additional care bestowed in rearing and feeding her. A similar instance oc- curred still nearer to me* several years ago. Per- mit me also to cite the following flicts, taken from the report of the Committee of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society on milch cows, heifers, bulls, and bull calves, exhibited at the last Brighton Fair. The three premiums of $25, i$15 and .^10, were awarded to three cows of the native breed. The first cow, five years old, was proved to have given, during the whole of June and July last, never less than twenty-four quarts per day, and'to have yielded from her milk fourteen pounds thir- teen ounces and a half of excellent butter, in one week. She sold for !§ 100. The second cow, 12 years old, gave from the 10th to the 20th of June from 19 to 20 quarts of milk per day, from which were made, during these ten days, seventeen pounds of butter, and thirty pounds of cheese. It was further proved, that, although the quantity of milk was greatly reduced by the drought from the 10th to the 20th of Sep- tember, this cow had made for the previous six months for her owner, ,^94 22 cents by her milk and cheese, including .^8 42 cents for which her calf sold, that had been fatted on little more than half her milk. The third cow had given from the 10th to the 20th of June, from 20 to 21 quarts of milk per day, that yielded in that time, 17 pounds of butter. From the 10th to the 20th of September, she gave from 16 to 17 quarts of milk j)er day, which made during that time, 13 [(ounds of butter. I mention these facts, — not because I object alto- gether to the importation of cattle of the improved English breeds ; but to prove that at least one principal object, that of obtaining good milkers, can be accomplisiied, — if not as speedily, yet with as much certainty, by more simple and less costly means. I state the facts also to suggest the in- quiry, whether we may not have been paying somewhat too dearly for this foreign whistle ; al- though I confess that I have been lately whistling a little on it myself, not however in such a way as to exhaust nmch wind in the experiment. With respect to improved machines and imple- ments, we have had a great accession to our stock sinc.e our last meeting; — not so much however in variety, as in the quality of three or four, which I will take this occasion to notice. Douglass' wheat machine has had several improvements made in it, which have rendered it the best fixed machine that I have yet seen. But it is not a porta- ble machine, and must therefore be inferior to any one of the latter kind, which requires no more power, and gets out wheat as fast and as clean as Douglass' with an equal promise of durability. Such a one, I believe I have seen, since, our last meeting. It is jiatented by Fox and Borland, of Herkimer County, in New York; and Mr. Jabez Parker is the agent in Richmond, for selling them. It is true that I have had no such oppor- tunity of testing their comparative merits, as I should deem absolutely necessary to determine ac- curately and justly between them : for to do this, both should be worked on the same wheat, at the same lime, or immediately in succession, and with horse or water power and attendance, as nearly equal in all respects as practicable. But what I witnessed sufficed to make me prefer Fox and Borland's to Douglass', although I now have one of the latter kmd. I ought to mention, as an ad- ditional recommendation to the former, that it also shells corn perfectly well, and nearly as fast, as .some six or eight ears can be thrown in at a time. But as if to verify the old adage that " there is no besV in tliis world, another wheat machine, pa- tented by a Mr. Bayliss, is to be exhibited to-day, which possildy may surpass either of the two that I have mentioned; since the agent for selling them in Virginia offers to warrant that his two-horse portable machine, at ifiloO i)rice, will get out 200 bushels of good wheat per day, as clean as any other machine, and that his hand-power machine will get out at least fifty bushels per day. What I have seen of the hand-power induces me to form high expectations of its power and durability. Among the new implements which have attracted my attention so far as to make trial of them, since we last met, is .Beache's single horse cultivator, with cast iron moveable points, made to reverse as the point first used wears out. It is by far the FARMERS' REGISTER— FREDERICKSBURG AGRICULTURAL ADDRESS. 511 best instrument of the kinrl, amon<:; a considerable number, that I have ever tried; but a caution is necessary in regard to tliis, the neo-Iect of wliich has caused many other valuable iniplements to lall into unmerited disrepute. I mean, — not to employ it in work for whicli it never was designed. For instance, it is utterly vain to expect that any cul- tivator, yet known ainonf?; us, will kill grass, when, (to use the language of an old overseer of the liy- gone time,) " (7 gets no ill-natured as to knuckle doion;" — a sight, by the way, which, I dare affirm, the best farmers and planters among us have often seen in their own cultivated fields. But in lands which have been well ploughed, in the first place; and where the grass is just beginning to appear generally over the surface, this cultivator oi Beache's will cultivate well the work of some- what more than two single ploughs. Another proof that the spirit of agricultural im- provement is now exerting a much greater influ- ence among us than at any former time, is, that even our miserable party newspapers, — which have been for years past engaged in scarcely any thing but destroying, so far as thi"y possibly could, the peace, prosperity and happiness of our country — will now often re})ublisli articles on husbandry. Experiments and inquiries from agricultural news- p:i})8rs not unfrequently present tiiemselves in the columns of these profligate journals to relieve the unutterable disgust which every honest and hono- rable man feels at such a sha::;eless and pernicious prostitution of the American press as is now the prevalent practice, — nay I might say — the govern- ing taste of the present times. That these experiments and inquiries will elicit much valuable information, I have no doul't; for the desire and willingness to imp;'.rt the species of knowledge sought will probably — nay, certainly, augment in proportion to the apparent anxiety manifested in asking for it. Great care, however, must be taken, lest the bad example set by the political revilers, who are so constantly figuring away in our party journals, should infect those who engage in agricultural discussions. Some evidence of this, I have regretted to perceive, has already displayed itself in a few instances, among our ag- ricultural papers ; although nothing ought to be more manifest to all who write for them, than that to abuseor totreat each other contemptuously, will not only check, — but probably, altogether put an end to original communications for these pajjcrs. I will go no farther, lor proof of what! have said, than to remind you of tiie apparently endless and much vexed question relative to tiie origin of chess or cheat, and of the angry style of some of the dis- putants. For my own part, [ would just as soon believe that a sparrow's egg could be so managed, that it would hatch a rhinoceros, as to believe that wheat could be converted into cheat; still I am willing to hear patiently all that can be said in favor of such transformation. But how very easy it would be to convince all who really wish to be convinced on this subject, if, instead of wrangling, they would only take the troulde to make such an experiment as the one lately stated in the Farmers' Register. He who could still doubt, after witness- ing such a result, would not be satisfied though one rose from tiie dead to remove his scepticism. My reference to the Farmers' Register reminds me of an article by M. Macaire, in theSth No. re- lative to the rotation of crops, from the Avhimsical nature of the author's theory, which appears to merit some comment. If the facts already known be sufficiently numerous anil well authenticated, (as 1 think they certainly are,) to establish the necessity of a proper rotation, little benefit can arise from speculation and conjecture, in regard to the rationale of it. They may serve to aniuse, but rarely instruct. Take, for example, the theo- ry suggested by M. Macaire, and ascribed to JM. de Candolle, to whom the scientific world is proba- bly more indebted for his researches in vegetable physiology, than to any other individual, and what must be our conclusion.^ Why, that all plants, while alive, void something resembling animal ex- crement, which is unfit — not only for their own nourishment — but for that of all other plants of si- milar kind; and consequently, that no plantshould be grown in the same ground, oftencr than once in tv.o, three or four years, without the intervention of different crops. Now in all this, there really appears to me to be somewhat more of fancy than of fact; for how, let me ask, does this accord with what must have been noticed by every agricultu- rist, who has followed his profession for any length of time.'' For example, have not all luul frequent occasion to remark, that many plants, such as the onion, the sv.eet potatoe, the hemp, and I will ven- ture to add, tlie Indian corn, — notwifiistanding many believe the contrary — will grow for many years in annual succession with very little, if any, visible deterioration, — (some assert, none,) in the soil where they are sown or jjlanled; and this too, without manure, if the land be naturally fer- tile, or first made so by any of the permanent im- j)roversof the soil, — such as gypsum, lime, marJ, salt, or ashes. This, I believe, is an undeniable fact in regard to the enumerated plants ; to which several others might be added, if necessary, that do not appear to require a change of soil, provided their own ofTal be j)loughed under. But it is a fact not reconcilable to M. Alacaire'sborrov.ed theory, laid down in the unqualified terms in which he has expressed it ; unless indeed, (to keep up his own figure, coarse as it is,) we can believe, that onions, sweet potatoes, &c. are of so much more costive habits than any other of their relations of the soil, as to discharge flir less of this excrementitious matter; or that the earth abounds much more with their peculiar food, than with the food of those plants whose habits are more laxative ; and conse- quently will yield the costive habited plants with unimpaired increase for a much longer term of years. We might go on with such curious and whimsical speculations ad infinitum ; but they would add to nothin|^, except our power of fancy. What practical agriculturists most want, and es- pecially in regard to rotation of crops, — is, the knowledge of numerous, well authenticated ex- periments, with their results, in relation to the culture of every kind of plant used among us, as food either for man or beast, going to prove — not only the best soil for each, — the best modes of preparing and managing that soil, and the most suitable manures with the methods of applica- tion ; — but how often each kind of plant might be cultivated in succession, without diminution of product. Such experiments v>e should all endeavor to make,^always however with a due regard to eco- nomy of time and money. And we should ever be both ready and willing to communicate them fully 512 FARMERS' REGISTER— BOOTH'S THRASHING MACHINE, fee. nnd freely. Uniformity of practice would soon be tlie result amonsi; our Ihrniers, planters, and gra- ziers, instead of having almost as great a diversity of methods to accomplish their olyects, as there are brains concerned in contriving them : our lands, with every thing on them, would soon be managed in the best and most profitable manner • a certain and rapid advancement in our profession would keep pace with our active zeal to improve it: — every succeeding meeting of our society would be held with greatly increasing interest ; and, instead of exhibiting, as it did on the two pre- vious occasions, some strong marks of premature old age, it would continue to flourish far beyond the life time of any of its present members. Let us then determine, my friends, that weivill persevere; that we iO(7/ discharge our respective duties to our Society with renewed zeal and activi- ty ; and that it shall not be our tliults if the iVgri cultural Society of Fredericksburg, by being suf- fered to go down, shall aggravate the stigma so frequently, and often too justly, cast upon us Vir- ginians, of never persevering in any good word or work. booth's TIIRASIITNG MACHtKE. To the Editor of the FiU-mer.s' KeL-isier. Believing it to be a matter of importance to the agricultural interest of our country, that a knov/- ledgeof the existence of such implements and ma- chines, as have been introduced into its difTerent sections, and, after sufficient test and trial, are generally approved of", should be extensively dif- fused— we beg leave to recommend, through the Register, to our brother farmers, Douglass' thrash- ing machine, as noio improved, made and sold, by Mr. Z. Booth of the City of New- York, together with his horse power. ^Ve sj)eak particularly of the improved machine, and horse power — lor when Ihey were first introduced among us, some years ago, by Mr. Booth, they were of comparatively little value — but the experience and experiments of some of our farmers into whose hands they have jl'allen, communicated to the patentee, together with his own progressively imjtroving knowledge iOn the subject, has enabled Mr. Booth, in our judgment, to put his machines and horse powers "up to a very great degree of perfection. The im- ■proved four-horse power machine will, with ordi- nary wheat, and ordinary care and exertion, thrash ^lean from the straw, and wifii ease to the horses, say from twenty to twenty-five bnshels per hour: with prime wheal, and extra exertion, it may be put up to thirty bushels in the hour. Upon the whole, we think highly of this machine, and therefore recommend it to the attention of our brethren in the grain growing sectionsof the Union, as being, in our judgments, equal, if not superior to every other similar implement that has yet come underour observation and knowledge. We, each of us own, and work one of them. EDW. TILGIiaiAN, THOMAS B. COOK, K. TII>GHMAIV, WM. C. TILGHMAN, CHAS. C. BROWNE. Queen jJnn's County, Maryland. TO OUR SUBSCRIBERS. In consequence of ilie many copies wliich have been lost by our city subscribers, and the consequent loss to ourselves in furnishing duplicates, it is found necessary to change the manner of delivery, which the publisher had voluntarily adopted for the accommodation of those who reside in the city of Richmond. They will in fu- ture receive their copies at the office of the Farmers' Register, Subscribers who have been furnished with two copies of any one No. in consequence of the first having been delayed on the route, will please to return such extra m copies, by mail, if no cheaper mode of conveyance offers. 1 Notwithstanding all our care, some copies are defec- tive or imperfect in consequence of mistakes of the binder. Those who have received or may hereafter re- ceive such defective copies, will please to return them, marked on the cover " defective," and perfect copies im shall be immediately sent to replace them. Every such ■ imperfect copy retained by a subscriber, will cause the ■ loss of one other certainly, and perhaps of an entire " volume. Complete sets of the back numbers of the Farmers' Register can still be furnished to new subscribers. Ten cojiies of No. 2 are wanting, for which seventy five cents each will be paid on their being delivered to the publisher. TO CORRESPONDENTS. The following communications have been received, and will appear in No. 9 : " Legislative Jlid required for Draining''^ — " Translation from the Arabic'''' — " On Ma- rine Manures'''' — "Estimate of the Cost of Limin g on James River" — " Estimate of the Cost of wnter-horne Marl" — " State Poliey in respect to the Rail Roads from Roanoke into Virginia" — "Hill side Ditches, to prevent Washing, SfC."^-" J^cic Jlrtificial Manure proposed for the Coal Re- gion"— " Diary of the Weather" — " Transportation and Sale of Marl from Middlesex" — " The Three Shift Sys- tem, the best for the Tideirater Section of Virginia" — and " Soils and Fai'ming of Fairfax County." COKTEiXTS OP FARMERS' REGISTER, Ko. S. ORIGINAL. COMMUNICATIONS. Horizontal Ploug-hing, and Hillside Ditches, 449 — Moth Wee- vil in Corn and Wheat, 450 — Law of Enclosures in Virginia, 450 — Culture of Cotton, 452 — Legislative Encouragement of Ag- riculture, 45i — Native andForeign Grapes, 454— Tillage of In- dian Corn, 459 — Literary Market of the United States, 460 — Phiuuhing in Cornstalks, 4()1 — Clearing and Cultivating New Land", 46r— Salivating Effect of Clover''Hay, 4G2— Magnesian Marl of Hanover, 402 — Experiment on Moth Weevil, 4fi3 — Fe- cundity of Insects, 464 — -Crops Made in 1789, 464 — Memoranda and Scraps from a Traveller's Note (on North Carolina,) 467—^ Geological, 473 — Queries on Buckwheat, 477 — Rotation Suita- Ijle to Rockbridge Farming, 485 — Comparative Products of Rare-ripe and Common Large Corn : Exliausting Efiectsof 'I'ur- nips, 48S— Surface Manuriiig, 488— The Right of Grazing in Common, 490 — Extracts from Private Correspondence, embra- cing Planting in Georgia, Three Shift System, &c.. Horn- blende and otlier Supposed Manures, Gama Grass on Roan- oke, Gama Grass Seed and Byefield Hogs, Arabic Work on Ag- riculture, &C.490 to 49 J— Commercial Report, 493— The Propa- gation and Culture of the Vine, 49.3 — The Chinese Mulberry Propagated by Cuttings, 503 — fjeology and Muieralogy of Vir- ginia, 534 — Coal in Prince Edward, 506 — Sugar from Beets, 507 — Frost 'in Late Tobacco, 503 — Farming in Central Virginia, 508 — Experiments with Early CJathered Corn, 509 — Annual Address to the Members of the Agricultural Society of Fredericksburg, 50D — Booth's Thrashing Machine, 512 — To our Subscribers, 512 — To Correspondents, &c. 512. SELECTIONS. Undulating Railway, 464 — Increased Safety on Railways, 465 — New Process for Generating Heat, 466 — Steamboat Disasters, 4G7— General View of Internal Imjirovements in North Caroli- na, &c. 470 — Public Works in Virginia, 472 — Agricultural Scliool, 474 — Food for Swine and Cattle, 475 — Importance of Chemistry to Agriculture, 475 — Culture of Potatoes, 476 — Birds and Inserts, 476 — Dn'ections for Rearing Silkworms, 477— Ma- nnrin? Fallows for Wheat, 485 — '1 ravelling by Steam on Com- mon Roads, 489 — The FirstWheat in New Zealand, 489— Loco- motive Ent;ines on Railways, 495— On the Rot in Cotton, 496 — Remarks on Long-Leaved Pine, 496— Remarks Respecting Preston's and King's Salt Works, 497— The Gold Mines of Vir- einia, 501-2— Effect of Gypsum and Clover, .507. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. VOL. I. iaii©4i2Mi®sr2>9 2*i23BiswiiiEir ii©Q41« NO. 9. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR.— T. W. WHITE, PRINTER. ON THE USE OF MARINE MANURES. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. It has often been to me a subject of surprise, that the various substances aboundinc^ on the shores of the Chesapeake and its tributaries, and which, for the want of a generic name, I shall class under the general head of marine manures , have at- tracted so little attention in Virginia. Whilst our more enterprizing and industrious neighbors of Maryland, have by the liberal use of these means, been converting a barren and exhausted soil into fertile and productive fields, the farmers of East- ern Virginia, with the most abundant resources within their reach, seem to have been almost en- tirely ignorant of their value, or indifferent about their application. I deem it not amiss, therefore, to call the attention of the farmers on tidewater to the value of tiiese resources, by communicating for your Register, though in a hasty and imperfect manner, my experiments and reflections on this interesting subject. Under the head of marine manures, I shall em- brace, in the order of their respective values, sea weed, {^Iga Marina,) or sea ware, as it is called on the Eastern Shore of Maryland ; Indian bank shells, oyster shell lime, and marsh mud. About two years ago, finding it utterly vain to attempt to improve a large and exhausted flirm, by the unaided resources of the stable and farm yard, I determined to look out for some other means of improvement, t accordingly commenc- ed, on my Potomac farm, vigorous and extensive operations, with the marine manures of which I have spoken. 1 committed a fi\tal error however, at the outset, in adhering to the ruinous three shift system, without the aid of artificial grasses; upon which, 1 verily believe, no great or permanent improvement can be effected, wilhany thing short of a mountain of stable manure, and hands and teams without limit, to apply it. It is true, that upon this system, by great attention, and the regu- lar application of all the fertilizing means within the reach of our tidewater fiirms, crops may be considerably increased, and the land gradually improved : but let this great attention be in the least remitted, and the diminished returns of the farm will soon demonstrate the deterioration of the land. I have since adopted the four field rotation, with a standing pasture, and the extensive culti- vation of clover ; and I have no doubt I shall soon reap the reward of my labor, in the increase of my crops, and the permanent improvement of my land. I soon found in the application of manures, that no great reliance could be placed on the occasional services of the farm hands and teams. I therefore detailed for that exclusive purpose a regular force, consisting of a man, a woman, and two small boys just large enough to follow the carts, with two carts properly constructed, and an abundant sup- ply of oxen. With this force exclusively devoted to collecting and carting out manure, I applied during the last year, upwards of 5,000 loads. The Vol. 1—65 whole annual expense, including estimated wages, wear and tear of carts, &c. may be fairly set down at ^250, making the manure cost about^j;e cents a load. Yet few of our farmers can be convinced that they can spare time and labor for this essen- tial operation. My farm bordering more than a mile on the Potomac, affords a fine opportunity of collecting the sea weed ; and my principal and most success- fid experiments have been with this valuable ma- nure. For nine months in the year, from the 1st of August to the 1st of May, it is in great abun- dance,"and my carts have usually carried out, ac- cording to circumstances, from 15 to 30 loads a day. During the last year I applied to various crops about 3000 loads of this manure, and with great effect upon all. My first experiment was with corn. I applied it at the rate of about 70 loads to the acre, in the water furrows of a field in- tended for corn the next year, and listed upon it. The effect on the corn was immediate and power- ful, doubling, I am confident, the crop on the poor- est and lightest parts of the field, and greatly im- proving it wherever applied. I next applied it on a piece of very poor land, at the same rate, and fal- lowed for wheat, leaving in the middle of the lot a space of two acres, unmanured, which had pre- viously been sowed, as an experiment, v/ith cow- peas. The whole was put in wheat during the first week in September 1832. The wheat on the ma- nured land grew off beautifully, leaving fur be- hind that on the other part of the lot. At Christ- mas it was exceedingly promising, but unfortu- nately having been sowed too early, the fly in the spring nearly destroyed it. During the same fall,. I applied the sea lueed as a top dressing to tlie poorest parts of my wheat and corn land ; and in parts of tiie field I had it ploughed in with the wheat. Both applications produced most decided efl'ects, the growth of wheat being thick and luxu- riant on land which before this manuring was not considered capable of producing wheat at all. The fatal mildew, however, of the last summer, greatly injured the crop, although it did not affect those portions of the field, by any means as much, as other parts to which this manure bad not been ap- plied. My next experiment was with oats, on which the effect of this manure was truly astonishing. I selected the poorest knoll in my field, bordering upon a small stream, along the side of which was a strip of land considered rich. I gave a liberal dressing to the knoll, and left the bottom unmanured, and fallowed during Avinter for oats, which were sowed in March at the rate of two bushels to the acre. When I prepared this piece of land for oats, an intelligent neighbor and friend of mine remarked to me, that if I succeeded in "•etting a crop from it, he would never afterwards doubt the efficacy of sea loeed. We visited the farm together shortly before harvest, and he expressed the greatest astonish ment at the growth of the oats. The line was dis- tinctly visible which marked the extent of the ma- 514 FARMERS' REGISTER— MARINE MANURES. nurino; ; the oats on the poor knoll bein<^ from 6 to 12 inches higher than tliose on the rich hottom. I verily believe I do not exaggerate, when I say that the oats were higher than some of the corn stalks of the crop preceding llie manuring. I tried this manure also as a top dressing for oats followed by clover, with decided benefit on both crops. Its great efficacy in counteracting the effects of drought is very remarkable, and was strikingly exhibited in my field of corn during the excessne drought of last summer. The parts manured with sea weed continued green, long after the rest of the field had faded, and produced a tolerable crop, not- withstanding the great severity of the drought. I am now making an application of it, the operation of which I have yet to test. I am top dressing a field of clover sowed last spring, that I design to fallow for wheat next summer. I have been in- formed by an intelligent gentleman who witnessed the experiment in New Jersey, that good farmers in that state purchase this manure on the sea coast at 25 cents a load, and after carting it several miles into the interior, apply it with profit to their grass lands. I have little doubt that my experi- ment will be successful. In an admirable treatise on agriculture in the New Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,* (to which, if it has not already attracted your notice, I would beg leave to direct your attention, as furnishing many valuable extracts for your Register,) the opinion is expressed, that " in one respect sea iveed is prefe- rable to the richest dung, because it does not pro- duce such a quantity of weeds." I do not know whether its effect will be so permanent or not, but for a single crop, I hazard nothing in saying that in sufficient quantity it is equal to the best stable manure. The wonderful effects of this manure are not fo be attributed so much to the vegetable matter which it contains, as to the quantity of salts and animal mucilage intermixed v/ilh it.' It is doubt- less this animal matter (consisting of sea nettles, young shell fish, and the spawn and fceces of the finny tribe,) that produces so striking an effect on wheat on light lands. According to the writer in the Encyclopedia to whom I have referred, it has produced a wonderful effect on the sea coast of England, imparting to light lands sufficient tena- city to produce wheat and to resist mildew. I do not know whatthis manure would yield on analysis; but I think it probable a quantity of gluten would be afforded, which is essential to tlie growth of wheat ; and this may account for the remarkable fact ob- served both here and in England, that it imparts to the lightest soils the caj)acity to bear heavy crops of wheat. You may find in the 1st vol. of the A|,.merican Farmer, an interesting letter from Tho- mas Griffin, Esq. of Yorktown ; and in the 13th vol. of the same work, a valuable communication from an Eastern Shore farmer, signed " Corn- planter," on the great virtues of this manure -.t the republication of these papers might possibly be of service by rousing the attention of some of our lethargic farmers, to the inestimable value of an * By tiobert Brown of Markle, (Scotland,) who was a judicious and successful practical farmer on a large scale, as well as an excellent writer on agriculture in general — two characters which unfortunately, are sel- dom found combined in the same person.— [£d. t "Complanter" xcas republished, p. 314, Farm. Reg- article, heretofore regarded by them as a nuisance, being suffered to remain fermenting and putrefying on the shores, and infecting the atmosphere with the most fetid and pestilential odors. Most of the farms on Potomac abound with banks of partially decomposed oyster shells, w he- Iher left there by the Indians, or brought to the surface by some great convulsion of nature, from the forrner bed of the river, I leave to geologists to determine. I have used these shells in considera- ble quantity, and with very manifest advantage. They do not act so promptly or so powerfully as the sea iveed, but are probably more permanent in their effects. In combination with sea weed and other putrescent manures, they have all the effects of marl in giving permanency to the improve- ment. The late Mr. Ellyson Currie of Lancas- ter, who was the most zealous farmer of my ac- quaintance, used these shells very extensively; and whenever I met with him, he expatiated with delight and enthusiasm on the great benefit derived from them. lie used them, however, without a sufficient attention to artificial grass- es, and probably without the application of a due portion of putrescent manures; and the conse- quence has been, as I have been informed since his death, that parts of his farm, now exhibit the ap- pearances invariably produced by an over-dose of calcareous matter, without a due application of pu- trescent and vegetable manures. The value of oyster shell lime as a manure is so generally understood, and has lately been so well attested by the successful practices of Mr. Lewis of Wyanoke, and other contributors to your Re- gister, that I deem it unnecessary to say much on that subject. I have applied it to some extent, and with obvious advantage to wheat and clover: but having a great abundance of other materials much more accessible, I have* not yet devoted much at- tention to lime. I am now, however, about io burn a quantity of shells, with the view of making a compost of old corn cobs, marsh mud, stable ma- nure and lime, hoping in this way to derive some advantage from the corn cobs, which heretofore I have found it almost impossible to reduce to the food of plants. Under ordinary circumstances, I do not approve of expensive composts; but having all the necessary materials at hand, I shall form my compost during wet weather, when the fields will not bear carting over them, and when my ma- nuring force could not be profitably employed about any thing else. In this way it will cost but little. I have made some experiments with marshmud, which at first promised to be very successful, but I must confess that my expectations have been somewhat disappointed. To apply it, requires more labor, and that of a very disagreeable kind, than either bank shells or sea weed; and in my hands it has proved less efficacious than either of them. It is possible that I have committed some error in applying it, as I have been assured by a gentleman of high respectabdity, from the Eastern Shore of Virginia, who had used it extensively, that he would not exchange it, load for load, for the best stable manure. I entertain no doubt that when better materials are not to be had, it may be used with very great advantage. The beds of fossil shells, in this country, deno- minated viarl, may possibly be considered as be- longing to the class of marine manures ; as in all FARMERS' REGISTER— ARABIC WORK ON AGRICULTURE. 515 probability they are of marine origin. But the period of their connexion with the sea is so re- mole, and the means by which tliey were transferred to their present positions, so indistinctly "known to our philosophy," that I have not thought proper to class them under thiscattjgory. It is not how- ever foreign to the purpose of this essay to say a few words on this interesting subject. Your Essay on Calcareous Manures, and the articles in the Register on that subject, have ex- cited great interest in the Northern Neck, as well as in other parts of the state. The subject is dis- cussed in almost every company, and some of our practical farmers are already applying marl, and many others are in search of it. It is a very for- tunate, and seemingly providential circumstance, that as soon as we leave the flat lands of the rivers and creeks, and come into the forest where ma- rine manures are not to he had, marl is found in abundance. I have now in my possession several specimens, some of them uncommonly rich, found since the publication of your book, in different parts of the Northern Neck. You have just cause to be proud of having conferred so great and last- ing a benefit on your country. I cannot close this long, and I fear tedious com- munication, without expressing the confident opi- nion, that the cultivation of artiticial grasses, parti- cularly clover, is absolutely necessary to secure the full benefit of any system of manuring. I fully con- cur with your correspondent Mr. Archer, of Fort Monroe, that in Eastern Virginia we have com- mitted a great error, in supposing that our lands will not produce artificial grasses to advantage. My limited experience and observation entirely confirm the view so well expressed by him. It may be safely affirmed that there is not on tlie face of the globe, (possibly with the exception of Chi- na,) a highly improved and well cultivated coun- try, in which artificial grasses are neglected. If China be an exception, the peculiar condition of that country, will afford the best reasons for the practices there adopted, whilst it should teach us the impossibility of following the example. Whilst on the subject of grasses, I will inquire if the question, whether plaster will act in the vi- cinity of salt water, has yet been satisfactorily set- tled by the experience of practical farmers.'' I de- sign to make some experiments with it in the spring, and may possibly send you the result of my observations.* I hope sir, that you will receive this communi- cation as an earnest of the zeal with which I desire to co-operate in the noble cause of agricultural im- provement. I should be happy if I could bring to your service, any thing calculated to give effect to your labors. But I am well convinced, that nei- ther my skill nor success as an agriculturist, give me the slightest claims to the confidence of the public as a teacher of the science. ■WILLOUGHBY NEWTON. Westmoreland Co., Va. Dec. 16, 1833. [The f(}regoing communication does not need our commendations to aid it in attracting attention — but we cannot repress our inclination to greet with welcome a new ally and efficient fellow laborer, in support of the most neglected and yet most improvable region of Vir- ginia. Mr. Newton's facts (wlijch are the more valua- ble, because failure is stated as well as success,) furnish the best of arguments to prove that no where else can soil be more cheaply fertilized, and no where are better profits offered to the judicious and economical farmer, than in the lower tidewater counties. Yet vast quanti- ties of land, possessing in abundance either the " ma- rine manures" described by Mr. Newton, or the richest beds of fossil shells, may be bought for prices varying between $2 and $4 the acre, although an enhancement of valuation (caused by late opinions of these advanta- ges,) has begun to affect selling prices. Our individual location is in a higher and less favored region, and therefore we are not misled by personal interest when we venture to predict that the counties on the salt wa- ter of Virginia will hereafter be the most valuable por- tion of the state.] * We have no experimental lilfcw ledge of gypsum acting near salt water, but have fully proved its effica- cy on soils after marlmg, on which before, that manure was totally worthless ; and its inertness even near fresh tidewater, has been generally attributed to the sea air. If our correspondent will try gypsum on clover where he has already applied his oyster bank manure in abun- dance— or if he can cause the like, experiment to be made on some of the land injured by Mr. Carrie's ex- cessively heavy dressing, we entertain but little doubt of his success. — [Ed, Farm. Reg. ARABIC WORK ON AGRICUL,TCRE. Translated for the Farmers' Register. University of Virginia, December 28th, 1883. Dear Sir, — I send you a translation of the first article of the first chapter of the Arabic work on agriculture, compiled by Ebu-Zacharia, Tahia, Ebn- Mahomed, Ebn-ilkmed, Ebn-el ^Jwam. This author wrote his v/ork in the sixth century of the llegira, (the twelfth century of the Christian era,) when culture of every kind flourished most among the Arabs of Spain. He was a native of Seville, and his estate was situated in Alxarafe, where he lived and made his agricultural experiments and observations, to which he added the maxims of a great number of geoponic writers of different ages and nations. The Arabs or Moors, masters of Southern Spain, introduced from Africa and Asia, into their country, and acclimated there, a variety of plants and garden vegelaldes, before that time unknown in Europe, and for the possession of some of which V. e are even now indirectly indebted to them. I am afraid, however, that many errors will oc- cur in my translation of the names of various objects in husbandry — the Spanish translator seems to make his own sometimes a matter of guess- work, and my knowledge of agriculture, botany, geology and also of the Arabic and English lan- guages is not so very proibund, as to be able al- ways to set him right when he seems to be wrong, and to give myself the most exact and best cor- responding word in tlie English. From such errors a deal of mischief may arise. — — Germany is, to this very day, deprived of the en- joyment of one of the finest and most wholesome vegetables — the tomates, — because, forsooth, the name of this delicious vegetable had been badly- translated into German. The name " tomates" given to this fruit by the Moors, trom a supersti- tion concei-ning certain virtues, which it Avas 516 FARMERS' REGISTER— ARABIC AVORK ON AGRICULTURE. thought to possess, being rendered in Spanish by ManzanadeAmor(love-appIe) was, from the natu- ral permutability of the lingual letters I and 11, and of the dental letters z and s, pronounced, and af- terwards written, by the Italians Malsana d'l Jlmore, (insane from love,) and by abbreviation, only Malsana, (unwholesome or insane) which name the Germans, who received this fruit from Italy, translated, with seeming accuracy, by toll- apfel (madness-apple,} and hence this fruit, though cultivated here and there in Germany, as a curi- osity, is never eaten by any one : for who would like to become mad? as it is thought this fruit will make him, who should be rash enough to despise the warning contained in its very name. However, as I hope, with some degree of confi- dence, that nothing of this sort will happen to en- lightened Virginia, should I even, from my being little better than " a mere mimick's mimick," com- mit a similar or a worse blunder, here follows the English translation of the first article of the first chapter of the work, treating of the different quali- ties of soil, and the signs to know them by. G. BLJETTERMANN. The first thing to be acquired, in the science of agriculture, is the knowledge of soil, in order to be able to distinguish the good from the inferior; for he who sliould not know the most essential branch of husbandry, deserves the name of ignoramus, not that of farmer. According to the demonstration of Rasis in his work entitled " Physical Auscultations," rocks of considerable size become pulverized, by the ac- tion of heat and moisture, in the space of a century. Thus, by the continued influence of the sun and rains, on the surface of the earth, a soil is formed proper to admit of vegetation ; for earth drawn from wells and other excavations, though it should contain all the apparent qualities of good soil, will be steril the first year, but, after having been penetrated by the sun and the moisture of show- ers, it becomes often highly fertile. Thus it is evident that no soil can be productive, unless it be warmed by the sun and penetrated by rain. The earth is naturally cold and dry, yet though this be a natural and general quality of the earth, there are nevertheless some soils warmer and more hu- mid than others. The warmest, and hence the most fertile soil, according to all the most intelli- gent agriculturists, is the black mould ; next to which comes that which is of a red color; whilst the white is the coldest, and hence the least fertile of all, and yellow soil is but little better. So that white soil will be more or less cold, according to the more or less whiteness it has, and the same may be said of the yellow, and in proportion of the other colors respectively. The best soil, for warmth and moisture, is that which, in its texture and color, resembles old rot- ten dung ; which does not harden into clods ; does not dry and crack open in the heat, nor is loose like sand and gravel. But there are few spots where such a soil is found in a natural state, and there- fore, we must call good such soil as only resembles it in some degree. Abu-Hanifa Dinurita, the prince of agricul- ture, says : soils whose texture is porous or spongy, and pulverize easily under the plough, or the spade, like sand without their being actually sand, are pest adapted for vegetation, on account of their easily imbibing the water from showers or from artificial irrigation, to nourish the roots of plants, which increase and flourish most under a frequent supply of moisture. On the contrary, soils of a compact texture easily hardened by heat, not im- bibing moisture, are extremely steril, for the roots of plants cannot dilate and be nourished by mois- ture, as they ought to do, to vegetate and grow well. There are two kinds of soil, both unproductive, the one consists of mere sand, and the other of mere clay : the former, though it imbibe moisture quickly, from its loose texture, causes it to evapo- rate as quickly from the surface, or to sink too deep into the ground, before it can profit the plants that are to grow in it ; and the latter being at one time too wet, and at others too dry and hard, is equally unfit for vegetation. However, by a pro- per mixture of these two soils, under good tillage and frequent dunging, both may in time be amelio- rated and rendered productive. Such soils are frequent in Mesopotamia, the torrents having washed into the plains not merely the trash and surface soil of the high lands, but also a good deal of clay and more sand. Solon says the same of soils, and adds, that, soils are good and productive, on account of the combi- nation of heat and moisture they contain ; that blackness, in a soil, indicates its being hot, and the redness thereof indicates the same thing, though in a less degree; that yellow soil is least hot, and approaches most the quality of cold scil, and that white soil is what usually is denominated cold soil. The qualities of soils are known to observers, by evident signs : that which is best adapted for vege- tation must be hot and moist, and must, in color and texture, resemble old rotten dung. Next in quality, is that which has a good mixture of fine sand, fat clay, and black mud. That soil which consists of mere sand and gravel, without any ad- mixture of clay and black mud, is very inferior. Clay alone is better than sand alone, as it can be improved with less cost, where sand is nigh, by an admixture of that article, than sand alone, by an admixture of clay. Sidagos says : when Ave examine attentively the different classes of soil, we cannot help per- ceiving that it is necessary that they should be more moist, rich and porous, than hot, as the sun's heat may warm them sufKciently for vegetation, whilst, without richness and porosity, the plants would not take root, and consequent- ly, could not grow. Should, however, both quali- ties, viz: heat and moisture, meet in the same soil, it would be so much the better. Nothing is more true than the opinion of Sidagos on this sub- ject, says Aben HajaJ, that black soil is the best, and so all the ancients have considered it, and that the red with a shade of blue is the next in quality, and that such laTul as contains a good mixture of clay and sand with alluvial mud is also very good. Uemocrite says, that such a soil as, in rainy weather, does not swell very much, and in hot weather does not easily crack open, is of a very good quality. However, we know that in the en- virons of Carmona, the land is very much cracked in summer, and yet they reap larger crops of wheat there, than any where else. Therefore, we ought not to reject such land, unless we can more advantageously cultivate the best kind indicated above. In the black soil, we mentioned, resembr FARMERS' REGISTER— ARABIC WORK ON AGRICULTURE. 517 ling old rotten duno^, every thing, either grains, garden vegetables or fruit trees, grows to advan- tage, whilst, in that having the qualities of the land around Carmona, nothing but wheat will grow. According to Kastos, the best land is that which imbibes most moisture, and in which grass and weeds are growing luxuriantly, when left uncul- tivated. Junius Moderatus Columella says : " that land, which is destined to bring garden vegetaldes, must not be white, coarse-grained, nor easily hardened in the heat of summer. Such land w hen well ploughed and mixed with dung, may serve to plant an orchard in. For garden vegetables, we ought to choose a soil that contains much alluvial mud, and which you may find out easily by stirring a handful of the soil in a vessel with water. Should you find, from not muddying the water much, that most of it is sand, 3'ou must not use it for cultivating garden vegetables, until by a proper mixture of dung and black mud from ponds and rivers, you have rendered it fit for your purpose. You may also know the quality of soil by taking up a part of it in your hand : if, by pressing it, you find it similar to wax, it will be good soil for pro- ducing vegetables. Aben-Hajaj, in his treatise on the different soils, says that some farmers, in order to know and judge of the quality of land, make use of their taste and smell ; others of their sight and touch, and others again judge of it by the plants that it produces naturally. But the examination of it by the sight and the touch is also subject to little error. Junius Moderatus Columella, says: soil of a good quality is known by seeing that it easily im- bibes the water, becomes after rain soft and slimy, without baking or becoming hard afterwards, in the heat of the sun. This same author tells us, that some ancients had discovered another method to judge of the quality of land, viz : when forest trees of great magnitude grow in it, whose branch- es are so thickly interwoven that the sun cannot penetrate, this is a sign that the land is good. On the contrary, when forest trees are only of a mid- dling height, and their branches and foliage but thin, such land on which they grow is but of a middling quality ; but should such trees be dwarfish, and their foliage poor, you may be sure the land is poor also. Those that judge of soil by its taste, will prefer the sweet to that which tastes strongly of salt. And on this subject Columella says, that when taking some earth from a certain depth, you mix it with sweet water, and taste the water when it has become clear, if you find it of a saltish taste, you may be sure that it is good for no other vege- table but palm trees, or at most, for cabbages and cucumbers. Those who use their smell to judge of the qua- lity of land, say that no soil is good that has any bad smell, and Deniocrite says, that it is a sign of good land when, excavating it to the depth of two feet, you take a part of the earth from the bot- tom and put it in a glass in which some rain water or sweet water from a river had previously been poured, you find, after it has clarified, the water to have neither a disagreeable taste, nor an offen- sive smell, you may know that the land is of good quality, and will be productive in grain, as well as in vegetables and trees, that you should wish to ^•aise. Kastos says, that land of a fetid smell, and of a saltish taste, is only good for palm trees. Accord- ing to Aben-Ilajaj, some farmers take for their guide, in the selections of land for tillage, the plants that grow on it naturally, which I think is the surest way of judging of its quality. When they see the large thistle, and the wild hemp growing spontaneous!)- on any land, they pronounce it good without hesitation, for they know that these two kinds of weeds only grow in the very best land. On the contrary, when they perceive any wild Zaatar (penny royal .^) wild sorrel, Anrntin (po- verty grass .^) cinquefbil, tribalus and wild wheat.' growing on any land naturally, they at once pronounce it poor, and are seldom mistaken in this respect. It is not the same with other weeds, w hich will grow equally on rich and on poor land, such as the wild onion and others. Some say that rich land, though it should be left for a long- time without cultivation, does not so easily grow up in scrubby oaks, pines, cyjnesscs, wild wood, &c. as poor land does when left unfilled. Wehavenow,says Aben-Hajaj, quoted the max- ims of different authors, on the qualities of land, with respect to the advantages and disadvantages that farmers may expect from them, and perhaps some will say, that those very soils which these learned authors disapprove of, have been found to be highly suitable to certain kinds of plants, which, besides being produced in them abundantly, are of the best quality. This is undoubtedly true, but such kinds of plants are but few, and commonly of little utility, whilst the most useful plants, such as wheat, barley, beans, peas and other vegetables for the support of man and beasts, can only be raised in such lands as have been approved of, by those authors. According to Solon, in good, moist, rich mould, every vegetable jou ])lant or sow, comes well, and with the assistance of God, prospers and produces a plentiful crop : who would therefore prefer a poor, dry, sandy soil, though lupins maA^ grow well in it.' especially when he could have the former with equal convenience. In a good soil will grow all that can be raised in sand ; but who would sow wheat on sand, before it has been improved by a great admixture of clay and dung.' In sand, we see that pine trees and some species of thorn will grow tolerably well : but who would plant apple, pear, or cherry trees in such a soil .' Thus, that land ought to be considered the best in which most things will grow for the food and comforts of man. But some persons will ask : the inheritance which our fathers left us, consists of such a soil as you describe to f)e naturally poor and unproductive, must we abandon it and seek a better soil else- where.' JNly answer is: by no means, but you must by industry, perseverance and judicious ma- nagement, improve and ameliorate your inheri- tance, and make it yield, with the assistance of God, abundant crops of every thing necessary for your support, and that of your family ; the means of doing so, are within the reach of every intelli- gent husbandman. jJ ben-Hajaj sTxys: though it cannotbe denied that apricots, pomegranates and quinces will grow in a poor sandy soil, it is nevertheless a fact, that, if such a soil be improved by an admixture of clay and dung, those trees will yield a larger and more juicy fruit. In the Nabathean Agriculture, treat- ing of the same subject, we find the following ex- 518 FARMERS' REGISTER-DRAINING IN VIRGINIA. prcssions by SasiTil : '• know that soils are very di.Terent and various in their qualities ; some are cold, some dry, some moist, others are compact, and others ap,ain are loose and porous in their tex- ture. All which formers outjht to know, tofjether with the different plants that suit each respecfively, and their amelioration under culture ; this latter is the very acme of ao-ricultural science, and the per- fection of the art of husbandry." jJdnii, of praiseworthy memory, says, " land which is of a dark brown color, imbibina: easily the water from rain or from irrip;ation^, without becoming; like clay prepared for makinf^ bricks, but reipaining porous enoug-h for any per*- son to squeeze out the water, should he press a clod of it between his hands, may be considered the best of all." Accordino^ to 'Vambuchad, tlie most valuable land is that which, in its color, ap- proaches most the violet. This color is mostly found in land that has been left for some time co- vered by sweet water, the sediment of which has been incorporated with the soil. In the Nabathean Ao;ricullure, we read; that when rain water re- mains for a time sta^rnant in bottoms, after wash- ing down from the hio;h lands, much of the surface sod, the land contracts a violet .color, which is always a sign of fertdity. But should this water have stood too long, and the earth have become al- most blue, it will be .some time before, under the influence of the sun, and good tillage it can, with the assisUince of God, be made to resume i'ts fer- tility. The land next in quality after the violet, says Vambuchad, is that which, in color and sub- stance, resembles ashes, and whose dust is sweet without mixture of other tastes. Next to this comes what Adan, of praiseworthy memory, calls hot soil, one of whose qualities is, that it easily crumbles under the plough, and which is neither loo much contracted by heat, nor too much swelled by moisture. Then comes the hind of a lio-ht gray color : such land is rather hard, yet docile under the plough ; with dung, it will bring tolera- ble crops of grain, but it is not good for fruit trees. ;Sagrit,however, is of another opinion, in this re- spect, ihr he says, that such land is well fitted for fruit trees, which succeed well and bear excellent fruit. My own experience contradicts him. Red land, especially when it has water conve- nient for artificial irrigation, m dry weather, is good for all sorts of grain, vegetables and fruit-trees except the palm tree. Such land as farmers call crummy is also good for all kinds of grain and fruit trees, but is unfit fijr garden vegetables. The au- thor of the Nabathean A griculture, says : crummy land, is that which holds the medium between fat and meager land, which we call sahalaf, (docile or improvable,) and also: such land as has the ap- pearance in hot weather of being sprinkled with white dust, is commonly salt, and consequently, only fit lor palm trees, or at most, for barlev' beans, peas and the like. Soil which, on triaY proves to be of a disagreeable taste, may yet be fit for vines, such as melons, pumpions and other plants that are creeping on the ground ; nav, fruit trees, have been known to grow well in it, as well as grains ; for garden vegetables of the finer sorts, and odoriferous herbs, it may not be so suitable. These are tlie distinctive signs of the good or bad quality of land, which nmst be chosen or re- jected, according to the convenience and profit of him who wishes to cultivate it. Let it be under- stood, however, that any soil may be rendered pro- ductive in time, under a good system of tillage and manuring. [We feel confident that many of our readers, whether agriculturists or not, will feel obliged to Professor Blset- termann, for the foregoing translation, as well as for the short passages from the same work, which we took the liberty of publishing in No. 8, (page 492) from his private letter in answer to our inquiries. It is true, that no instruction can be expected from such antique works on agriculture— but it is still highly interesting to learn what opinions prevailed in early ages, and among a people so different in manners and rehgion from all the now civilized world, and who then possessed all the refinement and learning in Western Europe. The "Boke of Husbandry" (extracts of which we presented in No. 6,) which is a similar literary curiosity, was writ- ten 400 years after this work of the Mahometan author, who wrote at a time when our English ancestors were so sunk in ignorance, that to be able to read was a dis- tinction which but few possessed, who were not educated specially for the service of the Church.] NECESSITY FOR A LAW TO PERMIT DRAIN- ING IN VIRGINIA. Tn the Editor of the Farmers' Rea-ister. I have seen and read with considerable pleasure in the seventh number of your valuable Register, a piece " On .Draining, addressed to Young Far- mers." This is a subject which has engaged much of my time and attention for several years past, as you may suppose from the publication I now send you. It was written in 1826, and inserted in the Petersburg Intelligencer of that year. I submit- ted if to the inspection of my worthy friend , who at that time was a member of the Virginia' Legislature, and who is yet living, and in the full enjoyment of a high and responsible station. Here follow my publication and his remarks. " When v/e call to our recollection the great and rapid internal improvements which have been made within a few years in the United States; and when we cast our eyes to some of the northern states. New York in particular, our minds are en- livened with delight and admiration at the inge- nuity of man. The name of Clinton wdl be as- sociated with that of Fulton, and they will live with time, and be reverenced as benefactors of their country. The spirit of internal improvement has com- menced in our state, and within a few years, con- siderable industrious exertions have been made by our citizens towards internal improvement. What seems to occupy the most of our attention on this subject, is rendering our rivers navigable and turnpiking our public roads. This certainly is of great importance, and whenever completed, will add much to the advantage and wealth of our state. But this is not all to be expected or required — this is not all we believe can and should be done. To all of us who reside contiguous to rivers, creeks or smaller tributary streams, it is well known that we have observed the great quantity of low land which is at present rendered the nursery of mos- chetos and miasmata. In its unreclaimed situa- tion it can be of no possible advantage to its own- ers, and never will be, so long as it remains in this state. FARMERS' REGISTER— DRAINING IN VIRGINIA. 519 We cannot be insensible of the industry of our ancestors. With a hasty hand they have cut down, cultivated and lain barren witii deep red gullies, much, and we may say, the greater part of our high land, the soil of which now rests in silent re- pose adjoining our water courses. With sJeadi- ness, industry and enterprise it devolves on us to turn our attention to the reclaiming and making productive that land which until within a few years, has been considered of but little value. Im- mense capital by individuals collectively, have been spent in endeavoring to make their tracts of land va- luable by reclaiming their own low land ; but as yet they have not met with their expectations ; being at first unacquainted with the nature and principles of ditching. V/ithout a good descent for the water, it is impossible to have huid well drained ; and to prove the impracticability of ditching without the above conveniency, it may not be improper to make the following illustra- tion. Suppose A, B, C and D, have tracts of land bordering on a water course adjoining E's, which is below them, and to which is attached a large quantity of low land, and without reclaiming this low land, they will be compelled to cultivate their poor land, not producing more than half a suffi- ciency for support ; that they call on E and inform him of their wish, proposing at the same time ihr him to join them in their undertaking, that they cannot obtain a sufficient descent without carrying the ditch through his land ; that E says he felt no disposition to join them ; that they then state they will either buy of him at a fair valuation, or reclaim his land for him ; he refuses their offer, and by so doing they are constrained from reclaiming their land. It is also distinctly understood that the land of E is not worth more than one fifth of A, B, C and D's land when reclaimed, and in the present and the continuing situation not any of their low land can be worth to them any thing. The question necessarily arises, what should be done to enable A, B, C and D to have their land reclaimed .' Cannot the Legislature take as much cogni- zance of their necessities and sufferings, and ac- cordingly provide for them with as much propriety as to make new roads through favorite land, and even by private desirable situations. The above short address is made to the public for information. The author is well apprized of the novelty of the subject, and that its importance, as yet, has attracted the attention of but few indi- viduals, and believes time only is wanting for due reflection and consideration to discover the neces- sity of some provision. Legislative assistance is deemed as indispensably necessary in making ditches, as in making canals or public roads when every circumstance is fairly considered and inves- tigated. The above is respectfully submitted to the bet- ter information and judgment of the enlightened people of Virginia. ^ Citizen of Nottoway. " The Deep Creek Navigation Company have met a most unnatural opposition and obstacle to their progress in rendering that creek navigable. Eight individuals who own lands on that creek, of the best quality of low grounds, which are entirely insecure for want of a proper system of draining and canalling, have not only not joined the Compa- ny m making the creek navigable, but have op- posed and thrown obstacles in the way. We have been compelled to meet a jury of inquest, and con- tend against an attempt to assess damages against the Company for running the works through ihe lands of one man who owned on 1 oth sides of the creek. The importance of the subject — its great utility to the general intere.sts of society, must i)e acknowledged by all. 1 have always been of an opinion that the Legislature are as much entitled to act on the subject of swamps as millponds ; and on revising the Virginia Code, I find very many excellent regulations relating thereto : but like too many of our best measures, they remain a dead letter in the statute book. In the case which you have illustrated, there ap- pears to be the highest equity, that E should be in someway compelled to yield to the paramount in- terest of his lour neighbors. " To use your own so as not to abuse your neighbor," is the language of the common law— and 1 say, of common "sense and equity. Tiie courts should act on these sub- jects in the liberal spirit of guardians of private and public right both ; and Ijoth might be made to harmonize in the management of clear heads and sound hearts. Upon the whole, I consider the subject as deserving much more specific enact- ments of ihe Legislature, and much more pointed notice of the grand juries and courts; but that bug-bear " infringing private right," scares them from it, and the whole subject is generally over- looked. This IS a case wherein the spirit of gospel morality displays itself in its native beauty and grandeur — " Do unto others as ye would" they should do unto you." If such were the universal l)ractical disi)osition of mankind, what radical changes should we not immediately see in the movements of human society.^" I am decidedly of an opinion myself, that Legis- lative interference is indispensably necessary to^the promotion and regulation of a proper and useful system of ditching. Upon every stream worth the labor of draining, there are more or less persons owning land thereon, as the water courses were made the line of demarkation between tracts of land. The tracts are often owned by orphan chil- dren— also by old women mid contrary and obsti- nate men, whose pride and delight seem to indul"-e in their invested power to throw obstacles in the way of those who wish to reclaim and improve their land. Since 1828, I have been steadily and gradually engaged, more or less in ditching. E was the per- son who would not give us the fall. He has since died, and I became the purchaser of his land. In all probability, I have had more difficulties to en- counter in ditching, in a small way, than any other person in Nottoway county. The Birchen creek, on which I reside, I expect has afforded as much good high land as any stream of the same size in Virginia. It was early settled, and with an unsparing hand our forefiithefs cut down and laid waste the greater part of the high land, the soil of which now lies on this stream. Within the last few years the owners have been very much en- gaged in ditching and improving it, and with the exception of one man's possession, (which is of no very considerable consequence,) the whole of the Birchen creek for eight or nine miles v.ill very soon have a ditch averaging from ten to twelve feet wide, and depth sufficient to reclaim it. Some 620 FARMERS' REGISTER— MINERALS OF VIRGINIA. of the owners have rendered their low grounds very productive and valuable. One of my rela- tions cleared a piece of about ten acres of this land, and continued it seven years in succession in tobacco; from three to four |)lants of which s:ene- rally made one pound. The next year (the 8th) he seeded it in wheat, but so luxuriant was its growth, that he made no wheal worth cutting. JNlanv of the straws were from eight to ten feet hi2;h,"and large in j)roportion (almost incredible, though a liict.) The last and present year, (9th and 10th,) this piece of groun(l was put in corn; both years it produced abundantly — the last equal- ly as good as the first year. It will be planted again the ensuing year in corn. This is not the only valuable advantage derived from the draining system. Ft has made every fa- mil)" contiguous to tiie creek nearly free from au- tumnal fevers. On this stream there were three large marshes ; in fact two of them formerly had been millponds. In their former situation, these places harbored muskrats, minks, rackoons, otters and wild ducks, in abundance; and during the winter season afforded good sport for the hunts- man. The spring brought trouble and loss to the farmer. He was at this season busily and active- ly engao-ed in w atching his cattle, to prevent their living in the quagmires. When he planted his corn^ the strictest attention was required to pre- vent the black birds from pulling it all up. About ■water-melon time (say August,) until about the first large frost, mothers and their house-gang were pretty much engaged in providing theways and means to prevent the moschetos from enter- ing their houses at night to molest their " little ones." I can well remember when I was a boy, that my mother in the moschcto season, would have the w indows and doors shut, and at times keep tobacco smoke about the house to drive off this troublesome little animal. Since reclaiming these marshes, the health of the neighborhood has greatly improved, and we now rarely meet with a case of the old fashioned ague and fever. I tender respectfully my salutations to your cor- respondent who writes under the signature of R. N. hoping he will continue his observations on draining,"&c. I am more fond of hearing a ser- mon when I can see the preacher's face. I am more fond of reading essays when the signature is m propria persona. 1 may hereafter say something in relation to the different kinds of soil on low- grounds, and its adoption to the growing of tobac- co, corn, wheat, oats and turnips. p. ^V. HARPER. Green Field, Nottoway Co. > 2Sth Dec. 1833. S BIINERAL RESOURCES OF VIRGINIA. From the Richmond Enquirer. The following communication is certainly on a most interesting subject, and is from the pen of one of the most accomplished mineralogists in the United States. He is well know'n as the Editor of the Geological Magazine of Philadelphia^ — and no man in this country is more capable of apprecia- ting our invaluable mineral resources. Many of the focts which he relates in this letter are new and important — and his general views are striking, and entitled to great consideration. Fredericksburg, Dec. 4th, 1833. To James Madison, Esq. Dear Sir, — I had the unfeigned pleasure of re- ceiving your letter, respecting the proper manner of opening to the public the extent of the mineral resources of Virginia. I beg to assure you it is particularly gratifying to me, to find jour opinion of the utility of a measure we have so frequently conversed about, entirely coinciding with my own. I sit down most willingly to give you a sketch of my opinion of those resources, and of a worthy and practical manner of developing them. It is too important a subject to be well examined in the compass of an ordinary letter; but I will endeavor to make it as little tedious as possible. It happens opportunely, that the Governor of this state, in his recent message, has recommended the very measure approved of, a geological survey, to the Legislature. Such a measure has already been authorised by the Legislatures of Alassachu- setts and JNIaryland : and I have for some time perceived, a strong feeling in favor of it has been rapidly growing up in this state. This comes in the natural order of things. Formerly, this coun- try presented the spectacle of an immense territo- ry, with a small population sparingly scattered on its immense border. Now, its condition is greatly changed ; for, although the impressions of the re- volution are still fresh upon all minds, as if all had been contemporary with it, we have the energies of a nation, numerous and powerful in exfenso, forcibly displaying themselves on ever}' side. Some of the cities are growing up into the first class of magnitude, and the general wants correspond to the increase of numbers. Those labor-saving ma- chines, canals and rail-roads, are gradually extend- ing themselves over the face of the country ; and tiie distant agriculturist finds, in the facilities they give him for the transportation of his produce to market, a compensation for his former high prices. But corn, wheat, and edible commodities are not the only things human ingenuity can produce; and the day has passed by, w hen the value of an acre of land was to be estimated solely by the number of bushels it would produce. That square acre goes down in a solid mass towards the centre of the earth, and the w ants of man and his curiosi- tv w ill not permit him to rest, until he knows, to a certain extent, Avhat that mass consists of, and to what useful purpose he can apply it. Geology is the science which enables him to gratify that curiosity. The ancestors of the present generations knew not two hundred years ago, the wants which press upon their descendants; they were few in num- ber, and their greatest anxiety was for a secure and abundant means of existence. They held the country when it was in its infant state, but their children enjoy it in the mature state ; and the boy's wants are almost forgotten in the urgencies of those of the man. Yet, most happily, the easy means of satisfying them exist. The wise dispen- sations of our Creator have j)rovided those for eve- ry stage of society ; it is man who is to blame, if, having health, he consents to remain poor and mi- seralde; and the same may be said of communi- ties of men, who disregard the resources which are benevolently placed w ithin their reach. It has often been remarked as a surprising cir- cumstance, that the early settlers of Virginia seem never to have suspected the existence of gold iu FARMERS' REGISTER— MINERALS OF VIRGINIA. 621 tl e state, which we know at this time to be very extentively diifused across its whole territory. Considering how much of it has been found of late, it does appear to want some explanation ; but perhaps this may not unreasonably be found, ni the very woody state of the country, and in the exclu- si\ie occupations I have alluded to. It is necessity which is the mother of invention, and they wei-e not under the immediate necessity of looking for it. In Chesterfield and Henrico counties, whicli are nearer to the first communities of tlie Ancient Dominion, bituminous coal crops out on the sur- face very obviously ; these indications could hard- ly escape their notice, or be misunderstood by them, as they came from a country where coal was already in domestic use. But in none of the ancient records of Virginia that I have seen, is this coal alluded to; and the reason it had no impor- tance in their eyes, most probably was, that their fuel was the wood, from which they were obliged to disencumber the ground to plant their corn. Things which they could put to a profitable use we find did attract their attention. We have the proof of this, in the use they made, as far back as 1619, under the government of Sir George Yeard- ly, nf white and blue fossil marl, for the purpose of manuring their lands, and by the aid of which they obtained wheat at the rate of thirty bushels to the acre. But granite and other stones of con- struction, soapstone, porcelain clay, and other nu- merous mineral substances, now having an intrin- sic value, they paid no attention to. Most proba- bly it never occurred to any of them, that a break- water would be constructed at.Cape Henlopen, for the protection of the future navies and commerce of their country : much less could they suppose that the rocks for its construction would be brought from the neighborhood of Wilmington in Dela- ware, and some of them from the banks of the Hudson river. Then is not a stone in the earth but is therefor a wise purpose, and it is our igno- rance and indolence which make us blind to this important truth. It has been acknowledged by the most eminent writers, that the prosperity of Great Britain is mainly founded upon her mineral riches. The substitution of human ingenuity for manual labor, is the distinguishing character of modern times; but all the complex and multifarious machinery of her manufactories, cannot operate without steam, nor can this bp gathered without fuel. The main source, then, of the wealtli of tliat country, is coal : without it, the cloths, the cottons, the iron, the cut- lery, the pottery and a hundred productive branch- es of art, would cease to exist there, and witli them their immense commerce, and their j)OAverful navy. But thirty millions of tons of bituminous coal, ex- clusive of non-bituminous or anthracite, are annu- ally raised there, and every thing is prosperous: wealth increases, great pulalic and private under- takings are projected and executed, and such is the demand for every mineral substance, that all re- ceive an intrinsic value, sufficient to enable them to sustain even the expenses of a distant transpor- tation. So true is this, that the flagstones of the side-walks of the City of London, are brought from the nortlicrn parts of Scotland, and the gra- nite used for the construction of the new London bridge, was imported from the same distant coun- try. Every quarry, then, of mineral substances in that island, is a source of profit to its proprie- VoL. I.— 66 tor, supports the flimiliesof many industrious men, and assists to maintain the great transportation in- terests which conduct the material to its destina- tion ; whilst these interests, to be permanently })rosperous, depend again, where navigation is out of the question, upon well constructed roads and canals. Here then we perceive the nature of the pros- perity of that industrious country, and can no lon- ger be surprised that geology, the science which teaches men how to judge from external indications the probable subterranean value of surfaces^ should be so assiduously cultivated. Let us apply, then, my dear sir, this useful les- son to the United States, and especially to the fine state of Virginia. The general complaint is, that the arable land is impoverished by our cultivation, and that the old class of wealthy proprietors, once the ornaments of America, is fast disappearing. There is no doubt much truth in this,ancl it would present a melancholy perspective, if no remedy was apparent. But in relation to agricultural ma- nagement, a great efTort is obviously now making, to introduce an ameliorating and more systematic, culture. It has already been attended with suffi- cient success to insure the confidence of the farm- ing interest. This is a great point gained, — exam- ple going much farther than precept with farmers. Many of them are only to be diverted from their antiquated and unproductive practices, by being surrounded with successful examples. The more you talk to them, the more obstinate you make them, their minds being pre-occupied with the no- tion, that you want them to seal their own humilia- tion by surrendering their judgment to yours, and this they will not do. But make twenty five bushels of wheat, where they only make ten^ and let them see numerous instances of this, and they will soon come to. I think therefore the agricul- ture of the state is in a progressively improving condition, and that ere long the beneficial effects will be generally felt and acknowledged. In the meantime, it has been ascertained from the very superficial examinations the state has re- ceived, that its mineral resources are not surpassed by those of any state in the union ; and yet noth- ing has been done to develope them, and make them part of the active wealth of the country. Does this supineness proceed from rational doubts that the result would be problematical.^ What evi- dence, and whence derived, have we of the proba- bility of this.' Public patronage has not yet been extended to any branch of this important object ; and private enterprize, where it has been guided by sound discretion, as the instance of the bitumi- nous coal pits of Chesterfield county, has been brilliantly rewarded. But let us suppose the whole district in which this valuable coal field is situated, to have been so deeply covered with other mineral substances, that no external indications had pre- sented tliemselves, and that the coal, as frequently occurs, laid below the depth of the wells of the country, and we may fairly suppose that that coal field would not have been discovered unto this day. In the absence of public patronage and private en- terprize, the same supineness that condemns so many other mineral products, to their subterranean obscurity, would have also included it. But nature there gave a hint v.liich could not be mistaken ; the coal cropped out conspicuously on the surface, and could not be neglected. May we not reasona.- 622 FARMERS' REGISTER— MINERALS OF VIRGINIA. bly conclude then, that other coal fields, now hid- den, but lying contiguous to the navigdl)lc waters of Virginia, exist? Certainly, as far as my obser- vations have gone, there are many encouraging in- dications of such deposits. And what is here said of coal, may be said of salt and other valuable mi- neral substances on both sides of the mountains. How are any of them to be tbund out, if they are not looked for, and by persons trained and ac- customed to investigations of that kind ? The cultivation of the science of geology has produced this immutable truth, that all the mineral and metallic substances in the earth, are not acci- dentally and irregularly distributed where they are found, but that they have been Ijrought into their places by laws as unchangeable as any other natu- ral laws. Hence, the practical geologist, familiar with the structure of the crust of the earth, is able to say, from the inspection of any one of its nume- rous beds, what its relation is to any of the other beds: whether, for instance, it is above, or whe- ther it is below the coal, and this with as much ac- curacy as he can tell, whether any particular letter of the alphabetical column is, when in its proper place, above any other given letter, or below it. Without this knowledge, he might dig for coal, for salt, or any other substance, through rocks lying far beneath the proper ])lace belonging to those minerals in the crust of the earth. And this has often been done, to the great loss and disapjwint- ment of the undertakers. It is thus that geology enables us to apply our acquaintance with the laws of nature, to purposes intended to be conducive to the prosperity of the human race. Since then, unquestioned indications exist in va- rious partsof V^irginia, of coal, of iron, of gold and silver, of copper, of salt, of lead, and of other mi- neral and metallic substances, can any satisfactory reason be given, why the state should not engage in the execution of a project of such incalculable importance to her prosperity, as a detailed geolo- gical investigation of her whole territory, and the subsequent construction of a geological map, upon which, of a commensurate scale, the exact locali- ties of all her metals and fossil manures, should be accurately laid down, with their geographical ele- vation, their direction and bearing, their extent and qualities.' Will it be disputed, that a ma]) of this character, accompanied with a lucid detailed report, constructed by competent {>ersons from personal investigation, would be invaluable, and do honor to the period when its construction was authorized .'' Never can such a project be su0icient- ly appreciated until it is executed; then only would men unite in expressing their astonish- ment that it had been neglected so long. Is it not manifest, that in the natural progress of things, such a project should pi-ecede, and not folloAv, a general system of internal improvements; it be- ing of the last importance, that the direction given to the routes of canals and roads of every descrip- tion, should be much influenced by the local posi- tion of mineral and metallic beds, and that they should not be influenced altogether, as they still continue to be, by the physical geography of par- ticular lines of direction .' But I am conscious, it is unnecessary for me fur- ther to urge these considerations upon your en- lightened mind. I have been insensibly drawn into an unwonted length on an important subject, and have but very little room to advert to a most interesting locality of the metallic resources of V irginia, now known as the gold region, 1 im- iignie a great misconception exists in the public mind in relation to this subject, and I am happy that the information it is in my power briefly to communicate, is founded upon repeated i)ersonaI investigation. I had conceived, some years ago, (he plan of executing a sketch of a genera! g^- logical map of the United States; but, after great devotion to the pursuit, by preparatory studies in Europe and this country, and a great expenditure of lime and money, I have given it up, satisfied that it is a task fixr beyond the powers of an unas- sisled individual. The last two years, my inves- tigations have been principally limited to V irginia, and unconnected with any individuals whatever, as [ always have been, and still am. I have, during this period, made myself familiarly acquainted with every gold vein that has been worked in the state. To this {period of my life, I shall always look back with pleasure; every facility has been extended to me by the most grateful hospitality from every quarter. If language were not inadequate to ex- press w hat I must always feel on this subject,, a delicate respect for the generous minds to whom i feel under such deep obligations, would at any rate impose silence upon me. Interesting as the study of these veins has pro- ved to me, and full of instruction, it is not upon this occasion I can enter into a scientific relation of their structure, and mineralogical characters. It must suffice me to say, that some of them present occasionally, the most surprisingly beautiful and rich specimens of ore ; where the quartz contains from ten to forty per cent, in weight of native gold, so pure, as to rise as high as twenty three to twen- ty three and a half carats. In some instances the gold is found alloyed with silver, and in others I have found not inconsiderable quantifies of a varie- ty of red sulphuret of silver. Tellurium also is not uncommon ; to these may be added sidphuret of lead, pyritous copper, and, though rarely, beau- tiful crystals of fibrous malachite. The sulphu- rets of iron are extremely abundant. In the most celebrated national collections of Europe, most of which I have visited, I have never seen ores more remarkable for richness and beauty. The rarest are from Orange, Spottsylvania and Culpeper, where considerable developements have been made, and I am sure that no mioeralogisl wJio could have an opportunity of examining those I have seen, woulil hesitate to agree in the admiration I freely bestow upon them. It is true, they are notof very frequent occurrence, but still they are met with under circumstances, which hold out great encou- ragement to pursue the veins, far beneath the su- perficial depths that have been yet attempted. The nature, too, of the alluvial deposits of gold, strengthens, in a remarkable manner, the encou- ragement given by these indications. Nothing can be more certain, than that the precious metal found in these, is derived from broken down quartz veins, and slate veins containing seams of gold, ly- ing in the vicinity of tlie deposites. I can give you a recent gratifying instance of this. The proprie- tors of a deposit in the county of Louisa, which had been for some time productive, came unex- pectedly upon a very rich bed of gravel, which yieldedthem in six days, near ten thousand dol- lars in fine gold. And this is no illusion : for I have had an opportunity of seeing the gold, and of FARMERS' REGrSTER— MINERALS OF VIRGINIA. 623 examining and comparing it with specimens of (lie vein from whence it was derived, and wliich they have also had tlie good fortune to discover contigu- ous to the deposite. The rock is a pale porous quartz, thickly studded with knobs and lamina oi gold, which correspond exactly in form with the particles found in the bed of gravel. The same cor- respondence I have often observed in other locali- ties, and especially at Greenwood in Orange coun- ty- But it is not such rich specimens of rock alone which (brm the temptation to enter upon systema-' tic mining; for, I have seen many veins in Fau- quier,. Stafford and other counties, where gold is invisibly combined with the sulphurets of iron and copper, and very extensively with pure quartz, so as to yield, when treated by proper processes, from one to six pennyweights for every bushel of ninety six pounds weight. The minimum of these rales would be considered a profitable ore. Tiiere have been various attempts to extract the gold from ore of this kind, upon a somewhat large scale, but the want of practical knowledge in metallurgy, the defectiveness of the processes applied, and the no- velty of the undertaking, conducted in most in- stances by persons unacquainted with the art of re- ducing metals, have hitherto produced a few fail- ures in the experiments attempted ; these, being greatly exaggerated and much misrej)resented, have had the effect of checking the disposition which had arisen amongst capitalists, to come for- ward in aid of this branch of industry, by estab- lishing the most promising of these mines upon re- gular systematic principles. A gold mine, projected with judgment and con- ducted with skill and economy, is but a manufac- tory of a particular kind, which gives employment to laborers, who are fed and clothed by other branches of industry. Whatever gives honest and constant employment to the laboring classes, is a blessing, enabling the laborer to support his fami- ly, whilst his employer draws a profit from his in- dustry ; but in Virginia, where labor and ibod are comparatively so cheap, and where the main strength of mining labor would soon be as advan- tageously drawn from colored men — and this I have had evidence of — as from the lower class of whites, mining would be a new and invaluable direction to turn her surplus labor into. But the great lever, capital, still is wanting; and without it, nothing can be done. The auriferous veins appear to maintain a stea- dy continuity towards the centre of the earth ; and to sink a shaft of sixty feet, and construct a tun- nel to intersect it, is a mere superficial operation, to which, for the want of capital, the operations now in progress, are necessarily limited. If the vein is to be tried at lower depths, a steam engine must be employed to keep the works dry ; and if favorable indications encourage the proprietor to construct galleries parallel to his veins, he soon finds that his unaided efforts are insufficient ; that he is doing nothing for his country, and is embar- rassing himself; that to carry his mine on upon well-approved principles, he must liavetheaid of a capital which will enlarge his business to the re- quired scale, and bring experience and practical science to the management of it. Private part- nerships are subject to so much inconvenience in similar undertakings ; it is so difficult to withdraw from them when great interests are embarked ; and death so often enhances the difficulty, by mak- ing it inqwssible for the survivor to separate his interest from that of inheriting minors, that it is seldom one or two individuals can be found willing to risk the required amount. It is by incorporated companies alone such un- dertakings can be profitably established. A hun- dred individuals will cheerfully divide a risk, that may ajjpear formidable to a few ; if the undertak- ing succeeds, a hundred are gratified; if it fails, no one is seriously injured ; whilst in both cases the public industry is encouraged. And this, in my opinion, is the true policy to be adopted by the State, viz. to encourage capital to come from a dis- tance, to develope her dormant resources. I speak guardedly when I aver, that if the capitalists of England had entertained as favorable an opinion of the gold and copper lodes of Virginia, as they deserve to inspire, that in 1824 and 1825, when from twelve to fifteen millions sterling went to South America to re-establish the mines, at least two millions of that amount might have been placed in Virginia, if her gold veins had been dis- covered. Some philosophers are feelingly alive to the danger of encouraging foreign money to come into the country ; foreign labor in the disguise of cloth, cotton, cutlery, pottery, may come, although a substitute for native labor ; but foreign money, to pay American labor, that may not come. I ven- ture, however, to predict, if ten millions of dollars are ever j)laced in Virginia, for the purpose of bringing her gold and silver, her copper and other valuable minerals and metals to light, that the prosperity will be so universally enjoyed, as to leave the alarmists in a very feeble minority. And indeed, although little more than two years have elapsed since gold has been much talked of, as a product of Virginia, she has been already be- nefitted by the exertions that have been made. I have been informed by authority I know to be undoubted, that northern capital to the amount of more than one hundred and fifty thousand dol- lars, has lieen expended in two or three counties in the mining interest; and that seventy thousand dollars in bullion, cast from gold found in Orange, Louisa, Spottsylvania and Culpeper, within the present year, have passed through one Bank in Fredericksburg, exclusively belonging to native citizens of Virginia. It is then, an incontrovei-ti- ble truth, that the employment of capital on a larger scale, may greatly benefit the state, and that by adopting a wise policy, she may become to this country, what Cornwall is to England, the seat of prodigious industry, and the source of much individual and national weallh. Let but one in- corporated company succeed, and confidence will immediately spring up. Capital will flow in — real estate will rise to its value — surplus labor will be in demand, and the Ancient Dominion will be- come what she ought now to be — a prosperous mi- ning country. Permit me now, my dear sir, to add my most cordial wishes for your uninterrupted health and comfort, with the assurances of my being, Most respectfully. Your devoted and faithful servant, G. w. fi:;atiieiistonhaugh. 624 FARMERS' REGISTER— IMPROVEMENT OF TOBACCO LANDS, For the Farmers' Register. THE IMPKOVEMKNT OF LANDS IN THE TO- BACCO REGION OF VIRGINIA. The importance of improving the exhausted lands of middle Virginia is now felt and acknowl- edged by all; and the inquiry has of late been fre- quently made, in our hearing, what general system should be adopted to promote this end. We have no mineral manures— a great portion of the soil has been washed away iVom our rolling lands — our flat lands are well nigh exhausted by hard cul- tivation— and the general cry is, " who can show us any good.^" We propose in ourliumble way to point out tlie causes of the present worn out aspect of ojr coun- try, and then to suggest an antidote against far- ther deterioration, and also the means of an entire resuscitation. We believe that injudicious grazing, and the want of proper enclosing, has contributed more to the impoverishment of our soil, than all other causes combined. This defect in our agricultural system has been long seen and regretted by intel- ligent farmers ; but as the system is still perse- vered in, against reason and interest, the general error is a sufficient apology for urging its aban- donment, although wc may furnish no new reasons for adopting a dillerent system. We will not at this late day point out all the inconveniences that follow in the wake of what is called the " three shift system" of Virginia. To show however that grazing injudiciously has mainly contributed to the destruction of our soil, we will detail some of the mischiefs of regularly grazing arable laud, as soon as the crop is taken from it. The productiveness of a soil depends principally on the quantity of nutritive matter contained in it, and on a proper degree of openness, so as to aflbrd a soft bed tor the penetration of the roots of vege- tables. Grazing cultivated lands lessens, in a con- stantly increasing ratio, the quantity of this nutri- tive or vegetable matter, and also makes the soil close and impervious to tlie roots of plants. The most apparent injury is the destruction by cattle of the voluntary crop of grass and weeds, that land in tolerable condition will throw up after a wheat, oat, or other grain crop is severed. Every green thing, by a large stock of cattle, is frequent- ly entirely destroyed : what escapes the mouth is trodden down by the hoof: the restlessness of hun- ger keeps the stock in perpetual motion, and the field soon becomes naked and hard, and in the most proper condition to have its juices extracted by a summer's sun. The capacity, therefore, of land under such a system, for producing, js constantly diminishing, until entire sterility is the result. The face of the country around us confirms the truth of the above remarks, for notwithstanding much land has of late years been cleared for to- bacco, and subsequently put in corn, still the ave- rage corn crop in this vicinity is supposed to be igibput a barrel and a half or two barrels to the ficre. But it is a consoling fact to the farmer that his lands may be brought back to their original fer- tility in almost as short a time as served for their destruction, provided the opposite, or non-grazing system, is adopted. The atmosphere, with us, may be considered our only source of manure. I do not v/igh to abolish the distinction of artificial manures, or to disparage their virtues ; but the planter should bear in mind tiiat the straw that feeds his stock, and the grain that supplies his horses with food, derive the most of their existence from the atmosphere ; and that the dung of animals fed upon these articles, will manure less land than the rough food itself. But to return more particularly to the support of our second position. It is a well known fact that some plants, (the house plant for instance,) derive the whole of their nourishment from the atmosphere. Others derive a fourth, a third* a half, or three fourths. The proportions of food supplied by the earth and air depending on the nature and structure of the plant. But from experiments made by agriculturists, it may be safely affirmed that one half or two thirds of the spontaneous growth of an enclosed field comes from the atmos- phere. According to this"idea, an enclosed field would have its productive capacity sufficiently in- creased to double its crop in two years, which no doubt accords with the observations of many plan- ters who adopt the enclosing system. The writer of tliese lines has been informed by several gentle- men of the county of Charlotte, that three or four years rest without grazing has reclaimed lands in their possession from a state of complete exhaus- tion, so as to j)roduce from five to seven barrels of corn to the acre. The lands referred to, however, were originally good river bottom. The olijections to the enclosing system are, 1st. that too much land lies idle, and that the planter is deprived of the yearly benefit of his capital : but it has been repeatedly ascertained and shown by late communications to the Register, that one acre properly rested and enclosed, will produce as much as two or three under the present grazing system. An acre of land, capable in its virgin state of producing five barrels of corn, if rested every other year, will never deteriorate — (I make this assertion from my own observation ;) and I have no hesitation in saying, that if cultivated and grazed alternately, the crop would be lessened at least a barrel every time it is cultivated. The ag- gregate amount then of corn produced on the rest- ed acre in five years, .would be twenty five bar- rels— on the grazed acre fifteen barrels ; and the rested acre would- be left with a capacity of still producing five barrels, while the grazed acre would be exhausted and unfit for cultivation. Another objection to. the enclosing system is, that it is incompatible with a good stock of cattle, a plenty of butter, milk, &c. But we have no he- sitation in saying, that almost every planter of our acquaintance has at least double the number of cat- tle that they ought to have, in the present unim- proved condition of their farms. The quantity of food that now on some flirms barely keeps alive twenty head of cattle, would keep ten fat. Dean Swifl remarked of his countrymen, the Irish, that their pride preferred two poor cows to one fat one, with half the quantity of milk. The remark ap- plies with a good deal of aptness to Virginia far- ni'^rs. The reason I have not recommended a clover lay as a substitute for a voluntary crop of vegetation, is the known incapacity of a great portion of our lands to produce red clover ; but as soon as proper rest increases its fertility sufficiently to produce clover, we would recommend it as a more fertili- zing growth. A considerable portion of the lands FARMERS' REGISTER— VALLEY OF THE KANAWHA. 625 of middle Virginia have grown up in what is call- ed broom straw : land in this condition we do not believe would be improved by rest. The broom straw draws most of its nourishment from tlie earth, and its substance evaporates before it falls, and its return is very meagre. All such lands should therefore be ploughed up and cultivated, and suffered to rest without grazing^^for as for as our observation extends, the broom sedge is pro- duced principally by grazing. In conclusion, I will give a short abstract of the manner in which I believe a plantation or farm should be laid off and cultivated. I do it however with great diffidence, inasmuch as my views are not so fully confirmed by experience as I would w ish ; but, as far as my observation and experi- ence has extended, the remarks in the sequel are strictly true, and I have asserted but little from in- ference or conjecture. Let us suppose the plantation to be cultivated to consist of four hundred acres of cleared land. Such a plantation, if in tolerable heart, would em- ploy ten laboiers. The planter's first object would be to enclose the four hundred acres under one fence, and then to select about eigiity acres of the most hilly land lying in a body lor a standing pas- ture, which he would separate by a good lence from the remaining tiiree hundred and twenty. He should then divide the three hundred and twen- ty acres into four equal parts, each containing eighty acres. These divisions would require no additional fencing. The average tol>acco crop is sup[)osed to be about eight thousand to the hand : with ten hands, twenty acres would therefore be the yearly crop, counting four thousand hills to the acre. The next object of the planter should there- fore be to lay off twenty acres from each of the eighty acre divisions for a four shift rotation for to- bacco. The remaining sixty acres in each of the eighty acre divisions would serve for a four shift system for corn. Ten hands cultivating ten thou- sand corn hills per hand, five feet apart, would to- gether cultivate sixty acres. My ideas would be more intelligible by referring to the following plan. produced by annually sowing down a corn shift the year that it is cultivated. One of the most important items in the system that we recommend is, that the planter should immediately go about setting the whole of his standing pasture in grass; and this must be effected by yearly lopping off a part of the eighty acres appropriated for that pur- pose, enclosing it, and sowing it down in herds, green sward, or orchard grass, until a sufficient number of acres are set in grass to su{)port his stock : tlie residue of the eighty acres might then be converted into arable land, or the whole put in grass, and a much larger stock supported ; for twenty acres of land well set in grass will support a sufficient number of cattle and horses for a plan- tation of the above description. There need be no fear that tlie tobacco lots will not be rich enough on the four field system ; if they are well clover- ed, they will rapidly improve under such culture. PI.ANTER. Charlotte County, Dec. 19/A, 1833. EGGS OF THE SILK WORM. From the New York Farmer. On opening a cocoon carefully takings off the shell of the chrysalis, the miller or perfect insect is exhibited entire. The inside of the miller appears to be composed wholly of eggs, without the least appearance of any other parts or members. It re- quires leisure and patience to ascertain the num- ber of eggs in a single insect — a little more than we possess. Assigning the undertaking, there- fore, to one of the fair sex, who sometimes to say the least, possess the above requisites, we found the number to be about three hundred. Standing Pasture — 80 acres. Tobac. lot. Tobac. lot. Tobac. lot. Tobac. lot. 20 acres. 20 acres. 20 acres. 20 acres. 9 s^ 9 S^ •-« -^ -* ~i pi ^ s Ci 05 a> Oi o o o o fa v> p so n O o o ►1 n a> n> (t> en En A FAT HOG. From the Nantucket Inquirer. A porker was raised in this town during the past season, touching which •rt'c have the following par- ticulars : weight, March 25th, 75 pounds; weight, December 16th, 470 pounds ; — increase in 267 days, 295 pounds — or 23^ ounces per day. Ave- rage of corn consumed per day, 4^^ pints. The system of fallowing for wheat, it is well known, is impracticable on a tobacco plantation ; a profitable wheat crop however might always be A DESCRIPTION OF THE VALLEY OF THE KANAWHA, BY A LOW LANDER, IN A LET- TER TO A FRIEND. From the Richmond Compiler. 3Iy Dear Sir, — You have often visited the mountain region of Virginia, and tasted of its va- rious and unrivalled mineral waters. You have mingled with the fashionable throng at the White Sulphur, — regaled your palate upon the fineveni- sion and other dainties of the forest, and bathed in the delicious fountain of the Warm Springs. You have never, I believe, however, extended your journey as far west as the Valley of Kanawha. The great state road which commences at Coving- ton, and secures you a safe passage to Lewisburg, passing the gigantic Alleghanies at a grade which is almost level, — pursues its winding, yet steady course over ranges of lofty mountains, and through wild and hitherto unbroken depths of wilderness and shade. Now and then it courses along the margin of some rock)' and stupendous precipice, often several hundred if not a thousand feet in depth, — and as the mail coach drawn by four spirited steeds, whirls you along the perilous cliff, — you feel an involuntary shuddering at the slender barrier which separates you from eternity. The 526 FARMERS' REGISTER— VALLEY OF THE KANAWHA- ].\ue I ist which hovers aloiio; the yawniii": chasm beneath, and is visible through the variegated foli- ji^c, — impresses the mind with vague and unde- fined images of danger ; and indeed it woukl be well if (he terrors which are sometimes inspired were tiiose of imagination only, — for I have been credibly informed that in more than one instance, the lives of travellers have been exposed to imminent peril. At one of those narrow defiles, the spot was pointed out where the stage with eight passengers and driver rolled down a steep declivity of fifty feet. Fortunately the nature of the ground arrested its downward course, and still more fortunately, I had almost said miraculously, although the luckless vehicle turned two or three somersets and was ac- tually shattered into fragments, neither horse nor passenger suffered material injury. Notwilhstand- ino" these disasters which occasionally await .the traveller, this important and convenient highway which unites the east and west, is a noble monu- ment of skill, enterprise and labor. In its vast utility to the country which it intersects, it may justly be compared to the introduction of steam navi""ation on our western waters. Distance and time are in a great measure overcome, or percep- tibly diminished, and a journey which was once performed w ith insupportable fatigue and delay, is now achieved in one fourth of liie time, and with comparative ease. Before reaching the Valley of the Kanawha, the traveller is feasted by the sub- lime and picturesque scenery from the cliffs of yew river, which is one of the principal tributa- ries to the Kanawha. One of these clitrs, has been Ion"- known by the name of the Hawk's xVesi — but more recently caUed Marshall's Pillar, in honor of the venerable Chief Justice who as one of the State Commissioners in 1812, stood in per- sjn upon its fearful brink and sounded its exact depth to the river margin. Every one has heard of the far-famed falls of Niagara — and yet I doubt if the beholder of that wonderful cataract ever ex- perienced more of the true sublime, than the grand and elevating prospect from Marshall's Pillar, is apt to inspire. Imagine yourself standing upon the projecting point of' a perpendicular rock, 1200 feet from the valley below. Before you, as you look to the east, the New river is seen at the dis- tance perhaps of several miles, winding or rather rushing tumbling and foaming through the tow- ering cliffs which environ it. Sweeping by the loftv promontory on which you stand, it suddenly turns its course in a south west direction, and pre- sents in the whole distance, several beautiful cas- cades, which send to the listening ear the far off, but lulling sound of their waters. The clifls them- selves, judging by the horizontal and correspond- ing strata of rock on either side, seem to have been originally united, but torn asunder by some strong convulsion of nature, in order to give free passage to the narrow but angry torrent which rolls ma- jestically at their feet. The autumnal season gives to this imposing picture a magnificent and gorge- ous drapery of which no man whose vision has been confined to the lowland scenery has the slightest conception. On one side a dark outline js defined by the shadow from the opposite cliflfs, which leaving the base of the mountain of a sombre brown, presents its summits shining with the rich and mellow tints of an October sun. In gazing from the dizzy height where the specta- tor is perched amidst sublime and solitary deserts, it requires but little effort of fancy to portray the haggard and inspired bard of Gray, standing " On a rock whose haughty brow Frowns o'er old Conway's foaming flood." No hostile Edward it is true, is marching through this wilderness with his embattled legions, to vic- tory and slaughter; on the contrary, a profound stillness prevails, which adds interest and solemnity to the scene — a stillness which is disturbed by noth- ing save the scarcely audible murmurs of the distant wave. So sublime indeed is the elevation of the cliff, that whilst nothing seems easier than to cast from its beetling verge, a pebble info the bed of the river, the most powerful arm is often foiled in the at- tempt. After feasting on the sublime repast which na- ture spreads before the eye of tlie tourist on these romantic cliffs, he is better prepared to enjoy by contrast his descent into the fi^rtile and lovely vale of the Kanawha. That beautiful streatii is formed by the junction of the Gauley and New rivers, at the base of the Gauley mountains. A short distance only below the point where their waters mingle, the ear of the traveller is saluted by the roar of the Great Falls — a fine cataract of twenty-two feet over a natural dam of rock which sj)reads irregu- larly across the Kanawha. I should judge from the sketches of the Great Niagara, by artists and picturesque tourists, that this was its copy in min- iature. Certain it is, that on approaching the ca- taract which you can easily do, over the vast masses of naked rock, which rise from the bed of the river — you feel the effect of the spectacle in all its sublimity.' I will not say as Byron said of the cascade of Velino, that it is "horribly beautiful" — or that " An Iris sits, midst its infernal surge, I i'ae liope upon a death bed." But whilst there is nothing which awakens infer- nal images in the cataract of Kaiuiwha,I saw dis- tinctly the rainbow reposing its brilliant arch upon the white foam of the waters. Whatever disappointment, however, the limner might expe- rience in his visit to this interesting spot, the epi- cure would meet with none at the spacious hotel which stands opposite the falls. To all lovers of the finny tribe, it is a perfect paradise. Here are fish, which if not unknown, are yet untalked of on the borders of oui" Atlantic streams. The deli- cious black perch, the grennel, the blue cat, the fine flavored liuffilo, and a species of sturgeon all abound in profusion, and all present their respec- tive claims to preference. If to these luxuries of the water, be added w ild fowl, and forest game, which are found in abundance, the most fastidious gourmand might desire no higher fruition than is afforded in this favored region. For many miles after leaving the falls, the Kana- wha Valley is narrow — winding — and unprepos- sessing, its gigantic and various growth is indeed interesting to the lowland traveller — and the vast masses of rock which tower in magnificent pride to the very summit of the mountains — are objects of curiosity and attention. At the same period in autumn, nature was perceptibly not so far in the " sear and yellow leaf," as in the more mountain- ous and elevated region. Her robe was fresher and greener, but yet there was not wanting that splendid variety and intermixture of colors which distinguish the western forests. The bright FARMERS' REGISTER— VALLEY OF THE KANAWHA. S'ir orange or golden yellow of (he linn, the sugar tree and hickory were beautifully contrasted with the evergreen laurel, and with the dark and nnournful hemlock. Now and then some parasitical creeper could be seen winding its brilliant red among the branches of a lofty tree of ditfcront foliage — and the gay and graceful sumach would hang out its crimson drapery to delight the beiiolder. Unlike the lowland shrub of the same name, the sumach of the west is admitted into tlie family of trees ; and so I presume it is in England, for otherwise the lines of Moore would not be intelligible. In tlie shade of yoii suimch, whose red berry dips In tlie gush of the fuuntaiii, iiow sweet to recline. Lovers unless they belonged to the race of pigmies, could hardly recline in the shade of one of our dwarfish sumachs in Eastern V'irginia. It is nearly twenty miles below the falls, before the Kanawha Valley widens into something like a plain, and opens its beautiful vista to the eye. The mountains \*hich inclose it on either side become gradually depressed into hills — and for the first time, the dense, dark volumes of smoke which as- cend irom the salt furnaces, announce the busy and bustling scene which enlivens the highway to the village of Charlestown. What a scene of anima- tion indeed, contrasted with the deep solitudes from Avhich the traveller has but just emerged. Here he is feasted with a continued succession of green meadows and cultivated fields teeming with flocks and herds, and adorned by commodious and even elegant mansions. The chimnies of the salt manu- factories pour forth at short intervals of space, their curling masses of black vapor, whilst swarms of laborers and others connected with these establish- ments, are continually passing to and fio, — pre- senting a pleasing coup (Tml of incessant activity and industry. Nature indeed seems to have been prodigal in her bounties to this interesting region. The contiguous forests having been almost strip- ped to supply fuel to the salt furnaces — that precious mineral so necessary to human comfort, must have remained forever useless but for the discovery of inexhaustible beds of coal, so convenient of access, as to make the cost of procuring it scarcely worth considering. Sometimes, by suitable platforms and inclined culverts, it is thrown from the moun- tain side immediately to the door of the manuflic- tory, and when more remote from the place of con- sumption, it is transported with equal ease in wagons or cars over rail roads constructed for the purpose. The whole product of the salt district, is estima- ted at 1,200,000 bushels annually — and this product must continue to swell with the increasing demand, and the employment of additional capital. It is a curious fact, and worthy of philosophical inquiry, that whilst the salt water is olitained by boring at a depth of from 3 to 500 feet below the bed of the Kanawha, it invariably rises to a level with the river. When the latter is swollen by rains, or the redundant waters of its tributaries, — the saline fluid enclosed in suitable gums on the shore, ascends like the mercury in its tube, — and only falls, when the river is restored to its wonted chan- nel. How this mysterious correspondence is pro- duced, is a problem which remains to be solved. Theories and speculation, I have heard on the sub- ject, but none seem to me to be precisely consonant with the principles of science. Immediately on the road and a short dist.ince from the liank of the river, the celelirateil Barn- ing Spring, attracts the curiosity of the traveller. A cavity in the earth of a few feet in diameter, l)resents at its bottom numerous small orifices from which an odorous gas, or strong bituminous vap )r is constantly exhaled. -When ignited by a lighted candle, which is easily done, the whole becomes a sheet of flame, and is only extino;uighed by the plentiful application of water. Filling the cavity with water previously to ignition, does not dimin- isii the brightness or fierceness of the blaze. In- flammable gasses undoubtedlj- abound in many portions of the valley. An anecdote illustrating the fact, was frequently related in my hearing, which I cannot forbear to repeat. A very res})ec- table gentleman somewhat eccentric anil a little profane, had been boring for salt to the depth of GOO feet, when his friends endeavored to dissuade him from the costly experiment. " Salt I will have" heexclaimed, " if I bore for it to the infer- nal regions!" Accordingly he pressed on in pur- suit of his object — with renewed perseverance and ardor— and his boring machine having penetrated one of those subterranean recesses, where nature generates her mysterious and terrific agents — a volume of flame suddenly burst through the orifice, and ascending far above the earth's surface, spread terror and amazement in the neighborhood. The less enlightened and superstitious of course, fimcied that the j)rofane gentleman's threats had been really carried into execution, and that the contents of the awful and undefinable pit had been actually dis- gorged upon mother earth. This charming country is not only rich hi beau- tiful and picturesque scenes, but abounds in objects interesting to the naturalist, and antiquarian. Be- sides its inexhaustible treasures of salt and coal, a quarry of fine marble has been recently found on the Elk river, and I doubt not that discoveries equally valuable would reward the diligent explo- rer. Specimens of slate stone, and other formations with impressions of vegetable remains are common^ and a gentleman of science and distinction, inform- ed me that coral had been found deeply imbedded in rock. Among the curiosities, may be men~ tioned, the calico and pictured rocks; the former of which represents a succession of beautiful and uniform figures, inscribed by some wonderful pro- cess of nature, and the latter which is evidently a work of art, exhibits a variety of rude sketches of birds, fishes and beasts — generally supposed to be, specimetis of aboriginal sculpture. There is, as I am informed, some miles from the bank of the Kanawha, a curious petrified tree, and the whole country is full of Indian fortifications and mounds. From one of these ancient sepul- chres an intelligent gentleman stated to the writer, that a human skeleton was taken not many years since, probably the remains of some distinguished Chief, whose exploits in battle, or the chase, had won the admiration of his trifle. Indeed there is no department of natural history which might not be enriched by valuable acquisi- tions from this and almost every other portion of Western Virginia. The developementof its bound- less mineral wealth would not only extend the borders of science, but materially subserve the useful arts and the interests of commerce. Let channels of inter-communication with the east be opened and multiplied by a liberal system of iax- rARMERS' REGISTER^RAILROAD ACCIDENTS. provement — let a geological survey be autliorlzed by the Legislature, in imitation of the wise policy of Pennsylvania and Maryland — and the patriot will not yet despair of beholding this ancient and venerable state regaining her lost rank in the con- federacy. Charlestown is a beautiful village, containing a thousand inhabitants. Its principal street extends about a mile on the bank of tlie Kanawha, and is terminated by the Elk, which flows nearly at right angles into the former stream. Indeed, there is something like enchantment in the contrast of this flourishing village, with the wildness and soli- tude of the same sjwt, less than thirty years i)ast. The panther and wolf, have been driven from their savage haunts, by the march of civilization and refinement — and where a few scattered log huts once arrested the traveller's eye, he now sees com- modious and elegant buildings, the abodes of com- fort and even of luxury. There is one drawback indeed from the pleasures of sense and taste which the sojourner is obliged to experience in the scar- city of potable water.' The hills do not supply that indispensable necessary of life; and the inha- bitants are reconciled by custom to the use of the river. The Kanawha, is indeed, lovely fo the eye, when its naturally green surface, reflects a deeper emerald from the lofty foliage on its banks; but its water is so strongly impregnated with minerals, to say nothing of other and obvious causes of dis- like, that to my palate at least, it was utterly dis- tasteful. In enjoying the pleasures and advantages of safe transportation along the great state road, which traverses this section, there is a spectacle often presented, which awakens a melancholy train of reflections. I allude to the number of emigrants, who allured by the hope, sometimes deceptive, of improving their condition, are bending their toil- some march to the far west. Imagination becomes busy in conjuring up the broken ties of early asso- ciation, of kindred and country — and we read in the sorrowful visages of some of these wretched fugitives, tales of mental and bodily suffering, which no language can express. It is true, that some of these numberless caravans, present the exterior of comfort and even of happiness, but for the most part it is evidently the last struggle of despairing poverty, to escape from the hardships of its lot. Whilst the philanthropist sluidders at such scenes of wretchedness, the politician must mourn over this unceasing drain to population as well as the causes which produce it. I trust at least, if the wave of emigration must continue to roll west- wardly, thai the time will shortlj^ come, when the forests and mountains of our own Commonwealth, will present suflicient attractions, to break its force, if it does not entirely arrest it. But my letter has been spun out to a tiresome length, and I must draw to a close. If I have interested you enough, to induce you fo prolong some of your summer excursions, I shall be amply repaid, and you will never regret having visited THE VaLLKY of the KaNAWHA. J. E. II. RAILROAD ACCIDEKTS. From the American Railroad Journal. The late unfortunate accident on the Camden and Amboy railroad has caused many remarks on the danger of railroad travelling. Although we admit that there may be danger in travelling on railroads at high velocities, we still remain of the same opinion, often expressed in this Journal, that the danger is not as great on railroads as on steamboats, at least at equal velocities. We arc desirous however, to do all in our power to pre- vent accidents in either case, and therefore, it is with great pleasure that we lay before our readers the following communication from E. L. Miller, Esq., a gentleman of much experience and reflec- tion upon the subject of railroads and steam en- gines. Danger of Travelling on Railroads. [For the American Railroad Journal.] Since the late fatal accident on the 'Camden and Amboy railroad, the danger of this mode of trav- elling has become a common topic of cianversation, and a subject of frequent remark, in our public journals, and the inquiry from all quarters appears to be, is there no way of preventing the recurrence of similar accidents .' In the few remarks I propose to make on the subject, I have not the vanity to expect that I can offer any suggestions which may produce this desi- ralde result ; the most that I hope to effect, is to call the attention of those who have the more im- mediate superintendence of these works, to some mode of obviating the danger, if, as 1 believe, this desideratum be attainable. Fortunately passengers travelling by this im- proved mode of conveyance are almost wholly ex- empt from the danger arising from the explosion of steam boilers ; not that the boiler of a locomotive is less liable to explode, than the boilers of other engines, but the small quantity of water it containSj and the distance that the passengers are removed from the boiler, render them in a great measure secure from this source of danger. The principal danger to be apprehended arises from the breaking of either the wheels or the axles, from obstructions on the road, or from passing the turnouts, and it must be very obvious that the dan- ger in all these cases must be increased in propor- tion to the velocity. I have never been an advo- cate for travelling at a very high speed upon rail- roads, and believe that all their useful purposes may be as fully attained by a speed of twelve or fourteen miles per hour, as by the more dangerous one of twenty or thirty. With regard to the wheels and axles, I have lit- tle douVil but a due attention to their construction would obviate most of the danger. Since the out- side bearing on the axles has been adopted, in order to save friction, it has been common to reduce this part of the axle to an inch and a half, or an inch and three quarters in diameter. This would doubtless be sufficient if we could always be sure of the best quality of iron, and a perfect exemption from flaws, but as we can never be sure of these, would it not be advisable to sacrifice a little power to the in- creased resistance, and make the bearings of the ax- les 2;^ or 2| inches in diameter? If this were done, and the axle, faggoted from the very best quality of iron, they would possess so much extra strength, as to render them perfectly safe under all circum- stances, provided due attention were paid to keep them oiled. With regard to the wheels, cast iron should ne- ver in any case be tised for passenger cars. The altogether wrought iron wheels is doubtless the FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGICAL. 529 most safe. Next to this is the wooden wheel, witli wrought iron rims, similar to those used on the Liverpool road, and adopted on the Camden and Amboy railroad. An interesting- experiment is now being made on the Trenton road, of'a new kind of wheel made of gun-metal, which is thought to possess so much tenacity as to render it safe from the danger of breaking, and if the abrasion is not too great, must he a very valuable improvement in wheels for railroad carriages. The danger from obstructions in the road is in a great measure obviated by the guards which have been adopted on most of the engines, and as regards the turnouts, the only security lies in passing them at a very moderate speed. Now, as it is well understood by those familiar with the subject, that the danger lies not in the simple act of the car getting off the road, but from its being forced on in this situation by (he momen- tum of the train, andthe power of the engine,- until the car is literally broken to fragments, and the lives of the passengers endangered, I would suggest to those having the management of railroads, that much of the danger to be apprehended in such ca- ses might be obviated, provided some plan could be devised of attaching the cars to the engine, and to each other, which when the resistance became increased in a certain ratio beyond that required to start or keep them in motion on the road, the car to which any accident might occur, should be self- detached from those which preceded it. This idea has been suggested to my mind from having wit- nessed two instances of cars getting off the ro.ad. In one of these, the cars were attached to the en- gine by a rope, which broke the moment it met with increased resistance by the car getting off the road, and although this car contained tiiirty passengers, no injury was sustained except the brcakingof the car. In this case I have not the least doubt that had the attachment of the cars to the engine been per- manent, the car which was off the road would have been dragged on by (he momentum, and the power of the engine, until it had beeii entirely broken to pieces, and most of the passengers killed or maimed. The other instance to which I refer occurred un- der similar circumstances, with this exception, that the attachment of the cars to the engine was more l)ermanent, and the result much more disastrous, the carriage being entirely destroyed, and several of the passengers maimed for life. To obtain this important desideratum in attach- ing the cars to each other and to the engine, I have thought that a spring might be used which should operate so as to detach itself whenever the power of traction was increased to a certain point ; the strength of the spring to be graduated in propor- tion to the working resistance, those next the en- gine being the strongest, and thus having a propor- tionate decrease of strength, to the endof the train. The importance of rendering this mode of con- ve5''ance, as safe as it is expeditious and convenient will, I havenodoubt, call forth and enlist in its ac- complishment the mechanical talent of the country , and it would afford me the highest gratification, if I could flatter myself thnt the suggestions I have here offered, should in the smallest degree contri- bute to this desirable result. New- York, Nov. 20, 1833. Vol. I.— 67 E. L. MILLER. For tlie Farmers' Register. GEOLOGICAL. [ Continued from No. 8, p. 474.] Another argument is brought forward by Mr. Cuvier, to j)rove that the species and genera of the ocean have changed. He thinks the remains of organized bodies found in various strata, differ from the animals which now inhabit the ocean. It is true there may be found in the strata organic re- mains differing from animals that now exist, but this does not prove a new race of beings : it only goes to prove that we are unacquainted with all the animals that inhabit the ocean. I am willing to admit that many animals are extinct that once ia- habited the ocean, but am unwilling at the same time to believe that a new race differing in genera and species have been formed. Many species of land animals have liecome extinct ; this is proven from the great number of large bones found in high latitudes If they are not extinct, they must have dwindled for want of subsistence. The Noachian deluge did not continue long enough to form all the organic fossil matter found in the various strata. If fossil matter owes its ori- gin to the general deluge, there would be a confus- ed mixture of all animal relics, from man down to the most insignificant animal, but this is not the case ; for when organic fossil matter imbedded in lime or gypsum is minutely examined, it is found to lie of marine productions, such as shell and fish. Why there should be such a mass of fossil marine matter, and no relics of man and other animals that inhabit the earth, has never been explained. Ma- rine productions have l)een discovered on the tops of lofty mountains. The fossil remains of the fox, the deer, the cow, the horse, and the mastodow, have been discovered at the height of sixteen thou- sand feet, on the Hymalaya mountains. Of the interior of the earth, we know nothing. M. J. A. Chaptal is of opinion that the central part, consists of the stone known by the name of granite: he in- fers that this is the case from excavations which the art of man and currents of water have made in its surface. Granite he considers to be the nucleus of the globe, on which all matters of posterior formation rest. The earth, when first formed, was in a state of chaos and probaldy contained a large portion of ve- getable, animal and mineral matter, diffused among various other principles, all of which were blended with water. Heavy substances first /bund their way towards the centre of gravity, and excluded lighter bodies. In thisoider of things, water made its way upwards, filtering tin-ough grosser materi- als and ultimately found its way to the surface, which it completely covered. Heat then acted upon the surface and volatalized it ; oxygen, nitrogen and other gasses united and formed an atmosphere. Heavy substances having taken possession of the centre, lighter bodies must occupy higher regions, so that tiie most volatile matters are to be found floating on the upper surface of the 'atmosphere, and the earth more dense as we proceed towards the centre. But here a question naturally arises, why do v,e find ponderous rock and mineral matter on the earth's surface ': Why have they not progress- ed and found their way to the centre .' The rea- son appears obvious, they were small and detached in comparison to larger masses, and of course re- tained by the intervention of other matters. If then it be admitted that gravitv brings down all bodies 630 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON RAILWAYS, &c. to a central point, it would seem probable that our globe has a metallic nucleus, wonderfully compact- ed and consolidated, having a pressure of posterior matter, three or four thousand miles in diameter. The envelopes of this great amalgam may be agate, jasper and diamond: their involution, ores, alloys, and primitive rock, and lastly, the various earths and salts, in which the vegetable and animal fossil matter is imbedded. From what has been said, all light bodies and detached portions of matter, are to be found on the surface of the earth, resting on a solid foundation and capable of being moved in va- rious directions. This was perhaps the situation of the earth soon after its formation, or about the time chaos was reduced to order ; but as soon as the earth received its rotatory impulse, many im- portant changes on its surface took place. Her motion from west to east agitated the waters, and produced a great western current, which continued until it was retarded by gravity and friction, and obstructed by marine mountains and extraneous conglomerations. The effort of this current was, to bring together large portions of loose earth, which were elevated and consolidated in an eastern direc- tion and formed the continent of Asia, 4740 miles from the Dardanelles on tiie west, to the eastern shore of Tartary, and 4380 miles from the Southern part of Malacca, to the most northern part of Nova Zembla. Asia was probably a small continent when the Allwise Creator planted tlie garden of Eden, in which he placed Adam and Eve. Since that, large masses of loose sand and earth have been thrown up- on its eastern coast, until the continent attained its full size. This current brought up at the same time, materials enough to form tlie Asiatic Lsles, New Holland, and the American continent, which is no- thing more than a continuation of Asia from Bah- ren's strait to the 56th degree of south latitude. These immense accessions of matter to the east of Asia, caused a reaction in the waters, and threw up large masses of matter in a contrary or western direction, which gave rise to the continents of Eu- rope and Africa. As soon as these continents were thrown up and consolidated, tliey divided the wa- ters, in such a manner that the great current was cut off, leaving the oceans to be influenced by the winds and tides. Many ages might have passed away before this current threw up matter enough to form the various islands and continents. Asia was, no doubt, large enough in the time of Adam to support his descendants for many centuries, and she now supports more than half the human race. — If this theory be correct, there can be no longer any doubt as to the manner in which the various continents were first inhabited — they all join or approximate; and when mankind multiplied, they spread abroad and emigrated to new countries. A western current, has been denied by some and warmly supported by others. Nothing appears more probable than that such a current once exist- ed.— If a vessel filled with water be drawn along a horizontal plain, the fluid will be thrown in an op- posite direction to the course of the vessel. Again, if a globe be dusted with fine starch and projected briskly through the atmosphere, the starch will form a cloud in an opposite direction to the course of the globe. Lastly, if a globe be moistened witli fluid paste, and turned briskly to the east, there will be a western movement of the paste and it will be elevated and collected in large masses on the eastern surface of the globe. galen. OBSERVATIONS ON RAILWAYS, WITH HINTS TO RAILWAY COMPANIES. From ihe London Morning Chronicle. ISTr. Editor, — The art of forming Railways and of enduing them, as means of transport, with the utmost degree of economy, velocity, and security, is yet in its infancy. To the promotion and con- struction of these works, or to the determination of their probable success, as durable fountains of pro- fit, the thoughts and attention of engineers, of mer- chants, manufacturers, agriculturists, capitalists, indeed, of all the enterprising portion of the com- munity, are as keenly directed as were the efforts of our immediate forefathers to the establishment of Canal Navigation.* The two most important en- terprises of this nature now inactivity — the Stock- ton and Darlington, and the Liverpool and Man- chester Railways — have been highly lucrative from their outset : a fact, in the history of mercantile associations of this nature, as remarkable as it is encouraging. In a commercial sense, the objects of these two Railways are distinct ; the one being limited, almost exclusively, to the transport of coal ; the other combining the convenience of myriads of passengers, with the carriage of an infinite variety ofmerchandise. These two great, and hitherto suc- cessful, experiments may not be inaptly compared — as to tlieir novelty, their purpose, their impor- tance, and their results — to the two first specimens of artificial communication by water in this island, viz. the Sankey Navigation, and the Dukeof Bridg- water's Canal. The comparison will hold good un- der each of these heads ; and I confess that I am sanguine enough to think that the two Iron Ways will rival, in permanency of profit, tlie celebrated Water-ways referred to ; and, further, that Rail- ways and Canals may co-exist, with fair gain to their respective proprietors. But, it behooves the authors of new and similar projects to inquire dili- gently into the particular causes of the success of these first experiments ; to compare carefully the spriiigs whence these parent Railways derive their traffic, with the sources relied upon as feeders to the projected lines ; to investigate the most minute details of daily expense ; to analyse rigidly the cause of wear and tear, as well as of all interruptions and accidents ; in short, to make themselves as tho- roughly masters of the subject, and to act with as much forethought and deliberation as an individual would do in a private venture. It is not upon the engineers that reliance should be placed for mer- cantile details or points of management ; our busi- ness is simply that of workmen ; it is upon mature and well-digested plans, aided by an efficient di- rection, that the prosperity of all associations of this nature must mainly depend. Professionally uninterested in Railways, I am impelled to submit the following hints and obser- * The canahzation of Great Biitain has, in fact, been accomplished within the memory of man ; for there still lives one of the original proprietors and chief pro- moters of the Sankey Canal Navigation — the first arti- ficial waterway in this island. I mean Nicholas Ash- ton, Esq. of Woolton, near Liverpool, now at the ad- vanced age of ninety years. This canalized brook con- veys the coal from the pits about St. Helens to the Mer- sey, near Runcorn. A railway has recently been open- ed between the same points, which will, probably, con- tend as successfully against its aqueous opponent, as does the Stockton and Darlington against the rivers and canals in itsneighborhocJ. FARMERS' REGISTER— ON RAILWAYS, &c. 5S1 vations to the attention of the public, and of Rail- way Preprielors, by an ardent desire to see Rail- way conveyance rendered as secure as it is expe- ditious ; and by the conviction that this great desi- deratum is not only practicable, but that its accom- plishment is essential to the lasting profit of such undertakings. The promotion of the interests of humanity is the true aiai and end of science ; and Great Britain can furnish abundant examples to show that mankind appreciates so accurately the value of whatever contributes to its welfare, that the greatest honors and fortunes commonly crown the exertions of those who are most successful in perfecting inventions for the use of man. I feel, then, that no apology can be required for the public expression of sentiments on subjects so interesting to society, and to ourselves, as the prosperity of a great enterprise, and the preservation of our own existence. The proprietors of a Railway are as deeply con- cerned in insuring, to the utmost of their means, safety of life and limb to travellers, as in econom- ising their own expenditure. These are matters of weighty import to the Liverpool and Manches- ter and toother established companies ; but they are of still greater consequence to those recently cre- ated for uniting the metropolis, by similar means of transport, with the northern marts of commerce. The London and Birmingham, and the Grand Junction Railway Companies, cannot be too dili- gent in ascertaining the various causes of tlie casu- alties which have occurred in Railroad conveyance; they cannot be too careful to avoid, in the original plan of their jRailiuay, any defects which may have had a share in occasioning accidents or hindrances on those already executed. The two enterprises referred to will require millions of capital for their completion ; it is probable that the conveyance of passengers and goods will encounter, on these grea- ter lengths of line, multiplied difficulties and delays; and it is possible that yet undiscovered sources of personal danger may present themselves. Let it be borne in mind, too, that Railways, once laid down, cannot be altered in their dimensions like a turn- pike road ; tunnels, bridges, viaducts, &c. cannot be widened or narrowed at pleasure ; the errors of their first formation will remain nearly, or alto- gether irremediable. It will, I doubt not, be granted, by persons con- versant with the subject, that the distance, four feet eight inches, between the two lines of the Liv- erpool and Manchester Railway, has been found in practice most fatally limited, as, also, the pathway on either side of the lines. These scanty spaces render the descent of travellers from a carriage, or the unloading of a luggage wagon, not only dange- rous, but nearly impossible, should an axle break, or other of the not unfrequent occasions for stop- page arise whilst passing embankments, or deep perpendicular cuttings. It is unnecessary for me here to particularise the many other inconvenien- ces resulting from this, I fear, incurable fault in that railway. The running of engines or carriages ofTthe rails is another frequent cause of delay to trains of mer- chandiseas, well as of danger to passengers; and inexpressibly awful would be the consequences were a train of coaches (suddenly diverted towards theother line, by some impediment on the road, or some derangement of the machinery) to encounter an engine proceeding in the opposite direction. Such a crash might indeed be disastrous I And who will be bold enough to affirm that so melan- choly an event may not reasonably be expected, .sooner or later, to occur ? I am not disposed, sir, to imagine improbable, or barely possible catastrophes; nor do I desire to kindle, in the breasts of persons unaccustomed to travelling by railways, an apprehension tliat this mode of conveyance is attended with greater dan- ger than the more usual ones. Such is not my opinion. On the contrary I believe that the re- cords of travelling, either by land or by water, cannot supply data so satisfactory, on the score of safety to travellers, as those deducible from a com- parison of the number of persons conveyed along the Liverpool and Manchester Railway with the number of accidents which have happened to them. But I do think that precautions might be, and ought to be adopted, to check the recurrence of many accidents, particularly those, most to be dreaded, arising from engines running off the rails. I am aware that this has been very partially effect- ed (at the San key Viaduct, and atone or two oth- er spots considered as particularly dangerous) on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, by a very simple and not costly contrivance, first applied along a high embankment on the Bolton and Leigh Railway. I allude to the introduction of a beam of wood, or continuous iron bar, placed parallel with and near to one of the rails on each line, of such height as to present a sufficient obstacle to the passage of wheels over it. In laying down a new Railway, it would be well for Companies to consider, whether some such safeguard, extended throughout the line, should not form partof their original plan ; whether twelve feet should not be allowed between the middle rails of a double Railway ; and six feet for the width of pathway on either side. An additional defence against the possibility of collision between ap- proaching trains might also be advantageously pro- vided by fixing a strong railing of moderate height along the middle of the roadway, and throughout tlie whole extent of the line. This railing would serve as a complete barrier to passengers crossing the road, to the imminent danger of their lives ; and it might be so constructed as to form a support for a series of low lamps, which would, in every respect, be inore suitable to Railways than elevated ones ! I cannot but think that had the width, above prescribed, existed between the two lines of the Li- verpool and Manchester Railway, even without the safeguards mentioned, we should not have had to deplore the loss of Mr. Huskisson, and that the fatal calamity of the Istof February last would not have been so extensive. Neither these nor other similar catastrophes could have occurred, or can occur, were a breast-high railing established be- tween the lines. The half-yearly Reports of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company are documents of inestimable value to all concerned in that or similar undertakings. The candid and just observations of the Directors of that Railway, in their last Re- port, leave noroom to doul)t that they are impressed with a due sense of the numerous defects of the en- gines now employed by them, and that they are not only on the alert to discover, but also well disjwsed to adopt, such improvementas may tend to dimin- ish the cost of working, or to increase the perfor- mance of these macliines. I fully concur in their 632 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON RAILWAYS, &c. remark, that "the locomotive engine is, heyoiul comparison, the most elifijible, indeed the only effi- cient moving power for Railways ;" nor can I re- fuse to accord to those Directors a lull measure of praise for their sagacity in selecting this instru- ment as their motive force, in preference to horses or stationary engines, as well as for their fostering care of its infantine weakness. I am aware tliat an Edinburgh Reviewer, and other self-sufficient (perhaps, self-interested !) critics, have thought that, by ordering engines from every aspirant to lo- comotive glory, the Directors would have achiev- ed still brighter conquests. 1 am not the panegy- rist of the Liverpool Directors but this opinion is groundless ; and I do think that the learned Re- viewer v/ould act more creditably and usefully by confining himself to his compilations and cheap- knowledge books, than by giving public and ano- nymous vent to petty tales and slanders on the con- duct and performances of men, whose practical sci- ence and labors have accomplished more in two years, for the benefit of their country, than all the scribblers and all the Reviewers will accomplish in two centuries. The Locomotive Engine is a combination of the ideas and contrivances of many heads. That it should, with all its imperfections, have been brought to its present state of usefulness in so short a time, is highlj' creditable to the ingenuity and exertions of the Messrs. Stephenson, and of the other contributors to its actual mechanical form and powers. I know, ho^vever, that various very admirable schemes for increasing the power and durability of the boiler, as well as for improving the general arrangement and application of the en- gines, are contemj)latcd by different contractors. But it is vain toexpect that inventions, which may be termed rather skilful dispositions of parts than new discoveries, should see the light, when it is considered how heavy is the expense incurred by the engine builder in experimenting on so costly an apparatus, how uncertain is his success, and how immediate would be the adoption of his improve- ments by his rivals in trade. Nor can any rea- sonable man urge the Directors of a Railway to speculate in inventions; but they n)ay hasten their development, and ajjpropriate them to their ser- vice ; they may, through timely encouragement, anticipate, by many years, the fruits of mechani- cal skill, and brighten the prospects of their own and similar enterprises. The Directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway will, I trust, pardon me for suggesting to their consideration a measure which might possi- bly accelerate the march of improvement, and, at the same time, diminish, in no slight degree, the amount of that weighty item in their disburse- ments, "Locomotive Power.'' I advise them to repeat the trial of wh'at they themselves have cor- rectly styled a "happy expedient ;" I mean that they should renew the offer of a reward for that en- gine Avhich shall unite, in the most eminent degree, the now well-ascertained requisites to its perfection. Let the prize contended for be worthy the accep- tance of engine-makers; let it be such as, to induce them to risk a failure in the strife ; and sucli as, in the event of success, Avill constitute, an ample re- muneration for their skill and labor. I feel confi- dent that the olTcr of one thousand guineas re- ward to the victorious candidate in such a contest, would be attended with results not less beneficial to Railways at the present era, than were those which came out of the first fi^mous mechanical combat. It appears that the working and repairs of the lo- comotive engines, on the Liverpool and Manches- ter Railway, cost, annually, about £24,000, or, in other words, the startling sum of £800 per mile, per anninn, on the length of their line. Two-thirds of this amount are comprised under the sole head of repairs ; to which outgoings should be added the interest upon, and depreciation of, a large stock of tools and materials, composing the workshops and hospitals ; the latter of which are commonly filled to overflowing with sick or disabled Locomotives. Surely, then, one thousand, or even two thousand guineas, might be well applieil in the endeavor to diminish so large a draught from the profits of the Company, for wear and tear is an absolute and irre- coverable loss. I will now proceed to trace the outline of the bi-oad principles on which such a trial of skill should be conducted ; a ti'ial which vvould bring competi- tors to the goal, the productions of whose efforts would far more than compensate the Company for the value of the stake. I assume, as postulates, that the average weight of the best engines now on the Railway is sufficient- ly great, and that two eleven-inch cylinders, work- ing under a pressure of steam of fifty pounds per square inch, are found to possess sufficient power. I then suggest, as bases, the following conditions : 1. That the maximum weight of the competing engines shall not exceed that of the best engine in the Company's employ. 2. That the maximum pressure of the steam shall be fixed, and shall be alike in all the engines; and that the calculated power shall be equal to that of two eleven-inch cylinders, withaneighteen inch stroke, working under a pressure of steam of 50 lbs. per square inch.* 3. That all the competing engines shall com- mence working on a given day : their duty to be tliat of making complete trips, during a given peri- od, betw een Liverpool and Manchester reciprocal- ly, with trains of merchandise of a determinate and ascertained weight. 4. That in the event oi equality of performance between any of the competing engines or between them and any of those in the Company's employ, their relative powers and properties shall be decided by subjecting them to a proof of their aAsoZuie pow- ers and proi)erties ; and that this shall be the conclu- sive trial. 5. That one thousand guineas shall be awarded to the constructor of that engine which shall have proved itself superior both to all its competitors, and to any engine in the Company's use : that the Company shall purchase such engine for the sum of one thousand guineas, and order from its maker the next five engines which they may require. 6. That five hundred guineas shall be awarded to the maker of the second best engine, provided it *That the greatest latitude of construction may be given to engine-makers, the dimensions of the cylinders should not be prescribed, merely the calculated power resulting from the bulk of steam consumed by the num- ber of strokes of the pistons per minute. This is re- quisite in order to insure a fair trial, as all the engines, whatever may be their construction, should be on pre- cisely equal terms as to their nominal power ; otherwise a proof of their absolute power would not be conclusive in regard to their relative merits. FARMERS' REGISTER— ON RAILWAYS, &c. 538 be adjudged to possess advantages over the Compa- ny's engines ; and that the Company shall purchase such engine at a fair valuation. Every facility should be given to the candidates, previous to the trial, to prove their engines on the line, either with or without loads, subject to the convenience and rules of the Company. Twelve months should elapse between the publication of the challenge and conditions, and the day on which the competitors shall enter the lists. I have recommended the Liverpool and Man- chester Company the more especially to institute this trial, as their railway is in full operation, and consequently they would the sooner reap the ad- vantages of those results, which cannot but prove important to them. But the scheme applies with equal ibrce to all Railways, and, were a combat of this nature to take place on the opening of a new line, and periodically on different lines, the whole engineering talent of the country would feel its stimulus, and be pressed into the service of Rail- ways. In furtherance of this design — viz. that of exci- ting the mechanical world to the improvement of Locomotive Engines, and of Railway conveyance generally — too great publicity cannot be given to all facts tending to illustrate the excellencies and defects of the existing system. A register should be kept and periodically published of the duty done by the engines. In one table might be presented a list of the engines in the em[)loy of a company ; the makers' names ; the date of their use ; the con- struction of the boiler; specifying whether with or without tubes ; the diameter of the cylinders, and length of stroke ; whether placed horizontally, vertically, or inclined ; whether working on a cranked axle or otherwise ; whether actuating two, or all four wheels, and their size, &c. ; the pressure of the steam, the kind and weight of fuel burnt ; the nature and amount of worlc done; the injuries sustained, and from what causes; the number of hours actually worked in a week, &c. &c. Such are the data which ought to be collected and ana- lysed by the judicious engineer before he decides on his plans and executes an engine ; but these facts are obtained with difficulty. It is, indeed, imprac- ticable for any other than the mechanic residing contiguous to a Railway, to acquire that precise in- formation on the respective merits of the various forms of locomotive engines in actual use, which can alone instruct him how to remedy the defects, and by what means to diminish the wear and tear of these costly machines. A concise summary of the principal properties of a variety of engines, accom])anied by a notice of their performance; of the casualties to which they have been subjected ; of the parts which have need- ed repair or been renewed ; arranged in a tabular form, and published monthly, would give to the en- gineer, at one glance, more exact and valuable knowledge than could be acquu'ed by him were he to pass his whole time on a Railway. It would stimulate the engine-men to be cleanly and dili- gent, as their reputation would be thus identified with that of their engines. They would become more observant of incipient imperfections, such as leakages, the loosening of bolts, the want of oil to the wearing parts, the waste of water in the boilers, the stoppage of the pumps, &c. &c. and they wouhl be more sedulous in preventing gross repairs, by timely precautions, Avere their too-often culpable negligence made notorious. Of the efficacy of publicity in promoting a rapid advance towards perfection in thc-ai!?e of Steam Power, wc have a case in point, from the effects produced by the printed monthly reports of the duty done by the pumping-engines in Cornwall. An in- spection of the summary table for a series of years, given in Mr. John Taylor's "Records of Mining," will convince the most sceptical of the advantages which have accrued to the miner from this system. He will there learn thata bushel of coals, which, a few years since, raised only seventeen millions of pounds weight of water one foot in height, is now made to raise eighty millions of pounds to the same height. This immense increase in the effective performance of the pumping-engine is chiefly at- tributed to the publicity given to the construction of various engines, and to the modes of applying their power. The same instrument, the Press, is now working a similar miracle, in the mining dis- tricts of North Wales; and it may be rendered equally as effectual an agent in accelerating the perfection of Locomotive Engines and of Railway conveyance. Facts of a still more interesting nature to the public might also be periodically communicated, not only without detriment to the proprietors of Railways, but to their manifest advantage. I re- fer to the accidents occurring, from time to time, to those employed or travelling on these roads. In the want of an authentic record of such casualties, (excepting in the event of loss of life,) any ill-in- formed gossip, or penny-a-line man, becomes the bearer of his version of "a dreadful accident on the Railway" to a newspaper editor, which goes the round of the journals, and "frights the isle from its propriety." Be such tale true or false, correct or exaggerated, the reputation of the Railway equal- ly sutlers. An antidote should be instantly applied, and this antidote would be found in a simple un- varnished statement of the case emanating from the Directors, and published by their authority. I could quote numerous instances illustrative of the truth of these remarks, and am acquainted with many persons whose natural timidity has been so excited by such garbled reports of accidents, as to deter them from venturing on a Railway. But were a full ;\nil explicit statement published of ev- ery occurrence of this nature worthy of note, ac- companied by a proper explanation of its origin, the public would not he unduly alarmed, precau- tions would be enforced, and means would frequent- ly be devised for removing some of those imper- fections which still disfigure Railway conveyance ; imperfections arising often from original bad con- struction, often from mismanagement, and which are the causes (though happily rare) ol disasters to passengers. In the persuasion that you, sir, are ever ready to lend your columns for the advancement of know- ledge and the arts, I do not hesitate to request your insertion of tliese hints and observations, should you deem them suited to their object, and likely to promote ihe perfection of a system of tra\elling, of which the town of Birmingham is about to be- come a centre. I am, sir, Your obedient servant, A CI\*It< ENGIKEER. 534 FARMERS' REGISTER— MARL BEDS IN NEW KENT, &c. MARL BEDS IN NEW KENT nEMARKS AND QUERIES ON FARM aiANAGEMENT. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. New Kent, Becejnber lith, 1833. A few days ago, the " Farmers' Reo;ister," Yol. lst,No. 7th, fell into my hands, being the first No. I had ever seen : altliough the publication itself is highly spoken of, by the best practical farmers in this and the adjoining counties, yet, the Register is not so widely ditfiised as (I believe,) it ought to be. It should be in every man's house, there to be read and studied, and such improvements as are therein recommended, should be put in immediate prac- tice. I ver}^ much regret, that when you were in James City county, at oNIr. Archer Hank ins', you did not come into New Kent, Jiefbre you returned liome. New Kent abounds in wliat is generally termed marl, and your very presence on that score alone, would have roused numbers ot us from that supine, lethargic state, into which we have un- happily fallen in regard to the imj)rovement of our farms. Man is an imitative animal ; and because father, and grandfather, never raised manure o( any sort — never used any ether plough except a trowel-hoe passing through a pole like a cart tongue — the son, nor the son's son will not do oth- erwise. It is recorded, that a certain race of men, formerly, made their beasts of burden draw by their tails; and it required the force of the bayo- net to make tliem alter their mode of gearing, &c. so strong is education. The different marl beds that I have examined are mostly exceedingly rich. The one owned i)y Mr. A. VV. Hockaday, is imbedded in a red sand, with some red clay between that and the marl. The shells are all entire, and of one kind on]y,1he clam shell : the very same species of animal that may be now taken in abundance at York Town. The bed owned by Mr. A. Mitchell is, in my opinion, by far the richer of the two, and is com- posed of shells, chiefly of cockle shells, with here and there an oyster shell. In this bank, about four feet irom the surface, I discovered a rib-bone, pe- trilied, that must have belonged to some enormous animal; the kind, can now no where be seen. It must have belonged to the Ma)iimoth, if the In- dians are right in their notions of the existence of such an animal formerly. This rib was six feet long, nearly three inches broad, and two thick, and this appeared to be but a part of what it was ori- ginally. Mr. Mitchell's marl is surrounded, (except at the bottom,) by a red, dark, soapy clay : in the centre of the marl may be seen a stratum of marl so calcined, or so pulverized, as to resem- ble cheese in the cutting ; and at what I term the bottom of the marl, is a stratum greatly re- sembling ready made mortar for plastering, except that it is not so wet. Under this is a stratum of marl petrified, from one to four inches in thickness, rough and uneven. This last we throw aside as useless ; althougii if burnt, I believe it would make good rock lime. The best marl I have ever seen, is owned by Mr. Archer Williams of this county; and I speak advisedly, when I say, that he owns a sufficient quantity to cover every foot of level cleared land in New Kent, one half inch in depth. If analyzed, I believe there would be found ninety parts of pure lime to the one hundred, with, perhaps, some magnesia. To the credit of Mr. W., I speak it, that he freely gives to all per- sons what they may choose to haul away. One insuperable barrier, there is, however, to imjirovement in Yirginia : one that I fear, will re- main till " tongues shall cease, and knowledge shall vanish away" — to be plain, I mean slavery. It has tainted our morals, manners and language — corrupted us in a thousand ways, and yet we cling to the accursed thing-, and hold it dearer than life itself! Slaves are not intrinsically worth more than half what they were some twenty years ago. They are by far less governable, tractable and obe- dient— will do only what they choose, and when they choose. They are daily more insolent, thiev- ish and lazy, and if punished, they may abscond, and be protected in Philadelphia or New York — or possibly remain to do worse. I verily believe, not one farmer in ten, clears one per cent, on the cost and charges of his slaves. The owners barely can breathe, and not unfrequently are compelled to sell one or more every year to square their accounts. But like the Jew of Bris- tol, who lost seven teeth by order of the King of England, and was to lose one per day 'till he paid, or advanced the needy King 10,000 marks, these same men had much rather sell their teeth, than their slaves. Unhappy, inglorious state of things. I pray you, sir, I'ecommend in strong terms, that an agricultural society be formed in every county of the State. New Y'ork is seventy-five years ahead of us in agriculture. The Flemings one hundred and fifty years. The British one hun- dred. New York has an agricultural society in every county, and the great benefits arising there- from, are seen and felt to an astonishing degree. Our lands for the most part are sandy, and any information in regard to the improvement of this kind of soil, will be of great benefit to most per- sons from the head of tide water to the Atlantic.'* Query. — If we were to sow oats, and roll them w hen ripe, and marl on them, woijd it not be a more speedy and cheaper way of improving than hauling leaves, &c. from the woods? Query. — Is there no grass that we could profita- bly sow, to take the place of hog weeds and car- rot weeds, with which our fields, that lie fallow, abound .'' Query. — How is wire grass to be destroyed.'' Query. — If every citizen were compelled by law to keep his own stock, on his own farm, and not permit them to roam at pleasure on every man's land, for a scanty subsistence, would it not be better for one and all.' Would it not be a great saving of timber for ship building, house building, &c. a great saving of labor and time, (it requires three years in every ten,) in making dead fences.' If these desultory remarks are worthy of your attention it is well — otherwise it is well. If they appear in the Register for January, perhaps some of your correspondents may furnish some informa- tion to satisfy the querist. Yours, with respect, w. x. z. TRANSPORTATION AND SALE OF MARL FROM MIDDLESEX. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Your work on calcareous manures, has already given a new direction to public inquiry, in the tide- v/ater section of Yirginia. In many i>arts of the FARMERS' REGISTER— CHEAT FROM WHEAT— PUBLIC WORKS, &c. 535 country, we see large depasites of marl, ready to be scattered oa the soil, wliere a short time ae worth one cent, and the only hope for the continuance of either, would rest upon the ex- ertions of the property-holding subscribers of Pe- tersburg, and her rivals of Norfolk and Ports- mouth. This would probably not be a vain hope, were the works made of ever-enduring granite and iron, instead of frail decaying wood. The stock might be utterly worthless, and these towns might afford to incur the ex|)ense of keeping such railroads in operation ; but with wood construc- tion, as that of Petersburg and its proposed rival, when once worn out or decayed, will any reflect- ing man say that the heavy expense would be en- countered, or that the farmers and planters of the Roanoke would come to the rescue. I am disposed to think, as much as the Roanoke peoj)le prize the facilities afforded them liy these rail- roads, that in such an emergency, they would be more apt to furnish loords of encouragement, than dnllars lor assistance. Apropos, to test these con- clusions: I would be gratified (and so will others I exj)ect,) if your intelligent and candid corres- pondent would through your columns, inform the l^ublic, how much of the Portsmouth railroad istock, is taken by inhabitants of the Roanoke .country : with a slight modification of the scripture !lext,I would say unto them "shew me thy works, ^nd by them shall thy faith be judged of," in rela- tion to the profit to be derived from investment of i-apital in tiiis stock. Indeed, I am curious to know, whether the three fifths of this stock, suliscri- hed with the hope of getting two filihs fiom the state, wer« not taken exclusively by projicrty- holders in Norfolk and Portsmouth, and along tlic proposed route, and who would have their property benefitted to the amount of their subscriptions, whe- ther the stock ever netted one cent's dividend or not. If it should turn out to be a fact, that there is no capitalist from a distance eml)arked in this enterprise, I ask whether it is not the best criterion to judge by, whether there is any expectation that the stock will yield a dividend : and if so, should the state be guilty of the fiituity of taxing itself S 160,000, to insure the destruction of a like amount invested in the Petersburg railroad, (that would in all probability yield six per cent, returns, to aid other much needed and promising works in other neglected parts of the state,) to benefit Ports- mouth and Norfolk, at the expense of Petersburg and the stockholders in her railroad, when these towns have heretofore received a large sum from the state to aid in opening their canal, which com- municates with this same river.' The Petersburg railroad was in its projection, without the anticipation of a rival, regarded as promising a profitalilc investment ; and distant capitalists, I am credibly informed, subscribed to the amount of near a fourth of the three fifths taken by individuals. This foreign capital was allured into Virginia in aid of her poverty, for the con- struction of tliis great state improvement, upon the confidence inspired by the large participation of the state in the work, as I am informed by the distinguished engineer that surveyed the route, whose zeal in behalf of his native state's prosperi- ty and character, induced him to exert himself to effect this most desirable assistance from abroad. These capitalists doubtless regarded the faith of the state as secured by its great interest in the work, against any participation in creating a rival that will operate no otiier way, than to rob this on which their money has been expended, of that sup- port, from which alone that return in profits was expected which was the sole consideration which induced tiieir subscription. If the property-hold- ers of Norfolk and Portsmouth have the spirit and enterprise to construct a rival road to draw more of the trade of this region to them, than finds its way by the circuitous water communication, none dare hinder, and none can comj)lain. But it does seem to me, that if the state allure them to do it, i)y taking two fifths of the stock, it will be regard- ed by capitalists as a breach of faitli : especially if done before the Petersburg railroad has had time to test the enterprise, and show that its stock is be- yond contingency. The effect must be, to blast every prospect of any capital, other than that held by property-holders on the route of the improve- ment ever being adventured on any stock for inter- nal improvement in \'irginia. Men are rarely found so stupid as to lay out their money in stocks which promise neither divi- dends nor any enhancement in the value of their property. Indeed we see them generally too cau- tious in venturing their money on stock, in works that must inevital)Iy enhance their property in value, if it be any ways doubtful, as to a good dividend. Tlie case must be as palpable as this of a railroad frojn Weldon to Portsmouth and Nor- folk is, to the property-holders of these cities — pre- senting a conflict for securing a large trade, the profits of which would counterbalance the loss of three filths the cost of the work. Ardently desiring the prosperity and glory of my native state, and advocating an impartial apportion- ment of government assistance, I can l)ut deprecate the encouragement of a deadly rival of the Peters- burg railroad, by any assistance from the state at this time, or in time toconie, while the inevitable re- sult must be todestroy the stock in that work, and a warning to capitalists to beware venturing their money in internal improvement stock in Virginia. I had confidently hoped to see a joint stock compa- ny, and the three fifths of the stock promptly taken by individuals, for continuing the line of railroad on from Petersburg, to meet the Washington steam boats on the Potomac near Fredericksburg. But if the state take two fifths in the Portsmouth road, by which the southern travel will certainly be divided, I despair of one dollar being subscribed by Northern capitalists, who otherwise, I am as- sured, will embark largely in the enterprise. This FARMERS' REGISTER— NEW MINERAL MANURES, &c. 537 assertion is not made on mere speculation, but from unquestionable sources of information. In conclusion upon this subject, I must remark, that I cannot conceive any one capable of taking; an expanded view of the improvement of the state, «t all cognizant of the deiiciency of capital with us, hut that he must see the importance of legislating upon the subject, with a special regard to the en- couragement of distant capitalists to participate with our citizens in making improvements, instead of blindly persevering in a course calculated to de- press existing stocks by promoting rival works. We have unfortunately legislated upon this last principle already, to an extent, which makes it difficult to obtain subscriptions to the James River and Kanhawa connexion, that but for apprehen- sions of rival works being patronized by the state as soon as this should be finished, would be regard- ed, and justly too, as tiie most jiromising stock in the Union, (the Erie Canal in New York always excepted) — a reflection will naturally spring up in the minds of capitalists, wishing to invest in corporate stocks, that if Virginia spends two fifths to create a rival work to the Petersburg railroad, in which she holds two fifths of the stocks that is thereby sunk as capital, where is the guarantee that she will not take two filths to open a rival work to the James river improvement, down the Valley of the Roanoke, which her late engineer reported quite as favorably upon as the James river. This is the real incubus that weighs down the James river enterprise ; and Mr. Jos. Cabell will not be able to shake it off, I can assure him, unless his untiring energy can arrest the baleful legislation I have been complaining of, and which I so much deprecate, in reference to the Portsmouth railroad. I trust I shall not be regarded as inimical to the prosperity of either Portsmouth or Norfolk, — far from it. I wish every portion of the state could be gratified in its wants. So did the dog in the fable want two pieces of meat as he swam the river with one in his mouth, and mistook the sha- dow of it in the wafer for another piece, snapped at it, and lost that which he had. I wish this fable could oftener occur to the minds of our legis- lators— I should not then feel so much apprehen- sion, that we sliall in despite of Pennsylvania's example to deter us, adopt her course and plunge the state millions in debt to make internal im- provements, that w ill for generations to come, be so unproductive as to compel a resort to high taxes, to pay the interest on the loans, as is now the case with that state. Her Governor, in his late mes- sage, reports that the gross tolls from the public works, that have cost the state about fifteen millions of dollars, amounted for the year ending 31st Oct. last, to .9150,000 only: a sum, I apprehend, not more than adequate to defray charges of superin- tendence and repairs. So that near a million has to be raised by direct taxes, to pay the interest on the loans. I feel well assured Mr. Editor, that your Hali- fax correspondent, now on the Assembly, is the last iman in the state who would desire to see Virginia in the condition of her sister Pennsylvania, or aid in leading her to the adoption of her system. Yet I doubt very much whether he could more effec- tually promote such a result than by voting assis- tance to the Portsmouth railroad. Dropping this interesting subject, with these hasty and cursory remarks, with a hope that thev Vol. I.— 68 will at least serve to elicit reflection and discussion from abler heads and pens than mine, I shall draw to a close of this I fear already too tedious letter, with some brief notice of the principal subject of Mr. Bruce's communication and its kindred ob- servations contained in yours upon managing the corn crop. Having a broken farm to cultivate, which in the hands of my predecessors, had been much gullied and denuded by the old system of ploughing and cultivating up hill and down, I have tried several modes to arrest the evil and restore the land. For several years past, I have pursued horizontal bedding for corn, leaving a bed unploughed for every sixty or eighty feet on the hill sides and slopes, which I am happy to find effectual. The heaviest rains and thaws, even such as fell last night on ten inches of snow, that has caused a mammoth freshet here, do not break over these guards, so as to make gullies, and of course, if that is tl'.e case, the soil is not swept off" broad cast, as frequently is the case with such rains and thaws, where thei-e is an even surface. I have never tried the horizontal trenching re- commended by Mr. Bruce, as an effectual guard against washing, except on a very limited scale. I think it much more laborious than my plan, and not as effectual. If the bottom of the trenches are of a loose friable soil, or sandy, a gully will be cut by a heav}' water fall — whereas, by accurate horizon- tal bedding and the turf bed guard, this will rarely be the case. The bed left unbroken is by no means lost, as it serves to stack the crop upon, both corn and wheat, and should be shifted every other breaking up, for corn. I approve of the trenching course for springy hill sides, or slopes, that must have more wafer to pass, than a secret ditch could at all times dis- charge— when that is not the case, secret drains are preferable — especially for all short spaces and oozy slopes, and spring heads near branches, \\ hich commonly have open ditches. It is a sub- ject worthy of criticism, that our farmers are not more negligent in any thing tending to improve, than that of secret draining to relieve their richest land from water, that renders them rather a nui- sance, than a source of profit. Experience will teach then), that the labor of making, (which will, I think, last many years,) will not be greater than twice cleaning away the briers and shrubs from the two sides, and cleaning out oj)en ditches, which fill up nearly every year; and then there is the saving of land, and loss of time in turning twice every furrow in ploughing. It had been my purpose to have offered some re- marks upon the mode of planting and cultivating the corn crop, which I would recommend ; but this letter has run out so much longer than I expected when I commenced, I must defer it until a more convenient season. In the meantime, accept my best wishes for the continued prosperity of your useful work. Respectfully, &c. jno. bickinsoiv. NEW MINERAL IMANUKES PROPOSED, AS SUB- STITUTES FOR THE CELEBRATED " CEN- DRES DE IMER," OR DUTCH ASHES. In our remarks inti-oductory lo Sinclair's account of the wonderful effects of Dutch ashes as a manure, (No, 6, p. 375,) we alluded to the memoir of Mr. Hollertj 638 FARMERS' REGISTER-NEW MINERAL MANURES, &c. •which proposes an artificial substitute for them. A translation of the memoir which appeared in the last No. of the Journal d'JlgricuUure, fyc. dts Pays Bas, has since been prepared by a friend, for the Farmers' Regis- ter, and which we now offer to our readers ;" together with two letters explanatory of certain terms'therein used. The Dutch ashes and their effects have been particu- larly described in the article referred to above, and also in previous selections for the Farmers' Registei". One of these passages will be quoted from the article on the Agriculture of the J^elherlands (No. 2, p. 104,) to shew the strength and value of this manure. "On these ' [the fields in clover,] it is usual to spread, in * March, turf ashes brought in boats from Holland. 'From eighty to one hundred tubs, of about sixty ' pounds weight each, are employed for a bunder, ' one third of which is kept to be spread after the first ' cut. Many of the Flemish farmers make great use ' of these ashes, which being highly impregnated with ' salts, enrich the land so as to render it capable of pro- * ducing excellent crops of wheat, without any other * manure, except turning under the clover it was sown ' with the preceding year." The bunder is about three acres ; so that these very great effects are produced by from twenty-six to thirty-three tubs of aslies to the acre. The practice of using these ashes in Belgium (as stated by Mr. Hollert) commenced in 1731, and as the dressings are frequently renewed, it may be infer- red that the soils generally, have in 100 years become greatly altered by the chemical ingredients of the ma- nure, and that its influence is considerable on the great agricultural product of that country. We learn from Sinclair's statement of the analysis of Dutch ashes, that they were found to contain "Silicious earth, 32 Sulphate of Ihne f gypsum,] 12 Sulphate of soda, and muriate of soda [common salt,] 6 Carbonate of lime, [calcareous earth,] 40 Oxide of iron, 3 Impurities and loss, 93 7 100' Tlie silicious earth, or pure sand, which forms 32-lOOths of the whole, should be deducted as worthless, in an estimate of value. Much the greater part of the remaining and active ingredients consist of calcareous earth and gypsum, and the balance of solulde salts and iron. There cannot be much doubt as to the accuracy of the analysis of a manure so valuable and so well known, and therefore there is not so much difficulty as might be at first supposed, in compounding an artificial manure of similar ingredients, and in the same propor- tions. The only important obstacle would be the expense. "We may suppose however, that the cheinical composition of the turf ashes of Holland, is so well known by his scientific countrymen, that Mr. Hollert has been compelled to furnish similar ingredients to his artificial compound : and this belief will serve to allay the suspicions which are naturally produced by the cir- cumstances of liis having taken out a patent right to secure to him the benefit of his discovery, and his ask- ing for a protecting duty on the ashes from Holland, as requisite to carry into effect his " patriotic" intentions and wishes. When the memoir of Mr. Hollert first attracted our observation, the subject was considered merely as a matter of curiosity, and not likely to be of any practi- cal use in Virginia. But though there is no probability of different results, it is possible that its publication may lead to investigation, "and to practical good, in the preparation and use of new matmres, resembling .more or less the ashes of Holland. All the materials are fur- nished, or substitutes can be obtained in some parts of Virginia,— and most easily in a region particularly needing the application of earthy manures. The coal mines of Virginia, offer an immense supply of a kind of coal which is of so little value for sale as to bs a nui- sance to the colliers— ;and if this is not the "houille" and " fe?Te ftoitiZie" used by Mr. Hollert, it may serve as a substitute for both. The marls recently discovered in the same region may perhaps supply all tiie balance of bulky ingredients needed for tlie compound.* It is possible also, that materials might be found in our salt marshes to furnish the proper turf ashes like those of Holland, which are so valuable that Sir John Sinclair urged their being shipped to England, for ma- nure for clover. There is no true peat in Virginia, (unless it may be found in the colder and moister mountain region,) but our fresh water marsh earth will burn like peat, and so we suppose will the earth of the salt marshes. The letters which will follow the translation are an- swers to requests for explanations of certain terms, either technical or provincial, which could not be other- wise obtained, and for which we are indebted to Corres- pondents who have already contributed to the value and reputation of the Farmers' Register. MEMOIR ON A NEW MANURE, jiddrcssed to the Members of the Committees of jjgrlcvlture, Manufactures and Commerce of the provinces of Belgium : by 31. J. Hollert of Nil St. Vincent, (Southern Brabant.) Translated fov tlie Farmers' Register, from the Journal iV Agri- culture des Pays-Bas. Having received a patent for the invention of a mineral manure, the fertilizing qualities of which are analagous to those of the peat ashes of Holland, and whose effects are of greater duration, I should think myself, gentlemen, deficient in patriotism, if in the present circumstances, I mean at the mo- ment of the separation pf Belgium and Holland,! did not submit to you my reflections on the advan- tages which would result to the state and to agricul- ture, from the use of this manure throughout the whole extent of Belgium, if it should please the government to establish a liglit impost on the im- portation of the peat ashes of Holland, f This proposition, gentlemen, premature as it may appear to you, is not therefore the less worthy * Since the preceding article was written, Dr. Morton's letter was received (and laubUshed in No. 8,) giving an account of the recently discovered coal in Prince Edward county. His desciip- tion of the "dead coal" which forms so large a proportion of the whole body, seems to agree very exactly with that of the "Ao7«!7/e" of Belgium. See page 506, No. 3. — Ed. •\ Or Dutch Jlshes, the value and effects of which are described at large, Farmers' Register, No. 6, p. 376, FARMERS' REGISTER— NEW MINERAL MANURES, &c. 539 of your consideration, and deserves a notice in the reports which you will address to the government in favor of commerce and agriculture; and it is in this hope, that I have the honor of laying it be- fore you. Before developing this proposition, I think it in- dispensable, inasmuch as the effects of this ma- nure are little known, to give you not only an idea of its iertiiizing qualities, but also a description of all the substances of which it is composed, in order that those among you,Avhoby their agricultural knowledge, are capable of appreciating the great advantages which, if its use should become gene- ral, agriculture will derive from the employment of this sulistance, acting at once as a manure and improver of the constitution of the soil, [amende- ment,] advantages which ought to merit for it the preference over the ashes of Holland, a foreign production. If I had devoted myself to the investigation of this manure principally v/ith the view of deriving private emolument from it, I should, in rendering my process public, be guilty of an indiscretion which might profit those who would take advan- tage of it without my knowledge; but the only desire which animates me, is to see agriculture })romptly reap the advantages of my discovery. Since obtaining my patent, I have not ceased in prosecuting my researches, to bestow my atten- tion on the means of perfecting this manure, and that oliject, I think, has been attained. As I announced in a letter addressed to the agri- culturists of the provinces of Liege, Namur, and Hainault,-in the Journal d' y/griculture des Pays- Bas, for April last, this manure has for its base a salt similar to tiiat which the ashes of Holland contain, or rather the same, and for recipient, sub- stances known to be valuable as permanent im- provers of soils. These substances are ; calcareous rock reduced to powder, marl and lerre-hoiiille, mixed in equal proportions, and moistened and worked up after- wards with water in which there has been dissolv- ed sea-salt, in the proportion of five per cent of the weight of the matters composing this manure. These ingredients after having been well worked up, ar&made into bricks, which, after being burnt, on exposure to the air if they have been loell mana- ged, fall into powder in the same manner as lime when slaked, and offer to the sight, touch and taste, whitish, light, and alkaline ashes. During the burning of these bricks, which must necessarily be done with pit- coal, the sea-salt is more or less decomposed, and is converted into sub-carbonate of soda, which constitutes the base of this manure. You conceive, gentlemen, that to manage this manure in the manner indicated, and to advantage, it is desirable to be in a country where coal, [houille,'] coal earth, (terre-houille,) calcareous rock, and marl, are al)undant; however, for want of marl, its place may be supplied with mud irom ponds, or the bottoms of canals, and even with light earth of a clayey nature. In places without terre- houille, and where peat abounds, this may be sub- stituted. The presence of these combustible matters, besides their iertiiizing pro()ertics, contributes powerfully to the calcining and burning of the suli- stances with which they are combined under the form of bricks, and to their conversion into ashes ; in this respect they are of a double utility. So far we see tliat this manure is composed of a salt analogous to that contained by the peat ashes of Holland, and of substances acknowledged to be good miprovers of the constitution of soils, to wit, of lime, ashes, dead-coal (terre-houille,) and of marl, which is rendered more fertilizing by the effect of fire. This however is not all; and al- though in this state even, agricultui-e might derive great advantages from 'it, another substance not less fertilizing than the foregoing constitutes a fourth part in the composition of this manure : but before speaking of this, we must say something farther of the others. The effects of the ashes of Holland, are to be at- tributed solely to the action of thesM6 carbonate of soda, which they contain. The presence of this salt is manifest in my manure and constitutes its base. If the use of chalk, of marl, and of the ashes of coal-eai'th, produces good effects as a manure, how can we refuse to admit that the union of these same substances joined with a salt analogous to that contained in the ashes of Holland, ought ne- cessarily and by stronger imjdication to unite great advantages. Such is my manure. The use of the ashes of terre-houille is scarcely known ex- cept in the countries where this substance serves as fuel to the inhabitants, who are also accustomed to mix these ashes Avith lime and with vegetable and animal matters to improve their fields and meadows, and they frequently, even use the ashes alone with success. Before the introduction of the ashes of Holland into Belgium, which occurred in 1731, the use of the ashes oi' terre-houille was more general. They employ in Hainault, Flanders and Picardy, not only these ashes for the improvement of the soil, but also the terre-houille itself and rich coal [houille grasse'] as it is taken from the mines, but after having reduced it to powder. We may be convinced of this by taking a glance at the Ency- clopedice ou Dictionnaire raisonne des Sciences, des Arts et des Metiers, at the word houille, where a long dissertation on the use and fertilizing quali- ties of these substances can leave no doubt of the correctness of what has been stated. Long before that article met my sight, I was aware that rich coal possessed this quality, and I had employed it in the composition of my manure: this I was induced to do, by the following conside- rations: I knew that coal by distillation in a close vessel afforded, as mould does, much hydrogen gas, carbo- nic acid gas, bituminous oil, and some earthy and saline principles: and as soils owe their fertility only to principles analogous to those of mould, I concluded that coal, the decomposition of which should, be favored by its minute division, by its mixture with the ashes of the bricks of which I have spoken, and by the combination of its bitu- minous oil with the alkaline salt of the ashes as well as by the concurrence of the action of air, water and heat, would contribute powerfully (these combined substances being applied to the growing agricultural productions,) to the development and growth of the plant. Now, as all the matters pro- ceeding from the decomposition of vegetable and animal substances are manures, and as these mat- ters contain a quantity of fat, oily and other 540 FARMERS' REGISTER— NEW MINERAL MANURE. inflamnable substances, I have been induced by the similarity of the properties of these matters with those of rich and bituminous coal to make it one- fourth part in the composition of my manure, and the etTects have answered my expectations. Such are the substances which enter inlT) the composition of my manure. Besides its fertilizin<; properties, this manure by its frequent application modifies the constitution of soils, disposing them by degrees to a greater fertility. This modifica- tion results from the mattei's of which this manure is composed, (with the exception of the salt which is dissolved, the bituminous oil Avhich is dissipated, and some other elementary principles which are assimilated to the plants,) becoming intimately combined with the earth of the improved soils and changing their nature by the mixture. Experience having shown that no good cultiva- tion can be based on any sort of land of a silicious, calcareous, or argillaceous nature, if it is not modified by others of opposite nature, and that the best soil is that which ofiFers the greatest variety of mixtures; it follows hence, that every agricul- turist possessing soils of the nature of those men- tioned, has an interest to improve them by this manure, composed of several substances, having the property of modifying soils at the same time, Chat it augments their products. It is thus, that sterile soils may be enriched ; and I have no doubt, that if this manure were spread in abumlance for some years, on certain uncultivated (racts of Ar- denne, we should soon see them clothed in a rich and verdant robe, and offering to the astonished eye, a spectacle as gay, as it is now monotonous. It is plain, that to improve sods and multiply their products, is at the same time to increase the number of cattle, and the quantity of natural ma- nures, to add to the jierfection of men and beasts, to augment the market value of the landj its rent, and the revenue of the state; finally to enrich ag- riculture, the most certain source oi" national pros- perity. Such are, gentlemen, the advantages which will result from the repeated and continuetl use of this manure, which is much less costly in price, than the ashes of Holland. The quantity to be applied, is the same from 1,000 to 1,500 kilogrammes per hectare [or from 9-50 to 1400 lbs. the English acre.] The agriculturist ought not, how^ever, to deceive himself with regard to the immediate effects of this manure; they can only be the consequence of its Vepeated application. It ought to suffice him, that he will be more than indemnified for his ex- penses each time he applies it by the increase of his crops, an indemnity which is augmented the. oftener he repeats the use of this manure, and by the constaiitly increasing melioration of the soil, which it modifies and fits for a greater degree of fertility. # # # * * To extend the use of this manure, I would wil- lingly grant, on favorable terms, to such persons as should desire it, the right to manufacture the article, and I dare to hope that you, gentlemen, will be disposed to exert your influence to attain this object, which, being accomplished, would save an- nually to Belgium, a million of florins employed in the purchase of about four millions of cuvelles* * The cuvelle, according to Sinclair's account of the use of Dutch Ashes in INo. 6, (p. 376) of Farmer's of ashes brought from Holland. Although all the advantages which result from the use of this ma- nure are not yet demonstrated by experience, I do not the less hope, gentlemen, that from a know- ledge of the substances of which it is composed, you will be convinced that this native production may advantageously substitute the ashes of Hol- land, and that you will represent it favorably to the government. Persuaded that the good efTects of this manure will not escape your observation, and that agricul- ture, the imperishable source of wealth for our fine country, will always be with you, gentlemen, an object of especial solicitude, I shall await with confidence the issue of your deliberations on this subject, and the consequences which should thence result for the public good. ON MANURES FKOM COAL, AND DUTCH ASHES. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. University of Virginia, 7 2Qth Nov, 1833. 5 In answer to your questions, I have the honor ta state, that houilh is a name generally given, by the inhabitants of French Flanders, Hainault,an(I in the neijjhborhood of Lie^e, to the substance called. cA«roo?! rfe terre in other parts of France, which you know answers to our pit coal. HouHIr grasse is that coal which contains most bitumen, (charbon de terre hitumineusc.) Terre de houille, or terre houille, or terres houilles, is a very black earth, probably in a state of transition between peat and pit coal : it is found of various qualities, according to the presence or absence of more or less sulphur and bitumen. It takes sometimes a considerable heat to kindle it, but lasts long in burning; it produces neither flame nor much smoke, but it emits sulphureous effluvia of such a suffocating nature as to render it unfit to be used in dwelling houses for firing . I think, sir, that this would be answering, to the full, the ques- tions put to me; but considering the quarter front which they come, I feel it somehow incumbent on me to say a few words more on this subject. The Dutch have for years made use of the ashes of a kind of peat highly bituminous, found in dif- ferent parts of Holland, as an efficacious irranure^ These ashes, under the name of ce-ndres demer-, have long formed an article of commerce between Holland and Flanders. Agriculturists from the latter country, as well as others from Brabant, Hainault, and even Picardy, have purchased these ashes for the purpose of using them as a manure,, the efficacy of which was known and acknowl- edged a good time ago. But the article being ex- pensive, several persons tried to discover peat in their neighborhood, and some were so far success- ful in their search, as to find near Amiens a kind of peat (tourbc,) the ashes of which were used as a manure like the cendres de mer, but with less effi- cacy. At last a fortunate chance brought to light a matter even more useful yet to agriculture than the fc/idres d!e mer of Holland. This matter was found in the year 1753, at the depth of twenty to forty feetatBeauvainsnearNoyon, whilst boring for coal. It was also found near Laon, on the lands of Suzy, Fauconcourt andLessieres in 1756, whilst bus ;ister, appears to be rather more than two English liels. FAREERS' REGISTER— NEW MINERAL MANURES. 541 searching for earths and sands fit for manufacturing glass-ware. Several intelligent agriculturists, from certain appearances of similarity with the peat of Holland that furnishes the ccndres de mer, supposing that these black earths might contain the same ingre- dients which renders the said cendres de mer so ef- ficacious as a manure, burnetl them and employed the ashes as a manure on their meadows. This operation had such a happy result, that it was soon followed by other experiments equally, or even more prosperous in their consequences. This induced a number of persons to form a company for the sake of obtaining the privilege of digging for this substance, and the king soon after granted them a charter to that etfect. This coal or carbonic earth (terrehouille) is al- ways sulphureous, and more or less bituminous. In analyzing it, vitriol and some alum are found, but no nitre. When left in heaps after it has been dug from the mine, this terre hoin'lle gets hot, and after some time takes fire by itself, burns whatever comes in contact with it, and emits a strong odor of sulphur. It is thrown into shallow pits where it kindles, but without any flame, and burns till the whole is reduced to ashes, which are then car- ried away and used as a manure. This ierre houille has also been used as a manure without being reduced to ashes, and has been found to answer quite as well as the ashes. In this case it is beaten into a coarse powder, and the land co- vered with it to the thickness of an inch. The em- ployment of this coal either as dust or as ashes, has proved so very advantageous, that it has become, in France, where it can be had, almost general. Various experiments have been tried on different kinds of grains, vegetables, and even fruit trees : they every where have been attended by the most surprising effects on the vegetation. But by far the most astonishing results from the use of this manure have been produced on the clover, lucern, and sainfoin, of which most artificial meadows are formed in Flanders. » Considering these effects, as astonishing as they are advantageous to farmers, some theorizers have imagined that the sulphureous acid, contained iii these unbufned carbonic earths, being developed by the rain water, forms with the bitumen, which they also contain, a new compound, which, with the soil constituting the basis, is the true manure, and does all the good :- it may be so.* G. BL.ETTERIVIANN. ON MANURES FROM COAL, AND THE TURF OF SALT MARSHES. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Columbia, (S. C.) November 21st, 1833. I have duly received your letter of the 13th inst. and give you with pleasure, the very little infor- mation I possess on the subject of the houille. In [+We should infer that benefit being obtained from pit coal as manure, or from anything that produces either sulphureous or sulphuric acid, must depend on the soil being calcareous, in which case gypsum will be formed. But if no lime is present, or not enough to take up the sulphuric acid, the effect of that acid, whether alone, or combined with either the iron or alumiue (pure clay) of the soil, will be decidedly injurious to growing plants.] — Ed. Farm. Reg. my native' place, the blacksmiths used nothing" else in their forges but a pit-coal, which was there only known generally by this name, and I believe it was obtained from Flanders. The .hnuille used there was always, as far as I have seen, in a crumbled state, and I do not rememlier to have seen a piece of it as large as my fist. It seems to me, that it was highly bituminous, as heat very soon made it cake into a hard mass, and if I recol- lect right, it yielded very little flame in the forge. These are, however, the" imperfect recollections of fifty years. On referring to the French " Ency- clopedia, or Dictionaire Raisonnedes Sciences, dcg Arts et des Metiers," I find a mention of the differ- ent names used in the "Journal d'jJgriculture," ^-c. Houille, houille-grasse, and terre houille. That termed " grasse-' seems to be thus distinguished by its being the most bituminous, and to have been long supposed to act as manure, and that in proportion to the quantity of the bitumen it contains. As regards the terre houille, the description of it is rather unsatisfactory ; but it is undoubtedly a mineral coal aFso, perhaps of more recent forma- tion. A:vcry curious fact is stated of it, which I here translate. " The result of this examination " is, that in England and in. Flanders, the ashes of " mineral coal have been used to augment the pro- " duction of meadows; that the peat-ashes, called " in Holland "sea ashes," (cendres de mer,) have " since been used for meadows, as also for lands " sowed with seeds of fodder plants ; that they " have also used the ashes of the peat of Amiens " and other countries, and that the earths and ashes " of houille, found in that district of country, at " the three places here above designated (Suzy, " Fauconcourt and Lessieres,) a]ipear to deserve " the preference, not merely on account of their "proximity, but also of their efficacy, because " they possess a higher bituminous quality, which " is the surest improver of the land. The effect of " these different ashes, proves generally, that all " saline and bituminous manures are jjreferable to " a drier earth, such as marl or crau, [I cannot " find what this last is,] the effect of which is only " to ddate the tenacious soils by dilating them- " selves in damp weather. The use of marl, " which is very expensive, has even been founcf " dangerous. The terres houilles are sulphureous " and bituminous ; by decomposing them, they " might be found to contain vitriol, and perhaps " alum ; but no nitre ; the bituminous partj is the " tiue manure." •". This terre houille, 'if it is left for a few days " in a heap, as it comes out of the mine, gets heated, " takes fire of itself, and bur7is tchat is in contact ■' with it, and spreads afar an odor of sulphur. " To reduce it to ashes, it is put into a ditch or "pit, ivhere it ferments, and takes fire without any " apparent flame. If it contained nitre, it woula "produce flame. " This terre houille may be used, either as it '•' comesoutof the nune, withouthaving been either " burnt or calcined, or after it has been burnt and " reduced to ashes, &c. &c. Any one may find " out by a simple experiment, if the black earths " which are supposed to be terre-de-houille, are " truly such. Take a lump of it as large as a me- " Ion ; place it, without breaking it on live coals " on the hearth ; if it is terre houille, it will take " fire like spunk without flame, spreading a suffo- " eating odor of sulphur. If it produce a flame^ 542 FARMERS' REGISTER— FARMING, &c. IN NEW YORK. " the earth contains loo much sulphur and should " not be used except Iturnl and reduced to ashes." The account continues and rehites circumstances in proof of its merits, as a manure; but, 1 pre- sume the ahove extract is sutticient to show that it is something very analof!;ous to fossil or mineral coal, if not coal itself. I do not know the proper- ties of the Virginia coal; but if it is higidy bitu- minous, as tliat described above, it is highly pro- bable that the immense quantity which is now unsaleai)ieon account of its being too much broken, may prove an invaluable source of manure. Its effect on various qualities of land may easily be tried. It appears to me, to be well worth the trial. You must observe, that the above extract was written near a hundred years ago, and that the ex- periments that have been made since, an account of which can best be obtained from that country, may give a somewhat diiferent view of the merits of the substance in question. Fj'om the circumstance of the great and uii- doulited value of the Dutch ashes, and of the par- ticular name "sea a,skes," by which they are known in France, &c. J should form a favorable opinion of Mr. HoUert'scom.posed manure, lis having marine salt as one of the ingredients must approximate it to the Dutch ashes w hich are made of brackish peat, and it is believed that the beds of coal, some of them at least, were originally beds of peat. The houille 1 understand, contains many vegetable impressions. All these indications seem favorable for experiments in a country Avhere coal- mines abound ; but I would go farther, and pro- pose experiments lieingmade on the sea coast, and wherever the sea has foi-med salt marshes. Is it not possible, nay probal)le, that these salt marshes which are many of them, of no' value at all, are nevertheless an immense source of wealth .'' A foot or two or more in thickness, might be cut into square lumps, dried, formed into kilns and burnt, which would most probably make a manure light and rich enough to be carried hundreds of miles by water carriage, and after awhile by rail roads. The marl, shells, &c. are too heavy and bulky to be carried as far as ashes might be, and by means of both, nearly the whole country, from the sea- board to the mountains, these included, might be permanently benefitted, and our Atlantic country induced to retain its inhabitants by finding at home, either a fertile soil, or the means of rendering it so. The preventing a too great emigration from any country is, I think, an object of the utmost importance, and every proper means should be used to put, at least, limits to it. N. HERBEMONT. PERSIAN METIIOO OF 3IANAGING SILK ^VORMS From Goodsell's Genesee Farmer. The Asiatic method of managing silk-worms is preferable to that formerly practised on the Ak- tourba, where much time and expense were wast- ed in feeding the silk-worms with gathered leaves, Avhich soon decayed, and rendered the frequent shifting of their beds necessary. The Persian or Boukharian rears his mulberry-trees, to about six feet high, which they attain in four or five years, he then begins to loj) their lops and branches, which are given to the insects, as soon as they have sufficient strength, by placing them gently on their beds. By this means th.e "shoots remain fresh and succulent, and the worms devour them even to Ihcir woody fibres, so that no part of the nutritive foliage is wasted. As these insects are every day supplied with food, the leafy branches gradually form a kind of wicker-work, through wliich the impurities pass, so that the cheerful worms preserve the requisite cleanliness without trouiile to the cultivator, and speedily obtain a vigo- rous state. In this manner they are contmually supplied with leaves, till they prepare to spin, when small dry brush wood is placed in all directions over the leafless branches: on this the worms spin their silk. Two persons, an adult, who- lops the bran- ches, and a child who collects them, arc thus ena- Idcd quickly to procure food for a great number of silk-worms. Tiie mulberry-free, in our climate produces new shoots twice in every summer. These shoots acquire, in the same year, the firm consistence of wood. In Persia and Boukharia, where the sum- mer is longer, and the vegetation more vigorous, the shoots may be even cut twice a year. The tree, by this method of cutting, always remains low, and produces a greater number of young shoots from its trunk, as well as from its branches, every suiiseque'nt year. By stripping them of their leaves, however (on the contrary), many branches wither and not only the buds are lost, and much foliage wasted ; but tiie worms receive less nourishment, as the leaves sooner decay. It has been remarked, in the silk establishment near Aktourba, that ihe worm, when compelled by necessity, eats leaves of the Acer TATARicuM, w hicli resemble those of the mulber- ry-tree. SULPHURIC ACID SPRINGS. The second number, vol. xv. of .the American Journal of Science contains an account by Prof. Eaton, of certain springs of water, impregnated with sulphuric acid, in the town of Byron, Gene- see county, N. Y. One of the springs emits a pe- rennial stream, sufficient to turn a light gristmill, and is ,so acid as to coagulate milk. The fact is the more remarkable, as but two otlier instances of the kind are known, and both of these in volca- nic regions. For the Farmers' Register. SYSTEM AND PRODUCTS OF FARMING IN CO- LUMBIA COUNTY, NEW YORK. To Hill Carter, Esq. of Shirley, Va. Sir, — As a farmer who feels a deep interest in the successful prosecution of his business, I take the liberty to address you. Through Mr. Rufiin's Register, I have become acquainted with your ex- cellent management of the Shirley farm ; and al- though I have a northern, you a southern loca- tion, and there are hundreds of miles bet\veen us, yet as we follow a common pursuit, we must both feel interested in its further advancement. Asa farmer then, I acknowledge myself deeply indebt- ed to you for your valuable communication, for I find in it, that good farming upon similar soils is very much alike, whether it is conducted in New York or in Virginia. I confess that heretofore I had not put a proper estimate upon southern farm- ing ; from the descriptions I had so frequently heard of the poverty of the soil, and the distress of its inhabitants consequent upon it, I thought the south was one barren sandy waste, with hardly a FARMERS' REGISTER— FARMING, &c. IN NEW YORK. 643 redeeming quality, except in the genius and pat- riotism of its people ; but as I became better ac- quainted with it, I am j)leased to see tliat at least there are green spots here and there upon wliicl) the eye can rest, and that there are persons upon them competent not only to, manage successfully the multiplied operations of their individual farms, but to give practical lessons of profitable huslian- dry to the population by which they are surrounded. If the high destiny of great conquerors and statesmen docs not await these men, they will have a more useful liie, and enduring monument, in the increased wealth and happiness they will impart to the respective portions of their country : and where agriculture can have the benefit of such examples, their efTects will l)e observable upon all within the sphere of their names and influence — for barren- ness will be turned into fruilfulness, and there will be health, and wealth, and happiness, where be- fore were disease, discontent and poverty. Let tliem but persevere, and the time is not far distant wlien the farming of tlie state of Virginia will bear a comparison with that of any state in the union. Witli tliis j)reliminary, I will now state distinct- ly the object of this communication; and that is, as you sir, have given me the opportunity of be- coming acquainted with your methml of farming, I feel bound to discharge the obligation, and as far as I am able, to make known to you mine. Whe- ther the soils we cultivate are similar, I cannot undertake to determine ; but presuming from your description of your farm that it is sandy, and has once been covered with pine timber, I have cnily to say that mine is level land, situated on an extensive plain, of whicli almost the only timber was tl.e pitch and yellow pine. I take it for granted there- fore, that whatever system of farming (allowing for the difference in situation,) is profitable in the one, will hardly be less so in the other; and if, by an interchange of each other's practice, new light is shed upon any one subject of husbandry, we shall both be gainers. My farm, with thousands of acres around it pre- vious to the introduction and use of clover and plaster, was not worth more than three dollars per acre, and it might all have been bought at that price : but the improvement that has taken place from tiie use of these two articles, connected with an intelligent cultivation of the soil, has so far in- creased tlie value of this land, tliat at this day, with moderate prices for its products, it will yield, free of expense, the interest of more than one hun- dred dollars per acre This improvement has been gradual, but it has been steady — and what was formerly looked upon as an unprofitable sandy plain, with here and there a poor Ihhahitunt, now teems with life, intelligence and wealth. It is the land most sought after, because it best repays the husbandman from the fertility that has been im- parted to it. Of this he has the strongest evidence in the appearance of its houses and barns, its stock, fences and roads. The ease, celerity and cheap- ness with which it can be cultivated, are addition- al arguments in its favor — and although its fertili- ty is all artificial, yet the most experienced have the utmost confidence in its powers, because their capacious barns liave often borne evidence that their industry upon it has not gone unrewarded. The change that has been wrought is the strongest proof of what industry with intelligence will ac- have reached, or even yet approached the ultima thulc of good farming, yet we rejoice in our suc- cess, and would feel happy if our practice and ex- perience could be beneficial to-olhers. I will now advert to my farm, and enter at once into its arrangement. I came into possession of it in 1815. It consisted of one hundred and twenty five acres, all in one lot : half was cleared and in rye, the remainder was covered with stinted pines. The part in rye was put down in the spring to clo- ver, sown with plaster ; and tiie first having taken well, things soon assumed a new aspect — for in two years, from this same field, which did not yield five busliels of rye to the acre, I have harvested fifteen bushels of wheat per acre. Since then, the farmiiig upon the wliole has been simple — never at most to take off over three crops from a lot be- fore it was again seeded vv-ith clover, and plaster was commonly applied to all the lots every year. Tlie effect of this treatment is not as discernible now as it was at its first application; still we have yearly evidences of its continued beneficial effect. The stinted pines on my lot were removed as the land was wanted ; and although I cultivated at first with only an outer enclosure, I soon found there were many inconveniences and losses attend- ing it, and I now have it fenced off in about ten acre lots. By adopting this plan, I find it much easier to get along with my stock ; for whilst they are benefitted by the superfluous herbage, they impart a fertility to the soil by the droppings of their manure, and save the expense of soiling — whilst I can take advantage of each lot either to pasture, plough, or keep it for hay. There is no waste ground therefore, that runs to weeds, be- cause the land adjacent is in a crop and cannot be used ; each successive lot bears its share of what constitutes the rotation of crops on the farm. This division of a farm into several lots generally obtains here, and farmers find the great benefit of it, as all the arable part of the farm comes successively into cultivation, which im})roves it, and any part may be taken either for hay or pasture at any time most convenient to liis interest. Standing pastures formerly in use are not known on our best farms. Since artificial grasses have been used, we find that one acre \m{ down carefully with grass, now yields as much herbage to beasts as ten acres did under the old system ; and that not only a much larger portion of the fai-m is thus brouglit under the use of the plough, but that it adds materially to the profits of the farmer. By this practice he is like- wise enabled to have a succession of pasture lots through the season, and tliese several lots thus pas^ tured become highly fertile by the sward which has been thus artificially created. But it is not only in the increased fertility of the soil that we are gainers. The cattle by this abundant supply of food are much more serviceable, both for labor and the profits of the dairy ; and stock thus treat- ed are in a few months abundantly fat for the butcher. It is not found profitable to feed too close, and stock is not turned in until the grass has become somewhat rank, and then enough is left to afford nutriment to the next crop of grain that may follow. Clover is the'^grass most commonly used, and if gypsum is applied to it, it grows with a ranknessand luxuriance, that if when riiie were trodden down, would cover the ground for inches. There is, however, a difference in the kinds of clo- complish; and although we do not pretend that we I ver seed, and we prefer in all cases what with us 544 FARMERS' RE(iiSTER— Farming, kc. in new york. is called the western, to the southern seed, because the first affords triple the quantity of herbage, ivhich is the great desideratum, whetlier we want it for pasture, hay, or a lay to turn under. The southern ripens sooner, but it gives too small a bulk to be as profitable as the western, and we cannot think of sowing the one, wiien we can, even if it is at a high price, obtain the other.* But it is not clover only that is used ; timothy is often sown, particularly for land that is to remain for any time in grass; and while the first is always sown in the spring, the other uniformly does best if sown in the fall. So common has the practice become to use artificial grasses, and so useful have they been found, that many farmers will sow clo- ver seed with their spring grain, even if they in- tend to take a crop from the same lot the succeed- ing year; and I have a lot now in my eye, which was in wheat with clover seed sown in the spring of 1832, that this year, 1833, bore a very good crop of corn. This however, is not advisable flxrming, but it is occasionally done by those Avhose fiirms are small. It is a conceded point by all our most intelligent formers, that the best and surest prepa- ration for a grain crop, is a clover sod that has lain for a year or two. Stable manure will add to its fertility, and enhance the product, but the sod is of much more importance to the succeeding crop, if taken singly, than the manure. There 1s an ameliorating and a fructifying quality about the sod that imparts its powers to the grain tiiat suc- ceeds it, which is not so discernible in the proper- ties of the manure ; and in dry seasons, the effects of the last are almost entirely lost. To plant our corn therefore on a clover sod, or to sow our wheat upon it, are great desiderata. Thirty years expe- rience has amply satisfied us that the ground so prepared, yields by far the most abundant returns. A rotation of crops is adopted, but not adhered to with that punctilious observance as to rule, that I sec obtains among your best farmers — inasmuch as we are more governed by our opinion of the strength of the ground to produce the desired crop, than by any regular rotation ; and while at the same time we are so careful not to exhaust the soil of its fertilitj", as often not to take more than one, sometimes two, and never more than three grain crops from a lot, before it is again put down to grass. It appears to be a law of nature that an animal or plant will not feed well on its own re- mains; so of clover, without the ground is in a measure exhausted of its remains, the seed does not, in the first, take, and in the second place, do well. As clover is so generally used upon these plains for pasture, and for imparting a fertilizing quality to the soil, we are careful when it is used for pasture not to crop it too close ; and therefore it is considered essential to the interests of the far- mer that his stock of cattle and horses should be as small as is consistent with the careful tillage of the soil and the uses of the dairy. As small a num- ber of these animals therefore, is kept, as can easily [* If the western and southern clover seed here spo- ken of, are so named merely from their origin, (and not as being different varieties,) the great difference in their products presents a striking proof of the truth and value of Dr. Bronn's theory of the "Influence of the origin of seeds, &c." Seep. 257-8, No. 5, Farmeiort and concurrence from the different sections of the state, so essential to ultimate success in our undertaking, cannot be expected. It was necessary, therefore, that llie plan devi- sed by the committee should be as wide and gene- ral as the wants of the state require, and its means are suflicieut to accomplish. The state may be considered as divided, in its present condition, by five distinct sectional interests, viz. first, what are called the northern counties; secondly, the Tar river and Neuse counties ; thirdly, the counties usually trading to the towns on the Cape Fear; fourthly, the extreme western part of the state; and,fillhly, the middle counties, lying on the Roa- noke. To obtain the support and countenance of these difl'erent sections, as well as to accomplish our de- sign of general utility, the interest of all these sec- tions must be consulted and attended to. The committee thought it rather calculated to ex- cite discord, and to cool the ardor of those whose views might not be fully met, to be at this time specific in the recommendation or rejection of any of the plans which have been referred to their con- sideration; everyone of which may perhaps be, in itself, highly worthy of public patronage ; but, from their multitude, beyond the reach of the means of tlie state to accomplish all, and, from their peculiarly local character, not well calculated for incorporation into any general system of inter- nal improvement. But to meet the wants, in part, of the people of the northern counties, and those ly- ing below Halifax, upon the Roanoke, tliey re- commend a communication from Edenton by rail road, intersecting with the Portsmouth rail road to Roanoke, or by canal with the Dismal Swamp Canal. To accommodate the people on the Tar and Neuse rivers, they recommend the cutting a ship channel, to connect the waters of Beaufort Harbor with Neuse river. They propose further a commu- nication,by rail road, river, or canal, or any two of them, or all united, from some point on the sea- board of the state, to the I'ennessee line ; and another communication of the same kind from some point on the Roanoke river, running southwardly, to the South Carolina line. These two latter works, it is believed, will fully answer the purpo- ses of the other remaining portions of the state; while the wliole combined will, it is hoped, meet the wants of the state at large, and all, and every part, readily fall in with, and form a part of, any internal communication which it may be hereafter thought necessary to form between the eastern, western, northern and southern portions of the union. They do not think it expedient at this time to indicate the points of commencement or termina- tion, on the general routes of any of these works, but recommend that a board of internal improve- ments should be raised, and an engineer or engi- neers employed, with full power and authority to plan and conduct the works according to the gene- ral outlines agreed upon. This general scheme, from its very nature and magnitude, they believe to be entirely without the range of individual en- terprize, and therefore recommend its execution exclusively by the means of the state, and under the direction of its officers. While tlie committee are of opinion that most, if not all the specific plans referred (o their consideration, are too pecu- liarly local to form a part of the general scheme above mentioned, they are far from being disposed entirely to overlook them; but as the selection of particular scheme or schemes, from among the number submitted as the most worthy subjects of legislative patronage, is an inviduous task, and FARMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT. 547 which, furthermore, they feel themselves very illy qualifiert to perform, the committee flatter them- selves that by the adoption of one or two al will al- ways be more astute in mattersaffectinghisown pe- culiar interest than any agent. But as to companies, they are subject to all the differences, divisions and distractions of opinion with a government, and in common with it must depend upon the skill and fide- lity of agents ; while, on the other hand, it is cer- tain that government engaged in extensive public works can, from its superior wealth, means of in- formation and influence, command persons of more established fame and higher attainments to manage its affairs, than any private company, however ex- tensive ; and, from its incalculalily superior cre- dit, can command resources upon better terms, and, from its illimitable wealth, is in less danethcr the plan we propose is worthy of the patronage of the legislature.' We do not say that it is the best which could possibly have been proposed ; but we do say that it is one calculated for great and gene- ral utility ; that the people will receive it as com- mensurate to their great and imperious wants; and will sustain us in its recommendation, and you in its adoption. It has been our wish, in the spirit of republican legislation, to effect the greatest ^ood to the greatest number ; and if any portion of the state is omitted in our plan, it must be some por- tion that is not, in the nature of things, within the reach of direct assistance, and can therefore only be benefitted by the general prosperity. If it can- not slake its thirst where the fluid bubbles from the fountain, it can partake largely of the refresh- ing influence of the flowing stream. We believe that its execution will bring to the door, or place within tlio reach of the reasonable industry of eve- ry citizen of the state a cheap and easy intercourse with suOicient markets ; and will refund to us the tribute which we have been paying to other states, by drawing to our markets the produce of some of our neighboring sisters. The convention believes that, to the enlightened body they are addressing. FARMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT. 549 it cannot be necessary to show the vast advantages which have ever redounded to a state from a proper system of internal improvement, or the necessity which now exists in North Carolina for its adop- tion. Her wasted fields, her deserted farms, her ruin- ed towns, her departing sons, all reproach us with supine neglect. The immense tax which North Ca- rolina now pa)'s in the way ot extra expense in trans- portation of the fruits of labor to market, and bringing back necessaries in return, are sulficieut to palsy the arm of industry and weigh down the spirit of enterprize. By way of illustration, we will mention salt alone. Of this indispensable ar- ticle, it is stated that the county of Iredell con- sumes, on an annual average, 5,000 bushels. The ordinary cost of this article, in the eastern markets, is 40 to 50 cents per bushel. It now costs, when it reaches the Iredell planter 150 cents per bushel ; making from one hundred to one hundred and ten cents per bushel for transportation. It is supposed that this, by rail road, may be reduced to 25 cents. Thus shewing that, upon the article of salt alone, an annual tax, for want of convenient transporta- tion, is levied upon one county of 3,750 dollars. Suppose, upon a moderate calculation, that there are 30 other portions of the state in a like situation ; and we shew, by a simple process of arithmetic, exclusive of what is paid by other portions not mentioned, upon the same article, there is an an- nual drawback, upon the labor of the state, of 112,500 dollars. Carry out the principle, and the mind would be overwhelmed with astonishment in the computation. It is said that the counties on the waters of Roanoke, Neusc and Tar pay, on transports, annually, by reason of their extra dif- ficulties, 335,000 dollars. Upon this point, the convention thinks it unnecessary to dwell. Admitting the necessity and propriety of the works proposed, and the expediency of tlie state government undertaking them exclusively, it next becomes proper to inquire, what sum is necessary for their accomplishment, and can the state com- mand it? Five millions of dollars, it will be seen, is the maximum sura required ; and this, it is pro- posed, should be raised by loan, in sums not ex- ceeding one million annually. These sums are fixed upon as being extremes, because the conven- tion are not willing to practice any imposition upon themselves, the legislature or the people. They must necessarily speak in round numbers, and they choose such as were rather likely to l)e over than under the amount; that the public mind, at the same time that it was called upon to contemplate tiie happy fruits of their proposed un- dertakings, might fully understand the difficulties to be encountered, and the price to be paid. That the correctness of the computation may be tested, the basis is furnished upon which it is made. 85 miles of railroad in the northern counties, at ^8,000 per mile, 8280,000 150 miles of railroad across the state, 1,200,000 365 do. do. from east to west, 2,920,000 Ship channel from Newbern to Beaufort, 600,000 85, 000 ,000 The rale of cost per mile, for the first three items, IS supposed to be excessive, and is founded upon the comparison of the rates of similar v.orks in other states, although it is believed that in this state the rate would be less than in any other : while it is further supposed that by practice, expe- rience, and tlie improvements for which the pre- sent day is so remarkable, the rate of cost of rail- roads per mile is in a regular course of diminu- tion. These items, however, must at last depend upon the surveys, reports and computations of ex- perienced engineers. The convention believes that, upon the whole, their computations will be found to be sufficiently liberal to cover the actual cost. They can only say, that it is their wish to be cor- rect, and they have taken some pains that they may be so. You will next inquire, can the money be bor- rowed, and upon what terms.' We are "informed that in the city of London alone, fifty millions are waiting the demands of a borrower, to say no- thing of the other portions of Europe, and the sur- plus capital of our own wealthy cities As to the rate of loan, the committee, in their report, have undertaken to say that it may probably be obtain- ed at four per cent, and can, in no event, exceed five, if proper measures are ado])tcd to provide for the regular payment of the interest. But can this be done ? The convention feels certain that the legislature can and would do so by a proj)er system of taxa- tion, should any accident create the exigency — a measure in which they would not only be fully sus- tained, but which would be imperiously called for by that high sense of justice which has ever cha- racterized us as a people, and forced unwilling plaudits from those by whom we are least admir- ed— a measure to sustain which, should it become necessary, each member of this convention doth hereby pledge his sacred honor. But it is hoped and believed that it will not be necessary. The schedule annexed to the report of the committee, shows, in addition to uncertain items and the swamp lands, an aggregate available fund of 1,067,000 dollars, which it is advised should be set apart as a partial security to the proposed creditors of the slate. This, by further refe- rence to the report, it will be seen, in connex- ion with some certain annual items, will yield, without infringing upon the principal, a sum more than sufficient to defray the annual interest upon the first million borrowed. That million, if judi- ciously expended, v.ould probably, b.y the time the second million sliould be borrowed, yield an in- come which, if not sufficient of itself, would, with the surplus of the annual product of the original fund, pay the amount of interest upon such second loan, and so on, ioties quoties, as the loan might be required. But even if a less happy result sliould t;\ke place, and it should be necessary to make some small encroachment upon the principal of the original fund, it would take seven years and nearly one half to exhaust the fund now on hand, in the payment of interest, by borrowing one milllion annually, for five years, although no actual income should be drawn from any part of the works; and, in that time, if the money was not most stupidly expended, would not the gradual increase of the value of property along the lines afford a capital for taxation sufficient to discharge the debt? That increase on the route of the New York canal, is said to be ^90,000,000, and on the South Carolina railroad, a sum sufficient to defray the whole cost of its construction. So that the convention may confidently predict that the sum proposed may be safely borrowed at the proposed intervals, without 650 FARMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT. the smallest fear of its being onerously lett by any cilizeil. The repayment ot tlie loaii, th^ cotiventioii con- ceives, mrty be postponed to A Very distant period, as it seems that money lenders, where they are sa- tisfied with the investments, make their terms more favorable in proportion to the length of time for which the payment is deferred. The convention would not recommend to the legislature to borrow a large sum of money to spend in idle and unprofitable experiments ; but it may not be improper to remark, tliat even if the works proposed should be entirely unproductive, the introduction of five millions of capital, to be spent within the state, could not be considered as a certain loss, and would not be altogether without advantage. And this brings to our notice another reason why the proposed loan should be preferred to drawing the money from the pockets of the ci- tizens, either in the way of present taxation or subscriptions to stock companies. There is in North Carolina a scarcity of circulating medium, and it is, we believe, a subject of complaint before your honorable body at its present session. Is it, then, the part of sound policy to make further ex- actions from those who are already oppressed, or, by availing itself of the present occasion for its useful and safe application, by the introduction of a large circulating medium into the state, entirely to relieve the evils complained of.' Nor will the effect be temporary. It is not like chartering a bank, which issues its notes, and thereby creates a present abundance, to be followed by a correspondent famine, when it shall call them in; but the amount under consideration is added to the permanent wealth of the state. It is funded in a perennial stock, which not only remunerates the holder by a regular payment of interest, but also by a vast increase of the value of the real proper- ty of the state, and furnishing the materials for productive labor. The stimulating effect which is wrought upon every species of industry, by the introduction of such great quantities of circulating medium into the country, would scarcely be less than magical. The price of labor would be wonderfully increased in the vicinity of any branch of the proposed works ; lands would rise rapidly in value ; and then ready markets would be fijund for large amounts of the more important articles of produce, as well as the smaller matters, which are the peculiar ob- jects of female care and industry. Nor would this effect be confined to the immediate vicinity. Like the successively wide and wider circles which the falling pebble causes in the agitated stream, the impulse would be communicated from neighbor- hood to neighborhaod, until its vibrations would be felt in every corner of the state. The deferred payment of the debt has been, by some, objected to, as an unjust imposition upon the succeeding generation. But who, it may be in- quired, is to partake most largely of the benefit of the outlay .'' Surely the legatee to whom a rich in- heritance is bequeathed, can have no just reason to complain that a mortgage is upon it for a tenth of its value. All that posterity can demand of us, and that it may well demand, is, that we should fairly improve the family inheritance ; and it is not unreasonable that the inheritance itself should pay the expenses of the improvements. The convention are perfectly aware how much all men are creatures of habit, and that there is a startling association with infinity when they first begin to speak of millions; but there is a happy elasticity in the mind which enables it gradually to expand to the full and easy reception of thd most extensive ideas. Let the people become ac- quainted with the vast advantages which an exten- sive system of internal improvement holds out to them, and the millions which it will take to pro- duce these advantages, will soon become familiar to their ears as household words. It is this capacity in tlie mind, together with its tendency to stretch itself to the full extent of the magnificent objects by w hich it is surrounded, upon which we found a strong argument in favor of our system. Its na- tural effect will be to set before the people the highest standards of arts, science, and moral re- finement, and they will instinctively elevate them- selves to their enviable level. The convention would respectfully suggest to the legislature that, in taking up tiiis interesting subject, they should adopt the prudent course whicli both the committee and this convention have found it necessary to pursue, and, while you adopt the general outlines of the plan, leave its details to be settled by an independent and disinterested board, to be raised by yourselves, under the light and instruction of proper engineers. The reasons for this course cannot fail to strike a body so intel- ligent as that which we address, and we will not weary your patience by pressing them upon you. Gentlemen, vve trust that your honorable body will act up to the crisis at which you have arrived ; in fearless independence and noble liberality, meet the people half way in tiie generous spirit with which they approach you ; seize the occasion which now presents itself, to associate your names with one of the brightest eras in the history of your native state; and when, in future years, your sons shall point to the strong foundations of their coun- try's wealth and glory, let them say, while their bosoms swell with filial pride, my father was one of that enlightened and independent legislature, by whom they were laid. The convention does not profess to be so far the agents of the people as to be able to act efficiently ; but they may be well supposed to imbody the wishes and opinions of a majority of the state, at least as great as forty four is to twenty. With this claim to the attention of the legislature, and pleading a cause which might well rely upon its intrinsic worth and deep impor- tance for full investigation, this convention, in be- half of the thousands of our citizens of the present day, of all sexes, ages and conditions, and the countless millions of unborn generations, and ap- pealing to all the best principles and affections of your hearts, your sterling patriotism, your filial reverence, your fraternal regard, your conjugal tenderness, and, above all, your jiarental love, with manly confidence, presents its memorial. That the God of our fatliers may so direct your delibe- rations, as that they may be crowned with the most lasting and extensive benefits to your constituents, and the most unfading honor to yourselves, this convention, as in duty bound, will ever pray. DAVID L. SWAIN, President. Read and signed by all tlie members of the con- vention who voted in the affirmative. JA. COOK, E. L. WINSLOW, Secretaries. FARMERS' REGISTER— OLD VIRGINIA GEORGICS. 551 December 24th, 1833. To tlie Editor of the Farmers' Register. The newspaper which will be sent with this let- ter was published on the first day of the last No- vember meeting of our agricultural society in Fredericksburg. It was handed to me at a friend's house where several of us were dining, and the ' Extract from Old Virginia Georgics," was deemed a picture at once so true and so amusing, that I proposed to read it at our evening meeting as a communication to our society. This proposal was carried by a unanimous vote, and executed accordingly. If it entertains you half as much as it did us, I think you will probably deem it worthy of a place in your Register, by way of variety ; which must be consulted in some degree, even in an agricultu- ral paper. j. 3i. G. From the Virginia Herald of Fredericksburg'. Mr. Editor, — As the period is at hand when the society formed to improve the agricultural opera tions of the farmers in eastern Virginia, is to con vene in your town; being one of that honorable fraternity I send you the following fragment, and hope you will lay it before that respectable body, as it will throw some light on the system of hus bandry pursued in that part of the country which is now, and for many years has been, the laudable object of Iheir labors — and as it will exhibit many of tlie most prominent diseases under which the system languishes, the hope is indulged, that suita- ble remedies may be devised and recommended by the society at its approaching session. The frag- ment is the introductory part of a poem written some time ago by a friend of mine, and I regret ex- cee(iingly that the remainder is lost, as it was conti- nued to four books, and was designed to describe the various occupations on a farm in winter, spring, summer and autumn. I consider tlie loss irrepa- rable, especially at a time when so noble a plan is on foot as that of making good farmers. PREMIUMS. Extract from a Poem entitled Old Virginia Geor- gics. "Q,uid facial Icetes segctes, Hincc canore incipiani." ARGU3IENT. Virginia husbandry and that depicted by Virgi contrasted — ploughing — horses, and manner of driving gear mules — the ox — pastures — har- rows— skimmers, &c. — crab grass — shepherds — sl^eep rogues runaways wolves — hounds — niilk — milk maids — fence rails — watlings — invo- cation— address to arators — shallow plougiiing — clover — gypsum — cowtail — Sir Humphrey Davy — year begins — clodhoppers — overseers hiring {Jay — bonds — distribution of labor — grubbing — effects of leaving stumps — old fences — hogs, &c. I sing the tillage old Virginia knows, Which cheats with hope the husbandman who sows ; PJot. such as Maro sung in deathless strains, To piping shepherds and Italian swains. With "crops immense,"* no " barn here ever crnchs ;" The wheat comes always badly from the stacks, The corn falls ever " most immensely" short Of vague conjecture or of false report ; No well fed bullocks drag the glittering plough, But hah' starved horses, and the Lord knows how ! Their shoulders chafed by hames of naked wood, Till downward streams regardlessly the blood ; Urged on incessantly by thundering whips, Of shouting negroes with their /tnio's and geep's : No well fed bullocks — no, but stubborn mules Well match'd in villainy with liim who rules, For as their sides resound, just heaven ! with sticks They oft let fly the most tremendous kicks ; Tho' Pompey punch them, and tho' Caesar curse, It serves no purpose but to make them worse. Some Frenchman* said — "would you convince a fool, As soon go kick in stable with your mule." Sententious wit! — how forcible !— how true! I daub the picture which at once he drew. No well fed bullocks — but the bare boned ox, That suff 'ring martyr to inhimian knocks ! Condemned, tho' pining with Uie holloic horn, T' exist on fodder, but to e:it no corn. Repast too scanty ! — in the furrow flat The suff'rer sinks — "the creature was toofat."i No smiling pastures spread inviting here. But dry hot fields on ev'ry side appear, A sultry scene, a dismal waste, alas ! Where man's great object is to kill the grass. This tho' attacked with never ending blows From harrows, skimmers, and from clattering hoes, Wdl rise abhorrent on the farmer's view, Like the fam'd monster which Alcides slew. Crab grass deracinate, and turn your backs, It starts like Hydra from repeated whacks. iVo shejAerds tune their reeds to idle rhyme. For none have leisure for such waste of time ; In truth, the sheep by no one here are watch'd, Save rouges, who suffer if tliey can be catch'd ; Hound — wolf — or runaway, he only deals In closely dogging at their nimble heels. Alas ! poor fl^ocks ! Arcadia's pastoral ground, Nor " T/i)/Hie," nor " Cytisus" can here be found ; '• Distended udders,"l near approach the pail, But only udders which are sure to fail. Cows bagless — poor — protuberant in joints — Yield milk in spoonfuls, or at most in pints. What MehbcEUS, or whatTyterus too. Could make rich cheese^ from milk of azure hue? Drawn by Miss Blackamore at early morn, From things sofamished that they^ve turned to horn. No "swallowsll blossom on the neighboring hedge" — We use but fence rails which are split by wedge, Or watlings dry, unsought by " Hybld's bees," Which can't suck honey from dead limbs of trees. Oh muse ! — but pshaw ! — that's stale! — a joke — What muse, I pry thee, should I here invoke? Those maids of Pindus, in this Christian land, Should not be call'd on for a helping hand ; Ah ! sooner call to aid the rustic lay. Chiefs grown conspicuous in this farming day — Who rule in clubs, and stately there preside, And mount their hobbies for a tedious ride; Who write long essays in a style confused,. Themselves more culpable than those abused. Those sage Triptolemi who wield the pen, To show "our fathers were misguided men ; Far, lar inferior to their wiser sons. Mere Goths and Vandals ! or like barb'rous Huns, Whose sway brought ruin on tlie fairest plains. These lacking mercy, ard those lacking brains. Come then Arators of the modern school, And be benignant to a rhyming fool. ♦ Immensoe ruperunt horrea messes — Virg. ♦ Montaigne I believe. t The common excuse of the Buckskin for the death of an ox, occasioned by starvation. \ Bis venit admulctram, binos alit ubere fa;tu3. § Pinguis et ingratK premeretur caseus urbi. II Vicino ab liniite sepas, Hybteis apibus florem depasta salicti. 552 FARMERS' REGISTER— SOILS, &c. IN FAIRFAX COUNTY. Himself a farmer of that set i'fegs, Who rip the j^oose to get the golden eggs ; That stupid, bUad, short-sighted band, Who skim the surface and undo the land : Who rear no clover on a thirsty soil. For why ? — it grows not to reward their toil : Who strew no gypsum, but absurdly rail, And swear 'tis nothing to the old cowtail. These are their follies — these their crying sins, Despite the pamphlet of the enthusiast Binns ; I own the charge and cry myself, peccavi : I read, but follow not. Sir Humphrey Davy. Arise clodhoppers ! now begins the year, Attend the business which now demands your care. O'erscers all ! whom Taylor dubs the " Priests*- Of sa.l destruction," mount your bob-tail beasts, Kept always fat when other nags are poor, Tho' fed on nothing from the corn house floorf 'Tis hiring day — and to each county court. Those who have negroes will this morn resort. Bid, boldly bid and stretch your eager throats, O'erbid your rivals, and then give your notes ; Fear not the consequence when months roll oe'r, You've passed your bonds — so think of them no more; When that is done, Virginians' debts are paid, 'Till courts of justice lend their tedious aid. High minded men disdain these petty rubs, They leave such settlements to legal scrubs : Skinilints alone are ever punctual found, And take their bonds in, at the time they're bound. This done — return to yourrespective homes. Prepare your corn fields ere the sjjring time comes. Renew your several troops of sooty blacks. Make xocnches grub and fellows wield the axe. Watch v/ell the former, for they often leave The stump, insidious, in the soil they cleave. And when the plough, at some more distant day. Incautious strikes — lo ! every thing gives way : Share, beam, and chains — and eke the back-bands too, And Sambo staggers as he utters whew ! Wield well the axe, and fell the growing trees. Ope wide the cornfield to the cooling breeze. Naught more contributes than the air, I ween, To keep your cornstalks in a healthy green. Go round your fences and adjust the rails. Insert new pieces where the old one fails; Stop all the hog holes, lest the treacherous snout Should find these pass-ways to your corn field out. Too many hope by aid of yelping dogs. To guard the coin field from ^Hnfernalhogs." They leave their fences in a state unsound. Then Cromes the hog and grants them to the ground ; They plant — rest from their labors — sleep — These cur&t marauders through the hog-holes creep ; Led on, perhaps, by some gigantic boar, What havoc spread they while the laborers snore. The morning breaks — what work for them that morn ! The hogs ! — the hogs! — the hogs are in the corn! !| Ah! then and there are hurrying one and all. Like Byron's picture of the Brusscll's ball.§ Men, dogs, and hogs, in one confused pell mell, And many a dismal squeal, and many a deafening yell! Some dog soon fastens on some luckless ear, Awhile hangs growling, then lets go with fear; Anon he seizes on his mangled prey, The Parthian wheels and fights, and flies away. Hold him! and hold him! makes the welkin ring. While round his head ihe rocks and brickbats sing. At length the battle ends — the routed swine Have reach'd the Rubicon, the neighb'ring line. ♦Taylor's Arator. f An assertion always made, but somewhat apocryphal. \ The hoes are in the corn field I tns em boy, tus em boy, The hoes are in the corn field ! tus em boy, ho ! Here we find the origin of the above popular song in Virginia. 1^ Ah then and there was hurrying to and fro, And gath'ring tears and tremblings of distress.— Bi/ro?i. Away they go with many a joyous snort, I'he master curses, but 'tis Sambo's sport. Oh dreadful scenes! renewed perhaps next day, " Cluonim parsfui," as every one may say. * * + * * * * * Hiatus maxime deflendus. SOILS AND FARMING OF FAIRFAX COUNTY. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Fairfax County, Dec. 28th, 1833. As you invite your subscribers in the different counties to make afjricultural reports, I shall make you the best I can ibr this county, though I cannot promise myself or your readers much satisfaction. Nature has given us three very distinct kinds of soil in this county, and those again have their va- rious aspects and constitutions quite as distinctly marked as the people who live upon them. First, the river land, which I will, for general purposes, limit by the great southern mail road from Alex- andria to Colchester ; the most of this was origi- nally good land, but being very flat and wet, has been destroyed by careless unskilful cultivation. Ditching and good cultivation, (such as Mr. Sel- den's,) would soon restore it. The last crop of corn was very short, and the wetness of the winter will doubtlessly be fatal to the crop of wheat now in the ground. By referring to tlie map, you will find the Mount Vernon estate, and that of Gun- ston, the property of the late George Mason Esq.: they border for many miles upon the river, and have many and valuable fisheries upon them, the ofial of which would have made much land rich had it been judiciously used j but it is a melancholy fact that little use has been made of that valuable material for imj)roving land. Some efforts have been made upon the river to reclaim extensive pocosins; they did not result so beneficially as could have been wislied. Twenty years ago most of tlie good wet land in tliis district was devoted to tlie production of grass, and was very profitable : Init we have had no profit from them since 1815 ; then they were worth thirty dollars per acre per annum. An estate has lately been sold in this dis- trict for twenty six dollars per acre, but I believe it would require a great salesman to sell another at the same price. Plaster has been used by some for more than thirty years with success. Any, curious to mark the operation of time upon human affairs, would find much for contemplation by riding through the extensive domains of the late General Washington. A more wide spread and perfect agricultural ruin could not be imagined ; yet the monuments of the great mind that once ruled, are seen throughout. The ruins of capa- cious barns, and long extended hedges, seem proud- ly to boast that their master looked to the future. It is strange that the cause of the absolute death of so large an estate was never seen by this great and discriminating man; and yet more strange, that out of many managers, of this country and of Eu- rope, none, by their correctives, appear to have seen tiie cause ; had they seen that it came to its death by drowning, prompt restoratives would have been resorted to, we may presume : they would have freed the land from water, placed it in warm dry beds, and then by friction and stimulants, a full and perfect restoration would have been the result. I assume that the attending nurse would give the patient all the food that his means would supply. FA RMERS' REGISTER— THRASHING MACHINES, &c.— CORN CULTURE. 553 Deepploughing is singularly unskilful and ruinous upon wet land : it reminds me of the practice of cer- tain calomel doctors, who seek to restore their pa- tient by scraping his backbone, and taking out his teeth: he is left in tlie worst of conditions — dead without being conscious of it. The next belt of land I would extend to the red sand, or slate. It is fourteen or si.xteen miles wide, was not originally poor, and it may be restored by good ploughing, clover and plaster. It is very dry, and well watered, and the experiments of the late AV. H. Fitzhugh prove tliat it is good sheep pasture. Upon the Little River Turnpike, industry shews that the land is susceptible of liigh improvement. The upper, or red sandstone, and slate portion of this county, is destined to be very valuable : the calomel doctors may here give stimulants to his patient by scraping his backbone, and stuffing him with clover. One evil practice will long keep in check the developements which time must make in this district : it is that of close feeding their clo- ver. Time will correct this — when their products will rival the limestone and mountain country. Finally sir, looking at the county as it was thirty six years ago, and at the present time, I must say that hope and hope only, keeps two thirds of the population of this county in it. Like the Jews, they look for something supernatural — Ihey look for that which is not in the stores of time. F. THRASHIIVG MACHINES ALBEMARLE AGRI- CULTURAL SOCIETY. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. jilbemarlc, December 23rcl, 1833. It has occurred to me, that some desirable infor- mation (at least, to a portion of your subscribers,) might be obtained through the Farmers' Regis- ter, on the subject of any late and important im- provements which may have been made in the construction of wheat thrashing machines, and to ascertain which of the various plans or models now in use in Virginia, aie most approved by practical fiirmers. Whether those machines, which operate with beaters, or those with cylinders and pins, are the most perfect, is the object desired to be obtained. If some of your numerous subscri- bers and correspondents, who have had an oppor- tunity of testing the value of the several machines now in use, would be so obliging as to give the public the result of their experience, I have no doubt, that the information would be thankfidly received. You can, if you think proper, make such request in the manner most agreeable to you. You, no doubt, are apprised of the existence of an agricultural society in Albemarle. It was first established in 1818. Its first president was James Madi.son. The present number of regular mem- bers exceed one huntired — the adjacent counties furnishing a small portion of that number. For the last nine years, we have had an annual show and fair, for the exhibition of live slock, domestic marmfactures, agricultural products, &c. The premiums awarded, have not been of large amount, but quite liberal for the funds of the society, and sufficient to produce considerable competition. I think it very evident, that the influence exerted through the society, has been productive of a great and visible change in the general improvement of our lands, and consequently in their various pro- Vol. 1-70 ducts, — as also in the improvement of our stock of domestic animals of all classes. The encourage- ment, and emulation given to our household manu- fictures of various kinds, have also produced bene- ficial results. It may be proper to remark, that those improvements of which I have spoken, are not exclusively confined to members of our society, but exist in the practice of many others. The stimulus given by example, of successful good management, in all the various operations connect- ed with agriculture, has been greatly diffused throughout a large portion of our county. We could point to some of the members of our society, who deserve to be considered as among the most successful and distinguished farmers in the state. I trust we shall not relax in our zeal and exertions to accomplish the laudable design in view, until we have attained at least something worthy of good citizens, and benefactors to our country. From what I have premised, I think you can- not too earnestly recommend the establishment of county agricultural societies, throughout the com- monwealth. There are very few portions, if any of the state, but have the materials necessarj'^ to constitute such societies and objects sufficiently numerous and important to employ their attention. The extensive circulation of your valuable Regis- ter, I consider highly encouraging, as affording the evidence of an increased spirit for the agricultural improvement of the country. The Register will act as an auxiliary in promoting the establishment of county societies; and in return, they would be the means of affording it a still more extended cir- culation, w. CORN CULTURE ON WEYANOKE. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Weyanoke, December Z\st, 1833. Your letter, long since written, I have unpar- donably neglected to answer until this time, for which piece of inattention, I beg you to excuse me. Since my return home, it has not been in my pow- er to give the required answers in relation to my mode of cultivating corn, but I now avail myself of a leisure hour to do so. The soil of Weyanoke, you recollect is a sandy loam ; an attention to which ciicunistance will su- persede the necessity of explaining more particu- larly, some of the reasons for my system of culti- vation. The land is ploughed with the bar share, before planting, and harrowed where necessary. Part of it is flushed ; but the part designed for manure is laid oir in parallels of 5|- feet, by furrows which are cleared out with a bar share going up and doW'U. The manure is then spread upon the sur- face, and the ground thrown into ridges, which are so formed, that the top of each ridge, is immedi- ately over the corresponding furrow made in the first instance. By this means, the manure is buried pretty deep, and accumulated under the ridges where the corn is to be deposited. In the course of the subsequent operations, however, it is desirable on my soil to reduce these ridges, as near- ly to a level as possible, on account of the ensuing crops of w heat and clover. A suitable time is taken for spreading the ma- nure, and covering it with the least possible delay. The coarse manure, made in farm pens, &c. is all previously mixed in large ricks^and well incorpo- 654 FARMERS' REGISTER— PADDLING CORN. rated, while in a moist state, with the stable ma- nure, in the proportion of two loads of the former, to one of the latter. The whole mass undergoes a ra})id fermentation ; and is in the state of coarse muck, when spread upon the surface. It is pro- per to observe, however, that these ricks arc made in places convenient to the ground, where the dung is to be used ; and therefore, they are some- times at a considerable distance from the stables, though generally near to the large farm pens. The corn on the ridges is jdanted at intervals of four feet; having two stalks in the hill. That on the flushed ground is planted likewise in rows of five and a half feet by four feet in all the improved land. Where the soil is less productive, the corn is planted five and an half feet by three feet three inches, and only one stalk left in a hill. In planting on the ridges, I adopt Colonel Taylor's mode of using the string or cord ; the ridges be- ing first lightly harrowed, for the purpose of level- ling them, and opened with a furrow. Immedi- ately after planting, ploughing is commenced the wide way, with double shovels and X ploughs, (principally the latter,) on all the unmanured land ; while upon the manured i)art, skimmers are used which arc not apt to bring up the dung to the sur- face. This operation is repeated, and in the same direction, if the corn comes up slowly, or is back- ward in growing. So soon as it attains the height of five or six inches, (I say nothing of the time of thinning, as this depends upon circumstances,) we use the double shovels the narrov/ way, twice in a row. From experience, I have found great ad- vantage in ploughing very near the corn in this stage of its growth, and have been materially benefitted by adopting a plan recommended to me several years ago, by my son-in law, Thomas Marshall, Esq. Each ploughman is attended by a little boy, who is furnished with an implement wliich, for want of a better name, is termed a. pad- dle. It is a light stick about four feet long, with a board like a semi-circular piece of barrel-iiead- ing, nailed at one end. The boy goes along with the ploughman, a little in advance, (he corn row- between them ; he interposes the paddle between the plough and each plant successively, precisely at the moment that the plough reaches the plant, and tlms prevents it from being covered w itli the loose earth. By this contrivance, (he plough can be made to pass much nearer to the corn, tlian it could possi- bly do otherwise : the step, or intervening space, is completely covered with loose earth which smothers ihe grass; the plants are gently stirred; and the whole field is as well worked, as if the hoes and ploughs had both been used. The deeper the ploughing the better. The next operation is to plough the wide way with the X ploughs, running twice in a row. These implements are valuable (or superficial work, and will go over five acres each per diem. I do not know by whom they were invented, but I have not failed to use them for the last five years. The corn is never ploughed a second lime the narrow way, but'we continue to use the X plough as olten as the season and the state of the ground will permit. If the field becomes hard, or grassy, we are compelled to use the shovel plough. Immediately after the use of the ploughs and paddles as above mentioned, we begin to hoe the surlacCj at the same time that we use the X ploughs, and in the same direction ; giving a small hill to every plant. A ny grass out of the step, not cut up by the ploughs, is also removed by the hoes. I know nothing else worthy of communication, except, that the grain intended for planting is soak- ed in hot water the previous night, spread in the morning upon a large table, mixed well by hand, with tar and train oil, and afterwards lolled in lime with a little sul)»hur. This I have found io be an effectual guard against the depredations of the crows J the black birds seem to disregard it. FIKLDINli LKVN^IS. Paddling Corn. [Believing that it might be useful to give a more par- ticular explanation of a novel process in the tillage of corn, which Mr. Lewi.s de.scribes in the foregoing com- munication, we requested it of Mr, Marshall, and ob- tained the following answer] To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I take pleasure in complying with your request, that I would add some explanatory remarks to an allusion, understood to have been made by Mr. Lewis, in reference to a particular process in the cultivation of corn, which was originally suggested by me. The A'cry name oi' paddling, imports something ludicrous; and I would hardly have ventured to make an original communication about it, myself; but any i>erson who has witnessed the successful cultivation of Mr. Lewis,,will not be inclined to disregard, as trivial, any practice which he deems worthy of imitation. In the annexed diagram, suppose the parallels A B, C D, E F, G H, to rej)rescnt a portion of the wide rows, and the transverse parallels, A G, a d, e h,Ji\\,{o represent tlie corresponding por- tion of narrow rows in the corn field. Let us take the row a d, for an example, in which the points of intersection, a, b, c,d, show the corn hills. The ploughman commences at^, with the intention of moving towards dj the plough be- ing inserted near a. The boy, who accompanies him , standing on the other side of the corn row, at q, interposes the paddle between the plough and the plants at a, in an oblique direction. As the plough moves, he makes such a change in the position of the paddle, as to allow the loose earth to fall around one half of the hill without covering the plants. By the time the plough reaches b, the paddle is again interposed in an oblique direction, and a similar twist given to it while the plough passes the hill. The paddle having performed its office, is transferred toe, and afterwards to d. In return- ing, the ploughman and boy, change positions in the rows ; the boy being always on the right hand. The other side of the row, is then worked in like manner, from d to a. When properly done, each plant is gently stirred without being displaced, and surrounded with loose earth. The plough goes so near, that every hill in succession would be cover- ed with earth, but for the timely interjwsition of the paddle. The work is done rapidly; so much so, that the additional labor of the boy, is in fact, a great saving. Without the aid of the boy, the ploughman must either proceed very slowly, or else take care to keep at a distance, that the plants may not be covered; in which case (he work is imperfectly done. A person who would examine a field that had been worked in this way, without having seen the process, would find it difficult to FARMERS' REGISTER— RAPPAHANNOCK LANDS, &c. 655 conjecture bow such efficient ploughing had been accomplished c E p a G / B D Shape of the Piuldh. H THOMAS MARSHALL. Richmond, January 23rd, 1834. RAPPAHANNOCK LANDS, AND MARL BEDS. To the Editor of the p'nnneis' Register. One of your subscribers, who is a very young farmer, flatters liimself that he is desirous to learn from every available source, the art and mystery of cultivating the soil properly, and this desire, and your invitation to all, however plain in speech, to aid you in your noble and philanthropic under- taking, has induced him to address you. I reside in that part of Virginia, which we term the Rappahannock valley, a district lying imme- diately on the Rappahannock river, comprising with few exceptions, rich flat land, far better adapted to the growtli of corn, than of wheat. I have no doubt, that from ten to twenty feet below the surface, this entire district rests on a thick and inexhaustible stratum of marl ; and believe, that this stratum is continued from river to river, as far as the limestone region. Where\ er the banks of our rivers are high, and breaks are met with in tlie land (openings ibr springs to the river,) fine shell marl is found, and frequently without being searched for. I have it in great abundance along the bank of tlie river, from one end of my farm to the other ; and wherever tliere are breaks in the land, the strata of marl, send off branches as it were, which follow the breaks on each side, till the latter disappear. I am sorry to confess to you, that this fine marl, in many places so convenient, has been very little used. Indeed, I know of but three farmers, within tlie distance of twenty miles above and below me, that have ever carried it on their lands. As fiir as it was used in these instances, it had a highly be- neficial effect. I am making preparations to be- gin marling in the spring — to procure the marl, from one spot, where it is convenient to a large body of land, in the least expensive manner possi- ble, is an object of inquiry with me. This marl bank is directly on the river, and is about eight feet below the surfiice, and ten above high water mark. The bunk of the river here is perpendicu- lar; so that it would be extremely dillicult to make a tolerable road to it. My idea is that a capstan worked by one or two oxen, would draw up in a day, as much as two or three carts could carry out. I would have a car with its wheels running on a railway, attached to the rope of the capstan. Could the crane be used with more ad- vantage? I shall commence this year, the oi>eration of marling, and continue it till I marl every acre of my aralile land, though to do it, a few laborers must be hired, for I have not more than sufficient to work my land. [ have been informed by a person who has tried it, that marl exhibits its effects on one crop, the first year that it is applied — this crop is cotton. From the description received, the size of the stalk of cotton was increaseil two-fold. I account for this on the suj)position, tliat the decomposition of the marl produced some degree of warmth, which would in this climate be ver}' beneficial to cotton. The upper stratum of one of my marl banks is composed of marl, which feels soapy, when rubbed between the fingers, and in which the impression of a shell is seen. When throv/n into strong vine- gar, the carbonic acid escapes with a sensible etfei vescence. The lower stratum contains a great deal of shell. I cannot account ibr the absence of shell in one case, and its presence in the other — to what cause is its disappearance in the upper stra- tum, attributable.^ We do not fallow for wheat on tlie Rappahan- nock— indeed we do not consider ours a wheat country. I have known as many barrels of corn obtained from one shift, as bushels of wheat. The system generally pursued is the three shift — a system, which I am convinced can never improve the soil, unless marl or standing pastures be used. I am the only farmer in my neighborhood, who pursues the four shift system, and I am about to prepare a piece of meadow and highland adjacent, for a standing pasture, intending never to graze my lands, except for a short time after harvest. I have no doubt that when we have made our lands stiffer by marling, they will be much better for wheat, and that we shall find it to our advan- tage to fallow for this crop. I hope tliat a spirit of agricultural improvement is spreading through the old dominion, and that, when a few have ren- dered their soils highly productive by marl, their example will be generally followed. And you, Mr. Editor, have the enviable lot of reflecting, that you are in a great measure, instrumental to tliis spirit — "he^ho makes two blades of grass grow , w hci-c one grew before, says a political econo- mist, is a benefactor to his race." That you, may 556 FARMERS' REGISTER— THE ROMAN MALARIA. you succeed in arousing in our beloved state, a just estimate of agriculture, and in stimulating its far- mers to improve their lands, is the wish of one of your warmest admirers. ii. [The situation of the marl described by H. presents but small obstruction to its vise. A good road with a gentle ascent may be easily cut, (as directed in the Es- say on Calcareous Manures,) and it will be then found that a horse and cart will be better and cheaper means to raise the manure, than either crane or capstain. 'When H. applies his marl (to suitable soils,) he will also find that it is not only cotton, but that every crop •will be benefitted, and in a high degree, within the first year of the application.] To the Editor of the Farmers' Rc!:i-(er. Sir, — As I perceive you have published in j'our number for October, Baron Varnhagen's notice of Sir John Sinclair which I formerly transmitted ; I now send you a paper recently received, in which Sir John suggests some excellent ideas on the sub- ject of malaria, which cannot fail to be interesting to Eastern Virgnians. G. w, f. Washington, January 4, 1834. hints on the means of preventing the mischievous effects of " the roman malaria;" and on the improvement of marshy histricts in general, with a view to the prevention of the dis- eases which they are apt to pro- DUCE. By the Right I/nn. Sir John Sinclair, Bart. yJu- ihor of the Codes of Health and j-JgricuUure/* The malaria seems to be an invisible and dilTu- sible vapor, generated apparently under certain circumstances of heat and moisture, in stagnant waters, and in dan)p soils, particularly Avhen ac- companied with rank vegetation. Diseases tlience arise, which from the peculiar sconrge of hot cli- mates, and of cold climates in the hot seasons of the year.t It" is well known, that marshy districts are pe- culiarly unhealthy. It appears indeed, from tables drawn up by M. Maret, of several parishes in Switzerland, in which a comparison is made be- tween mountainous and marshy counties, that one- half of all born in a mountainous district, live to the age of 47 ; whereas, the same proportion, in a marshy parish, live only to the age of 25. In the liills, one in twenty of all tliat are born live to 80 ; in the marshy parish, only one in fifty-two.J The miserable consequences resulting from aguish complaints, prior to a country being drain- ed and improved, have been ably depicted, in that valuable repository of useful knov.ledge, " The Statistical Account of Scotland." In some dis- tricts in that country, a certain number of the inhabitants are said amuially to have ildlen victims to the ague. In others, the dis{emi)er was so fre- * It is not probable, that the most efteclual means of mitigating the sources of these noxious disorders should have occurred to any one, who had not directed his at- tention both to agriculture and to medicine. t See a valuable paper on the Malaria. Edinburgh Review, vol. xxxvi. p. 536. I In regard to marshy situations in general, Dr. Price has written a short essay, containing proofs of their in- salubrity, and confirming a paper by Pr. Priestley, on the noxious effects of stagnant water. quent, that it was with difficulty the farmers could carry on their work, more especially in sjjring, when the aid of their laborers was most needed. Hence, in some parishes liable to tliat grievous malady, when any farmer wanted four laborers for any j)iece of work, he generalTy hired six, know- ing the probability that some of them would be rendered unfit for labor, by an attack of the ague, before the work could be finished. In the summer months, the malaria is peculiarly destructive in Rome and its neighborhood. It commences about the beginning of June, and does not terminate till the severe autumnal rains in September. It unfortunately encroaches, every year, on some part of Rome, where it was formerly unknown ; and there is a peculiarity in the lines in which it advances, and in the mode of its progress, which hitherto the inhabitants have not been able to explain.* Being convinced that it is possible, chiefly by agricultural improvements, in which so many im- portant discoveries have recently been made, to have this great source of human misery subdued, I have been led, to submit the following hints to the reader's consideration ; and in particular to suggest a plan, by which th.e malaria would most proi)ably be completely extirpated in the sRomaii territory. The improvements I am led to suggest are the following: — 1. Draining the land; — 2. Cultivating it; — 3. Employing calcareous manures; — 4. Em- banking land apt to be overflowed ; — 5. Procuring wholesome water lor the drink of the inhabitants ; — • 6. Preventing the noxious air generated in thick woods; and, 7. Warm clothing. 1. Draining. — It appears from the unquestion- able authority of the Statistical Account of Scot- land, that wherever the land has been thoroughly drained, intermitting fevers have disappeared. There are no less than thirty parishes in Scot- land, to which this observation is applicable; but in a condensed work like the present, it may be sufficient to give the following instance from a parish in the comity of Fife. Before the land in that parish was drained, the families who lived near a piece of stagnant water in it, were subject, both in the spring and, in the end of autumn, to inter- mitting fevers, of from 23 to 33 and sometimes to 39 days' continuance. Whole families were to be seen at the same time, in such distress, that none of them could assist the others, and depending on the kind aid of their neighbors ihr the supply of their necessities. But since the stagnant waters have been completely drained, those diseases to which the inhabitants were formerly liable, and the sad train of complaints connected with them, have happily been unknown. It is not easy, we are told, to describe the pleasure of viewing luxuriant crops, adorning the jdace where the eye had been accustomed to see stagnant water, and where nox- ious vapors, impregnated with disease and death, were formerly so usual. f 2. Cullivation. — But cultivation is the great means, by which this miasm can be most effectu- ally got rid of, and the salubrity of the air perma- nently ameliorated. This important circumstance can be accounted for on rational principles. + Edinburgh Review, vol. xxxvi. p. 352. f Statistical Account of Scotland. Parith of Lcuch- ars, vol. 18, p. 5S6. FARMERS' REGISTER— THE ROMAN MALARIA. 657 When land is deepened and pulverized, and im- proved by means of lime and other manures, it absorbs the rain more quickly, and in (greater abundance than its uncultivated state. Hence less moisture will arise in evaporation. Increased vegetation also, diminishes evapora- tion, for water is absorbed in considerable quanti- ties by the plants themselves ; and in proportion to their luxuriance, they not only diminish the reflection of the sun's rays, but keep the air cooler and more temperate, during the heats of summer and autumn. A much greater quantity of water also, is discharged into the atmosphere, by spouty land, producing aquatic herbs, and coarse herbage, than where plants of a finer quality arc grown ; and it is a niost curious and important circum- stance, that while the air immediately above a wet .soil, was only 57° of Falirenheit, the temperature of the dry part of the same field, and of a similar soil, was consideral)ly higher.* It is likewise well known, that water contains both pure air, which is essential tor the human species, and inflammable o/r, which is of such im- portance as the food of plants. By increasing vegetation therefore, that inflammable air, which is injurious to animals, is absorbed in greater quan- tities, while much more pure or vital air is produ- ced. The cultivation of the ground, is thus of essential importance, in regard to this important particular, for it contributes, not only to put an end to the malaria which is the cause of agues, and other febrile diseases, but produces a state of tlie atmos- phere, which is favorable to the promotion of health. In commencing the cultivation of marsliy land, it is an excellent plan, to get rid of the surface ol the soil, either by paring ploughs, or by liand in- struments invented for tiiat special purpose, aii 10//i jJpril, 1833. 5 Description of "the Campagna di Roma," and on the means of promoting its improvement. Since the paper on the subject of the Roman malaria was sent to the press, my attention was directed to an interesting work, entitled, " j?t07/te in the 19M Century," in three volumes octavo, printed in Edinburgh, 1820. It contains a series of letters, v.ritten during a residence at Rome, in the years 1817 and 1818, and is drawn up with so much ability, that the author need not have been apprehensive of prefixing his name. Indeed it was so popular a work, as to run through four edi- tions. The information it contains on the subject of the malaria is highly interesting, and strongly in favor of making every possible exertion, to banish such a scourge from the most interesting part of Europe. " That dreary solitude (the Campagna,) si retch- es al out twenty miles in every (lirection, to the base of those hills by vviiich the plain is surround- ed. To the west, a wild sullen flat extends to the sea. A profusion of bushy thickets, and a few solitary trees, were scattered over the broken sur- face of this unenclosed and houseless plain,— for it is a jdain, — since, at the distance of sixteen miles, where we now stood, we distinctly saw Rome. But it is not a dead flat, as many have asserted ; on the contrary, it is generally undulating ground, inter- spersed with broken hillocks, and steep banks, co- vered Avilh wild shrubby oak-wood, or lonely flat- topped pine-trees." I'ARMERS' REGISTER— THE ROMAN MALARIA. 659 " Over this wild waste, no rural (Iwclliniic, nor scattered hamlets, nor fields, nor o-ardens, such as usually mark tiie approach to a pojiulous city, were to be seen. All was ruin; fallen monuments of Roman days, — ijrey towers of Gothic times, — abandoned habitations of modern years, — alone met the eye. No trace of man api)eared, except in the lonely tomb, which told us he had been. Rome herself was all that we beheld. Slie stood alone in the wilderness, as in the world, surround- ed by a desert of her own creation, — a desert, Avliich accords but too well with her former great- ness, and her present decay. It may perhaps be soothing to the contemplation of the traveller, or the fancy of the poet, to see the once beautiful " Campagna di Roma,'' abandoned to the wild luxuriance of nature, and covered only with the defaced toml)s of her tyrants, and the scarce visi- ble remains of the villas of her senators ; but it is melancholy to reason and humanity to behold, an immense tract of fertile land, in the immediate vicinity of one of the greatest cities in the world, pestilent with disease and death, and to know that, like a devouring grave, it anniiaUij engulphs all of human kind that toil upon its surface. The unfor- tunate laborers, employed in the scanty cultiva- tion occasionally given to the soil, to enable it to produce pasturage for cattle, generally fall victims to the baneful climate. Amidst the fearful loneli- ness and stillness of this scene of desolation, as we advanced through the long dreary tract that divi- ded us from Rome, a few wretched peasants, whose looks bespoke them victims of slow consuming disease, occasionally reminded us of the tremen- dous ravage of human life, which this invisible and mysterious power is annually making." " I need scarcely add, that the season of the malaria is during the summer, and that, from the fall of the autumnal rains in October, till the re- turn of the midsummer heats, the atmosphere is perfect!)^ salubrious." " Thus the Campagna seems to be the alternate region of life and death. Amidst all the ingeni- ous, and imjjracticable plans that have been pro- posed, to stop the progress of this dreadful scourge, the cau.se of it has never yet been satisfactorily explained; and till that be ascertained, it is obvi- ous, that no remedy can be applied; if indeed it be within human control, which is a more pre- sumptuous than probable conclusion."* Description of Home. " My eyes dimmed with tears when I gazed for the first time on Rome, and saw before me, the great, the ancient, the eternal city— the acknow- ledged queen of nations — the mistress of the world, the scat of glory, and the land of patriots, of poets, and of heroes. " Other cities, however great or distinguished, are only the capitals of a country; but Rome is the metropolis of the world. Recollections dear to every human heart, in which every nation and people can sympathise, seem to make it the com- mon mother of all. The awful ruins of its former greatness, the proud ornaments of its early years of glory, the accumulated memorials of long ages of vicissitude, and the noblest works of art and genius in every age, unite, in giving it an interest and a dignity, which no other spot on earth can ♦ E.ome 19th Century, p. 100. ever boast. As I grazed tiiWil il.-^all thes long story of its fame, the deeds of its herocS, the shades of its philosophers, and the strains of its poets, burst upon my memory, and filled my heart with emotions that could not be repressed. " Yet who, without emotion, could tread the soil ennol)led iiy so many ages of glory, or behold, un- moved, a spot in whose very name there is en- chantment.'' All that we have read, thought, admired and worshipped from our earliest years, — all that awakened our youthful enthusiasm, — all that exalts the mind, fires the imagination, or touches the heart, is concentered on the soil of Italy, and amidst the ruins of Rome."* Who can peruse these observations, without feeling the most anxious wish for the success of the l)roposed measures to restore the fertility and the salubrity of the Campagna di Roma.'' Ably has a poet sung, "'Tis Rome demands our tears, The mistress of the world, the seat of empire, The nurse of heroes, the delight of gods, — That humbled tlie proud tyrants of the earth, And set the nations free, — Rome is no more!" Perhaps the best plan would be, to have a com pany erected, with a sufTicient capital, to purchase, from the Roman government, the property of the whole tract in question, under the oblis;ation of improving it. The practicability of that improve- ment, I hope, has Iteen clearly pointed out in the preceding observations, and that nothing is want- ing to complete that great object, but adequate funds to carry it on. It would certainly be neces- sary, previously to have the whole tract examined by skilful engineers from England, accustomed to the drainage and improvement of fenny districts, and who arc also well acquainted with the burning and management of lime, for on the utility of that manure, great reliance may be placed. But, on the whole, there can be no doubt, that by the judi- cious application of skill and capital, the "Cam- pagna di Roma," may be rendered as productive, and as healtlty a district, as any tract, of a similar extent, and similarly situated, in any part of Eu- rope. The experience both of England and of Scotland, has proved, in the most convincing manner, that by the introduction of agricultural imjirovements, the greatest changes may be effected in the cli- mate of a district; and that it is possible lo have luxuriantcrops produced on the same soil, "where formerly, noxious vapors abounded, impregnated with disease and death." Attention to this interesting subject however, ought not to be restricted to the neighborhood of Rome. In other parts of Europe, more especially in the department of the Bouches du Rhone in France, and above all, in the neighborhood of Aries, the same measures might be adopted, ?r(7^ almost the certainty of success, and an extensive district exempted from disease, and brought into a state of productive cultivation. At present, the inhabitants of that rich country, pine under the attacks of agues during the greatest part of the year; whereas, by the means above suggested, that disease might be totally extirpaled,and a dis- trict now unproductive, would be rendered the granary of France. ■ Rome 1 Sth Century, vol. i. p. 79. 5C0 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTIVATING CORN. What credit would not the government of France obtain, by promoting so great an improve- ment? What foreign possession could be put in compe- tition with such an acquisition ; the protection of which would not occasion any expense, — which could not be conquered by any foreign enemy ,-- which would give employment, and subsistence, to such multitudes of valuable subjects, and which would also be the means of rendering France in- dependent of other countries for grain? 133. George Street, Edinburgh, } 15th April, 1833. 3 [The pamphlet from which the foregoing article is copied, was sent from Europe to our correspondent G. W. F. by its philanthropic author, and has on it the fol- lowing question in his hand writing: "Could not the enclosed hints be of use in America?" In one point, if no more, they certainly may, by the annunciation from such high authority that the use of calcareous manures serves in a high degree to add to the salubrity of the air. That most important fact, as a deduction from the chemical powers of calcareous earth was presented to the readers of the Farmer's Register ; (page 76, No. 2,) more as a theoretical doctrine, than the result of suffi- cient practical observation. Since, various facts, from different sources, have been brought to sustain the posi- tion ; and none will be more valued than the opinion here stated by Sir John Sinclair. He has probably ar- rived at the result by a very different course of reason- ing, and of observation — and therefore, the more value may be attached to the agreement of opinion between persons as much separated by difference in their habits and studies, as their habitations arc by distance.] For the Farmers' Register. PAMUNKY BIGDE OF CULTIVATING CORN, The simplest, and best on flat land, and on a large scale, because the most labor-saving. I have lately seen so many different ways of cul- tivating corn in our agricultural publications, the Farmers' Register among the rest, that I have thought it would be worth while to publish the Pamunky mode of cultivation, which I had before thought, was the one in general use in Virginia, for crops on flat land, and on a large scale — and which, in my opinion, for such land is decidedly the best. The Pamunky mode is as follows, if I have been rightly taught. You break up your land in win- ter and spring, with large ploughs into five and a half, or six feet beds \^Note 1,] and plant as early as you can in April, by first running a tolerable deep furrow with a one or two horse plough right on the top of the bed lengthways, and dropping your corn in this furrow, about three feet apart be- tween the hills, \_Note 2,] and covering either with the feet or hoes. The latter, however, is much the best way, as planting the corn with the hoes, gives the top of the bed, or ridge, a slight working, which is of very great service, if the weeds or grass have begun to grow, as they some- times do after a mild winter on land (hat was ploughed early. Some persons run a light furrow across the beds every three feet distance, to show- where to plant the corn; but the most usual way or stick three feet long, to regulate the step oc- casionally, and in tliat way the hands soon require great accuracy. After the corn is about six or eight inches high, the two horse ploughs start to " siding down" as it is called, wliich is to*run the bar of the plough next to tlie corn, and throw down a good furrow from the corn, (and not throw the earth to the corn, as Col. Taylor [Note 3,] in his Arator,says, in his first ploughing of corn. I think there must be some mistake in the edition of Arator that I have, for corn will not bear the earth to be thrown to it, with a large two horse plough, while it is so young, and when the first ploughing ought to be given to it, preceding the hand hoeing, instead of succeeding it, as Col. Taylor directs in Arator, which saves a vast deal of labor — however more of that hereafter.) As soon as the ploughs have got a little start in siding down, the hoe hands follow and " ridge out" as it is called ; that is to say, with the hoes they weed, and scrape away the earth, weeds, and grass, from the corn, which was left on a narrow ridge by the siding down of the ploughs. The object of this ridging out, is to expose the young corn as much as possible to the sun, (which is not very powerful at this season of the year,) to strengthen it and drive away insects, such as ants, cut worms, wire worms, and all insects that the sun has the power of driving away. Besides, the corn now being on a narrow ridge, facilitates the hoe work very much, as there is very little left for tlie hoe to do, if the ploughing has been well done. Also if there is wire grass, or blue grass, it is the easiest, and in fact the only way that I know of, to enable the hoes to get the grass away from the corn : and unless you do get it away, you will make no corn to a certainty : for if you cover up blue grass or wire grass by throwing the furrow, that Col. Taylor speaks of, to the corn, so far from their being killed thereliy, they will grow faster than the corn, and choke it while so young. Together with this ridging out with the hoes, the hands at the same time thin out, and replant, or set the corn, if the land is sufficiently moist. This ridging out, is generally considered the most important part of the whole cultivation. It gives the corn such a start as nothing else will, by ad- mitting the sun to the roots of the young corn, and driving off insects of all kinds. I have fre- quently made experiments of admitting the sun to the roots of the corn when very young, in this way, and worked some hills in other ways, for in- stance, by weeding the grass well off from the corn while young, and then putting the earth back to it — and I have invariably found the corn that was exposed to. the sun by siding down and ridging out, would take an earlier start, and grow off more kindly, and theother never toovertake it. I have even, on good loamy rich land, scraped the earth away so much from the corn at this early stage of it, as to cause it to fidl down, merely as an experi- ment, and even in that state, it would rise and get the start of corn that had the earth tin-own up to it. But it will not do on j)Oor, or very stiff land, to make the corn so bare as to fall down : the above was merely an experiment to see how far it could be carried with impunity. Corn is very like cotton in this resj)cct, and requires the same sort of cultivation while young. As soon as you haxe gone over all your field. is for each hand to step off three feet in the row Avhile planting, and the overseer carries a measure ] siding down with the ploughs, and ridging out with t^ARMERS' REGISTER— CULTIVATING CORN. 561 the hoes, &c. you then, with (he same two-horse ploughs, (the corn now being large enough to bear the earth, being generally about two or three feet high, and out of the way of cut worms and other in- sects,) throw a good large furrow back to the corn on each side, and nearly or quite lap up theearth on the foot of the stalks, which saves a great deal of hoe work. Your hoes follow the ploughs again, and weed over the corn, and put a flat hill to it, and in that way check the grass and weeds. After getting over the field in this way, the next and last operation, is to throw another furrow witi the two horse ploughs l_JVote 4,] from the centre of the " balk" as it is called, to the corn on each side, and this must be a large and deep furrow, so as to reach as near the corn as possible, though it cannot quite reach it. The hoes again follow the ploughs and weed over the corn and put a large flat hill to it, and kill the weeds and grass as well as possible, and this is what is called ' laying by' the corn. [^Note 5,] The corn is then generally ready to be- gin to tassel and shoot, or is tasselling and shooting. Sometimes it is necessary to run a skimmer up and down the rows of corn, if it should be grassy after the last ploughing and weeding, merely to scrape out some of the grass, but this latter opera- tion is not absolutely necessary for the crop of corn, though it makes the sowing of wheat easier and better in the fall. But it is very dangerous to tam[)er with corn after it has begun to shoot and tassel, unless you can have rain whenever you call for it. I believe there has been more corn lost by working too late, than by grass. You will remark, that by this mode of making corn, each operation suits the age and size of the corn. In the first process, (the siding down, &c.) you run the ploughs very close to the corn when it is young and the roots have not extended far, so that you do not cut many of them : or if you do, you do no injury to the corn while it is so young. In the second operation, (the throwing back the earth to the corn, &c.) you run the ploughs further off, when the corn has attained some size, and when it might be injured by cutting the roots, if there should be verj' dry weather af- terwards. In the third operation (the " laying by" &c.) you run the ploughs still further off, when the corn would be more apt to be injured by cutting the roots, if you should have a drought afterwards. Although three times going over the corn with the hoes, appears very often for a mode of making corn which pretends to be the simplest and most labor-saving, the fact is, where you have not wire grass, or blue grass to contend with, the hoe work in this mode of making corn is very quickly done, and the three hoeings are not more than equal to once and a half the times of hoeing over corn in other modes of cultivation. For you will remark, that in the first weeding, or ridging out, you have only a very narrow slip, or ridge, not more than six or eight inches wide to weed, which can be done very fast. In the second weeding, the plough has nearly done all the work, for the earth is nearly lapped across the foot of the corn, so that it leaves not much for the hoes to do; and in the third, and last weeding, although the plough has left rather more to weed, yet it is not more than a common hoeing; but this is the " laying by," and the most tedious of the three, as is to be expected. When the land has either blue grass or wire grass, you must use the double shovel, [Note 6 J Vol. I.— 71 or scarifier of some kind (the double shovel is the best) frequently after every ploughing and hoeing, and you must have a dry summer in addition to all this too, to kill it; for wire grass, and blue grass must never be covered up with the earth (if you wish to kill them) and the double shovel, or scarifier, prevents that by dragging the grass up to the surface, so that the sun may kill it. There may be better ways of making corn than this, with more labor; and by more tillage, you also may have a cleaner field to sow wheat upon in the fall : but, for the same amount of labor, I repeat that in my opinion, this mode of cultivating corn is the best. ii. c. Note 1.— Some persons break up theii' land flush, and then cultivate it in the way I am about to describe; but for flat land bedding is prefera- ble, as it keeps the land drier in the winter, and enables you to plant earlier in the sj)ring. Note 2. — Some persons plant nearer or further according to the strength of the land, but three feet from hill to hill is the most usual distance, and then leave from two to three stalks in a hill, accord- ing to the strength of land. Note 3. — Col. John Taylor certainly ouglit to be considered the most useful man to the Virginia agriculturist we have ever had^and is well entitled to our gratitude ; for he was the first man in Virgi- nia, who ever turned our attention to the subject of improvement, by his success in agriculture, as well as his writings on the subject. A part of his system, however, did not suit hilly broken lands (and no doubt was never intended by him, to be applied to them, though it has been very injudiciously so applied,) how-ever well adapted to flat lands the north and south bedding may have proved. Note 4. — Some persons use the one horse plough in each ploughing of the corn, and then they have to run more furrows at each ploughing, but the two horse plough is much preferable. Note 0. — It should .be observed, that although the corn has been ploughed over three different times, and very efficiently too, yet the land in fact is only gone over entirely, once, which is the greatest possible saving of plough labor, and a vast saving of manure on the land manured for corn; for the less frequently you turn up your manure, in the cultivation of the corn to the hot summer's suns, the less is lost by evaporation. I have said nothing about manuring, &c. for corn here, because I set out with the view simply of giving the mode of cultivating the crop as practised in the great corn country of Virginia, the Pamunky, where I think the mere cultivation of it is very well understood. As I said before, this mode of cultivating corn does not answer on very foul lands, such as wire grass, or blue grass, or any other very stubborn grass land, without the addition of some scarifier, such as the double shovel, after each ploughing and hoeing; but with this additional cultivation, it is the best possible mode, even on the foulest land. The Pamunky corn lands are generally clean lands. Note 6. — The double shovel when well con- structed, is one of the best scarifiers, and in fact, one of the very best farming implements in the world. It is the only plough, or utensil of any kind, with which I coul I ever check blue grass or wire grass. It goes tolerably deep, and yet does not choke up much, and it keeps the grass near 562 FARMERS' REGISTER— HILL-SIDE DITCHES. the surface, so that the sun may kill it. It also keeps the surface smooth and level, and thereby prevents hilly land irom washing. It is some- what like the harrow in this resi^ect ; and the greatest advantage of this plough is, that it goes over so much ground in the day, and enables you repeat it so frequently. I cultivated al)out thirty acres of blue grass land in corn this last summer, 1833, in the Pamunky mode, and after every ploughing and hoeing, as before mentioned, I ran the double shovel about four or live times in each row of corn ; and it completely eradicated the blue grass, and left the land clean for wheat. For tlie Farmers' Register. ON HILL-SIDE DITCIIES^TO PRETEXT THE WASHING OF BROKEN LAND. For the last four or five years my best reflec- tions have been given to the subject of resusci- tating our broken down lands, and preserving those not already exhausted, by a system of culti- vation tlie most improvident and niggardl}'. It will be at once perceived that I allude to the custom in middle Virginia of cutting down our best lands and cultivating them successively in tobacco, com, wheat, oats, &c. until the gullies are too deep to plough over, and the intermediate spaces too poor to bring black-eyed peas. This maybe consider- ed by those unacquainted with the habits of our forefixthers, as an exaggerated picture; while all those who live in this section of country, know it to be a melancholy fact. 1 am happy to say, hoiv- ever, that this practice, as well as the policy which dictated it, is rapidly growing into disrepute, and that now an enlightened and liberal spirit of inquiry is abroad in our land, crying, " who shall shew us any good in the way of improvement?" And permit me here to say, Mr. Editor, that your excellent periodical is admirably calculated, not only to increase that spirit of inquiry, but to en- courage and facilitate us in the march of agricultu- ral improvement. For myself, I must say that I have not only been highly entertained, but mani- festly profited by the perusal of every individual number. And, while I am highly pleased with these salutary indications of brighter days in the system of agriculture of middle Virginia, I feel constrained to acknowledge that, amongst the va- rious expedients adopted to produce these results, the one with which I have headed this communi- cation, meets with my unqualified disapprobation. I trust, therefore, that the suggestions I shall urge, if they have not the force to dissuade those who have already embarked in this system to desist, they will at least have the tendency to induce those who have not yet commenced, to ponder well the consequences of a system, if not manifestly injuri- ous, at least of very doubtful propriety. It woidd be remarkable indeed, if when the public mind is imder a high state of excitement upon any subject whatever, heresies should not creep in and attain almost the currency of well grounded truths. I am not at all surprised then, that where the wliole county are crying, who shall shew us the best way to stop gullies, that even well informed men (upon most subjects,) should come forward, and tell us, that the very best way to stop a gully, is to make a gully ; or in other words, if you wish effectually ;;ully, make ten — for this is about observation. So fashionable is it becoming to make gullies in this part of the country, that I liave actually seen fields, comparatively level, that have been cleared and regularly scourged for more years than I have yet lived, carefully and regularly ditched all over; not forsooth, that they /ja- maindei- ; and this, at the usual rale of product for good highland, say five barrels of corn per acre, shows a clear loss of one hundred barrels in the product of the field. This proves a heavy tax upon the best jwssible improvement. This calculation is not designed to be entirely acciH^te ; but on ex- amination it will be found not far from the truth. Again, these trenches are made for every thirty yards ; and of course all the water that falls in a hard rain between the trenches must run into them ; not along the whole length of the trench, but in separate rills, or small bodies, for this is the nature of water. Of course then, it must carry in some of the adjacent soil. And where does it carry it? Not into the bottoms to make them wider and richer, but into the muddy branch or swelling' stream. For, if there is not a ditch in the bottoms, tlie water from all these trenches emptied into them, will soon make one. It seems then that trenches must impoverish the land immediately above them, whatever Mr. Skipwith,or anyone else may say about not losing a pound of soil. But this is not all. I object to the j>ractice because it presents considerable obstacles in getting off the crop. For where they are made as deep as Mr. Skipwith's, a multitude of bridges are absolutely necessary, and they are both expensive and trou- blesome ; and when they are not so deep, you are compelled to throw in timber, in order for the carts to pass over — some of which are almost cer- tain to be left in the trenches after the crop is gath- ered, and then the first hard raiii that comes, breaks out and causes double destruction, owing to the accumulation and velocity of the water in the trenches. Tell me nothing about these obstruc- tions being carefully removed in time to prevent injury in this way. I know full well the practice of overseers and negroes in this respect, and firmly believe that universal injury is sustained in this way — for I have seen fields literally torn to pieces^ after the crop was taken off, from tliis neglect. It to stop one gully, make ten — for this is about the proportion made, to one stopped, according to my the carter finds a shallow place in the trench that FARMERS' REGISTER— HILL-SIDE DITCHES. 663 he can pass without upsetting, across he drives — and the lirst rain takes the cart track, and down it goes with tenfold velocity to the next trench — breaks over that, and so on until it reaches the bot- tom, carrying- destruction before it. These are matters of fact, obvious to every man of common sense. And lastly, I object to any improvement, the details of which are so hard to be complieil with, as to insure their non-fulfilment in nine cases out of ten. As the value of all improvements con- sists mainly in their simplicity, their cheapness and their complete accomplishment of the end sought to be obtained, (in all of which respects the trenching system is deficient,) I shall do all in ray power to check its extension ; and recommend to all those who have not fully entered into that sys- tem, to try the one I shall hereafter describe, in con- trast ; and if it is not found preferable, in all the particulars above referred to, I will forfeit my claim to any knowledge of the practical improve- ment of our lands. In the first place then, if you have a field you design to secure from washing, and improve under regular cultivation, sow it down in small grain, (wheat, oats or rye, as it may suit the taste or interest of the farmer,). and sow all the hill sides too steep for convenient and profitable cultivation, and all the narrow bottoms running up into the field, in herds grass, so that it will have formed a regular turf, by the time the field comes round upon the four shift system for cultivation in a hoe crop. Then when you commence jdough- ing the field preparatory for the hoe crop, (having prepared yourself with a common rafter or wafer level,) take your station with your best plough- man about the middle of a hill, thirty, forty or even sixty yards from the top of the hill, (accord- ing to the declivity,) and mark off a track for the plough to follow, giving about an inch fo every twelve feet, until you meet the ])lat of turf in the bottom on your right ; theji return where you started, and proceed in the same way until you reach the opposite bottom, Avhich gives the foun- dation for the firc^l L>ed. In throwing up the Led, be careful to leave as much solid ground in the middle, as the plough will cover with the two first furrows, and then complete the bed with four other furrows, thrown up as high as possible. Then go on thirty or sixty yards lower down, (according to the length of the slope,) and throw up another bed in the same manner, always emptying the fur- rows on the turf in the bottoms, which should ne- ver be broken, and so on until you have thrown up beds enough to protect the whole field from wash- ing, which will be eflectual if laid off with even tolerable accuracy. Your other ploughs, in the meantime, may liave follov.edon, bedding or flush- ing the land, being careful whenever they get to a bed to plough it over again; that is, double bed it, in order to make it higher, and strong enough effec- tually to resist the strongest current of water that may come against it, the water furrow on the up- per side of the bed being designed to carry off the water to the grass in the bottoms, from whence it will be safely conducted out of the field. In plant- ing your corn in the spring, plough the beds also, being careful, in cultivating the corn, never to throw down the beds, but always to dress them up with the plough and hoes, 'riius you lose not one foot of ground, and your land is sale from washing; the bottoms and steep hill sides, (if rich enough,) v/ill afford you a fine crop of hay, v/hich is worth as much as any other crop whatever. These beds present no obstacle to your carts in getting off your crop, being so broad as to be passedwith facility, and so high as not to be easily cut through with "the wheels and made liable to.be broken with the rains. Here is a system then that is remarkable, 1st. for its simplicity ; 2dly. for its cheapness ; and 3dly. for its complete adaptation to the end in view. I kno^v a farm in this part of the country that ten years ago was a complete waste, being literal- ly covered vvitii hen's-nest grass and gullies, that now, under this system, presents a prospect every way delightful to behold : instead of hen's-nest grass and gullies, you now see the majestic corn, the waving wheat, and the heavy swath of mown grass. "Where there were gullies from four to six feel deep, is now a solid turf of herd's grass, yield- ing heavy crops of hay. In fact, the whole farm presents a scene of luxuriance and plenty, amply repaying its owner (or ail the toil and expense he has incurred in restoring it to its (more than) ori- ginal fertility. One of the most pleasing reflec- tions I have, growing out of all my farming opera- tions, is that of having restored worn out and waste land to fertility and life again. Indeed I feel thank- ful and happy, in having it in my power to say, that, in the ten years I have been fiirming, I have in- creased the fertility of fifty acres for every one that I have injured. And in the v.hole ten years, I have not cleared more than was absolutely necessary for rails and fire wood ; finding it easier to improve two acres than to clear one. I think it a criminal abuse of the gifts of Providence to cut down and wear out land, and turn it out to grow up in hen's- nest grass and old field pine. Such has been the ruinous policy of our forefi\thers : and hence it be- comes the imperative duty of us, their posterity, to deprecate and abandon a system so injurious in its tendencies and ruinous in its consequences. And I am happy to say, that in this part of the country, mind is operating upon mind, and opinion strug- gling with opinion, lor light and knowledge ; eve- ry faculty of man is in a state of improvement ; intelligence meets with and combats ignorance, and ignorance becomes enlightened by the conflict. So also in religion, infidelity is overcome by faith, and truth elicited by error. In such a state of things, while every man is testing his own powers and examining the advances and capacities of oth- ers, and attempting to place all things on the im- mutable basis of truth and justice — although there may be a good share of error abroad in our land, )'et I feel disposed to congratulate my agri- cultural brethren, (not that we have attained to a great height in the scale of improvement, but) that our noblest faculties and energies are exerted (mainly) in the right channel, and are rapidly progressing to a hapjiy consummation. WARDSFORK. Charlcttee, Jan. 2d, 183-1. [It is not our province to determine between two farmers on a subject on wliich each has dl•a^Vn informa- tion from j)ractical experience, as well as a full conside- lation of, and reasoning upon, existing circumstances. But it may be permitted us to say, that there is much liss difference between our former and present corres- pondent, than would be inferred from tlie commencing remarks of the latter. While condemning some of the minor parts of Mr. Brace's plan, * Wardsfurk' indirect- 564 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF NEGROES, &c. ly confirms the great value of it in general, by advoca- ting one which is tlie same in general features, though perhaps improved by him in some particulars. Discus- sion is desirable to settle those minor points of differ- ence ; though none of them can be so objectionable as to prevent the entire plan of either, if adopted, proving of incalculable value to the cultivator of hilly lands. There is one part of Wardsfork's plan of which we have long experienced the utility, and of which the be- nefit may be gained in connexion with any general plan of tillage : that is, to leave imbroken by the plough the middle of every descending depression, or hollow, on a slope or hill side, over which torrents of rain water must be discharged, and where gullies cither have been, orcer- tainly will be formed, without thisprecaution. Such strips of unbroken land would be pronounced " eye sores" by many farmers, whose sense of propriety is offended b)^ leaving even the most barren spots of a field untilled. But ugly and slovenly as many of such strips may seem, they are less unsightly and less inconvenient than the gullies which they will prevent. A well set growth of grass on these places will resist the strongest tran- sient torrent ] QUERIES ADDRESSED TO JASIES RIVER FAR- MERS. To the Editor of the Farmers" Renister. Essex Couniy, January 15, 1834. I have received your valuable work, the Farmers' Re and two fingers of the right hand, Avhich are thrown against the board with enough force to make them rebound and scatter well. The distribution of the seed will be very regular, and is not aiTected by the wind: and ii the quantity of seed is found, by measure, to be too few or too many, the remedy can easily be applied by altering either the dip, or the width of the row, or tlie length of the step of the sower. Young women, or stout boys and girls, are the best to perform this work — and as no skill, and but little care is jvanting, as many as may be desired may be em- j)loyed at once, and the sowing finished in a short time. Now for regulating the width of rows, and co- vering the seed. Many farmers, much more skilled and experi- enced than I am, trust their clover seed on the earth without any process to cover them: but I have never made the trial, that the seed were not found to be unequally distributed— and often, not half would live. Wheat land, on which clover seed are usually sown, by the proper time has become settled, and with a sleek surface, though contiimally varied by inequalities. As ihe seed are thrown, they slide or rebound from the little elevations, and are collected in the depressions of the surface. Then ten or twenty seeds will often be found in a spot of a few square inches, and as many square feet adjoining may be without any. If a light roller is used to cover seed so sown, its pressure will generally be made only in the spots where few or no seed remain, as the hollows will seldom be touched by it. I suppose the land to have been ploughed level, or in wide beds. If in narrow and rounded ridges, the objections would be still more increased. The course that I prefer is this. When the sux*- face of a sufficient part of the wheat field is dry enough for a horse to walk on without injury, and at any time from the middle of January to the 10th of March, (but preferring the earlier time,) a light square harrow having 20 teeth, and sweeping about five feet, and drawn by one horse, is started ahead of each sower. The teeth generally cut very superficially, even on the elevated parts, and do not touch the depressed surface, and these nu- merous scratches, with the earth thrown up, serve to furnish a proper receptacle for each seed at the precise spot where it falls, or certainly within a few inches distance. The higher spots will tiius be as well supplied as the depressions, and the new- ly loosened mould will not only retain, but will cover the seed. A wooden roller however follow- ing, will certainly and effectually cover them. The row swept by the harrow, guides the course of tJie sower who walks after it, and prevents any difficulty in preserving the proper distance. But few wheat plants are draw n up by the harrows, and no perceptible injury is ever caused by their being thus used. Those persons who are willing to dispense with the use of the harrow, may find some dif- ficulty in preserving equality of breadth in the casts. The corn rows (if that crop preceded the wheat) will generally remain plain enough to guide the sower. When we sow on snow, the tracks of the sowers serve as a sufficient guide, both as to course and distance ; and in this manner the seed are more equally distributed, and better covered by the after thawing of the earth, than if thrown on the earth without using the har- row. AV'hen seed in the chaff are used, (as they should be after the farm will yield them,) there is a still more decided advantage in sowing on snow, as in this case, the regular distribution is better se- cured. R. N. PUEPARING FOOD FOR HORSES. From the New York Farmer. On the authority of Mr. Dick, it is stated that eight ounces of saliva are discharged in a minute from the salivary glands of the horse, when he is eating his food. In masticating hay, dry and hard as it generally is, these glands are kept discharg- ing too long, often through the greater part of the night, to satisfy the appetite of the horse. It seems reasonable that this would exhaust his strength. Hence the propriety of lessening the labor of eat- ing, by cutting or softening the hay, for an animal that so nobly and spiritedly tods for his master. The effect of feeding horses on dry hay is to wear away the teeth, and consequently, the labor is in- creased as the animal advances in age. The use of potatoes for horses would be much more general if they could be more easily preserved through the winter and summer. The writer re- commends to bury them five feet below the surface of the ground, where they will keep until August, Bean straw is said to be as nourishing to horses as hay. If so, it should be an object with the Ameri- can farmer to cure it properly. FARMERS* REGISTER— LIMING LAND— WATER-BORNE MARL, &c. 567 KSTiarATE OF THE EXPENSE OF LIMING LAND, FROM WATER-BORNE OYSTER SHELLS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Charles City, December 2d, 1833. I am sorry to have delayed sending; you the es- timate promised of the cost of applying oyster shell lime as a manure: it was however unavoid- able. I might have given it before this, on my own responsibility ; but preferred to have others of as much experience to assist me in making it. In the first place then, the cost of shells lirought to our landing places, is per hogshead of eighteen bushels, 62^ cts. To cost of getting them from the craft, if very convenient for landing, 2^ To cutting wood, allowing 12 cords for one hundred hogsheads, 3 To hauling shells to the wood, or wood to the shells, as may be most conve- nient, hauling out the shells after burning, slaking, scattering, &c. 32 100 Thus making the sum of one dollar the hogshead. To afford then live hogsheads to the acre after burning, (which has been the quantity applied by my.self and my bi'other, on very stiff land,) one third more must be added as the loss by that pro- cess; and I am inclined to the opinion that a frac- tion more may be added, which will make seven hogsheads, the cost of which I have shewn above to be seven dollars ; on a lighter soil, four hogs- heads are deemed sufficient, which will diminish the expense one dollar. If there is any error in this estimate, I am satisfied that it is in the low rate of charges : and I am confirmed in this opinion by one of my tenants, who is a man of considera- ble experience, having refused to accept the offer of thirty-five cents per hogshead, as full compen- sation for all the trouble and expense of liming, save the purchase and delivery of the shell. C. H. MINGE. ESTIBIATE OF THE COST OF WATER-BORNE MARL. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Walnut Grove, Charles City, Jan. 1, 1834. I am now enabled to complete the comparative estimate of the expense of lime and water-borne marl, for manure which you requested me to fur- nish. If the statements submitted are not full in every respect, they may at least be relied on so far as they go. I conmienced regularly to work about the 15th May to transport marl from Coggins' Point to my farm, a distance of fifteen miles by water, and ended on the 25th of December, a period of seven months. I had engaged in the business three hands, two of them at eight dollars per month, and the other a boy worth about two dollars and fifty cents. I purchased a craft, and when provided with all the necessary fixtures for commencing work, the cost was three hundred dollars. On the supposition, that this craft will at the end of ten years be entirely worthless, I will estimate the " wear and tear" or loss of capital therein, at thirty dollars per annum, the average annual repairs at thirty dollars more, and the expense of provisions for the hands at ninety dollars lor the year. With these preliminaries, I think I may now fairly make out my account for the transportation of the marl, as follows : To cost of vessel, in " wear and tear" for seven months. To average expense of repairs, Todo. interest on #300, for seven months. Hire of three hands for seven months. Provisions for seven months, Paid for uncovering marl, and for putting on board a purl of the whole quantity. a? 50 17 50 10 50 45 50 122 50 52 50 70 00 290 50 By 15,000 bushels of marl, atl|| cents the bushel (very nearly) 290 50 This makes the whole cost of the marl, put out at my landing, less than 2 cents the heaped bushel. The estimate for hauling, scattering, &c. I will leave for you to add ; that depends h.owever on the distance; and I can only say, that a single horse cart was fully sufficient to keep way with the craft, a distance of one thousand yards. I think I can safely say, that no one can meet with more difficul- ties than I have myself encountered in this under- taking; my landing place being so bad, that I have known the hands frequently engaged for a whole week in unloading the craft, because of very low tides ; when if the water had been sufficient to admit them to the wharf, they might easily have accomplished the work in half the time. I feel also perfectly justified in saying, that had I been so situated as to have the advantages of a landing place which no tide could interfere with, that five thousand bushels more of marl could have been brought during the seven months. COLLIER n. MI?»GE. REMARKS ox THE COMPARATIVE EXPENSE OF USING LIME AND .MARL. [Tlic foregoing estimate may be iiiipliciily i-elied oHj so far as it rests on actvial expenditures and operations — and in the items which are necessarily conjectural, we have every assurance of correctness, that can be fur- nished by the practical and businessdike habits which characterize the writer. But as the estimate is not com- pletely carried out, we will attempt to supply the defi- ciency, and will add some observations on the compara- tive expense of water-borne marl and lime. According to the estimates of the cost of labor used for marling given in the Essay on Calcareous Mamires, A horse for a year's work, and in- cluding every expense, costs $83 44 A boy to drive, 44 67 Cart and tools, 14 00 $147 11 At which rate, the carting of 1 5,000 bushels of marl 1,000 yards, from the landing to the field, in seven months, cost JiS.5 81 Spreading the loads, in the field, at ten cents the 100 bushels, 11 50 Cost of transportation &c. before stated, S97 31 2S0 50 Whole expense of applying 15,000 bushels, $387 81 Or rather more than 2i cents the bushel. 508 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE, This estimate includes no cimrge for the mail, as none had been made. If half a cent was added for this, it would increase the cost to about three cents the bushel. On the other hand, the price paid for hire was unusually high, as free hands only were employed, and only such as could be relied on. The difficulty of ob- taining this marl was very considerable, on account of the great thickness of superincumbent eartli to be re- moved. Many other causes of difficulty and loss were encountered by Mr. Minge (all serving to increase his estimate to what it exhibits,) on account of his having commenced a perfectly new business, to every part of which, he and his laborers were alike strangers. But without making any deductio)i for any of the peculiar difficulties which attended the operations, and sup- jiosing half a cent a bushel, a fair price to pay the owner of the marl, the entire cost will be counted at three cents the bushel. By the preceding estimate the entire cost of lime, at $1 the hogshead of shells was 5 10-18, say 5^ cents the bushel. Now we will compare values. Oyster shells are not pure carbonate of lime. They contain a portion (how much we know not) of animal matter, destructible by fire, and which is entirely lost in biu-ning the shells. Whatever is this proportion of animal matter, it ought to be deducted from the weight and value of the shells. But not knowing this propor- tion, the shells will be here estimated as if they consisted of pure carbonate of lime. The marl, carefully aver- aged, and analyzed, was found to contain 61 per cent, of carbonate of lime. A peck measure of oyster shells, which had been well washed and dried, heaped about U inches, (sup- posed to be fully equal to selling measure,) weighed 16J pounds. The marl (an average of the whole thickness of the bed,) dried perfectly over the fire, and pounded, and pressed by the hands only in the same peck measure, weighed 20| pounds, even, and 24 pounds heaped. The measure and weight were supposed to be fixed by correct instruments — but the same were used, and at one lime, so that the relative weights, at least, are correct. One hundred busliels of oyster shells, weighing 67 lbs. = 6,700 lbs. making of carbonate of lime the same, lbs. 6,700 One hundred bushels of dried marl, weigh- ing 96 lbs. = 9,600 lbs. and contain of carbonate of lime, lbs. .5,856 Thus the marl which costs only a small fraction over one half as much as the total expense of the shells, con- tains about6seventhsas much of pure calcareous matter. But one of these manures is applied mild, or in the form of carbonate of lime, and the other as caustic, or quick lime : and some may doubt whether an additional value is not gained by the burning of the latter. This, we leave to others to decide. In most cases, in this cliniate, we should consider the causticity of lime as more likely to be injurious than beneficial. The minute- ly divided state of quicklime, however, certainly ena- bles every jDarticle to come into immediate operation ; ■whereas it might require two or three years before the full benefit of marl could be obtained. This somewhat slower action at first, is the only reason why marl should iiot be rated, according to its proportion of cal- careous matter, full as high as liine. These results, Avhich we have arrived at by quite a difturent route, do not differ matci-ially from those ob- tained by Wm. B. Harrison, Esq. (No. 7, p. 396, Farm. Reg.) from his practice and experience. He applied burnt, but unslaked shells at the rate of seventy bushels, and marl at 140 bushels the acre, on adjoining and equal land, and found the crops of the first and second years equally increased by both manures, but that of the third year much better on the marled part. To m:\ke seventy bushels of burnt and unslaked shells, 108 would be required, (according to Mr. F. Lewis' esti- mate. No. 1, p. 19, Farm. Reg.) so that according to the foregoing mode of calculation, Mr. Harrison's applica- tions were at the rate of 108 bushels of oyster shells to the acre, and 140 of marl. His marl was from a bed of quality similar to that used by Mr. Minge, but was mixed with much worthless earth, and was transported at heavier expense. This comparative estimate of values, lias been made to apply to a particular body of marl, because tlie actual labor was there employed, and it was desirable 10 estimate as much as possible by facts, rather than on conjecture. But there are doubtless many bodies of marl on tide water, either richer, or more accessible, or perhaps possessing both those advantages in a higher degree.] EXTRACTS OF PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. A^etc York, Oct. 18, 1833. * * * I was bred up " a sort of farmer" in tlie~ county of West Cliester, and have followed the ploughinmy time; but what little I knew of the ru- ral trade lias been in a great measure Ibrgotten in the course of a city life. But I have not lost the rural feeling — and any tiling that sends to my mind the image of the country, and of a country life, always ofTers agreeable associations. * * * It is somewhat singular, that the two best agricultu- ral works I have ever seen, in my judgment, are the Arator of Col. John Taylor, and the , both written in Virginia, wJiere you all acknow- ledge the practical pari of the business is about as bad as possible. I will add, without the least disposi- tion to flatter, that I think the Farmers' Register bids fair to excel any thing of the kind I have seen, in practical utility. I am such a friend to agriculture, and to old Virginia, that it gives me sensible gratification to see these symptoms of at- tention to the great source of her dignified charac- ter as a state, as well as happiness and prosperity. He who derives his su|)port from the bosom of the earth, will surely love his country as the source of all his- enjoyments ; he takes root in the soil from whence he receives his nourishment, and clings like a babe to the bosom of his mother. * « * Boston, (E. S. Md.) Dec. 23rf, 1833. I commenced with No. 1 of the Farmers' Re- gister, and have received to No. 7, except No. 2 and No. 6, which have never come to hand. I re- gret this very much, as I consider the Register the best agricultural paper in America, and wish to have them bound, annually, for preservation. The complaint of the Register's not getting to hand re- gularly , prevents many persons in this part of the country fi^om subscribing, who really wish to pa- tronize the work. Perhaps on inquiry you may FARMERS' REGISTER— THREE SHIFT SYSTEM. 5(^9 be alile to ascertain the cause of failure, and reme- dy the defect, [The foregoing extract will give some idea of the in- conveniences and losses sustained, in consequence of the negligence, or worse than negligence of some post- masters. We havesujiplied duplicate copies gratuitous- ly, until fifty or sixty sets of numbers are destroyed, and yet have not been able to nicdce up for all such losses. No publication in the United States is more carefully prepared for transportation by mail, by lx;ing securely wrapped, and plainly directed, on each copy, as ■well as on tlie v,4io!e package. Yet many single numbers and sometimes whole packages are lost, and are not returned to the publisher, but in a very few cases, when real mis- takes of direction had been made. If the wrapper was destroyed, and every part of the direction effaced, still the name of the publication office must be known — and 110 one could be at a loss where to direct such copies. ] THE THREE FIELD SYSTEM BEST ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATE AND SOIL OF THE TiDE- AVATER SECTIO?f OF VIRGINIA. To the Eilitor of the Farmers' Register. I have regularly received your valuable Regis- ter, and read many of the communications with great pleasure. I am sanguine in the opinion that tiie spirit of inquiry roused by your late work on Calcareous Manures, will be kept alive b.y the Register, and act most beneficially on the agri- cultural interests of the state. The Arator of Col. John Taylor, at the time of its publication, was hailed as a production of great merit. It is now, I think, treated rather slightingly ; — though I by no means coincide in all the opinions advanc- ed by the very sagacious and enlightened author of that work, yet I think (apart from his claims as a patriot and statesman,) Virginia certaiidy owes much to him in his character of agricultu- rist. He demonstrated by practical illustration and example that a worn out soil might be render- ed exceedingly lertile, and that agriculture might be made in this state the certain means of wealth; iiiculcating strongly the ad-.antages of clover, plaster, ntanuring, enclosing, connected with deep ploughing. Like many other excellent works in the hands of the unskilful, it somelimes produced individual injury : tliis however was the fault of the injured, and not of the author. No system that has ever been devised, will suit all soils and climates. It must be left to individual intelligence in the application of general principles, to make due allowance for the particular circumstances of each case. Inattention to this rule, and the want of minuteness of detail, often render the experi- ments of farmers so very different in their results. For instance, I have been informed by an intelli- gent farmer of Fauquier, that his most successful crops of wheat on corn land have been made by sowing the grain on the land after removing the corn, ■without any previous preparation, and then passing over it a heavy harrow. This is doubt- less true, and ansv/ers very well where corn is cul- tivated on a flat surface as in Fauquier ; but in the tidewater section of Virginia, where corn is gene- rally jdanted in beds, or on higli ridges, a farmer would act very unwisely, if in inutation of the agriculturist of Fauquier, he scattered his wheat Jjpon the unploughed ridges of his corn field. Again, from the accounts giv^n in your Register Vol. 1—72 of the immense crops of wheat made on farms where the four field liillow system is in vogue, es- pecially on the James river, it may be considered as fairly demonstrated that this system is best adapted to the soil and climate of that section of country wdiere it so extensively prevails, and is decidedly most profitable. Yet I question w'hether a farmer in the part of Virginia where I reside, would not be very unwise to adopt it — for, from long observation and reflection, I am induced to believe that the so much abused three field system suits us far better ; and moreover, that under this despised system an exhausted soil may be quite re- suscitated, and the farmer amply compensated for his labor. 1 will concede that land will improve faster under tlie four field system, accompanied v.'ith green clover fallows and manure; and if I resided in a region of country well adapted to the wheat crop, I sliould certainly pursue the system which seems so popular. My preference of the three field system arises entirely from the fact that Indian corn is so much more certain with us than wheat, and because I think the three field suits the corn crop far better than the four field system. The experience of years has convinced me that the wheat crop on the sea board is extremely pre- carious, subject to numerous casualties, some of which no skill or industry can remedy. It fre- quently happens in the spring, when the wheat is in bloom and promises an abundant yield, that the hopes of the farmer are blasted in a few hours by an easterly storm. I have often sutTered in this way, and speak from experience. I mention this as only one of the disasters to which our wheat crops are subject, and which is beyond the control of man. Indian corn is the crop on which alone we can with safety rely. It is admirably adapted to our climate and soil, and seldom disappoints our expectations. Would it be right then for us to adopt a system which would render wlieat our pri- mary crop.'' I think not. In a country not well suited to hay, corn aiTords us the m.eans of sup- porting slock and manuring extensively. The blade fodder v, ill feed our horses — the shucks and tojjs our work oxen and milch cows — and the stalks themselves afford excellent nourishment for the cattle generally, good litter for pens, and con- stitute the means of retaining and applying to the soil the manure dropped during the season the cattle are confined. Again, if our lands are permitted to remain without the cultivation of a horse-hoed crop more than three years, tliey be- come so foul and hard as seldom to yield (without great extra labor,) in proportion to their fertility. To fallow them to advantage they must be in at least four fields, and then you must have two fields in wheat and only one in corn, tlius giving the most uncertain .crop precedence over the most cer- tain. And as far as my information extends, it has never been ascertained by experiment whether our lands would yield wheat if fidlowed for a succes- sion of years. They would most probably become puffy, and throw out the wheat during the winter. Afte'r all, facts furnish the best arguments. I have noticed with minute attention the experiments of savcral of my neighbors, and will endeavor to give you the results. One divided his farm into four fields, and cultivated them successively in corn. His land, judging by the growth of vegetable matter, evidently improved; yet his corn crops declined, and his wheat crops were generally de- 570 FARMERS' REGISTER— THREE SHIFT SYSTEM. stroyed by insects. He was compelled to return to the three field system, since whicli time his crops have improved, and the yield of the present year (notwithstanding drought,) has exceeded that of any former year. Another gentleman had been making good corn, wheat, and barley crops, but possessing more enterprise than his neighbors ge- nerally, he adopted the five field system. His crops of corn and small grain have retrograded. He has had several crops of wheat on his fallow fields, Avhich promised a most abundant harvest, and yet either from insects, or storms, or some other casu- alty, he has always been disappointed in the ex- pected harvest ; and I doubt not, though he is un- willing to admit it, that he will again return to the despised three field system. This last gentleman possesses all the requisite skill and industry to in- sure success. Another neighbor has been culti- vating his farm in four fields for several 5'ears. He is a very neat manager. His lands are prepared in the best manner, and his grain is remarkably "well put in. For several years his small grain crops increased, but latterly a great change has taken place. His barley crop (his principal reli- ance) has gradually dwindled until this year, from the attacks of insects, &c. He may be said to have sowed himself out of seed, and to have fairly aban- doned the croj). I will cite you another case. A farmer very near me, (a particular friend, who commenced operations on a farm impoverished and worn out by bad cultivation,) has lately thrown his farm into four fields. He has made great exer- tions to improve his land through manure, rest, &c. and his success is very flattering and higidy creditable. Yet 1 think he is nearly convinced ihat the four field fallow system will not answer, and that he will speedily abandon it. His smali grain crops have never come up to their promise, and the wild onion is gaining rapidly on him. Judge Semple of Williamsburg, an agriculturist of first rate skill and sagacity, has, through the medium of your paper, renounced his preconceiv- ed opinions of the four field system, and intends re- tracing his steps with haste, if not with " fear and trembling." Again; I know no fiirmers in Virgi- nia more prosperous, or who have made more mo- ney by agriculture than those on the Rappahan- nock. They rely principally on Indian corn, and cultivate their farms in three fields. I observe too, that very few of your fallow farmers (not aided by reclaimed marshes,) make more corn than answers for their domestic purposes. The whole matter may be thus summed up. In those sections of country where the fi\llow system is pursued, and where the energies of the farmer are directed to wheat as a primary crop, the corn crop is proportionably small : and where corn is the staple, the wheat crop is seldom large. As wheat is made with less hoe labor than corn, it is wise to rely on it in a country adapted to its growth — especially too where corn would not bear transportation. But on the seaboard, where the markets are so accessible, and corn so certain a crop, it is safest for the farmer to make it his prin- cipal reliance. 1 will now endeavor to show, and by reference to my own farm alone, that the three field system is not necessarily an inipoverishing one : on the contrary, that under it poor land may be rendered The farm on which I reside was purchased by my father, at about twenty shillings per acre. It was for years the by-word of the neighborhood, and constituted a sort of standard by which the po- verty of other farms might be estimated. The manager, who lives with me, engaged with my father the last of the year 1813, for the year 1814. He informs me that the crop of 1813, a little up- wards of one hundred barrels, was sold in 1814; and that in consequence of this large sale, my fa- ther was obliged to purchase corn, by the fall. For many years past the farm has been rapidly improving, though constantly under the three field system ; and the crop of corn made this year from about one hundred and fifty acres, may be very fairly estimated at one thousand barrels ; of this, seven hundred barrels was made on a field estimated at ninety acres, the other sixty having been injured some years since by the passage of salt water over it, during a gust tide. Every time a field comes into cultivation, after yielding me a crop of corn and wheat, I consider it decidedly better than it was the year before. This is the re- sult, I admit, of a laborious but profitable appli- cation of manure; and demonstrates, that without the aid of lime or marl, (the great value of which I am not disposed at all to question,) a farm may, by its oivn resources, be resuscitated. Every thing that can be turned into manure, or can be of service when applied to the land, is so applied, and however unfavorable the seasons may have been, my farm has for many years past always yielded a respectable crop of corn. The wheat crop has never been large — in no year having exceeded thirteen hundred bushels. If I were to select a farm of moderate size in the tide water section of Virginia, I would take one of three fields of 150 acres each, with three or four lots of forty acres, which should be sowed in clover, and fallowed for wheat in rotation, and hav- ing a standing pasture of moderate extent. I would then jdant 150 acres in corn every year; I would sow a hundred acres of the corn land in wheat, and fifty in oats, which, with the forty acre lot of clover fallow, would give 140 acres of land in wheat, 150 in corn, and fifty in oats every year. This I am convinced would be (at more profitable, than if the same lands were divided into four fields, two fields in wheat, and one in corn; and simply because corn is so much more certain a crop with us, than wheat. The fifiy acres in oafs would nearly yield grain enough to feed the necessary horses during the year, (a smaller number being sufficient under the three field system,) and thus leave a larger quantity of corn for sale. In fact, after all, it is not so much the particular system that is adopted, as the mode in which it is carried into effect. If mine is well executed, I must re-^ mark in justice to my manager's untiring indus- try and excellent judgment, that he is mainly entitled to the credit. I will at some future time, give you my whole system of cultivation, especially of corn. It is exceedingly simple, and so far as its correctness is to be estimated by its success, has proved a happy adaptation of means to a desired end. I will offer no apology to you, or to the public, for presenting these desultory remarks, as I am led to believe by your repealed invitations to farmers generally, to fertile, and the owner fairly compensated for his give the results of their experience, and from the labor. I character of your work itself, that any practical FARMERS' REGISTER— NEW-JERSEY MARL. 671 observations on the subject of agriculture (how- ever imperfectly or hastily they may be written) will be acceptable. w. h. roy. Green Plains, 3Iatthews Co. Dec. 30, 1833. [The foregoing interesting and valuable communica- tion was deficient in one particular, which we consider has a most important bearing on the success and profit of using putrescent manures, viz : the original state of the soil, as to fertility or barrenness. An inquiry on this head has brought the following postscript. The last paragraph is part of a i^rivatc letter, and was not intended for publication — but we have taken the liberty to add it, as furnishing facts and ojDinions properly be- longing to the main communication. We are very far from claiming any deference to om- individual opinions on questionable points in agriculture, and it will always agree with our wishes, no less than our editorial duty, to publish as readily those views which conflict with, or may overthrow our own, as if they were in full accord- ance. Mr. Lewis B. Wiatt is the overseer who has so long been in the service of Mr. Roy. This is not the first time, nor through the only channel, that we have heard his merit referred to : but the mere fact that he has for so long a time, continued in the service of one employer, and continued to possess his confidence and approbation, are enough to prove that such a man is an honor to his profession.] Green Plains, Jan. 17, 1834. I am aware, that these statements appear to con- tradict the opinion expressed in your late Essay on Calcareous Manures, that land originally poor, cannot be materially or permanently improved, by the use of putrescent manures, unless aided by lime or marl — but I give you the results of my ex- perience, without pretending to assert what the fertility of the soil might have been, at a period so remote, as to be beyond the memory of my oldest neighbors. 1 only know, that it was proverbially poor, when purchased by my father, and judging of the peculiar properties of the soil, by the por- tion of land cleared by my father and myself, (as we supposed for the first time,) and by the appear- ance of that part which is still uncleared, 1 should suppose that at least a large portion of the farm had never been fertile j for even admitting that we were wrong in supposing it had never been in cultivation, yet from the size of the present growth on it, certainly it must have had sulTicient rest, to renovate and restore it, to its primitive state. There is a greater variety of soil on my farm, than usually exists on one of the same ex- tent. In speaking of the properties of the soil, I now allude to it, in its present improved state. The lands immediately on the river, are generally of a light character, with a substratum of clay. As you recede from the river, you pass a view of what is called dark chesnut soil, and after passing this about a half mile distant from the water, the soil gradually stilTens. It has during cultivation a whitish appearance, and when ploughed wet, be- comes very hard. It is the kind of land denomi- nated with us " white oak land." This part of the farm is better adapted to wheat, than the lands on the river. It never heaves during winter. The term sandy loam as used in your Essay, expresses, I think, better than any other, the general charac- ter of my soil. In writing on the three field system, I had no intention of combating your previously expressed opinions, though I was well apprised of them, as they had often been a subject of reflection. If I were to venture to express an opinion in opposition to yours, I should say that your remarks were per- fectly correct, when applied to poor soils of a par- ticular character, where the greater portion con- sisted of coarse particles of sand : but that there are many soils originally poor, which might be rendered very fertile by the use of putrescent ma- nures. In the main, I accord with the opinion of Arator, quoted by you, in the 36th page of your Essay on Calcareous Manures. In the 39th page of that work, you observe, "but no where can a farm be found, which has been improved beyond its original fertility, by means of the vegetable re- sources of its own arable fields." Now I certainly tliink my farm affords one example, with this ex- ception, that I have not relied only on the resources of the arable fields, but have called to my aid the leaves from the woods, and the sea-ooze, which I have had carted from the river, in large quantities, and which affords a valuable litter for pens. \V. H. KOY. VALUABLE MANURE NEW-JERSEY MARL. From the New York Farmer. 3Tr. Fleet, — I have, according to promise, col- lected a few facts upon the Jersey marl, as a ma- nure, and I submit them to you for insertion in the New York Farmer. Every person to whom I have applied for infor- mation upon this new and valuable article, speaks of it as possessing enriching qualities, truly sur- prising, and of more general value than any known substance at present in use for that purpose. Its effect was accidentally brought into local notice about sixteen years ago, by a farmer, who, having a ditch dug in a meadow, had the soil scat- tered over the piece : the ditch or drain happened to cut a vein of this marl, and the produce of the meadow was three-fold the ensuing season, upon the spot where the marl was scattered. Impor- tant as this was, no further notice was taken of it, and being of the old stamp, averse to any thing new, he neglected to profit by his accidental good fortune. That meadow still has a better bottom where the marl was spread. After this I can find no traces of its use till about nine years since, when, by some chance, Mr. Alexander McGregor spread a quantity on some grass land; the effect was great, and he informed me that the first crop paid him for the expense in additional hay. That gentleman is now a warm advocate for it, and be- ing a large owner, and a wealthy man, has caused it to be pretty extensively used for these last two years, for all kinds of crops, and he assured me last week, with entire success; yet one or two, who have pits of marl on their premises, still ])refer dis posing of it to improve other farms, rather than enrich their own. It is now ascertained that this marl forms a substratum in many parts of the Jersey coast, and therefore may be procured to any extent ; and I am about to show you that its cheap- ness, durability, strength, cleanness, &c. will make it a valuable manure for the Long Island market- gardeners and farmers. If they once try it, they will no more buy the New- York manure at fifty cents the carman's load. I am assured by one re- 572 FARMERS' REGISTER— BLACK TOiNGUE IN HORSES. spectable farmer, that he considers one load of marl equal to five of dung'. It is [)er'ec(Iy clean, and will even destroy many weeds. This is a great desideratum in fjarden truck. It does not readily freeze, and will work well all weathers, always ready for use, and may be spread any time from September to March inclusive. It makes an excellent compost; upon grass land it docs won- ders; a thick bottom and heavy swarth of white clover is its certain produce. Potatoes, both the sweet and Irish, thrive well with it. Dung, it is known generally, flies into the ioj)s of lliese, while marl scarcely alters the top, but greatly increases the size of the roots. Corn, buckwheat, cabbages, turnips, all succeed with it. I am informed that five loads to the acre have produced a fine crop of buckwheat upon very poor land. It is used as a top dressing on grass land, and may be spread from ten to twenty loads per acre, as late as March. One large farmer. Judge C, informed me he had used eighteen loads per acre ; but there is some danger of using loo much, parti- cularly with poor light land. 1 have heard of some that was unproductive for five years, but last year it began to recover, and it is expected the produce will eventually make up ibr lost time, but it is certainly better not to overdo the tiling. Give a second dressing the second year, rather than a surfeit at first. As iar as experimental informa- tion enables us to determine, it continues its eifects sufficiently nine or ten years. For corn and grain it is scattered on the top after jiloughing, and well harrowed in. I cannot learn tliat it has been tried for peach trees, but I know one large grov.'cr who is making preparations to try it this season. This marl is evidently a marine deposit: it is found in hollows at two or three feet below the surtiice, continuing downwards to sixteen. Its upper strata is of a greenish blue color, the middle more inclining to gray ; and the lowest is of an ash color; this last is considered the strongest. Observe, I speak of its color when dry; and I ought further to observe that other pits are said to vary much in color and quality : therefore, before trial the quality ought to be known. This marl has the appearance of sand, each little grain having a thick coat of decomposed vegetable matter, making them adhere together in Lumps occasion- ally. Shells, sea-worn stones, sharks' teeth, &c. are often found amongst it. The marl that is found in some places further from the sea does not appear to be so powerful. From the pits where I selected you the samples, that accompany this, it is carted by land forty miles, the farmer paying from 2s. 6d. to 3s. per load by the pit side. A load is twenty bushels ; a bushel weighs from one hundred to one hundred and three pounds, Avhen dry. I am about having the marl analyzed, so as to ascertain exactly where it will be most useful. I Avill communicate to you the result with some other experiments, for your next number ; and should you wish to possess a larger sample for any of your readers to make trial with, I have prepared you some in barrels, with the price you can furaish it; for I can see no reason why it should not become an article of as much request as ashes, or plaster of paris, and will, therefore, be of as much com- mercial importance as coal. D. A. AMES. Neio Vork, September 24, 1833. [On account of our preconceived opinions of the "Jersey marl," we felt anxious to learn the result of the analysis promised above ; but having heard nothing more on the subject for a considerable time, we wrote to ask for small portions of the several specimens, and have just received them from Mr. Fleet, the editor of the New York Farmer, whose letter also states that no analysis has been made, within his knowledge. Intend- ing to place all the specimens in better hands than our own for examination, we were unwilling to lessen the samples (which were necessarily made small, being sent by mail,) by taking more than a few grams from each. But from those small quantities alone, we hate no hesitation in asserting that there is not a particle ojT carbonate of lime, in either the three specimens received, which were taken from the upper, middle and lower parts of the stratum. We had before subjected to a more full trial two specimens of the Jersey " marl" de- scribed by our correspondent from Long Island, in No. 5, page 272, and found a similar result. As had beea supposed before seeing any specimen, and on the grounds stated fully, page 209, No. 4, this earth seems to be the same with what was there called gypseous earth, and which is so abundant on James river. From the experience of northern farmers there can be no doubt of the Jersey earth's being a valuable manure, if judiciou.sly applied, (though we cannot believe, with Mr. Ames, that it will serve as a substitute for putres- cent manures :) but its value is certainly not caused by its containing carbonate of lime, (whicli only consti- tutes the worth of marl,) and never has the term »nar£ been more misapplied than in this case. But to what- ever ingredient this Jersey earth owes its fertilizing ef- fects, there in good reason to hojDe that the same may be foimd to some extent in the gypseous earth of Virgi- nia. We have attempted to draw attention to this subject, and have succeeded in removing sometliing of the prevailing fal.se opinions ; and it is hoped that the labors of a more energetic and competent examiner will show what constitutes the value of these earths, as clearly as we have proved that it is not that which gives value to marl, or to our beds of fossil shells.] THE BLACK TONGUE. From the Northamptcm Courier. The black tongue disease in horses is becoming so prevalent, and spreading with such rapidity, that we are almost induced to believe it a species of cholera. It is infecting horses, cows, oxen, sheep, and even the feathered tribe ; and what is most strange, a man near Deerfield, who has been among horses suffering with it, has contracted the disorder ! It is a species of putrid sore throat or canker rash, eating otf the roots of the tongue, and turning it black, at the same time diseasing the glands of the throat. Cleanliness of racks and mangers should be preserved, and as a preventive, salt is said to be excellent. A piece of gum assa- foetida placed in each manger, and another fasten- ed to the water bucket, are indispensable to the health of animals about these times. Another preventive used in large stables in this town, is putting a composition of tar and camphor on a- piece of cloth, and winding it round the bits — fine salt thrown into the mouth, and sulphur scattered in the manger occasionally. FARMERS' REGISTER— DIARY OF THE WEATHER. 573 5 KO p:;os^o O clo «. 5 0 £ Thermometer. Winds. M ^ (U re CO " 100— <(Nt^«ot^<;osfO(Mccco>n cc >^ IT) a z o Ed a ■91 H £j c V. c s s "3 c Q Month. Thermometer. ^ - > < 0: a Q c 6 ^ ■ 5 -C Q Z PS H m S o u a C-l M CO 0: « a; TO 0 > 0 a' z o IS^III^Sl|lS|§Sog|oo^|||^og||oj2 674 FARMERS' REGISTER— CARTER'S CATAWBA WINE. X T3 •SlUlIT3A9JJ B ^ O fe O •AVOUg •sAcQ •UIBy •sA\3Q to fO ■* •ipnoio •sX\;a to to m -.1113 j; •sXbq 05 — fN ■-i tM 1-1 Q •SiiiireA9Jj •AV •sXbq rt «0 lO •Ai -S "SitvQ Ci i^ o •s 1 's^^a T}< ^ •3-S ■sAv(j (N , ^ a ^ ■a sXbq tii^ 1-1 (N ■a'M •sXt5Q 0> l>. «D AV M •s/Cbq -H cj m •M sA^a 00 fO 0* -d •-* ■^ •AnQ isap[03 O «0 (N " - " •Xbq isanojj 1st. 2th. 4th. ~ ■• ^ &- M CO o -^ II CO in Tt II rt o. P • in M «D II HH to in •<«< 11 H Pi C3 hJ OJ «0 CJ5 s >^ to TP « o i Q ^ O ^ t^ "^ n CO , ' m (N o ci •— t Tt< TJ< Tf 113 O |-~} >r O c' CO CO Q 1 s M ' to «n tc or ■>* s ^ ^ ^ ■rt -i' (N > i> tc in cc a H ^ O S b. S O b U o C u 1 C i^ 0 II Diary of the Weather at Fort Monroe, Old Point Comfort, for January, 1834. Month Thermometer. Winds Weather REMARKS. VII. II. IX. A. M. p. SI p. M 1st 40 48 45 N. E. Cloudy. 2d 45 55 52 S. W. Raui. 3d 36 28 27 N. Clear. 4th 24 24 24 " Cloudy. Snow, 9 P. M. 5ih 23 26 24 N. E. Snow. 6th 26 25 22 " 7th 17 29 27 S. W. Clear. 8th 2S 35 34 it Cloudy. 9th 29 37 35 E. Clear. 10th 34 38 36 N. E. Rain. 11th 36 42 37 " " 12 th 52 62 58 S. W. Clear. Rain, 8 P. M. 13th 41 38 36 N. W. Cloudy. 14th 34 37 34 N. E. Clear. 15 th 34 36 34 « (( 16th 34 45 43 (( (( 17th 48 56 54 S. Cloudy. 18ih 52 58 58 (( " Rain, 9 P. M. 19th 52 58 58 S. E. (( 20th 53 50 46 N E. " Dense fog. 21st 30 27 24 N. Snow. 22d 18 31 27 N.W. Clear. 23d 20 28 23 (( " 24th 20 35 28 (< " 25 th 22 28 28 (( Cloudy. S.W.atSP.M. 26 th 31 39 31 (I Clear. 27th 23 33 31 (( (i 28th 27 32 35 i( (( 29th 32 37 33 N. E. (( 30ih 35 37 38 " Rain. 31st 34 42 37 (( Cloudy. CARTER S CATAWBA WIWE. [Mr. John Carter, who owns a nursery and vineyard near Richmond, lately presented us with a few bottles of wine of his making, of a beautiful light Madeira color, with a request that its quality shoidd be strictly tested. Not being in the habit of tasting wine, and having no pretensions to connoiseiirship,v,-e requested a gentleman who is an excellent judge of good wines, to try, and report the quaUty of this, without being influenced by "favor or affection," an account of its origin. This opinion is expressed in the following letter.] Richmond, Jammry 22, 1834. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. The wine which you presented me with a few weeks ago, was made by Mr. John Carter in 1832, from the Catawba grape, and without any admix- ture of ardent spirit, or any thing else added to it, but a portion of sugar to the fresh juice of the grape. It is his first experiment; and I really think he deserves encouragement. Indeed I found the quality far better than I expected, and so mucli better thaji any home made wine that I have heretofore met with, and so much more like Ma- deira wine, both in appearance and flavor, that I take pleasure in recommending a trial of it, in justice to Mr. Carter, and hope you will publish this note in your " Farmers' Register." With great respect, w. k. johnson. FARMERS' REGISTJEJR— COMMERCIAL REPORT— ROT IN COTTON, &c. 575 For the Farmers' Register. COMaiERClAL REPORT. He who-qommunicates bad tidings performs an unpleasant and thankless task. When prosperity attended all occupations, when every one appeared to be actively and profitably employed, whether in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, each reaping a fair harvest for his toil, he who under- took to depict the lively scene which was presented to him, felt a pleasing excitement, and a sensation of pride in describing the prosperity of his fellow countrymen. But now that the bright prospect is overcast, a corresponding sj^mpathy excites feel- ings of a very different character. So sudden a reverse has seldom, if ever, been experienced, extending as it does, to every class in every community throughout the union. We hear of fiiilures among the merchants of the large cities, and of distress in every quarter. AVe hear of capitalists who had engaged to furnish large sums of money for the prosecution of works of in- ternal improvement, unable to comply with their engagements; of large operations undertaken by the states being consequently suspended ; of con- tractors unpaid, and of laborers deprived of em- ployment. We find commerce in a great measure suspended, agricultural productions fallen in price, confidence destroyed, and in short, an entire revo- lution from a high state of prosperity to one of des- pondency and (to many) of ruin. Where this is to terminate none can yet foresee. The cause is much easier traced than the termina- tion ; but it behooves those whose duty it is to guard and to promote the welfare entrusted to them, to put an end to tlie present state of sus- pense. Whether the causes of the existing de- rangement are attributable to personal feelings or to constitutional scruples, the elFect is such as re- quires great forbearance to rest quietly under it. Before the expiration of another month, it is to be hoped that the Bank and Deposile question, which has engrossed the attention of both houses of Congress will have been brought to a satisfac- tory close. Within the last two months every article of ex- port has declined in price. Wheat may he quoted at 85 to 100 cents ; Cotton 10 to lOJ cents ; Flour $4 50; Tobacco .^3 to $9 50. Public stocks have fallen 10 to 20 per cent. Interest on money which 'ast year was 4^ to 5 per ct. is now 15 to 20 per ct. Stocks in substantial banks at New Orleans which were worth .^116 have fallen to .^94. Exchange on England 4 per cent, below par — a circumstance unprecedented since the resumption of specie pay- ments in England. X. January 28, 1834. growing in the same field. Each was equally per- forated; but the hull of the Tennessee, which was three fourths thicker tlian the Creole, could not be penetrated by tlie ant. By taking the bolls of each kind of cotton, and with a knife paring off the hull, or covering of the boll, the depth that the bill of the ant had penetrated, might be easily traced. The hull of the Tennessee cotton, of the first year's growth, would not be perforated more than half way through ; the Alvarado was not as thick, but sufficiently so to prevent injury ; while the thinness of the Creole admitted the bill of the ant to the seed. It is in wet seasons, when tlie growth of cotton is luxuriant, and fermentation easily excited, that we witness the greatest devastation." It is proba- ble the ant may be found in all cotton growing countries, and equally abundant every year : but from some local cause, either from the peculiarity of the season, or quality and exposure of the soil upon which the plant is situated, the hull is more or less thick. It must be owing principally to the place or climate, as it is observed, Tennessee or Alvarado after being planted here a few years, are equally liable to the rot. On observing the thick- ness of the covering of the bolls of the Tennessee cotton of the first, second, and third year's growth, I found that in the latter year the hull was as thin as that of the Creole. ROT IN COTTON. From the Louisiana Register. Parish of East Baton Rouge. Jan. 1834. Mr. Alexander : I observe in No. 31 of your Register, that a writer in the " Southern Ag- riculturist" has ofifered a solution to the often agi- tated inquiry, " what is the cause of the rot in cot- ton?" 1 beg leave to differ from that writer in opinion. I believe it is caused by an insect perfo- rating the boll. Some few years since my atten- tion was drawn to this subject, and 1 became satis- fied that the rot was caused by an ant ; — in coming to this conclusion, I observed the bolls of the Ten- nessee, Alvarado, and the Creole black-seed cotton, NUMBER AND INCREASE OF CORRESPON- DENTS. Tlie friends and correspondents of the Farmers' Re- gister may feel some interest in the following exhibit of the number of individuals who have added to the value of our work by their communications. It is cause for con- gratulation, and an augury of valuable future results to the agricultural interest of our country, that so many intelligent fanners should already have surmounted their objections to writing, and are willing to unite in this great plan of "mutual instruction." This number might be, and we hope yet will be, increased tenfold. It should be observed, that no one individual is count- ed twice in the following enumeration, although he may have written many times, and that no private corres- pondent, (as such) is counted at all. This distinction is made because all extracts from private correspon- dence are inserted without authority from the writers — and because it is hoped and expected, that all private correspondents (who are not already included,) will hereafter be enumerated among the writers of articles intended for publication. In No. 1, there were original communications from 7 correspondents No. 2, - - - 6 other new correspondents. No. 3, - - - 8 — — — No. 4, - - - 12 — — — No. .5, - - - 14 — — No. 6, - - - 6 — — No. 7, . - - 12 — — — No. 8, - - . 15 — — No. 9, • - . 20 — — — Whole No. of correspondents 100. TO CORRESPONDENTS AND READERS. In this and the preceding No. of the Farmers' Regis- ter, we have been enabled to present to our readers an 576 FARMERS' REGISTER— TO POSTMASTERS, &c. &:c. unusually lai-ge proportion of original matter — tlius exlii- bitiiig an illustration of the value that may be given to such a joiu-nal by those vrho are most interested in its success. There is good reason to expect a continuance and increase of oiu- corre-spondence. But as such sup- plies must be necessarily irregular, and as the publica- tion of no communication is delayed, merely to equalize the rate of supply, it may be expected that some future numbers may appear very deficient in original commu- nications— and such an occurrence should not be taken as an indication of a cessation of the labors of our cor- respondents, or of a diniinishing value in the publica- tion. Our selected articles are always more in munber than we can find space for, and these of course must •wait as long as tliere are origmal communications to claim precedence in pubUcation. DISCOXTINtlANCE OF AGEKCIES, We have made but very limited use of agencies, (as stated particularly in a former No.) and find it neces- sary to discontinue all, witliout exception. This step is not caused by the slightest objection to tlie acts ol any of the few gentlemen whom we have authorized, as agents: but because agencies are supposed to exist where none have been autliorized, and paj-ments are made accordingly, instead of directly by mail to the proprietor. After this notice, there will be no agent foi- the Farmers' Register. This annmiciation does not aflfect the continuance of an extra copy being furnished to any person who will obtain four new subscribers, and send their payments in advance — except, that to pre- vent the trouble and embarrassment of opening accounts for such purposes, no claim for the fifth copy will hereaf ter be allowed, except for four names of new subscri- bers, and §20, all sent al one time. Then tlie compen- sation will be immediately allowed, and tlie transaction closed. TO POSTMASTERS. Notwithstanding the great care used in wrapping the copies of the Farmers' Register, and directing each separate copy to the individual subscriber, as well as the whole package to the proper post office, complaints continue to be made of subscribers failing to receive their copies, and sometunes whole packages miscarrj- by mail, and are never heard of afterwards. With every care that can be used in a publication office, mis- takes in directmg packages must sometimes be made : and in a very few cases only, such errors have been made known by postmasters, and corrected. For such corrections we will always be thankful, and also for immediate information of any minor faults in the mail- ing and securing of packages. But much tlie greater number of failures, which have caused so much loss to our establishment, cannot possibly be owing to any of these causes, nor even to the accidental erasure of names on the packages, m the mails, nor to the total destruc- tion of the wrappers. Even when such rare mishaps occur (if they ever occur,) the names of subscribers re- main— and if their place of residence is not known, the place of pubUcation cannot be doubtful — and we wiU be glad to pay the postage on all miscarried copies (ex- cept of No. 1, of which many were distributed as spe- cimens,) by having them sent by mail either to the publisher, or the editor. Though under no such obligation, we have supplied duplicate copies in most cases of alleged failures by mail. But there must be some limit or regulation to these supplies — and we propose the following : Every postmaster al whose office copies of the Farmers' Regis- ter are received for subscribers, is requested to keep a list of llieir names, and to compare with that list ilie contents of every package, before delivering any part of it This being done, whenever any subscriber's copy is missing, or the whole package has been lost, and the postmaster (after waiting long enough for the package to return from its wrong route,) will certify the particular loss, we will hencefortli furnish, in all such cases, one duplicate copy for every one so lost. If this plan should be generally approved, it is intended to make this guarantee general (upon certain conditions) for Vol. 2. It will therefore be to the interest of subscribers to induce the adoption of the foregoing regulation at their respective post otfices. If any postmaster will not agree to undertake so light a service for the benefit of his customers, it will be for us a sulhcient acquittance from this obligation thus voluntarily offered to be as- simied. COMMUJVICATIOKS RECEIVED. The following communications have been received, and win be published in No. 10, of the Farmers' Re» gister : " Translation from limbic work oti ^Agriculture," (con- tinued)— "Blue Grass''^ — '^Importance of a proper mode of harnessing horses" — "Plain directions for analyzing marl, ^-c" — "On surface draining, ^-c." — " Remarks on the slack coah (or terre-houille) of the Chesterfield mines" — " On the preparation necessary for a crop of tobacco"—^ " Specimens of calcareous manures" — "On Wire Grass"- — "^i Farmers^ Directory suggested" — "Culture of Cot- ton"— " Chemical ^Inalvses of Shells." COXTEXTS OF FARRIERS' REGISTER XO. 0. ORIGINAL, COMJir^ICATIOJfS. On the use of Marine Manures, page 513 — Arabic Work on Agriculture, 515 — Necessity for a Law to permit Draining in Vir- gliiia, 51S — Mineral Resources of Virginia, 520 — On the Im- provement of Lands in the Tobacco Region, 534 — Geological, 5-29 — Marl Beds in New Kent. &c. 534 — Transportation and Sale of Marl from Middlesex, 534— Cheat from Wheat, 5S5— The Policy of Virginia in regard to Rival Public Works, &c. 535 — New Mineral Manures Proposed, 537 — New Manure, (a substi- tute for Dutch Ashes.) 53S — On Manures from Coal, and Dutch Ashes, 540 — On Manures from Coal, and the Turf of Salt Marshes, 541 — System and Products of Farming in Columbia County. New York. 542 — Cheap Lands in the Tidewater Re- gion of Virginia, 545— Soils and Farming of Fairfax Count- ry. 552 — Thrashing Machines : Albemarle Agricultural Society, 553 — Corn Culture of Weyanoke, 553 — Paddling Corn, 554 — Rappahannock Lands and Marl Beds, 555 — Remarks on Sir John Sinclair's Hints &c. on Malaria, 555 and 560 — Pamunkey Mode of Cultivatins Corn, 560 — On Hill-side Ditches, to prevent the Washingof Broken Land, 5G2— Queries Addressed toJames River Farmers, 564 — On the Management of Negroes, 564 — Sowing Clover Seed, 566 — Estimate of the Expense of Liming Land, 567 — Expense of Water-Borne Marl, 567 — Comparison of the Foregoing Estimates, 567 — Extracts from Private Correspon- dence, 563— The Three Field System best adapted to the Cli- mate and Soil of the Tidewater Section of Virginia, 569 — Va- luable Manure : New Jersey Marl, 571 — Diary of the Weather at Fort Monroe, October, November, December and January, 573 — John Carter's Catawba Wine, 574— Commercial Report, 575 — Number and Increase of Correspondents to Farmers' Re- gister, 575 — To Correspondents & Readers, 575 — Discontinuance of Agencies — To Postmasters — Communications Deferred, 576, SELECTIONS. Eggs of the Silkworm, 525 — Description of the Valley of the Kanawha, 52-5 — Railroad Accidents, 52S — On Railways, and Hints to Railway Companies, 530 — Persian Method of Manage- ing Silkworms, -542 — Sulphuric Acid Springs, 542— Memorial of the Interna! Improvement Convention of North Carolina, 546 — Old Virginia Georgics, 551 — Hints, fcc. on Malaria, by Sir John Sinclair, 556 — Erroneous Opinions, 564 — Preparing Food for Horses, 566— The Black Tongue, S73— Rot in Cotton, 675. VOL. I. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. si3SJ2ai2>5?T)5 42.^0^:^:12 a334i;» >'0. 10. BDMUSD RUFFIN, EDITOR AXD PROPRIETOR. — T. W. WHITE, PRIS^TER. OX SURFACE DRAi:SIXG, A?fD THE CCLTIVA- TlOX OF CORX. To the Editor of the Fanners- Register. Sir, — I promised you, some time ago, a com- munication on the subject of draining, confessed- ly one of the most important operations in hus- bandry. I now imperfectly fulfil that promise. It is my design to treat only of the mode of re- lieving land from the surface water, where it can be done by open ditches. I have had but little ex- perience in rearard to under-drains and embank- ments, and that little is not satisfactory. I shall briefly and incidentEilly touch on a few other mat- ters. I consider it the duty of every Virginian, at all conversant witli agriculture, to contribute his mite, even though it be as small as mine, to the resuscitation of our ancient and venerable Com- monwealth. Impoverished and mangled as she has been, she has still within herself" all the ele- ments of prosperity and happiness. Though a perfect system of husbandry may not exist on any estate within her limits, there are, nevertheless, many creditable approximations to it. If the good practices found here and there, few to be sure, and lar between, can be collected and irabodied, as complete a code of agriculture may be formed, as would be desirable in the present state of our population, in reference to its nature and amount. This the Register may, and I trust, will effect. The fields of Middle, and more particularly of Lower Virginia, are generally of considerable ex- tent, with occasional low and wet places interspers- ed, which require ditches to render them arable. The custom anciently was, and it is by no means yet entirely exploded, to plough up to these ditch- es, so as to raise the earth on their margins higher than at a little distance off, forming effectual bar- riers to the escape of the water from the neighbor- ing land. The corn rows ran up to these banks, the fertile strips along which were lost, as head lands. The rows traversing the entire field, neces- sarily embraced both wet and dry land ; the ground was frequently worked out of order, and much in- jured ; and the crops were inferior where they should have been best. The plan which I recom- mend, obviates these objections, and secures seve- ral advantages, which will appear in the sequel. In order to carry this method properly into ef- fect, the main ditches should be judiciously laid off. They should passthrough the centre of the bottoms, or hollows, intended to be drained : the courses should be as long and as straight as possible ; and where turns are necessary, they should be gradual, avoiding sharp angles. The ditches should be twice or thrice as wide at top as at bottom, or sometimes more, in proportion to depth ; which much facilitates scouring them out, and prevents the sides from crumbling and caving in, under the influence of frost, as will happen when the sides are perpendicular. I have improved many of the old ditches on my estate, by straightening and re- modelling them, where it could be done without Vol. I.— T.S much labor. The earth deposited on the ditch banks must be thrown off, with hoes or shovels, into the lower places, so as to equalize the sur- face; and with the same view, and to produce a declivity towards the ditch, one or more plough- ings off' from it will often be found advantageous, when practicable. The ditches having been arranged, ridges of five and a half feet for corn, or beds of eleven feet for wheat, should be laid off, parallel to the ditches in their whole extent, and multiplied on both sides, so as to reach quite up to the adjacent high land. The valievs are all thus detached from the drier portions of the field, and may be worked at the proper time and in the proper order. They are put in a state to be benefitted by the grips or cross drains, which convey the water from the finishing furrows to the main ditches. These grips are about a foot wide, and are made with great des- patch with the plough and hoe, aided by the spade; or if the courses are short, by the spade alone. Thev should be sufficiently deep to drain the water thoroughly fi-om the furrows; and to prevent their washing, pieces of plank or durable wood, with channels cut in the middle, to permit the passage of the water, may, when neccessary, be let into the earth, at their entrance into the ditches. The srips should cross the beds diagonally, ar.d incline down stream, at an angle of ■ii^BKim^^l^ forty five decfrees, unless some local peculiarity requires a deviation, so as to get the advantage of any descent which that distance may afford. By this method, a different cultivation both of corn and wheat, may be adopted, from that prac- tised on the highland, where a more even surface should be preserved. The corn plant has the ad- vantage of an elevated ridge, well drained. Two of these ridges may be united for wheat, which should be sown in low situations, at the commence- ment of seed time, or as soon thereafter as the state of the ground will permit ; so as to enable the plant to take gocxl root before the frost sets in, and by its forwardness, to have an additional chance' of escaping the rust, so often fatal to that crop. A better opportunity too is afforded, of lay- ing the ground dry before winter; and an idea prevails, that early sown wheat, though by no means exempt, is less liable to the depredations of the flv on low, than on highland. I have mentioned the union of two of the corn ridges of5\ feet, for wheat. They may, when the field reverts to corn, be easily singled, in the fol- lowing manner. The eleven feet beds should be broken up as early as possible in the fall or win- ter— the former much better — and simply revers- ed. The cross drains and ditches should be open- ed, to dry the ground and give it the advantage of frost, the ameliorating intluence of which is lost on land that is sobbed^ and the decay of the sub- verted vegetable mass retarded. In the spring, as late as it1:an be deferred, these beds may b^ re- ploushed with two horses; the plough passing up and down the bed, just so near the water furrow as that a little earth may occasicnally roll in, but not 378 FARMERS' REGISTER— SURFACE DRAINING, &c. enough to fill it. The ploughman proceeds, throw- ing out and out, as it is called, and finishes in the middle. The narrow ridges are thus restored, an ef- fectual harrowing given, and the corn in due seasosi is planted, in fijrrows opened on the ridges at such distances as the strength of the land will permit. This reploughing is, however, improper, if a considerable decomposition of the vegetable mat- ter has not taken place. In this event, or when manure has been turned under, it is better to have two rows of corn on each bed. The earlier land intended for corn is ploughed, and the more completely concealed the vegetable covering, the better. The latter may be effectu- ally and conveniently done by a heavy chain fast- ened at one end to the screw bolt that passes through the beam immediately above the mould- board, and at the other to the hook at the end of the right swingle tree; or a round piece of heavy wood, a few inches in diameter, with a small chain at each end, answers equally well. These trail along the furrow, and attached to a good plough, will cover the most luxuriant growth of weeds. I deem it so important to break up corn land early, that I do not hesitate to perform that operation from the middle of November, or as soon as the wheat is sown, until the 15th of January, even though the ground be rather wet, if the comfort of the men and mules will permit. If the ground be well drained immediately afterwards, and there occur the usual portion of frost, the land will soon lose its adhesiveness, and become i'riable and mel- low. The heat of the sun is not then sufiicient to bake. After that period the farmer should be cau- tious notto plough his land, unless it be dry enough to crmnBle. "Overseers are usually very impa- tient. I have known one plough with the water following in the furrow. To be forward, seemed to be the groat desideratum, without regard to ulterior consequences. In ploughing land that requires to be ridged, it is best to commence farthest from the ditch, so that the cross drains below may not be filled up, and the passage of the water obstructed, in case of in- terruption by bad weather. So soon as the opera- tion is completed, the drains sliould be re-opened. A foreigner, in the service of my family some years ago, removed several of the high ditch banks that had been accumulating for ages, and by giving the proper slope, rendered them capa- ble of being crossed by the plough. But to this there were many objections: the work performed by the sjiade, or by the plough and hoe, was Her- culean ; the ditches were filled up by being plougii- ed across, and much labor was required to clean them out. Though wide beds were used, they frequently ran up and down hill, to the great pre- judice of the land, which was in several places much gullied. I have recently commenced the cultivation of the locust and mulberry on the edges of the ditches, and promise myself much benefit from the practice. I have understood that an eminent farmer, the late Mr. Philip Tabb of Gloucester, obtained a large supply of the timber last men- tioned, by permUiing it to grow in those situa- tions. Mulberry seed, washed when gathered, and dried, vegetate perfectly well ; those of the locust, require immersion, for two or three days before they are sown, in hot water, to soften their bard shells, when they sprout as readily as peas. The young trees are kept in the nursery for two years to accelerate their growth, afford them pro- tection, and give them tall straight bodies. They should then be trimmed up, and planted close to- gether to prevent low spreading tops, on ditch banks, the borders of fields, and on any unoc- cupied ground capable of producing even a few of them. In ditching hard, turfy or rooty land — and more particularly in digging holes for posts — the grip- ping spade will be found a useful implement. It is made of a broad piece of iron, hammered out and hollowed, so as to resemble a scoop, with a socket above to receive the handle, and a steel edge below to make it cut. It is heavier than a com- mon spade, and rather narrower, but capable from its concave form, of holding as much earth, if hard and tenacious. In old, friable land, it is inferior to the common spade, and is only recommended in the cases above mentioned. You have done me the honor to ask my methotl of cultivating Indian corn. A communication which you have recently received from a neiglibor ing source, (No. 7, p. 395) leaves but little lor me to add. It may not, however, be amiss, to give a brief summary. Plough deep, according to the nature and improvement of the soil, and early.ap- ply all the manure that the utmost diligence can collect, lor no plant requires it more ; harrow, but never re-plough in the spring, except where you desire narrow ridges, or mean to put manure; plant early on warm and light, but later on stitf and cold soils; use an abundance of seed corn; plough from the corn in the early stages of its growth, and moderately up to it in the latter ; let the cultivation be first deep and close, but shallow- er and farther, as the plant increases in size. Let the last, or perhaps the two last ploughings, be done by alternate rows throughout the field; so that, if there be drought, the plants may not be checked, by having t!ie roots severed on both sides ; and if there be rain, all may be benefitted by being at least partially stirred; and finally, af- ter harvest, instead of laying by with the hoe, thrash your wheat, sell and deliver it, and pocket the proceeds, if you require them as much as I ge- nerally do ; tlien let the hands go over the corn fields, weeding out grass that may have escaped the plough, and digging up the ground about the backward and replanted corn, so as to give it an opportunity of forming. I observe little, if any diminution of the corn crop, from an abandonment of the old system, much economy of labor, more satisfaction in the disposal of the wheat crop, and a better preparation of the corn land lor wheat. I thrashed in the year 1830, seven thousand seven hundred bushels of wheat — almost the entire crop — with two maclriiies, in the month of July. I have now, I fear, tired both editor and reader, and will conclude this protracted essay. j4 Planter of the Lower James. January, 1834. HIGH PRICED LAND. From the Poughkeepsie Journal. A farm one mile from Norristown, (Pennsyl- vania,) of 155 acres, was sold on the 7th ult. for S252 per acre. The purchaser has since refused i^5000 for his bargain. Norristown is a small vil- lage, situated on the Schuylkill river, 17 miles from Philadelphia. FARMERS' REGISTER— TOBACCO. fl7d THE PREPARATION NECESSARY FOR A CROP OF TOBACCO. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Farming and planting are so intimately con- nectetl, especially in Mitldle Virginia, it seems de- sirable, in order to make the Register acceptable to every part of the state, that, it should contain some information, on the subject of the tobacco crop. I therefore propose in a series of (^says, to give you my views and practice, 1st, as to the preparation for the crop ; 2ndly, cultivation of the crop; 3dly, cutting and curing; 4thly, stripping and pressing; and5thly,the advantages and disad- vantages of the crop. It is with very great reluc- tance, I assure you, Mr. Editor, that 1 undertake to break ground, on a subject hitherto untouched by any of your correspontlents, and would cheer- fully submit it to abler hands, but, that there seems, to be a backwardness on the part of plant- ers to communicate on this suliject. I trust there- fore, as I have undertaken it, solely for the benefit of the planting interest, that wlierever any im- provements have been made upon my manage- ment, the persons discovering, or practising them, will please furnish them for your columns, that I and others may receive the benefit of them, and thus realize the advantages of a comparison of views and practices on this subject. It may not be amiss then, in writing a number of essays on this subject, to give the origin of the plant in this country. " Tobacco, (Nicotiana) so called from Tobago, one of the Caribbee Islands, was first introduced into England, and thence into Europe, i)y Sir Walter Raleigh," from whence, it was brought into this country by its early settlers: from which time, it has been largely and assiduously cultivated, always forming a large item in the list of our national exports. It may be proper here also to remark upon the different varieties the plant has assumed since its introduction into this country, owing I presume, to our diversity of climate, cultivation, &c. The varieties that have come under my notice, have been called by the following names, to wit: the blue Prior, the big Frederick, the little Frederick, the Daniel Jones, the Oronoko and the Kite-Foot, nearly all of which have taken their names from the persons, who first introiluced them into this part of the state. It is not deemed necessary, to enter into a particular description of each variety ; suffice it to say, however, that the blue Prior, has my decided preference over all other kinds, on account of its smallness of fibre, silkiness of tex- ture, largeness of leaf, and being easier to cure, than most of the other varieties. It has but two ob- jections, that I know ot", that is, it is about ten days later in ripening, and will not yield as much in weight, on ordinary land, as the big Frederick, and the Daniel Jones. But to give these two objections their full force, it has still a decided preference in my estimation, and, I therefore recommend it, to all planters, living on the Roanoke, or its tributaries, who have not made a trial of it. These things being premised, the first and most important object, towards preparation for a crop of tobacco with the judicious planter is, to burn and sow, a sufficiency of good j)lant land, as it is im- possible, to make a fine crop without a plenty of plants, in good time. In order to effect this object then, from the first of February to the middle of March, burn and sow all the land you .design for plants, which is done in the following manner. Select some moist spots, of rich virgin loam, mode- rately mixed with sand, and clean them off nicely; timber, bushes, leaves and all, without grubbing the bushes. Then lay down some small poles paral- lel with each other about two feet apart, for skids to lay the wood on, so that it can be moved easily. Lay down your wood in a pile, across the patch, sutficiently large to make a strong fire, which should be made to burn well, about one hour, be- fore it is moved ; then with long wooden hooks, (or what I have found better,) iron hooks, fastened on long handles of wood, let the hands place them- selves in a row, in front of the fire and draw the wood forward so as to burn the adjacent ground, covering about four feet, and so on, until the whole patch is burnt. As soon as the ground is suffi- ciently cool, take two horses, with a sharp coulter, and plough it deep and close both ways, then pick off all the roots and rake it over, until the surface is smooth and level, when it will be ready to sow. Having mixed your seed thoroughly with ashes, plaster of Paris, or nice fine sand, sow it over care- fully twice ; putting on about four table spoonfuls of seed, to every hundred square yards. Then tread it down close, and smooth all over and cover it thick with straight brush, with the tails of the brush to the sun at twelve o'clock, so that the sun may shine on every part of the patch at its great- est heat. Dig a trench around it if necessary, to keep off the water in hard rains, and your patch will be complete. I prefer coultering to the com- mon method of hoeing, as less of the soil is turned under, and it is broken much deeper, and thus is better prepared to resist drought, or excessive wet, as the water sinks below the roots of the plants and is retained longer, though not suffi- ciently near to drown. If your plants come up well, you may calculate on a thousand, from every square yard. As soon as the danger from frosts is over, the brush should be thrown off, and the plants manured from time to time with the finest and strongest manure from the stables, until they are large enough to set out, which should be, from the 10th of May to the 20th of June. Standing patches sometimes succeed well in particular situa- tions, for a number of years, though very rarely, the plants being always later, and much more lia- ble to be destroyed by the fly. Since we have cut down all our best lands, in this section of country, it has become a matter of considerable difficulty to raise plants in time : and that difficulty is aug- mented ten fold, by the ravages of the fly, which attacks them sometimes in swarms — principally during the month of April, while they are small, and frequently, if they are not checked, will de- stroy a patch in a few days. Various expedients, have been adopted, and many remedies tried, generally without success. I have, however, found leached ashes, an effectual check to them, when they are sprinkled over the plants until they are completely covered with them : they also serve as a valuable manure. This remedy should be repeated frequently, as the ashes are liable to be settled down by the dew, and washed off by the rains. The ashes should be well leached, and en- tirely dry, or else they will scald the plants, and not answer the purpose designed. Land should only be burnt hard enough to kill all grass seed, 580 FARMERS' REGISTER— BLUE GRASS, &c. and roots that may be in it, as hard burning evi dently makes the land produce veo-etation slowly, ■which will also be the case, if the land is wet, when it is burnt with a strong fire. I come now to the preparation of the land, for setting out the plants, which depends on such a variety of circumstances, that I hardly know where to begin. That is, whether the land is new or old, clean, or covered with vegetation. I would say however, that the two grand essentials in prepara- tion, is to make your land rich, and plough it until it is well pulverized, and then put it up into large hills, three feet apart each way, being careful to break the step of every row, so that the rows will run every direction. This is designed to give every plant the advantage of the sun, in ripening; whereas otherwise, the bottom leaves of the plants would be shaded by the plants immediately oppo- site. This may be thought by some, cultivating too close: but experience has taught me, that more tobacco in weight, and of finer quality, can be made at this distance, on rich land, than any other. Enlarge the distance, and you increase the size and coarseness of the plant ; vice versa, reduce the distance to tliree feet, and you diminish the size, and increase the silkiness and closeness of texture, with little or no diminution of weight. In order to cultivate tobacco profitably and judiciously, it is as necessary to have shifts, as it is for corn. I would say then, lay off your tobacco land into three shifts, to be kept rich with clover and herdsgrass: or if you have not land enougli for three shifts, divide it into two, and keep them up by sowing on oats or buckwheat, and ploughing it in, as soon as the crop comes to maturity. The three shift sys- tem, is however, decided!)' preferable to the two For instance, you may get a wheat crop after the tobacco, and you may either sow on your grass, or clover seed, with the wheat, or wait and sow it on the stubble, immediately after cutting off the wheat, which I believe is best, as the seed is not liable to be killed by the frosts, or choked by the wheat. They come up quick, grow off well, and will be thicker and forwarder, than if sown with the wheat. Again, upon the two shift plan, you must be at the expense of ploughing the shift, sowing on oats or buckwheat, and then turning it under when ripe. This however is much better, and cheaper, than the common mode of manuring, as vegetable manure makes tobacco of finer quali- ty than any other substance whatever. If either of the above plans are adopted, however, the planter can apply all his manure, to his corn or wheat crop, and thus he will make larger and bet- ter crops of every description, and at the same time, improve all his lands. I cultivate three shifts in tobacco, and f()ur in corn ; and find since I ado{)ted that system, my lands have improved, be- yond iriy most sanguine expectations. Your land then being prepared as before described, and your plants having attained sufficient size, draw them, when the ground is quite moist, and set theiji out, in the hills, and every thing necessary, preparatory to the cultivation of the crop, will have been com- pleted. G. Wardsfork, Charlotte, 1 Jan. 28th, 1834. < For the Farmers' Register. BLUE GRASS. Of all the j)ests that wheat land is subject to, blue grass is the worst; and I believe the only remedy heretofore discovered, is to cultivate the land in a hoe crop, such as corn, &c.; and even then, it requires a very dry summer, and extra working of such hoe crop, to be at all successful. And after all it is sure to return to the land in a few j'ears, so as to rofluire a repetition of the hoe crop every now and then. I this summer made an experiment without a hoe crop, v/hich proved successful with a field of blue grass, as completely set, as it could possibly be. I intended to make one experiment, and made another unintentionally. My object at first was to give the land an En- glish fallow ; that was, to jjlough the land up in the spring, and keep it well cultivated throughout the summer with the double shovel ploughs, with the view of killing the blue grass. I should have preferred to have made a crop of corn upon it, but I could not spare the labor ; so I thought I would substitute this mode, as requiring much less lahor. I ploughed up the land with large three-horse ploughs, between the 10th of May and the 10th of June, intending to commence with the double shovels, as soon as the blue grass began to grow, and to continue to use them, as required, through- out the summer: but I never had time to double shovel it at all, and I thought my experiment was thrown away. However, during the months of June and July, (May and June, having been ex- cessively wet,) a heavy crop of crop grass put up, and although the blue grass had begun to grow a little, the crop grass got the better of it, and main- tained the advantage during August and Septem- ber, two of the driest months ever known ; and at last destroyed the blue grass, and gave me the cleanest field for wheat this fall, I have had for several years. This result may have been owing to the pecu- liar season, but it was couipletely successful. The season was an unusual one ; during the months of May and June, it was eternally raining, and from about the 2d of July, until October, we had no rain at all, and this may have produced the effect. Possibly, in another season, it might not have the same effect; but I cannot help thinking, or at least hoping, there was something in ploughing up the land just before the season for the crop grass to begin to grow, and that it might prove successful generally ; for the crop grass is very powerful in smothering any thing it grows with, where it is allowed to take place. At all events, I shall give this experiment another trial next summer, and will then communicate the result to you, and my only object for mentioning it now, is, the hope that some other person may be induced to make a simi- lar experiment, as several experiments are always more satisfactory than one. h. c; November 1, 1833. [The result of this chance-made experiment is at least interesting, and may lead to profitable practice, if the remarkable growth of gi-ass was not owing (as our correspondent supposes) to the peculiarity of the sea- son. The crop gnss takes its name from growing gene- rally in land under tillage, and it will not grow, in any quantity, except where the plough has been used in Uie FARMERS' REGISTER— CALCAREOUS MANURES— COTTON, &c. 581 early part of summer, and then it soon covers the sur- face, if the season and condition of the soil are favora- ble. It makes delightful hay, and would be a very val- uable crop for tlie Southern country, but for its requiring the indespensable preparation of well ploughing the soil, and the uncertainty of the growth afterwards.] For the Farmers' Register. SPECIMENS OF CALCAREOUS MANURES. We have received and examined various specimens of earths, from beds of fossil shells, and other calcare- ous deposites. Several specimens contained less than two per cent of carbonate of lime, and of course are worthless as calcareous manures. The proportions of calcareous matter in other specimens, which had noth- ing remarkable in their location, or uncommon in their quality, have been reported by letters to the individuals who sent them, and who alone are interested in their value. The following are here more particularly de- scribed, because either the location has been of recent discovery, or other circumstances render the facts ol some importance to the public. 1. Marl, or bed of fossil shells in Middlesex, from which Mr. Dormer Oaks has been taking large quanti- ties to Maryland for sale, as stated in Mr. Roy's letter, (Farmers' Register, No. 9, p. 534.) It is almost while, and the shells are so reduced as scarcely to be visi- ble. The proportion of carbonate of lime in the speci- men examined, amounted to 83 grains in the 100. 2. Lumps of a calcareous deposite on the land ol Major Peter Jones of Lunenburg, selected and sent by Wm. H. Macfarland, Esq. To the eye, they appeared similar to the concretions scattered through the argilla- ceous marl discovered in Prince Edward, by Dr. Mor- ton ; and which was. described in No. 1. This speci- men contained 70 per cent of carbonate of lime. 3. Lime rock, or fossil shells, forming stony masses, from Lenoir County, N. C. 48 per cent. 4. Another extensive body from the same neighbor- hood, 75 per cent. These are from the lands of Col. Isaac Croom, who reports that these mineral riches are most abundant in that part of North Carolina. He is now beginning to make the first use of them. 5. A box of loose and small fragments of fossil shells, from Nansemond, of yellowish brown color, as if tinged by rust of iron. The nature, and the great richness of this mass was so evident to the eye, that no examina- tion would have been deemed necessary, but for the re- markable want of information on this subject which prevails where this rich manure abounds. The follow- ing letter, which accompanied this sample, shows that the people who possess these treasures, are deplorably in need of instruction as to their proper use. This marl contains 81 per cent of carbonate of lime — and its great strength, and the profuse manner in which it was spread on the land, doubtless caused the injury, expe- rienced from its limited use. [Extract of a letter to the Editor.] Chuckatuck, Nansemond, Jan. 1st, 1834. I have taken the liberty to forward you a sample of what we here call marl, and earnestly request of you, that you will test its quality, and inform us through the medium of your Register, whether or not it possesses any valuable quality as a ma- nure, or retainer of manure. Our neighborhood abounds in this earth; and in addition to the great abundance of it, it is found very near tlie surface, and is very easy of access. A "number of persons have made (rial of (his marl, hut frou) our igno- rance, or the injudicious manner in wiiich it was applied, have suffered injury, instead of obtaining the benefit expecfed. Its use has therefore been entirely abandoned here. Your attention to this suliject, will no doubt, greatly benefit a part of our state, where nature has done much, but which negligence has brought to extreme poverty. ON THE CULTURE OF COTTON, AND THE ROT. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I have read the Farmers' Register wilh pleasure, and feel so much indebted to it, for the information received, that I am induced to give in my mite, in as short and brief a manner as possible, hoping it may be a benefit to any new beginner, who may think proper to follow it the present year. I have been a cultivator of the cotton crop for thirteen years, and have tried all reasonable suggestions by others, with my own, till 1828; from that time, I have pursued the following plan. I haul out my coarse manure and scatter it on the land, where it is most stifl" and close, and then use a one, or two- horse turning plough to plough the manure in, but am careful not to break the land more than three or four inches deep. I then haul out my fine ma- nure on another part of my cotton land, and let it remain in ox load heaps, till I can (inish ploughing the land with the same turning plough, or a trow- el hoe plough, as I may find most convenient, and then scatter the fine manure, and harrow it in with a five-tooth harrow. The next operation, is to prepare for sowing the seed, which is about the 10th of April — not sooner. I first mark ofT single furrows with a trowel-hoe plough, to bed on, from three to 3^ and four feet apart, as I may think best for the land, the p-orest three feet, and the richest four. I then run one furrow, with a one-horse turning plough, on eacK side of the single furrow, to form the bed on the light land that is easy to manage, but on the stiff or stumpy and rooty land, I run two furrows on each side of tlie single furrow with the same- turning plough, to form the bed — and at tlie same- time, guard against turning up the coarse manure as much as possible, to prevent its being in the way of future operations. But the fine manure will become well mixed in the soil, so as not to> evaporate or sink, as much as if it were on thesur- fiice of the earth, or turned under. I then open the beds on the light land, with a piece of wood fixed in a plough nearly in tlie shape of a trowel -hoe helve ; but on stifTor stumpy and rooty land, I open, with a small trowel hoe, or cutter, and then sow the dry cotton seed nicely in the opening furrow, and on the light land use a block, about eighteen inches long, six by four inches, with a helve fixed in it on one of the six inch sides, like the helve of a trowel hoe, and hollow it out on the lower front edge or corner, and on the under side, and fix it in the beam of a one-horse plough, to cover the seed. On the stiff, or stumpy and rooty land, I cover with the feet, or a small hand rake, which is preferable. As soon as the seed are well sprouted, so as to begin to crack the earth above them, I run the same covering block over the beds on the light 582 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF COTTON,— THE ROT, &c. land, to destroy all tlie small grass, and to assist it in coming u\), and then run one furrow between the cotlon rows, with a five-looth harrow. On the stitf, or stumpy and rooty land, I continue to run the one furrow, or two if it requires it, with the same harrow, and follow it with tlie hoe hands, and trim or scraj)e the ridge down nicely, which can be done, in a very short time, and is the main thing to give the cotton an early start, and to keep me ahead of the grass. When the cotton is up, and grows to have four leaves, including the two it comes up with, which will be about the middle of May, then is tlie lime for ploughing it again, and thinning. I run twice between the cotton rows with a skimmer, to shuf- fle a little dirt in among the cotton immediately before the thinners, like a grubbing hoe, turned bottom upwards, and a half circle sixteen inches long, three inches wide, and a quarter of an inch thick, with the front edge sharp, to be rivetted on the top of the hoe about three inches from the point. Here the early scraping over the ridges, saves the chopping out the grass, and crippling the tender cotton plant; and the attention paid to sow- ing the seed, enables me to thin all my cotton with the hand, and gives me a good stand of" cotton, (without which, no man can make a full crop,) leaving the stalks on the poor land four inches apart, six on the medium, and ten on the strong — or as near these distances, as is practicable. I thin the first part of the forenoon, and the last i)art of the afternoon, so as to be thinning two-thirds of each day, and the balance of the day, chop over the cotton that has been thinned with the weeding hoes, where the skimmer does not put it in good order, especially on ihe stumpy land. This brings about the 10th of June. I then give a ploughing as early as I can, with a one-horse turning plough, four furrows between each two cotton rows, which will throw the dirt of two furrows on each side of each cotton row, to form a flat bed to each. This will bring about the first of July ; and it will depend entirely on the weather, whether or not it will want more than one more ploughing; and that I do with a five-tooth harrow,- with the teeth worn very short, twice in each plough row, so as merely to stir the top of the earth, to prevent the grass from putting out; and if I am induced to plough it again, I repeat with the same harrow, or skim- mer as above named, but at each time am careful to avoid ploughing down the broad or flat bed, that each row may assist the horizontal trenches in con- veying off the water from that time till the next spring. When I cultivated cotton on the straight row plan, I gave my cotton a trowel hoe ploughing, running the same number of furrows, as with the above named turning plough, and at the same sea- son or time of the year, and then finished plough- ing the crop as above named, leaving the land as level as possible, to prevent its washing : but 1 found all I could do on the straight row plan, more or less unsuitable on hilly land. I make the hoe hands follow the two last ploughings,and trim and cut all that may be left by the ploughs, particu- . lady at the ends of all the rows, and over the stumpy land. The topping of cotton, I find necessary for seve- ral reasons — first, that it forwards the crop — 2ndly, if it is a dry year, it stands the drought better, and makes more cotton ; 3rdly, if it is a good cotton year, I make as much cotton, and have fewer bolts to pick out, which is a saving in labor, 'i observe the same rule for tojjping, that tobacco planters do in lopping their tobacco. When the cotton begins to run uj) small, and grow longer from where one limb puts out to the other, than it did in its earlier growtii, it is time to top, and if it is a forward spring, it will be as late to top cotton the 10th of July as it would be, of a late spring, to top the 1st of August, and will save the labor of sucker- ing, if the cotton has not suffered a great deal from dry weather; but if it has, wait till the earth gets wet, after the above named stage of the cotton, (which will be a sufficient guard against suckers,) and then top. I think it depends a great deal on the weather during the month of July, whether or not I shall have any rot in my cotton. If it is a dry month, or if there should be several rains during the month, and several days sun between the time of each rain, I shall expect little or no rot, but if there should l)e a very warm, wet spell of weather in July, I expect the rot as usual, particularly if there has been a little dry weather immediately before the wet warm spell of weather commences. This warm wet spell of weather, causes no doubt, too much sap in the bolls, and produces the rot. I have no fixed opinion of my own, whether or not manure sinks or evaporates, as will be seen from the manner I put in my manure above, but believe it does both, while I believe it sinks most, as it seems to me, to be as reasonable for it to sink, as for the strength of ashes to sink or drip through a ley gum. I should be glad to get more satisfac- tory information on this subject. Yours respectfully, Ricun. d. powell. Brunswick Co. Va. Feb. 4th, 1834. COLD W GATHER IN NEW ORLEAKS. From the Norfolk Beacon. A commercial friend has politely afforded us the following extract from a letter dated the 4th inst. received by last evening's mail, from his corres- pondent in New Orleans. In the correctness of the information it imparts the most implicit confi- dence may be placed. The writer begins his let- ter by stating, that the weather, (at the time of writing) is the severest ever experienced in that section of the United States. While the anticipated injury to the sugar crop is deeply to be lamented, there is much to console them in the reflection that such weather must have a salutary influence on the future health of the country. " Last night was exceedingly cold and stormy, and though it would scarcely be believed that a man could freeze to death in this climate, (and perhaps none ever did before,) Jive votaries of Bacchus were caught napping in the street, and hurried to the narrow house in the arms of Jack Frost. The ground is converted from a jelly, a state it has been in ever since my arrival (some weeks,) to a rock ; and the snow is now four inch- es deep. Previously a fire was not necessary in our offices. The change is so sudden that many persuade themselves it never was so cold before, even wider the North Pole. The planters here think it will effectually destroy all the orange trees and cane, and I think they have good groui^ds for their fears." FARMERS' REGISTER— ARABIC AGRICULTURE. 583 EXTRACTS FROni AN ARABIC WORK ON AG- RICULTURE, TRANSLATED FOR THE FAR- MERS' REGISTER. {^Continued from No. 9.] To the EJitorof the Farmers' Register. University of Virginia, ? 1st Jan. 1834. ^ 1 have the pleasure to send you a part of the se- cond article of the first chapter of the Work you mentioned to me, which contains an account oi the different soils of inferior quality, and the best mode of improving them. I have omitted certain parts I thought too absurd to be repeated, amongst which is the nfode of improving and curing " helle- bore land," which, the author says, is such as is rather wet, and smells of hellebore, and hence brings nothing but beans of an inferior quality. As a cure for this " infirmity" in the land, he re- commends having a great number of fires " con- tinually" burning all over the field ;. adding, how- ever, that this is a dangerous remedy, for though it cure the evil, it sometimes leaves the (patient) land so weak that it will be difficult to bring it to strength again by manuring! For the credit of Ehn-el-jlicain, it must lie, however, confessed, that he quotes other authors for what seemed ab- surd to me, and that the " continually" is not the Moor's, but the Spanish translator's a!)surdity. G. BLiETTERMANN. *' There are two kinds of soil that require and deserve most the care of the husbandman : the fat or heavy, and the sweaty or swampy. The mode of improving them, in order to make them yield abundant crops, is the same for both. They ought, in the first place, to be fallowed six times at least, during the summer months — that the sun, by toast- ing the particles of which they are composed, may extract the noxious juices, and render them mel- low. " Such soils as are denominated thin or meager by agriculturists, and which have a sour and disa- greeable taste, are not benefitted by often j)lough- ing, but must receive frequent dungings in order to render them fertile. Frequent ploughing, with- out adhibition of dung, would ultimately convert such soils into a barren desert. " Yambushad, however, advises farmers to plough thin or meager land several times about the vernal equinox, and manure it with any kind of dung, except that of mules, since this, he adds, is the very kind of improvement it stands most in need of, making it bring any thing; such land, thus improved, may be planted with grape vines, which will grow well, and bear excellent grapes for making wine. But in another place, this au- thor, speaking of thin and meager land, seems to contradict himself when he says, that it should be less ploughed, but dunged more, than other land, as by too much stirring it, there would be danger of weakening it still more ; that after it had been dunged and once ploughed, it should be seeded with barley, and if it lie convenient for irrigation, it should be very copiously watered during dry weather. " Tise same author, speaking of sharp or saltish soil, says that it should be improved with cow dung mixed with straw, leaves and sweet virgin earth ; also, that it should be seeded Avithpeas, beans, and similar plants, whose roots do not penetrate deep into the ground. " As to such soils generally called sandy, it will lie necessary to examine whether they consist of sand alone, or of a mixture of sand and various eartlis. Should, on examination, you find the soil consist almost of pure sand, it may be improved by adding a sufficiency of clay and dung, as has been said before; but should much white earth be found among the sand, such a soil will be difficult to improve, for it is al)solutely sleril, unless you can change its whole nature, by adding ])lenty of horse or asses' dung, mixed with virgin earth of a hot nature. Sandy soil of a gray color, as it con- tains a good proportion of black mould, is easily ameliorated by a slight addition of any dung the farm yard affords. All these soils, being from their very nature mellow, do not want much stir- ring. " Red soil, being naturally of a tolerable fertili- ty, needs no particular mode of improvement, but the necessary cultivation, to keej) in heart: it must be ploughed in autumn, but not deep. If it can be dunged beftjre seeding it in grain, your crop will be the better and surer. " There is certain bottom land of a gray color, rather compact in its texture, which cannot be said to be steril, as it will bring certain plants, but which, from its hard and dry surface in hot weath- er, seldom produces a crop of any thing, be it grain or vegetables. It will bring rice however, as the roots of rice going deep, find sufficient nou- rishment from the water which abounds in it at a certain depth. If such land can be irrigated in dry weather, it will greatly benefit the crop grow- ing on it. " V^ery black land of the same description is much better as to quality, but it often has the same in- conveniences; by means of artificial irrigation you may grow very fine vegetables in it, such as cabbages, cauliflowers, cale, &c. Should you sow grain, you must not suffer the ground to get dry, else you will endanger your crop. Such land, however, if you can always keep it moist, in hot weather, will be more profitable to you by grow- ing all sorts of garden plants in it, for trans- plantation, as they come very fast, and prosper uncommonly under the influence of heat and mois- ture. " Soil consisting of a reddish clay, which cracks open in dry weather, ought to be i.mproved by deep and frequent jdoughings, in order to have its particles well toasted by the sun, properly mixed with those that are not so. Then manure it with dung, mixed with rotten straw of all sorts. " There are certain mountain tracts whose soil, if soil it may be called, is of the consistency of stone, especially such as is called soft sand stone; its color is of an orange yellow, mixed with streaks of brown and black, and has a very thin crust of black vegetable mould on the surface, where here and there a stinted pine or cypress is growing, and which, during the rainy season, becomes green with a short meager grass, which is burned up with the first heat of the sun. Should you possess such land on your estate, let it not lie waste and useless, for it is nevertheless susceptible of great improvement, and will soon repay with interest all the trouble you may bestow on it. As it has been done in the mountainous districts of Babylonia, where such land abounds. " The best mode of bringing such land under cultivation is, in the first placej to break it open, 584 FARMERS' REGISTER-FARMERS' CALENDAR, &c.— BUCKWHEAT, duriiii^: the summer, with heavy mattocks, knock- ing" the chxls fine as you proceed; or, what is more expeilitious, with a stron<^ |)h)u<;-h, drawn by (bur stronsj; steers, put side ijy side, plough it several times in all directions, going deeper every time: then with a heavy harrow^, drawn by the same steers, break the clods as fine as possil)]e. Do all this work during the cool of the night, and let your steers rest in the shade during the day ; be- cause they coulfl not endure the great fatigue of the ploughing; such land, and the heat of the sun at the same time, but would sicken, and perhaps die. Let your plougiiman keep near him some fresh water in a bucket, for the sake of moisten- ing with it the steers' foreheads and necks at eve- ry turn of the field, (he which practice refreshes them very much, and makes tliem work with more alacrity. Parking your cattle and sheep on land thus ploughed, until you plough again, will benefit it very much, by not only dunging it, but also pulverizing the remaining clods under their feet. Plough it again in the month of October ; the last ploughing it may receive in February or March, when you sow barley on it. After harvest, let your cattle and sheep run on it, to manure it with their dung. Give it afterwards three more plough- ings, dung it before the third, sow it in wheat, and you niay, with the assistance of God, expect a to- lerable crop. Under good tillage, such land be- comes more and more productive, in proportion as the soil will become more and more mellowed, from a more perfect pulverization of itsparticles." A farmers' DlEliCTORY OK CALENDAR SUG- GESTED. To the Eilitor of the Farmers' Hegister. Will you permit a constant reader of your va- luable Register to suggest in a few lines, a plan, which it appears to him would render your journal still more u.seful.' I expect, sir, to be a farmer by profession ; and am just entering on the thresh- old of the nolile science of agriculture. I there- fore endeavor to make use of every means of ac- quiring information connected with my pursuit in life: and as at present I depend almost altogether on the writers in the Register for that information, no apology certainly is necessary from me fijr troubling them with a suggestion (merely,) for its improvement. One of my greatest dilficu!- ties, or rather the point on which I am most igno- rant, is the exact and proper time and season for preparing my grounds — sowing, gathering and taking care of my crops, &c. &.c.,or rather, the proper distrii)ution of my time and attention to the various departments of farming. Now it appears that a manual or directory — a short one — say two or three columns — wouhl obviate in a measurethis difficulty. 1 would have the monthly manual state with some minuteness the various objects of the farmers attention during the month, including the plantation, garden, orchard, and indeed a general answer to the question, " what shall I do this month?" Now I hope sir, that I am not suggesting too great a task to you or your correspondents : such is certainly not my wish. Permit me sir, to add, that no one rejoices more than myself (" a plain blunt man,") in the fact that agriculture in Virginia is rearing its head, and assuming that prominent place which it me- rits among the liberal sciences — a place to which it was designed by Nature's God. Suffer me to add my fieelde congratulations to you, sir, (or the measure of success which has crownecl your efforts in this great cause. May this spirit of improvement continue until " the desert shall bud and blossom as the rose." A YOUNG FARMER. Mecklenburg, Jan. 31, 1834. [Such a Directory or Calendar as " A Young Far- mer" reqiiirt's, would no doubt be a desirable addition to ilie Farmers' Register, and may in some manner be sup- plied hereafter. But at this time, therg are few indivi- duals, who if attempting to occupy so Avide a range of instruction, would not teach more of error than of true knowledge. All who now contribute to the pages of the Farmers' Register may be said to be aiding in col- lecting facts, and iti testing their truth and value by dis- cussion : and the facts so brought together, must be nu- merous and well established, to furnish sufficient mate- rials for a useful and authoritative Farmers' Calendar.] For the Farmers' Register. BUCKWHEAT AS GREEN MANURE. Observing four short queries in the last Regis- ter (No. 8, p. 476,) relative to buckwheat as an improver, I have concluded to answer them in a brief manner. In fact, it becomes one to be brief, when attempting to give his experience relative to a particular matter, and that experience is very limited. But limited as is my experience, what little I have is freely offered. Answer to 1st query. I have made a few ex- periments to test the value of buckwheat as a fal- low crop; but (hey have been too limited in ex- tent, and too few, to be called at all decisive. Tyro as I am in agricultural pursuits, I have seen enough to convince me that two or three experi- ments should rarely if ever be considered as deci- sive of any new or doubtful matter, touching agri- cultural affairs. From two or three experiments made on good land, I lean to the conclusion, that a luxuriant crop of tory or (black) field peas, fal- lowed in the month of September or October, is preferable to a similar crop of buckwheat; al- though the difference is not great. From what I have read on the subject, I should judge that on poor land a green crop of buckwheat would be pre- lisrable, for a fallow, to one of peas. But I have not tried the experiment. I cannot doubt, however, that the experimentof ploughing in two crops of buckwheat the same year, with the assistance of a bushel of gypsum to theacre, would be eminently successful. The seed should be sown in the spring, as soon as the weather will permit. A slight frost would kill it after it a})pears above ground. It will be very luxuriant, and have a plenty of ripe seed the last of June, or any time in July. Let the crop be then ploughed in, the ground harrowed and rolled, if a roller can be had. The seed thus ploughed in will soon ap- pear above ground, and by the middle or last of September, a new green crop, from three to five feet high, will be ready to be fallowed for wheat or for corn, the next year. I cannot answ er the query, as to the comparative effects of clover and buckwheat on thin lands. But on common lands, if a fair comparison be FARMERS' REGISTER— LANDS IN CENTRAL VIRGINIA. 885 made, takin<^ into view time and expense, and act- ing with a single eye to the improvement of the land, it seems to me there cannot be much if any doubt on the subject. Take the same anjount in value, of clover seed and buckwheat, and of plas- ter, and act with the clover as you please, it is my belief, that at the end of the first year, with the two crops of buckwhtaf ploug;hed in, and the plas- ter, the land would produce as well, if not better, than it would at the end of the second year with the clover fallow. I have not tried the actual ex- periment, and perhaps my conclusions from what I iiave seen, are erroneous. Answer to 2d query. As to this query, I can only give information as to the time of sowing seed here. If but one crop in the year is intended, it will answer to sow the latter part of June, or any time in July. I have tried the dilTerent periods, and have succeeded well with both. Perliaps from the middle to the la^t of July would be the best time here, especially if the season should be a moist one. As to the quantity of seed to be sowed on an acre, I think it is safe to assert, that there is no ge- neral rule 071 the subject. Producers of buck- wheat differ as to the amount of seed requisite to the acre, and the amounts recommended vary from three pecks up to two bushels per acre. I have not been accurate, in ascertaining the precise quan- tity of seed sown per acre on my land, but have always directed not less than a bushel and a half of seed per acre to be sown, believing that a greater mass of vegetable matter would be pro- duced by thick than by thin sowing. As to the time of ploughing in the crop, I prefer to have it done wlien it has attained its full height, having much ripe seed, but still many blossoms. My own opinion is, although worth but little on such a subject, thattlie best time to plough in buck- wheat or field peas, is when the crop covering the ground has obtained its greatest weight. I am op- posed to waiting for the stalks to dry and harden. I have no correct information as to the quantity of buckwheat which can be produced on good iand per acre, in this part of the country. With- out great pains, at least one third will be lost by shattering. The 3d query I cannot answer. Answer to 4th query. I presume there can be no doubt that a crop of buckwheat would be of very ";reat advantage to the land, iftlie oat stubble was ploughed in withoutdelay, and the buckwheat immediately sown. There would be a luxuriant mass of vegetable matter to be ploughed in, the last of September, if the season should be at all la- vorable ; and I should not be surprised if the in- crease to the acre produced thereby, would be from three to five bushels of wheat liie first crop. I have tried the plan of ploughing in the oat stubble, immediately after the oats were cut, (or the purpose of having a green crop from tlie scat- tered seed, to plough under in October. Notwith- standing the land had been well manured for the oat crop, the succeeding crop of wheat too evident- ly showed the exhausting elTects of the oats, not- withstanding the green crop of oats. It is to be hoped the above remarks and opinions will assist in eliciting from some able hand, a full answer to the queries. S. tVindsor, Prince George co. ? ^Sth January, 1834. $ Vol I.— 74 03V lOIPROVEMENT OF LANDS IN THE CEN- TRAL REGION OK VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Sir, — It is highly gratifying to your particular friends, to find tiiat your periodical has produced such an impression through tlie country. It must be truly gratifying to every patriot, aiid especial- ly to every Virginia patriot, to find tlie whole community so generally aroused on the subject of improving the soil, and so generally believing that something greatly valuable will soon be eifected. But, sir, we may fold our arms in the indulgence of these joys and hopes, and all that you can pub- lish will be as an idle dream, unless your readers will resolve, each for himself, that practical bene- fits shall result to him, from the instructions con- tained in the Register. I am old enough to re- member that when the great agricultural patri- arch of Virginia first published his Arator, his opinions were in the mouths of every body ; and I was then young enough to believe confidently, that all Virginia would soon be a perfect garden. But what has followed.' A tew, possessing soils primitively rich, have derived great advantages from pursuing Col. Taylor's system: fewer still have ingeniously adapted the system to poorer soils ; a much smaller number, residing on lands called, in the Essay on Calcareous Manures, "poor acid acid soils" have, by strictly adhering to the" four shift system," been able barely to keep their no- ses out of water; while much the largest number, even of those who made the loudest noise about Col. Taylor's writings, have not obeyed a single precept contained in them. Many a pert school boy, is willing to sink to the dogs, if he can only make the impression that he is a lad of genius, and might be a clever fellow, if he wouM. I know SGra€ such, and anxiously wish they would take the hint. In agriculture, the older school boys, I fear, are in a more hopeless condition — for they pretty generally have been formed out of the young ones, and have the habit of indulgence al- most petrified into a natural propensity. Prosperity in any busin-ess must be preceded by a knowledge of the obstacles to improvement and success — by the arrangement of a regular plan of operations, and by a fixed determination to remove those obstacles, and to pursue rigidly such a plan, regardless of the difficulties which may inter- pose. The obstacles to improvements in central Virgi- nia, (for which portion of our state these remarks are chiefly intended,) are 1st. The impoverish- ment and exhaustion of so large a part of our land, and the scarcity of means ibr its resuscita- tion; 2d. The almost total absence of calcai-eous manures ; 3d. The extreme liability cf our cli- mate to drought; 4th. The cultivation of tobac- co; 5th and last, and very far from being the least, the employment of slave labor. These heads might furnish matter for a large volume, but the writer, though in the conditionof Burns, when doubting whether he should write a song or a sermon, hopes to confine himself to the limits of one or two essays. 1. The poverty of so large a portion of our soil, might operate much to discourage in at- tempts at improvement, did we not know that it had once been fertile ; and the adage, that what has been, may be again, is so entirely admitted by most 686 FARMERS' REGISTER— LANDS IN CENTRAL VIRGINIA. of us, in Ihis matter, that we should be inexcusa- ble were we to make no attempt to restore our country to its original fertility. It was said by our great Henry, on some occasion, soon after the revolutionary war, " since the achievement of our independence, he is the greatest patriot, who stops the most gullies." The powerful mind of this won- derful man, with almost the spirit of prophecy, could forebode the present impoverished condition of our soil, from the tlien existing modes of culti- vation ; and probably adopted this striking form of expression, as best calculated to awaken the atten- tion of others. The inventive spirit of the age has provided a plan for the arrest of gullies, which have, in some sections, made such ruinous inroads on our lands. Horizontal ploughing and hillside ditching will, if skilfully executed, effectually put a stop to their increase. And time, which destroys all things, will destroy the gullies, when their causes are removed. But when the effects of washing rains are obviated, the means of filling gullies, either by throwing in rubbish, forming- barriers across them, or causing grass or trees to grow in them, are not of difficult application. The same kind of ploughing and ditching which so admirably provides against the formation and increase of gullies, constitutes one of the best means of resuscitating the exhausted soil. Evapo- ration has been pronounced " the great thief of manure." However readily we admit the insidu- ous purloinings of this culprit, we are inclined to think, they bear but a small comparison with the ravages committed by heavy falls of water, which like a tyrannic destroyer, frequently sweep near- ly all the soil at once. Even when from tenacity of the soil, or some other cause, it is not swept away, its fertility is greatly diminished, by the running off of a great portion of those soluble mat- ters, which constitute, perhaps, the best manures. Skilful ploughing and ditching, by giving the wa- ter a moi'e gradual discharge, allow time and op- portunity for the disposition of much of these so- luble matters, and their retention by the land. Whoever has much observed land horizontally ploughed, must have remarked the quantity of trash and colored foam which settles in the water furrows. All this, and even much of the solid soil itself, if the lands are not skilfully ploughed and ditched, must be washed away by great rains, which we consider the greatest spoilers of the soil, not even excepting the ravages committed by the teetii and hoofs of grazing animals. When the evils of washing rains are well guard- ed against, the lands rigidly kept enclosed, (i e. secured from being grazed,) and a judicious course ol crops observed, we hold that the foundation is laid for the renovation of the soil. Time, the great destroyer, is also the great restorer ; and will inevitably — if man diligently puts matters in a proper train — bring back the land to its prime- val strength. The term required for the accom- plishment of this desirable end, must depend on the original constitution of the soil, the degree to which it may have been exhausted, and the rotation of crops observed. Under even the most auspicious circumstances, it might not ac- cord with the interest or the inclination of the good farmer, to await the tedious operation of na- tural causes, in the restoration of fertility to his land. He will, of course, inquire for some means whereby he may hurry the operation. We complain much of the scarcity of the means of improving our lands. It may well be doubted whether such complaints are reasonable, while we so constantly fail to avail ourselves of such means as do exist. It is often said hereabout, " the peo- ple in Eastern Virginia may well talk of improv- ing land, when they have such rich beds of marl^ with which they can easily quadruple the value of their lands ; if we had such an advantage, we would directly go to improving too." When be:- holding the blessings enjoyed by others, we are prone to overlook those beneficently lavished on ourselves. Though we may be denied the use of marl, yet we have a soil better calculated to retain putrescent manures, than most of that in Eastern Virginia. Who among us has yet exhausted the means supplied by nature for the improvement of our lands.'' It is true, some of us — rather carelessly though — use the offal of our corn and wheat crops to that end. We all know that oak leaves, and we are told in the " Register," that pine leaves, make good manure j^,w hen fermented in the farm pen or stable yard. Yet few of us gather manj^ of them for such purpose, and many of us call it " robbing Peter to pay Paul :" yet Peter loses but little by it, more than the winds and the rain would carry away from him ; and after all, it is but forcing him through Paul to pay his own taxes. All of us call ashes one of the best ma- nures. Yet who has an ash house.' The writer knows but one in the county in which he resides. Who does not know that the excrement of sheep and hogs makes excellent manure? Yet how many pen these animals with a view of obtaining it .'' How many among us have made a fair experiment of the adaptation of gypsum, as a manure, to their lands? We have long known, that clover, as a meliorating crop, possessed great fertilizing pow- ers. How few of us have been benefitted by this knowledge on an adequate scale? How many sow oats, buckwheat, or any other article, with a view of turning them in, for the benefit of the land? A single example of this was afforded in the se- venth number of your Register. Who has haul- ed clay upon sandy land, or sand upon clay, with a view to improvement? In short, sir, I have just discovered that I have given the wrong heading to this branch of my subject. Instead of complain- ing of the scarcity of the means of improving land, I should have set down as the chief obstacle in effecting a matter so desirable, the ignorance, apathy, and procrastination of our people on this subject. Yes, sir, and prejudice too — for there is prejudice, and that sometimes among men of no inconsiderable standing. But the great mass of people in my vicinity are thoroughly convinced, that whether it be practicable or not to improve our lands, the old system of cultivation must end in ruin to our farms. And that end, with many of us, is already in sight. To " give up the ship" is what we cannot bear to think of; and we look, sir, to the Register, in a great measure, to guide and to stimulate us to a more correct course of ma- nagement. It is pleasing to observe that not tliose alone specially engaged in agriculture, but that pro- fessional men, merchants, and mechanics, are ta- king a strong and patriotic interest in this matter. 2. The little belt of country, mentioned by a writer in your first number, containing some beds of weak argillaceous marl, forms but a speck, in comparison with the extent of country denied the FARMERS' REGISTER— LANDS IN CENTRAL VIRGINIA. 687 benefit of calcareous manures. And though it is hoped that new sources of these manures may be discovered, yet until this is done, we should direct our efforts according to the means enjoyed. It is usually needless to talk much about irremediable privations. Our wants in this respect are only mentioned from a desire to excite inquiry regard- ing their relief. Admitting the correctness of the theory, that the failure of gypsum to act on some soils, is produced by an acid in the earth, which, by combining with the lime in the gypsum, de- composes it, may we not look to ashes, as, in some measure, a remedy against this evil.'' A few busi)- els of ashes sown on an acre of such land, might furnish employment for the acid, for a sufficient length of time to allow the plaster to act upon young clover, so as to secure its life and vigor. Even if the ashes should fail to answer this pur- pose, their own direct benefit upon the crop would doubtless be fully equivalent to the trouble and ex- pense of the operation. The scarcity of ashes would form the only limit to the benefits derivable from this source. Of this, however, we have no right to complain, until we have made every ex- ertion to procure and apply all of the article which may be attainable. The theory af acidity in the earth, and its ef- fects as developed, in the " Essay on Calcareous Manures," is certainly new, and I believe gene- rally admitted by such agriculturists, in this sec- tion at least, as have any acquaintance with che- mistry. Its discovery and admission will, howev- er, be unavailing, unless it be duly admitted to the rank of a practical guide. In countries abounding with calcareous manures, the remedy against acidity is always at hand. But where this advan- tage IS denied, it may be proper to inquire, whe- ther the enemy may not be combatted in some in- direct manner. Our best soils are sometimes prone to produce acid vegetation, when kept a long time ungrazed and uncultivated. I infer from this, that two things very dissimilar in themselves, may produce the same results. Col. Taylor, in his Arator, very distinctly remarked, the fertilizing effects of both grazing and aration, when judi- ciously conducted, and the impropriety of mixing the two systems together. If the symptoms of acidity follow abstinence from both systems, it would appear to leave us the inference, that a strict adherence to a standing pasture, and a well regu- lated rotation of crops, stand among the safeguards against the evil. That a piece of ground long Jjept h\ pasture, becomes exempt from those kinds of growth indicating acidity, is manifest to all who have taken the trouble to observe. And I believe it equally certain, that lands frequently stirred with the plough and hoe, enjoy the same exemp- tion. Whether this arises from the mere inter- mixture of the particles of earth, or from the exposure of the same, to the influence of the sun and atmosphere, is not determined ; but I judge, |;hat the sun h^s the chief agency in this matter. Much of this acidify appears to be produced by the decomposition of foul weeds, which are per- piitted to grow on the land. If this be correct, it might be proper, not only to pay more attention than we usually do, to tlie extirpation of these nuisances, but to bestow on the land good manure, to the greatest possible extent. And we do not thus merely nullify the evil, but the acid, which when alone, operates as a corroding canker on the crops, will, after combining with certain materials in the manure, form salts, aflbrding to them the most nutritive aliment. We seldom find sorrel grow- ing on a properly manured tobacco lot. When you apply calcareous manures on your lands, you both neutralize the corrosive power of the acid, and treasure up a store of salts for the nourish- ment of plants : and you do this directly. We, perhaps, do nearly the same thing, by the applica- tion of manure — but in a manner less direct, and with effects less permanent. In whatever state you apply manures on soils rendered calcareous, the lime is ready to form its combinations ; but on acid soils, it may be necessary to be particular as to the condition of the manure, as it is said that bolh fermenting and overheated manure abound in acid. You probably possess this further advan- tage over us, that you have constantly in your soil, after marling, a material fully charged with, and possessing so strong an affinity for, carbonic acid — one of the principal aliments of plants — that however rapidly it may be abstracted by their roots, a replenishment, from the atmosphere, will speedily occur. In all cases, whether the soil be calcareous or not, it is probable that acidity is wisely provided by nature, and that the business of man is, to prevent its evils and secure its benefits. Another mode of contending with acidity may be sought in the application of what may be term- ed telluric manures. These may be applied not simply with the view of changing the consistency of the soil, b)^ mere mechanical admixture, as when sand is applied to clay, but with the hope of affording to the soil an increased capacity of com- bining with manures. As the number of ingre- dients is increased, the chances must increase for chemical combination. The advantages frequent- ly derived from removing earth from one spot and placing it on another — from spreading the clay and other matters from cellars and jiits, on the surface of land, must be familiar to all. In an extract from the writings of Professor Eaton, in the fourth number of the Farmers' Register, a variety of rocks are mentioned, which when pulverized, give fertility to the soil. Some of these are very abun- dant in many parts of our middle country, and most of them have some lime in their composi- tion. This is almost a new subject in agricul- ture, and offers rewards abundantly sufficient to encourage experiment. If these views have any foundation in truth, the tendency of our lands to produce acid may be turned to advantage, if they are properly ma- naged, notwithstanding the great detriment it seems to cause, while they are neglected and abused. The luxuriance of their crops, when highly manured, is truly remarkable. No partpf the world produces finer crops of wheat, for ex^ ample, than the richest lots in our middle coun- try. 3. The great liability of our climate to drought, is a matter which we cannot avoid; yet, we may in some measure guard against its evils. One of the best modes of doing this is, to direct our at^ tention to a great variety of crops, some of which may be less affected by drought than others, and some, by taking the v/hole season for their growth, avail themselves of such parts of it as are not dry. The different kinds of root crops, lor the most part, possess this property. Their value, as food for stock, is little known in this district : for except, esd FARMERS' REGISTER— LANDS IN CENTRAL TIRGINLl. in a small way with turnips, the experiment has very seldom been tried. Our soil and climate, however, seem to be well adapted to their growth The artificial <2;rasses are also well calculated to supply any deficiency in the corn crop. These, however, have met with but few friends, if we judge from the attention paid to them. I know a gentleman, wIk) has been in the habit of having his working horses held to a volunteer crop of gania grass, growing on a piece of very sandy low ground. It is reported to have answered, in this way, well. This should be encouraging to such as propose bringing this article under culti- vation. Rye and oat crops, both of which are very un- certain as generally managed, may, if sown in good time, on ground proi>erly prepared, be con- sidered pretty sure crops. Rye, to succeeat of Ohio. Besides which, this route reaches the navigable head of the Ten- nessee in 875 miles from New York, of which two thirds is free. This will be the cheapest route to Alabama. The Tennessee is navigable above the Muscle Shoals 600 miles, and each shore may be considered a rich agricultural and mineral country. The nearest market to this part of Ten- nessee, will be the cities of North Carolina. The expense of freight by these two routes, may be also compared. It is stated in a recent publication, that it costs to get a ton of merchandize carried from New York to Louisville, by the lake and canals, ,^2 75 per cwt. (or 55 dollars per ton,) and that it requires 21 days. Freight from New York to Newbern, if in proportion to that across the At- lantic, would be three dollars ; but in the ratio of the freight by steam boats on the Hudson, it would be six dollars : and, as carrying on rail roads can be profitably afforded for two cents a ton a mile, this would be to Knoxville $8 30, and to Nash- VoL. I. — 75 ville thirty dollars — making ^17 50 to that city ; which is, besides, nearer to the great river than Louisville. And as the Cumberland runs over a limestone bed, it might be easily improved for a low water navigation, by locks submerged and out of the way, when the water is deep enough. But the Ohio cannot be. Its shoals are of sand. " The general considerations which strongly re- commend the North Carolina route are, that during five months the northern canals are closed by ice ; that of Pennsylvania four months; that of the Poto- mac three months ; and the Ohio is generally frozen for some months. Besides that, it is too low for na- vigation two months of the summer, almost every year. But North Carolina is in that medium of climate, as well as geographical relation to the west, that })ermits of uninterrupted commercial inter- course through the State. Nor is there any thing in the nature of a rivalry to be apprehended from the Y irginia Improvements. TheChesapeake and Ohio canal has so great an ascent, as in effect to increase the distance considerably. The rise west- ward, is 2486 feet, and the descent to Pittsburg 1787 feet — whole lockage 4172 feet. The James river route rises, in 241 miles, 1478 fijet, and de- scends to the Ohio in 222 = 463 miles, 1997 feet. " Moreover, we know from the Baltimore sur- veys, that the ground along the great Kanawha is exceedingly difficult, and it is most likely that this work, if ever undertaken, will incline to the north to Covington, and descend the valley of the Green- brier. West Virginia is entitled to the accommo- dation; but having the Ohio navigation, is not, like east Tennessee, in distress for access to mar- ket. Indeed the Baltim.ore surveys show that the high valleys of Virginia, watered by the bi'anches of the James, must principally furnish the busi- ness of the route along that stream, as division to the South Carolina and Georgia line naturally falls in with the system of internal improvement contemplated by North Carolina, whose western frontier includes the head waters of the Tennessee; so that if the State resolves on having this road, the business of the extensive valleys watered by the Holston and the Clinch, would be more likely to descend with the current to Kingston and Knox- ville, and export eastward by the rail road, than to ascend and go north to the James river route, con- siderably circuitous. " If we also consider the elevation : — from New- bern to the foot of the Blue Ridge, is stated to be a rise of 1200 feet; which, if the location of the road be gradual, as I suppose it can be on the southern location indicated, is only four feet in a mile. " Since, then, there is nothing to fear from Vir- ginia as a rival, so, on the other hand, there is nothing to apprehend from South Carolina. For, not including in her boundaries the head waters of tlie Tennessee, she has, after improving her rivers, already turned her enterprise to the increase of commerce at her capital; and it is more likely that the rail roads will ramify among the fertile counties of Georgia, than that, at her expense, one, at great cost, will be made over the moun- tains to aggrandize Charleston. , " The domestic trade of North Carolina will in- deed, (like the interior of Georgia, of New York and of Pennsylvania,) be alone a sufficient object for this main line of rail road, as the base of a sys- tem of branches up every valley to north-west 594 FARMERS' REGISTER— PUBLIC WORKS: from it and into every productive district between the rivers ; but it is a great encouragement and warrant for the work, (hat a little west of the line of the State, lies this very valuable part of east Tennessee — rich in iron, coal, salt and gypsum, articles in the greatest demand, and the latter want- ing to give fertility to the alluvial lands of the eas- tern counties, as Pennsylvania receives her suj)ply of it i'roni the State of New York. The pine bearing lands of New Hampshire were in this way made tertile, receiving planter by her canals. " Our agriculturists cannot now afford to sell cotton, at Charleston, at a^ low prices as the })lant- ers of South Carolina can. There is wanting to both, the cheapness of conveyance incident to rail road and proximity of port, to balance the advan- tages of the fertile West; and it is fortunate that geographical relations will give to North Carolina the ability to open a cheap route to the West, from which the accession of toll from the transit trade may so increase the aggregate of income as to make the home-toll low, and yet enhance the value of the road, as a property, so much, that instead of being an expense, it will be a profit to (he State. " If it gives 12 percent, nett increase, the State gains a sum equal to its cost and adilitional to the rise of property consequent on the accommodation. Therefore it is fortunate for North Carolina (hat the Blue Ridge summit is within her boundaries; because it gives to us, as the most interested {wrty, the command of the communication. " Rail roads can in no part of our country be made at so little cost per mile as in this state. Most of the materials are on the spot, and labor is cheap ; but the manner of building ought not to be slight. A rail road may be rough in apj)earance, if its stability and accuracy permit of sate speed ; and if the top surface under the iron is made hard, to resist the weight of loads, by means of nails driven evenly for the rails to })ress on, the wood is defended, and about half the iron, as is now com- monly used, may be saved. " It appears, from the fact stated, that North Carolina evidently holds, unrivalled, the best ground of communication with much of (be west and all the south west. And it seems clear, that after the place and manner of passing the Blue Ridge is decided on, and an outlet secured to the ocean, the rest is easy. "The surveys so early begun in North Caroli- na, have ascertained many essential facts, though they have not extended the entire line here sug- gested. This plan would not interfere with the proposed rail road from Wilmington to Raleigh ; for the crossing of each other, would be, in effect, to give all the interior the choice of both markets, and make the intercourse between the ihur princi- pal cities, though a little circuitous, sliort in point of time." If the road so forcibly recommended by Mr. Sullivan be constructed, or any road, commencing at a point accessible to sea vessels, and terminat- ing at the Tennessee line, the next great object (o he accomplished will be the intersection of the State, by rail road communication, from north to south. This should commence at some point on the Roanoke, where it might be connected with the Petersburg and Portsmouth rail roads, and, crossing the navigable rivers of the State above the falls, extend to the South Carolina boundary. ft is apparent that the State must be intersected from east to west, and from north to south ; be- cause our rivers do not, in their natural state, afford an inland navigation; nor can the obstruc- tions be easily removed by canals, or other works of art. The Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, Yadkin and Catawba, are, in truth, magnificent rivers. The bare enumeration of them may well excite an honest throb of State pride. Their volume of waters and their fertile and picturesque banks, may move the admiration of any, and must knit the affectionsof a North Carolinian to his na- tive land. It is, nevertheless, to be confessed, that in their natural state, they have stronger claims to beauty than usefulness. There are very few rivers any where that do not afford better navigation. Not lo mention other obstacles, (of which there are too many,) none of our rivers are navigable over, and some of them not up to the great granite formation, dividing the upper from the alluvial country, and extending across the State from north- east to south-west, about 150 miles from, and pa- rallel to the ocean. The Yadkin and Catawba, passing into South Carolina, are both obstructed by the granite ridge — the latter not until after it has entered that State. This ridge intersects the first four rivers nearly at right angles, and makes rapids and falls, which totally obstruct the passage of boats. Thus is our transportation between the upper and low country cut off. Above the falls, most of the rivers are, in their natural state, sus- ceptible, for some distance, of good navigation. If then, the State is intersected by rail roads, in the manner proposed, these roads will be base lines, and receive the produce which may descend the rivers to the falls, or be transported on lateral roads. To illustrate this idea more clearly, sup- pose the proposed roads completed; a planter who should set out from the Tennessee line, would con- tinue on the road recommended by Mr. Sullivan, to the Cape Fear. He might then stop at Fay- ettcville, descend the river to Wilmington, pursue the road to Beaufort, or taking the northern route from Fayetteville, proceed to the Roanoke, and thence, by rail road or water communication, reach Petersburg or Norfolk. The la((er road would be inipor(ant, not only as facilitating the transporta- tion of produce, but the travelling from aorth to south, and east to west, would afford that species of profit which is ordinarily of great value; and the daily mail would be transported upon it, through the State. It may well be doubted whe- ther any work which claims our attention, would, at an earlier period, repay the mvestmeut necessa- ry for its construction. The canal and these two great lines of rail road communication, would, in the opinion of the board, form tlie proper basis for a great system of im- provement; and would of themselves, accommo- date the leading interests of the State. Such lateral roads as might be necessary, would, from time to time, be constructed by individual enter- prise, with or without the aid of the public trea- sury. It has already been stated as the opinion of tlie board, that no general system of improvement can be effected in North Carolina, by incorporated companies. In old and wealthy communities, in- dividual capital may be commanded for such ob- jects. The internal condition of England and; Scotland has been improved in this way. No in- telligent writer, however, it is believedj has ex- FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF HOGS. 595 pressed a doubt that even, in those countries, plans of much more extensive usefulness might have been devised and executed by the government. In- dividuals make improvements without any regard to the situation of any section of the country, other than that in which they are immediately interested. Hence it has frequently happened, that particular works, constructed without any reference to a ge- neral plan, have been rendered entirely useless by the ultimate selection of a more extensive and judicious location for a road or canal. Numerous instances in both these countries, exemplify the cx)r- rectness of this remark. Immense expenditures of capital, upon works subsequently rendered useless by the success of greater and rival enterprises, have returned no profits to the stockholders, an(l subtracted greatly from the national wealth. If we expect to escape their evils, Ave must avoid their errors. The great outlines which, in the na- ture of things, are not likely to attract, or be com- passed by individual et!brt, should be marked out by the Legislature, effected by the }>ublic treasure, and beexclusively under public control. Such has been the system adopted by New Y6rk, Pennsyl- vania and Ohio, and is the only system that can succeed here. Who believes that the great Erie Canal would have been cut in a century to come, by individual enterprise.' Who can now assign limits to the improvements which may be hereaf- ter effected by that great State.' If we proceed with less, but not small resources, with like spirit, and ou the same system, we too, may do something for the honor of human nature, and give to North Carolina a name amonsr the nations of the earth. MANAGEMENT OF HOGS — BEKTS PROPOSED AS PART OF THEIR FOOD. January 15th, 1S34. Mr. Editor, — It is very certain that the Far- mers' Register never can prove very beneficial to any particular section of country, unless your sub- scribers from that region, give to the public, through the medium of your journal, the result of their experience. I am sorry that so few commu- nications have appeared from the Middle Country. It is a trite but true saying, that " every man's business ; is no man's business" we all wait for each other, and I am determined to send you an article for publication, hoping that others more ca- pable and more experienced, will follow the exam- ple. My farming career has been so short, and so much interrupted by professional business, that I have but little to offer at present. I begin, how- ever, to apprehend that in future, I shall have more leisure than may be altogether desirable, in conse- quence of a new "notion," which seems to take wonderfully in our portion of the community, and which threatens to make at least some of the " Old School Physicians," pay more attention to tlieir farms than they have done. Without further pre- face, I will proceed to state a few circumstances vvhich have occurred to me during the last twelve months, relative to my management of hogs : as I hohl it a sound principle, that experience may be acquired from a knowledge of those methods which fail, as well as from those which succeed ; at least, in agricultural pursuits. I have been in the habit of purchasing more than half of my })ork every fall, and if I have no better luck in raising hereafter, shall find it to my interest to buy the other half also. I had a fine litter of pigs about Christmas twelve months, from what was called a very fine breeding sow ; her ex- cellency, however, consisted in prowling all over the neighborhood, in defiance of gates and fences, and withal, keei)ing in such order as to give a poor idea of having met with good cheer in her perambulations. 1 put her up more than a month before she pigged, hoping to make something like bacon o{ her, in the course of the winter. She was kept up, and well fed with corn, until about the first of February, (as well as I remember) — when despairing of making any thing of her, I again turned her out on the commons. I only men- tion this to show that her pigs, nine in number, and well grown, had every chance to tlirive. They had, moreover, access to all the oftal of the kitchen, were fed regularly after separation from the sow, and ran on clover and wheat, with rings in their noses ; — about the middle of May I inclosed a lot, containing considerably more than half an acre of good clover, and put them in it : here they remain- ed as long as the clover lasted, with a small allow- ance of corn every day. After the clover gave out, having no pumpkins, they were fed on peach- es and apples till those crops failed, when I resorted to corn alone. Nothv* ithstaniling this, they barely kept in tolerable order, and when butchered in December, they averaged less than 55 pounds! You will readily agree with me, sir, that this method will not answer. ' My pi-ospect for hog meat another winter, is still worse. I had nine or ten shotcs, which came about harvest, which I "turned out" to shift for them- selves, as is much too common with the farmers around me. These had a small allowance of corn every morning; that is, the corn was given out, and daily carried to tlie place where the pigs were expected to "come up." How much was given, I will not undertake to say. One remark I will make by the way, that most of the negroes about me are permitted to raise hogs, and although they feed on " meal-husks j" always contrive to have the best hogs. My shotes, under this management, after committing many depredations on my corn field, strayed off, and have dwindled down to three or four runts, which will probably not survive the winter, unless }mt up again, and fed on corn. This latter method then, which is the most common with us, is certainly not likely to prove much bet- ter than the first mentioned; and some other must be adopted, or I must hereafter purchase all my pork. I will now digress from the subject of hogs, though it will be seen to be connected with the same. In the month of April last, I had planted in my kitchen garden, six rows of beets, two of the early turnip, and four of the blood beet. The seed, I must not omit to mention, were obtained of Dr. James Cooke, of Fredericksburg, The rows were four feet apart, and the plants twelve inches from each other in the rows. I paid very little attention to them, except to have them worked once with a grubbing hoe, and the grass and weeds kejit under with a common weeding hoe ; cabbages were planted between the rows of beets. You will recollect the season was unusually dry — and all the vegetables vveie nearly destroyed by drought. My beets, however, turned out very well ; one dozen of the largest, weighed 66 pounds, an average of 5\ pounds — one dozen more might 696 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF HOGS, &c. have been added, without diminisliing; the average weight more than half a pound. The largest taken up, weighed 10^ pounds, and measured 20 inches in circumference ; several others nearly as large, were left ior seed. I do not mention this as any thing very uncommon, for I have heard of much larger beets, but only to show v/hat may be done in this way, by a little attention. Adjoining my beet patch, I planted eight rows of mangel wort- zel, but so few came up, tliat they were abandoned ; some half a dozen or more roots, however, literally without cultivation, attained a very respectable size, nearly as large as the average size of the beets, although the ground was inferior, thus show- ing the superiority of that species, if size is to be the criterion of utility. I think it more than pro- bable the beels would have attained a much larger size, had not the tops been pulled off for milch cov/s. This I am satisfied is wrong. In very wet seasons, it may not be very iniportant. I have made some little calculation of the probable quan- tity of good nourishment w h.ich may be in this manner made on a hali'acreof land, well prepared and cultivated, according to the little experiment mentioned. I think I am moderate in saying, that nearly fifteen thousand pounds might be raised in an average season. Here is the calculation. A half acre is 210 feet by 105. The rows to be three feet apart, and the roots one foot from each other — 70 rows of 105 roots each, will give 7,350 roots, which at the moderate estimate of two pounds each, will be 14,700. This calculation would be far below what might be reasonably expected, were we to make no al- lowance for missing plants, and not taking into consideration also, the fact, that it would be neces- sary to begin on the roots, before they could attain their full size. I would have the ground prepared as early as possible. It is almost needless to say, the ground should be ploughed very deep ; a plenty of manure, tolerably well rotted, applied, and the harrow run over it as often as might be necessar)' to pulverise it properly ; the ground to be kept clear of weeds and grass, while the young plants are coming on ; and, after they attain a sufficient size, a common coulter to be run twice or three times in each space, very deep. It might be well to repeat this operation, if the land should become close ; I would divide the patch into three parts, one part to be devoted to the early turnip, but one to the blood feeet, and one to mangel wortzel, to be used in the order they are m.entioned. The turnip beet may be used in June ; after the cold v>feather sets in, they may be preserved as usual in cellars, laid away in dry sand, or in pits. Now, Mr. Editor, let us bring the hogs and the roots together. Will the hogs eat the roots, and will the roots fatten the hogs.'' This seems to me to be the greatest ditliculty , and this is the point on which I wish to be informed. I think, with the addition of as much corn as is usually given to our " out hogs" during the year, (previous to the time of fattening them for pork,) ground into coarse meal, to the boiled roots, we might do infinitely better than we are now doing. An essential part" of this plan is to keep up the hogs the whole year, in a small lot, with a good shelter in winter, and shade in summer. I believe the time saved in looking for hogs, would be suffi- cient nearly to cultivate the roots. But supposing it not sufficient, we can surely spare time enough to cultivate half an acre, or even a whole acre of ground, provided we can obtain such results as I believe are almost certain. This ])lan may be new, or it may not be. If it be new, it certainly deserves trial ; if not, some one who has tried it, will oblige me by giving to the public the result of his experience. I shall try it, and I hope others will do so likewise, if they think the scheme plausible. Another remark , and I am done. The breed of hogs is a very material point, for we know that there are runts and " gar- rons" among hogs as well as among horses, and I should be under obligations to you, sir, or any of your correspondents, for such intbrmation as may enable me to get into the best stock of hogs. I believe we have no stock to which so little atten- tion is paid to the breed. Should you think the above remarks worthy of insertion, you can publish them, only omiting the name of the county — and subscribing, instead of my real name, a poor farmer. [The mode of managing hogs by our correspondent, and his ill success, are not so uncommon, as for his statement to endanger the incognito which lie is desir- ous to preserve. There are but few farmers of Eastern Virginia, (and we certainly are not among those few exceptions,) who are sure that the pork they make does not cost them its full market price, in the corn consumed by the hogs, and the time and trouble required to take care of them. One of the various causes which pro- duce this state of things, is certainly that which " A Poor Farmer" has slightly touched upon, and which de- serves consideration in more respects than this. Hogs can be kept fat by our slaves, though not by the mas- ters— and supposing them to cost nothing, many per- sons permit this plan of raising hogs, as a cheap mode of supplying negroes with a part or the whole of their year's pork. If they are supplied by the master with the lean pigs, and a reasonable allowance of grain in aid of their year's support, it will be fovmd that there is but little economy in the plan : and if these are not furnished, and the slave is merely permitted to keep a hog, he had as well be told by his master, in plain En- glish, "steal a pig v/herever you can do it safely, and steal enough corn to feed him through the year, and to fatten him for slaughter at Christmas, and you may there- by have as much meat as you can gormandize and waste, until March, after which you will either eat bread alone, or steal and kill lean hogs from my neighbors and myself, until your next hog is fat." This practice tends to cor- rupt the morals of slaves — indeed almost compels them to resort to jDilfering — and if it does not cause loss to each individual who permits it on his farm, it is because his slaves jDilfer abroad, more than at home.] AGRtCULTURAI. ENTERPRIZE. At a meeting of the Ohio Company for the Im- portation of English Cattle, held at Madeira's Hotel, in Chilicothe,on the 27th Jan. 1834, it was resolved, that Mr. Felix Renix,of Ross county, a successful dealer in stock, and an excellent judge of cattle, be appointed agent of the company to proceed to England, with as little delay as possible, for the purpose of selecting and purchasing a stock of the finest cattle to be met with in that country. FARMERS' REGISTER— FARMING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 597 OBSTACLES TO THE DIFFUSIOX OF AGRICUL- TLRAL, SCIKXC'E. From the Northern Fanner. Messrs. Editors : — A n opinion prevails to a c^reat extent amonij; farmers, that success in ao-ricultural pursuits depends moreontlie number of acres cul- tivated, that on the science and skill of the cultiva- tor— more on tlie amount of labor bestowed, than on the skill with which it is applied. This opinion miijht have been just, fifty years ago, in some sections of New England (so far as respected the immediate profits of cultivation,) when the lands were new and unexhausted of those principles of fertility, which had been accumulating for thousands of years, by the decomposition of ve- getable matter: but such opinions now, in their effects, must be ruinous to the country, as they form tlie most insurmountable obstacle to the dif- fusion of such knowledge and practical skill, as would enable us to restore to its original fertility the lands which our fathers have exhausted by such injudicious husbandry. It is not at all surpris- ing that the farmer who has been brought up un- der the influence of such opinions, should still pur- sue the course, which his fether pursued, with such apparent success. True, ha is unsuccessful, is fal- ling in debt, and perhaps his farm is mortgaged ; but he attributes his want of success, to unfavora- ble seasons, misfortune, or othercircumslances be- yond his control ; without once stopping to reflect, that the entire different condition of his farm re- tjuires an equally different course of cultivation. Prejudices, in favor of old modes and old princi- ples, shut out all inquiry from this whole class of farmers. Ask Ihem, why they do not subscribe for some one of the agricultural papers, which aie read with so much eagerness by our most intelli- gent and successful farmers, and they will tell you, that their knowledge on these subjects is already more extensive than their power to execute ; that they possess all the skill necessary, but that they have not the means of commanding the labor re- quisite to make the improvements they v.ish. Another important olislacle to the diffusion of correct knowledge on agricultural subjects, is the prevailing taste, among farmers, as well as all oth- er classes, for local politics. Many of our farmers have so much of the care of the Commonwealth up- on their hands, that they are compelled to neglect their own private affairs. This is, no doubt, what is understooil to be pafrini{sm,m these days ; but it is most certainly bad husbandry. Ask one of these politicians to subscribe for an agricultural paper, and he will tell you, he is taking, one, two, and perhaps three political newspapers, tor which he pays ; and perhaps, has two or three otlsers sent to him without pay. This is almost sure to be the case with such prominent politicians as have neg- lected their own affairs, for the public good; or, what is precisely the same thing, for the good of office seekers. This class, therefore, have neither taste nor time, for improving either their farms or their understandings ; they are full of business and bustle, in settling the affairs of the nation, till some revolution of the political wheel divests them of all their consequence ; and then, it is too late for them to learn first principles, or attend to the more hum- ble business of agriculture. Neither of these classes can be prevailed on to subscribe for, or read agricultural papers ; for the one class is too wise already to profit by them, and the other too bus)- to attend to the humble science which they teach. Another obstacle to the more general diffusion of tliis important science, is, that, that class of our citizens, wiio patronise agricultural ])ublicalions, and who really believe in their great utility in jiro- moting the best interests of the country, are too sparing of their influence and of their pens on this subject. Every intelligent farmer v/ho reads an agricul- tural publication, should feel interest sufficient, to induce him to communicate sometliing, once a year at least, on this subject, for publication ; and he might also, if he would exert his influence on others, (and such individuals always jwsscss influ- ence,) furnish without much trouble to himself, one additional subscriber lo such a })aper, annually. In this way much might be added to the value of these publications, and their benefits be much more wide- ly extended. The obstacles, however, of which I have spoken can never be removed, till a spirit of inquiry shall be awakened among farmers, till they shall believe it necessary to read and examine, as well as to la- bor : nor until they are convinced that science is as necessary to success, in the pursuits of agricul- ture, as in any other business of life. FARMING IN MASSACHUSETTS. Extract from the Report of the Examining Com- mittee appointed by the Middlesex Agricultural Society. Mr. How's farm contains 117 acres, well pro- portioned with the various kinds of soil, which are necessary tomakea farmer more active. This farm, purchased by Mr. How, about 40 years ago was destitute of fences, except brush and wood ; and the buildings nearly decayed ; and not more than one ton of English hay cut on the farm. By the industry and hard labor of Mr How, the farm now^ is in good slate of cultivation, with 933 rods of wall, 400 rods of ditches, a large house, two barns, sheds and out buildings, necessary for a farmer, built by Mr. Hov/ ; a good stock of cattle, and now cuts 20 tons of English hay, 10 tons of meadow hay ; grain and other produce in j)roportion. The improve- ments on this farm have been made chiefly by draining the low lands, and taking the manure from the ditches and putting it on the high land, previously passing through the cow and hog yards, and also by levelling with hoes rough and boggy land, and covering the same with sand or gravel, manuie and hay-seed; which your Committee think far better than plougiiing where the soil is wet and heavy. The labor that has been perform- ed on the farm was chiefly done by Mr. How's own hands and team. We are of the opinion, that much of the labor on the walls must have been done at a season of the year, when many other far- mers have l)een sheltered from the severity of the cold. We cannot select any part of the farm as having any extraordinary mode of cultivation ; but each part has been made subservient to the benefit of the whole. By a long and steady course of industry and good husbandry, (he farm which was of little income, has now become a profitable field. The labor of cultivating and gathering the crops are performed by Mr. How, and a boy with a team ; it is now a very productive farm accor- ding to the laborers. 698 FARMERS' REGISTER— LARGEST TREE— CULTURE OF BARLEY. Mr. Moor's land, which we have examined, is about 60 acres, chiefly swamps and meadow hind. In 1826 the produce was equal to keeping; one cow. n 830, 1831, 1832, and 1833, there were from 40 to 50 tons of Englisli hay cut annually. This land lies about half a mile east of Concord meetinf.^ house, and is known to a large portion of the coun- ty. The mode of cultivation has been first by ta- king from the soil from 6 to 10 inches, then level- ling with sand or gravel, and spreading manure ; second, by ploughing and hoeing ; third, by lev- elling the ground with the hoe and covering with sand or gravel and manure. The last mode is thought to be the best, it being less labor ; and fre- quently covering it with a little gravel and ma- nure, it will alsvays hold good. Some of this land is worth from 100 to 150 dollars per acre; bearing from H to 2\ tons per acre, which for seven years previous the income was not one cent per acre. It is difficult to ascertain the expense of reclaiming an acre of this land ; but no man need fear to un- dertake it, for it will amply compensate him for his labor. Your Committee are of opinion, that if more labor was laid out on swamps and meadow lands, that do not produce any wood, and less on high and rocky land that might produce wood, it ■would be much for the interest of the farmer and country at large. Although but two applications ■were n^ade us to examine farms, your Committee did not pass by any without casting an eye on them : they are happy to say that many of the farms made a fine appearance, and as they had two premiums not disposed of, they would have been willing to have awarded them if application had been made. There vvei'e many farms which needed great im- provements, and the Committee would recommend their owners to double their diligence, that they may obtain premiums ; they would also strongly recommend to farmers and all otiiers a little atten- tion to their door-yards, and the highway near their houses. A little time spent in removing such things as are not necessary, would add much to the appearance of the situation, and to the conve- f^ience of their visiters. THE LARGEST TREE IN THE WORLD. From the Cabinet Library. The boabab or monkey-bread (^j^dansonia di- gitatd) is the most gigantic tree hitherto discov- ered. The trunk, though frequently eighty feet in circumference, rarely exceeds twelve or fifteen in height; but on the summit of this huge pillar is placed a majestic head of innumerable branches fifty or sixty feet long, each resembling an enor- mous tree, densely clothed with beautiful green leaves. While the central branches are erected the lowest series extend in a horizontal direction, often touching the ground at their extremity ; so that the whole forms a splendid arch of foliage, more like the fragment of a forest than a single tree. The grateful shade of this superb canopy is a favorite retreat of birds and monkeys ; the na- tives resort to it for repose, and the weary travel- ler in a burning climate gladly flies to it for shel- ter. The leaves are quinate, smooth, resembling in general form those of the horse chesnut. The flowers are white and very beautiful, eighteen in- ches in circumference. The fi-uit, which hangs in a pendant manner, is a woody gourd-like capsule with a downy surface, about nine inches in length and four in thickness^ containing numerous cells, in which brown kidney-shaped seeds are imbed- ded, in a pulpy acid substance. The timber is soft and spongy, and we are not aware that it is used for any economical purpose. It is very easily perforated, so that, according to Bruce, the bees in Abyssinia construct their nests within it, and the honey thus oI)tained, being supposed to have re- quired a superior flavor, is esteemed in preference to any other. A more remarkable excavation is however made by the natives ; diseased portions of the trunk are hollowed out and converted into tombs for the reception of the bodies of such indi- viduals as, by the laws or customs of the country, are denied tlie usual rites of interment. Tiie bo- dies thus suspended within the cavity, and without any preparation or embalment, dry into well pre- served nmmmies. The juicy acid pulp is eaten by the natives, and is considered beneficial in fevers and otiier diseases on account of its cooling proper- ties. The duration of the boabab is not tlie least extraordinary part of its history, and it has given rise to much speculation. In it we unquestiona- bly sec the most ancient living specimens of ve- getation. 'It is,' says the illustrious Hund)oldt, 'the oldest organic monument of our planet ;' and Adanson calculates that trees now alive have wea- thered the storms of five thousand years. CULTURE OF BARLEY. From the Genesee Farmer. Barley, like hops, is annually becoming of in- creased importance in our agriculture. We are told that more than two-thirds of the barley raised in the United States is the produce of this state, and that this is almost wholly grown in the north- ern and western parts. The quantity marketed at Albany and its neighborhood, in 1833, is slated at 450,000 bushels. This, estimated at seventy-five cents a bushel, makes an aggregate of 337,500 dol- lars. A lack of information in regard to this grain, seems to be prevalent, by which a serious loss is sustained by the farmer, which it is the object of this article in soine measure to remedy. There are two varieties of barley grown, one two, and the other six rowed, which will not malt profitably together. The brewer cannot, therefore, afford to pay so high for these when mixed as he can for ei- ther sort separate. One has a thick, the other a thin skin. The first requires a longer time in the process of malting than the latter ; and of course, when mixed, the thin skinned is overdone, and materially injured, or the process must be termi- nated ere the thick skinned has developed all its saccharine matter. Where the brewer buys di- rectly of the farmer, he is in a measure enabled to prevent this mixture, by keeping each sort sepa- rate; though the farmer himself, not being aware of the consequence, is not sufficiently careful to keep the kinds distinct. But when the grain is bought in by the merchant, or goes to market in a canal boat, an indiscriminate mixture takes place, and the value becomes sensibly diminished. The loss in this way last year is stated at ten per cent, upon the whole product, or equal to 45,000 bush- els. We hope these hints will serve to induce the far- mer to sow only clean seed of one variety, and the merchant and boatmen to consult their interest, by keeping the two kinds separate. Although wheat is^ and is likely to remain the FARMERS' REGISTER— CORN CROP, HOME MARKET, &c. 599 ^reat staple of the west, yet there are many of the lighter soils suited to the profitable culture of bar- ley. We will therefore make some suggestions as to its culture, which may benefit those who are not already familiar with it. The two rowed, which is thin skinned, we believe is the most es- teemed variety. The best seed for sowing is that which is free from blackness at the tail, and is of a pale lively yellow color, intermixed with a bright whitish cast; and if the rind be a little shrivelled it is so much the better, as it shows lliat it has sweated in the mow, and is a sure indication that its coat is thin. The seed for strong land should be grown on a light or warm soil, as it will ripen some da)-s earlier, and has the thinnest skin ; and the seed for light should come from strong land, otherwise it degenerates in bulk and fulness. A change of seed is more important in this than in most other grain. Barley produces best upon a light rich loam ; and is neither adapted to a light sand nor a stiff clay — it does better upon corn than wheat soils. It may be sown upon a clover ley, or after a hoed crop, which has been well manured ; but recent manure should by no means be applied to the bar- ley, as it induces a rank growth, and causes the grain to lodge. When the plants are three or four inches out of the ground the roller may be passed over the field with great advantage. By often bu- rying the crown it causes the grain to tiller, or multiply its seed stalks, and causes a beneficial compactness to the soil. It should be sown upon the fresh ploughed soil, and well harrowed in. Grass seeds may be sown with this crop to advan- tage. The product is from 20 to 70 bushels per acre, according to the fitness of the soil, its fertil- ity and the favorableness of the season. b. A CROP OF CORN IN COLUMBIA, N. Y. The follo%ving article has an additional value from relating to the same farming region, which was treated of in the communications from Dr. Beekman, and Mr. Harder, presented in the Febi'uary No. of the Far- mers' Register. From the American Farmer. Mr. Sanders of Clermont, Columbia county, New York, raised the last season a crop of corn averaging about eighty bushels (of shelled corn) to tlie acre. He was honored as he well deserved to be, with a premium from the Agricultural Society of the county, in his application for which, he gives the following account of his way. Extract from Mr. Sanders' Communication. " The ground on which the above crop was raised, is a sand loam in excellent heart, with a rich clover sod, two years from seeding, turned over in the early part of May last; and with a view to mellow the surface, once harrowed over before planting. The corn was planted about 20th of May, and as near as the furrows could be cal- culated accurately, as made with a com plough, planted about 2 feet 8 inches apart each way, pla- cing 4 kernels in each hill, so as to insure the growth of three stalks, which is a desirable num- ber, although four were felt, if their appearance was healthy. The land was again harrowed when the blade became about six inches long, if ex- tendetl — in a few days thereafter, say ten, the corn pkmgh was passed through in one direction, and the whole well hoed ; and again, when the blades becames 18 or 20 inches long, the plough was passed through twice in the contrary direction, whicii was the last operation until the stalks were topped, and tiiat not done before they were nearly ripe that the grain might derive full benefit of sus- tenance from them. "I am confident in the opinion, that while the blades are small, say until 18 or 20 inches, corn land cannot be too much stirred, as it subdues all vegetable matters that subtract from the nutri- ment that should apply to the growing stalks, and properly mellow the soil to be penetrated by the tender roots of the plant in search of food. But after the plant has attained the height of 2 feet or more, I conceive any operation on the soil, (ex- cept upon the surface, by a corn cultivator or sim- ple hoeing,) injudicious ; for the plants having then extended their roots in great number, must be injured by any process of ploughing, by the same parity of reason, as the growing tree is fre- quently destroyed where its roots have been dis- turbed. " The observation of your applicant upon this mode of cultivation was, that his corn field kept remarkably free from weeds, or any vegetable substance that might injure the yield. The ex- pense beyond the most ordinary mode of cultiva- tion, did not exceed that of harrowing, as until the middle of September last, I did not indulge the idea of entering for premium. Had it been so intended in spring, I should have tested the ex- periment on J. Buel's plan, by drills, selecting from the three modes proposed by him, the two drill system, as most applicable to my land. The method in relation to the corn crop above detailed, is that generally pursued by me, of its propriety I am induced to think well, as upon 35 acres of land, I am full in the belief, I have raised this season 1700 bushels of corn, and so little defective that an ordinary farmer would have cribbed it without sorting; and I indulge the idea that if a drought had not injured the plants on an upland field at a critical time, my produce would have been much increased." THE H03IE MARKET FOR AGRICULTURE CREATED BY PROTECTING DUTIES. From the Banner of ihe Constitution. The Dog and the Fleas. A certain shepherd of Boeotia was rearing a sprightly young hound, whose gambols were ofterp interrupted by the fleas, w hich were feasting at his expense. To relieve himself of these hungry blood-suckers, the puppy was continually using his claws and teeth, and soon became very expert in hunting and destroying this small game, which he munched and swallowed as if fleas were deli- cious food. The shepherd — (who was a man of that kind of genius which, in our times, would have made him admirably suited for a chairman of the committee of manufactures, or might even have raised him to be Secretary of the Treasury, if he had been a member of Congress from Penn- sylvania)— the shepherd, I say, observing the use made of this new kind of food, conceived the sub- lime idea of making his dog live entirely upon his own fleas, and thus provide a home market fbr his surplus produce, (that is, as much blood as be could spare,) and afterwards to recover it, impro- ved by the domestic industryj and increased by 600 FARMERS' REGISTER— BROOM CORN. the rapid propagation of leo;ions of these active operatives. Accordingly, every means was used to encourage the gTowth and increase of the fleas. Fresh swarms were combed out of some neigh- boring dogs, and .added to the domestic supply of Towzer, who at the same time v.as confined to a bed of damp and filthy straw, still more to protect and increase the vermin ; Avhilehis usual food was reduced, at first, to less than half his former al- lowance, that he might be compelled to make full use of his new customers, and afterwards gradual- ly still more diminished, as his flea-food was sup- posed to increase. What was before mere sport for Towzer, now became a matter of most disa- greeable necessity. He daily devoured fleas by thousands, as well as the small share of bread still given to him, and as much more as he could man- age to steal, but yet became leaner every day. Though the shej)herd was disappointed in not seeing him become fat, he found, by actual mea- surement, (and he was a man who deemed one fact worth a thousand theories,) that, since this treat- ment commenced, the puppy had grown three quarters of an incii in height, which he imputed entirely to his flea-diet; and thence was sure, that, to make him fat, as well as tall, nothing was want- ing but more fleas. Not content with forcing Towzer to submit to his plan, he aimed to convince liis reason — (for brutes could reason as well as speak in ancient times)— he represented to him " the great convenience of a home market for his products, and of obtaining his articles of primary necessity at home, instead of being dependent on foreign supplies, to be sought by the very hazard- ous and uncertain practice of hunting the fields for rabbits — that it was kind and parental treatuient to confine him at home, and compel him to culti- vate his own resources — that, if the continual biting of his domestic customers was unpleasant, it was only because he had not been long enough accus- tomed to them, and that any discontented feeling- ought to be repressed by considering how patriotic it was for him to support the animals of his own home — and, finally, that Towzer had been grov/- ing, and of course thriving, under this blood-suck- ing system, ever since he had been six months old." A nimble old buck-flea, who at the same time had been enjoying this fine speech and the opening of a new vein, now came to strengthen the argu- ment. "And, besides," he squeaked in Towzer's ear, "do you not remember, you ungrateful pup- py, that we have stuck to you through all your difficulties? When you were first deprived of your mother's milk, and were too young to pro- cure meat, we fleas furnished you our fat bodies for your food, (whenever you could catch us) con- tent with having obtained previously only a few drops of your blood — and so we have continued, and will continue, to aid and serve j'ou, ungrateful as you are, as long as there is a drop of blood under your mangy skin." Towzer, by way of reply to this last speaker, made a sudden scratch, which dislodged him, and then an ineffectual snap at him as he jumped to a new hiding-place. It was useless, and perhaps dangerous, to dispute the matter with the shep- herd, whose closing arguments might be the whip and chain. In a short time the dog died — and his master always remained convinced that his death was caused by his fleas not being sufficiently nu- merous. "They should have been protected," he said, "until they had increased ten-fold, and then it is perfectly obvious that Towzer would have had ten times as many fleas (o eat, and of course would have been in an eminently flourishing condition." Virginia, July, 1831. u. Enoor.i conx — Sorghum saccharatum, i.. From Goodsell's Farmer. This plant is a native of India, and was intro- duced into this country about fifty years since. Under the general name of sorghum, are ar- ranged several species, most of which are cultiva- ted lor their farinaceous seeds, which have at dif- ferent times and by different nations been used as bread stuffs, as the S. vulgare or Indian millet, and S. rubens, wliich is sometimes called Egyptian wheat. The S. saccharatum, or broom corn, is cultiva- ted mostly for the sake of the long panicles, or seed stems, which are manufactured into brooms, and for which purpose we know of no plant, that can be cultivated in this climate that would be equally as valuable. For many years past broom corn has been ex- tensively cultivated as a field crop in New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and some other parts of the United States and has been made a very profitable branch of agriculture. In order to render this a profitable crop it should be planted upon such soils, and in such climates as are found favorable for Indian corn. Wherever the gourd seed corn perfects itself, it is safe to cal- culate that broom corn will succeed. Although the seeds of the broom corn may be ripened much further north, than the larger ivinds oi Indian corn succeed to advantage, yet the nmi- cles or brush will not be so long or valuable as that which is grown in a warmer climate. The cultivation of broom corn does not differ materially from tliat of Indian corn, as it may be planted either in hills, or in drills, both of which are practised in the same district to the option of the grov/er. The produce of brush varies in different parts of the country, and in the same district in different seasons, but a fair crop may be put at from five to seven hundred pounds per acre. Although tiie brush or panicle is the main ob- ject of cultivation, yet the seeds are turned to some account when large crops are grown. The quan- ity of seed produced per acre, may be calculated at from twenty-five to thirty-five bushels, which is pronounced by some to be equal to the same quan- tity of oats for hogs or cattle. The price of brush varies in different seasons from five to ten cents per pound. Allowing five hundred pounds as the produce of an acre, and se- ven cents per pound as price, the produce would be thirty -five dollars per acre. The seed is thought by many to be worth as much as the cost of cultivation. From the universal use of corn brooms in this country, and also in Upper and Lower Canadas, where the climate is too cool for the cultivation of the plant, there is little danger of the market being overstocked, and farmers in suitable localities, may with safety calculate on the crop as one that will at all times yield a fair remuneration for the? cultivator. FARMERS' REGISTER— BROWN'S SALTPETRE. 601 There is some diversity of opinion with regard to the manner in which the seed should be allowed to ripen. Some allow the brush to remain upright until it is perfectly ripe, others bend the stalk be- low where it is to be cut, allowing the head to hang pendulous, by which the panicles are more apt to remain straight. We believe the more experien- ced growers, only bend those heads that become crooked before they leave the sheath in which, while young, they were enveloped. The stalks of broom corn which are left after the heads are cut off, should be cut and burned, otherwise they will be found rather troublesome in after-cultivation. To the Editor of the Fanners' Resister. The enclosed printed page detailing the process of making salt-petre in Virginia, is taken from a copy of the London Magazine, for the year 1763. The simplicity and cheapness of its manufacture may induce not only the theoretical but the prac- tical farmer to make the experiment — an enter- prise which if successful, must be gratifying alike to his pride and economy. rusticus. January, 30, 1834. MR. JERKBIIAH BROWIv's METHOD OF MA- KiKG saltpetre; Published in Virginia by order of the trustees for the Improvement of xJrts and Manufactures, and also in England by order of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. Saltpetre is to be found in tobacco houses, sta- bles, cowhouses, hen and pigeon-houses, and in any covered place where the influence of tlie sun sel- dom reaches. A sixty feet tobacco-house will yield upw ards of 16 C. wt. a year, and so in pro- portion far larger or smaller houses. In order to prepare the floors for attracting ni- tre, all dung and other trash must be removed ; and i* the floors are not level, they must he made so by laying on marl, or any soil not too stiff, which must l)e lightly trod down with their feet. The floor being thus prepared, sprinkle strong ambeer over it, made from tobacco-trash, and cov- er it with wet ground leaves, or other tobacco- trash, for a fortnight; then clean out the trash, and in any cool dry morning that succeeds, you will find on the floor the nitre attracted and con- densed like hoar frost ; sweep this off lightly, and put it by in some hogsheads, or safe place in your house, until you have leisure to go through the fol- lowing process. This work you must carefully repeat as often as you observe the above mention- ed'appearance of nitre on your floors; by which means you will soon be furnished with a compe- tent quantity to employ a leisure day. The process. Make a ley from this earth in the same manner as is usually done for soap, noting that the earth is not to be hard packed on the straw in the bottom of your ley vessel, which would re- lain the water to be poured on it too long, and over- charge it with saline particles, to Ihe great inter- ruption of the process : j)lace the earth hollow in the vessel, for the reception of the water; the first put to it must be warmer tl)an new milk from the cow; afterwards add cold wafer: fix a vessel to receive the ley as soon as you begin to put the wa- ter in, as it will not remain long upon the earth, but in a few minutes begin to drop into the re- Yoh. I.— 76 ceiver : If it runs foul, it must be returned upon the earth ; as soon as it has dropped a gallon, you may begin to boil it in a cast-iron pot. Every bushel of eartli will require near eight gallons of water. Continue to boil it gently until you have fully charged your pot with the ley, and you will find the watery particles evaporate until it is re- duced to a thick oily consistence, shooting into small icy crystals, which you will easily perceive by exposing the suds, in a spoon, to a cold place : Then put the liquor out of the pot into wetted wooden trays, and set it by in a cool place for the first growth : If you accidentally boil it too thick, add a little cold wate^: When your trays have stood with the suds a few hours, you must raise one end to let the ley drain off from the petre-salt, which is the first growth, and which, by boiling a second time, will yield you a fresh quantity. After it is thus drained and become dry, you may put it into casks or tubs, until you have lei- sure, without prejudice to your crops, to refine. Te refine petre-salt. Put into your pot about a third of the quantity your pot will hold of this first growth, and set over the fire : You are to be provided with an iron rod, or poker, to stir it : As soon as it begins to melt, you will see it begin to boil furiously : Keep it well stirred down, as at this time it is very apt to take fire, which will destroy the whole; when you observe it in the boiling to look of a dirty white, slacken your fire, and stir it briskly for a quarter of an hour ; then increase your fire, and continue the stirring, though the danger of burning it is now over: The pot, be- fore it is sufficiently melted, will be at the bottom, of a flaming red, and the matter will appear like boiled cream ; and when it becomes whitish and liquid, pour it upon a stone, or some earthen vessel or a hard well-rammed earthen floor, clean swept. As soon as it is cold, it will become hard, and if you throw it upon a stone, will ring like broken china. If you have not leisure immediately to clarify if, put it into a tub in a dry place until some con- venient ojjportunity. 7'o clarify coagulated cream of nitre. To eve- ry pound of this matter, put six pounds of water, after you have broke it into small pieces: Put your pot upon the fire, and stir it until it is well dissolved; then make the fire all round the pot, which will cause it to boil in the middle, and pre- vent any waste by its drying and sticking on the sides of the pot ; and as soon as the earthy matter begins to settle in the pot, pour the liquid into a tray, or other open vessel, that its sediment may settle : Pour off the clear liquor, and evaporate it with gentle fire, until in a spoon it will shoot into crystals: thenpour it into your tray, with dry sticks fixed across, so as to be a little below the surface of the liquor: set this by in a cool place, where it may stand until it shoots into clear transparent crystals; then pour off the liquor, and set the tray so as to drain it off perfectly dry. Thus your salt petre is completely made, and in a few days will be dry enough to remove out of your trays info casks or vessels proportioned to the quantities. The liquor you last poured off must be again evaporated over the fire, for it will yield salt petre equally good as the former; and thus continue the operation, until all the watery particles are totally evaporated. 602 J^ARMERS' REGISTER— ARABIAN HORSES. N. B. The earth from which you have extract- ed the salt petre,ancl all the vvasliings of your ves- sels, if you lay it by liiinly spread, in your house will turn to profit, as it continues to be peculiarly proper to attract and absord tiie nitre lloatinp; in the air; add also the earlliy matter which settles in the refining: And should you be in want of house room, you may spread it upon tiie earth, co- vered in the manner that (odder stacks are; It will produce salt-pelre full as well as a tobacco-house, taking care tliat the north-end be always open, and that it be defended as much as possible from rain. OPINIONS OF THE ARABS, CONCERSTING THEIR HORSES OF THE MOST APPROVEn STOCK. From the Memoirs of Si)- Ja'mes Campbell, (lately re-puhlished in Waldic''s Circulating Libraiy.) The route of the caravan lay at first through tlie great desert of Syria, and then through the country of Ilamah, the most celebrated in the world for its breed of horses; and this was a cir- cumstance peculiarly agreeable to me, as I was desirous of all things to carry home with me a horse of that unequalled race. The purity of the breed is ascertained and preserved in this country with greater precision and facility, in consequence of the horses and mares, to the number of one hun- dred and upwards, being uniformly licld in com- mon property, by a particular fiimily or tribe. The line of succession is p-reserved with all the care and all the accuracy perhaps of a Welsh pedigree; and in the genealogical tree of the horse which I ultimately purchased, its descent was pro- fessedly traced to the famous black mare of Ma- homed, and I had a certificate of the fact, sub- scribed by five or six sheiks, who have an obvious interest in keeping up the value of their breed of horses by this exactness in their pedigree. It is on the mares, however, that the chief value is placed, and through them it is that purity of blood is most depended on. The sister of the horse which I brought home with me, was for sale at the time I made the purchase. I examined her with the greatest care, and could not defect the semblance of a fault in any one of her points. Like all the others of the race, slie was under 15 hands hiffh ; and the price put upon her l)y the tribe to which she belonged v. as 10,000 piastres, equal to 2,500/. of our money. The value of the mare is always much greater than that of a horse of equal symmetry, from the idea of her greater influence in preserving the purity of the race. The price I paid for the horse, own brother to this mare, was 800 Venitian sequins, equal to about 400/. sterling; and I incline to think it was not far out of propor- tion, according to their ideas, to the price of the other. While I was yet in the district where these horses are bred, an agent arrived from the King of Prussia, commissioned to make purchases for his majesty. He agreed with me in admiring the mare, and declared that she was the handsomest animal he had ever seen. He was even willing to give the 10,000 piastres for her, but the tribe had come to the resolution of preserving her as a brood mare, and refused that sum when offered. It is to be observed, however, that there are two distinct races in the country, the noble and the common. Among the latter, many beautiful horses are often to be foundj but they never possess those qualities in perfection for which the noble race of Arabia is so peculiarly distinguished — fleetness, wind, and bot(on:i. Here, too, I must observe, that the horses brought from Barbary are not to be compared in any good quality with the noble breed of Hamah. Many of the Barbs have radical faults, and some of them are very ugly, goose-run>ped, cat-hammed, and narrow chested. The difference of the breeds v/as long unknown in this country, but now it is better understood, and a Bai'b I believe is seldona bred from. I shall here mention a circumstance on the au- thority of persons in that country whose good faith and respectability I had no reason to doubt, as il- lustrating in rather a striking point of view the marked distinction between the different races of this noble aniriial, which are reared in the same district. An Arab.Avho had pitched his tent in a solitary spot of the desert, had occasion to leave his family, with his stock of the common breetl of horses and mares, for a single nigiit. On his return lo the place in the morning, he found that his family and his whole property had been carried of? in the night. He was mounted on a horse of the noble breed, and of the highest qualities, and having a rifle with him, he set out alone in pursuit of the robbers. On coming up with them he found that their numbers were considerable, but he had reason lo believe that they were not possessed of fire-arms, which proved to be the fact. Approaching near enough to bring them withii> the range of his gun, he fired and wounded one or more of them, and waving his hand he dared them to follow him. This they attempted, but found it fruitless. He then returned to the attack, and again succeeded in singling out one or two of them with his rifle. Onte more they pursued him with the fleetest of their horses, but to overtake him was impossible. Thus he hung u|)on -theix rear, wounding and killing several of them, until he at length compelled them to restore the booty. The accoutrements of the Arab horsemen are sim[)le in their construction, and well suited to his wants. The saddle is generally large, ami always easy to ride en. The straps are made of untanned leather, and are fiistenel without buckles. A ring is attached to the end of the girth, and another to the corresponding part of the saddle. Through these rings a strap is repeatedly passed, and drawn together with such force as to bring them near to each other, after which, the strap is fastened by tw isting the ends round the part thus tightened. The saddle thus fixed is never displaced, and, in- deed, seldom taken off, except for the temporary purpose of grooming, when it is again immediately replaced, although there be no intention of riding. Cruppers are seldom used, because they are. not necessary to keep the saddle in its place, and be- cause they never carry any thing behind it. The shoes are a thin fiat piece of iron, with a hole in the middle to keep the foot cool, something in the form of our common bar shoe, but extremely light, and even flexible, so as to yield wilh the foot when pressed uj)on a stone. The numerous dis- eases to which our horses are liable are scarcely known in these countries. Sometimes, indeed, I have seen a lame horse, but upon inquiry, the cause was generally to be traced to some accident, either in a skirmish, or FARMERS' REGISTER— OXEN— TO TOBACCO GROWERS, &c. 603 from riding violently, which they do without hesi- lationover tFie roug-hest ground. Altliough never a very tiuiorous rider, I have frequently felt sonte- what uneasy at the style in which tliey carried me ever a country which the boldest rider in England would hesitate to follow. In going down a declivity not less, periiaps, th.in forty-five degrees, where stones as large as a table were scsittered about in all directions, f was proceeding with some caution to guide my horse over tiie difficulties of tlie ground, whan an Arab called out tome, and I was induced ever afterwards to follow the advice, — " Give him his head, he sees the stones as well as you do." Every body has seen the Turkisii bridle ; they never use a curb, but the ring which is put into the mouth serves the same purpose ; the bit, which is very light, acting so powerfully, by means of the lever attached to it, as to force the mouth open and keep it so : neither do tJiej' ever use the snaliie, or bridoon ; I tried it in the hope of its easing the mouth, but to horse and rider it proved equally in- convenient. Altiiough they use such powerful bridles, the Arabs ride with a heavy hand, so as to sustain the horse in advancing, and to curb him in action. This they are able to do very effectually, and in throwing the jei'eed it is absolutely neces- sary. Perhaps the most remarkable point about the Arabian horse is the extraordinary smallness of the head and mouJh, — so small, indeed is the latter that you would think they might usea com- mon tumbler for a water bucket. The stirrup used by the Arab" is singularly short, but the seat of the rider is not on that ac- count the less secure, and it enables him, in rising on his stirrup to throw the jereed, or to strike a blow, to do it with an infinitely increased effect. The sudden jerk which is often given in these ex- ercises to the stirrup-leather, makes it necessary to secure it much more firmly than we do. Tlws is done by ten or twelve straps or thongs, and the stirrup, in place of being a narrow bar, is so con- structed as to allow the whole foot to rest on a plate of iron reaching from the toe to some dis- tance behind the heel, where it is sharpened so as to serve the purposes of a spur. I'aAIXIXG OXEX TO RACK. From the Maine Farmer. Mr. Ifolm-es : I have observed that very little, if any attention is paid by our farmers to learn their steers to back ; but as they become able to draw a considerable load forward, they are often unmercifully beaten on the head and face, because thev will not back a cart or sled, with as large a load on as they can di-av/ forward, forgetting that much pains have been taken to learn them to draw well forward, and none to learn them 1o push back- ward. To remedy the occasion of this thumping, and the delay which is alwaysdisagreeable, as soon as I have learned my steers to be handy, as it is called, and to draw forward,! place them on a cart where the land is descending in a small degree. In this situation they will soon learn Vvith case to back it; then I place them on level land and exercise them there; then I learn them to back the cart up land a little rising — tiie cart having no load in it thus far. When I have learned them to stand up to the tongue as they ought, and back an empty cart , I next either put a small v, eight in the cart^ or take them where the land rises faster, which answers the same purpose. Thus in a few days they can be learned to back well, and know how to doit, which by a little use afterwards they will never forget. This may appear of little consequence to some, but when it is remembered how frequently we want to liack a load when we are at work with our cattle, and how commodious it is often to have our cattle back well, why should we not learn ihem, for the time when we want them, thus to lay out their strength. Besides it saves the blows and vexation often encountered, which is considerable when one is in haste. It is a merciful course towards our l-Tutes. I never consider a pair of oxen well broke until thoy will back with ease any reasonable load, and 1 would give a considerable sura more for a yoke of oxen thus tutored, than lor a yoke not thus trained. a tea3ister. CAXAt, COATS. From the Genesee Farmer. Canal Ixwts constructed upon the new princi- ples to which wc lately made reference, are in ope- ration in England as well as in Scotland. We have been shown a letter from Lancashire, Eng- land, vvhich states, that boats now ply upon their canals, at the rate of ten and twelve miles per hour, drawn by horses, which are relieved by a fresh team at the end of every five miles. The boats are sixty feet long, and five feet wide; built of sheet iron, covered with a canvass awning, carry- ing one hundred passengers, and draw only two feet water. We may soon expect to see this im- provement adopted in boats upon our canals. It will reduce the time of a passage from Albany to Buffalo to thirty-six or forty hours; and most ul- timately affect the value of rail road stocks, upon routes parallel with canals. b> A FEW IIIXTS TO TOBACCO GROV.EP.S. To the Editor of the Farmers' Eegiitcr. Mecklenburg, Va. Jan. llth, 1834. 1 much lament, Mr. Editor, that the subjects proper for discussion in such a paper as the Far- mers' Register, should elicit so little of the talents and attention of this part of the state. That such should be the case, is a circumstance wholly unaccountable. That a good degree of interest exists here, on the subject of agriculture general- ly and the best means of advancing its products, will be readily admitted by all. That there ex- ists no indisposition to a public display of our ta- lents, is manifest from our numerous political meetings, and the many lengthy harangues to which they afford an occasion. That some of our aspiring politicians have occasionally found their way into the political papers of the day, reviling #*»*** * *in the most profitless manner, is a fact within my own knowledge. W'hy then is the beautiful and all interesting sub- ject of agriculture so wholly f<)rgotten and ne- glected .' I am fain to believe, Mr. Editor, it is be- cause an essay containing a collection of useful agricultural facts and experiments, Avill not ad- vance the writer to a seat in our General Assem- bly, or in Congress. Being myself no political aspirant, but a plain planting man, who loves to .speed the plough, and al! the other operations of M4 FARMERS' REGISTER— TO TOBACCO GROWERS. beautiful and profitable agriculture, 1 will ven- ture to offer you a few thoughts on a subject which is near to the interest of \is all. I read with peculiar satisfaction and delight the article in the 7th No. of the Farmers' Register, entitled " The Cultivation of Tobacco not opposed to the Imi)rovenient of Land," from your intelli- gent correspondent H. Meade, of Amelia, Va. The article alluded to, gives a clear and concise, but circumstantial narrative, of a simple agricul- tural experiment, which brings us to the happiest result — a result directly in conflict wilh the set- tled opinion of the times; a result which, if we will but imitate, may serve to arrest our country in its onward march to unfruitfulness and sterility. But what struck my attention more particularly, was, that a man should be found bold enough to attack the hoary and giant error that tiiere can be no improvement on estates where tobacco is the crop. The question then is tliis : must the culti- vation of tobacco necessarily produce that barren and wasted appearance which the tobacco region of Virginia every where exhibits. To this ques- tion, I answer in the negative; and shall offer a few of the reasons for that opinion, and tiie method of management which will ensure large and fine crops of tobacco, and an increased fertility in eve- ry part of a plantation. Let three scenes on every estate be selected, which, in the judgment of the proprietor, are the most suitable for tobacco. It matters not that they be in three or more pieces, so enough is selected to make three tobacco shifts for his hands. Let these be brought to " tobacco heart," either by the application of manure, or by grassing them from the time of clearing. Upon any estate where ten hands are employee!, with the requisite number of teams and cattle, manure enough can be raised in a year, by tolerable atten- tion to the subject, to enrich thirty five thousand tol)acco hills or ten acres of land. This I know to be but a moderate effort. Then, at this rate, for a crop of eight thousand hills to the hand, it will re- quire about six years to establish the tobacco shifts recommended — supposing there was no land on the plantation sufficiently fertile to be thrown into this rotation. When the shifts are thus establish- ed, let one be cultivated in tobacco in, say 1834 — seeded in wheat and clover in the fail after the crop of tobacco is taken off; not grazed or trodden in 1835, after the wheat is cut; in the fall of 1835, or spring of 1836, as experience teaches best, let it be sowed in the proper manner with gypsum. This will insure a luxuriant crop of clover in 1836 ; and be sure to keep the fact constantly in view, that the clover was put there to fatten your land, and not your horses, cows and hogs. Then in October or November, or as soon as the land is soft enough to be thoroughly ploughed, let it be again sowed with gypsum, at the rate of a barrel for every twenty thousand hills. If the ensuing summer there be any spots in the field which are yellow or unthrifty, let a little gypsum be applied around the plant, and a speedy and thorough cure will be effected; and so on through the successive scenes. When No. 1 is in tobacco, No. 2 will be in clover, and No. 3 in wheat. Here is an ar- rangement by Avhioh two lots out of three are yield- ing annually a valuable market crop, while the third is manuring itself for the next year's crop of tobacco. It may be supposed by some, that land cannot be kept in tobacco heart at this rotation. but it is a great error. I consider that the year the lot is in wheat, it gains or loses nothing mate- rial, and the return of the clover is more than equal to the exhaustion occasioned by the crop of tobacco Here then, your tobacco scenes being established, what shall be done with the immense quantities of manure which is now applied to our tobacco lots.' Let us contract the extent of our corn fields by one third or one half, and let them be manured and better cultivated, and there- l)y produce as much or more than the whole, un- der the usual system. Let the rest of the corn field be sowed in wheat and clover, or oafs and clover, as the owner may prefer, and thus put upon a longer, and an improving rotation. Let us establish extensive meadows, the hay from which, together with our increased crops of wheat, will enable us to double the qaantily of manure now raised, which increased quantity will, of course, increase the material, for making it in a progressive ratio. When, in a few years, the great- est difliculty with our planters will be, the means of hauling it on their fields — and I had almost said, to find a place to put it. These are not visionary or groundless calculations ; for as far, as in the course of my observation, this system has in part been adopted, proportionable good results have en- sued. May we not then indulge the hope, that upon this or some other system like it, so many of our barren old fields, which are now but haggard and howling wildernesses, may becoms abundant and smiling meadows. Our mother earth, when exhausted by lavish and injudicious cultivation, is like the human system wasted by disease, pos- sesses a strong and natural tendency to reaction ; and if this tendency is aided by kind nursing and little physick. is soon restored to its wonted health and vigor. The system of tillage which is now |)ursued in this part of Virginia, and which has liad the chief agency in reducing it to its present exhausted condition is aptly described by the fiible of the boy who ripped up his goose, which fable is l)ut another mode of expressing folly and cupidity. The owner of a fertile piece of land clears it, and instead of taking a crop or two of tobacco from it, and then keeping it in grass and enclosed, until the proper time shall come for another golden egg, cultivates it in tobacco as long as the crop will j)ay for the labor of cultivation, and then it is cast by, a ripjjed and worthless carcass, to bear a rapid succession of corn and oats ; and when not in crop, the equally desolating effectsof grazingand tramp- ling. I do not advocate a system of improvement which is in the remotest manner to interfere with full, successful, and profitable cropping ; for I do know that profitable agriculture and the improve- ment of the soil, are not only perfectly harmo- nious and compatable, but is in fact, the only mode in which the farmer can realize much clear gains from his estate. I know there are many men in our country, who have amassed large sums of mo- ney from planting, who have not only not improv ed their lands, but who have been so entirely care- less on the subject, as to almost entirely waste them in the effort. But, in this case, where is the profit .' One estate is reduced to poverty, and ren- dered almost wortliless, whereby the means are acquired to purchase another of equal value. — Would a money lender think his profits were ra- pidly increasing, who, instead of putting out his money at six per centum, and receiving back at FARMERS' REGISTER— GEOLOGICAL. 605 (he end of twelve years, his principal unimpaired, and an equal amount of interest, should demand twenty tive per centum, and at the end of four or live years, lose liis principal by extortion, oppres- sion, and usury. The cases are, to my mind, strikingly analagous. The pracliceof cuttingdown and wearing out land, liefbre it is ever permitted to rest, is on'e of those cherished sins against the soil which we have derived from our ancestors, without having the sanie apology for it that they had. They were but thinly scattered over a large extent of fertile country, surrounded by an almost interminable forest, could see no good reason wjiy they should nurse the little fields that surrounded their cottages, and suffer the rich forests to remain the haunt of wihl beasts. Nor indeed was there any. But far different is the case with us; we have continued to fell the forest, and wear out, and turn out, long after there was any good reason for it. How much longer this practice is to continue, I know not ; liut I nmst hope that we are shortly to awake to the fallacy, and ruinous consequences of a system, which all who think, must deplore and condemn. I will conclude the fewdisjoinfed thoughts which are here offered, by saying, that the want of im- provement in our soil does not arise from a failure in any well organized effort to that end, but from a total want of adequate efTort itself. There does seem to exist a degree of supineness and indiffer- ence on that subject, which to me is unaccounta- ble, and I am afraid unalterable, unless it can be effected by the effort of your very valuable Far- mers' Register. A PLANTER OF MECKLEXDURG. Fur Ihc Farmers' R.cgister. GEOLOGICAL ESSAY, KG. III. [ Continued from page 540.] When the earth was formed, or rather, when the elements of it were brought together and placed in its orbit, a certain quantity of animal and vegetable matter was very generally diffused among the various other principles uhich seem to have taken no part in the formation of living be- ings; but constitute a very important part of (he terrestrial mass. When these heterogeneous mat- ters were collectively blended, forming what is called chaos, according to the laws of a((raction, all (he grosser matters devolved towards the cen- tre of gravity ; and whenever two principals of the same kind fell together, or chanced to meet in the general conflict, the affinity, or attraction which they had for eacli other, caused them to unite ; and although different metals, ores and earths did com- bine at that time, forming various compounds, yet perhaps this would not have been the case, had each of its kind fortunately fallen within the sphere of their mutual attractions. If this hul been the case, and the affinity of aggregation prevailed, and the same laws of attraction perpetuated in all the succeeding combinations of matter, chemistry would not have found a place in the catalogue of the sciences; for the earth would not have exhibited to us that confused and discordant mixture which it now |)resents to our view. On the contrary, all matter would be more simple, and all bodies, animate or inanimate, homogeneous. Let us sup- pose all affinity, or that tendency of matter to combination, completely annulled, what would be the state of our globe .^ Would the essence of mat- ter be the sime, or would it be annihilated.' Mat- ter, I should su|)pose, cannot exist if its attraction be taken away ; to remove attraction, therefore, is to annihilate matter. The force or j)Ower of at- traction exerted between particles of the same na- ture, could not produce any combinations different from the w hole, unless it I e adnu'fted, that several particles of the same kind uniting, shall produce one essentially ditTerent in form and property from those of its constituents; and that these parts, or portions of matter, uniting in the same way, shall produce a third, different from either of the fore- going; and so on, causing an infinite vaiiefy of compound matter from the original simple stock, bearing names according to their various qualities and proportions, diflering merely in the arrange- ment of particles. Perhaps we should be less hypothetical and more systematical, under the impression that this earth was originally composed of a certain number of simple substances ; or we may hazard a conjec- ture, that there were only a few primitive princi- ples, or original species of matter, which have be- come compounded by attraction and repulsion, causing all that variety in quality and consistency, which observation presents to our view, similar to the different shades and modifications of color, which arise from the various combinations and proportions of the colors which compose solar light. A learned geologist, M. J. A. Chaptal, has very justly observed, that if we may be per- mitted to recur, by an effort of the imagination, to that epocha in which, according to some histo- rians, the w ater and earth were confounded, and the confused mixture of all principles formed a chaos, we shall see that the laws of gravity inhe- rent in matter, must have carried it down, and necessarily produced the arrangement which ob- servation at present exhibits to us. The water, as (he least heavy, nms( have purified itself, and arisen to the surfiice by a filtration through the other materials : while the earthy principles must have precipitated, and formed a mud, in which all the elements of stones were confounded. In this very natural order of things, the general law of affinities, which continually tends to bring to- gether all analagous parts, must have exerted it- self with its whole activity upon the principles of this almost fluid paste; and the result must have been, a nundier of bodies ol' a more definite kind, in crystals more or less regular : and from this mud- dy substance, in which the principles of the stones were confounded, a rock mus( have been produced, containing the elementary stones all in possession of their distinct forms and characters. In this manner it is, that we observe salts of very differ- ent kinds develope themselves in waters which hold them in solution ; and in this manner it still happens, (hat crystals of spar and gypsum are found in clays which contain their component parts. If all the metals, stone earths, and alkalis were completely dissolved, the principles of the atmosphere condensed, and all blended together in one great receptacle; and let this be encircled around by a large canopy, so constructed as (o confine (he voladle principles contained in (his huge mass : then cause it to be acted upon by the san)e degree of heat as that with which (he earth was first enlivened; — we might then form, per- haps, a correct idea of the original state of our 605 FARMERS' REGISTER— IMPROVEMENT BY MARLING. globe. If such an experiment could be fairly made, there would be, in all probability, a similar atinospiiere formed, and a like combination of op- posite qualities to what we now observe in tlie earth — each, according;- to its gravity, would in- cline towards the centre of attraction. Carbon, ni- trogen, and oxygen, together with many other vo- latile matters, would rise, combine and form the atmosphere: tliose v.'hich oppose a greater resis- tance to the action of heat, by the si!p3rior force of their affinities, woiild gradually .become united with diiferent principles, according as they might chanL-e to fall together, and arrest each other's progress towards the centre. The aliinilies be- tween the elements of some oftheless heavy prin- ciples of theiiuid mass, being exercised with more activity than thoscof the more denser matters, the ibrmer uniting first, must bear obstacle to the progress of the latter tov.'ar;ls the centre ; and by this means, be retained near the surface — such as the ponderous stones and various minerals which are liiund on tlie surface of the globe. For some wise purpose, a considerable portion of our earth v.as to assume certain forms, viz: a large part of the globe was to be animated, and to receive loco- motive powers, such as the astonishing variety in the vegelal>le and animal kingdoms — for their analyses sufficiently show, tliat they are difl'used over the v,hole suriiicc of the earth ; and it must be on account of an original stanip, given by God himself, tb.at the vcgetalile and animal world are united and moulded as it were, in the various shapes and grades presented to our view. Tlie earth contains principles alternately mingled, de- tached, and consolidated; composition and decom- ])Osition agitate it continually, fijr its surface seems to be in continued vibration. This seems ne- cessary to the fidfilment c f the great end in view, viz: the preservation of the different species to a certain pei'iod. If the human race could have resisted all the causes which tend to induce death, theii" demands would have been rapitlly increased ; and as man bears universal sway upon the earth, the vegeta- ble and animal world would have been employed for his support, and by this means becon)e extinct, and leave no other animated beings upon the globe except the human family, v.ho under these cir- cumstances, would be compelled, like the fish of the sea, to devour each other. Had this been the case, there would have been a very inconsideralde renmantof the eart'i left ; and that a simple nodule or sphere of attraction, wlii. h in the present stateof things might serve to keep t be general mass suitably compacted. If all organic matter, both animal and vegetable, since the formation of our earlh, could be brought together, it would form a mass that would fill creation; for it is the opinion of Spallanzani and others, that a single herring, if suffered to spawn and multiply unmolested, and undiminished for twenty years, would show a pro- geny larger in bulk than theglobe itself Philoso- phers and geologists have examined the earth, its fur niture, magnitude, f()rm,tonstruction and astonish- ing magnificence, the various phenomena and kind ofbeings which inha!)il it. Tlse various mountains, hills, rocks, vallies, rivers and seas — what a field they must liave had for speculation ! Tliey have also explanied (he exquisite workmanship of or- ganized matter, and the laws by which it is gov- erned. The earth is the third planet in the solar system, and revolves round the sun, as a centre of her motion from east to west, in 365 days, 6 hours and 9 minutes. Her distance from the sun is said to be 95 millions of miles, and moves at the rate of 68 thousand miles every hour, in her orbit. Inde- pendent of this annual motion round the sun, she turns on her axis ; that is, she turns over once in 24 hours, which seems to produce motion in all the heavenly bodies from east to west. In conse- quence of the earth's motion on her axis, and round the sun, her inhabitants enjoy a succession of day and night, and also the different seasons of tlie year. The earth moves one degree in her or- bit every day, a sign every month, and finishes h.cr])eriod round the sun, in SG5 days, 6 hours and 9 minutes, which is called her year. The four seasons, spring, summer, autumn and winter, are produced by the inclination of the earth's axis to the axis of the ecliptic, which makes an angle of 23° 28'. The diameter of the earth, in round num- bers, is said tobe8,000 miles, and altliough globu- lar, her form is not exactly round, but an oblate spheroidal, flattened at the poles, and ])rojected to- wards the equator, so that a line drawn through the east and west points is longer than one dra'<^n through the north and south points. GALEX. PROGRESS OF I31PROVEMEST BY MARLIAG. To the Edifir of the f'armers' Register. Agriculture, like other systems, is subject to occasional revolutions. Daily experience unfolds to us some new agricultural resource; and while some systems of agricultural improvement, ush- ered into notice by the most extravagant encomi- ums, have j)assed into a speedy and well merited o!)livion, otliers have been discovered, tliat shall stand the test of time, and benefit millions yet un- born. A bountii"uI Providence has abundantly supplied the tidewater district of Virginia with calrareous earths, possessing invaluable proper- ties, which were for a long time overlooked, or considered as possessing feeble claims upon our attention. But by analyses and industry liieir va- lualde properties have been discovered, and their beneficial qualities made evident. But a iew years ago, I left James river, the place of my nativity an'.l of my earliest afiections, in a \ery dejilo- rable condition. The deteriorated condition of the neighboring farms, the poverty stricken fields, naturally not fertile, but rendered poorer by a wretched system of cultivation, all bespoke a miserable condition of things that cried aloud lor improvement. The product from cultivation would barely compensate tlie most industrious farmer. This was calculated to depress and over- rate the energies of the people; and many a prac- tical liirmer found his income inadequate to his an- nual espenscs. This depressed condition of things, induced many a noble hearted Virginian to forsake tlie graves of his fathers, and seek an asylum in some more genial clim'e, where the fertile earth would repay the labor of cultivation. But a great and surprising improvement lias been accomjjlish- ed in a few years by the renovating eficcts of cal- careous manures, (wherever they have been used.) The S|)irit of industiy and improvement have S[)rung again into life, and the physical energies of the people seem to be endued with a new impulse. The altered face of the country in my native dis- trict is remarkable: where the " hen's-nest grass" FARMERS' REGISTER— GRAFTING FRUIT TREES. 607 {jrew in scanty pittance, I have discovered a luxvi- riant srrowth of clover, and more luxuriant corn. It is not for me, merely from ol;servation, to de- scribe t!ie increased value, fertility and jiroduct of land in this section of the country. The cITett is evident ; nor is the cause occult. This discovery cannot he too highly appre. iated iiy the atjricultu- ral community. From what has i een accomplish- ed, may we not jjromise ourselves that at some distant day, here arofit and loss, receipts and expenditures for 1833. It is possible some one may say they have not, as they keep no such book, and for a farmer such nicety is unnecessary. Not so, friend; the farmer who has not the means of knowing, and does not know, whether he is becoming yearly richer or poorer, is in a bad Avay ; and acts as unwisely as v.ould the merchant who should undertake, in" his multifarious dealings, to dispense with day book and leger. You will derive advantage enough in one way to compensate you ten times for the trouble of making such entries. In looking over your expenditures, you will see many useless pur- chases, and by having the inutility of spending money in this way, frequently brought before you*, you will be more on your guard in the future. But it is not to profit or loss in general that I wish at this time to call the attention of the farmer. I have been looking over your shoulder, (pardon the impertinence,) as ^ou have turned over the pages of your journal, and have noticed, or seen places where they should have been noticed, a string of items of loss and expenditure like the followin'o- : Imprhnis. — Loss, by Canada thistles in lot. No. A.; growth so monstrous as to forbid ^ the v^licat that grew lieing gathered, ^10,00 Secundo. — Loss, by thistles in lot B , wheat checked in growth and injured in quality by_ being bound with green thistles, 10,00 Tertio. — Loss, by having ten hands, crad- lers, reapers and liinders, hindered at least one hour a day each, for five days, in pick- ing thistles from their fingers, 4^00 Quarto. — Loss, by one pair of long calfskin gloves made to shield the hands and arms of^ the thrashing machine feeder, 1,50 Quinto. — Loss, by tearing strap, and break- ing three cogs from cast iron horse power, in attempting to force a bundle of thistle stalks, unbound and tough, fhrougli the machine, hindrance and expense, 6,00 Sexto. — Loss, in not thrashing the wheat clean froiri the thistles, and rendering the stiaw worthless for stock, 5,00 Total, §36,50 FARMERS' REGISTER— TREES— AGRICULTURE &c. IN VIRGINIA. 613 And all this loss by the article of Canada thistles alone, a serious sum for an ordinary farmer, and yet I do not think the sum is overrated; confident I am, I can name a dozen individuals, wliose loss the past year has been greater from this cause than the amount specified above. And now farmers of West New-York, are you willing that business should go on thus ? Remem- ber your experience with thistles is as yet but th.e beginning of sorrow. The work of exterminating the Canada thistle, must be set about vigorously and simultaneously, or we may bid adieu to all our fiimily prosperity and greatness. I say simulta- neously, for unless the attack is made in this way it will fail. It will avail me little or nothing to spend my time and money in ridding my farm of this pestilent weed, wjien my next neighbor raises bushels of the seed, and with every wind distri- butes it gratis far and near. We have so many farms occupied by men into whose souls no ray of public spirit ever entered, or if it did, was instantly quenched by the spirit of tlie bar, that nothing for the extermination of the thistle will ever be done except by compulsion, by legislative enactments, strongly drawn, and vigorously enforced. A history of the progress of the Canada thistle like that of the cholera, v/ould prove an interesting work. More than two hundred years since, a Catholic missionary sent it as a curious and beau- tiful plant from the banks of the St. Lawrence to a public garden at Paris, and from thence it has spread over Eurojjc. * * * * * * * From Canada it has entered the United States, and is proceeding southward, if not rapidly, yet surely. Winds waft it, the traveller trans- ports it in his hay, and it is distril)uted with various seeds particularly those of clover and grass. This latter fact speaks but poorly for tlie morality of the man who would perpetrate such an act, for it is no better than theft or highway robbery, yet men who claim to be respectable decent men, do this annu- ally. We have been informed that the first Canada thistles seen in the county of Cayuga, sprung up by the road side, where a way -faring man had fed his team of horses. There is scarcely a depart- ment of domestic industry, where the evils of this weed are not felt; and it ill becomes a community possessing the proverbial enterprise and persever- ance of American Farmers to sit down and fold up their arms in hopeless despondency, while so serious an inroad is making on their prosperity. Let those who have the thistle on their fiirms vigo- rously set about checking their spread, and if i)os- sihle exterminate them — above all, let it be a 'settled axiom, never, under any circumstance, to allow a thistle to go to seed; let those who have none on their farms see that none get rooted there; nothing is easier than to eradicate them on their first appearance, but a patch of an acre, experience has proved, is an affair not to be sneezed at. Let legislative aid be asked, which we are confident would be readily granted, and in all proceedings with regard to the thistle let it be remembered, that half-way measures will avail nothing ; it is the whole or none, all or nothing system which must be adopted, or there will be little success. PLOUGHPOIXT. COS CENT UIC CIRCLES IN TREES." From .Silliiiian's Jouri.al.of Science. In the year 1827, a large lot of hemlock timljer was cut from the north-eastern slope of East Rock, rtear New Haven, for the purpose of forming a foundation for the wharf which bounds the basin of the Farmington Canal on the cast. While inspect- ing and measuring that timlier, at the time of its delivery, I took particular notice of the successive layers, each of which constitute a year's grov.th of tlie tree ; and which, in that kind of wood, are very distinct. These layers were of various breadth, indicating a growth five or six times as full in some years as in others, precedingor follow- ing. Thus, every tree has preserved a record of the seasons for the whole of its growth, Avhelh.er thirty years, or two hundred, — and what is worthy of observation, every tree told the same story. Thus, if you begun at the outer layer of two trees, one young and the other old, and counted back twenty years, — if the young tree indicated by a full layer, a growing season for that kind of timber, the older tree indicated the same. My next observation was, that the growing sea- sons clustered together, and also the meager seasons came in companies. Thus, it was rare to find a meager season immediately precedingor following a season of good growth; but, if you commenced in a cluster of thin and meager layers, and pro- ceeded on, it gradually enlarged ancl swelled to the maximum, after ^vhich a decrease l;egan and v.ent on, until it terminated in a minimum. A third observation was, that there appeared nothing like periodicity in the return of the full years or the meager, but the clusters alternated at irregular intervals ; neither could there be observ- ed, in comparing clusters, any law by which the number of years was regulated. LEGISLATION AND AGRICULTURE IN VIRGI- NIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. February ISth, 1834. In your 8th number, there is a communication signed T. B. iMcR.,on the subject of " Encourage- ment of Agriculture by the Legislature of Virgi- nia," which so well expresses, what I myself have long and deeply felt, that I cannot refrain fi-om raising my feeble voice in praise of the author, and imploring our legislature, not only to meditate at- tentively on his suggestions ; but to act upon them, before they return to give an account of their stewardship to their constituents. Can it be pos- sible, Mr. Editor, that they will suffer another session to pass away, without the slightest effort whatever, to do any thing for the cause of agricul- ture in our beloved state, — of agriculture — that indispensable support of every [public institution; that essential aliment of all the different trades, callings and professions, which exist in every well organized government; — that vital source of ail national prosperity ? Would to Heaven, that every man in the community, felt your correspondent's ai)peal, as a true patriot should do ! — poor old Vir- ginia would not much longer remain in the death- like sleep, that has paralyzed all her energies for so many long, wearisome and painful years of lethargy on her part; and I may add, almost of (/es/)fl/r, on the part of her warmest and truest friends. She would call upon her pul>lic functionaries, in a voice that they durst not disobey, to abandon forever, all klle 614 FARMERS' REGISTER— CALCAREOUS DEPOSITES. and profitless contentions about political abstrac- tions, with which no duty whatever calls upon them to intermeddle, and to apjily themselves ex- clusively to the all-important — the vital object of restoring Virs^inia, — so far as depends upon them, to that position in our union, to which she is most justly entitled, and which she never would have lost, so far as she certainly has, but by the fatui- tous ignorance, or criminal disloyalty, of those whose highest public duty it was to sustain it by statesman-like policy, and disinterested patriotism. That Virginia influence in our public councils, (I mean, of course, legitimate influence,^ has been lost, none are now so blind as not to see ; yet, most strange to say, — most hard to believe, — although the public vision is perfectly cleared up as to the fact, it seems still as muddy as ever, in relation both to the cause, and to all the most obvious means of recovery, l^egislative aids to agriculture, or rather to husbandry, form the first ; — legislative aids to general education and to internal improve- ments, of which education is immeasurably the most important of all, constitute the second of these means : and unless they are speedily adopted and judiciously applied, — our representatives may talk and talk of state-rights, nullification, presidential misrule, banks and federal relations, until the)' burst their lungs, without doing the smallest ima- ginable good to the people, whom they represent. Nay, they will do incalculable mischief by the lat- ter course ; for they will be aggravating the party madness, which is now raging through the coun- try, like a canine rabies, — instead of rousing their fellow-citizens to every intellectual and moral exertion of which they are capable. The times, and the present, as well as jjrospective condition of our dear old state, most imperatively call for such exertion ; and deep, and deadly, will be the guilt of those who neglect to make it. That it should take the direction indicated, seems to my humble judgment, as clear as the light of a cloud- less meridian sun ; for it is agriculture that furnish- es the milk, which nurtures the children of the state ; — it is agriculture that supplies the staff of life to her adult sons ; and it is education, education alone, not abstract discussion and party politics, (the very name of which shows their partial, and consequently, unjust character,) which will enable these sons to understand — lo value as they ought — and to defend their rights, from whatever quarter they may be assailed. But my feelings, Mr. Editor, carry me away on this subject, — a subject brought most painfully to my mind, (although it is seldom out of it,) by every newspaper that I take up; and especially by the communication of your correspondent T. B. McR. Agreeing as we do, on so many points, 1 regret very much to differ from him on any. But there aie two, in regard to which, I must, with due deference, express my dissent. The first, is a question of fact, about which I should sincerely re- joice to find him right ; but my own experience is directly opposed to his. He says, — '• there is in many places, increased attention to agricultural societies. New societies have been formed, and old ones which were long neglected, have been revived." Now I say, that I have not been so fortunate as to witness anything like it, although I have been closely connected with such societies, ever since they were first established in Virginia. All the old ones — to the number of some fifteen or eighteen^are utterly defunct, if I am not greatly mistaken — one only excepted, and that is in a very languishing condition ; w hile the new ones, as far as 1 have heard, amount to — one, somewhere lieyond the Blue Ridge. That your correspon- dent fully believes what he has uttered, I have not the smallest doubt ; but it would have cheered the drooping spirits of a brother agriculturist, more than can easily be expressed, if he had specified the cases upon which he rests his opinion. Again, he says ; — " wlien Virginia awakes, it will be with the strength of a giant." Would to God he could prove a true prophet. But even giants themselves, if they remain drunk or asleep, for a quarter of a century or more, as Virginia has done, will be very little, — if at all stronger than ordinary men ; al- though their guilt will be enormously aggravated by their neglect to exert, for the general good, the great superiority of power with which nature has endowed them. Your correspondent, Mr. Editor, will pardon, 1 hope, these only instances of dissent from his oj)inions, in consideration of the entire approbation, nhich I avail myself of this opportunity to ex- press, in regard to every thing else that he has said on a subject, which, in my humble judgment, is of infinitely more importance than any other, (the general education of the people always excepted,) that can possibly engage the attention of the Vir- ginia Legislature. As one of your subscribers and constant readers, permit me to express the earnest hope, that your correspondent T. B. McR., may frequently favor us with more of his agricultural politics; for should they suit the taste of your other readers, as well as they do mine, something from his pen in every number, would meet a most cordial welcome from us all ; but from no one more than from Your old friend, j. m. g. CALCAREOUS DEPOSITJES IN NORTH CARO- LINA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Mantua, Lenoir County, (JV. C.J Feb. I2th, 1834. Dear Sir, — I avail myself of this opporturiity, to thank you for the pleasure and instruction de- rived from a perusal of the " Essay on Calcareous Manures," with which you so kindly presented me, when we met at Raleigh. In my humble opinion, no single treatise which has yet been pub- lished, promises so much good to southern agricul- ture. It opens a new and extensive mine' of fer- tility, for the lasting improvement of our impover- ished soils ; and may be the means of adding millions to the wealth and prosperity of the south. Happily illustrating an important theory by judi- cious and satisfactory experiments, this work comes directly home to the comprehension and in- terest of its readers. My location is on the Neuse river, about mid- way between tide water, and the granite termina- nation. Very little has yet been done towards the improvement of our plantations. Manure is pre- served in but small quantities, and few aim at any thing higher than the two-shift system. Under this management, our lands would rapidly deterio- rate, were it not for their warm and quick quali- ties, which enable them soon to recover from exhaustion. As it is, however, they are far from progressive improvement. FARMERS' REGISTER-^PLANTING CORN. 615 So far from it, that were I to say they g:o two steps backwards, and one forward, it would give you no unapt illustration of our agricultural ad- vancement. Hopeless, indeed, would be our pros- pects, could we see no remedy to arrest this retro- grade course. Fortunately tliere is a remedy ample, and all-sufficient, and which a kind provi- dence has furnished at our doors; this remedy is nothinf^ more nor less than marl. They who are sceptical as to the value of marl, or fossil shells, as a manure of tlie best and most lasting character, have only to consult the experience of Eastern Virginia, and the Eastern Shore of Maryland for the last seven years ; and their doubts will be en- tirely removed. The alluvial region of North Carolina, is ex- tremely rich in shell and stone-marl. Although my acquaintance with the geology of this section of it is limited, I know of many extensive depo- sites of this valuable earth. There are two beds of it on the banks of the Neuse in Wayne county. One at Cox's ferry, a little below the first falls, and the other some miles lower down, on the plantation of James Griswold, Esq. These deposites, and particularly the latter, are rich and abundant. Some twenty or thirty miles lower down, there are two more deposites disclosed on the banks of the* river, and about three miles apart. As these belong to me, I have taken some pains to ascertain their value and extent. The lower bed contains j^*j of carbonate of lime, and the upper one y/n- The former has been pronounced by you, a very valuable manure, though not pure enough for lime, and the latter extremely and unusually rich. Either bed is capable of furnishing millions of bushels. The upper one has been pierced one and a half iiiiles from the river. There is another valuable quarry in Lenoir, several miles from the river. Descending the Neuse into Craven county, de- posites of marl are found much more frequent, until you reach Newbern,and I presume continue to the mouth of the river. I must not omit to mention here, that Lucas Benners, Esq. an enter- prising and spirited farmer, residing on the river below Newbern, has been profitably marling his lands for several years. His example has so far been lost on the community. Stone-marl is still more abundant on the Trent river, which you know unites with the Neuse at Newbern. There is a great deal of it on Neuse river, in Onslow county ; and I have seen a rich bed of fossil shells, on the side of a ravine in Samp- son county, near the Six Runs, a tributary of the north east branch of Cape Fear. In Duplin county, there are two streams, one called Little, and the other Big Limestone, on which I presume the arti- cle abounds. But it would be wasting time to go further into details. There can be no doubt, but that the whole alluvial section of our state is un- dermined by a stratum of fossil shells, sometimes approaching the surface, but generally lying so deep as to escape observation, except where it is disclosed by ravines and water courses. Thus you will see we have the bane and antidote both before us. I trust we shall make a wise choice. Should we not however, it can excite no surprise. It will not be the first rich pearl we have cast away. It is enough to make the heart of the patriot bleed, when he reflects what North Carolina is, and what she is capable of being. With every thing in the way of resources, physical and moral, to make her a great, commanding and prosperous state- — she is at best but stationary, and which you know is comparative declension. Her popu- lation and wealth are deserting her in one conti- nued and augmenting stream, for other climes. And why.? Simply because she will not improve the means which the God of nature has placed at her disposal. Internal improvement is at present a more urgent want with us, than the improve- ment of our soils. Millions of our resources are lying dormant, for the want of facilities for trans- portation. Let me ofler a single illustration, ap- plicable exclusively to the eastern section of the state. The pine-trees (long leaf,) of North Caro- lina, for lumber and naval stores are unquestiona- bly of greater value than her slaves, if they could be made available. I have been informed upon the best autliority, that 20per cent, can be cleared on the capital, embarked in making turpentine, when convenient to market. But for the want of this convenience, this immen.se resource can only be called into action on small portions of our navi- gable streams. I travelled a few days ago from W^aynesborough to Fayetteville, a distance of sixty-five miles, through a country heavily tim- bered with the finest long leaf pines, and saw no evidence during the route of their being used for any thing but plantation purposes. I should ex- cept one tar kiln, and half a dozen trees designed for tar timber, partly hewn and left to decay — but not one stroke of the axe for turpentine. Hun- dreds and thousands of acres are in the state that nature formed them. This is but " e pluribus unu7)i," to show you how profoundly the giant sleeps. But I am trespassing too much on your patience, and will force myself to a conclusion. Yours, &C. ISAAC CROOM. For the Farmers' Register. ENQUIRY. — PLANTING CORN. Caroline. I have read the remarks of Mr. Bruce in No. 6 of the Farmers' Register, or horizontal ploughing or trenching, with much interest, as a portion of my land is broken, but fear that I do not fully un- derstand the modus operandi. His description is no doubt, plain enough to those who have heard of, or seen this kind of trenching ; perhaps I ought to pleatl a comprehension too dull to understand him. He speaks of drains on the side of an imaginary hill, but does not describe the manner in which they are made, or the direction they run.? Is not the number of drains according to the size of the hill-side.' Could not you, or Mr. Bruce, accom- pany a more particular description, with a diagram and rules, that cannot be misunderstood : For the benefit of one of your subscribers, who signs himself " A Young Farmer," in No. 8 of your Register, I will observe that in this neigh- borhood, a far more expeditious mode of planting corn is practised, than that he has adopted. A rope, the length of which is graduated according to the force of the farmer, is obtained, and rags about two inches wide, of some bright color, as red or blue, &c. are sewed on it, as far from each other as you wish your corn planted — sew the rags on, so that they can be slipped, if you desire G16 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHUCK MATTRESSES— GRUBBING PLOUGH. to (liir.inisli or iiicrease the distance of your torn- lulls. The ends of the mpe must then be tied to two sticks or poles, five or six- feet lon<;;, and be carried by two of the hands : they stretch the rope, and take tiieir station in the furrow opened for the corn — your planters or droppers stand behind the line, each one just oi)pns!te a rag — the corn is dropped and covered with the foot of the person who drops — the line-carriers then move to the next bed, and so on. To keep straight, have a pole stuck up some distanci? ahead, of one of the line-carriers, and he can walk perfectly straight. This mode is very expeditious, and on level land, ■where it only answers, I will venture to say, that one hand will plant and cover twice as much, as he can in any other mode. I forgot to mention tliat in this mode of planting corn, you move across the beds. ' II. COKX-SnUCK BIATTUKSSES. To the Eilitor of thn Farmers' R-cg-ister. As the laudable object of the Farmers' Register, is to diffuse as widely as possible the mass of know- ledge which relates to domestic economy, therei)y procuring for the many, tlie com(()rts which arc at present possessed by the few; I take peculiar pleasure in aiding the benevolent design, so fiir as the narrow limits of my own information extend : and so, meth.inks, should every matron whose ex- perience has surmounted the perplexities of house- hold cares. For this purpose, I have deemed it of some importance, to call llie attention of its readers to the use of shucks in making mattresses. I have oiten been surprised to find shuck mattresses so rare in families, where every convenience was at hand to make (with the most inconsiderable ex- pense,) this article of comfort and utility. Nothing but a little management is required for every farmer's family in the state to possess them. Independent of the comfort of mattresses in sum- mer, I have often heard experienced physicians plead hard for their general use in this bilious cli- mate; though comnton sense, I should suppose, is sufficient to discover the relaxing and debilitating elfects of being nigh.tly smothered on a feather bed, through the heat of summer; and the increased suffering produced by tlieir use, during the preva- lence ol fevers, incident to our climate. For my own part, I have often suffered painful regret, as I have looked on the sick beds of the poor, where the possession of a hair mattress would be a luxury next to an impossibility for them to obtain; but I am happy to say, that the discovery of the use of hackled shucks, obviates all pecuniary difficulties, in the farmer's case at least. There are few families in Virginia, where there are not some slaves, incapacitated by age or de- crepitude for active labor; and since the bright era, which introduced the cotton gin, to supersede the use of fingers in picking cotton, they are thrown out of employment altogether ; or, have little else to do, than to sit and stupify in the chim- ney corner. Now, for the benefit of all parlies, I would recommend that a plenty of shucks, a flax hackle or common fork, and a barrel, should be conveniently arranged for the occasional exercise of the sul)ject's faculties, until a sufficient quantity is shreded and packed up. When you have pre- pared your tick, and the weather is suitable, im- merse and soak the shucks well in clean water, and then spread them thin in the hot sun to dry. This will cause them to curl and acquire the elasticity of hair. Be careful after hackling every bunch, to cut off the hard ends. These shucks stuffed in a common tick, and tacked in squares through and through, will be quite comfortable on a feather bed, where cotton cannot be afforded — but if a case is made after the mattress style, and baits of carded cotton laid at top and bottom, of several thicknesses, and neatly tacked in squares; they may be made to equal, if not surpass any hair mattress ; for you can have them as thick as you choose ; and in neatness and purity of material, they will sui-pass the hair, though they may not in durability. I should think it a useless, or presumptuous display of my own knowledge on the subject, to describe farther the process of making the mattresses, but that I was told by an intelligent young housewife, that she had no idea how they could be conveniently com- pleted. As I shall in such dilemmas, ever feel it a delightful task to assist the young idea,! will merely suggest, that the piece which divides the top and bottom of the mattress case, should be sewed ail round the bottom, and bound with tape made for the purpose. The top part should be sewed to one side of this piece only, like a lid to turn back, until the batls of carded cotton are laid on the bot- tom of several thicknesses, and the shucks care- fully and regularly packed in. Place the layers of cotton again over the shucks, and turn the lid over all, and bind it round like the bottom. It must be then laid on a frame, for the purpose of tacking it througli and through. This will require a very long needle, which can be made at any blacksmith's shoj). A FRIEND TO COMFORT. February 20th, 1834. GRUBBING PLOUGH. From the American Farmer. Margaretta, York County, Pa- December 9, 1833. Mr. Hitchcock : — In the last number of the Farmer, a subscriber inquires, " wheth.er or not there is such an implement now in succesrful use, among farmers, as the grubl)ing plough." This is an implement of husbandry I have never seen, there- tore, the object of the present communication is not to recommend any new invention of the kind, but to inform your correspondent of the manner in v/hich I cleared a piece of ground, which Avas grown up with bushes and undergrowth of various sizes from three to ten feet high : it was with a pair of oxen and a chain often or twelve feet long, with one end attached to the yoke, and forming a noose with the other around as many of the spi'outs as could be encompassed by it, which wh.en thus made fast, they drew out by the roots with great ease; it was in the spring v/hile the ground was yet loose : it is probable the operation would not be so easy when the ground is dry and hard. Two ac- tive boys of fifteen years of age, will clear more ground in this way, than ten men will grub out in the ordinary method with mattocks. I do not think that the plan suggested for destroying the willow and alder, will entirely destroy the roots, and so long as any part remains, they will be liable to sprout again. Yours, H. Y. s. FARMERS' REGISTER— COMMERCIAL REPORT. 617 COMMERCIAL RKPORT. To the Editor of the Fanners' Uegistcr. ih will be dragixed up to liie engine. Change tlie wheel, lift up or draw in (all, of course, by tlie machine itself) the grappling levers, and proceed as bef()re. To some this may seem, at first sight, a slow and awkward mode; but if a ridge of twelve feet were ploughed, or the width of three ridges harrowed, every time the machine advanced, a twenty acre field would lie soon got over. Nothing could be easier than to ada[)t ploughs and all implements, even Bell's re;iping machine, the thrashing machine, &c. to such a locomotive power. Whenever an ample reward is offered, the thing will be done. Or whoever thinks fit to employ such an engineer as Brunell, will have the locomotive power invented and executed in a month, as a matter of course. If this mode is not adopted, stationary engines, at the ends of the ridges, must be resorted to; or fixed points, found or placed there, to which an engine and plough, attached by a chain, might plough itself forward. We recommend the subject to the Mechanics' Magazine. It must never be forgotten, that in- depently of the .saving of horses and their food, the farmer would never be obliged to work his soil but when it was in a proper condition for that purpose. This, in our opinion, is one of the principal argu- ments in favor of the application of steam to agri- culture. FRKDERICKSBURG, PETERSBURG; NORFOLK, THE ROAKOK E — AND THEIR RAIL ROADS. No. I. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I had scarcely read Hamilton's View of the Local Legislation of the United and Individual States, than I regretted to see so instructive and destructive a commentary on it, in the debate on the grant of money to the Roanoke road — a road destined to give to Norfolk, and through Nor- folk to Virginia, the rank that both ought to hold in the southern section of the Union — a road, which is destined to give to Virginia, that prepon- derance of commerce, that must lead to a prepon- derance in consequence, in these United States. Early did Washington foresee it, and clearly did he discern the efTccts that would ensue, if the eyes of Virginia were not opened to her comparative losses of conniierce and consequence, and if she was not as active as it was probable her neighbors would prove, and indeed, have proved themselves to be. If we look to Chief Justice Marshall, we shall find him speaking thus on the subject. " The plan formed by France for connecting her extensive do- minions in America, by unitmg Canada with Lou- isiana, now began to develope itself; possession was taken of a tract of country, then deemed to be within the })rovince of V^irginia, and a line of posts was conmienced from the lakes to the Ohio." Such were the objects of the prescient Duke de Choi- seul ; and, the no less prescient Washington, dis- covered, that the same difficulties were likely to occur, especially as Great Brithin had then secured Canada — and, such are the actual results, as they appear to every unbiassed mind, now that Spain has ceded her portion of southern and western North America. " To this subject, (the connection of the eastern with the western territory,) the attention of Ge- neral Washington had been in some measure di- rected, in the earl)' part of his life. While the American states were yet British colonies, he had obtained the passage of a bill, empowering those individuals who would engage in the work, to open the Potomac, so as to render it navigable from tide water to fVell's creek." Marshall, vol. 4, p. 10. In 1784, Washington went to Pittsburg. After returning from thence, " his first moments of lei- sure were devoted to the task of engaging his countr3'men iti a work which appeared to him to merit still more attention from its political, than from its commercial influence on the Union.^' " He expressed unequivocally the opinion, that FARMERS' REGISTER— RAIL ROADS, &c. 621 tlie rivers of Virginia afforded a more convenient and a more direct course than could be found else- where, for that rich and increasing commerce." His views extended farllier : "After an accu- rate examination of the James and Potomac, com- missioners were to search out the nearest and best portages between those waters and the streams ca- pable of improvement, which run into the Oliio. Those streams were to be accurately surveyed, the impediments to their navigation ascertained, and their relative advantages examined." He labored, in his letters to Congress, to estab- lish the opinion, that the surveys he recommended, would add to the revenue, by enhancing the value of the lands to be oflfered for sale. " Nature," added he, " had made such an ample display of her bounties in those regions, that the more the coun- try was explored, the more it would rise in esti- mation." " He detailed the measures which Avould un- questionably be adopted by New York and Penn- sylvania for acquiring the monopoly of the western commerce, and the difficulty which loould be found in diverting it from the channel it had once taken. " I am not," he added, " for discouraging the ex- ertions of any state to draw the commerce of the western country to its seaports. The more com- munications we open to it, the closer we bind that rising world (for indeed, it may be so called,) to our interests, and the greater strength shall we ac- quire by it. Those to whom nature affords the best communication, will, if they are wise, enjoy the greatest share of the trade." He viewed the subject in a more interesting light — the political influence on the Union. " I need not remark to you, sir," said he in his letter to the Governor of Virginia, "that the flanks and rear of the United States are possessed by other powers— and formidable ones too : nor need I press the necessity of applying the cement of interest to bind all parts of the Union together by indissolu- ble bonds — especially of binding that part of it which lies immediately ivest of us, to the middle stales. For what ties, let me ask, should we have upon those people; how entirely unconnected with them shall ice be, if the Spaniards on their right, and Great Britain on their left, instead of throw- ing impediments in their way, as they now do, should hold out lures for their trade and alliance. When they get strength, which will be sooner than most people conceive, what will be the consequence of their having formed close commercialconnexions with both or either of these poioers 1 It needs not the gift of prophecy to foretell." After some illustrative and instructive observa- tions on the rapid settlement of the western states, he says : " It is by the cement of interest alone rve can be held together. If then the trade of that country should flow through the Mississippi or the St. Lawrence ; if the inhabitants shouldform com- mercial connections ivhich ifje know lead to inter- courses of other kinds, they would, in a few years, be as unconnected with us as are those of South j^merica." " It may be asked, how Ave are to prevent this ? Happily for us, the way is plain. Our immediate interests, as well as remote political advantages, point to it, whilst a combination of circumstances render the present time more favorable than any other to accomplish it. Extend the inland navi- gation of the eastern waters — communicate them as near as possible with those which run west- ward— open these to the Ohio— o|)en also such as extend from the Ohio to Lak« Erie — and, we shall not only draw the produce of the western settlers, but the peUry and fur trade of the Lakes also, to our ports — thus adding an immense increase to our exports, and binding those people to us by a tie which never can be broken." Comment on such sagacious foresight would be insulting. In it we behold the glorious and suc- cessful attempt of De Witt Clinton to make New York the empire " state." In it, we discover the energy of Pennsylvania and of Maryland. In it we discover the creation of the AVelland and the Rideau Canal. In it, we discover the exploration, now proceeding, with a view to a passage by a rail road, down the banks of the St. Lawrence, as far as Chaleur Bay, to unite Halifax and Frederic- ton with Quebec ; and thus convert the ports of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, with all the ad- vantages of free ports, into the importing ports of United and British America. In it, do we see the ' attempt, by the unitedexertion of Illinois, Indiana, &c. to create the means of carrying the scheme of De Choiseul, to which I have already alluded, into full and perfect effect, by means of a rail road rom Alton to Lake Erie; and thus to make all tlie western states dependent on Montreal and Quebec, Halifax and Fredericton. In it, do we, on the other hand, see the attempt making to lay down a rail road, from New York to the eastern extremity of Long Island; and soon shall we see another approach to Fredericton and Halifax, by perhaps, an undulating rail road, from Boston, via the Newburyport Turnjtike, to Newburyport,and thence to Portland. From that city, it will not be long before such a road finds its way to the towns of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; and, aided as it most probably will be, by a competing rail road from Augusta or Hallowell to Quebec, it is not improbable that, unless the tariff is wholly reduced, and direct taxation (I am not writing, nor, thank God ! ever did, for popular effect,) substituted, it is almost certain, that the importa- tion fi-om, and commerce with, foreign countries^, will vanish, possibly, from New York, Pennsyl- vania and Massachusetts, but certainly from the shores of the Chesapeake. And what, sir, with circumstances like these staring us in our face, is the Legislature of Virgi- nia about — attending to the arguments and state- ments of the burgesses of Petersburg, who, fol- lowing the example of Pombal, want their bo- rough, like Lisbon, to be created into a privileged town, which they expect will rival, but with very different means, their namesake in the Baltic, whose founder, dark as was the age in which he lived, could not have committed such an errer. However, so far as the House of Delegates is concerned, a victory over selfishness and igno- rance of their own interest and the true policy of the slate, has been obtained. It is indeed a victo- ry, and such a one as I hope the people will obtain, who are advocating the creation of a road from Fredericksburg to Richmond, another from Pe- tersburg to City Point ; and if I did not learn the strong opposition of the worthy member from Richmond, I would add, a road from Richmond to Petersburg — thus giving the state the high honor of originating a set of rail roads, that are not only to create Norfolk, Petersburg- and Richmond into 622 FARMERS' REGISTER—RAIL ROADS, &c ports and places of importance, but to furnish a powerful link in the hrierty will now rent for as much as it would sell, before the Dis- mal Swamp Canal (I wish its name could be al- tered,) was completed. It is not going too far to say, that if this circumstance be true, or even half true, as soon as the road is completed, the taxable rental at Norfolk will be quadrupled, or §400,000; and that the tax will be at the rate of one quarter of a cent, instead of one cent: but, such will be the immeasurable and unimaginable ef- fect on Norfolk, and I hope and believe on Peters- burg, that the one cent per cent on the §450,000 will then be more readily paid than the same sum on § 100,000 ; and this alone would furni.sh an amount equal to the discharge of any interest in- curred in obtaining loans for this work. Apply this reasoning to the state. Its lands are valued at §200,000,000. Is there the slightest question that, stating the cost of a rail road to the Tennessee and Kentucky lines, and lo other points at §10,000,000, that the value of the lands would be doubled; and that, perhaps, on the present scale of taxation, the interest on this §10,000,000 could be discharged without requiring it from the other contributors to the work, or rather the holders of the stock. Such a plan would insure safety to the capital of the state, profit to that of individuals, and general welfare to the whole community. This doctrine may seem bold, when such " searching sagacity" and such " potcerful scruti- ny" have, in all the superior flight of their super- eminent wisdom, found fault with the mode in which the Portsmouth company has presumed lo raise its capital. This " sagacity" and this " scru- tiny" object that the corporation subscribed too large a proportion — a proportion, could you be- lieve it reader, much larger than the town of Pe- tersburg subscribed to its road. This is really a daring act, and as scire facias (or as they are sometimes called, " skiry factions,"') are in vogue, I hope Messrs. Sagacity and Scrutiny, those " se- cond Daniels come to judgment," will speedily ob- tain one, in order that the punishment merited by such audacity may be ascertained and awarded. I trust also, that the folly of such language as the following, and the daring attachment, which the citizens of Norfolk and Portsmouth have ex- hibited in the fostering their own interests, and forwarding those of the state, as well ai their total FARMERS* REGISTER— RAIL ROADS, &c. 623 forgetfulness of the p^reat liberality and signal dis- interestedness of Richmond and Petersburg;, will be placed in their proper light. " This I will say, that if any one thing more than another, could prove the great importance of the work, the inte- rest which the citizens of Portsmouth and Norfolk felt in its success, their strong belief and confi- dence in its feasibility, it was the unparalleled unanimity with which the property holders, of every profession and trade, came forward and staked that property on the issue. The Legisla- ture could not require abetter test of the sincerity of their representations, so far as it relates to the confidence which they have in the utility, practi- cability, and ultimate profits of the work." Now, any man bold enough to speak in this manner, and especially in the face of such "searc/i- ing sagacity" and such" powerful scrutiny," must be audacious indeed — as audacious as was Mr. Law, (afterwards Lord Ellenborough,) when, in the celebrated forestalling case of The King ver- sus IVaddington, he told Chief Justice Kenyan, that he would " confidently contend" for certain principles of the liberal cast. The enlightened Welshman told him he believed there was nothing for which he would not " confidently contend." This is all I have a wish to say at present, ex- cept to request your insertion of an extract from a New York paper, on the subject of the Wabash and Erie Canal, and another from Governor Mar- cy's message and the Comptroller's report to the Legislature of the " empire state." However, it is impossible not to observe that the language of the first paragraph is infinitely more applicable to Virginia than to New York ; and that it is to be hoped, that all the Governor says, combined with the threatened results of the Wabash and Erie Canal, will induce the electors of Virginia to send such men to its next Legislature, as will forever exclude the expression of such sentiments as have really disgraced the existing body. They have been founded on selfishness and ignorance — the one in the leaders, the other in the followers of the ri- diculous scheme to deprive Norfolk of the rank and consequence so naturally and justly (for ne- ver did nature and justice so cordially unite,) its due, and, at a period when the south required such a port to give it importance and commerce. Thank God ! these wordy patriots have failed in their at- tempt. AH I wish is, that their minds maybe- come as illuminated as have been the houses of Norfolk on so glorious a victory over illiberality and ignorance ; and where is it that we are to look for the germ of this outrageous state of things.'' — for at such a period as that in which we live, and in such a place as Richmond, it is perfectly outra- geous : Richmond, where there have been more ho- molies printed, and pronounced on state rights and free trade, rigid construction of the constitution and liberal principles, than in all the other states of the United States, and all the other countries in the world. There, in theory, all these privi- leges were lauded to the very skies; but when they come into practical conflict with self-rights and self-interest, they vanish like the morn- ing mists. Surely, with all this " prodigality of words," there is too much " poverty of heart" — for, such a quality only, could induce a wish to sa- crifice the possession of the best sea port, and one that may prove the greatest mart of commerce in the south, to the imaginary benefit of Richmond I and Petersburg — I say imaginary, because I do not believe they will suffer, if, at least, they act li- berally ; but on the other hand, I am convinced that they will reap their full proportion of the ge- neral prosperity which must arise from the system of internal improvement now so happily in progress. From what source did this illiberality and igno- rance arise.' Am I right in attributing them to the pre])onderance of lawyers in the legislature.'' I wish the sentiments of Mr. Burke and the intel- ligent editor of Blackwood's Magazine were more generally read, more fully comprehended, and more universally believed. Speakingof the French revolution, the editor says: "Burke, judging of the National Assembly on this principle, decided at once that its progress must be a perpetual de- gradation. By analyzing its contents, he showed that the most hazardous classes of society in France constituted its majority. Among those, the lower mevibers of the law were the most pre- dominant ; and his reasons for distrusting them as legislators are fully applicable to England as to the country which they subverted." " VVho could flatter himself," observes Mr. Burke, " that men who are habitually meddling, daring, subtle, active, of litigious dispositions and unquiet minds, would easily fall back into their old condition of obscure contention, and laborious, low and unprofitable chicane 1 Ulio could doubt but that,*at any expense to the state, of which they understood nothing, they must pursue their private interest, ichich they understood but too well ? It was not an event dependent on contingency. It was inevitable. It was necessary. It was planted in the nature of things. They must join (it their capacity did not permit them to lead) in any pro- ject which could procui-e to them a litigious con- stitution— which could lay open to them those in- numerable lucrative jobs, which follow in the train of all great convulsions of the state, and particu- larly in all great and violent permutations of pro- l)erty. # # * » # Forbid it, that I should insinuate any thing derogatory to that profession which is another priesthood, adminis- tering the rights of sacred justice. But, while I revere men, in the functions that belong to them, I cannot, to flatter them, give the lie to nature. Their very excellence, in these peculiar functions, may be far from a qualification for others, ft can not escape observation, that, when men are too mu h confined to professional and faculty habits, they are rather disabled than qualified for whatever depends on the knowledge of mankind, on experience in mixed affairs, on a comprehensive view of the vari- ous complicated and internal interests which go to the formation of that multifarious thing called a state." " In these remarks," adds the editor, " the allu- sion was directed to the crowd of village lawyers, and other obscure and unprincipled members of the bar, in a country where, as none but the great of- ficials of the profession were held in any public esteem, the general character of the class must be lowered to its rank. " The bar in England justly stands on a supe- rior place. But there scarcely can be a doubt, that the eye which looked so deeply into foreign society, had more than glanced on the condition of the Legislature at home, and the hazard which it ran from the influx of lawyers into the house. Burke distrusted their qualification. He might 624 FARMERS' REGISTER— RAIL ROADS, &c. have ^one f.irllier with impunity, and decided on tl'.eir iintitness. He feared their ivant of po- litical comprehensiveness. He might, stili more justly h;\ve denounced their want of political inlcf;- rity. He characterized their mind, as stitTcned to a circle of routine. He might with more fidelity have cautioned his country against the fatal flexi- bility lohich legislative laivyers exhibit in adopting every side to the violation of every principle. To this rule there may be striking exceptions. But the general rule, beyond all controversy is, that the lawjer forms a distinct species in the house, and that his profe,«;sional haliits, training h.im to the defence of both sides of ail questions, rapidly ex- tinguish in his bosom the stern sense of trutli that this result is so })erfectly understood, that it is al- lowedfor; and that few men look on the tergiver- sation of a political lawyer as a matter of surprize ; fewer still a matter of indignation, and none at all as incapacitating the zealous antagonist of to day, from being the equally zealous advocate to mor- row. The public opinion of the lawyer's motive in entering the Legislature, is no more led by his declarations than it would be by his briefs. He is looked upon only as extending his practice to a higher court, pleading not for his client but for himself, and angling not lor fees, but for attorney general-ships, chief justice-ships, and the other golden bails, which tlie world, half laughing, half in scorn, universally admits to be goocVand true motives ibr the conversion of a lawyer. " But even tiie mental functions required for the senate and the bar, are singularly distinct. The one is analysis, the other combination ; the one is the detection of error, the other the acquisition of truth ; the one is the labor to bring forward part of the question, the other to bring forward the whole. The distinction is as wide as betweeji the pleader and the judge ; between advocacy and delibera- tion. If the Legislature is to perish, a surer mode could not be adopted than j)leadiiig it v.'ith law- yers. If the Legislature is to be reformed, more ef- fective methods could not be adapted than clearing it of every practising lawyer now and forever .xnoTe."—BlackKWod, Nov. 1833. pp. 548-9. Bos- ton edition. To conclude, I would say, that since I have writ- ten the above, I have met with Mr. Bruce's admira- ble speech in the House of Delegates ; and I request you to superadd an extract from it, illustrating in some measure, my opinion on the subject of ad- vances in money by the state ; and close this pa- per with a simple observation, that, as to the in- crease of revenue, he must be infinitely below tlie mark. Will he be pleased to reconsider the mat- ter, and perhaps, when he recollects the annual in- crease of the tolls on the James, he will confirm, as well as illustrate my ideas on the subject ? " The gentleman from Petersburg, thinks the interest of tlie stale in the stock of the Peters- burg Rail Road Company ought not to be jeop- arded by raising up a rival. If tlie state were a mercenary capitalist, who had invested his mo- ney, for the purpose of turning a penny, there might be some reason in the argument. But, sir, what was the object of the state in establishing the two fifth system ? It was not based on a principle of speculation, but to stimulate her citizens to ex- ert themselves for the improvement of the coun- try. To Call forth all the energy, the enterprise, and the capital of individuals, and direct them to a great and lnudal)le object; to stimulate, in fine, each and every section of the state, to increase the flicilities of commercial intercourse. The slate too, by tliis system, not only avails itself of the saga- city and economy of individuals, but has by it es- tablished the most equitable piinciple on which its resources can be divided. Though I am willing to admit, that a subscription on the part ofa com- pany of three fifths of tlie capital nec^sary for any scheme of internal improvement does not hind the state to a subscription of the remaining two fifths, yet it is a strong reason for its so doing. The funds of the state ought not to be given away arbitrarily, but upon some fixed principle, and I know of none belter than the two fifth principle. I therefore conclude, that where individuals sub- scribe three fifths, the state, prima_/ac(e, should subscribe the remaining two, lobe controlled by the circumstances of the treasury and the nature of the work. But sir, when we take a move en- larged view of the elTects of this work on an ex- tensive section of country, the probable increase of its wealth and resources, its probable agency, too, in raising up Norfolk into a seaport of conse- quence, the state's interest of 89,000 per annum in the Petersburg road will sink into comparative insignificance. The gentleman has attempted to alarm the hou.se by the very appalling information that the state could not pay the interest without raising the taxes. I presume it is hardly necessa- ry for me to inform the very intelligent chairman of the committee on finance, that at the present rates of taxation, the revenue of the state is in- creasing about 8 12,000 annually, which is more than ample to meet the interest of 8190,000, which the state is invited tc subscribe to the Ports- mouth work." SJVIEATON. ILLUSTRATIVE ADDENDA. Exiractsfrom Message of the Governor of N. York. " While our puVdic works have been attended with local advantages, they have contributed, even beyond our anticipations, to the general prosperi- ty of the state. " It was our fortune that the most practicable route for a water communication between the At- lantic ocean and the great western lakes, lay through our territory. This advantage was early discovered by the sagacity of the people of the state, and efTectually improved by their enterprise. The internal commerce carried on through the Erie Canal, aided as it is by the improvement ex- ecuted by the enterprise and energy of the state of Ohio, has, during the past season, increased to a magnitude which was supposed to be attainable only in its full maturity, and has extended to re- gions which were conceived to lie beyond its ut- most limits. The country around those lakes, and along the rivers emptying into them, as well as the valley of the Ohio, quite down to the Missis- sippi, have been supplied through this channel with some portion of their merchandize. Boats are daily seen passing upon it, freighted with goods destined for the territory of Michigan, the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and even for Missouri and Alabama. The de- lightful climate of this western region, the great fertility of the soil, and the numerous convenien- ces it offers for the enjoyments of human life, are daily becoming better known, and attracting to- FARMERS' REGISTER— RAIL ROADS, &c. 625 wards it an increasing tide of emigration. No human efforts — no conceivable changes of circum- stances can check its rapid settlement, or put far off the time when it will he the abode of a popula- tion of many millions, abounding in wealth, and seeking the comforts and luxuries to which com- merce must necessarily administer. Its trade will increase with its wealth and its numbers. If our canals are to be what a wise management cannot fail to make them — the principal channel for this trade — we must calculate its extent, and make them adequate to this object. When our system of interna! improvements was commenced, a great part of this fertile region was a wilderness, and scarcely a sail was spread, for the purposes of commerce, on the great western lakes. The ad- vancing steps of settlement have but just passed the borders of what was then a wild domain, and it already abounds in products demanding a market, and inviting an exchange for articles from merchandize from the Atlantic states. Lake Erie now appears like a frequented track in the high- way of commercial nations. Its waters are navi- gated by twenty steam boats, and one hundred and twenty eight sloops and schooners. "The shipping on tiiis lake has increased in the three last years, from six to eighteen thousand tons. The tonnage entering the port of ButTalo last year, was more than two hundred thousand; and an hundred thousand passengers, are estimated to have left it for the west. " We ought not, however, to flatter ourselves that we shall enjoy what we now possess, and what lies before us, without competition. The western trade is a noble prize, for which several of the At- lantic states are contending with a laudable emu- lation ; and they are making powerful efforts to remove the barriers interposed by nature between them and their object. We look on their exer- tions with no unfriendly feelings ; and we trust that they will view, in a like spirit, our efforts to administer to Jhe wants, and to subserve the conve- niences of the western country. " It has already become quite evident that the capacity of the trie canal will not much longer be adequate to the exigency of the business on it. The improvements which will soon be required, are double locks, to facilitate the passage of boats, and an enlargement of the canal in its width and depth. These improvements must necessarily be made under great disadvantages. The public in- terests will not allow of an interruption to the na- vigation ; and a considerable part of the labor must therefore be performed in the winter season. This subject will probably be presented to you in a com- munication from the officers having the charge of the canals, and it will undoubtedly receive from you the attention its great importance demands. " The extent of business on all canals is in- creased by the facility of transportation, and a re- duction of the expenses. By enlarging the capa- city of the Erie canal, the cost of transportation will be diminished. The tolls are considerable part of the expense. This subject has occupied the anxious attention of the Canal Board, during the present year ; and some of the beneficial re- sults to which I have alluded, particularly the wide diffusion of the trade into the western and south- western sections of the union, are justly ascriba- ble to tlie enlightened views of this board, and the judicious modification of the rates of toll. Previ- VoL. I.— 79 ous to opening the canals last season, the tolls were reduced twenty eight and an half per cent, on most of the products of the country, and fourteen and a quarter per cent, on merchandize. Notwith- standing the reduction, the amount of lolls receiv- ed on the Erie and Champlain canals during the last season, is one million, four hundred and sixty- tour thousand and fifty-nine dollars and ninety- eight cents, which is two hundred and thirty-four thousand, seven hundred and seventy-six dollars and fifty-one cents more than tlie receipts of the preceding year. This board have it in contempla- tion to make a further reduction on merchandize, of twenty-five per cent, on the present rates of toll, before the navigation opens in the spring. This reduction will bring the tolls down nearly to the constitutional limit. It is probable they might be reduced on some articles below that point, if it were practicable, without lessening the total amount of revenue." " Indiana. — The message of Gov. Noah Noble of Indiana, is evidently the production of a man of no ordinary mind — for such minds seldom reach these high stations — and enters into much detail on the affairs requiring the attention of the Legis- lature. This state, like almost every other in the union, is not incumbered with any debt. A new and more equitable method of assessment has been substituted tor the imperfect system hitherto pur- sued. Thirty-two miles cf the IVahash and Erie canal will be completed next season. It is very easy for our young sisters to undertake these spi- rited enterprises, and very natural for them to wish to, when they see Uncle Sam ready to thrust his hands into his pockets to help them on all occasions, be the request ever so trivial, even down to a mud- scow, or buoy, or wheel barrow. But this age of prodigality, of which Ohio, Maryland, &c. have availed themselves so opportunely, has gone by. Little Indiana too, a mere wilderness, compara- tively speaking, has had no less a slice than some 300,000 acres of our lands. The canal is to extend across Ohio to the lake, and the last mentioned state, if she does not co-operate, promises to per- mit Indiana to complete the work. The Wabash river too, which only yesterday, it seems, was the scene of Tecumseh's exploits, and the hunting- ground of his tribes, is to be improved conjointly with the state of Illinois. The Michigan road is grading, and here also. Uncle Sam, to use Gover- nor Noble's phraseology, hasdonated some 100,000 or more acres to give a helping hand. Really Jo- nathan is a true type of his grandfather Bull — a perfect lunatic and spendthrift in expenditures. The judiciary proceedings have been simplified by merging a portion of the duties of the probate into those of the circuit courts. Governor Noble stre- nuously urges an extensive system of rail road communications, and seems deeply imbued with a disposition to promote every laudable enterprise which can advance the prosperity of the state. The common school system is in a flourishing state, under the provisions of the constitution ma- king it obligatory." Synopsis of Canal debt of New York. Tolls for 1833, $1,360,155 A5 Expenses of collection, 25,800 00 Total amount of tolls, $ 1,385,955 45 626 FARMERS' REGISTER— RAIL ROADS, &c. Actual amount of Revenue received in 1833 from all sources. Tolls, S 1,324,421 63 Vendue duty, 181,014 23 Salt duty, 227,860 05 Interest, &c. 141,318 60 Expenditures. Interest, S 337,794 88 Repairs, 330,759 44 Sundries, 50,898 76 1,814,614 41 739,433 08 Nett revenue, $1,135,161 33 Surplus Funds Interest, !g356,794 88 Purchase of stock, (part payable in 1845,) 1,566,310 03 Superintendants, 330,759 44 $4,930,915 15 Sundries, $2,253,864 35 74,454 04 Balance to be applied (1833) to debt. 2,328,318 39 2,602,594 76 Balance due for canals (1833,) $2,920,064 53 " If the annual receipts for three years to come should equal the revenue for the year embraced in this report, there will be funds sufficient to pay off the entire debt contracted for the construction of the Erie and Champlain canals, nine years before the latest period fixed by the state for the redemp- tion of the stock. "We quote the following paragraphs from the report : "Redemption of Canal Stock. " From the foregoing statement it will be seen that since the last annual report, the commission- ers have purchased and cancelled $1,478,376 57 of the stock issued for the construction of the Erie and Chami)lain canals. " The 7th sec. title 2d, of chap. 9th of the 1st part of the Revised Statutes, provides that 'the commissioners of the canai fund shall, from time to time, apply the surplus revenues of the canal fund, after paying tlie interest of the canal debt, to the purchase of canal stock of this stale, if in their opinion such stock can be purchased upon advan- tageous terms ; and the certificates of stock so purchased shall be cancelled. " The commissioners have for several years been desirous of applying the surplus funds in their hands to the redemption of the debt, in con - formity with the requirements of the section above quoted. Their views upon this subject have been presented to the legislature from year to year, in their annual reports. " The surplus moneys which have been rapidly accumulating since 1826, amounted, on the 30th September, 1832, as stated in the lust annual re- port, to the sum of $3,055,247 65. This great accumulation of funds in the hands of the com- missioners, with the prospect of having this sum increased, by the ordmary receipts, to at least six millions of dollars, before any portion of the debt would be payable, has been a source of much soli- citude to the commissioners; and they have been so fully impressed with the importance of availing themselves of the first, and of every opportunity to purchase and cancel the stock, that all the loans and deposites of the surplus moneys have been made with reference to this object. " The commissioners were so strongly Impresi- ed with the importance of applying the surplus funds to the payment of the canal debt, that they determined in January last to redeem the stock, whenever it could be obtained on such terms as would render the purchase equal to an investment at an interest of about 3^ percent. " This determination of the commissioners was made known to other dealers in stocks ; and letters were also addressed by the comptroller to a num- ber of the stockholders whose residences were known, offering the premiums before staled, as an inducement for them to surrender the stock. " On the 1st of August, the stock of 1837, then having about four years to run, the commissioners resolved to reduce the premium one per cent, and from that time, to the 1st of January, 1834, to pay 5 per cent, premium, and the current interest upon the 5 per cent, stock, and 8 per cent, and interest upon the 6 per cents.; and the comptroller, on the 7th of August, issued a circular, which was sent to all the stockholders whose residences could be ascertained. " The efforts of the commissioners to obtain the stock were so successful, that the funds in the ge- neral depositing banks were soon exhausted, and it became necessary to draw ujjon the monies which were on deposite at an interest of 4| per cent. At this rate of interest, upon a calculation merely arithmetical, it would appear less favora- ble to the interests of the stale to purchase the stock at the premiums paid, than to continue the deposites in the banks. But iFie extinguishment of the state debt, always a desirable object, is pe- culiarly important in the case of the canal debt, from its connection, by a constitutional pledge, with the regulation of the tolls and the application of the canal revenues. These, and other conside- rations, to some of which allusion has already been made, far outweigh, in the opinion of the commis- sioners, the apparent loss to the fund of about one per cent, by the purchase, and are decisive in fa- vor of the policy which has been pursued. It is proper also to add, that the premiums paid, have not in general exceeded the market value of the stocks, and the commissioners had no alternative between paying those prices and suffering the funds to accumulate in their hands. Loans and Deposites of the Canal Fund Moneys. " Since the last annual report, loans have been made from the surplus funds, at 5 per cent, inte- rest, as follows : Ogdensburgh Bank at 5 per cent. $30,000 00 Bank of Albany, at 5 per cent. 50,000 00 Leather Manufacturers' Bank, N. Y. at 5 per cent. 50,000 00' Union Bank, N. Y. at 5 per cent 50,000 0& Yates County Bank, at 5 per cent. 20,000 00 Total, $200,000 00 FARMERS' REGISTER— RAIL ROADS, kc. 627 Notwithstanding the large sum which has been j through the Erie canal, by way of the Lakes and applied to the extinguishmentof the canal debt, the the Ohio canal, to the borders of the Mississippi.* interest received upon the surplus moneys remain- ing in the banks for the year ending the 30th of September, 1833, amounts to S 122,236 74. The estimated interest for the current year is ^130,- 120 61." " The general depositing banks are the Mecha- nics and Farmers bank, and the New York State bank, of Albany. Thedeposites in these banks be- ing drawn upon at sight for the current expenses «f the canals, and to pay the interest upon the ca- nal debt, the rate of interest paid for these depo- sites is only three and a half percent. When the commissioners commenced purchasingcanal stock, there was a deposite in the banks of more tlian six hundred thousand dollars. The commission- ers drew upon these deposites to such an extent, that on the 14th June, the amount in the INIecha- nics and Farmers bank was only ^47,020 83, and in the New York Slate bank 1^48,474 49. It uill be seen by reference to the table marked L. that the total sum received by the two banks above named, during the year, was Sij326,515 47 ; and that the sum drawn from them by the commission- ers during the same time, was ^1,571,112 43. The accommodation atforded by these banks, in giving drafts on New York, to pay for slock pur- chased, has greatly facilitated the operations of the commissioners in cancelling the del)t, and has ena- bled tliem in all cases to transmit the funds for the payment of stock, on the afternoon of the same day on which notice of its purchase was re- ceived. " Reduction of Tolls. " The canal board, in March last, made a re- duction in the rales of toll upon wheat, flour, salted beef and pork, butter and cheese, and most of the productions of the country coming towards tidewater, which was equal to about twenty eight and an half per cent.; and a reduction upon mer- chandize and most articles passing from tidewater, which was equal to about fourteen and one-fourth per cent, upon the former rales. These reduc- tions in the rales of toll, applied to the same com- modities which were transported upon the canals in 1832, would have diminished the aggregate amount of tolls about 150,000 dollars. Such, how- ever, has been the increase of business upon the canals, that the amount of toils received from the commencement of navigation on the 22d of April, to the 30th of September, has exceeded, by the the sum of ^209,566 72, the tolls for the same period of the preceding year; and by the sum of ^144,679 76, the receipts for the same mouths of the year of 1831. The amount of tolls was considerably diminished in July and August, 1832, by the prevalence of tlie cholera ; and therefore the comparison is carried back to 1831, which was a prosperous season for the canals. " How far the reductions in the rales of toll have contributed to swell the total revenue, by in- creasing the commodities transported, and how much of this increase is to be credited to tlie natu- ral growth of the country which seeks a market through the canals, is not easily determined. " In relation to the trade of the western slates generally, the maximum of revenue to the canal fund, is probably to be attained, by a considerable reduction from the present rales of toll. Blerchan- dize, during the past season, has been transported ippi. To continue and extend this trade, a iurther re- duction of 25 per cent, of the tolls on merchan- dize, bringing that article within a fraction of the constitutional minimum, is contem})lated. " An arrangement has been made between the canal board of this state, and the canal commis- sioners of Ohio, by which it is expected that a re- duction in the rates of toll upon merchandize, of 25 per cent, from former rates, will take place si- multaneously upon the New York and Ohio ca- nals, at the opening of navigation in the spring of 1834. " If the canal board had the power of reducing the toll upon lead, to one or two, instead of five mills per 1000 pounds per mile, it is supposed that a branch of trade, important to our citizens gene- rally, if not to tlie canal revenue, might be opened with the mining country between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi river. The revenue could not be diminished, and might be considerably increased by such a reduction in the rates of toll." " The constitution," says the Governor of New York, " is now so amended as tc allow the Legis- lature to reduce the duty on salt manufactured in the westein part of the state, to six cents on each bushel; tliis subject will, therefore, properly oc- cupy your attention. The vote on the amend- ment of the constitution shows clearly that a re- duction is generally exjsected ; but a question may arise as to the amount proper to be made at tliis time. I think tliere are sufficient reasons for bringing down the duty at once to the minimum rate. Salt is an article of general consumption, and a diminution of its price is a direct benefit to the consumers. The demand for that manufac- tured in this state is regulated by the extent of the country to which it furnishes a supjdy, and this extent will be enlarged as the price is reduced. A regard to the public revenue, as w'ell as to the interest of the manufacturers, requires that the re- gion for consumption should be extended as wide- ly as practicable. The material for the manufac- ture of this article is so abundant, that the supply may be easily equal to the utmost demand. " Of the salt manvfactured by our citizens, large ijuantities are consumed in the Canadas — it sup- plies the country around the lakes, the icestern part of Pennsylvania, and a large portion of the state of Ohio, and enters into competition loith the salt made at the Kanawha springs in Virginia, on the borders of Indiana and Illinois. A reduction of six and one half cents on the bushel will be the means of extending the sphere of consumption far * How long will it be before we see the cotton of the Mississippi go to an Atlantic market, and perhaps, if Virginia still chooses to abandon it, to New York, via the western canals and rail roads ? It can now be land- ed at Lexington, Ky. from New Orleans, for 1 cent per pound ; and there is little doubt, that double that sum will take it to New York. Provided it is necessary, the state can reduce its tolls to almost nothing ; if by so do- ing, it can obtain the trade of the west, i. e. in addition to^its other traffic, the cotton trade. In a short time the debt will be discharged, and $350,000 or $400,000 will pay its repairs, &c. The increase of trade to the city of New York will be such as even to enable it to pay this sum : and to the slate, its payment would be trivial indeed. The rivalry of the St. Lawrence will occasion a farther, if ^ot a full reduction of. the toll. 628 FARMERS' REGISTER— "TERRE HOUILLE. beyond these limits, and the increase of the quan- tity manufactured for the purpose of satisfying this additional demand, will ultimately compensate the revenue for the increase in the rate of duty. The mutual interest of the manuflicturers and the con- sumers in this state — (he advantages to the busi- ness intercourse between our citizens and the north and west, resulting directly and indirectly from our ability to supply these regions with this impor- tant and necessary article, and the ultimate effect of this increased demand upon the public revenue, considered in reference to the tolls on the canal, as well as to the direct duty on the salt, render it ex- pedient, in my opinion, to bring the reduction to the lowest constitutional limit." Here I must be permitted to observe, that it is impossible not to pay a tribute of respect to the " empire state," for determining to redeem its debt, at the market price, instead of waiting till the period fixed by law for its redemption. — The commissioners say, " it has greatly facilitated their operations in cancelling the debt ;" but it has had another and still more important effect — it will facilitate other loans and reduce their interest. And if we pursue the subject still farther, and study it as represented in the report, when it speaks of the result of the diminution of the freight on lead, we shall discover the folly of all restrictive legislation. Indeed, the wliole course and pro- gress of New York, since the illustrious Clinton projected " the great ditch," contains volumes of instruction on the interesting question of national ])rosperity. That state has expended, in principal and interest from fifteen to twenty millions of dol- lars, and it has reaped an hundred fold profit. This may be deemed a wild and ranting assertion ; but provided there are means of estimating, even in a loose manner, the ichole wealth of New Yoi-k be- fore and since the time of Clinton, the writer has little doubt his estimate will prove correct. A discussion of the question forcibly, very for- cibly, reminds him of a paper published many years since in the Aurora, entitled, he thinks, " The State of the Nation," the object of which was to prove that the maxim of Franklin, of" sa- ving the pence and the shillings, imd leaving the pounds to take care of themselves," had, in far too great a degree, been adopted by the United States, in its book of Political Arithmetic. At least, this is the impression, after the lapse of a long period of time, which it has made on the writer's mind ; for, in political arithmetic, two and two do not make four. Look at Virginia, with the precept of the first man of his age ; and New York, with the example of one who, though great, could bear no comparison with the illustrious Virginian — and the actual situation of the two communities will speak volumes and prove the fact. Mr. Duane also published a paper entitled, " Samson among the Philistines," the republica- tion of which would probably render great service to the community. " TERRE HOUILLE" OF THE CHESTERFIELD COAL MINES. To the Editor of the Farmers' Resistor. Manchester, Va. 2d February, 1834. I have to acknowledge the receipt of two sheets of the ninth number of the Farmers' Register, containing the article on the proposed mineral ma- nures, together with the observations of Professor Blaettermann and N. Herbemont, Esq.; and from the descrij)tion given of the " terrehouille," would say, that the slack (or fine) coals of our mines, which are not merchantable at present, appear to be of this quality — though they differ in some res- pects. They take fire by spontaneous combustion, after lying in heaps for some time, arid burn with very little or no flame ; they contain a large por- tion of alum and copperas, particularly the latter, and evidently cannot be useful as manure, before being calcined. Small portions of salt pelre are also noticed in it, while it possesses a large portion of sulphur. Experience has proved, that coals in a state of nature are injurious to vegetation, while the ashes are beneficial ; and on some soils, to a very high degree. I am convinced, that nothing is more beneficial to fruit trees, than taking away the earth near the surface, about the roots, and supplying its place with coal ashes. This is an admirable remedy to prevent the worms from de- stroying the peach trees; and by a mixture with calcareous or other earths, may doubtless be found extremely valuable. Our rail road passes through several extensive strata of marl, or clay of varie- gated colors, soft and soapy in appearance, evi- dently containing some valuable properties; and as it is on the line of the rail road, where conside- rable excavations were made to obtain the level, it might be obtained in great quantities, and trans- ported to the river at comparatively small expense. You have piomised to visit our mines, and I have anticipated much pleasure and information from the developements you might make. C. [The foregoing confinnation of the great similarity, if not identity of the " terre houille" with that kind of coal in our mines which is so abundant, and has been considered so worthless heretofore, is the more va- luable because furnished by one, who in practical expe- rience, and extent of observation on coal mines, is sur- passed by few in this country. The objections urged by C. to the use of this substance as manure, on ac- count of the ahmi and copperas contained, are support- ed by theory as well as by experience. Copperas is certainly a poison to soil, and it is believed that alum is also. But both these are sulphates, the first being a com- bination of sulphuric acid with iron, and the second of that acid with alumine (the pure matter of clay) — and if calcareous earth is mixed with these salts, they will be decomposed, and gypsum formed, by the sulphuric acid uniting with the lime: the poison would be de- stroyed, and a most valuable manure formed — and in- deed, these substances, which are so noxious, would serve to give the best ingredient in the whole compound. This object alone, would be sufficiently important, (supposing the remaining portion of the " terre houille" to be of any worth as manure,) to induce the carriage of calcareous manures from a distance ; and still more from the marl which C. suppo-ses to be found in the vicinity. Of the correctness of this supposition however, we shall entertain doubts until the earths in question are ex- amined by chemical tests. Altogether, this subject, which we were at first prompted to investigate, more by idle curiosity, than any reasonable prospect of arriving at useful results, rises in interest and importance : and there seems good ground to hope that, in some manner FARMERS' REGISTER— MINERAL MANUf.ES. 629 or other, the coal mines of Virginia will furnish a new source of fertilization. The two following communications on the same sub- ject, have been received since writing the foregoing re- marks. The last extract is from one of the most suc- cessful practical farmers in Virginia, whose name we hope to be hereafter authorized to use, and in connex- ion with more extended communications.] RE3IARKS ON BIINERAL MANURES. Prince Edward, Isi Feb. 1834. The printed slieet containing an account of IMr. Hollert's manure, &c. has just come to hand, for which I thank you much. I have little doubt, but that we have both the terre houille and the houtlle grasse j but much time and money may be consum- ed, before we have them sufficiently under our con- trol, to convert them to useful purposes. I am now writing by a fire, made partly of dead coal; it burns slowly, with a glowing heat, but is not in- flammable. Lime here is very costly, however ; and its scarcity may create a barrier to making Mr. Hollert's manure. I think with you, that lime, with its combinations, constitutes the chief value of the Dutch and Belgic manures, so far as permanency of effect is concerned. It may be the case, that nature has supplied a sufficiency of this, to render an artificial admixture unnecessary. I saw but little appearance of lime at Mr. Flour- noy's : but on my own land I never find a small vein of dead coal, without discovering clay marl in its vicinity — and in the coal stratum itself, there is usuallj' a seam of selenite, some of which you have seen. I had a cut made across one of these strata a few days since, about six feet deep, and found a seam of selenite, from one to two inches in thickness, of the most firmly impacted and hardest crystals I have ever seen. A plate of it, a foot wide, would bear its own weight, when held by the edge. The veins of coal on my land are generally too thin to furnish much manure about their outrunnings. There probably are thicker veins at a much greater depth. But be- sides the dead coal — which has probably been in a measure divested by lime of its sulphuric acid — there are other materials about my land, which I think, in a slight degree, contain lime and gyp- sum. Much of the sand stone and slate in the banks of the gullies, is covered with a white ef- florescence in dry frosty weather, and much of these matters will effervesce with acid. VVhere- ever this appearance is exhibited, clover, j)articu- larly the white, grows luxuriantly in the gully be- low, and sometimes even in the crevices of the rocks. This white efflorescence I take to be gyp- sum. It does not effervesce w ith acids, when collect- ed, but the rock from which it issues will, though ve- r)' slightly. If'any mode could be discovered ()f con- verting these rocks into manure, the benefit would be great; as in quantity, they are inexhaustible. They moulder on exposure to the atmosphere. But if the lime in them be the only manuring principle, they might not be worth the quarrying and removal. The strata in which I discover most calcareous matters are, 1st, laminated beds of coal slate, hav- ing its lamellcB curled and glossy, like some of our best bituminous coal; 2dly, strata of glomerated sand stone, the balls closely impacted, formed with concentric layers, and having rich calcareous earth in the interstices, and sometimes between [he lamincB. These balls are from three or four inc lies to a foot in diameter. Some years past, I observed, that what is called schistusor coal-sill, in the " Edinlnirgh Farmers' Magazine," was there much reconmiended as a manure. Ever since, I have hoped, that in some way, the accompaniments of coal might be render- ed useful to all living convenient to coal regions. The account in the Magazine was too vague to give any understanding of the material, or of its inodus operandi A way seems to 1 e opening up for rendering these matters of incalculable be- nefit to the world. I have for some lime been groping my way among these things, occasionally gathering light from the pages of the Register. How much might Virginia be benefitted by the labors of a scien- tific geologist.^ I was much ])leased to find a confiruialion of the benefits of hornblende in the letter of Mr. Browne to our Governor. I think, however, it is more probably its lime, than its iron which does the good. It is very pleasing to see chemistry, mineralogy and geology lending light and aid to agriculture. I believe it was Lord Kames who was much ridiculed, for imagining that the time might come, when manure could be so concentrated, as to be carried, to a valuableex- tent, in a snuffbox. Who knows but that, in this age of discovery, his lordship's notion may be ve- rified.^ Chemistry has already produced amazingly concentrated extracts from Peruvian bark, opium and other medicines. Indeed, cakiimi, the baseof lime, has been discovered. i\nd should a cheap mode of extracting it be found, our cismontane gentry may fill tJieir snuff boxes, and return from their annual visits to the springs rather more plea- santly, than with the emptiness of pocket hereto- fore experienced. In the course of this winter, I have found a blue- ish clay, which I suppose to be disintegrated slate, containing a more lilieral supply of selenite than I have before discovered on my land. This is near the bottom of a deep ditch, in a place so exces- sively miry, as to defy my curiosity and enthusi- asm in such matters ; and I am compelled to wait for drier weather, before I can ascertain Avhether there is enough selenite to be valuable. I am of- ten on the look out for the gypseous earth of your region. This clay may be essentially the same, but very different in consistence, being almost as unctuous as tar, when wet. I was led to examine it by some streaks of a peculiar caio-hlue color. The negroes on this farm were for a long time permitted to burn the old field pines into charcoal, for the use of the neighboring smith shops. The scites of their old kilns are much richer than the surrounding land, probably from both the burnt earth and the coal dust — chiefly the latter, I sup- pose. In spreading marl, I have directed it to be more liberally applied on such sj^ots than else- where, imagining that the lime might aid in the decomposition of the coal. These spots have much improved in appearance since being marled. I contem{)late spreading much of this coal dust, of which I have a great quantity, and mixing it with marl, in my further efforts to marl my land. There is a gully here, the bottom of which I have seen covered for about an inch deep with a very white salt, and for a considerable extent. This frequently occurred in weather favorable to 630 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. rapid evaporation after much rain. The salt was mixetl \vi(h something; which produced bitterness; I suppose tlie sulpliate of magnesia. Stock were, however, fond of it. I have but littleopinion of salt alone, as manure; in combination with other mat- ters, as in sea ashes, it may be valuable. This gully is now nearly tilled, but salt may still be found in suitable weather, not only whitening the ground, but crystalizing on the grass, and killing it. There is a horizontal layer of very black mud a little below the surface of its present bot- tom, without the taste of salt, but of a disagreea- ble smell. There is little doubt, but that this is produced by the chemiciil agency of salt and some other matter with which it meets; for I invaria- bly find it accompanying the salt in various parts of the plantation. Would this and the saline mud about it make manure .' WM. S. 3I0RT01V. COAL ASHES AS MANURE. To the Editor of the Fanners' Uesrister. Powhatan, Feb. 2d, 1834. Our friend handed me a few sheets of the Farmers' Register which you had the good- ness to address to me, in which the value of refused coal is set forth as a manure. I have for some years been thorougldy convinced of the beneficial effects of coal ashes when applied to land, and I have used them very advantageoi;sly in that way. In October last, when seeding my crop of wheat, I hauled out a parcel of the above desci'iption, and top dressed, (the way, by the bye, in which 1 use all my manure.) a very poor hillside. TlieetTects previous to Saturday's liea vy fall of snow were most astonishing — distinguishable at the distance of half a mile, for its superior growth, although surround- ed by very good wheat, heavily top dressed at the same time, with farm pen manure. I consider coal ashes as decidedly superior to any thing I have ever yet seen for lightening stiff soils. Our coal pits, and cities where coal is used, would furnish large quantifies of this valuable manure. KXTRACTS OF PRIVATE CORRESPONDEXCE. Sussex, 17th January, 1834. * * * As the Gama Grass seems to excite some attention and inquiry through the Farmers' Regis- ter, I also enclose you a few of the seed which I have found on grass growing on my farm, on the Nottoway river, in the county of Sussex, and have but little doubt it is the same kind of grass spoken of by some of your correspondents under the above title: I have never seen any other grass known to be the gama grass ; but the seed and seneral de- scription, correspond in so many particulars, that I am satisfied it is the same grass which I find on my farm. I have observed the very luxuriant growth of it for the last eight or ten years, but set no value on it, as it appeared to be a single, (though large) bunch of coarse grass, growing by the side of an old fence, just at that point where the alluvial black sandy soil comes in contact with the yellow sandy highlands. Of its origin I know nothing ; but as it was discovered in a single bunch about one quarter of a mile from the river, and as the surface on one side of the spot where it grows was formerly covered (during winter) with water, I am inclined to suppose the seed might have been deposited by some wild fowl; but be this as it may, the fact of its flourishing finely, is conclusive evidence of the capacity of the soil and climate to mature it to great perfection. As it will be enclosed in the field I cultivate this year, I will pay some attention to it, so as to ascertain how of- ten it can lie cut, and what number of pounds are obtained from each cutting. Halifax County, N. C There are ridges running through our second low grounds (of Roanoke) not covered with fresh- ets, the soil of which is light and porous, and when manured, will not hold it long. Will marl or plaster of Paris, make it more close and reten- tive.^ I have tried the plaster of Paris by rubbing my cotton seed with it: in dry years the benefit is very perceptible ; but in wet seasons, there is none. There is a bed of shell marl on the river about fifteen or twenty miles Vielow my plantation. W^!;at can I afford to give per bushel for it and boat or flat it to my farm that lies immediately on the ri- ver.' Would it make the light land aV)Ove named more firm, or looser.' Some years past I cleared a pond in the w infer, and hauled the wood along one of those ridges : to my surprize, the row of corn im- mediately in the cartway, and one on each side, had the appearance of being highly manured. If this was produced from the earth being made more solid, and 1 cannot account for it in any other way, might not a machine be fixed without much cost, to ram such land, and in that way improve its tex- ture .' [The accidental experiment above mentioned tells plainly of the great want of closeness in the soil. Marl certainly will in some measure remedy that defect, even though the manure may be principally composed of sand. Information as to the cost of transporting marl is furnished in an article published in No. 9 ; and of the benefit to be expected, some satisfactory statements may be found in a letter of Wm. B. Harrison, Esq. in No. 7, on marl, and in other articles on lime.] Northumberland, Va. Jan. 24th, 1834. It would be pleasing to me if I could give you a favorable account of our agriculture. A stranger, if passing through some parts of our county, would say it was abandoned and given up, or that it had been visited by either " war, pestilence or fa- mine." The fact is, we are indolent, and want energy to direct and carry on farming as our east- ern and western friends do. From our local situa- tion, we ought to improve. Many are engaged in the wood business, and lands on the waters are va- luable, as they will afford from thirty to fifty cords per acre, which when well seasoned, sells from ^1 25 to $1 50 the cord. I think the wood business here, much retards the farming interest. On the waters we have many facilities for manuring — say Indian banks, oyster shells, bay or river grass, which is abundant in some places ; also, fish is an excellent manure. Halifax Co. Va. Dec. 13/A, 1833. I have just received the No. for this month, and do heartily thank you for the entertainment and in- struction I have received from it. I live in a to- bacco making regionj and of course, many of your FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. 631 plans for improvement, and methods of cultiva- tion are inapplicable to our situation— but the grand features of our systems are alike, and espe- cially the abominable errors which, like original sin, are handed down from fatiier to son among us, I see also disgrace and impoverish the i'armers of your part of the state. 1 had, in my ignorance, thought that we " planters" were the only people who wore their land out with a rapid succession of crops, and then put them under the hoof for reco- very : but I find that I am mistaken, and that other parts of the glorious Old Dominion exhibit simi- lar proofs of agricultural philosophy. I am both " a young" planter " and a bad" planter, and therefore read with self- application the article in your last number, " On Draining," and deter- mined to adopt some of its suggestions, though I could not approve in toto of all the sentiments ad- vanced in it. SUBSTITUTE FOR HOPS. Prince Edward Co. Jan. I4th, 1834. * * * Such a work cannot fail in being ex- tensively circulated and universally read; nor can it fail in correcting the rude and butchering man- ner of farming almost universally pursued in this section of Virginia. I was iiighly delighted in finding so much in the Register calculated to in- terest ladies. My wife remarked the other day, that she had got fully the worth of the subscription already. I trust you will, in every number, have an eye to that; and as I have lately become ac- quainted with a fact which may be convenient to them at some period, i will briefly mention it on this occasion, and if it be indeed new to you, (as it is to me,) you can use it for the in- terest and instruction of the ladies, if you see cause. It is the substituting the Life Everlastino- (the botanical name I do not know,) for hops, in making yest. The yest is made of the dried leaves and flowers just as yest is made of the hop, and used in the same way. I am informed by those who have used it lor some time, that bread is not as apt to become sour, and the flavor is finer than the hop bread. I have no doubt its qualities would he greatly improved if it were cultivated, and the leaves and flowers gathered as soon as they were ripe, and dried in the shade. SILKWORMS. Philadelphia, Jan. 21, 1834. The art of raising silkworms is not so difficuU as people imagine. It may be reduced to a few rules. Give the worms a sufficiency of air, spare of food, and above all things, keep them clean and dry ; dirt and damj)ness are death to them. This is the whole art, with a few little matters that experience teaches. As to the mulberry, any one can raise it who can raise an apjtle or a pear tree. The writers on these subjects are too fond of dis- playing their knowledge, and raising trifles into things of importance. The simplest treatise, 1 think, is the best. I have before me a little Italian manuel, in which I find what follows, with which I shall con- clude this letter: "The poor countrv people who often deprive themselves of their only chamber, in order to raise their silkworms, must rest con- tented with what they have. It sometimes hap- pens, however, that they succeed better than those who have the best accommodations." Prince Edward, Jan 2lst, 1834. I have just learned that stone plaster has been ploughed up in Amelia in the neighborhood of the Stoney Point Mills. I forget the name of the owner oi the farm. I had a small specimen which I gave yesterday to my friend thr you. I was told at our court yesterday, by a fentle- man of high respectability, (Dr. Paul C.Vena- b!e,) that a great deal of hay is made in Halifax county, of the volunteer gama grass which "-rows on the sandy low grounds of Dan river ; and that towards the heads of the river, large meadows are raised of it, under the name of the big fox-tail grass. GRAZING FARMS IN THE VALLEY OF VA, Rockbridge, Va. Jan. 24th, 1834. Being no farmer myself, I know no wav in which I can promote the farming interest so ef- fectually in this region, so highly favored by na- ture as a farming country, as by the circulation of your Register. In the Valley below us, the farmers are pursu- ing a system of farming which I am anxious should be tried in this county. I allude to the wheat and stock raising, in connexion ; buying three and liiur year old steers in the fall ; feeding them du- ring the winter on wheat straw alone; and in tlie summer, grazing in clover fields until midsum- mer, when they dispose of them at a profit of tea to twelve dollars per head. If you could prevail on some of those gentlemen who are pursuing it to prejKire f()r the Register a i^articular account of their system, it would be valuable information to your subscribers in this quarter. * * I wish you would call on your correspon- dent " Marcus Porcus Brutus," for a description of the styes which he thinks should be used in rais- ing hogs. Albemarle. Apropos of lime and marl — your book on caf- careous manures, or rather calcareous earths as manures, has pleased me very much, and has rec- tified and fixed in my mind, certain va"-ue ideas which I entertained, as a theory, on the manurino- of land with lime, the efficiency of which I have fully demonstrated by practice. I happened to buy certain land, formerly in the possession of - about eight hundred acres in quantity, and so ex- tremely poor, that a great many persons thought me an egreji,ious blockhead to have given so much as three dollars and seventy five cents an acre for it. However, as a vein of lime stone runs through the whole of it, I, undismayed, began quarrying rock, burning lime, and throwing it on the land, to my heart's content. Now, after having pursued my plan for these five years, every field exhibits the appearance of rich bottom land, by the luxu- liancy of the clo\ er, oats, wheat, and even corn that grow on it. This improvement has indeed been expensive, f;)r 1 have as yet made but small crops, as all my force was directed to one object viz: that of raising clover in the first place; but I am afraid you will tliink me a proser, and I'here- fbre I shall conclude by assuring you of the high regard with which I remain your- humble servant. 632 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF TOBACCO. Prince Edward, \st Feb. 1834. Your Nortliami)(oii correspondent inquires for gama grass seed, and Byefield or Swiss hogs. We received information on the subject of gama grass in this section too late to save any seed, and tlie very few preserved, would hardly be spared, I sup- pose, at any price. F know of no Byefield or Swiss hogs'. The Rev. John Kirkpatricli of Cumber- lan^d, has hogs both of the Bedford and Chester breeds ; the hitter of which, I suspect, are nearly the same with the Byefield They surpass any Ihingthat I ever saw, in the shape of hogs, for beau- ty, rapidity of growth, and aptitude to fatten. Mr. Ki'rkpatrick procured them of Mr. C. Barnitz,near York, (Penn.) As an evidence of their propen- sity to be white, I will state, that I saw a coal black sow of the common breed, with eleven pigs, by the Chester boar, without a colored hair on one of them. I was told, a twelfth one had died before I saw the litter, as white as the rest. He has also some of Mr. Meade's Durham cattle, and a num- ber of his improved breed of sheep. The latter yield a very uncommon quantity of wool, of a very fine texture, and being free from the crispiness of the merino wool, is much more suitable for home manufacture. To this gentleman we are moreover greatly indebted for the introduction of a great va- riety of fruit trees of the best qualities, and the improved taste for horticulture which has been re- cently getting up among us, much through his in- strumentality. P"or the Farmers' Register. MANAGEMENT OF TOBACCO. In a former number of the Farmers' Register may be found an essay on the Management of To- bacco, signed Frederick Oronoko: as every plan- ter has a mode of managing this plant, different from that of his neighbor, I propose giving mine — leavino" it for time and experience to determine which is right. If the following remarks siiould induce other planters to publish their plans, I ihink, by and by, we shall be enabled to pursue a much more systematic course in relation to its manage- ment, &c. than we have as yet arrived at. So without farther excuse, notice or apology, I com- mence first on the subject of seed. The best seed l.avea bright brown color — should be selected from plants well matured, preferring the more forward plants, with leaves well shaped. My plan has been to turn out two or three times as many seed plants, as would be actually neces- sary to seed my beds, permitling say thirty or forty pods to be matured by each plant; and from these, select such as are least objectionable. As soon as the pod becomes dry, the seed should be gathered, well dryed in the shade, and carefully secured until December or January, at which time you may begin to prepare the beds or patches. For early planting, select a hill side presenting a south eastern exposure, somewhat sandy, rich, and quick ; for late planting, a low or flat situation is preferred. The situation being fixed upon, and the ground in what is generally called good work- ing order, burn hard, hoe or coulter deejj, guard against turning up the clay or under soil, rake well, sow thin, (a common pi|)e bowl full, I con- sider rather thick for a bed four feet wide and sixty feet long,) tread close, cover well, and ma- nure heavily with well rotted dung. The best time for manuring is as soon as the seed are sown ; then repeat when the plant comes up, and so on every ten or twelve days, till the plant is of (or neaily) a sufficient size to plant out. The crop having been well worked, soon ar- rives to that stage called topping; and many fine crops have iieen much injured from a loose and negligent habit in this operation — for if you top too high, it is unreasonable to expect a perfect plant ; if, on the contrary, you top too low, many of the lower leaves will be much injured by rub- bing against the ground. Close observation and strict attention can only direct the planter how this should be judiciously done. The only gene- ral rule within my observation for determining when a plant is rightly topped, is when the top leaves are of the same size with those of the bot- tom, and this rule is only applicable to full grown plants. Topping too high is more injurious than topping too low : for by high topping, tobacco is made thin and chaffy — whereas, by top|)ing low, much of the crop will be strong and rich, which will compensate the planter for the ruggetl dirty leaves always found on plants topped too low. The practice in this neighborhood is to prime in the earlier part of the season five or six inches high, and top to eight or nine leaves. Some go as high as ten leaves ; but under ordinary cir- cumstances, eight leaves appear to be the common standard. As the season advances, the priming should gradually fall to three or four inches, and the topping to four or six leaves. Cutting is the next thing to be attended to ; and the only thing necessary here tostate, is the im- portance of cutting on/j/ that which is perfectly ripe. There is a practice with many overseers to get as sreat a number of sticks cut at the first and se- cond cuttings as they possibly can, in order, I sup- post , to afford an opportunity (even at the em- ployer's expense,) of boasting a little at the next court, muster, or warrant-frying day. The (.nly way to guard against impositions like this, is the personal attention of employers; and until this is done, we look in vain for any great improvement in our agricultural operations. I would here add the impropriety of cutting on Wednesdays or Thursdays, especially in the month of August or first of September; it being oftenthe case that a house of tobacco is very much injured from this circumstance alone. If you cut on Wednesday, your fires must commence Friday, which nmsl be very moderate until Saturday 10 or 11 o'clock, from which time till night is too short a ])eriod to effect as perfect a cure as the tobacco requires; and by Monday morning, especially in warm moist weather, the sap begins to flow, from the stem which is green, into the half cured leaf, producing a reddish appearance, wholly destructive of its former beauty and brilliancy. In warm weather, we hang from eight large plants, to fen small ones, on each stick ; the sticks should be carried immediately into the house, and placed eight or nine inches apart. The sticks j having been regularly arranged throughout the \ house, the process of curing then comes on. My practice for several years, with but little variation, has been to regulate the sticks, the day after cutting and next morning. Commence with small fires, so as to raise the thermometor to 90° ; this heat should be continued from thirty six to fortv eight hours, which we call the warming or FARMERS' REGISTER— FENCE LAW. 638 preparatory fire : (then, small yellow tobacco when cut, requiring a shorter preparation than large, thick, green tobacco;) the heat should then be raised gradually 10°, and continued four or five hours — thus continuing to raise the heat through- out the wiiole process 10° every four or five hours until the thermometor reaches 150°, m hich is call- ed a curing heat. The continuation of this heat depends much on the state of the atmosphere, as veil as on the size of the plant: it should, how- ever, be continued until tlie whole plant is tho- roughly cured. As soon then as the tobacco comes in order to liandle, you may remove it to some other house, hanging it as thick as you can conve- niently press the sticks together, where it will re- main in perfect security until you are ready for STRIPPIIVG. In the month of November you may safely be- gin to strip ; and much care should be used in making the different qualities, as well as tying the /^liffevent bundles; the " fie leaf" should be stem- med, which looks much neater tiian to have one half of the leaf hanging down the bundle. A good hand will tie from seven hundred to one thousand bundles in the daj\ The tobacco stripped during the day, can be easily packed down in bulk at night, on a platform raised eighteen or twenty inches bom the floor, where it may remain until w inter is nearly over, when it must be re-hung in order to get it in prizing order. Much depends on the order for prizing. The stem must be perfectly dry : never strike or take down tobacco for prizing, unless the wind is at some southern point — and it should be taken down as dry as you can possibly handle wilhoj't very much breaking it. When down, it should be well covered with fodder or leaves; if the "season" continues, you ma)* pack it in bulk as straight as possible for prizing — the hogshead weighing from sixteen to eighteen hundred weight. Now, Mr. Editor, 'tis said that theor}^ without practice is like a purse without money ; so I'll give you a few extracts from my notes taken last summer during the curing season. " 1.5th Sept. 1833. First barn — tobacco very ripe — weather hot and dry — cut Friday — conunenced firing Monday morning — thermometer 90° at 9 o^'clock — 12 o'clock 106° — process too rapid — half past 3 o'clock, 110°— fired all nia-ht— Tuesdav 9 o'clock, 120°— 3 o'clock, 150°— fired all night- Wednesday 150° — lired all night — Thursday 150° — Friday 150° — fires kept up irregularly, and stopped in the evening. High wind each day — thermometer at back side of the house." When this tobacco came in order to be examined, I dis- covered that a small portion was somewhat injured by the fires being too strong in the commence- ment, as seen above. " 16th Sept. 1833. Second barn — tobacco ripe — not very ripe — weather hot and dry — cut Satur- day— commenced firing Monday — smoked all day at 90° — Tuesday the same half day — Tuesday evening thermometer 100° — Wednesdaj^ morning leaf half cured on the lower tier 140° — fired half night— Thursday 146°— Friday 146°— fired half night handsomely cured — thermometer 3 feet from the door 5 feet high — windy each day. " 22d Sept. Third barn — dry weather — cut Sa- turday— not \cry ripe — commenced firing Mon- day morning 90° — continued all night at same — Tuesday 9 o'clock 110*^ — tails curling — tobacco Vol. I.— 80 looks very well — Wednesday 120° at 9 o'clock — low tier ?eaf nearly cured— Thursday 150°— fired all night— Friday 160°— fired till bed time." This iiouse, on examination, was very well cured. I forgot to mention in the proper jilace that my barns are made as tight and close as possible. I do not, however, think that the roof should be very close ; my barns are covered w ith oak Ijoards, and are generally open enough to let off the smoke and vapor as last as they are formed. Some of my neighbors have windows made just under the comb of the house. If you think proper to publish the above in the columns of the Register, do so ; if not, lay it aside and give us somlhing else. By so doing, you will obliire yellow pryor. ErfORMOrS LOSSES CAUSED BY THE FENCE LAW OF VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Brunswkk, Feb. 18th, 1834. Sir, — If I mistake not, (for I have not the work to refer to,) John Taylor, in his Arator, estimates the time occupied on each plantation in repairing the fences, at two months ; and I am convinced that much of this time might be profitably saved, to be devoted to other objects, by amending our law of enclosures. I must beg leave to sub- mit the following inquiries to the public, through the medium of your invaluable columns. I should be happy to furnish a correct answer to them my- self, but that cannot be done with any degree of accuracy, as we are totally destitute of agricultu- ral statistics. How many bottoms are turned out to be tram- pled into mortar, producing neither corn nor grass, because they are too long and narrow to be fenced? How often has the landlord to give up his lands rent free to his tenant, upon condition that he will "do up" the fences.' How often is a plantation objected (o by one wisliing to purchase, and what proportion of its value is lost to the owner, because tiiough there may he a great deal of good land on the tract, yet he would be compelled to fence in too mucii poor land in order to bring tlie good into cultivation? How many tracts of land are now valueless, for want of a sufficient quantity of timber to keep up the immense enclosures? How often does lie fail to get a tenant altogether because no one will take his land even upon the foregoing hard condition? AV hat proportioti of h is rents is lost every year on account of the difficulty of repairing the enclosures ? How much good land is now useless, in detach- ed parcels, being separated from the body of the tract by a stream or road, on account of the im- mense labor necessary to enclose it by itself? Hovv' much valuable tobacco land must now be continued in forest, to produce timber to repair our fences, which under a better law of enclosures, might be brought into cultivation? How many rich, but small parcels of meadow land, lying on the borders of our crooked streams, are neglected, because the fence on the bank will rot in a lew years, or be carried away bj-fhe fresh- ets; or because the fence cannot well be made to follow the serpentine course of the stream, and if it be made at all straight, it would cut off so many nooks and corners, as to leave the balance unwor- thy of regard? 634 FARMERS' REGISTER— FENCE LAW. How great a loss is sustained in this, thfit we cannot clear 20, 50, or 100 acres of good land, here and there, where such may he found, and leave tl)e poor ridges to i)ro(luce lire wood and a small por- tion of timber, but must take it as it comes, high and low, rich and poor, in order lo get our fields in a body for the convenience of enclosing Ihem ? The rich man A, with 1000 acres of hmd and 40 hands, requires say one month to repair his fences: the poor man B, who is worth but one fourth as much, with 250 acres anil 10 hands, must labor two months to repair his. That he must, is susceptible of mathematical demonstration — and the poorer he may be, the larger proportion of his labor has he to apply in this unpi'oductive opera- tion of fencing. How many thousands of poor people who own small pieces of land, and who own, or could easily procure an ox 'and plougli each, and who could with these means make a comf()rtable subsistence for tliemselves and their families, are deterred, im- provident as they are, from making the glorious attempt, (1 say glorious, as it niiglit save them from tlie poor house or the penitentiary,) by finding their labors doubled by the unprofitable operation of fencing their respective little patches, or by contemplating the laborious task of cutting and mauling rails, which must be performed at tlie most inclement season of the year, or because they have not the team necessary to haul tlieir rails to the grouud, after they have prepared them. The great number of rails to be hauled renders it necessary that the fiirmer should keep a cart or wagon, and twice as many oxen as would be ne- cessary for all other purposes, and even with this double team, so painful is it to the feet to draw on hard frozen ground, and so laborious is this work over land recently thav.ed after a severe winter's frosts, or which has been lately plouglicd, that it becomes a delicate question about the middle of February, to ask a farmer " how his steers hold out." Sometimes, with tlie blessing of God, (and I know no instance in which his goodness is more signally displayed,) they do " hokl out," and the sliif^ is fenced so as partially to protect the crop from the ravages of the hogs; but sometimes they do not " hold out," and consequently a large pro- portion of the ensuing crop is destroyed by the hogs, before it attains maturity. Yes sir, strange as it may appear to the inhabitants of all other countries, it is nevertheless true, that that portion of the year which elsewhere is devoted exclusively to taking care of the stock, and making manure, is consumed with us in hauling rails, which fre- quently renders our oxen totally unfit to carry out, in the spring, the little manure which unavoidably accumulates around us. It may be Worthy of inquiry, how much better, straighter, and shorter our public highways might be made, if our lav/ of enclosures were altered. For, melancholy to relate, even our public high- ways are made to yield to the overwhelming con- sideration of fencing. I have been amused with the various curvatures described in some of our applications to the courts for orders to open new roads. For by way of rendering the measure ac- ceptable to the court, and to avoid the multiplica- tion of fences, we consent that the new highway shall be opened " around Mr. such a one's fence, thence back through Mr. 's lane, and thence around Mr. such another's fence," and so on. If I am asked, as I frequently am, what we should do with our stock if the law of enclosures were altered. I answer that we can do, wliat we certain- ly shall be compelled to do in the course of a few years, on account of the deficiency of timber, whatever that may be: that half a dozen neigh- bors can easily unite in purcliasing and enclosing commons for their stock — and that by devoting f!ie time and labor, which is now consumed in fencing, to raising and carrying out manure to be applied to our grass lands, we can grow more grass upon 10 acres of land, than is now produced by 200 of our trodden and worn out old fields. And last- ly— that we can at least do what the inhabitantsof all other countries in the world do — and surely the superiority of our stock over the stock of other states and countries is not so excessively great, as to attach us inveterately on that score to our old sys^ tern. In fine, our law of enclosures as it now exists, 19 a most intolerable nuisance lo by far the largest, most wealthy, and populous portion of our state. I v.'ould suggest the propriety of altering it so far at least as to compel every one to keep his hogs in an enclosure. The effect of this alteration would be to enable us to adopt the use of live fences, which would save us a vast deal of labor. At pre- sent we cannot use them, as there is no sort of hedge that can resist the attacks of a thin, lean, tough-hided and hungry old sow. PHILANDER. [It is highly encouraging to our efforts to put down the monstrous evil which we all sufTer from our legal policy respecting fences, to find so many correspondents either approve or sustain the views, alreidy presented in the Farmers' Register, in denunciation of this system. The discussion, so supported, cannot but lead ultimately to a suppression of the evil : and if all those who think with us on this subject, will use their influs ence, a just and proper law of enclosures will be one of the first great gains from the exchange of opinion, and lending of mutual aid among the farmers of our coun-. try. "VVe lately had the pleasure of viewing the operations of an eaterprizing and intelligent farmer from New Jersey, who has been induced by the low price of our land to purchase and settle a large estate on the lower part of James river. The most admirable care of his live stock was evident, and none enjoyed more of this care, or repaid it with more profit, (as the owner believed,) than his hogs. Nevertheless, they were ab ways confined to styes, and neither grazed the fields, nor derived the slightest benefit from the large body of " woods range," belonging to the farm. The fields (which were small, as is usual in the northern states,) were separated by neat, strong and durable post and rail fences, which though only three rails high, were as effectual in restraining all other cattle than hogs, as a " lawful fence" — and much more effectual against fox- hunters. But his outside fence was necessarily made (to suit the law and his neighbors' hogs,) " ten rails high, staked and top-logged." The owner was asked what estimate he placed on the difference of the fence law in New Jersey (where hogs are not permitted to go at large,) and in Virginia-^and his answer was, that tlie whole purchase money paid for his estate was not a FARMERS' REGtSTER— SCmSTUS, &c. 635 greater amount than the value of the difference. But if this estimate was too high, reduce it to any extent that can be asked for, and it will still be found that our fence tax is heavier than all others paid by the people of Lower Virginia. All that we pay for our 90 days' sessions of the Legislature, the support of public edu- cation, and for all the roads and canals in progress, does not equal the whole amount of what we individually pay in the making of fences, merely to enable the hogs of other people to live (or perhaps to starve) on our uncultivated lands. There would be some compensa- tion for tliis system, if we gained in pork what we pay in fencing — even though the hogs of A gained what was lost by the land and labor of B : but it is notorious that there is no considerable gain even to those persons who gain all ; and the immense annual importations of hogs forslaughter, sufficiently prove that the whole ma- nagement of hogs in Vii-ginia yields no nett profit, and but an inconsiderable gross income, to the community, notwithstanding all tlie enormous cose incurred.] EXTRACT ON SCHISTUS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Richmond, March 15, 1834. Dear Sir, — ^The articles in your last number relating to inanure from coal, Dutch ashes, &c. brought to my recollection an account published a long time since in an agricultural magazine, print- ed, I tiiink, in Eilinburgh, on converting the bitu- minous schistus found in coal mines, into a gypse- ous manure, by mixing it with lime. The book hail been lent me, and benig possessed of coal lands, I intended to try the experiment, and for that purpose had a copy of the article taken. It is Avith regret F am obliged to say tliat I neglected from time to time to carry my purpose into effect, until I had nearly forgotten it. On seeing these articles in your last number, I searched among some old papers for the copy from the agricultural magazine, and rather unexpectedly found it. You have it enclosed. It is in some parts almost ille- gible, but if you can make it out, you can publish it if you see fit. As I understand the vv riter, he considers the bi- tuminous schistus to consist chiefly of clay impreg- nated with vitriolic acid, and that on its being- mixed with lime, the vitriolic acid combines with the lime and forms gypsum. The greater part o( the mass being clay, it would seem better fitted for light than stitf soils. Though no limestone has been found in the coal region of James river, it is so near to Riclimond, that I should think that by attending to the mar- ket, and bringing lime at the chea[iest rate, this manure might be used to advantage in the neigh- borhood of the coal pits : this, however, is matter of computation and experiment. Perhaps I may be as negligent as I have hitherto been in regard to this matter; but I intend at pre- sent to try the effect of this preparation, and if the result should i)e worth your attention, it shall be communicated to )-ou. The word " houille" used by your correspond- ents, signifies pit coal 'n France, or at least in French Flanders and iielgium. In some mines there are bodies of this substance that contain so much sulphur and ii'on as to be unfit for domestic use. This when exposed to the weather, takes iire spontaneously, and I think it probable that the ashes which your correspondents speak of, are pro- duced from this kind of coal. I have myself tried coal ashes as a manure, on a pretty large scale, chiefly on stiff river low grounds, and with some degree of success — but doubt wlie- ther they were worth much more than the cost of carryingand spreading. They werecollected about coal works, and had been exposed to the weather, the greater part of them, for a number of years. In the 1st volume of the Memoirs of the Phila- delphia Agricultural Society, (1808) Appendix, page 33, is a communication from the late Chan- cellor Livingston, giving an account of his having seen, in an excursion from Paris to Flanders, beds o{" pyrites" burnt for manure. Perhaps what he took for "pyriies," wds the " houille" spoken of by your correspondents. With regard to peat ashes, which your cor- respondents speak of as being extensively used as a manure in Holland, they are much used in Eng- land, Scotland and Ireland, as well as Holland; and as peat is generally, if not always composed of bog earth, full of vegetable fibres, their fertili- zing properties would seem to be mainly the same as those of wood ashes, than which there are few batter manures. In tiiose moist climates, a large proportion of the valliesor low level grounds that have water stag- nating or running through them, are tor some depth covered with peat earth. In our comparatively dry climate, I apprehend peat is not often to be found ; but wherever it can be met with, I have no doubt it would prove a valuable manure, if it would bear the expense of cutting, drying, burning, and trans- portation. This could only be ascertained by ex- periment. I should think this matter well worth your attention and that of your correspondents. Yours respectfully, J. w. Extract taken from the Farmers^ Magazine, vo- lume 14, page 2S6. 0 Schistus Is every where an attendant on coal, forming the roof of many seams. It is composed of argillaceous earth, sulphurate of iron, with a small portion of alum. It falls, in length of time, by exposure to the atmosphere. Lime immediately decomposes it, and forms it into gypsum. In the course of working the coal mines near to the town of Workington, prodigious banks of schistus had been accumulated. To remove these was Impracticable; to level them was sup- posed to be a further destruction of ground.- — Thus many acres were lost. In order to render them, if possible, of some service, an experiment was made to see if they would vegetate grain. After repeated plough in gs and liming, one of the hanks was sown with wheat, and in the spring with clover. Contrary to all expectations, both crops turned out abundant. This led to the mixing schistus with lime, in the proportion of six to one, as a manure for light soils, which was found to an- swer admirably. The banks have been all level- led ; and, with the exception of two fields now un- der improvement, are as productive as the adjoin- ing ground, letting at the rate of £4 an acre; previously not only of no value, but a great defor- mity to the appeaiance of the country. Sixty bushels of lime would mix three hundred and sixty of schistus, which may weigh between 6S<5 FARMERS' REGISTER— REPORT OF SEASONS AND CROPS. eleven and twelve tons. The expense of leading and mixing, where lime is so cheap, operates to prevent the farmers prollting by it. It has, liow- ever, been tried with succe?s by several persons. Tiiere is a considerable difference in the quality of schistus ; that which has the greatest proportion of argillaceous earth is the best. I have understood that schistus has Keen export- ed from Fifeshire as manure; though I am not in- formed to what part it is sent. There are two fields under wheat at tlie present moment, which are extremely promising ; these Avere almost entirely covered with schistus. After ploughing, they were limed with forty Winches- ters per acre. I am told that one of the crops has been sold for £ 14 the statute acre. [The following comm\inicalions were sent to be pub- lished in the last No.; but tlie bundle in which these and several other of the foregoing pieces were enclosed, was mislaid, and was not received by the publisher until re- cently.] AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE — REPORT OF SEASONS, CROPSj &C. To Ihe Editor of the Farmers' Register. Charlotte Co. Va. Dec. 22, 1834. You request in your last No. that the readers of the Register will furnish concise accounts of tlie state of the crops, seasons, estimated products of the crops secured, &c. I take ydeasure in giving you such an account as my inquiries and observa- tion enables me to furnish. My remarks are in- tended to be ap})licable only to a district of coun- try bordering on Staunton river, betv/een the mouth of Falling river in Campbell, and Little Roanoke in Charlotte, and extending out into Ha- lifax and Charlotte, about twenty miles on each side of Staunton river. The tobacco crop in this district is generally much shorter than usual ; the quality of the tobacco that grew on Branch and Creek flats is fine ; butow ing to the severe drought of the last summer, the highland tobacco is liglit and generally destitute of oil. The tobacco that grew immediately on Staunton river did not gene- rally come to its usual perfection owing to a high freshet in that river which occurred about planting time, and which left the lowlands in such a condi- tion as caused a delay in planting much beyond the usual time, (I will here record a fiict that may be useful to the readers of the Register at a future day.) The corn and tobacco that was replanteti immediately after the waters subsided, without waiting for the land to dry, turned out much the best, particularly where the land was sandy. The corn crop in the section of country alluded to, owing to the excessive rains in the early part of the year, the freshets, and subsequent drought, is unusually short, and is now selling for four and five dollars per barrel. The short corn crop ex- tended as far as Clarksville down the river. Our "wheat crop, which is now becoming an object with us, and which has increased for several years back, promises badly — owing to the freshet in the river, which damaged the seed wheat, and the cold fall, wheat has come up badly, and looks drooping. Respectfully yours, GEO. W. READ. SEASON AND CROPS ON THE LOWER ROANOKE. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Scotland Neck, Halifax Co. N. C. You desire your corres{)ondents to report the seasons and state of crops in their neighborhood : in compliance with that request, I make the fol- lowing report. It was very wet here until June, and afterwards uncommonly dry. Our crops of corn on the Roanoke are unusually short, for fifteen or twenty miles above and below this place. Near Halifax and above, I understand they are somewhat bet- ter ; below, as far as Plymouth, I understand they are about the same as in this neighborhood. The upland crops of corn w^ere very much injured by heavy rains in April and May, and by the drought in July and August. About the last of May, we had a very high freshet in the Roanoke, which de- stroyed all sorts of crops on the low grounds : most of the land was again planted in corn, but owing to the severe drought, very little was made. Usually, I understand, there is shipped from the Roanoke from forty to fifty thousand barrels of corn. If the farmers use as much as usual, there will be none to ship this year. Our cotton crops are over an average in quan- tity— the quality better than usual. Corn and cotton are our jirincipal crops. Let me recom- mend to the readers of your valuable paper a prac- tice pursued by most of our best formers on the Roanoke, which I have never seen published in any agricultural work : I recommend it with con- fidence, as I have often experienced its good effects. If a freshet comes as late as May, or last of April, we soak our seed corn until it nearly sprouts, and as soon as tiie water leaves the earth, if the sign of the old hill can be seen, Ave drop the corn and co- ver it very shallow — the less earth you put on it the better, provided the corn is covered ; if the old hill or check cannot be seen, we mark the land off again very shallow (o prevent the water settling in the furrow. The coi'n will be up and growing in two or three days ; and before the egg of what we call the " colewort worm," that is so destructive to young corn, can hatch and get of any size, the corn is too large for them to injure it. We then wait until the earth gets in a proper situation, and plough it as close as possible. Land covered by freshets, does not get hard as soon as when wet with a heavy rain. This method of planting will not answer in cool weather. There is a great deal of other land, besides the low grounds, infested' with bugs of different kinds, that destroy the young corn. The method I pursue on such lands, is to plant it very early, in the usual way, if the earth is sufficiently dry : if not, I plough the land, and let it lie until warm weather and a good season come. I then immediately plough the land over again, soak my corn as above, and plant — (the sooner after ploughing the second tmie the better) and cover the usual depth. The way I account for the good effect in planting as above on the low grounds after a freshet is, that it has drowned all the bugs that were hatched, and before the other eggs can hatch, and the bugs get large enough to do any injury, the corn is too large to be hurt by them. In other lands not covered with water, if planted early, there has not been sufficient warmth to hatch the worms. In the latter, plantingas above^ the second ploughing covers them so deep, that if FARMERS' REGISTER— DIARY OF THE WEATHER. 637 the corn is well soaked and weather warm, it I the corn sprouted quick, I make use of warm wa- comes up and gets out ot their way befbre they ter. Hot water will prevent it from vecretatine;. can agam collect on the surface. When I wish wm. r. smith, Scn'r. O V} c o •JI[§1U 3i[1 Suunp .um -CO.Vi. JO oSuBqQ ^ <- ». Moqiuaj^^^ 7:-+,t«v,v,v, u o t. oVh o u^ o o t,-^ ut^ o o Smo cv,v,Vh •IM-HIAvj, •.oqn:3^\Y MV.V-1*,Vh-.«'« O O O O 0'«'-« O O inVn l,t», O O O O «V,VHt« •IM "d 'Jioop.o 5 -I ■ Maq]i;3j\\^ i,t*H%-,V.V.V.'-«OOOOCOOOOtn{Di^i»5o'^tNc§-??iSi£t^[lo •S •niSTu oqi gui.inp .laip -BSAv JO aSireqQ M 99 I •■laipBaAV 01-'-*-00CJ«*^OVm OC%-.'->-i%-,!_%-.OOVh%-i Om%-cV.O%-,t,0 •V[3n!'^^X 5 -.lainBa^vv 0!-'_000V<0%-< t+-,Ot*-%-,««OV.Op'^-.Vi OCVH%-.Oe«t.O f TM 'J 'Jtooio^o e I •joiura^^^ Ot-OOmC««-«V. 000%-.'-wtKOO>.MVH OOUOO-H-,oo •asi.iung IB .laiaiuouuotij^ J. o c 1 •AHVIlNVr 3i\'i SiH.mn .laqi -B9AV JO gSuBlJQ ttS t, •jgipisaAV V|l-'tHO-JOl-Oti-,%_«<-.%-.'«'-.O!-.Oi-V.0OOt^c._'-i-.V.V-<-^'— (M(N;ter. February 19th, 1834. Sir, — Mr. James M. Gariietl, in a late address to tlie Fredericksburg Agricultural Society, says, " he would as soon expect a sparrow's egg in hatch- ing, to produce a Rhinoceros, as a grain of wheat to produce cheat," or 1 suppose s|)elts. This is strong language, and proves (at least) the fixed- ness of his opinions on this much controvcrtes erred on the otlicr extreme. If so, and any alteration from old customs should need the support of an argument, I will be pleased at any time to give the reasons operating and causing the change. I have not attcm|)letl to give reasons for each particular item in detail, because it would have defeated the design of brevity, which I think is indispensable in communications of this kind. I have not used the thermometer more than four or five years, but have found the temperatures mentioned in the account, to coincide with my general practice. .1, F. EDMUNDS. Mecklenburg, Feb. 2Gih, 1834. QUKRIES AS TO TOBACCO ON OATS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. North Carolina, March 15th, 1834. I noticed in a recent number of your publication, " a plan for the culture of tobacco on the two shift principle, succeeded by oats, tobe fallowed, or rolled, as may be thought best." This is a most impor- tant discovery, and will prove eminently beneficial to this section of country, where tobacco is (he principal market crop, and our lands are nearly ex- hausted by continued cultivation. This, combined with Mr. Bruce's excellent plan of horizontal trenching, will attract the attention of enlightened agriculturists, who, it is hoped, will favor the pub- lic with their views and experiments. Informa- tion is wanted: you have, in your valuable Jour- nal, given us much, and will doubtless give us more. A planter in this seciion selects some eli- gil)le spot, and puts upon it, his modicum of ma- nure. This spot is annually cultivated ; in a few years, the remainder of the plantation, presents a FARMERS' REGISTER— DEVON & DURHAM CATTLE— DRAINING, &c. 643 scene of poverty. Old fields, g^allcd hill-sides and gullies, constitute liis estate. To us improve- ment is a matter of absolute necessity ; we must fertilize our lands, or abandon our homes. It was not my pur{)0se to apprize you of our wretched system of agriculture, but to obtain from you, or your intelligent correspondent, information as to the proper time of fallowing oats, &c. At what i)eriod of the year will the earth receive most nutriment from fallowing oats.'' Do the seed or straw impart most strength to the land.' Will not rye answer the end of oats.'' Or do oats contain a property peculiarly propitious to the growth of tobacco.' AVill land possessing fertility sufficient to bear, and receiving the benefit therefrom, pro- duce tobacco.' I hope yoiir correspondent will not content himself with a simple response to my in- terrogatories, l)ut will furnish you with his system of cultivating tobacco. I contemplate making an experiment with cotton seed and swamp mud, and will ac(|uaint you with the result. Accept my best wishes. A planter. for the considerable expense they have been at, in introducins: tliem araong- us — which is the wish of A BUCKIIVGIIAM FARBIER. DEVOIV AKD nURIIAM CATTLE. To the Editor of llie Farmers' Rep-ister. Jiuckingham County, Feb. 11, 1834. As the improvement of our cattle is oi much importance to tlie agriculturist, and having lately .seen a most beautiful cow and CJilf, of the North Devon breed, I thought it would be gratifying to you, to bring them to the notice of the public, through your useful paper. This cow is owned by Richard G. Morriss, Esq. of Buckingham county, who j)urchased her last spring, from Henry Thompson, Es<|. of Baltimore. Although she is only two years and eight months old, she has a fine calf, upwards of three months old, by her side, both of them of a mahogany red ; and for perfect symmetry of form, I have never seen any animals that surpass them. This breed of cattle is remarkable for hardiness, and is .said to make the best work oxen. The cows give large quantities of rich milk, and although not as large as the Durhams or Here- fords, yet of sufficient size and early growth, for a farming community. 1 have seen Avell authen- ticated accounts in the American Farmer, of bulls under three years old, weighing from 1.300 to 1400 lbs. The owner informed me, that both cow and calf, are of genuine North Devon blood, being across from the importations of Henry Thompson, with a descendant from those sent as a present from Mr. Coke of England^ to Mr. Patterson of Balti- more. This gentleman, has also a very fine bull of tiie Devon and Alderney breeds. There is also in this county, a noble looking bull, belonging to Col. Thomas M. Bondurant, which he purchased at Mr. Meade's sale, of Frederick. This bull's sire, was a full blooded Durham, and his mother supposed to be a Hereford; he is of fine form, and the largest bull of his age, I have e\er seen. • As our citizens have given over to a considera- ble extent, the culture of tobacco, and are turning their attention more to wheat crops, and improv- ing their lands with clover, blooded cattle will be found to be a considerable auxiliary : and if the advantages of having blootled stock, be duly ap- preciated, those individuals will be amply repaid JDRAIiVING AND CULTIVATING LOWGROUNDS. To tlie Editor of the Fanners' Register. The piece of lowland, which furnishes tiie sub- ject of the following observations, is the bottom of what formerly was an old Beaver pond, on the Birchen creek, and containing from twenty-five to thirty acres. The land is very fertile, with a soil from two to three feet deep, of a chocolate color, and oily ap- pearance. No limber is on it. Several species of grass, interspersed with shrubs, arc its natural growth, affording in the winter season, plenty of wild duck and muskrats for the sportsman ; in the spring, earl)'^ grass, to bring trouble and loss to the herdsman; in summer, swarms of moschettoes to disturb our children ; and in the autumnal season, it produces the miasmata of bilious fevers. The main ditch is on the south side of the flat, ten feet wide, and three i'eet deep, (whicli is almost deep enough for any ditch having suflicient fall,) with its bank thrown towards the land drained, leaving sufficient space for the water to pass in our largest freshets, l)y which the bank is protected, and the reclaimed land rendered secure. The streams and springs which flow into the bottom from the hills on the north side, are intercepted and carried off, by two smaller ones ; one of which crosses at the ujiper, and the other along the lower edge of the land. The latter, which conveys a considerable land stream, is four feet wide, and three deep. The upi)er side ditcii is two feet wide, and two deep. Besides these, there arc tv/o small ditches, running north and south, (dividing the land into three parts, not far from equal in width,) and these are mlersected at riglit angles, by ano- ther passing east and west through the mid- dle of the land, and opening into the upper side ditch. These interior ditches are two feet wide, and two deep ; and all serve to draw the surface water from the land, and from the side ditches, and convey it into another ditch, running along the north side of the lov.er part of the bank, and thence into the main ditch at the lowest extremity. The interior ditches all open into each other — but not into the main, or the side ditches, except at the lowesTt point, wiiere the water is all discharged. No bank to these inside draining ditches is ne- cessary, as we should jdant and cultivate to their very margin, to prevent the gro\vth of weeds, &c. which will most certainly fill up the little ditches, if suffered to grov/. This piece of ground, I in- tend to plant in corn this year. The manner of preparing it, the width of the corn rows, the dis- tance of the corn hills from each other, and the netf proceeds of the crop, shall be the subject of a separate and distinct communicaiion, if no unfore- seen occurrence happen. Experience has taught me, that every farmer and planter, should as soon as possible, make himself well acquainted with the nature and quality of his land, that he may know to what kind of produce it is best adapted. Ten years' observation has taught me, that land imme- diately on small streams, such as branches and creeks, which require ditching to render them ara- ble, will be much more productive and profitable 644 FARMERS' REGISTER— LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. in corn and oats, than in tobacco and wheat. I have made the experiment, I thinli fairly, and am therefore justifiable in making the assertion. It is true, that the soil on those streams is very rich, yet the different strata are very })orous, and com- posed of much sand, often called, and very correct- ly too, the " washing of the hill sides." Attending the tobacco crop, tliere are too many injuries for me ever to think of cultivating it again on lowgrounds. It is more sul>ject to injury th.ui higli land. In wet weather, it is mora apt to spot. In very dry weather, the scorcliing sun will barn its leaves, unless it is cut green ; and it not unfi'e- quently happens, that a freshet (like a hurricane) comes and sweeps it all away; if not, it leaves a muddy glue on the leaves of the tobacco, which will ever defy the skill and industry of the facto- ries to make clean. Added to this, I may say, provided the year is suitable to its gx'owing, tiie tobacco generally becomes too large and coarse, to bring high prices. My objections to the wheat crop on this kind of land, may be very readily made. The land in the first place, is generally too light. The exuberant weeds and grass Avhich come forth after " laying by" the corn, renders it almost impossible without double labor, to get the corn off, and fallow in beds, before it will be too late in the year to seed wheat. Unless it is seeded early, and put in pretty deep, it is almost certain to be seriously injured, if the win- ter is either very wet, or very cold. I have al^o discovered, that the wheat is much more subject to the disease called the rust, than on high land. To corn and oats, this kind of land seems parti- cularly well adapted. I seeded eighteen bushels of oats, in 1832, on a piece of lowground, which was the preceding year, (1831,) in fifty thousand tobacco hills ; or more learnedly s])eaking, from ten to twelve acres. It made me ten slacks about the same size each. Three of the stacks, I cleaned out for seed. They measured about one hundred and twenty bushels; making from the eighteen, about four hundred bushels. Of the oat crop, I am par- ticularly fond, more especially when there is a prospect of corn selling high, the ensuing summer. From necessity, 1 have very satisfactorily learned, that it is an excellent substitute for both corn and fodder, in feeding to horses, even working horses. Since I have quit making tobacco on lowland, [ have been no corn buyer. Since I have flillen out so nmch with the tol)acco and wheat crop on this kind of ground, it may be asked, have I abandoned in tuto the making them.'' I answer no. I am making- more, and of better quality. All of the manure, I can raise from my stables, corn stalks, &c. is carried to my two lots, whicli are enlarged, or diminished, according to the quantity of manure 1 can raise. They are made rich, and are alternately put in tobacco and wheat. In the month of Au- gust, and the early part of September, I fallov,- high ground to add to my tobacco lot, for wheat; by which I can always have enough wheat land for my hands. Too much care and attention, for the farmer's interest, cannot be paid to such land as has under- gone the system of draining. All those who have paid much attention to tlitching, and have had nuich of it done, very well know the great expense necessarily incurred ; and unless there is a sufficient fall, it is perfectly useless to attempt it, to any great extent. The little draining ditches are also indis- pensably necessary ; otherwise the land will always be too much "sobbed" (or saturated with water) particularly in the winter season, and early in the spring, when the plough should be preparing it for the expected crop. Land ploughed in such a state never produces enougli to < ompt nsate for half the trouble and experise of cultivation. The clods thus turned up by the plough in Marcli and April, soon become of a consistence, (comparatively speaking) as hard as brick l^ats, which roll to and fro during the whole ploughing process, making the horses stumble and the |)loughmen limp. But to the point. Our ditclies should be watched with a parentis care. The banks should be kept clean of weeds, briers, &c. This can be very easily done, by planting pump- kin seed on their sides. Not as much work is re- quired to make this valuable vegetable, as there is time and labor necessary in gathering and hauling them home. This kind of ground produces them in great abundance. The benefit that milch cows and hogs receive from them, need no description from me. I understand horses can be made very fond of them. I have no doubt of it, although I have never tried them for horses. Every olistruction that is tlirown in our ditches, the larger ones in particular, should be removed without delay; otherwise j-ay/.s will form therein, obstructing the free passage of water ; thereby filling up the ditches, and causing an overflowing and breaking of their banks, every freshet. Over- seers and negroes would as soon make a raft, as to lake one away ; therefore, it is the bounden duty of the master, io visit his ditches soon after much rain. I may have said more about lowgrounds and ditch- es, than many may think necessary ; but the dis- tant reader is informed, and well assured, that this section of Virginia re^H/rcs, that all of her creeks, branches, marshes and quagmires, should be ditch- ed and drained, and the land thereon, and therein, made arable; if not, the deep red gullies, and the barren fields, which our forefathers left us as a legacy, will most assuredly, either make us real paupers, or deserters of our native state. For the red gullies, we have a remedy. For the worn out fields, we have a specific. Doctor Farmers' Re- gister, will prove a good physician. We should theorize with him of nights, and practice on our larms in the day. Industry, untiring perseverance and good judgment, are necessary auxiliaries. We should rise in the morning on industry, travel through the day with steadiness, prudence and per- severance, and sleep at night on sobriety and a goodly portion of judgment. ■ p. W. HARPER, Greenfield, Nottoivay County, } February 20th, 1834. 5 MISCHIEF ARISING FROai THE SPARKS OP LO- COMOTIVE ENGINES. It appears, from the December number of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, that Mr. James P. Espy, of Philadelphia, has obtained a patent for an improvement in the chimney cap, for increasing the draft in the furnaces*of steamboats and locomo- tive engines, which, upon trial, has proved entirely effective. Mr. William Knight, civil engineer, asserts, " that it completely answers the purpose of stopping the sparks, without diminishing the draft. It maybe hoped, therefore, that every steam en- gine in use, within the United States, will be imme- diately furnished with one of these caps. FARMERS' REGISTER— MANUFACTURE OF POTASH. 645 For the Farmers' Registar. ON THE MxVNUFACTURE OF POTASH. [It is remarkable that the manufacture of potash, which has formed so considerable and profitable an em- ployment for the industry of the northern states, has never been in operation in Virginia. Of course, no sat- isfactory answer to the following letter of inquiry on this subject was to be obtained at home — and it wa. therefore sent to a gentleman who resides in Cayuga county, New Yoik, whose location, as well as his ge- neral information, it was inferred, would enable him to give the statements required. He has kindly coniplied with the request, by sending the communication insert- ed below. We also add the article on this manufacture in Rees' Cyclopaedia.] To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. The enormous waste of wood (liroughout Vir- ginia and (he snulhern states, induces nie to inquii e whether a considerable saving to the country may not be elTected, by converting a portion of it into potashes, and by preparing the bark of certain de- scriptions of trees, for tanning and dyeing. In clearing our lands, it is the practice to burn all the wood which is not used for fence rails, and no care is taken of the ashes. It is well known that from the branches and twigs of oak, a larger quantity of j)otasli is obtained, than from the same weight of the trunk of the tree, and that the branches are entirely lost with us in clearing land. Now, my object in addressing you, is to request that you will obtain and publish the most simple and clear directions for making and preparing pot- ashes for market, embracing the cost of all requi- site apparatus, labor, &c. and the quantity produ- ced from a given weight or measure of white oak, red oak, and other woods common to our country. The preparation of bark tor exportation might also be valuable, if the mode of doing it was made known to our farmers. queuist. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. William Culver, Esq. from whom the following particulars were obtained, has been concerned in the manufacture of potash for many years. It is estimated that 450 bushels of good house ashes will make a ton of potash^ Sonie skilful workmen can produce more. The manager of his works contracted to make a ton from every 425 bushels; and he has even made that quantity from 420 bushels ; but it is nwre than common workmen can produce. Of field ashes about 550 bushels are required to make a ton. This difference is owing to impuri- ties, and to a want of compactness in the ashes. Great care should be used in scraping them up, so as to exclude as much dirt as possible. It requires more care to work them. At this time, house ashes are worth 10 cents a bushel at the ashery ; and field ashes, 7 cents. One man can manage an ashery, consisting of the different vessels hereafter to be mentioned. ~ There ought to be 6 leaches (or leach tubs) each 10 feet long, constructed in the following manner: Lay two parallel sills, one a little higher than the other. On these the bottom of the leaches are laid — made of boards 4 feet long, not grooved and tongued, but breaking joints. These should be a foot high from tlie ground, so as to admit a trough under the lower edge to catch the ley, and to lead it info the ley tub, wliicii may be a half iiogshead sunk in the ground, and which will serve for tiro leaches. The boards, 4 feet in length, which constitute the sides of (he leach, are held together by two reclangular frames ; (he lower one resting on the bottom is IS inches wide, and the upper, near ,tho top of the leach, 3^ feet wide. On the bottom of the leach, lay small sticks crossing each other, to the height of two inches, for the purpose of letting the ley run o.ff freely. On these, place straw, to be 4 inches thick when well pressed down, to prevent the ashes from wash- ing through, and mixing with the ley. Three bushels of lime to each leach, are spread on the straw : its effect is to facilKate the melting of the potash. Every third time that the leaches are filled, new lime is to be ajiplied after ejecting the old. The ashes when thrown into the leaches, must be made compact by pounding it down. In this way a leach will hold 60 bushels. The leaches are worked in jjairs. One pair may be rifjuiZ/Jg' while the second is soaking, and the (bird is being emptied of old ashes, or being filled wi(h new. This arrangement prevents the work- man from losing time by waiting, or from being too much hurried at another time. Two potash ketdcs of 90 gallons each, are want- ed for boilers, and may cost about ^35 a piece. These are set in arches. Several sugar kettles, containing about 20 gallons each, will also be want- ed for coolers. The manufacture of potash is generally com- menced in the spring, when there is no longer any danger from freezing. Ley, too weak to bear an egg, is not put into the boilers, but is used for wetting such leaches as have not begun to run. During the boiling, a dipping pan is placed in each boiler, resting on the bottom, to catch the black salts as tliey settle ; and when the pan is full, it is emptied from time to time. By this process, the ley will not become so thick, and consequently evaporate faster. When the strong ley (such as will bear an egg) from the two leaches, is all poured into the boilers, then increase the fire. For this purpose, good dry wood is necessary. The black salts are now to be returned to the boilers ; and there will be a danger of the liquid running over. This is prevented by dipping it up and pouring it back into the boiler. Repeat it till this disposition to rise over shall dis- appear. Then raise the heat still more till (he pot- ash is perfectly melted, and becomes almost as thin as water. It is then to be dipped out into the coolers, being careful to have them very dry. Let the potash stand till next daj- — it will crack into four quarters. Turn it out, and it is fit to bar- rel. My informant suggests there would be a great advantage in having some person to start the works who was well acquainted with the business. D. T. xtrticle on Carbonate of Potash in JRees' Uncy- clopcBdia. The potash of commerce, or black potash, as it is also called, is universally propured from the com- bustion of wood; and therefore its preparation can 646 FARMERS' REGISTER— VEGETABLE OILS. only be uiulertaken witli success in those unclear- ed countries wiiere are vast natural forests, and where, from (he imperfection or dislance of trans- portation, the value of limhcr is no more than that of tiie laiior required to fell it. The only districts in Europe in which any considerable quantity ot potash is made, are tiie mountainous f()rests in Germany, and (he extensive woodland tracts of Poland and Russia. The British market is prin- cipally supplied from the United States, a country in which, from its rapid increase of population, there is a cons(an( demand tor cleared land, for (lie purpose of ag'ricuUure ; and therefore, where tim- ber is looked upon rather as an incumbrance than as contributini;' either to the beauty or (he value of (he s^round on which it stands. The American method is, (o pile up (he wood, as soon as it is suliiciently dry (o burn, in large heaps, and reduce i( as quickly as possible (o ashes : these ashes are (hen put into a wooden cis- 4ern, with a plug- at the bottom of one of its sides, and a quantity of water, sufficient to make a strong- lixirium, is added. After standing for an iiour or two, the plug- is withdrawn, and the water holding the potash in solution, runs ou(, leaving the eardiv par(s (ill impregnated with a portion of alkali in the cistern. Tliis solution is then evaporated to dryness in iron j)ans, and hastily fused info com- pact reddish lirown masses of semi-caustic potash, in which state it is (it for market. In Germany, where (he value of wood is great- er, care is taken to select such kinds as are the richest in potash; the combustion is slower, and of course the temperature lower, in consequence of which, but little is lost by volatizafion ; (lie lixivi- ations also of the ashes are judiciously repeated till the alkali is extracted. Proportion of potash afforded by 100 par(s of wood of different species, which being previouslv dried, were burned by an o[)en fire, to ashes ; and which, after being weiglied, were lixiviated till all their saline contents were extracted. Salt from 100 Ashes. .Salt, parts of ashes. Oak, 1. 3 0.15 11.1 1 y 7 r Beach, 0.58 0.12 21.9 hjcw/emy ./ Aspen, 1.22 0.07 6.1 \ Sciences, at Fir, 0.34 0.04 13.2 j ^ ""^• To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. The paper which I send herewith is copied from " The Journal of the Franklin Institute," a pe- riodical published in Pliilapelphia, devoted espe- cially to the mechanic arts, manufactures, and ge- neral science; the subject of it l)eing one which I thought peculiarly approj)riate to the pages of a publication like (he c^ne you are engaged in con- ducting: and having first appeared in another, which, (hough I believe it is very extensively cir- culated, yet but little, if at all, amongst the readers of the Register, I determined (o hand it to you, (hat if you deemed it of sufficient interest, you might give it a place in your colunms. It is chiefly on account o(^ the information given in the first part of it, that I thought it might be useful. Tlie remarks on the subject of the machine, which the wri(er had heard was inven(ed by some person at (he sou(h, for hulling cot(on seed, are perhajis to be ac- counted for, from (he want of inlbrma(ion. If he had, as the writer of this has frequently enjoyed, opportunities of witnessing the successful opera- tion of the machine alluded to, no doubt, they would have been of a difTercnt character.* If any additional inducements are needed by our agriculturists to turn their attention more to the culture of seeds from which vegetable oils are manufactured, they may be found in (he fiict that establisl)mcn(s lor the pui'pose of manufacturing that article are multiplying in tliis part of our state ; a circums(ance (hat will at all times insure suffi- cient market, and competition in that market. That your very useful Register may be sup- ported more extensively than heretofore, you have my hearty Avishes. Yours, &c. HUGH NELSOIV. Petersburg, March 6, 1834. RKMAUKS ON TH12 CULTURE OF SKEDS FOR, AND THE MANUFACTURE OF VEfiETABLE OILS. Bij Charles F. IIagner,3Ianayunk, Phi- ladelphia County. I was much pleased to find in the Journal of the Franklin Insti(u(e for Novendjer, an essay con- (aining some useful hin(son the subject of the ma- im (acture of vegetable oils. I have long been as- tonished (ha( a subjec( of so much impor(ance to (he agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial interests of our country, should be so long ne- glected, and that more attention has not been paid to it. I am perfectly convinced that there are many seeds from which oil for various jnirposes could be produced, and which could be grown with great advantage to the agriculturist. All that is necessary, is to draw his attention to the sub- ject, and induce him (o make the experitnent. It is but a few years since the palma christi, (castor bean,) was firs( grown in quan(ities in this coun- try, yet the in(ro(luc(ion of it here has had (he ef- fect, as almost every one knows, of improving in- finitely (he quality of the oil, and of supplying (he market at from (wo to three hundred percent, cheaper than was paid for the nauseous and mise- rable stuff, formerly received from the West In- dies and elsew here. One of the seeds mentioned l)y your correspon- dent, colchicum or rajje seed, is of the greatest im- ])ortance, and produces an oil which is, and has long been, much wanted ibr manufacturing j)ur- poscs. This seed is grown abundantly in all part's of Europe, and the oil made from it is extensive- ly used in the process of manufacturing cloth: it is, I believe, the cheapest oil they have, and takes the place of common kinds of olive oil, which the manufacturers of this country are obliged to use at a great cost. This is a matter of great impor- tance, when it is known that to every 100 pounds of wool carded, there is consumed from (wo to three gallons of oil. The rape seed oil is so cheap and abundant in Germany, that it is much used in adulterating linseed oil; hence the bad quality of some of the German paint oils, as the rape seed oil does not possess the drying qualities of (hat * Our correspondent alludes to the macliine for hulling cotton seed, invented by Francis Follett, Esq. of Pe- tersburg, Va. which is in operation there, and in various o:lier places. There remains no doubt of the perfectly successful operation of this machine in removing the hulls from the kernels of the seed, and thus enabling the oil to be expressed with as little difficulty as from any other ve2;etablc substance. — Ed, Farm. Rc^. FARMERS' REGISTER— ANSWER TO QUERIES IN NO. 9. 047 from flax seed, and is therefore, unfit fur the pur- poses of painting:, &c. Having- been for a long-time engaged in tlie ma- nufacture of flax seed oil, and having made vari- ous experiments on other seeds, I have, of course, had some experience on the subject. In relation to rape seed, I had an excellent oi)portunity of making full and satisfactory experiments. In the year 1822 or 1S23, an Englisli gentleman, who was familiar with the culture of rape seed, and who had a farm somewhere in the neighborhood of Salem, N. J. brought to my establishment about forty bushels of rape seed, which he had produced upon his farm. Tiie account he gave me of its culture was this. Two acres were sown with this seed (broad cast) in the month of August; it sprouted, and was growing very handsomely, but late in the fall, the cattle broke into it, and as he thought, completely destroyed it. He abandoned the experiment, and suOcred his cattle to roam in it all winter ; but in the spring, observing it sprouting again, he put up the fence, and as he ex- pressed himselfj " let it take its chance." The two acres with this, as he considered it, unfair ex- periment, produced him about forty four busliels of seed, for which I olfered him four dollars per bushel, which he refused to take. I expressed it for him; and although my apparatus was not by any means perfectly adapted to the purj)0ie, the manufacture differing in some res])ects, not neces- sary to state, from that of tlax seed oil, I produced three and a half gallons of oil per bushel. Tiie cake, that is, the pulp after the oil is expressed from it, he valued highly for fattening cattle, and refused to take seventy five cents per bushel for it ; the oil he sold to a woollen manufacturer for one dollar and thirty cents per gallon, thus, inclu- ding the cake, realizing five dollars and thirty cents per bushel, out of which he paid the expense of manufacturing. It is, I am told^ considered in England a profital)le crop, although the price is not much, if at all, above two dollars per bushel. The gentleman was in high spirits as to the re- sult, and told me he intended to go into the culture of it more extensively; but from v.hat cause I do not know, I have never seen him or heard from him since — whether he failed in his experiments, died, or returned to England, I do not know. 1 have not, however, the least doubt that our soil and clmiate, are well adapted to the culture of this seed ; it is of the same family with the cabbage, which every one knows grows luxuriantly here. We have, besides, such a variety of soils and cli- mates in our country, that if it will not succeed in one district it certainly will in some other. Another seed, valuable for oil, is the sun flower. I have never tried this, but am told it produces a very excellent sallad oil. I have no doubt the cul- ture of it, properly managed, would be both use- ful and profitable. The bene seed cultivated in the southern stales, produces a valuable oil, and yields more than any seed I know of; it is said that one hundred pounds of seed produces ninety pounds of oil. I never tried the experiment fairly, but have no doubt as to the fact. Some years since, I expressed a bar- rel of the seed, but do not now remember the quantity produced ; it was, however, such as to as- tonish me. The seed was eight years old, and had become in a manner rotten and rancid ; the oil, oi coursej was not fit for the table; but it was, ne- vertheless, beautifully transparent and fluid — more so tlian any I had ever seen. It struck me that it might be valuable for watchmakers. I believe I have a small quantity of it left, and should like some one who knows more of that matter than I do, to try it. The common thin shelled pig nut of our coun- try is said to make an excellent sallad oil ; the ma- nufacture of it is easy ; the shell is so thin as to in- terifjre but little in the process : the nut is put into the mill, and ground up without removing the siiell. The cotton seed, if hulled, will yield a large quantity of oil ; and I am glad to learn that atten- tion is beins: paid to it. I once manufactured a small quantity, grinding the hull and cotton fibre with it ; the quantity of oil produced in this way will not, of course, pay the ex|)ense of manufac- turing il, so much of the oil being absorbed by the hull and cotton. Your correspondent does not appear to be practically acquainted with the plan of taking off the hull which he suggests, by means of a barley hulling machine. It is totally imprac- ticable, for the following, among other reasons : first, if the result could be accomj)lished in that way, the expense of power, labor, &.c. in doing so, would be such as to leave little or no profit; it uould, in fact, be much more trouble and expense than all the rest of the process of making oil ; — second, the seed cannot be hulled in that way. I speak from experience, being practically familiar with the process of hulling barley ; the reason is, that wJien the grist is put into the machine, and the stone had penetrated through the hull, and come in contact w ith the soft and greasy parts of the seed, it would become so greased, or to speak technical- ly, glazed, as to render it perfectly incapable of doing any more work ; the seed would then come out in prett)' much the same condition that it went in. I rather think a method similar to that which is used in chocolate mills for separating the hull from the cocoa, would be more feasible. The nuts are broken up by being passed through rollers of a peculiar construction, and the shell is afterwards blown out by a common fan. The olijections to this i)lan are, the diificuKy of breaking up the cot- ton seed, on account of its toughness; the further difficulty, from its adhesiveness, of separating the hull from the kernel of the seed. I have been told that some person at the south has succeeded in making a machine for hulling cotton seed, and I perceive among the list of patents in the Journal lor Noveml;er, one for a machine for that purpose ; the description of it, however, is so imperfect, that I cannot exactly understand the nature of it. If, as is said, it does hull one hundred and fifty bush- els per day, it is an important matter, and the ob- ject is attained. The above remarks have been hastily thrown to- gether, after reading the essay above alluded to; they come from one who is in a measure practical- ly acquainted with the suitject, and may perhaps answer some useful purpose. ANSWERS TO QUERIES IjV NO. 9. To the Editor of the Farmers' Regi.^ter. Charles City Co. Feb. 26th, 1S34. Nothing could afford me more pleasure than to answer the call of a brother fiirmer from Essex county, through your truly valuable publication 643 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE. (in No. 9 ;) and to tender, freely, any information I may possess upon llie siil'Ject of a an eminent degree the con- fidence of his neighbors as a man of information, will strenuously object to any theory of the rota- tion of crops, if it embraces the three or four shift system. And what do you think is generally un- derstood by the four shift system in many parts of North Carolina and Virginia.? Why, sir, to culti- vate the land one year, and let it lie idle three — that is, to shift the crop from one field to another for four years; not to shift the kind of grain or seed planted. Indeed, I know a man that was by some means convinced that such a system as the three or lour shift plan was requisite, and who com- menced, and actually succeeded in clearing and enclosing three times the land his hands could till. The expense and labor of keeping these shifts en- closed, would soon have made him a bankrupt, if persevered in. When a writer in your paper re- commends a " shovel plough," he might as well Farmkhs' hegister— venison ham manufactory. 849 })ut the name in Hebrew characters. One con- tends it means nothinfi; more nor less than the ohl jiiike hoe of antediluvian memory ; another contends that it is the scooiee that is meant, for we don't call things by the same name even in the same county. How then, are farmers, whose education has not liEen so liiMeral, or whose business has kept them mostly at home, to arrive at the information with regard to their soils, indispensably necessary to a judicious system of manuring ? How are they to become acquainted with the agricultural instru- ments used and approved of by their more intelli- gent brethren? Through your valualde journal much information may be acquired, no doubt ; but as I said before, much of it is unintelligible ; and even if accompanied with plates, as many of your numbers probably are, where shall we find a me- chanic, (ill a slaveholding state, where the mecha- nic arts are mostly confined to ignorant negroes,) that can look at a print and make a plough tliat will run three furrows.^ Atsomeunguardedor un- important joint, as it was thought, the plough gives way, the project is abandoned in despair, and 2 days labor, at 75 cents per day, is charged to the wild and visionary editor. These questions are hard to answer: they have often been propounded with but very unsatisfactorj^ answers. Can it be gained by agricultural societies.' Experience says no. But tew of any society have travelled much ; and fewer still for the express purpose of making an agricultural tour, and very few would be willing to task themselves with the labor of writing out an essay, to be read before a society, if they were not to be equally benefitted by tlie lucubrations of ethers ; and it could not be expected in any little county society, that there should be many men of that kind of travel and experience which is necessa- ry. Permit me then, with all modesty anddeferencej to suggest the followingplan, whicli, if not a correct one, is as to me original, and I hopesomeofj'our cor- respondents will improve upon it, (for if you think it worthy, this is for publication.) The plan is, let some competent man, ( — , _Es(]. if posssible,) who has travelled extensively, and had experience in farming, commence a tour : let him take with him some acids, scales and weights, ounce glasses, blow pipes, and the necessaries for analyzing soils: let him announce that he will be at on such a public day, say at court, where and when he will address the public on the subject of agriculture, (he may make his audience select by having tickets for admission ;) he may make known that he has the means, and will accompany home, for the pur- pose of analyzing soils, such as choose to emplo)' him at § — per diem ; he can make it a business to collect information for your journal, and enlarge your siibscripiion list ; he may organize agricultu- ral societies, or schools, throughout the county — which, by visiting quarterly, and addressing on such subjects as the season and state of crops might require, be beneficial to them, and they of course to him. We have our itinerant tacticians and military schools, which are well paid; and cannot agricultural societies, or schools, be sustained on the same grounds.'' We pay a Yankee itinerant, who patches our old wooden clocks ; and will we not amply compensate a scientific man who shall walk over our farms, and instruct us in its nature, in its defects, and the remedies? Surely we willj and Vol. I.— 82 that amply. Ten dollars per diem would be an inducement that science would not blush to re- ceive, and niany would rejoice to pay on those terms. The agricultural lecturer would say to his em- ployer, " Here, sir, you have calcareous matter; here too much alumine — bring sand ; here too much sand— bring clay ; there is a bog— haul ten loads of that bog mud to each acre of that field ; here you must have a covered ditch ; there you should have a meadow ; this lot will suit clover — that, herds grass ; here you need never sow wheat — the soil does not suit ; there, if you sow oats, your land is impoverished ; on that piece of ground, you may cultivate the thorn for hedges; on that you may plant cedars; live fences are, or are not desirable, &c. &c. Let him look at the farming tools ; let him suggest improvements in the con- struction of barns, stables, and farm pens ; and point out where a compost lied could be easily and profitably formed — all Avhich he could do on the spot, and for which he would be amply compensated. Mr. Editor, be pleased to take these hints under consideration, and court from your correspondents an opinion of their practicabiiity; and thus, per- hai)s, something may be said likely to prove pro- fitable. F. G. A. [We do not agree with our unknown correspondent F. G. A. in the details of his plan, though much in favor of his object, and of some of the means proposed. Agri- cultural tours certainly would produce much benefit to the individual farmers travelling in search of Information, as well as still more to the public, by their, pubhshed reports.] i VENISON HAM 3IANUFACTORY. From the [Ohio] Farmer and Mechanic. The followino- article has been marked for our notice in the Wheeling Gazette, and an inquiry propounded as to the truth of the statements. In reply, we can assure the writer that an establish- ment for "using up" sheep, was in operation in this neighborhood, until very recently ; but is now suspended for the present, although it may be re- sumed during the next autunm.' The business, however, is not, we think, of the stamp the wri- ter supposes ; being conducted, not by foreigners, or the agents of foreigners, but by two respecta- ble farmers from near Geneva, state of New York, where they have carried on the above bu- siness largely for eight years past. So far from seeking to destroy the sheep, or injuring the wool growing business, at a present sacrifice, they make a profit of from twenty five to forty dollars per hundred on the sheep they butcher, and this alone is their inducement. It is supposed the effect will even prove beneficial to the breed of sheep by de- stroying the indifferent stock heretofore reared by our farmers, and causingtheirplace to be supplied by a superior breed. So far from being true that they seek only ewes, wethers are preferred, though they generally take entire flocks, paying an ave- rage of about ^1 12i per head. The sheep are collected in large numl)crs, the heads chopped off, the horns, especially the crookedest and largest, saved for various purposes, the tongues cut out and salted away in barrels as a great delicacy, the rest of the head is then thrown into the boiler, where, two or three hundred together, they are well steamed, ami afterwards pressed in large cheeses, in a press resembling a cider press, thus 650 FARMERS' REGISTER— FLOWER SEED— MANURE, &c. forciiif;: out every particle of tallow ; the cheese is then thrown to the hogs, of which a oreat quan- tity are kept to be fed on (lie offal. ThesA-(/?,sare then taken off, and havint^ been stripped of the wool, they are sold to morocco manufacturers, &c. the wool being converted into casinets, &c. and the tails sold to the hattci's. The intestines are thrown to the hogs, unless saved for tiddle strings. The blood is saved for the saltmanufiicturers ; and certain hones for handles, &c. The hams are then taken off, and having been proi)erly cured, make first rate venison, being, as Jack Downing would say, " a great deal better by half Ihan rale deer meat." The rest of the carcase is treated just as the head was. Thus, by economy, and carrying on the business largely, they make a handsome profit, where a person acting on a less scale would lose. The whole number slaughtered at their es- tablishment in this neighborhood, last season, was 6700. Various speculations have been offered, in this neighborhood, as to their object, and many believe ■with the correspondent of the Gazette, that their object is to destroy the sheep of the United States, for the benefit of foreigners. Such is not, how- ever, the opinion of those best informed on the subject. " Venison Ham 3Ianv factory. — The manufiic- ture of this article is said to be carried on on a most extensive scale in the neighborhood of Zanes- ville, Ohio. My information of the existence of this establishment was obtained by accident, and in the following manner. Wagon loads of sheep- skins Irom the west, to the number of several per week, have been discharged at this place, and, upon inquiry from whence such immense quanfi- ties of such an unusual article could come, I have been informed that a butchery has been ' in the full tide of successful experiment' since the commence- ment of winter, a few miles from Zanesville. A gentleman of this place who was at Zanesville during the first week of January, informs me that then about 4000 head was supposed lo have been slaughtered. The ihve quarters are thrown away, the hind quarters are sold at thirty seven cents a pair, and all that could not be sold are salted down for venison hams. The skins are sold for twenty five cents a piece, or forwarded to the eastern market. The revenue from the skins, hams, and tallow, was estimated by the manufacturers (mur- derers more properly,) to be about one half of the cost of the stock on foot. They are very particu- lar in their selections. They never piuxhase en- tire flocks, nor yet the best animals of a flock, but the worst,confining themselves exclusively toeu'es. It is to be wished that all editors throughout the wool growing region of our country, would put their readers on their guard in this particular; that if there are any fiirmers, who of necessity, must sell any part of their stock to these agents of foreigners, that the venders may make it a sine qua non that at least a fair proportion of wethers be included in all such transactions of bargain and sale. A. z. [The foregoivig statements may be interesting to the connoiseurs of venison hams, whose consumption serves to support tlie new " manufactory" described. But be- sides, the letter of A. Z. is worth notice, as a remarkable instance of the stupid jealousy which converts custom- ers into imaginary enemies, and intended destroyers It is strange indeed, that any one who has the ability to write a decent paragraph for a newspaper, can believe that any "foreigners" have combined for the purpose of destroying ourstock of sheep ; and especially by the notable scheme of buying tliem up in great num- bers, and at full prices. The smallest share of reason- ing joower ought to show, that any new demand, and ad- ditional market for sheep, (even if it was to burn brick- kilns with their carcases for fuel, as travellers say has been done in Buenos Ayrcs,) must increase the profit of their breeding, and of course, their numbers. But though this supposition of A. Z. is more manifestly foolish and ridiculous, it is not more imtrue than anoth- er which has been extensively received, and has helped greatly to support our system of protecting duties to force manufactures — viz: that foreign manufacturers would combine to sell their commodities to us at losing prices, for the purpose of underselling and breaking down the factories of this country, if the latter were not thus protected by law. Such combinations may be sup- posed possible, whenever our farmers will " combine" lo sell their wheat at only half the pi-ice which it would command, for the purpose of ruining the cultivators of the high priced lands of Europe, and then monopolizing; the supply of the grain market. If any persons have reason to complain of the new venison hams, it can only be they who buy and eat them. But however little the trade may speak in favor of the truth and honesty of the manufacturers, we can- not charge them with having done any injury to those whom they have supplied with a cheap article, which though counterfeit, is not distinguishable from, and has served as well as the best.] ISIPROVEMEiVT IN THE BIODE OF RAISIiVG ANNUAL, FLOWER SEEDS. From the Gardener's Magazine After sowing the patch of seeds, and covering it with fine moist soil, place a garden pot inversely over it, until the seeds have struck root; then raise the pot up two or three inches, keeping it thus supported for a few days, and then remove it entirely. The pot not only keeps the soil moist, but by the sun heating the pot, the seeds come up much more quickly than otherwise they would do, in consequence of which the seeds need not be sown so early by a fortnight or upwards. The young plants are therefore less exposed to injury from cold or late spring frosts. Hollow tiles, in- stead of pots, answer equally well, except where mice are, they have access to the ends. SALT AND LIME FOR MANURE. From the Southern Agriculturist. Dr. Cornelius Dupont, of St. George's Parish, made an experiment, a few years ago, with a mix- ture of quicklime and salt, as a manure, which he found highly beneficial. The land to which this mixture was applied, was a silicious soil with an aluminous basis. Vegetable manure was first spread upon the list, and after the land was plant- ed, the mixture was strewn upon the top of the bed in the proportion of one bushel of salt or two bushels of lime lo the acre. The product of cot- ton, residting from this application, was nearly doul)le the usual crop gathered from the same land cultivated in the ordinary way. FARMERS' REGISTER— UNDULATING RAILWAYS. 651 UNDULATIIVG RAILWAYS. From the American Rail Road Journal. Undulating raihva_vs have attracted much at- tention and discussion in England. The inventor, Mr. Badnall, has met witli great opposition from various sources ; lie lias, however, steadily pur- sued his labors in perfecting his invention, and at the same time kept up a controversy, always in a gentlemanly, yet decided tone, w ith his opponents, until he has demonstrated, by actual and repeatecl experiments, its entire practicability. So well, in deed, has he satisfied those who have witnessed his experiments, that Mr. Stephenson, the distin- guished engineer of the Liverpool and Manches- ter rail road, has joined him as a partner in civil engineering. In Nos. 48 and 50 of vol. 2, we gave, from a London paper, some account of experiments made on tlie Liverpool and Manchester railway b)' Mr. Badnall, to test the correctness of the undulating princij)le as contended tor by him. They were not, however, given at length in the London jia- per, and thercf(>re w^e re-publish them from the London Mechanics' Magazine, as given by iMr. Badnall himself, and we shall publish several arti- cles from the Mechanics' Magazine, to explain more fully Mr. Badnall's views and theory, that the subject may receive in this country the consi- deration which its importance demands. From tlie London Mechanics Magazine. FiLrther Experiments on the Liverpool and Man- chester Railway, to determine the correctness of the Undulating Railway System. Sir, — Since I had last the pleasure of address- ing you, we have been enabled to fry some further experiments on the Liverpool anil Manchester rail- way, the decisive result of which will, I doubt not, fully establish, in jour mind and in the i)ublic opi- nion, the merits of the undulating princii)le. On Wednesday last, tiie IGlh instant, we met as before on the Sutton inclined plane. On this oc- casion it was agreed by the engineers present, viz. ]Mr. Robert Stephenson, Senr. , the Messrs. Dix- ons, Mr. Dagleish, and myself, that the truth and validity of the principle, as -w ell as the compara- tive advantage to be derived from its adoption, would be effectually determined by the tbilowing test: As great a velocity as possible being attained by the engine and load, before reaching a given point near the foot of the inclined plane, the time was to be accurately ascertained which the train occupied in ascending from that point to a state of rest. The pow er being thus reversed, the time was to be accurately measured which the train occupied in descending from a state of rest to the point from which it had previously ascended. Hence it would be obvious, that if the descent were made in less time than the ascent, the velo- city generated at the loot of the plane would be pro])ortional>ly greater than the velocity of the as- cending train at the same point, and,consequentIyi the demonstration would be clear that the engine and train w'ould not only have ascended to an op- posite elevation equal to that from whence it fell, but to a greater one, the extent of which would be in proportion to the velocity attained. Experiment \. — The "Liver" engine, and a load of thirteen wagons (weighing in all 72|tons) after traversing a distance of three fourths of a mile to acquire a sufficient velocity, ascended the inclined plane 278 yards, the time occupied in per- forming the ascent to a state of rest being 90 se- conds, viz. velocity at foot of plane being about 12.60 miles [ler hour, and the average velocity about 6.30 miles per hour. E.vperiment 2. — The power being reversed, the ejigine and train descended 278 yards, viz. from a state of rest to the point from which they had pre- viously risen, in 50 seconds. The velocity at the foot of the plane being about 22.70 miles per hour — average velocity about 11.35 miles. Experiment 3. — The engine and train having traversed three fourths of a mile to generate velo- city, ascended to a state of rest, viz. about 278 yards in 75 seconds. Velocity at the foot of the j)lane being about 14.12 miles per hour — average velocity about 7.6 miles. Experiment 4. — The power being reversed, the descent of 278 yards was accomplished in 40 se- conds. A'elocify at the foot of the plane being about 28.32 miles per hour — average velocity 14.16 miles. Experiment 5. — The ascent of 278 yards ^vas made in SO seconds. Velocity at the foot of the plane being about 14.22 miles per hour — average velocity 7.11 miles per hour. E.xperiment 6.— The descent of 278 v^ards was accomplished in 49 seconds. Velocity at the foot of the plane being about 23.22 miles per hour — average velocity about 11.61 miles per hour. AyERAGE. Total spaces passed over to ge nerate niaxinmm velocity before ascendine. Experiment 1, 1,320 3'ards. Experiment 3, Experim.ent 5, Total, Average, 1,320 yards. 1,320 yards. 13,960 yards. 1,320 yards. Total sjiaces passed over in , jierating maximunv veloci- ty in descending. Experiment 2, Experiment 4, Experiment 6, 278 yards. 278 yards. 278 yards. 8.S4 yards. Times occupied in ascending 27S yards. 90 seconds. 75 seconds. 80 seconds. 245 seconds. 81f sees. Times occupied in descending 27S yards. 50 seconds. 40 seconds. 49 seconds. 139 seconds. 278 yards. 4&\ sees. . From the preceding statement it appears, that the utmost average maximum velocity which the Liver engine could attain on this occasion, at the foot of the plane, after traversing a distance of 1,320 yards, was about 13.926 miles an hour; by which means, the power being continued, she was enabled to ascend an inclination of 278 yards. On the other hand, it appears that the same en- gine, with the same load, (the steam being kept up in every instance to a pressure of about 50 lbs. to the inch, generated a velocity, after descending 278 yards, of about 24.488* miles per hour, evidently * The velocity in these instances is calculated from the average number of seconds occupied in ascending ;uid descending ; thus, 27S yards being ^ about 6^ of a mile, we have the descending line 46i /^ 6j = 294 and 3,6C0 seconds -f- 294 >^ 2— 24.488 maximum ve- locity. 652 FARMERS' REGISTER— UNDULATING RAILWAY. proving that the engine and train would not only have mounted another summit of equal elevation to that from whence it i'ell, l)ut vvouKI, at the high- est point, have been travelling at a velocity ot more than ten miles an hour, with the lull means of increasing that velocity to any desired extent over the succeeding undulations. Although the preceding experiments had, to the satisfaction of all present, decided the superiority of the undulating principle, I was anxious to Icnow the result of a trial with a double load. I there- fore proposed, (it being too late an hour on this oc- casion^) to attain, on a future day, a velocity ol twenty miles an hour, with a double train of goods, and two engines. I had, on several occa- sions, published my opinion of what that result would be ; and I have now the satisfaction of add- ing the particulars of this important experiment, which, I need not say^iore i/m/i confmns all my anticipations. On Sunday morning last, two locomotive en- Sines, viz. the " Firefly" and the " Pluto," left lanchester with a train of loaded \vagons, weigh- ing 150 tonSj exclusive of engines and tenders, the whole length of the train being about 155 yards. On arriving at the Sutton inclined plane, it was determined to adopt the same method as on the last trials, of proving the merits of tlie principle. Our reason for appointing Sunday for this meeting will be obvious, v/hen it is considered how dangerous and inconvenient it would l)e to try experiments Avith such a load on any other day, when the trains ai'B almost constantly passing and repassing. It may be known to some of youi- readers, that the French government have lately appointed a certain number of their most eminent engineers to visit this country, with a view of acquiring all requisite information pre))aratory to the construc- tion of several intended French lines of railway. These gentlemen, nine in numl)er, were present on this occasion; their names were as follows: Mons. Navier ; Mons. Goul)eau, Jugement des Fonts et Chausses; M. Arnollet, Ingenieur en chef du Fonts et Chausses, a Dijon; M. Eugene Nuneann, Ingenieur des Fonts et Chausses, No. 1 Rue Castiglione, Paris; Mons. Dausse ; Mons. L. L. Vallee, Ingenieur en chef des Fonts et Chausses; Mons. J. Moistard, Ingenieur de la Blarine; Mons. Paris, Lieutenant de Vaisseau; Mons. K. Mamgan. The English engineers present were Mr. R. Stephenson, 8en. of Manchester, (with whom I have recently entered into partnership as civil en- gineers,) Mr. Dagleish, Sen., Mr. Dixon, Sen., Mr. Dagleish, Jr. and myself. In addition to \vhom were many other individuals deeply in- terested in railways, and of general scientific acquirements, among whom were Mr. Case of Summerhill, near Liverpool, Mr. Garnett of Man- chester, (editor of the Guardian,^ and others. The following statement cannot fail to form an interesting part of your publication. Experiment 1. — Two locomotive engines, the Firefly and the Pluto, being attached to the train above mentioned, and having traversed a distance of one mile, io generate a suflTicieht velocity, arri- ved at the point from whence the ascent was to be measured, at a velocity of about 20.28 miles per hour. The Pluto then left the train, and the Fire- fly alone ascended with the load (working the whole way) to a distance of 575 yards, 116 sec- onds— average velocity being about 10.14 miles an hour. Experiment 2.— ^The power of the Firefly being revei-sed, the engine and load descended 575 yards in 74 seconds. The velocity at the foot of the plane being about 31.70 miles j)er hour — average velocity about 15.85 miles per liour. Experiment 3. — The Firefly and Pluto having traversed the same distance as before, generated, at the foot of the plane, a velocity of about 14.34 miles per hour. The Pluto then left the train, and the Firefly and load ascended (power work- ing) 315 yards in 90 seconds — average velocity about 7.17 miles per hour. Experiment A. — The power of the Firefly being reversed, ihe whole train descended 315 yards in 65- seconds. Maximum velocity 19.82 — average velocity 9.91. Experiment 5. — The same engines and load, working about 1^ miles to generate velocity, atr tained at the foot of the plane a velocity of about 18.32 miles an hour. The Pluto left as before, and the Firefly and load rose 457^ yards in 102^ sec- onds— average velocity about 9.16 miles per hour. Axperiment 6. The Firefly and train des- cended 4577V yards in 80 seconds. Maximum ve- locity 23.22 miles per hour — average velocity 11.61. N. B. In this instance some delay occur- red in reversing the power, which will account for the comparative difference in time. Throughout the \\ hole of these experiments it will be seen the results were so much in favor of the undulating sysfen), that it was evident a far greater load than 150 tons could be moved by the Firefly, at an average velocity of 15 miles per hour from one summit of a curve to another. The dip of inclination being about 1 in 99, and the total length of the undulation varying from 630 to 1150 yards. This led me to propose a further experiment, and 1 think I may safely add, that one more im- portant in result was never before tried in any country. Experiment 7. — The two engines, as before, at- tained at the foot of ascent a velocity of about 19.04 miles per hour. The Pluto then left the train, and at the same moment, the Firefly shutoff her steam. The whole train then rose by momen~ turn alone (the weight of the train, including en- gine and tender, being near 164 tons,) to the dis- tance of 323 yards in 70 seconds — average veloci- ty about 9.52 miles per hour. Experiment 8, and last. The Firefly and train descended 323 yards (power working) in 66 sec- onds! Velocity at foot of the plane being about 20.04 miles per hour — average velocity about 10.02 miles per hour. Thiis the preceding experiments most unques- tionably prove two most important fiicts — not only tliat a given locomotive power can convey from one summit of a curve or undulation, to another sum- mit of equal altitude, double the load which that same power can convey at the same velocity on the level; but that a given locomotive engine can convey, from one summit of a curve or undulation to another suminit of equal altitude, double the load which it is capalde of moving on a level at a like velocity (see last experiment,) by the employ- ment of the steam force throughout only half the distance ! These results lead me to go one step farther. It FARMERS' REGISTER— TO FARMERS— LARGE OATS. 653 is my opinion, that if such a weight Avere to be added to tlie 150 tons moved on this occasion, as would be a maximum load for three locomotive en- gines on a level at 15 miles an hour, tiie Firefly alone (her power being equal to either of the other engines,) would move the whole train from one summit of a curve to another of like altitude, at an equal average velocity, viz. 15 miles per hour. If any of your readers, whether witnesses or otherwise of these interesting experiments, can correct any error of oj^'nion or of statement in al- lusion to them, I shall be exceedingly happy to re- cognize and acknowledge it. In the mean time, I think, sir, I may congratulate myself upon hav- ing stamped, by this letter, a value that v, ill be long appreciated on the correspondence (pro and con,) which your Magazine contains on tliis sub- ject ; and I am as happy in feeling that every in- dividual who witnessed the recent experiments was fully satisfied with the importance of the re- sults, as in believing that, in defiance of prejudice and long formed erroneous opinions on this sub- ject, the public will before long acknowledge, ap- preciate, and be benefitted by the " Undulating Principle." I am sir, with great respect, your very obedieiit servant, richaed badxall. TO THE FARMERS OF THE WEST. From the Genesee Farmer. The history of the agriculture of the river coun- ties, should serve as an admonition to the west — not to be too prodigal of the stores of vegetable food with which nature has enriched their soils. It is the accumulation of centuries. A fraction of tliis time may serve to dissipate and destroy it. How many improvident youth, unconscious of the dire consequences, and deaf to the admonitions of ex- perience, by an over action of their physical povv- ers, have laid the foundation of incurable disease and premature death. Let us not imitate such. The natural fertility of the soil uas as great in many districts which border the Hudson, as in the new counties of the west. But by a reckless hus- bandry they were reduced atone time to a sterile and wretched system. Within the recollection of the writer, many of these lands did not yield the third of the crop they do now, under a better sys- tem of management. The truth is, every thing was carried'OtF, and comparatively little returned to the soil. The " suitable" division into " pas- ture, meadow and plough land," which is yet the boast of many of our farmers, was scrupulously pursued, till the finer grasses disappeared, and the meadows yielded only a thin stunted herbage, — and until the plough land became too impoverished to yield a decent crop of grain. Necessity, which is said to be the mother of invention, and the spirit- ed enterprize of a few intelligent individuals, final- ly led to a new era in their husbandry. The in- troduction of gypsum and grass seeds was the be- ginning of improvement. Rotation of crops, — econon\y of inanure, — and better fi\rm implements followed. The farm stock then began to lie im- proved, and sheep husbandry to be increased. Im- provements have been prosecuted till a portion of the farms are now as profitable as the new lands of the west ; and the gootl examples are yearly en- larging the sphere of their influence. The pine lands of Kinderhook were once considered not worth cultivating; and the time is not distant Avhen they were sold at §3 an acre. Good farm- ing has enhanced their value to ^40 and .^60 per acre, at which price some farms have been recent- ly sold. Tiic pine lands of Saratoga are expe- riencing a like change, and under a judicious sys- tem of alternate husbandry, economy of manures, and efficient draining, they nmst rapidly advance in productiveness and value. Too many of our western farmers seem dispo- sed, by practice, to sacrifice permanent good for present gain — to destroy the goose which lays their golden eggs. Many new lands increase in fertili- ty some years, without manure, from the accele- rated decomposition of vegetable matter which goes on in the soil in consequence of its exposure in tillage to the increased influence of heat and air, the prime agents, in connection with the water which is always present in the soil, of putrefac- tion. The more rapid the [uitreftictive process, the greater the exliauslion of fertility. If we would preserve the high character of our lands for fertili- ty, v/e must {)ursue'the same course which others have successfully adopted to restore fertility to those which have become worn out. We must not take in succession exhausting crops of grain; we must alternafe between the artificial grasses, roots and otlier ameliorating kinds. We must be more saving of our manures, and more judicious in applying them, bef()re they have lost half of their value by fermentation. Our long manures will feed a hoed crop, by their gaseous matters, while they are undergoing the change to fit them for the small grains. Tiie oftener we intervene grasses, the less exhausting the rotation. While we guai'd against the errors, whicii impoverished the old counties, Igt us imitate the practices which have restored them to fertility ; and we shall then be enabled to transmit to our children a truly invalu- able inheritance. B. THE LARGE OATS. From the Genesee Farmer. My unwillingness to tax you with postage, from such a distance, in reply to an inquiry made in your valuable ]mper of July 20, "where the large oats can be obtained that weigh forty eight pounds to the bushel.'" has prevented my offering till now the required information. They may be o!;)tained from either England or Scotland, where their first cost is from six lo seven and even eight shillings sterling the bushel, making the cost in this coun- try, from two to three dollars a bushel. I last spring, obtained a few bushels of such oats by a packet ship from London ; the kernel was round, thin-skinned, and without tail, weighing forty eight pounds per busl.el. They were sown on a light piece of ground the 3d of JMay, and were harvest- ed the 21st of August. The straw was firm, and stood up well, and the yield appeared abundant, but I question if the produce will weigh as much per bushel, as the seed. For this difference there are at least two sutTicient causes — the one is that the soil was too poor ; the other that in consequence of not having English seed enough to sow out the field, it was finished with the common white oat of the country, weighing not more than 32 lbs. the bushel. This last ciixumstance would destroy my confidence in the produce as seed oats, though I still consider them infinitely better than the com- mon oats for that purpose; when thrashed, I shall ascertain their weight per bushel." 654 FARMERS' REGISTER— GYPSUM OR PLASTER. GYrSUIM OR PLASTER. Frunilhc [KImlciiiook] Cfjlumliia Scnti.iel. If we turn to the 9tli volume of the Airricul- lunil Muti'azine, we shall sec tlial comparative tri- als were made between this and other manures, on a stoney clay, mixed witii a little loam, to ascer- tain the best manure for wheat. "A five acre field was divided into five equal parts, exactly an acre in each. They were ecjually well i)loui:hed and laid down to wheat, after bein OF BELLES LETTRES, (ATTACHED TO WALDIe's select circulating library.) The Paradise wiihin the reach of all men, wlthmii labor, by powers of nature and machinery. Ad- dressed to all intelligent men. By J. si. Etzler. \1nin. pp. 215. Pittsburg, 1833. Etzler §• Jieinhold. The term " march of intellect," has become so common- place, as scarcely to be allowed in our recent authorities ; but we must be permitted to revive it on the present occasion, inasmuch as Mr. Etzler has stolen a march upon all the intellects of his predecessors, and we apprehend his successors also. What think you, ye laborers with the spade and the pen, has been accomplished in the brain of this western luminary : — trul}' nothing short of the greatest happiness of the human species, and all, as he expresses it, by the use of " machineries!" He out-Owens Owen himself, and bids fltir if he can get his macliineries into operation, to l)e the greatest benefactor of liis race. He shows in this neat little book, " that there are powers in nature, sutficient to effect in one year, more than hitherto all men on earth could do in many thousands of years, and that those powers may be applied to all human labor," and he moreover shows " the sys- tem of establishments for it," without any pros- pect of taking out a patent, but for the mere pleasure of benefitting his fellow men. That we may not be accused of misinterpreting our erudite author, we quote his own programme first, and shall then proceed briefly to his mode of operating: " Fellow-men ! — " I promise to show the means tor creating a paradise within ten years, where every thing desirable for human life may be had for every man in superabundance, without labor, without pay; where the whole face of nature is changed into the most beautiful form of which it be capable ; w here man may live in the most magnificent palaces, in all imaginable refinement of luxury, in the most delightful gardens; Avhere he may accomplish, without !iis labor, in one year more than hitherto could be done in thousands of years ; he may level mountains, sink valleys, create lakes, drain lakes and swamps, intersect every where the land with beautiful canals, v/ith roads for transporting heavy loads of many thou- sand tons and for travelling 1000 miles in 24 hours ; he may cover the ocean with floating islands, moveable in any desired direction with immense power and celerity, in perfect security and in all comforts and luxury, bearing gardens, palaces, with thousands of families, provided witli rivulets of sweet water ; he may explore the interior of the globe, travel from pole to pole in a fbrtniglit ; Vol. !— 83 he may provide himself with means unheard of yet, for increasing his knowledge of the world, and so his intelligence; he ma}' lead a life of continual happiness, of enjoyment unknown yet, he may free himself from almost all the evils that afflict man- kind, except death, and even put death far beyond the common period of human life, and finally ren- der it less afflicting; mankind may thus live in, and enjoy a ne^v world flir superior to our pre- sent, and raise themselves to a far higher scale of beings." And now for the means : — " The powers are chiefly to be derived 1) from wind, 2) fi'om the tide, or the rise and fall of the ocean caused by the gravity between the moon and the ocean, and 3) from the sun-shine, or the heat of the sun, by which water may be transformed into steam, whose expansive power is to operate upon machineries, though by a contrivance different from that actually in use. The \yaves of the ocean are also powers to be applied, but as they are caused by wind, they are included in the power of wind. Each of these powers requires no consumption of materials, but nothing but the materials for the construction of the machineries. 1 shall begin with agriculture. The first object is here to clear the ground from all spontaneous growtli and stones. 1) A machine of large size is to move along, and while moving, to take the trees of all sizes with their roots out of the ground, to cut them in convenient pieces, to pile them up, and to take all stones out of the ground to any required depth. 2) A second machine is to follow, tor taking up the piles of wood and stones, and transporting the same to the places of their destination; this ma- chine may carry thousands of tons at once. 3) Tlie wood removed to its places for final use, is then to be formed into planks, boards, beams, rails, pieces for fuel and for any other purpose, by a simple contrivance, from whence it is to be re- moved to the places where it be wanted; this is done by one machine, which may also cut stones of any size. 4) The first mentioned machine, with a little alteration, is then to level the ground perfectly, in planing it, filling the excavations or taking off the elevations of ground until all is level. If the hills or valleys are considerable, the same machine cuts terraces, winding round them up to the top in ele- gant sha})es. The same machine may make any excavation or elevation, cut canals, ditches, ponds of any size and shape, raise dams, artificial level roads, walls and ramparts with ditches around fields as enclosures, with walks on their top, form walks and paths with elevated borders. 5) The same machine, with some other little al- teration, is to give to the ground its final prepara- tion for receiving the seed; it tills the ground, in tearing t'le soil up to any required depth, refining or mouldering the same, sifting all small roots and stones from it, and putting the seed into the ground in any way required. 6) The same machine may take good fertile ground from one place to some other, for covering at any required depth, poor soil with fertile soil of the best mixture. 7) The same machine, with' a little addition, may reap any kind of grain or vegetable, thrash 658 FARMERS' REGISTER— WALDIE'S JOURNAL, &c. the seed out in the same time, grind it to meal, or press it to oil, it may also cut or prepare any other vegetable for final use in the kitchen or bakery. 8) Another small machine may sink wells and mines to any required depth and in any direction, and take the contents of the same up to light, it may be in earth, rocks, swamps, or water." Here is a most ciTective machine, which will de- molish at one fell swoop, all the Yankee contrivan- ces in the patent office in Washington; this notice, it is hoped, will prevent all our mechanics from incurring any expense hereafter, in taking out certificates of their inventions. The land machi- neries are to be moved by the wind and the " sun- shine." The author says of " wind power," " In order to form an idea near the reality ni nature, how much power of wind there may be at our disposal, we have to ascertain, by a deduction from experiences and observations, how large we may construct and expose surdices to the effects of wind, and how close they may be brought together ■without intercepting the wind and diminishing its power materially. We know by experiences, that ships of the first rank carry sails 200 feet high. We may, therefore, equally on land oppose to the wind surfaces 200 feet high. Imagine a line of such surfaces 200 feet high, and a mile (or about 5,000 feet) long; the same would then contain 1^000,000 square feet. Suppose the surface inter- sects the direction of the wind in a right angle, by some contrivances, and receives consecpiently the full power of the wind at all times. Tlie average power of wind being equal to one horse's upon every 100 square feet, the total power, this surlace would receive, Avould then be equal to 1,000,000 divided by 100, or 10,000 horses' power. Allow- ing the power of 1 horse to be equal to that of 10 men, the power of 10,000 horses is equal to 100,000 men's. But as men cannot unintei'ruptediy work, and want al)out half of the time for sleep and re- pose, the same power would be equal to 200,000 men's. Imagine such another surfiice just behind or before the former at 1 mile's distance, parallel to the first and in the same circumstances. This second surface would then receive the same po\\er of wind again as the first; for the distance being 25 times greater than their height, the one line could not intercept the wind from tlie other in any considerable degree, both lines would receive the full power of wind, as soon as the direction of it would deviate from the horizontal more than about 2 degrees. It may be easily observed, that the Avind^will generally strike the ground in a steeper direction, and therelbre admit a closer approach of such parallel surfaces. That the wind strikes the ground obliquely is evident on the high sea. Else whence the disturbance and rise of the waves on it?_If the wind moved parallel to the ground, the surface of the sea could not be affected by it, and would remain smooth forever. But such is never the case. The least breeze ruffles the su-rfoce of the water. And it is too well known, to wliaf size and powerful effects the waves may be raised by wind. Moreover, experiences in navigation teach, that vessels of the first rank sailing along a shore of about 200 feet high, trees, &c. included, at their windside, at a distance of one mile, will not suffer any considerable diminution of wind. Now, if we find the power of wind to be at the end of every mile equal to 200,000 men's power, and so for every mile in breadth ; it follows, that every one square mile affords such a power. AVhat an immense poAver ! The most populous countries in the world contain in an average from 100 to 200 individuals on every square mile, of which hardly one half is able to work, or to be counted for full hands to work. But suppose even 100 full hands to work on one square mile, the power of wind within their jdacesof habitation will be 2000 times greater. Yet we will get a more proper concep- tion of this power, in extending this comparison over the whole globe. The surface of the whole globe is about 200,000,000 square miles. Accord- ing to the foregoing statement of 200,000 men's power for every one square mile, the whole extent of the wind's power over the globe amounts to about 200,000,000 times 200,000, i. e. to 40,000,000,000 men's power. The number of all human indi- viduals on earth will not exceed 1000,000,000, of which hardly the half may be counted for full hands to work, that is 500,000,000 ; consequently, the staled power of wind is 80,000 times greater than all men on earth could effect with their nei-ves, when tlie wind is used but to the height of 200 feet. What a gigantic, awful power is this! 80,000 times greater tlian all men on earth could effect by the united exertions of their nerves! — at the least calculation. Suppose even one half should be lost by friction of the machineries, or more, we need not economise with such an immensity of |>ower, let but one eighth of it be used, it would amount still to 10,000 times the })ower of all men on earth. But if 10,000 limes more can be done in one year, consequently , can be effected as much as hitherto in 10,000 years!— to what awful grandeur may not the human race exalt themselves?" One of his greatest conceptions is, that power may be stored up for future use. He says much on this subject, but we can only quote one speci- men : — " But the manner, w hich I shall state hereafter, to apply this power, is to make it operate only for collectinc; or storing up the power in a manner, and then to take out of this store of j>owcr, at any time, as much power for final operation upon the machi- neries as may be wanted for the intended purposes. The power stored up is to re-act, just as it may suit the purposes, and may do so long after the orio-inal power of wind has ceased. And though the^vind should cease at intervals of many months, we may have by the same power, a uniform per- petual motion in a very simple way.'.' The whole sea is to be covered with floating islands, bearing palaces, and the inhabitants while they are sailing about " without motion like ships," are to catch fish by ''machineries" to supply the land-lubl>ers without any cost whatever! but the great tiling is, that these islands as they rise and fall with the tides, shall by means of levers, "build palaces," and so forth, for those on land, without giving them any trouble! and our author declares solemnly, " all such things ami many others, which may seem now but extravagant flincies, require nothing but the raw material for their construction, and these are to be found in plenty." One ma- chine island is certainly to sail to Europe, in four days. " The island may be covered with fertile soil in the highest cultivation, buildings, and every thing that men may want for their enjoyment and commodity. There will be no motion felt like on ships. May this idea," he continues, " be const- FARMERS' REGISTER— FENCES— YELLOW LOCUST. 659 dered as a mere fancy or as something that only a remote posterity may live to see ! No, it is within our reach, within less than ten years." Beware, oh ye ship builders, how you invest your money iu ships of the present construction ! " The powers of Philosophy Can light on metaphysics bring ; Can touch on selenograpliy, And cavises trace unto their spring." The best part of this production, and by far the most potent of the author's "machineries," is his sunshine steam engine. The heat is to be gene- rated on the Archimedes plan ; looking glasses are to concentrate the rays of tlie sun, and being placed on pivots, wlien the engine once gets in motion, it will move them, so as to keep pace with the diurnal niotionof that "planet." As an objection might, however, arise that they would not work in the night, or on rainy da)'S, the author is before- hand with the incredulous, and has two remedies for such interruptions: " 1) By enveloj)ing the boilers with stuffs that keep the heat the 16ngest in themselves, for in- stance, a thick coat of^ red hot iron or other hot metal, enveloped in a thick coat of clay, loam, sand, or other eartliern material. We might thus continue a heat sufficient to boil water for many hours after the sun had ceased to shine, without consuming any material. 2) By contriving a re-acting power, caused by the power of the steam, of which liereafter will be given the description, and by which many days, and even many months the power of steam, caused by sun-shine, may react at will, and thus be ren- dered perpetual, no matter how often or 1)0W long the sun-shine may be interrupted. The interruption of sun-shine, in this applica- tion, is therefore immaterial." There's " machineries" for you ; in the language of Mr. Etzler, "to what awful grandeur may not the human race exalt themselves," and individuals, it vvould appear, may do likervisely. lie sums up the sunshine business thus : — " The power of steam is therefore subject to no limits, its requisites being sunshine, water, and solid stuffs for confining and applying the steam, of which there is no limit, no materials being con- sumed. The generating of steam-power is not the only use to be made of burning mirrors ; they may be applied also to various other purposes of great im- portance, as I shall show hereafter. Have t asserted too much, when promising to show, that there are powers in nature million times greater than the whole human race is able to effect by their united efforts of nerves and sinews.'"' In " part second" of the volume, he gives a description of things as they are "at present," and as they will be " by the new means." Our quo- tations here might be extended very beneficially, but the state of beatitude we are to enjoy in " ten years," is too delightful to promulgate extensively, without spoiling people for every day things as they now are. That children will grow up by the aid of " machineries," " most cleanly and beauti- fully dressed," is a consummation which will pro- cure Mr. E. many female subscribers. We pro- mise him half a dozen at once, and have no kind of question, that with a moderate exertion, we, could fill a subscription paper as large as one of his land sails. j- " The children grow up without trouble, in all the innocence, intelligence, cheerful and playful temper, natural to their age, with blooming health and countenance, most cleanly and beautifully dressed, and exhibiting thus to the eyes of their parents the lovely attributes of angels. This is no more than what the arrangements stated war- rant. Wliatever is to be known of man, children may have learned at the age of 8 — 10 years, by mere beholding, handling, and examining the things exhibited to them in the palace and gardens, just with no more trouble, neither to the teacher nor to the children, than they learn now their mother- tongue. Men have there an equal chance for learning. They will learn there in one year more than the most learned could learn in all his life. And there will be as much difference between the intellect of man in the new state and that of the present, as there is now between the most learned and the most ignorant. The knowledges are made beneficial to the highest possible degree for every human being at once." This valuable work closes with a petition to Congress, for aid in the commencement, and one to the President, in which he threatens to sell to the first bidder, European or American. It is to be apprehended, that the wisdom now in Washington, is too deeply engaged in politics, to see their true interests in this matter, and that if the daily papers do not soon take up the subject, the projected bene- fits to this country will be entirely lost. FENCES — YELLOW LOCUST. From tlie Genesee Farmer. The farmers of western New- York, have often been exhorted to make provision ipr fencing their farms, when the timber suitable for that purpose, now standing on them, shall have been exhausted; but it is very evident that the suliject has not re- ceived that attention which its importance demands. Several farms in my vicinity are without the mate- rials to repair the fences, and the owners are pur- chasing rails; yet no measures have been taken to provide for the future. When a country is first cleared, the crooked rail fence is perhaps the best that can be made ; but when timber becomes scarce, and the stumps have mostly disappeared, it is time to supply the place of these unsightly fences with such as will occupy less ground, and be more pleasing to the eye. The thorn, thorn locust, crab apple, &c. have been recommended for hedges, but I believe com- paratively few farmers have attempted to cultivate either of them for that purpose. The thorn, although it answers well in the humid climate of Great Britain, is of slow growth here, and the beau- tiful hedges of that material which adorned the state of Delaware previous to the revolutionary war, have mostly perished. Judge Buel is a warm advocate of the three-thorned Acacia; butE. Hersy Derby states that after a fair trial, he found it not to answer the purpose. He recommends the Ame- rican Buckthorn, which he says, at the age of three years, presented a sufficient fence. Now, although I would not discourage any from attempting to raise hedges, yet having come to the conclusion that I can do better, i shall proceed to 660 FARMERS' REGISTER— IMPROVED SHORT HORNS. point out the plan which it is my intention to pur- sue. I have procured seeds of tlie yellow locust, and shall (after scalding) j)ut them in tlie ground as soon as it is fit to receive them. When one year old they should be cut near the ground, when a very straight and thrifty shoot will spring up, and at the age of two or three years they may he transplanted from the nursery to the field wlicre they are to stand. 1 intend to cover with them five acres of light sandy soil, and expect at the end of six or eight years to have plenty of trees fit for posts. The soil best adapted to the locust is a rich sandy loam, but they flourish remarkably on the poor sands of Cowneck, Long Island, where two hundred and fifty dollars have been paid by ship builders for the locust timber standing on an acre. Although a warm liglit soil suits them best, I am persuaded they would grow in any part of Wes- tern New-York, and attain a size in twelveor four- teen years, sufficiently large to make two to four posts. I had two growing in a stiff clay, either of which, at that age, would have made four good posts. Attempts to cultivate tliem have been made, on a very extensive scale, in several towns on the Hudson; but I believe in almost every instance, the borer has destroyed the hopes of the farmer. In this country we are exempt from this evil. I have been conversant with the locust for more than twenty years, and I have never seen one in the western section injured by the borer. The locust has the remarkable property, even ■when planted on the lightest sands, of introducing a fine sward. I have remarked this where I have seen it growing on the very poorest soils of Long Island, and have often heard others make tlie re- mark. As an ornamental tree it is beautiful ; and when in flower, perfumes the air for a con.siderable dis- tance. But it should never be planted on the bor- ders of fields designed for tillage, for the roots ex- tend many yards, and wherever one is cut off by the plough, a young locust springs up. This pro- pensity renders it very easy to spread it. It is said, that plant twenty at equal distances on an acre, and plough the field twice, at intervals of three or four years, and the number of trees v/ill be alto- gether sufficient. It is well known that locust is considered the most durable tind^er our country affords — tor no other do ship builders pay so high a price, and in fence posts it is said to have stood 100 years. I have no doubt the time will come when it will bear transportation on the canal. Almost any timber of our forests would answer for boards, and saw mills are found in e\ ery town. So that if every farmer will 7iow turn his attention to the locust, he need not fear but tliat when his present fences have decayed, he will have the means to erect such as will take up the least possi- ble ground, will not blow down, will be an orna- ment to his farm, and such as his children may enjoy afler him. Ontario. IMPROVKD SHORT IIOKNS. From the Genesee Fanner. Your valuable correspondent," Ubnits," has in- troduced to the notice of your readers the subject of stock, in a way well calculated to elicit the views and opinions of those who have given their atten- tion to this important branch of agricultural inte- rest; and it will, I trust, not only awaken a more general attention and inquiry into the value of the res[)ective breeds alluded to, but will lead to a closer examination, a nicer scrutiny, and a more minute investigation of their distinctive character- istics, pretensions and merits. These being well understood, the very important points of pedigree and descent will be more narrowly looked into, and the excellence of a pure and improved breed will not be estimated by results obtained from its coarser originals, its half breeds, or mongrels. Every red beast of the field will not claim descent from the elegant and beautiful "Devon" — every imported " Short Horn" — every ship's cow with a crumpled horn, will not be palmed off on us for an " improved Short Horn"- — the vulgar looking over- grown Leicester will not pass as Bakewell sheep, neither will the Hampshire downs be mistaken lor the more refined Southdown sheep. In these mat- ters we have been long enough the dupes of our own ignorance; and when we liave given them more of our attention, we shall hear less of disap- pointments, of animals possessing no purity of blood, — of mixed bi'eeds and their immediate de • generacy,&c. for the fact is, we shall then depend onfall 6re(i animals only for the improvement of our native stock, selecting such as are of undoubted pedigree, possessing their good qualities and excel- lent forms by inheritance; and these points, thoroughly established by long descent, form the characteristics of a particular breed which will be assuredly transmitted to their progeny. It is this certainty of inheritance from full bloods, {hi[t ren- ders them so incomparably more valuable to the breeder, than any lesser grade of the same blood — it is this admitted fact that induces men to hazard such large sums of money, as we daily see risked, on the unborn jiroduce of high bred animals; and upon this same principle it was, that when I wished to purchase, from the celebrated breeder, N.Whita- ker, the produce of " Western Ladij," (one of the cows cited by L'lmus,) I found it had been previ- ously engaged to Col. Powel ; nor was it at all re- markable that Mr. Whitaker, after I had become acquainted with his herd, should send me, for my selection, the names of seventeen cows, and their time of calving, with the prices of their produce, which varied as much as though the respective merits of their parents had already been identified in their embryo progeny. Another circumstance l)rought to my notice the importance attached to pedigree, by the breeders of cattle in England: While attending the cattle show, at Otley, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, for the purpose of pur- chasing the best individuals I could obtain of the improved Durham short horns, I was offered the prize heifer of the day, for less than one half what I paid Mr. Whitaker of Greenholm for younger animals! The heifer, though very beautiful in herself, had but two crosses of the improved blood; her grand dam being a selected "short horn" cow, but not of the improved breed; therefore, those ex- cellencies, which obtained for lier the premium, were not considered sufficiently established in her- self, to secure their descent to her offspring, and thus render her valuable to the breeder, who could obtain othersof ])ure'r blood, nor was it of frequent occurrence that a minor grade should beat a full blood. The premium, for the best two year old FARMERS' REGISTER— LEGISLATIVE AID TO AGRICULTURE. eci bull, was taken hy -An " improved Durham short horn," bred by Mr. Whitaker, (sired by his favo- rite bull " Frederick,") whicli I now have at Ma- ple Grove. The importante I allach to pcdi'ild pine of the West In- dies, a parasite on other plants, are supplied with long threads, which have the property of coiling themselves round the branches of trees, and thus become fixed, until the seeds germinate. Many seeds are remarkably susceptible of moisture. The seeds of the musk cranesbill are connected with an apparatus which unscrews itself when moist, and coils itself up again, when dry. When these seeds are moistened, they begin to move, and the minute liairs serve as feet to direct their move- ments. When the bearded oat is left lor some time undisturbed in the barn, along with other grain, it is found to have escaped from the husks, and crept to a distance from its former attachment. The grains of equisetum sylvaticum, when placed on a table, and viewed through a lens, present an appearance like insect motion, and may be seen to leap over an intervening object. If we shake a frond, for instance, of the horse tail fern over damp- ed ))aper ; when examined b}' a lens, the minute seeds will appear to crawl about like so many spi- ders. Thus tlie application of Iheav.n of the wild oat for the purpose of hygrometry, and the still more sensible Indian grass, employed in Captain Kater's ingenious and beautiful instrument. The peculiar inclination in the inequalities of surface in the awn of barley will prevent its retrogression, while its expansion by moisture will impel it for- ward from the spot where it originally fell: its march onward, therefore, will be incessant from moisture, and it will merely pause in its progress, wlien that moisture exhales. Mr. Edgeworth con- structed an automaton figure on the principle of the animated oat, which, in a few weeks, walked across the room. The screwlike structure of the beai'ded oat is very a])parent, resembling in some measure the remarkable stem of the screw pine, which is perhaps designed to serve a somewhat si- milar purpose in its relations to moisture: if we breathe on the seed, the awn, which is a little ele- vated above the plane of the horizon, will be put in motion, and describe the segment of a circle. V/hen the avena fatua, or mad oat, is therefore moistened, it writhes like a being possessing life; of this description is the seed of the geranium cicu- FARMERS' REGISTER— NEGRO STOMACH, &c. 665 tarium, and others The seed vessel of the didymo carpus rexii, which is twisted up in the form of a spiral coil, unwinds with nioisiiire, and drops ifs seeds under circumstances favorable to their <::er- mination. The microscope reveals some extraor- dinary phenomena of this kind; and Mr. J. E. Bowman pointed out to me some singularities in minute cryptog:amous seeds, which, when alFecled by moisture, and seen under the microscope, ap- pear all life and motion, particularly the trichia and sphsjroholus, where, from a point invisible to the unaided eye, the seed vessel voluntarily ex- frauds, and rolls forth its millions of globes, as m- tleed its name in Greek implies. The dispersion of seeds also supplies us with a chain of curious contrivances, admirably suited to the purposes (or which they are designed ; and it is a subject of regret, that these singularly con- structed species of mechanism, liave not been so minute]}' investigated, as the interesting subject merits.; well might Forskal say, " viiro,nec ad hue investigato 7riechaiiismo propelluntur semlnu." The capsule of the violet will project Us contained seeds to a distance of several ieet ; and th« elastic arillus of the wood sorrel, will eject tiiem over a considerably greater space. The euphorbia coc- cum, (Geertncr,) is also remarkable ia this res- pect, as welf! us some of the ferns, which possess an chistic ring for the purpose; geranium, fraxi- nella, and others. The crackling of the capsules of furze in a v/arm summer day, must be lamiliar to many, and is sometimes the only sound wliich breaks the stillness of the landscape. The scales which enclose the seeds of pines sometimes open suddenly, s.i\d disperse their contents. The noise occasioned by this mechanical impulse on the air may be often heard at a considerable distance : " 'i'his crackling voice," says Mr. Keith, " was observed and traced to a fir tree, namely, pinus pi- nea, at Kendlesham parsonage, on July 14, 1808, by two young gentlemen, ray pupils, who thought tlie tree was bewitclied, till ihe cause of the noise was pointed out to tiiem." A species of wild cress, cardainine impatiens, suddenly unfolds its seed vessel on being touched. I have, when handling the plant, aad more minutely examining iJie struc- ture and elastic apparatus of the seed vessels, been temporarily deprived of vision, by the impulsion of the seeds into my face. The balsam, balsami- num, is not less curious than the rest of these, and has been not inappositely, from the elastic force employed by the seed pod in the dispersion of its contents, called " touch-me-not." In these cases, the power of the projectile seems to reside in the elasticity of the valves of the capsule. Luminous Property of Certain Plants. In the case of the rizomorphs there can be no mistake. These curious plajits are found in sub- terranean cellars and mines, and illuminate the darkness which surrounds them with their magic light, in some of the coal mines of Dresden, they are singularly beautiful and lirilliant. Mr. James Ryan informed me he was once accidentally shut up in a mine, and tlie light of one of the rhizouior- phaj was so brilliant that he could distinctly see to read a letter i)y it. As the rhizomorphas prey on dead wood, they impart to it a phospliorescent light. The rhizomorpha phosphoresces is found in the mines of Hesse, and yields light in the dark, but ceases to be phosphorescent in hydrogen and A^OL. I.— 84 some other gasses : the rhizomorpha sublerranea and aiduia have also been found to illuminate the mine with their fairy light. Mr. Erdmann thus describes the luminous appearance of the rhizo- morpha" in one of the mines of Dresden. " I saw the luminous plants here in wonderful beauty ; the impression produced by the spectacle I shall never forget. It appeared, on descending into the mine as if I were entering an enchanted castle. The abundance of these plants was so great, that the roof, the walls, and the pillars, were entirely co- vered with them, and the beautiful light they cast around almost dazzled the eye. The light they give out is like faint rrioonshine, so that two per- sons, near each other, could readily distinguish one another. The light appears to be most con- siderable when llie temperature of the mines is comparatively high." That the light is electric seems most probable, when we consider that an electric discharge Imparts phosphorescence to Can- ton's phosphorous, (calcined shells,) and that heat enhances the lig-ht. PECULIAR FORMATION OF THE NEGRO STO- MACH. Frnni Travels in Egypt. " I had frequently observed," says Mr. Piladden, " that (he exhibition of an emetic to the negro sol- diers was often attended with convulsions, and even dealh : on further inquiry I found that these remedies invariably jiroduce distressing efTects on all (he black people oi' Do ugola and Sennaar. On examining the bo- peared to be a sensible, shrewd observer. He had iliat day, a new vessel arrived from her first voy- age to a foreign port, and among other circum- tantes was told that she had not leaked a drop du- ring the voyage. This led me to remark that she must have been exceedingly well built. He re- plied that he thought the tightness of the vessel was owing, in a measure, to the lime with which she had been stuffed while building. He had been led to believe that lime was a better preservative of the timber of ships than salt, or any other sub- stance heretofore used for that purpose. While this vessel was being built, and before ceiling up the inside, he had the interstices of the timbers filled wilh new stone lime, pounded fine enough to be driven in between the timbers, aiul rammed in as solid as was possible in that state ; the planking was then finished, and the lime left to slake and fill the remaining interstices. His theory was, that the air, and the moisture of the wood, and perhaps a little water, which might be expected (o leak in- to the best built vessel, would slakethe lime so that its expansion would fill every chink in the tim- bers, and penetrate the pores of the wood itself, suf- ficiently to prevent speedy decay; but any effect in rendering tlie vessel more staunch he had not anticipated. He, however, concluded that the ex- pansion of the lime, though, from its small quanti- ty, not sufficient to injure the vessel by its me- chanical force, yet hiul I'cen sufficient, by the ad- dition of the little water which had 1-caked in, to form a mass of' mortar so solid as to prevent, at least in some degree, the further ingress of water from without. This, however, was a new idea, and the present experiment was not conclusive ; but as to its effect in preserving the tim!)er, he had no doubt; and he related several facts in his own knowledge in support of this opinion^. As one instance, he stated that he had ence own- ed a coasting vessel, Iniilt of the common timber of the coast of Maine, which, when nearly new, was once bound from Thomaslon to Boston, with a cargo of lime, and on her passage w ent ashore somewhere between Cape Ann and Boston, and bilged. The lime slaked, burnt the deck and up- per works, and, as might be expected, penetrated the timbers throughout. The vessel was unloaded repaired, and lived, I think he said, thirty or forty years after this event ; had undergone occasional repairs since, but the principal part of the original timber remained. W hen, after that that time, ex:- amined, it was found that the origin.d timbers, which had been impregnated with the lime, were perfectly sound, while those which had been added since that time, were all, or nearly all, rotten. He adduced, also, the fact that vessels employed in car- rying lime, generally, if not always, last longer than any others ; and said that he had resolved thereafter to saturate, as far as possible, all his ves- sels with lime, as the best method of preserving them from decay. Another instance was that of a parcel of pine planks which had been used as a platform, on the ground, on which to make lime mortar. This FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF HEMP. 669 platform was laid by his grandfather, in a corner of the yard, and used n^ore or less every ye.ir fjr (he purpose of a " mortar bed." His lutlier tonlinued it in the same use; himself, tlie grandson, contin- ued it for a time, as long as he had occasion ; aftei- whicii, it lay some some years unused, and over- grown with grass and weeds; at length, wanting the ground for another purpose, he had it torn up and removed, expecting to find the planks entirely rotten — -but, to his surprize, found them sound, and, to use his forcible expression, ''as hard as a bull's horn." This was after they had Iain in con- tact with the surface of the ground, exposed to all the vicissitudes of the atmosphere, 1 think he said, about sixty years ! It is now near 15 years since I received these ac- counts from the old gentleman, and I have never seen him since: my recollection, therefore, may not be perfectly accurate in the details of his state- ments, but of their substance I fee! certain. When I saw (he notice referred to in the beginning of this article, respecting the preservation of timber by means of hydrate of lime, these facts at once re- curred fbrcil)ly to my mind, and I was led to the inference that, in the cases mentioned, there had been so much water present as to destroy the caus- tic properties of the lime, convert it to a hydrate, and hold so much of it in solution, and in such a situation, as tiiat it might ahva,ys he presented to the wood for its absorption, until it had fecome en- tirely saturated, and the wood thus elTectually {)re- server hiirvcst ^aliout the tirst of Aujiust, the lime iov li;i)'vestin^' 1 eing- indicated by tlie fullin<;' of (lie flowers, ami witherinj^ of tlie leaves. Tlie male planls of hemp hear the flowers, and the female })hin(s the seed. A sufficiency of the latter are to he left for seed, and those will require about six weeks further time to ripen, the ripeness beinij; known hy the seed lurninii," brown. Tlie seeds may be gently beat oiT the stalks when dried, or they may be taken off hy a coarse comb, made (or the pur[>ose. It is said I he female hemp which has stood to ri- pen the seeds, recpiires a longer time to rot, than the male, and wlien dressed is harsher. It has been advised to sow some hemp tliinly hy itself for seed, and then the rest of the crop may be pulled or cut together. In grounds that are smooth the crop is cut close to the earth, by a kind of scythe, made fin- the i)urpose. The usual practice, how- ever, is to pull it in the manner of pulling flax. When it is sufficiently dried, which in good wea- ther will be in about one week, it js to be gathered in bundles, bound with straw, and then carefully stacked up so as to be kept in a dry situation. Many farmers practice rotting it in the winter by spreading it on the snow, in the early part of winter, so that by being covered with other snows it will be bleached and improved in its color. — When the snoyvs dissolve in March, it will be found sufficiently lotted. Wiien sufficiently dry, it should be first broken with a coarse break, and then with the common flax break ; and dressed in the manner of flax, but more gently, as it will waste with hard beating. The crop may also be rotted in the fall, in a manner similar to that of rotting flax; or, it may be water-rotted like that crop. When water -rot- ted, the hemp should be sunk completely under the water; and if it be stagnant, the hemp should he turned upside down, when about half rotted, other- wise from the greater degree of heat on the sur- face of such waters than below, the upper part Avill be rotted before the under. By water or winter rotting the coat of the hemp blacken much less than when rotted in the fall : and it is observed, that the warmer the weather, or the earlier in the fall the crop is rotted, the l)lacker the coat will be, as is the casea Iso with regard to flax. The crop of hemp should be harvested as soon as it is fit for the purpose ; otherwise the male stalks will soon wither and blacken ; after which the coat is of little value. Hemp may be made a substitute for flax, for all common purposes. But in that case it is said it must be softened by steaming it over boiling wa- ter or ley, and heating it after it is dried again. An excellent crop of wheat has been taken after a crop of hemp, and with very little expense. The policy of introducingany new crop, to con- stitute a staple for market, should he adopted with caution. It has been remarked, that it might raise the price of grain, as did the introduction of cotton in the southern States; but is it certain that a rea- dy market and high price for grain, are indicative of the most prosperous condition of a country.? It is not certain that a majority of the citizens of any country would always be ready to give an affirma- tive answer to this question. The great question re- specting the policy of raising our own hemp lor com- mercial and naval purposes, rather than i)urchase it of fin-eigners, must dejjend on the elVect it would have on the price of labor. A very large portion of our citizens, who constitute an important j)artof the strength of our country, purchase their bread corn, for which they have to pay in their ser- vices only. The price of those services is not al- ways enhanced in proportion to that of grain or butcher's meat. It should be a predominant ob- ject in the policy of our country, not to attempt the advancement of its general interests by means, which in their operation, tend to depress the con- dition of the jioorer class of citizens. TOBACCO. From the Farmville Chronicle. 3Ir. Editor — It is believed by many, that a sys- tem of lock and dam navigation can be adopted up- on the Appomattox river, from Farmville to Pe- tersburg, which will reduce the freight to one half or perhaps much less than one half, the present freight. It is probable that a leading object of the meeting to take place in Farmville on the 21st inst. will be to turn its attention, mainly, to the subject of adopting some plan for employing a practical and experienced engineer, to examine and sur- vey the river, and to make an accurate estimate of the cost of the work. Should it be found that it can be executed at a cost within the reach of the country interested, and which would leave ample room for profitable dividends to the stockholders, nothing can be plainer than the great importance of executing such a public work, with all conve- nient despatch. The boats which would probably be used for navigating the river, ujwn this plan, would carry from 30 to 50 tons burthen ; and perhaps be pro- pelled, or towed, liy steam power: and if so, the trip down and upcan be easily peifbrmed every two to three days at all seasons of the year ; and if so, who can calculate the immense advantages which would result to this part of the State ? To say that the commerce of this river, would very soon be doubled, would not only be modest, but, I think, very far below the mark, even sup- l)Osing a coal trade to Petersburg should not be ad- ded to the articles of trade heretofore cariied upon this river. But it is exceedingly probable, that an extensive coal trade would be opened, as coal, of the very finest quality, has been discovered, in a number of situations near Farmville, and there ap- pears to be no reason to doubt, that any quantity can be raised, within a few hundred yards of the river ; and if so, the tonnage trade of this article alone, as well as the tolls thereon, may greatly ex- ceed the whole of the present trade. In order to enable those who take an interest in this subject, to form some opinion of the practica- bility of such a navigation, and the j)robable divi- dends to stockholders, I will give a rough estimate of the probable amount of stock which will neces- sarily be created and expended, and the jjrobahle amount of annual tolls, water rents, &c., predica- ted upon an increase of commerce far below what, I have no doulit, it would be, independently of any calculations of a coal trade, as well as many other articles, which would, no doubt, he carried upon this river, in addition to those which now constitute the trade between Farmville and Petersburg. Should a company be formed to construct such a FARMERS' REGISTER— BRITISH FARMING CAPITAL. 671 nayig:ation, the stock of the present Appomattox company, would, necessarily, liaveto l)e purcliasctl by the new company, by giving tliem a certain amount of stock, bearing- a certain and specified interest. The original cost of the present stock of the company, was ©61,000, and this is something like as mucli as the present market value of it ; but it is intrinsically worth considerably more. Sup- posing, then, this stock be worth one-third more, say igi82,000, bearing an interest of 6 per cent. The fall in the river from Farmville to Peters- burg, or to the canal, is ascertained, l)y actual measurement, to be only about 150 feet ; to over- come which, 25 dams and locks, of G feet lift, would be necessary. I have obtained some calcu- lations from a stone mason, of great practical knowledge, in which he estimates each dam and lock to cost §2250, made of good solid masonry. But suppose it should be as high as -93,000 each ; this would be si75,000. Suppose the widening and deepening of the present canal at Petersburg to cost §5,000 average for each mile; this would lie ^35,000; and that the enlarging the locks cost ^20,000; then the old company's stock, and the cost of constructing the new mode of navigation, tak^n together, would be §212,000. The interest on this sum would be .§12,720 annually, and con- sequently, the tolls and water rents should at least yield this sum to justify such an expenditure. The present nett income of the present A])po- mattox Company, is about .§5,000 annually. If the tariff of tolls was doubled, it would be about §10,000, and if the commerce should only double, then the nett income would be §20,000 annually, instead of .§12,720 — the sum necessary to pay 6 per cent, annually, upon the old stock purchased, and the new expenditure. If, as a prol^able con- sequence of such a navigation from Farmville to Petersburg, a rail road should be constructed to Staunton river, there can be no doubt but the commerce would increase four-fold, instead of doubling ; and if to this circumstance, we suj)pose an extensive coal trade may open from Farmville to Petersburg, we may fairly suppose the incomes of the company might reach .§30, to .§40,000, or more, annually, instead of .§20,000. And if to all this, we take into calculation the necessary im- provement in the agricultural interests of this part of the country, and the great probability, that real estate would, as a natural consequence, advance 50 per cent, in value, surely this scheme of navi- gation presents considerations abundantly sutficient to induce us to take measures to have the work ac- curately measured, and correctly estimated. A FARMER. TOBACCO. From the Farmville Chronicle. This great staple of that part of Virginia which lies south of the James river, has been improving in its management during the last ten years. The curing especially has come near to ])erfcction, com- pared to former years, but there is still great want of correct information among the planters gene- rally, wiih regard to the proper order and condi- tion lor pressing. They have, perhaps, been mis- led by publications on the suliject, and advice from dealers in the article, which were intended for some particular kind, yet not pro])er for all kinds. The | following opinions are the result of many years ex- perience as a dealer in the article of tobacco, and may be taken for what they are worth. The Bri ■ tish markets consume, annually, about 12,000 hhds. of fobiKxo, principally Virginia. Tobacco, to suit these markets, must be put up m the dryest order possible, or as dry as it can be without break- ing the leaf; a duty of' 3s. sterling per pound paid by the consumer, makes dry condition indispensa- ble in these markets. The French market con- sumes about 4,000 hhds. of Virginia tobacco — to suit that market, the dry order is not necessary. Suitable qualify, and order, dry enough to keep sweet through the sweat, is all that is required — this favt being generally known, a portion of the crop much larger in amount than the quantity wanting tor France is put up in order, entirely un- suitable for the British markets, (which are our best markets) and is sold without the competition of the British buyers to the shippers to France, or is sold i'ov a low price to be stemmed or reprized in dry order for the British markets. Now, it is well known to shippers of tobacco, that^/?e rich tobac- co, put up in order, dry enough for England, will answer the demands of the French market. The clear inference is, that all fine, rich tobacco, ought (o be put u}) in dry order, that it may suit the demands of either market. It is a well known fiict, that during the past season, much fine tobac- co has been sold low on account of its soft condi- tion, which if dry, would have sold high for the British markets. A MERCHAIVT. BRITI.SH FARMING CAPITAL. From tlie Genesee Farmer. The expense of stocking a farm of 150 acres, and the necessary outlay for one year, is estimated in one of the latest British publications, at £ 1450 9s. 6d. (§6440) of which half a year's rent forms an item of £112 10s. and the poor rates another item of £20 or §88,80. In the Quarterly Jour- nal of Agriculture, the expense of estimating and carrying on a farm of 500 acres, for one year is estimated at £.3-569 17s. Ud. (§15,849) the rent of which is put down at £ 1000. Of the 500 acres, 100 are supposed to be in fallow, turnips and po- tatoes, 100 under wheat and barley, 100 oafs, 100 grass seeds, and 100 year old grass. With these heavy charges, to which the expense of American farming bears but a small proportion, British far- mers live and grow wealthy. The rent, tithes and poor rales are an enormous drawback in England of which we have but very liltle experiniental knowledge. The rent in the first case noted is about .§7, and the poor rates 75 cents per acre. In the latter case the rent is about .§9 per acre. The only manure charged in the latter estimate (the rest being made upon the farm) is 640 bushels of bone dust, at 2.s. 6d. per bushel, or 80/. (§.355). The expense of cultivating an acre of the several crops is estimated as follows: turnips, 5/. 10s. 2(/. ; barley, 4/. 14s 7d. ; clover 21. lis. lOd ; wheat, 51. 13s. ; beans, 51. 2s. 9d. ; oats, 41. 7s. 7d. These amounts include rents, tithes, rates and taxes up- on the land occupied by the several crops. In dol- lars they amount to a charge of fen to twenty-four per acre. It will be perceived, that the 500 acre farm is under alternate husbandry — there being no grass of more than one year old. 672 FARMERS' REGISTER— UNDU^LATING RAILWAY, &c. BRITISH FARM STOCK. Fi-'Mii ilu' Gcnesoe Farmer. The improvement of Britisli farm stock, lias been strikin;^!}' cviilcnced in the records of SrnKh- fiekl market. In 1730, the averaoe weijrht of the fat cattle sold there, was estimated, by Davenant and others, at only 370 ILs. exclusive of offal, or hide and tallow ; of calves at 50 lbs. and of sheep and lambs, taken promiscuously, at 28 lbs. It is estimated that the present averao-e Meight of cat- tle (1S33) is 656 lbs. excludino- oftal,of calves 144 lbs., and of sheep and lambs 90 lbs. Thus the av- eras of grain, and without great crops of grain, and consequently of straw to be used as litter and partly as fodder in conjunction witli the green food for feeding stock through the winter months,* we cannot make dung ; and with- out plenty of dung we cannot raise green crops, and soon ; and it is such a disposition of stock and crop, as shall cause the one to be instrumental in promoting the prosperity of the other — a recipro- city of services, as it were, which ultimately con- verge in the general advancement of the whole, wliich, in agriculture constitutes a system, which system must be rigidly adhered to if any thing like profit is to be looked for in farming. Green cropping, which forms an important part of this system, and which is, in fact, the basis of all good husliandry, is what Ireland is most defective in ; and, being defective in this, she cannot excel in the other two great branches which have been men- tioned— nor does she, for, instead of about five kinds of green crops which might be grown, we find only one taken , potatoes ; and we see white ones substituted, and a number of these taken in succession off the same ground — a practice which has been reprobated by every good agriculturist, and with reason, when the pernicious and ruinous nature of it is considered. It will be allowed, that on tillage firms, by which term I of course ex- clude grazing ones, it is mainly by the sales of grain and cattle that the occupier becomes enabled to pay his rent; but neither one nor the other can bo unilbrmly produced of good quality, without the intervention of green crops. The fact is, that green and white cropping must be alternate to be remu- nerative, and this would throw one half of the ara- ble land in the country under the cultivation of these crops,t (common and Swedish turnips, beans. * Mynheer is a fall brother to the cow whose portrait is given in this No. + " On very heavy carse lands, where there is a diffi- culty in growing turnijDs, and consequently of rotting straAv, by feeding cattle through the winter months, this purpose may be accomplished by growing a greater breadth of clover, vetches, lucerne, &c. and feeding cattle on these in summer, in straw yards or sheds, keep- ing them well littered. f " Over the entire land binder crop in one season in the north of Ireland, it may be stated that one-fourth of it only is — or under present circumstances can be — in green crop, (potatoes.) The other three-fourths are under white crops, several of which are necessarily taken in succession. FARMERS' REGISTER— GREEN CROPPING. 675 mangel wurtzel, potatoes, &c. are referred to,^ Avhich is precisely tiie state it ought to be in ; and were this to take place in Ireland, it would be very easy to show, that the rental of the country might be doubled in a very few years, and employment afforded to many thousands of the now destitute, because unemployed population. It was said some time ago with regard to the cultivation of tobacco in the county of Wexford, that it was a pity it should be interfered with or impeded by any legis- lative enactment, because the culture of it was found to afford employment to such a nmiiber of the peasantry ; now this was just because it was a green crop, aiid the necessary prej)aration of the ground for it, and the subsequent hoeing, weeding and picking, &c. required the labor of an addition- al number of hands, which would be precisely the case witli regard to other green crops. The High- land Society of Scotland have done much good by their practice of offering premiums for the best number of acres, according to the size of the farm, of potatoes, beans, mangel wurtzel, turnips, &c. in drills J and this is just what the North-East Society of Ireland require to do to make their ar- rangements complete, because in the other two great branches which have been mentioned, the society do already offer premiums. " Should the society think proper to adopt this plan, there can be little doubt it would prove of essential service to the country. It would, in the first place, have the effect of checking the prevail- ing practice of taking white crops in succession off the same ground, which, I repeat, is one of the worst features of Irish farming, and the rock on which all is overset.* And this evil induces ano- ther and a serious one, which the adoption of the above plan would also tend to put a stop to, namely, the practice of selling the greater part of the straw, and sending it off the farm. This the farmer does at present, and, by doing so, becomes the robber of his own fields, and ultimately of his own pocket, of course ; but unfortunately he has, at present, no alternative. Two circumstances combine to ren- der this false step imperative on him — one is, the want of green crops for feeding cattle, by which means only straw can be conveniently and advan- tageously converted into dung: the second is, that the article is in great request for another purpose ; thatch. The former circumstance I have already noticed, and shall conclude with a few remarks re- specting the latter. " Through the north-east district, and over the north of Ireland generally, many of the houses composing the villages, and the greater part of those in the surrounding country, cottages, fiirm offices, &c. have roofs of this nature, and a vast quantity of straw, therefore, is annually consumed in making new roofs and repairing old ones ; and although it may appear at first view, that taking * "The only case in which this practice can be re- sorted to with propriety, is when old grass land is broken up with the intcution that it should undergo a course of copping. Here it becomes necessary to Lake, at least, two white crops in sviccession, (oats and wheat, oats and barley, or oats and oats, according to circumstances,) in order to rot the sward sufficiently ; and the accumula- tion of manure caused by the decomposition of vegeta- ble matter during the first year, renders this always a justifiable measure, and is in strict accordance wiiU the rules of good husbandry — indispensable, in fact, to the effectual rotting of the old sward. white crops in succession would have the effect of raising a great abundance of straw in the country, yet this is the very thing which causes a compara- tive scarcity, for the straw of an oat crop is not much more than half the bulk it would be, if, in- stead of succeeding wheat, it had succeeded pota- toes, turnips, beans, mangel wurtzel, or grass — the latter is what in a regular rotation it generally does succeed — of the second crop of oats, the straw is perhaps not one-fourth the weight it would have been, had a green crop intervened ; and as to a third crop, it is not worth comparing — even the straw of the wheat crop is not always equal to what it might be, for though it does succeed pota- toes, yet it must of necessity be more or less affected by the scourging nature of the practice referred to, and to which the ground has probably been sub- jected for many years. The supply of straw, therefore, it will be seen, cannot fail to be very limited ; certainly over the north of Ireland, not one half of what it would be, were an alternate system of cropping understood and acted on ; and this circumstance, coupled with the constant run upon the article for thatch, causes it to rise in price sometimes beyond that of hay ; and the poor farmer cannot resist the temptation, — indeed it is scarcely to be expected that he could — of selling " all he can spare," as he says — meaning all above what will be required as fodder for his few cows, but as for sparing, he could not spare an ounce — no farmer could spare the least portion of any sub- stance convertible into the indispensable and all- important article of manure, except, indeed, in the neighborhood of large towns, where straw may often be advantageously sold, because you some- times can, for the price of the straw, purchase a greater bulk of dung than the rotting of it would make ; but where no such advantageous exchange can be made, it is a ruinous practice for the farmer to sell his straw, the material of which dung is composed. An effort, tlierefore, made to cut off this great demand for straw — this premium held out to farmers to become accessory to their own ruin — would certainly be a laudable one; and I think it might be made, with success, by endea- vouring to introduce some article for roofing, which should combine cheapness with durability, and which might be expected to supersede the use of straw altogether. Slates are too expensive, and not to be thought of as roofing for cottages or houses in the situations I have mentioned. We want a roof as cheap as straw in the first instance, and one which would, from it's durability, be even- tually much cheaper — one which would not I'equire to be repaired or renewed every four or five years, a circumstance, by the by, which renders thatch a very dear roof in the end. Eut, there is an ar- ticle used for roofing in various parts of Britain, and which has had a long and satisfactory trial there, and Avhich I feel confident could be intro- duced here with great advantage, possessing, as it appears to do, the very requisites we are in search of; I mean the roofing tile, known by the name of pan-tiles. These tiles are made about a foot broad, and about 15 inches long, and the price in Scotland is from 7s. 6d. to 10s. per 100. For a good substantial roof the rafters are put on 18 inches a})art, and the laths 1-| inch square, are nailed on the raftei's at such distances as will allow a sufficient overlap for the tiles. This roof will, 1 in the first instance, be found as cheap, if not 676 FARMERS' REGISTER— WINTER VETCHES. cheaper, than a thatched one, while the endless ex- pense fur future repairs would be in a great mea- sure avoided. It may be said these tiles are not to be had in this country ; true they are not, Init one or two for patterns, with one of the moulds used, could easily be obtained from England or Scotland, and tlien they could be made in any quantity at those establishments here, where ridge tileSj flooring tiles, bricks, &c. are manufactured." WINTER VETCHES. From a late " Practical Treatise on y/gric^iUure,'" by Richard IV. Lloyd, London, 1833. " A common notion prevails respecting this plant, that it is useless to sow it witliout manuring very highly, and with such an impression it is not to be wondered at, that the cultivation of it is ne- glected, for farmers naturally enough will apply their manure to crops they consider more valua- ble; but this opinion is quite erroneous, and how it was ever created I do not know, it is therefore high time to controvert it. As facts have much greater weight on men's minds than any thing that can be advanced in the shape of theory, I will state, that in the autumns of 1829, and 1830, I sowed vetches, three bushels to the acre, (at the end of October, much too late.) on land of very ordinary quality, without any manure, and in June cut them of very luxuriant growth : I merely mention this as a fact worth knowing, Avhere a' contrary opinion prevails. Every crop will, of course, do better with, than without manure; but of all the plants that I am acquainted with, I do not know one that will thrive better without, than the winter vetch : if the farmer can spare manure for it, tiie crop will, of course, be stronger and more abundant. I sowed t\vo acres on the 19th of last September, (two measures to the acre,) hall' of the field being manured and the other not, and the dif- ference in forwardness is very great; the vetches on that part which was manured are now (12th of April, 1832) ten or twelve inciies high, and if the spring be mild, will be quite ready for cutting the first week in May : the others, sown without ma- nure, are about six or seven inches high, and will be ready for cutting by the time the earliest are consumed. It is well to have a certain breadth of land sown with spring vetches, to succeed the win- ter : I have two acres of the spring vetches at this time (12th April) just peeping through the earth, whicli is a practice worth a farmer's consideration. " It is impossible to distinguish a difference be- tween the spring and winter vetch seed ; but if any imposition is practised on a farmer by his seedsman, it may be detected as soon as the plants spring up : the winter vetch comes up green, and the spring vetch of a deep brown purple color: this observation may be useful, as it enables the farmer, in case of sowing a spurious sort in the autumn, to detect the imposition : if he finds he has sown the spring kind at that time, he must plough his land again, and apply it to some other purpose, for the spring kind will not stand the winter. I should recommend every farmer pur- chasing the winter vetch to have the seed warrant- ed; and when he has got the right sort, afterwards to raise his own. " The great secret in the cultivation of this crop is to sow early ; it may be sown from the middle of August to the middle of October : if sown be- tween the end of August and twentieth of Sep- tember, two measures of seed will be sufficient per acre; if later, tiiree measures : the early sowing is far preferable, as it saves seed, and becomes ready to cut much earlier than the late sown ; but for (he sake of succession, perhaps to sow at two dif- ferent periods of the autunui is the best plan. " Some farmers throw in a small quantity of rye or winter* barley, for the purpose of support- ing the vetches ; but 1 think the practice unneces- sary, for the corn blades are not strong enough to answer the purpose intended. " The advantages of this crop are very great, it improves land, and by its rapid growth destroys all weeds; if any should come up among them, they are cut down before they ripen their seed: to cleanse land from the wild rape or charlock, no crop is belter than the vetch, both falling together under the scythe in a green slate. It is a good preparation for any kind of corn, pulse, or green crop, the chief observances being only to sow them early and on clean land : as soon as ever the stub- bles are cleared, let such of them as are intended for this crop be prepared; if manure can be spared for them, it must be remembered that the land will be in sufficient heart, for any crop whatever, tlie ensuing year, without an additional quantity. '■ An idea prevails in this country, that land af- ter having been a certain number of years under the plough, becomes sick and unproductive, and that the only remedy is to lay it down to grass. Let farmers occasionally throw in a crop of winter vetches, and they will find their land as much re- novated by them as the laying down system. It has been well proved in tlie neighborhood of Lon- don, that land, by the growth of them, may be brought to the very highest state of fertility ; there are fields in those districts that are constantly under the plough, and every year yielding good crops. To so high a state of cultivation have they brought their land, that after the vetches they put in tur- nips, gaining two well matured croi)S in one j-ear, and after the turnips sow wheat or barley. This is a system that cannot be adopted in Wales until great improvements have taken place, because the land is not rich enougli to produce two crops in the same year, nor are tlie farmers active enough to effect.it; it will be a sufficient pleasure and satis- faction to the country, w hen we see farmers insure to themselves by their industry and skill one good crop in the twelve months, and when that period arrives, which I fear is far distant, it will then be time to talk of two crops. " As a food nothing can be better than vetches, they support horses, cows, and sheep well; and store jjigs thrive as well upon them, as any other food that can be given to them. I should recom- mend every farmer to keep his pigs up in styes, in each of which there should be a cratch, through which the pigs will draw the vetches, and every morsel will be eat; if they are thrown carelessly into the stye, a large quantity is wasted by being trodden under foot. The pigs should be kept quite clean by frequent littering, and have as much food supplied as they will eat; the quantity of manure + This grain is much more profitable tlian the common spring sort. It is in its nature similar to wheat ; it bears -sowing at the same time, and stands frost equally well. The ears being six rowed, it yields mucli more abundantly tlian tlie spring barley, and ri])ens from about the 20th to the end of July in this climate. FARMERS' REGISTER— MANAGEMENT OF BEES IN CASHMERE. 677 raised by this plan in the summer lime is almost incredible, and manure of the vertj best quality. For the first two or three years a farmer may com- plain of the want of straw for this purpose ; it he has not i^'ot it, let him l)uy it from titiie lakers, (as lono; as the system lasts,) or wherever he can meet with it; no money that he spends will pay him better in the end ; after the first two or three years, he will have no occasion to buy straw; for his own land, by gradual improvement, will yield a suffi- cient quantity for all his purposes. It is a most profitable work to carry fern from the mountains; I should strongly recommend every farmer who has it in his power to do so; nothing will pay him better for his labor; by these means, and an ex- tensive growth of succulent ibod, he will raise large heaps of manure, the grand basis of the sub- ject under consideration. " Another great advantage of vetches still de- Serving notice, is the vast benefit derived from them in a dry summer. When the little food that the pastures supply, has been either eaten up or scorched by the intense heat of tlie sun, what an advantage at such a time as this, must it be to a farmer, to have a reserve field of most nutritious and luxuriant food, from which to suj)ply the wants of his stock of all kinds. He may either feed them within doors with the vetches, or spread them in small heaps in the burnt up-field ; in either way, all sorts of cattle will eat them greedily and thrive well upon them. I have tried both ways, and each answered, l)ut the former is the prefera- ble plan (for every animal, excepting milch cows) on account of the manure raised by it. It may be observed that they are excellent things for causing the secretion of milk ; and for store pigs and breeding sows, I must once more impress upon my readers, that nothing can excel them. The last observation to be made upon this most valua- ble of all crops is, that farmers should not confine it to a paltry quarter or half acre of land, but in- troduce it upon an extensive scale ; to every forty acres he holds, let him grow five of vetches, say two of spring and three of winter vetches, and if he finds tliat there is likely to be more than he can consume, (which ought not to be the case,) he may allow the surplus to ripen its seed.'"' MANAGEMENT OF BEES IN CASHMERE. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. Every farmer in Cashmere has several bee- hives in his house, and in some houses I have counted as many as ten. A provision is made for these in building the house, by leaving appropri- ate cavities in the wall,and which somewhat differ in size, but agree in their general form, each be- ing cylindrical, and extending cjuite through the wall. The tube thus formed is lined by a plaster- ing of clay mortar, about an inch in tliickness, and the mortar is worked up with the chaff or husk of rice, or the down of thistles, which latter is em- ployed for clay mortar in general, being the first application of^ this substance to the use of man which I have j^et witnessed. The dimensions of a hive are, on an average, about fourteen inches in diameter, and when closed at both ends, about twenty or twenty-two inches in length. The end of the cylinder nearest the apartment is closed by a round plaster of red pottery ware, a little con- vex in the middle, but with the edges made flush with the wall by a luting of clay mortar, and the other extremity is shut by a similar disk, having a circular hole about a third of an inch in diameter in the centre. — It doe.s not appear that there is any jnirticular rule for the height of these hives from the ground, as they are sometimes contmed to the walls of tlie lower basement story, generally ap- propriated to cattle in the fiirm-houscs of Cash- mere ; others are inserted into those of the first floor, and are frequently in both situations in the same house, as well as the walls of its outbuildings. So great difference exists betwixt the practice or- dinarily pursued in Cashmere and in Euroj)e, in respect to hiving new swarms when the honey is taken, that it deserves imitation. Although the season (or taking the honey had passed when I visited Cashmere, in the beginning of November, the cottagers indulged my wish of seeing the pro- cess by which this was efTected, but with little in- jury to the bees, and with perfect safety to the in- dividuals concerned in its management, and which was as follows : — Having in readiness a wisp of dry straw, and a small quantity of burning char- coal in an earthern dish, the master of the house, with a few strokes of the point of the sickle, dis- engaged the inner plaster of the hive, bringing into view the combs suspended from the roof of tlie hive, and almost wholly covered with bees, none of which, however, offered to resent the ag- gression, or to enter the room. Having placed the straw upon the charcoal, and*liolding the dish close to the mouth of the hive, he blew the smoke strongly against the combs, but removed the dish the instant the straw took fire, to prevent it burn- ing the bees, and quenched the flame before he employed it again. Almost stifled by the smoke, the bees hurried out of the outer door with such rapidity, that the hive was cleared of its inhabi- tants within a few minutes, Avhen the farmer, in- troducing the sickle, cut down the combs nearest to him, which were secured into a dish previously sliddeii underneath them, and left undisturbed about one-third of the combs, which were almost close to the outer door. He then replaced the in- ner plaster, and brushing off hastily a few bees that clung to the combs, though apparently in a state of stupefaction, threw them out of the house. Observing many other bees lying motionless on the floor of the hive, I inquired whether they were dead or only stupified, and was answered that tlicy would recover; preparations for contin- uing my journey at a very early hour on the fol- lowing morning, having unluckily prevented my examining the spot where they had been thrown out, until poultry had for some time been feeding near it. — The expelled bees i-eturned as soon as the cavity was freed from smoke, without stinging a single individual, and the whole business was completed in less than ten minutes, without, as was asserted, any }>erceptible loss. The honey was light colored, and of a taste as pure and sweet as that of Narboime. It possessed less of the cloying quality generally attending this substance, than any other I recollect to have met with ; nor could I learn that the farmer had any suspicion of its ever being intoxicating or poisonous, as in the case occasionally with that made by the Bhoura (y/yjfs iritabilis), or large wild bee in the northern mountains of Gurwhal, from feeding, as it is re- ported, on the flower of the monkhoocl. I Avas di- rected more particularly to inquire upon this sub- ject, by having observed this plant in flower in 678 FARMERS' REGISTER— BEES— V/ATER SPIDER— SAXONY WOOL. ths valley of Buiiga, a few miles to the eastward of the l)ee district, and think probable that it ex- tends to these mountains. — The peasantry of Cash- mere are unacijuninted with the employment of honey as the basis of a fermented liquor, but eat it raw or mixed with articles of common food, whilst the most wealthy sui>stitute it for suij^ar in preserv- ing fruits. It is customary to take the hive every year ; about the end of September or beg-inniuf:^ of October is found the best season for this operation, a little time still remaining for the bees to add to the portion left for their supi)ort during five months. This amounts to .about one-third of the whole pro- duce, and would appear to suffice, as swarms sel- dom die, and the Cashmeres substitute no other article of food. It is stated that an old swarm yields more honey than a young one, and that families seldom die except of old age. I was in- formed that it was no uncommon circumstance to preserve the same community for ten or even fif- teen years ; and some instances were quoted of a family having been retained ibr twenty years ; but this was held to be a very rare occurrence. In consequence of the bees being thus literally do- mesticated, they acquire a mildness of conduct far more decided than those of Europe ; and it is pos- sible that the confidence thus gained, subduing their natural irascibility, may generate an increase of industry, or at least an increase of produce in relation to the number and size of the individuals of each community. It is also clear, that the situ- ation of the hive keeps many of the natural enemies of the bees at a distance. — The bee of Cash- mere is a little smaller than that of Europe, though a little larger than the domesticated bee of Kuma- von and of Gurwhal. The Bhoura, the rock-bee of Gurwhal, or the bee of the southern mountains, is, on the other hand, greatly larger than the do- mesticated bee of Europe, and greatly exceeds it also in the number of individuals in each commu- nity, and in the size and weight of its combs. But its honey is sometimes contaminated by an intoxi- cating quality, and the temper of the insect is so irritable, as to be brought into a dangerous state of activity by a slight show of aggression. The for- mer quality is suspected, upon probable grounds, to be caused by the secretion of the aconite eaten by the bee, and its irritability of disposition, to be owing partly to the exposed situation of the combs suspended from the lower surface of a ledge of rook, and partly to the occasional attempts of bears to carry them off. But these detractions from the merits of this bee arc merely the result of locali- ties; and under due precautions, it is presumed that its irrascibility might be so far subdued as to render it just as safe an inhabitant of a wall-hive, as the smaller variety of bee. In a portion of the Paujab, near the hills, this bee is also met with; and I have seen the under surface of the i)rincipal branches of a large Peepul tree studded with so many colonies, individually of such great strength, as to deter the neighboring peasantry from attempt- ing to deprive them of their stores, notwithstand- ing it was conjectured that there were several hundred weight of combs on the tree. The largest of these assemblages of combs — the probable accu- mulation of many seasons — was of such a size as I think it not prudent to cite ; but from the speci- mens I have seen of the produce of this bee, I con- ceive their domestication, if introduced into Eu- rope, would prove a most valuable acquisition to this branch of farming, although I must confess myself unable to devise any safe and easy plan for trans- porting such a colony. — [Mr. IVilliam Moorcroft ill the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. THE WATEH SPIDER. From the Quarterly Jounuil of Agriculture. Tlie habitation of this insect (^^ranea aqualica^ is chiefly remarkable for the element in which it is constructed, and the materials that compose it, being built in the midst of water and in fact of air, a very uncomfortable one certainly, were it con- stantly wet; but this, the sagacious insect has the means of avoiding, and by availing itself of some well known philosophical principles, constructs for itself an apartment in which it resides in com- fort and security. The following is the process: F'irst, It spins loose threads in various directions to the leaves of water plants, which may be called the frame-work of the chamber, and over them spreads a transparent varnish, resembling liquid glass, which issues from the middle of its spinners, and which is so elastic as to be capable of great expansion and contraction. The spider then spreads over its belly a little of the same material, and ascends to the surface. The precise mode in which a bubble of air is drawn in beneath the o'um- my matter is not accurately known ; loaded, how- ever, with the material for its little mansion, which, to the spectator, looks like shining quick- silver, the spider plunges to the bottom, and, with as much dexterity as a chemist, transfers gas into a gasholder, introduces the bubble of air beneath the roof prepared for its reception. This manoeu- vre is repeated ten or twelve times, until, at length, in about a quarter of an hour, as much air is ob- tained as is sufficient to expand the apartment to its proposed extent, and the industrious little build- er now finds itself in possession of a perfect air- built dwelling, afTording a commodious and dry retreat in the very midst of water. Here the in- habitant reposes, unmoved by the storms that agi- tates the surface of the pool, and devours its prey at ease and in safely. SAXONY AVOOL. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. To the late King of Saxony, when Elector, is due the merit of having first brought the breed of Spanish Merino sheep into Germany, which has since transferred the valuable trade in fine wool al- most wholly from the Spanish to the German soil. From the period of its first introduction until 1814, when Europe once more began to enjoy the bless- ings of a general peace, this wool was gi-adually, although slowly, s|)reading itself over the surface of the kingdom of Saxony; but when the conti- nental trade was thrown quite open, by the events of the short campaign of 1815, and the minds of men were set at rest by the final catastrophe of Napoleon, the Saxon wool dealers began to open a regular trade in the article to England, and they soon discovered the real value of this new branch of German commerce. In the first year, viz. : — In 1814, thei-e v/ere imported into England only - - 3,593,146 lbs. " 1819, ----- 4,-557,938 " 1824, - - - - - 15,432,657 " 1828, ----- 23,110,882 This prodigious increase in the demand lor Ger- FARMERS' REGISTER— DUTCH ASHES AS MANURE. G79 man wool naturally excited the emulation of the States lying contiguous to Saxony ; and the fiock masters of that kingdom carried on, for a consid- eralde period, a very prosperous trade in rams and ewes with the land-owners of Silesia, Bohemia, Austria, and other parts, who were desirous of changing the nature of their flocks to this more profitaiile breed. All the superabundance of grain, which had no external vent to carry it off, was given to t!ic sheep, in order to accelerate their ap- proach to the maximum degree of fineness of which their wool was susceptible ; thus actually creating a profitable consumption for their corn, through the eagerness exhibited in England to obtain a su- perior quality of wool. ON THE USE OF DUTCH ASHES AS MAIVURE. By Mr. John Mitchell, Jr. Leith. Fiom the Prize Essays and Ti-ansactions of the Highland Socie- ty of Scotland for the y-oar 1SH3. In a short communication sent to the society some time ago, I endeavored to bring under their notice a very valual>le and cheap species of ma- nure, which, on a late tour made by me on the continent, I observed was much prized, particu- larly in Flanders. I then placed at the disposal of the society twenty casks (about seven tons) of the substance in question, which have been de- livered free of any charge to several noblemen and gentlemen, eminent agriculturisis, who will have an opportunity of trying their eificiency. When in Flanders, I found the farmers gene- rally complaining of the serious injury they were likely to sustain in consequence of being almost entirely deprived, from interruption of the com- munication with Holland, of an article which tiiey considered essentially necessary to their domestic economy, namely, Dutch ashes ; and as that arti- cle can be imported at a very moderate price, it is of importance to consider how far it may be pro- per to introduce it into this country. In Holland, there are two kinds of turf or peats used for burning, namely, those cut as in this country from the bogs, which burn easily, but give a whitish kind oT asiies, which are of little use; and another kind, more generally used, as being more durable. Having witnessed the mode of making this kind, I shall Iiere describe it. At those ditches or ponds made by cutting away the common peats, or upper parts of the bogs, men were employed in dragging from the I>ottom, by means of long sticks, having hooped bags at the end, the soft portion of the peat under water. They poured it out on the adjacent ground, when the water was allowed to drain off. After expo- sure to the air, this substance becomes in a few days sufficiently consistent to be cut info pieces of the size of a common building brick, which are dried tor the use. The ashes from this kind of peat are of a yellowish brown color, and are the kind so much prized in Flanders : carts go regu- larly round to the various houses, Avhere this turf is used, and carefully collect all tliat can be ob- tained. When the communication was open with Belgium, the ashes were sent by water to Brus- sels and other places in that country, and, after a long water carriage, they were often conveyed fifty, and even a hundred miles farther by land. These ashes are used in various ways in Flan- ders. They are generally sown upon clover, at the rate of twenty five cuvelles per hectare, equal to about nineteen Inishels per acre, imperial mea- sure. Thej' are sown on clover, w heat, and pas- tures, in March and April ; on oats and beans in the beginning of May ; on rye in October and No- vember. They are also used in gardens with great benefit to the crops, by being scattered over the surfiice, after the land is sown and raked. They are also good for hops, a handful being giv- en to each plant. When applied to grain, they promote its early growth ; but are principally use- ful in increasing the quantity. They are general- ly sown by the hand like grain, but care must be taken to leave no part of the surface without its just proportion. In Holland the mode of applying them is as fol- lows. In March, the wheat is v.orked with the hoe between the rows, and sown with clover; and in May, the rows of wlieat are weeded. The wheat being reaped, and as soon as the danger of floods is past in the spring, the land is harrowed, and thereafier they strew about twenty imperial bush- els on the acre of clover. This practice is great- ly recommended, and found to be highly advanta- geous. An eminent Dutch agricicullurist, F. L. W. Brakkel, in a work lately puldished by him at Utrecht, points out the advantages of using Dutch ashes on the clover in this way, his alternation of crops being potatoes, rape seed, peas, wheat, clo- ver and oats. Another Avriter on agriculture, J. R. Schwarz, says the ashes must be used in their dry state, and thinly strewed, and on plouglied land must be harrowed in before or at the sowino-. They are of most use on cold wet grass lands to dry the ground, destroy the acidity, and kill the mosses. They are so much persuaded in Belgium of the great use of Dutch ashes, tiiat the farmers have the following proverb : " He who buys ashes for clover, pays nothing ; but he who neglects do- ing so, pays a double price." The great advanta- ges to be derived from thispractice are also point- ed out by Sir John Sinclair, in his Tour in Flan- ders, and many other testimonies might be ad- duced in its favor. By an analysis made by Professor Brande of the Royal Institution, the contents of the specimen given him were : Siliceous earth, - - - 32 Sulj/nate of lime - - - 12 Sul])hate and muriate of soda, - 6 Carbonate of lime, - - - 4Q Oxide of iron, - - - 3 Impurities and loss, - _ 7 100 The great advantages which the Dutch ashes hold out to the flirmer are, their being a cheaper, and (at least for some purposes,) more certain and beneficial manure, than any now in use. They can be easily transported to a great distance; they give a greater number of bushels to the ton than bones or rape cake, and they are only about half the price per ton of either. It has also to be re- marked, that bones are getting scarce abroad, and are rising in price. Besides, the Dutch ashes re- quire no previous expense or preparation in this country, but can be immediately applied after being landed ; whereas, bones and rape cake have to un- dergo the process of grinding, before they are fit for use. 680 FARMERS' REGISTER— V/ ASHING OF HILLY LANDS. As a top dressin<]:;, tliese ashes are superior to comnioa manure, it ha vino; been found, on makiuji" comparative trials in Fhuulcrs, that the crops of clover, where tiic ashes were used, were much earlier, heavier, and superior in every respect to those which had undern'one a top dressing of horse and cow dung. As a top dressing to the second crop of clover, they will be found highly advanta- geous, as liy being used this way, they wonderfully increase the rapidity of growth and produce. One of the best proofs of their usefulness is the fact, that while we have frequently in this country very backward and light crops of clover and grass, in Flanders, where this top dressing is used, such a defection seldom if ever occurs. They arc there- fore likely to be of great use to the farmer on the lands which have " grown sick of clover;" and the importance of having a good crop of clover is the more obvious, wlien it is considered that, in ge- neral, the succeeding crop of wheat is only good when the preceding crop of clover has been so. Besides fertilizing the land, the ashes may be of great advantage in preventing the injuries arising from worms or insects; and will no doubt be high- ly useful as a top dressing, if regularly persevered in for a certain time, in destroying the mosses and lichens so apt to injure the lawns and natural pas- ture in this country. 1 have found a bushel of these ashes to be about forty pounds in weight. The ton, therefore, con- sists of aliout fifty six bushels. At 3/. per ton, which will be the price from the shop, free of eve- ry charge, the expense of manuring an acre will only be about 11. [or %i 80.] ON THE SEVERAT. PLANS USED TO PllEVENT THE WASHING OF HILLY LANDS. To the Edilor of the Farmers' Register. I perceive by your last No. (9) tliat a Charlotte correspondent has come out in disapprobation of the " trenching" system; and recommends a sub- stitute, for which he vouches his own successful experience. Now, though JNIr. Bruce, as its ori- ginal advocate, will more properly respond to his objections — and though your own editorial remarks will in some measure neutralize what I regard as ,the ill tendency of his piece — yet I nmsf beg sjtace for explanation. I ask it the rather tiiat I have unwittingly committed myself, where I knew not that controversy was likely to arise. And particu- larly because I recognize in " Wardsfork," (if not deceived by internal evidence, as well as the point from which he hails,) "an acquaintance and friend," from whom I have hereJolbre received valua1)le instruction in our common calling; and I should be loath to acquiesce in a difference, which may be more apparent than real. The evil complained of is the loss of soil in bro- ken land, produced by the washing of heavy rains. The desideratum is the ])roposal of an ctfectual preventive. . We all knov/ that fiirmerly, in Vir- ginia, extensive occasion was given for injury from this cause, by scourging newly cleared hills with successive hoe crops, without rest under giass — and by injudicious ploughing. By the one, the soil •was worn to barrenness, and thus exhausted of the vegetable fibres which had contributed to its pow- ers of cohesion ; and the parallel furrows of the other, in their perpendicular descent, brought down soil, and substratum, to cover, with a barren coating, the more fertile land below.* This de- structive course was continued by many through ignoiance of a lietter ; and even when the era of improvement was commenced, the expediency of attempting to repair the injury already done was not universally acknowledged. " Go on," says A to B, "and while you are saving and improving one hill side, 1 will make another j)roduce money enough to buy a dozen more." This riotous sys- tem could not last. The annual waste of land from this source was immense, and some change for the better became indispensa])le. Happily one was sug- gested, after our forests were much diminished, and the rage for new clearings had begun to subside. It is more than thirty years since the late Gov. Randolph introduced on his farm in Albemarle, " horizontal ploughing" and the hill side plough. Both the mode and the implement had, it seems, been known abroad long before. But to him we owe tlie timely bringing to our rescue the invalua- ble aid of the j)ractice itself From him the prac- tice spread rapidly on all sides, until it became al- most universally adopted — meeting a slight resis- tance in its course from the advocates of cross ploughing. I^J ever was any improvement so high- ly lauded, or indeed more properly. And the in- calculable benefit w hich a son of Virginia, by its means, has conferred on our whole country, will excuse a reference which might seem common- place. It instantly, as I conceive, more than iloubled the value of every arable steep in our land. By its means the work was better executed — with greater ease to man and beast — and a reseive of moisture was retained, for nourishing the roots of plants at a season, and in the mode which they most required. It was also declared to be a sure preventive of the evil in question; and perhaps, when well per- formed, it is a sufficient preservative of a some- what tenacious soil on a moderate slope. But it was found not to be effectual in all cases. And while it was thus eulogized for virtues which it did not jiossess, some farther change, or addition, was called fiir. I had heard of various expedients to meet the exi- gency, such as a partial declination of thebedsand furrows- — leaving a lielt of turf unploughed at the line of stress — Mr. >Skipwith's trenches — and last- ly, what are termed the " graduated furrows." This last I considered most eligii)le, as answering the purpose, and as being free from objections to which the others are liable. It being the last in a series of improvements, of which horizontal plough- ing was the first, my former remarks were predi- cated on their comparative value, and the necessity of this as an occasional auxiliary. The hypotheti- cal case of the conical hill with the spiral furrow was not cited as a guide for practice, liut for the purpose of illustration — and in this view, every rounded hill side may be considered as partof a cone. All of the above modes with the exception of the second, are based, on the same principle — that of providing an artificial channel, by which the re- dundant rain fidling in a given space, may be con- ducted from the hill, without carrying the soil with * It is said that the late John Randolph of Roanoke, once in passing such a scene, remarked to his travel- hug companion, (pointing towards it with his "fearful fore finger,") " that, I take it, is very far from being real estate, sir." FARMERS' REGISTER— WASHING OF HILLY LANDS. 681 it. Nor, I conceive, is Wardsfork's founded on a | mises to retain both soil and manure, is not light- different one, but is a mere variation from, or per- ly to be rejected, without providing a better sub- haps an improvement on tliat which he so pointed- ly condemns. Tiiere are not a few points of re- semblance between them. In either case the same levelling instrument is used — the same graduation adopted. The beds and the furrows are recom- mended to be placed at the same intervals apart. Each commences at a middle point on the face of the hill, and proposes the descent from thence to the ravines respectively on the right and left. And it the beds be thrown up as high as Wardsfork sug- gests, there is above each, emphatically, a " gra- duated furrow," or shallow ditch, however olFen- sive the name. With tliis difference, that what is an embankment in the one case, and therefore safer, is but a bed in the other, i. e. an embank- ment flattened, and having its edges rounded off. It is in fact but transferring to a steep the mode of draining recommended in your No. 7. You have already said, editorially, that the turfed ravines may be used in connection with either mode. Wardsfork lives in a region whose general aspect is materially different fi-om that in which the wri- ter of this resides. I suppose his hills are not long, and mostly of gradual elevation. To them, I doubt nol, from his own experience, that his sys- tem of tlirowing up high beds at intervals, may be judiciously applied. But how would it take in our mountains, some of which are cultivated to the very tops. " This tricke," as old Barnaby Googe said of the reaping machine, " might be used in level and champion countreys, but with us I trowe, it wold make but ill-flivored worke."* We have many arable hills in Virginia so steep that the highest bed which Wardsfork could raise with ills best ploughs and teams, and the after dressing to boot, would not suffice to prevent the over-passage of the water. And the longer the hill the greater the difficulty ; and we could rely on them still less where the soil was light and loose, and had previously been worn into gullies. Most of Wardsfork's objections to the difching system relate either to its imperfect execution or its abuse ; and all may he obviated when it is useil, as it has been modified in some places. In the first place, I believe that the alleged loss of crops, by abstracting so much land from cul- ture, even where the ditches are as wide and deep as those of Mr. Skipwith, is founded on a misapprc hension. There is certainly no loss in the long run, when compared with the old mode. It pro- ceeds from a fallacy which unhappily has been loo prevalent heretofore in Virginia. The acre which produces doul)le the crop of another, is of more than double its value; as for these different pro- ducts, the same amount of labor is bestowed on each. But the inquiry among us too often is, not what is the relative strength of our fields.'' but how many corn fields (good, bad, or indifferent) is the proper crop to '' pitch" for a given number of hands? And there are many who persist to this day in cultivating parts of fields, the products of which, while unmanured, will not repay the charge of tillage. This is more particularly the case in broken lands, which they are discouraged from attempting to improve. For, as Mr. Bruce says, why manure them, when the first rain may sweep it entirely away. Any expedient then, which pro- * See Farmers' Rrsister, No. 7, pas:e 107. Vol. I.— 86 stitute, applicable even to extreme cases. Now I would call Wardsfork's attention to a fact which he may have oflen ol)served Let him view from an opposite eminence the side of any rounded hill which is surmounted by a level of considerable breadth, and which, having been cleared and cultivated in the usual style fol- seve- ral years, is again recently ploughed. Even if no gully is presented, he will probably perceive three different shades of color, and it is likelj', as many different qualities of soil. The middle belt will be in far better heart than either that above or be- low it, both of which will partake of the nature and appearance of the subsoil. This I suppose to be occasioned thus. The water which falls on the flat land above, is absorbed and secretly settling towards the brow of the hill in large force, either bears off the soil on its bosom, or else strains it (so to speak) of its fertilizing properties, and car- ries them down to the middle portion. As this is a broadcast operation, there is acciimitlnted, as it were, a double layer of soil on this belt, which now presents a barrier strong enough to 1/e stationary itself: but the water passing over, or through it, meets with less resistance in the breadth of soil next the base of the hill, and either carries it, or its strength, to the bottom. Such is the effect of the constant action of rains for a series of years. And the proprietor of such a hill, who has contri- ved to prevent a breath, (perhaps by having a stiff soil on a clay substratum,) flatters himself that he has succeeded in preserving the soil itself, when in fact, a large portion of it is reduced to a caput mortuum. Now, there is little doubt here, that had graduated furrows been interposed at the several lines of stress, to arrest the wafer in its de- scent, and give it a different direction, the whole result would have been different. There can be as little that the farmer, in their adoption, would have been more than doubly compensated for the portion of land appj-opriated to them, by their pre- ventive good, as well as by the assurance of great- er permanence to any future improvement he might impart to the intervals. Not to mention that, the gradual deepening of the soil, i. e. the increase of its quantity as well as quality, is a pri- mary object which the cultivator should never lose sight of", and which can only be insured by some such mode. Time was when the bedding of alluvial flats on the margins of streams was objected to on the same account, viz : that all the land occupied by tlie water furrows was lost to the grain crop. But even supposing that the rounded form of the beds did not repay this, the increased product, from ef- fectual draining, more than counterbalances this partial injury. The graduated furrows, however, are used on hill sides, and when we consider tiie upward growth of plants, it will be found that, as in the case of garden terraces, they virtually de- mand much less space for themselves, than from a side view, would be supposed. But experience has shown that it is not necessa- ry to have them in all cases as wide or deep as those of Mr. Skipwitli. Those present a needless array of means for tiic desired end; and if the ad- ditional labor could be conveniently spared, to dig such little races on the hills of Wardsfork's Cham- pagne country, would be like breaking flies on a 682 FARMERS' REGISTER— ROOT CULTURE. wheel. He has but (o step over to tlie nei<2;hl)or- ino- county of Prince Edward to find them in suc- cessful operation on a smaller scale. There, the principal part of the work is perfiarmed by plou< 250 = 5,000) S 4,285 20 887 07 Or 87yV els. nearly per ton, for 100 miles. The following estimate of the expense of trans- porting 5,000 tons on the Lehigh and Delaware canals, is deduced from, statements furnished by boatmen, of the work actually done by them. This, it may be observed, can be increased but little without running in the night. The boatmen say that tliey could gain nothing by a relieve ol horses, the locks are so frequent that the horse rests and feeds sufficiently. It is lurthei- to be remarked, that tlie rail road wagons are loaded in or al the mouth of the mine from whence the coal is carried to the de()ot, and that as the boat cannot be brought to the mine, tlie expense of transporting the coal from the mine to tlie boat and unloadmg it into the boat is an addi- tional expense incidentitl to tlie canal, and the waste of coal by this operation is also in addition ; for these items not being precise data, )t^S per ton are allowed. The labor of unloacbng the coal fiom the boat at the wharf is also greater than tiiat of unloading from wagons, and a part thus handled must be shovelled on the screen, which is not re- quired when the coal is unloaded from wagons ; for this labor 8 10 per ton are estimated. Estimate. — It is ascertained from experience that 2 good horses, with 4 men and 2 boys, will haul 100 tons of coal in 2 boats 100 miles on the Lehigh and Delaware Canals, and return in 12 days; hence 24 horses with 48 men and 24 boyg take 100 tons in 24 boats 100 miles in 1 day and return. To transport the same quantity 20 miles a day, or one-fiflii of that distance, will require 48 horses, 9.G men, 4.8 boys, and 4.8 boats. To simplify the calculation, 5 horses, 10 men, 5 boys and 5 boats, are supposed to Ije employed and the proper deduc- tion made from the aggregate. Capital J^mployed. Five boats at $600 each, One fifth extra. Five horses at $80 each. One fifth extra. Five harness at $6, $3,000 00 600 00 400 00 80 00 30 00 $4,110 00 j^nnual Expense. Interest at 6 per cent., $246 00 Repairs of boats 5 per cent., 180 00 Depreciation of do. and horses 15 per cent., * 616 50 Keeping 51 horses at $20 per vear, 625 00 Wagesof5menat$l perday,(250days) 1,250 00 Wages of 5 men at 90 cts. 1,125 00 Wages of 5 boys at 75 cts. 937 50 $4,979 00 As 5: 4079.60 : : 4.8: 4,760 42 Unloading Avagons from mine to boat, and waste 8 cts. per ton, 400 00 Additional expense for unloading boats and screening $10, 500 00 5,660 42 Which— 5,000 = $1.13. 11 : or $1.13i per ton for 100 miles. The above statements are made from actual per- formance on the rail road and canals referred to, and the expense thus ascertained for transporting on the canal, viz.: 95' cents per ton for 100 niiles, is almost })rccisely the same that is paid for boating coal on the Lehigh and Delaware canals, exclusive of the charge for loading and unloading, which is paid for in addition. Yours, &c. I. oxALis CRENATA, u new cuUnary vegetable. From the New England Farmer. " This plant is cultivated abundantly in the gar- dens aliout Lima as a salad, for which purpose its succulent stems and acid flavor seem strongly to recommend it. It grows freely in our open bor- ders, is readily increased by cutting as well as by its tubers, which require to be taken up and pre- served from frost in the manner potatoes are. The tubers are produced in considerable plenty, and aie often two inches long, and an inch in diameter. When raw they are slightly sub-acid; but on be- ing boiled they lose this acidity entirely, and taste very much like the potato, for which they might form an agreeable substitute at the tables of the curious." FARMERS' REGISTER- CLOVER— RICE MILL— CROWS, &c. 687 The follovvina: acUliiional dclails, the result of further experiments, are from the pen of James Mitchell, Esq. under date of January 10th, 1833 : " I was one of a parly where some tuliers of this plant were cooked, by boiiinp; for ten minutes, and they were on trial, declared liy all present to be more ao;reedble in their flavor than the common potato. It is not possible to <^ive an idea of the flavor in words; but if I were to attempt it, I should say it was that of the potato slightly com- bined with the chesnut. I have been informed that the tuber of the oxalis crenata was broujiht from South America by Mr. David Douglass, and was planted in 1831, by Mr. Lambert. One of the tubers obtained from Mr. Lambeit was plant- ed by Mr. Hirst in a pot in the green-house, in the end of April last, and in the month of May, the pot was removed to the flower garden, and broken, and the ])arts removed. It was first planted in the green-house as a security against frost; but this appears _to have been unriecessary, as tiie i)lant has stood the frost remarkably well, and the leaves on the 5th instant, before the tubers were dug up, were quite green. The ful)er j)lanted was less than an ounce in weight, and the tubers produced were more than ninety in numl^cr, and weighed altogether upwards of four pounds. They were in a space the diameter of which was nine inches and the depth six. The stems were between twenty and thirty in number, succulent, and of a reddish color. The flowers appeared in August, and consisted of five petals, crenate at the edge, and of a yellow color. The leaves are trifoliate ; the leaflets are inversely heart-shaped. "The experimentof cultivating tiiis tuber may be considered as hitherto very successful, and when we consider that the common potato was long confined to gardens, producing roots which were exceedingly small, and was far less promis- ing than the oxalis crenata at present appears, we may reasonably anticipate that it may prove a valuable addition to our culinary vegetables, and that by skilful management the tubers may be greatly increased in size." CLOVER SOWKD AMOIVG CORN. Extract from the Ameriran Farmer. An experiment of this kind was made very suc- cessfully by a friend of mine, who sowed red clover among his corn; after going through with thecul- tivator the last time, the seed v/as protected from the heat of the sun by the corn, it consequently vegetated very soon, and after the corn was cut off, there was a luxuriant growth of clover, which afforded fine pasture for several successive seasons. The red clover is an excellent manure. I have raised a fine crop of wheat, by ploughing in the second growth after harvest ; it is probable it may not suit the climate or soil of your subscriber, if so there may be other grass more congenial to it, which would answer the same end. EXTIRPATING RATS AND BITCE. From the Farmers' Journal. Lay bird lime in their haunts, fi^r though they are dirty enough in other respects, yet being very curious of their fur, if it is but daubed with this stuff, it is so troublesome to them, that they will even scratch their skins from off their own backs to get it off; and will never abide in the place where they have suffered in this manner. RICE MILL. From the Bristnn Courier. AiTiong the inventions and improvementsof the age, the patent Rice Mill is destined to take an imi)ortant rank, whether it be considered as a labor saving machine, or as a means of giving in- creased value to an article of food. This M ill was invented and patented bv a gentleman of North- ampton. John Prince, Esq. of Roxbury, has re- cently erected one at South Boston, which is now in operation, and completely justifies the expecta- tions of the proprietor. The process of hulling and cleansing Rice, as practiced in the rice-grow- ing regions, has always been expensive, trouble- some and imperfect. It is performed at Mr. Prince's Mill witii great rapidity, and to a degree of perfijction that will establish the value of the ar- ticle beyond comparison, above that cleansed in the ordinary way. The machinery is moved by steam jiower. The grain is placed in the mill in its rough state, and passes through the various stages of the hulling and cleansing process, from ho|)per to hopper, without tlie intervention of man- ual labor of any sort, till it is delivered in its most perfect condition, fit for use. There is a separate mill for grinding the grain into flour. We understand that the patentee has erected, or is about erecting, one of his mills at Wilming- ton, and another at Charleston. There is no doul)t that it will speedily supersede the present mode of preparing rice for the market, which is by pounding. When it is considered that rice furnishes not merely a cheap and wholesome food, but enters into the composition of many of the luxuries of the table as a principal ingredient, this improve- ment must be viewed as one of great miportance and the enterprising proprietor of the mill at S. Boston may claim consideration as a public bene- factor. DESTRUCTION OF CROWS. From the Maijazine of Natural History. It is stated in one of the Perthshire newspapers, that not less than 27,000 crows were destroyed this season at Dupplin by the demolition of be- tween 11,000 and 12,000 nests; and all this was performed by contract for the sum of twenty-five pounds sterling. — [Anon, June 25, 1833.] In opposition to the spirit of persecution dis- played in the above remarks, against the rook, and other birds — " vermin," as the writer calls them, — we present a short extract from a notice of some length, on the usefulness of the rook, which has been published in the Magazine of Natural History, vol. vi. pp. 142, 143. " In the neigborhood of my native place, in the county of York, is a rookery belonging to Wm. Vavasour, Esq., of Weston, in Wharfdale, in which it is estimated that there are 10,000 rooks, that 1 lb. of food a week is a very moderate allow- ance for each bird, and that nine tenths of their food consist of worms, insects and their larvag ; for, although they do considerable damage to the fields for a few weeks in seed time and a few weeks in harvest, particularly in backward seasons, yet a very large proportion of their food, even at these seasons, consists of insects and worms, which (if we except a few acorns and walnuts in autumn) compose at all other times the whole of their sub- sistence. Here, then, if my data be correct, there 688 FARMERS' REGISTER— EMANCIPATION POLICY OF GREAT BRITAIN. is the enormous quantity of 468,000 lbs. or 209 tons of worms, insects and their larvje, destroyed by the rooks of a sin<:,le rookery : to every one who knows how very destructive to vei^etation are the larvae of tlie tribes of insects, as well as worms, fed upon by rooks, some slight idea may be formed of the devastation whicli rooks are the means of preventing." EMArJCIPATICN POLICY OF GREAT BRITAN. From Napier's late work on "The Coloriie.-s &c." ' An expedition having been sent toact along the coast of America, in the year 1S13 ; it was ob- served that the cruelty of the masters to their slaves had produced, in the latter, such despair that they were ready to revolt. And, that by taking advantage of this spirit, we might have shaken the confederal ion of the United States to its very foundation ; but to accomplish tliis, it would have been necessary to change our predato- ry, I must say, on some occasions, not very credi- table attacks, into a general plan of hostility, that would have produced decisive results. The plan proposed, was to land a great number of officers, with black non-commissioned officers, and pri- vates of the West India regiments, who would assemble the revolters in Carolina, Maryland, and Virginia : these Stales are said to contain about a million and a half of slaves; and out of these we might probably have formed a force of two hundred thousand able bodied soldiers, ])erfect- ly obedient, and detesting the enemy : with these, united to whatever British force might be sent to join them, we could have seized tiie whole of the Delaware Country; fortified the Isthmus between Elkton and Newport, and landed cannon from our fleet, which, divided into two large squadrons, would sail, the one u[) the Chesapeake Bay ; the other up the Delaware River, and thus sustain the flanks of the army.' ' Such a force, and so placed, close to the ene- my's capital, must have brought the whole of the American regular forces, tumiiling down from the north, hotly pursued by our Canadian army, with which, at that moment, they were fiercely en- gaged. This plan of campaign involved conside- rable, but not insuperable, difficulties; the chief of these were : — • 1°. The formation of the black army.' '2'^. The feeding and other supplies.' '3°. The throwing up the lines.' 'On which three points it was observed,' ' jFirst. — That this spirit of animosity which in- flamed the iilacks, would in those countries, where the white population is so thin, enable such a vast body of slaves quickly to assemble, that for a long time the American forces could not be collected in sufficient numbers to attack the revolted negroes. The latter are perfectly acquainted with the coun- try, and while accustomed to undergo every hard- ship, well knew where all the i)rovisions were to be found. The negroes are patient of discipline, proud of being soldiers, quick to learn military movements, and brave. They would have been placed between the sea and the gallows; strong stimulants to make men fight.' ' Secondly, — The whole American coast is full of provisions ; all must have fallen into the power of the blacks ; the white population must have fled in terror; a large British fleet would have sup- plied arms and ammunition.' ' Thirdly. — Where wood alwunds, defensive works are not difficult to form ; the negroes are strong, and inured to severe labor; an army of such men can, by their labors, produce extraor- dinary effects in a short time. We know what Caesar did iietween Jura and Geneva, and at Ale- sia. If Wellington worked more slowly at Tor- res Vedras, it was because he was waging war against a superior force far in front; had his lines been his primar)'^, instead of his secondary, object, he would have put a great force of men to work ; and the relative merit of rapidity in their construction would have been added to his renown. These are all great examples, and might have been followed in America. Assuredly they could, and the re- sult of having such an army entrenched close to the capital, would probably have obliged the Ame- ricans to make peace.' ' Why, then, was not this plan adopted.' Two reasons were ofiven as conclusive against it.' ' 1°. That we should not know what to do with this army of Blacks when the war was over. An objection much too foolish to require an an- swer ' ' 2°. That it would give a bad example to our own slaves in the West Indies. This was the true reason, and in it we behold the timidity of con- scious injustice, and its invariable weakness. Some good people, also, trembled for the throats of the American slave-holders, but on their account there was little to be apprehended. There were ample means of preventing a general slaughter of the whites, but if, in a few instances, some murders should have occurred, for in war blood must be spilled, still the real authors of such a mis- fortune would have been those who made, not those who freed the slaves I Had the above pro- ject been adopted by the British Ministry, Ame- rica would probably have made peace; on unfa- vorable terms for the moment perhaps, but she must eventually have become more strong, as sla- very would have been rooted out for ever from the land, to which it is, if possible, a greater disgrace than to any other; a disgrace that most Ameri- cans are ashamed of: they feel that it is not very consistent to hear the Carolinians in the slave- market of Charleston haranguing upon liberty and equality ! ' ' We shall, probably someday, have a war with America, and if that day dawns upon a million of black slaves there, woe to Carolina, Virginia and Maryland I either the justice of the British people, or the gallantry of the blacks themselves, will soon free England from the infamy of this accursed traffic; and, when we have no slaves ourselves, the British Government will think it very right to excite the American negroes to revolt. Slave- ry is to America, what Ireland is to Great Bri- tain, her weak point, and the game which France may play against England, England will play against America.' ' America has, however, one great advantage over England, her slaves are but one million. The Irish are seven, whose sufferings are daily increasing; they desire to separate themselves from England. " But since the Coercion Bill, she is quiet," say many people ; yes, she is quiet, and so is the powder magazine at Woolwich!' [Tlie fcM-egoing extract appears in the last number of the Westminster Review, without comment— and FARMERS' REGISTER— PINE LEAVES &c. FOR MANURE. 689 tlierefore, it may be inferred from the reputation of that Journal, as well as from that of the author q uoted, that the scheme there described was actually planned, and merely not attempted, because the execution was deemed detrimental to English interests. The-statement pre- sents a piece of secret history especially deserving the attention of the agriculturists and slave-holders of the Southern States. If the scheme had been attempted, it might have produced great evils — but its failure would have been as signal, as the iniqviity and folly of its con- trivers. If the subject was not so serious, the cool and straight forward manner in wliich the author treats il would be calculated to amuse the reader. With all the intolerance of a bigot and a partizan, he so liates negro slavery, that he deems any means right and proper that oppose it. But your thorough philanthropist is not daunted by the greatest conceivable amount of human misery that may possibly serve to promote his fiivorite seh'emes for increasing human happiness. There are unfortunately many fanatics in our own country, who equal Col. Napier in this respect, as much as they are beneath him in others. For this, and for other extracts from the Westmin- ster and Foreign Gtuarterly Reviews, we are indebted to the republication of those valuable periodicals by Condy Raguet, Esq. of Philadelphia, who has thus fa- vored the reading public by furnishing those works at less than half the price of English cojjies, and with more sjieed and certainty, of delivery, than could possibly bt effected from abroad. It is gratifying to learn that the value of this republication has been properly estimated by literary men, and that the public spirited publishei will be rewarded for his undertaking. Articles in the Westminster Review especially (as the foregoing ex- tract for example) are often decidedly opposed to th( opinions, the acts, or the interests, of the people of the United States. Nevertheless) good policy requires that we should know what our enemies say of us, if they are intelligent, and their writings have extensive influ- ence ; and our countrymen will have but small oppor- tunity of being instructed, who are too sensitive to read any thing that is opposed to their self-love and national prejudices, or even to their most correct opinions, and most valued institutions.] ON PINE LEAVKS AND OTHER WOODS LIT- TER, FOR MANURE. To the Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. Amelia, March 15, 1834. Since the first number of the Register was pub- lished, I have looked anxiously to see, if some one, qualified by his own experience, would not give us his thoughts on, and practice in, the use of lit- ter from the woods, as a material for manure. But as no one has done it, and as 1 hold, that every thing done by a farmer, for the improvement of his land, (as soon as in his opinion it is worthy of imitation,) should be considered common property, I send you this communication on that subject. And if it should be the means of improving one single acre of worn-out land, I shall consider the time bestowed in writing it, as well spent. For three years, I have been in the habit of using pine tags as litter in my iarmyard, and occasionally in my stable, both in the winter and summer ; and have been enabled, l)y that Vol. 1.— 87 means, to manure more than double the land, Avith the same hands, I could have manured with the litter from tlie cro])S, unaided by that resource. xls to the cost of raking, hauling, &c., t consider it so small, as not to be worth mentioning ; for this is done, generally, when the ground is too wet to do any other work. The horses and hands must be led, whether they work or not. The benefit of this, as raw material, must, of course, depend on the distance which it is to be hauled to the farmyard, and the quantity and quality of the ma- nure it makes after you get it there. In the pre- sent state of our country, every farmer above tide water, should think his manure a subject of very great importance. lie should not only use all means to malic it, but should so arrange his fields, as to afford every hicility in applying it. To en- sure a supply of litter, I have kept a body of pine woods within a few hundred yards of my standing pen, into which a single cart, can, in a day, bring twenty loads of litter, when properly attended to. This quantity of litter, with the dung from twenty- five or thirty head of cattle, would top-dress three acres of land for wheat or clover, in lour or five weeks. But if the pen was broken up, or loam I'rom the corners of fences thrown over it, before the litter was put on, the quantity of manure would be much increased : for then the earth would absorb the urine and rain-water, which might oth- erwise pass off — and no top-dressing, that ever I have tried, is better for wheat or clover, than the earth itself so saturated. To dig up loam, and bring it to a standing pen, may be thought too troublesome by many ; but those farmers, who admit the word trouble in their vocabulary, are not likely to do much, in the present state of things, for our w orn-out lands. I make three parcels of manure each year. The first of November, or as soon as my wheat is sown, I begin to haul litter to my standing pen, and put my cattle on it. It often happens, that there is no necessity for feeding them, until the first of De- cember ; but whenever it becomes necessary, I begin with straw, shucks, &c., reserving the corn- stalks for a future occasion. During the winter, I take every opportunity of increasing the quanti- ty of litter in this pen, and never haul any out un- til the first of March. I then carry the whole on the field I mean to fallow in the summer, or fall, for wheat, and scatter it on the land. I used to apply this half-rotted stuff to the field I was pre- })aring for corn. I will never do it again. As soon as I begin to take off this winter crop of manure, I bring on t')e corn-stalks ; as they will })erform the double duty of food and litter. In this way, by the last of JMarch, all the manure made during the winter, is carried on the land, and the same pen again deeply covered with stalks and lit- ter from the woods. My reason for using the corn stalks at so late a period, is this ; that in making manure during the summer, we should carefully avoid excessive fei'mentation in fhe first place, and hasty rains passing through the litter, and carrying its most valuable qualities off. With stalks thickly spread, the last injury is seldom felt, and they are less liai)le to loss from the first, than any tiling I have ever used. The cattle are kept on tliis pen until July, when I clean it up and car- ry its contents on the same field. Some short time before the manure is moved from the second pen, I make a pen in the fallo'.v field, or as near it 690 FARMERS' REGISTER— PINE LEAVES &c.— AGRICULTURE. as I can, and litter it almost exclusively with pine lao;s — (you must allow me the use of this term) on this, the cattle are kept until November; and tlic manure made, is used as top-dressing for wheat. All my efforts have been directed, for three years, to the crops of Avheat and clover. I apply my ma- nure to the surface, at the rate of a one-horse cart load to seven yards square. You will see, that I never use the litter, without first pcnnino- on it, nor pen the cattle without the litter. I cannot illus- trate my idea of the use of either of these means of improving our land taken singly, more aptly, than by supposing a j)erson to be so opposed to labor of every kind, that he would stick pieces of raw cotton over his body, and assert, " that cotton so used, formed a most comfortable shirt." My land was laid off in four fields, some years ago : but as I had it all to clear, the fields were so small, (and indeed are now,) as not to entitle them to that distinction ; containing not more than thirty acres each. This plan was adopted, that one of these little fields might be fallowed for wheat; and it Avas thought, that if the field to be fallowed could be manured, good crops might be expected ; and that the land would certainly improve. In the commencement, I was so much afraid that the field for corn would be reduced too much by that crop, to bring good clover, that I applied the manure I then made to that crop; and by that act of folly, lost half its val- ue. 1 am now, as stated above, putting it on the fiillow field, all of which, I do not expect to ma- nure, as 1 have been able, hitherto, only to get over about twenty acres a year. The last crop of wheat was the oidy one from which I could have formed a just estimate of my plan, (which is the one lately recommended by Mr. Carter.) And although it was destroyed by the unfiivorable sea- son, and the fly, yet it proved to me, beyond a doubt, that the quality of ray manure was good. During the whole spring, the crop on the manured land looked fifty per cent, better than it did on the land adjoining; and at harvest, the difference was as strongly marked. To facilitate the carriage of the manure to each field, they were so arranged, as to meet at the farm-yard ; by which means, its contents would never be carried through one field into another ; nor would it be carted a greater distance one year than another. When I first resolved to improve my land from the farm-yard, I began with the plan recommended by Cobbett, in his work on gardening — which is, to place layers of different manures, and loam, al- ternately, on each other. In this way a mound is raised which is to be covered entirely with loam, -when it is finislied; and to remain with this cov- ering unbroken, until a short time before it is to be used. It is then dug down and mixed from top to bottom ; and in a week or ten days after, is de- lightful dressing for every |)laut on which I have ever tried it. The labor of bringing the loam to- gether, (after the corners of the fences near the heaps had been exhausted,) induced me to use lit- ter from the woods. In my situation, which is peculiar, more manure can be made from the woods, in the same time, than could be made on his plan, and therefore I have abandoned it. It might be practised with great profit on many farms in this county ; on those, especially, on which there is a scarcity of woodland; and this remnant the owners are cutting down. The same hands can manure double the land they can clear, even under bad management. I know this to be a fact fi-om my own experience ; and I think I follow the best rule that ever has been given on that sub- ject, that is, to keep sharp grubbing hoes and axes, lose not a mouient, and, when at work, tofoy on with all your might. The small size of my fields obliges me still to clear as much land every year as I can ; though that is but little, for the hands I work are not equal to four good negro men. If the time occupied in clearing was taken up exclusively in making manure, I am sure, I would get over thirty acres with more ease than I now do twenty. I have mentioned the size of my fields, and the labor bestowed on them, for this reason— that when a system of improvement is recommended by a wealthy man, those whose farms are small, and force weak, think they have no part in the matter — and that he is able to do this thing from his superior means. Now the peo- ple \vho are most benefitted from such a plan as Mr. Carter's, in proportion to means, are the small farmers; a class of citizens so respectable, that to be one of tbe.m, I have always been well content to be a diminutive myself. My fields are well set in clover, and have been sown as soon as each succeeding clearing had been in cultivation sufficiently long to receive it, though they have not received the full benefit of this inestimable grass. The number of hogs sold in Virginia from the Western States, induced me to try and set my neighbors an example, that, if fol- lowed, would at least exempt us from this tax. With this view, I increased my stock of hogs; and as I wanted to prove, that any quantity could be raised without corn for six months in the year, I was obliged to graze them on my clover, from the 20th of May, until they came to the fattening pen. They gleaned the wheat field after the crop was taken off. The experiment succeeded admira- bly. Mine is not what is called corn-land, but I consider the product, one year with another, four barrels to the acre. I am very much pleased with the appearance of the growing crop of wheat; and if every head of it is injured by an unfavorable season, I should contiime my plan. It may not be imj)ropcr to state, that I have no f(?ar of sorrel from pine tags, when used as litter for stock. I top-dressed a small piece of sorrel, (all I could find) on land also well set in clover ; and the clo- ver had nearly extirpated it, early in the summer. By the way, as a word at parting, more Irish po- tatoes (good food for man and beast,) can be raised under a covering of pine tags, than I have ever seen raised in any oilier way, and the quality better. My cattle never run on my cultivated land, but graze the deserted fields around me, which are very extensive. In their office as scavengers con- sists their principal value, though they furnish an abundant supply of milk, butter, and beef, and (as you may well suppose under this management,) oi leather too. Very respectfully, JOHN P. BOLLING. For the Farmers' Register. ON THE NECESSITY, AND MEANS, FOR LEG- ISLATIVE AID TO AGRICULTURE. I have been much gratified in reading the va- - J rious pieces which have appeared in the Farmers' | Register, calling on the Legislature to extend the aid of government for the inijirovcment of agricul- ture. But the gratification \vas caused, altogether, FARMERS' REGISTER— LEGISLATIVE AID TO AGRICULTURE. 691 by observing such indications of growing public opinion — and not in the slightest degree lioai sup- posing that such appeals to members of the legisla- ture could have any direct effect. The members of the General Assembly of Virginia, are peculiar- ly the agents of their constituents. It may be questioned^ whether this is more owing to any pecu- liarity of our form of governmentj or to the stubborn independence of the body of the people ; but the effect is not the less certani. Our representatives do not lead, but follow, tiie wishes of their constitu- ents. Whatever talent and boldness a member may display, in advocating any new measure, is, in general, merely a zealous performance of the wishes — or expression of the tcelings of his con- stituents : and if one dares to precede his county- men in making an important decision, whether he is right or wrong, he will, in most cases, thereby incur their displeasure, and fbrfisit his place as their representative. This state of things is ac- companied with many good, but also, with some inconvenient effects — and one ot the latter, is, tliat the legislature must always act as if behind the people in intelligence, and wait for the popular im- pulse to direct every new and important public measure. The members certainly possess, and ex- eri, great influence in producing such measures — but they use this influence at home, and in their pri- vate character — and not as legislators, until (hey feel assured that the}^ will be sustained in, (if they are not urged to) the course, as a matter of state poli- cy. Entertaining these views, I believe that if every member a[)proved the changes proposed in our legal policy by different contributors to the Farmers' Register, for the benefit of agriculture, that no such enactments would be made, nor even proposed in the legislature, until the people had been induced to think, and were ready to act, on such subjects. Let us then address ourselves to the people. Let every man, who wishes the adoption of any legislative measures for the aid of agricultural improvement, use his influence among his neighbors, as well as by publication; and there can be little doubt of the success of what is so rea- sonable in itself, and promises such general and important advantage to the commonwealth, and to every individual tiller of the soil. Let us set on foot agricultural societies, if possible, in every county, so constituted, as to engage the interest, and secure the co-operation of f;\rmers of every class — and through them, let the wants of agricul- ture be ascertained, and made known to our legis- lature. The agricultural interest in Virginia, and the people, are the same body. The advantage of the one, cannot, by possibility, be made injurious to the otiier — and agriculture has only to know and declare her wants, to meet with pron)pt and implicit obedience. If the sum of ten thousand dollars a year was appropriated to aid the improve- ment of agriculture, every cent would be drawn from the pockets of the same class that would re- ceive the benefit : and to whatever extent such appropriations may be made, it will only be a use, made by the great body of the people, of' their own money, for their own advantage. Heretofore, the agricultural interest has been taxed for the support of every other — directly or indii-ectly — by the state, and (far more) by the federal government. But though the agricultural interest pays all such taxes, and all cost of protecting other interests, and possesses the power, as well as the right, to direct, restrain, or refuse all such grants, not the smallest pittance of this lavish bounty has l.ieen yet bestowed on agriculture itself I shall exhibit in a series of short articles, (to which this is introductory,) my views on the va- rious sulyects which require legislative interposi- tion for the benefit of agriculture, in Virginia. In aid of this efibrt, I earnestly invite others, who en- tertain the same general views, even though we may differ as to particular objects. I shall not offer any general plan ; but will consider the ele- ments out of which a general plan may be formed : and without being very choice as to the compara- tive values of the means, I shall be satisfied with the adoption of any that will serve to bring forth, embody, and make public, the opinions, feelings, and supposed interests of the great body of the ag- riculturists of Virginia. If this can be done, no- thing will long be wanting that legislation can sup- ply. My object is, to induce reflection and discus- sion upon this important subject — and therefore, every important aid to agriculture, which govern- ment may use, will be separately named, without undertaking to decide on their comparative value and importance. And as the means are many and distinct, I shall be gratifiedif other correspondents of the Farmers' Register will aid and lighten the labor, by setting forth their views on any of these means — which in my opinion, are the following: L County Agricultural Societies, so constituted, as to embrace the great body of practical fiirmers, as well as all other friends to agriculture — each society to receive from the treasury of the state, a certain sum, in aid of its objects; upon the condition, that as much more has been paid by the individual members. 2. A Board of Agriculture, to be composed part- ly of delegates, chosen by the county societies, and partly of members appointed by the state ex- ecutive— which, besides performing the service of a state agricultural society, would report to the legislature Avhatever was required for the relief, or promotioji, of agricultural interests. This general organization would serve grftdu- ally to bring forward every measure that would be desirable and inqwrtant. But, (in pursuance of my object of inviting reflection and discussion,) I will state some of the most important means which might be used to improve the practice, and extend the knowledge of agriculture. 3. Agricultural schools, in which both the prin- ciples of the science should be taught, and the ac- tual labors performed. Possibly, a professorship of scientific agi-iculture might be advantageously added to the University of Virginia. 4. Premiums to be conferred according to a general system, to lie fixed by the Board of Agri- culture— the premiums to be given for such ex- periments, or operations, as served to establish val- uable truths, or to remove errors. Any appropri- ation for this purpose, properly bestowed, would return a tenfold remuneration to the community. 5. An experimental farm — which necessarily would be attended with far more cost than pecu- niary profit, even though the results of the experi- ments might be of incalculable value to agricul- ture. 6. A model, or pattern farm, on which no ex- periments should be made, but only a well tried and approved system carried into effect, with the best means, and in the most perfect manner. 692 FARMERS' REGISTER— WATER RACKS. 7. The general dissemination of periodical pub- lications on agriculture and rural economy. R. N. ON THE PROPER CONSTRUCTION AND FIXING OF WATER RACKS, SO AS TO PREVENT ANI- MALS FR03I PASSING THE WATER GAPS. From the Soiithei-n Asjriculwrist. " Hockey Grove Abbeville District, } Juhj 1, 1832. 5 Dear Sir, — The upper part of Soutli-Carolina being very hilly, and the rivers, creeks, and small branches, or runs of water, finding their way to the .ocean between hills ofconsiderable height and steep- ness, the'natural consequence is, lliat after every rain the smaller creeks and branches rise so i-apidly and so high that no fence built across them can be kept up. From this feature in the fl\ce of tiie country, another consequence is, that so many small branch- es or runs of water exist throughout it, that there are few planters or farmers to be found, through. some of whose fields these water-courses do not pass. As fences cannot be kept across them, and as it would be not only very laborious to build fences on each side, but destructive to the rail- timber, and prevent mucli valuable land from be- ing brought into cultivation ; tlie agriculturists of the upper country adojjt the plan oi'buikling their fences only to the edges of the water-courses, (commonly called water-gaps) at the spot where they enter and pass out of ihe field, and then close these water-gaps, by hanging racks across them, the rounds of which, whilst they are placed sutfi- ciently near to each otlier to keep out hogs, yet let the ordinary water aiul much loose trash pass be- tween them. But from the great and rapid rise of the water after a rain, large logs and dead trees are brought down these water-courses, which but too oiten sweep away these racks, and often the logs also to which they are hung, and thus, as well as by sometimes lodging under the rack and pre- venting it irom swinging back to its place, or in some otlier way leave an opening, through which, hogs especially, and sometimes perhaps, other stock get into the fields. This inconvenience, (or rather evil,) from sad experience, I know to be great, ior I have no less than six of these water- gaps to combat with, and v/ill soon add two more and it requires the experience of years to enable an upper country planter or farmer, (especially one who has recently become so from having lived llie early part of his life in the lower country, the flatness of which exempts them from this pertijct pest,) to give to these water-gaps even a tolerable degree of security against hogs. When I first settled up here, I listened with some surprise to the account of ditficulties my kind '.icighbora told me my water-gaps would give me ; but I soon ibund that these water-gaps were some- thing more than bugbears. I adopted the plan re- ■^'onaiiended to me of fixing tlie logs to whicli the rack wei-e t& be suspended as high as I well could, inai the drift timber might pass under tliem, and tliejr raising the racks swung to these logs, pass under them also, permitting my racks to swing back to their places. Alas ! my water-gaps con- tinued for years to occasion me no little vexation, trouble,, and some loss ; and at last, and not until within a year or two back, I found 1 had gone ex- actly the wrong way to work. One of the most intelligent and respectable of my neighbors, who to use his own language, " bad " served an apprenticeship all his life in trying to " make water gaps secure against hogs," told me, upon hearing me utter some doleful con)})laints against the unfaithfulness of my water-gaps; " In- " stead of fixing your logs or timber to which your " racks are hung high, you ought to place them as " low as possible; for by so doing, from the rapid " rising of the waters your log will be covered be- " fore the creek has risen high enough to float this •'' dri("t lundier from the place it occupies, which " will, therefore, when it reaches your water-gap, " pass harmlessly over log and rack ; whereas fix " your log as high as you may, you can hardly ex- " pect to get it out of the reach of high freshes, and " even if you could, some one piece or other of the "drift tindDer in passing under your rack, will at " times be caught by it, or the vines by which it " swings by a limb or prong, which will stop more 'timber and form a raft whose weight forced on " by a rapid current will tear away your rack, se- " cure it as well as you may," &c. &c. We then discussed at length the best mode of preventing hogs from pushing aside the rack sufficiently to get into the field, or from getting under it by rais- ing it, or diving under it, &c. during which con- versation I got much useful information, which has enabled me since, much better than formerly, though not altogether, yet, to make my water-gaps tolerably secure. As one of the objects of your useful journal is to enable some to avoid " wasting their time and " labor in endeavoring to discover what others al- " ready know," 1 will tell you how, after eleven years experience, I have been best able to secure my water- gaps, even at the risk of being tliought a very dull follow from not purusing my present course from tlie very start. A rack for a water- gap should be made, the bottom and top pieces of green limber, and not too heav}', the rounds of seasoned heart oak-timber, if to be had. To make a water-rack, (the common plirase) procure a young oak tree of the length and size wanted. If you are very nice about it you may square it with a broad-axe, or only flatten two sides of it with your axe and carry it to the water-gap ; there bore holes through it ^vith an inch and a quarter, or an inch and a half auger, four and a half inches apart from centre to centre, then split it open so as to form the top and l)ottom parts of the rack out of it. After you have put in tlie rounds, wedge each one well both at top and bottom, and let them be of such a length that when the rack is finished, it will be from top to bottom three feet high. A water- rack ought not to exceed 20 to 25 feet in length; if the water-gap is wider than that, make two racks, and in swinging them, lap one about two feet over the other, but do not fasten them together, unless your hogs have become so knowing as to force their way between them, for the easier and lighter your rack swings the more likely is it to ansvv'er its purpose. The log or piece of timber which you intend to lay across the water-course to swing the rack to, should be a good stout one, should not be more than eight inches or a foot abo\e the top of the rack, should lie level, and the ends be well weighed down with rock, or otherwise se- cured to prevent the water when it rises from car- rying it off. If the banks of the water-course are high, sink the ends of your log or piece of timber FARMERS' REGISTER— BEET-ROOT SUGAR. G93 in them J wliicli should be laic! across the stream as low as possible, so as to allow the rising waters quickly to get above it; for when that occurs, the danger of losing your rack or log is greatly les- sened. Swing your rack by tying it to the log in at least three places. If you use grape or musca- dine vines lor this purpose, do not twist them as you would do a hickory withe ; if you do, tiiey will last but a short lime. Your water-rack at the upper water-gap, where the stream enters the field, must not rest on the bottom, whilst your water-rack at the lower water-gap, where the stream passes out of the lield should rest on the bottom, so that the rack will hang with its top a little higher up stream than its bottom. It' you or your neighbors own any learned hogs, drive down between the two rounds of the water-rack next to the bank of the stream, a stake, in size one-third less than tlie space between the two rounds, tiriidy into the bot- tom of the water-course, and tie it at the top to the log to which the rack swings, but do not let the top of the stake be any higher than the top of the log, or it may stop sonie drift timber, form a raft, and » away goes every thing : this stake will jjrevent the hogs from pushing the rack one side and passing through the gap. To prevent hogs from entering your fields by raising the rack, weigh it down by securing to the bottom of it a green log, but do nothing to it, which will prevent the rack from floating or rising as the waters rise, or it will be carried away by water soaked logs, which are swept along at the bottom of the v/ater-course, &c. If the hogs dive under your rack where the water is too deep to allow you to sink your rack sufli- ciently deep to- stop them, which some become sufficiently learned to do, tie a green log to the bottom of the rack, and let it hang down, leaving from four to six inches between it and tiie rack, into which space the hogs will run their snouts, become perplexed and turn back. But do not re- sort either to the stake or green log unless it be- comes necessary, lor the freer and lighter your rack swings the better. A water-rack if made out of the materials above directed will last very well for two years, but do not trust to it the third, or you may rue it. If you discover an old sinner climbing over your water-rack, shoot it — shoot it, no matter whose hog- it may be, for such a one is hostis humani generis. Be careful after every rise of the water-course to examine your water-gaps, for your hogs will search it it you do not, and if they once fmd their way into your fields of grain by the water-gap, it is very dilFicult afterwards to keep them out. As simple as all this seems, it would have been very useful knowledge to me, when I first took charge of an upper country plantation, and so may per- haps be useful to some one else. But as 1 have not yet been able to make my water-gaps perfectly secure, perhaps some of your readers may know how to fix them better than I do, for informa- tion on which subject 1 should be thankful. Yours, respectfully, tmojias pakkku. BEET-ROOT SUGAR. From [he Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. It is well known that, during the latter years of the late war, in consequence of the French colo nies having been captured by Great Britain, sugar was manufactured in considerable quantities in France, from beet-root; indeed, nearly the whole consumption was obtained from this source. Du- ring the war the manufacturers flourished, but as soon as the peace of 1810 took place, and caused the sudden introduction of West India sugar through Holland, they were ruined by the compa- ratively low price at which tlie foreign sugars were introduced, in consequence of the necessity which the government felt ot relaxing its rigorous decrees against foreign commerce. As, however, the price of foreign sugar rose again after the peace of Eu- rope was established, several of the old beet-root sugar manufactories of France were re-opened, and profitably worke 1, as the supply of the French colo- nies was not adequate to the increasing consump- tion; and the duty upon the foreign growth being about 3^d. per pound, whilst the sugar made in the French colonics was also charged with a duty of about l^d. per ])0und. The manufactories are daily increasmg, and it seems probable that the consump- tion of sugar on the Continent will be soon entirely confined to that obtained from beet-root. One u^anufactory at Ai-ras furnished, 1827, one hundred thousand kilogrammes of this article; and beet- root sugar seems likely soon to exercise some influ- ence over the commerce of Europe. The con- sumption of sugar in France is estimated at about eighty millions of kilogrammes annually ; and, if tlie home manufiictory continues to receive as much encouragement as it has hitherto done, France will shortly grow upon her own soil, most of the sugar she consumes. In this country, tlie beet- root may be procured as cheap as in France ; and as the cost of fuel for the manufacture would be much less, it would seem to be a profitable article of cultivation to the agriculturist, particularly as the sugar imported from the British West Indian colonies pays a duty of nearly 3d. per pound. Af- ter tiie juice has been extracted, the pulp is used for feeding cattle, for which it makes a good winter food. On the continent, the farmers mix a small quantity of flax-seed cake with tlie root, to make it more nourishing. The manufacture of beet-root sugar is now per- fectly established in France. In the departments of the Soame and of the Pas de Calais alone, there are above twenty establishments on a large scale making sugar. The cultivation of beet-root by the small proprietors of land for sale, to the sugar- makers, is a regular and common branch of hus- bandry; and, in those departments, if we are not misinlbrmed, sugar is not only made on the large scale by the manufacturers, but by the house-wile of thefurm-house,as a matter of domestic economy, requiring not more skill or trouble than cheese- making or brewing. In France, raw or Musco- vado sugar is not so generally used in that state as in this country. It is more or less refined before it comes into domestic use. The beet-root sugar-makers on the large scale, refine their sugars, therelore, and j)roduce sugar which, for whiteness and l)eauty, is unequalled by the refined sugar we produce from West India raw or Muscovado sugar. Bulk for hulk, however, the refined West India sugar is sweeter than the re- fined beet-root sugar ; but, weight for weight, they are equally sweet. A lump of refined beet-root sugar of the first quality is lighter than a lump of equal dimensions of refined West India sugar, pro- bably [jecause it is more pure and free from extra- neous matter; but a pound weight of beet-root G94 FARMERS' RE GISTER— BEET-ROOT SUGAR— STEAM CARRIAGES. sui^'ar, differs from a pound weij^'lit of West India sugar, only in our receiving more of these liim[)s in our pound weight. If sugar were sold by the cubic inch, beet-i'oot sugar, as comparetl with West India sugar, would be less sweet and less economical in use; but, being sold by the jjound ■weight, it is, for domestic use, oven more economi- cal. From five to seven per ceiit. of raw or Musco- vado sugar api)ears to be the usual produce from a given weight of beet-roots. From a given weight of this raw sugar, forty percent, of the fhiest white refined sugar, with fiflecn per cent, of inferior re- fined sugar, appear to be the (juantities produced; making cibout two pounds and fbur-fiitiisof a pound weight of the finest white refined sugar from each hundred pounds weight of raw beet-roots. The pulp from which the juice is extracted, and the other lesidueof tiie manufacture, are used for feed- ing catilc, and form a very important item in the returns or profit. According to M. Chaptal, the value of the molasses, pulp, &c. is sufficient to co- ver one-fourth of the expense of tlie manufacture. This value must of course depend uj)on the value of butcher-meat, and upon other local circumstan- ces, which are at least as fiivorable in Great Britain as in France to the manufacture. It is not the least promising feature of the manufacture, in the eyes of those who promise themselves great and extraordinary results i'rom it ultimately, that it is thus linked with the ordinary business of hus- bandry ,-^that it offers no excessive rate of profit, — that it operates upon a known root cultivated for feeding cattle, — and that the flirmer, wliether he raises beet-root for feeding cattle, or for sale to the sugar-baker, is cultivating a green crop, which, in liis ordinary rotation of crops, he would at any rate raise on a part of his farm. The beet-root, it may be proper to observe, is the same plant which is cultivated in England under the name of mangel wurtzel. There are varieties of the plant having red, yellow, and white roots, but which appear not to be distinct varieties, as occasionally they re-pro- duce each other. Tli« white beet, liaving firm white brittle roots, is considered the most produc- tive of sugar. BEET-ROOT SUGAR.* From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. The manufacture of beet-root sugar in France has advanced so far, that it presents itself with all the intricacy and imposing development of old es- tablishments, carried on with considerable capital and expensive machiner}'. It is no longer a collec- tion of pots and pans, and tubs and vats, in the cor- ner of an ol distance into four stages of 4^7 miles each, four horses can make three trips daily, and draw a load of 33 cwt. each trip, or very nearly 5 tons daily, or 30 tons weekly. Hence, according to this me- thod, the aggregate of the labor of each horse amounts to above 7 tons weekly. Suppose 16 horses are employed, instead of making them tra- vel 18 miles one day, and return with a load the following, the more advantageous plan is to arrange them in four divisions, and make eacli division travel only 4^ miles in succession. Were this dis- tance divided into six stages, the load might be proportionally increased, with less fatigue to the horses ; for it will invariably be found, that the most profitable mode of applying the labor of horses is to vary their muscular action, and revive its tone by short and frequent intervals of repose. THE COMMON FOWL AND PHEASANT. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. In the autumn of 1826, a wanderer of the phea- sant tribe made his appearance in a small valley of the Grampians, the first of his family who had~ ventured so far noith in that particular district. For some time he was only occasionally observed, and the actual presence of this rara avis was dis- puted by man)' ; wintery wants, however, brought him more frequently into notice; and, in due sea- son, proofs still more unequivocal became rife. When the chicken broods came forth, and began to assume a shape and form, no small admiration was excited by certain stately, long-tailed, game- looking birds, standing forth amongst them, and continuing to grow in size and beauty, until all doubts of the stranger's interference with the rights of chanticleer effectually vanished. These hybrids partake largely of the pheasant character ; and as they are of a goodly size and hardy constitution, a useful and agreeable variety for our poultry yards may be secured in a very simple and economical manner. a. f. THE BEE. • From Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History. I have some experiment hives which enable me very atcurately to inspect the operations of my bees. From the construction of the hives, the combs are necessarily built between two panes of glass, so that on drawing the sliders, the two sur- faces of a comb are exposed to view. In this way I am able to see almost every thing that is going forward. W^hen the queen bee has an inclination to depo- sit her eggs, she goes forth, accompanied by six or eight working bees as a guard, and whose sto- machs are filled with honey. She is very delibe- rate in her motions, and seems to proceed with irreat caution. She ,first looks into a cell, and if she finds it perfectly empty, she draws up her long body, inserts her tail into the cell, and depo- sits an egg. In this way, she slowly proceeds till she has dropped ten or twelve eggs, when perhaps feeling exhausted, she is fed by one of the attend- ant bees, who have surrounded her the whole time. This is done by the bee ejecting the honey from its stomach into the mouth of the queen. When this has been done the bee goes away, and another takes its place. The operation of laying her eggs again goes on, and is succeeded by the 698 FARMERS' REGISTER— THE BEE. same mode of feeding — the altendant bees fre- quently touching the antennae of the queen witli their own. Wlien the operation of laying the eggs is completed — and it generally occupies some time — the queen retires to that part of the hive which is most filled with bees. During her pro- gress the surface of the comb is very little intru- ded upon, and the space seems purposely to be left unoccupied. Some few of the cells, however, in a brood comb, arc passed over by the ciuccn, and are afterwards filled either with honey or iiirina. These serve as deposits of food, from which the neighboring brood may be fed more readily, as such cells are never covered with wax. With the hives referred to, I have been able to follow many of Ruber's experiments, and can bear witness to his general accuracy, except in re- gard to the fecundation of the queen bee. I have bestowed much time and pains in endeavoring to discover any of the circumstances he mentions re- lating to this fact, but without success. Neither have I ever seen a cell visited by one of the drones after the egg had been deposited, which a modern writer has asserted they do. I have for many years watched my hives with the greatest care and assiduity, but have never yet seen the queen bee leave the hive, except at the time of swarming. I have also spoken to several experienced bee mas- ters on the subject, and they are of the same opi- nion with myself— that she never quits it. Her person is so easily distinguished from the other bees, by any one at all conversant with them, that if the queen absented herself from the hive, in the way Huber describes her as doing, it seems next to impossible that she should not have been per- ceived, either on her dei)arturc from, or on her re- turn to, the hive. And yet we have no English writer on bees (and we have many acute and ob- servant ones,) who has even hinted at the proba- bility of the queen's leaving the hive in the man- ner Huber asserts that she does. It is now many years since his work was jjublished, and no part of it is more curious or more satisfactory, if correct, than what he says on the impregnation of the queen bee. Curiosity has in consequence been much excited, and many persons, like myself, have been anxious to ascertain the accuracy of his statements. It does not appear, however, tliat any one in this country iias succeeded in doing this, though we have many very patient observers. Is it probable therefore, that it should have been re- served for Huber alone to ascertain a lact which had e&caped the notice of naturalists, not only for ao"es before, l)ut, what is more important, for years since the publication of it in his work ? It should be recollected also that Huber was blind, or near- ly so, and that he was obliged to rely very much on the reports made to him by his assistant, Bur- the abdominal rings or segments of the bees. This may be also the case, but I have never per- ceived it. The vision of bees seems very imperfect. I have frequently turned a hive, so as to make the entrance about two or three inches from its former position, and have tiien always found the bees at a loss to gain admittance. Indeed they seem more to feel their way than to see it, after they have once landed themselves on the board of their hives. Their progress through the air is always made in a direct line to the hive, and the instinct which enables them to find it, amongst forty oi- fifty oth- ers placed in a row, and nearly similar to each other, is very striking. Mr. Rogers, in his ''Pleasures of Memory," has a pretty idea on this subject ; — repor nens. It is however with considerable diftidence that one would venture to doubt the accuracy of any statement of Huber's, especially when the ob- jection turns, not upon a contradictory circum- stance, but upon what myself and others liave not been able to discover. Wax is a secretion formed under the scales of the back of the insect, from which I have repeat- edly seen it exfoliate in small flakes. A conside- rable degree of heat appears to be necessary to produce this secretion, as I have always observed it most frequent in hot weather. Other writers have maintained that the wax is discharti'ed from "The varied scents that charm'd her as she flew," he thinks might point out the way of her return to the hive. Wasps appear to have a better vision than bees, though it is not easy to assign a reason for this be- ing the case, since the construction of the eyes of both insects seems to be similar. Derham, in his Physico-theology, has observed, in regard to the eye of the bee and wasp," that the cornea and op- tic nerves being always at one and tlie same dis- tance, are fitted only to see distant objects, and not such as are very nigh, and that the eye will be found, on examination, to form a curious lattice- work of several thousand hexagonal lenses, each having a separate optic nerve ministering to it, and, tlicrefore, to be considered as a distinct eye." Wasps, however, certainly seem to alight at the entrance of their nests with m,ore accuracy than bees. I have frequently observed this to be the case, even when the hole of a wasp's nest has been in a grass field, surrounded with long grass. They aliglit at it with the greatest precision, seldom or never going even half an inch eitlier on one side or the otlier of it, and they do this even late in the evening. A hive of bees which have been once much ex- asperated, do not soon forget the injury. This was the case with one of my hives, the bees of which never allowed me for two years to come near them while they were working, without at- tacking me, though a neighlioring hive would al- low me to take almost any liberties with it with imininity. Indeed 1 had familiarized myself so much with some of my bees, that I am convinced they knew me, and they always appeared to dis- tinguish me from strangers. By constantly stand- ing before the mouth of the hive, and allowing vast numbers to fly about and settle upon me, and by frequently feeding them, they became so well acquainted with me, that I had much pleasure in witnessing their attachment, and the confidence they placed in me. This affection was mutual, and I always think with pleasure of the many agreeable hours 1 have passed in company with my bees. Those only can judge of this, who like myself, have witnessed their assiduity, tlieir inter- nal laliors, their affection for their queen, and all the various modes they take in promoting the pros- perity of the community. I always listen to the [)leasing hum of bees with delight, and know of lew sounds more soothing and agreeable. FARMERS' REGISTER— WINTER FOOD OF BIRDS. 699 " Then, cheerful bee, come, freely come, And travel round my woodbine bower! Delight me with thy wandering hum, And rouse me from my musing hour ; Oh ! try no more those tedious fields, Come taste the sweets my garden yields : The treasures of each blooming mine, The bud — the blossom — all are thine." In some papers published a few years ao;o iu the " Plain Englishman,'"' I endeavored to point out the great cruelty of procuring honey by the suifo- cation of l)ces, and the advantage which the bee owner would derive from contenting himself with a part only of their stores. This may be done by placing a small hive glass, or even a flower ])nt,on the top of each hive in April or Slay. These should be of a size to hold about eight or ten pounds' weight of honey ; and in a tolerably good season they will generally be filled, leaving a suf- ficient stock of honey for the bees to subsist upon till the following spring. I am happy to find that this method is more generally practised than it formerly was. By adopting it, the lives of thou- sands of these industrious insects would be saved ; the profits of the bee owner would be much more considerable, and his stock of bees annually in- creased. The summer of the year 1818, I observed be- fore, was unusually dry and hot, and in July, flow- ers of almost every description had entirely dis- appeared. I observed that bees, in consequence of this, seldom left their hives in search of honey, though the weather, one would have thought, would have tempted them out. They seemed, in- deed, to be perfectly aware that their labors would be useless. I recollect meeting with an account of a hive of bees being transported from a distant place, to a spot by the side of a mountain in Italy, where they could procure honey all the year round. Finding this to be the case, they soon gave up stocking their hive, and only went out to collect honey as they wanted it. The same obser- vation has been made on bees taken out from this country to the West Indies, who the first year stored their hive as usual, and never afterwards, merely supplying themselves with food from day to day. Nothing can be more extraordinary than the way in which bees find their way back to their hive. Place it amongst hundreds of others, ex- actly similar in outward appearance, or at the top of a house in London,* or concealed in the thick- est wood, and the bee will regain it v.ithout the slightest apparent difficulty. Huber says they fly to it with an extreme rapidity, and as straight as a ball from a musket. Nothing can show more for- cibly the wonderful instinct which has been given to these insects, by Almighty God. If they ex- perienced any difficulty in finding their homes, how much time would be lost, and how inadequate would all their labors and industrj' be, to furnisli a sufficient store of honey to exist upon during the winter ! I have always observed that when a fi-esh hive has been brought to my garden from a dis- tant place, the bees employ themselves on first _ * I was shown a fine glass of honey taken from a hive of bees placed on the top of a house in Ilarley street. leaving it, not in collecting honey, but in making themselves acquainted with all the neighboring ob- jects, and these objects may possibly serve to guide them to their respective homes. AVIiVTER FOOD OF BIRDS. From Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History. " Birds are extremely important creatures for the economy of nature in general. They destroy innumerable insects, and the thoughtless extirpa- tion of some birds, supposed to be noxious, such as sparrows, crows, &c. has generally given rise to an infinitely nu)re4jrejudicial multiplication of ver- min."— Blumenhach. It is a general observation of the country peo- ple, that when there is an unusual number of haw- thorn and holly Ijerries, there will be a hard win- ter. The remark is perhaps more true than is ge- neraly supposed, and may be considered as a proof of the care v.'hich is taken by an Almighty Power of its creatures. How many birds would perish during a severe winter if this provision had not been made for them ! Even the circumstance of some springs not freezing, is an instance of the same goodness. If they did, the destruction of animal life would be much greater than it now is. At present many birds are able in hard weather to find water and food. The robin, thrush, and blackbird, with woodcocks and snipes, resort to these springs, and are able to support life with the worms and insec-ts they find in or by the side of them, till more genial weather arrives. In deep snow many birds frequent woods, where, amongst old dead or decayed trees, and the bark of others, they discover and feed upon insects. Horses and deer scrape away the snow with their feet to get at the grass, and hares and rabbits feed on the bark of trees. The titmouse in frosty weather gets near houses and picks meat from bones. The hedge- sparrow and wren search at the bottoms of hedges, where the snow has not penetrated, for insects. The wood-pigeon feeds on the tops of turnips, while sparrov.s, finches, yellowhammers, &c. get info rick yards to satisfy their hunger. Most birds therefore are able to procure some sort of suste- nance during a hard winter ; and some animals re- main during that period in a state of torpor, from which the influence of the sun in spring revives them. Insects appear but little affected by cold weather, as we may see on the first mild day after the severest frosts. Bees survive the coldest winters in Russia, and afterwards lay up much store of honey. We thus see that, however miserable the condi- ^ tion of birds in severe weather may appear to a cursory observer, they have resources provided for them in various ways. The same beneficent Be- ing who created them, provided at the same time means for their subsistence. It is man who occa- sions the chief miseries of the creatures which sur- round him. When, however, we consider that these creatui-es are the objects of God's care, how careful ought we to be never to inflict any unne- cessary pain or misery upon them. I should not think kindly of that man who could wantonly put his foot on a worm which was crossing his path, or destroy a fly for the gratification of doing so. 700 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. EXTRACTS FROM PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. SUGGESTIONS OF THE USE OF BTINEIIAL WA- TERS FOR IRRIGATION. * * * I cannot but flatter myself that my investio:ation of the mineral waters of the country Avill result in good, even to the agricultural com- munity. The benefits derived by a^n-iculturists from the irrigation and inundation of their lands, have been ably and amply detailed in works on agriculture. There are valuable communications on these subjects in some of the early numbers of the American Farmer ; but I do not remember to have seen any thing on the subject of irri- gating or inundating fields with water mpreg- naied icith mineral substances. This is a subject that I am inclined to believe will, at some future day, attract no inconsiderable attention. Our country, cis and irans-montane, abound with springs, that are more or less impregnated with earthy or mineral substances, which exert a very material influence on vegetation. In some cases, this mineral impregnation proves destructive to vegetation. I have seen a strip of land entirely denuded, by the effects of water that flowed from the base of a ledge of rocks which abounded with pyrites of copper. In other instances, the mineral impregnation conduces as evidently to vegetable, as to animal life. I remember to have seen two springs, situated in an alluvial soil, about one hundred yards apart — the one highly charged with lime — the other was a spring of common water. The vegetation along the flat thi-ough which the water, with a mineral impregnation, flowed, was much more luxuriant than the vege- tation along the flat through which the common water passed. As in both instances the soil was similar, and as both flats had, from time imme- morial, I)een sulijected to like culture, it would be difficult to account for the difference in the vege- tation, in any other way, than by attributing it to the different properties of the water in the two fountains. With but a moderate expenditure of labor, the water from either of tiiese siirings might have been carried over some fifty or sixty acres of land. * * * GYPSEOUS DEPOSITES, &C. Prince Edward, Feb. 14. * * * I believe there can be no doubt of the existence of a considerable bed of gypseous earth, or rather mud, on my land. I have, to day, ascertained that selenite may be found in seams, in the clay, for about forty yards, on both sides of the ditch which I before mentioned to you. The body of clay containing it, is iiom one to two feet in thickness, and about three feet below the sur- face. What, I believe, the mineralogists would call its gangue, (or accompaniments,) consists of dead coal, coal slate, sand stone, and a variety of other secondary rocks, all considerably impreg- nated with lime. There are among it numerous streaks of clay, of a blue black color. The clay is much disposed to crack in dry weather, and I judge that the seams of selenite have been made by a filling up of fissures thus formed. If this be the case, I shall probably not find them, after dig- ging beyond the reach ol' the atmospliere into the bank. The clay intervening between these seams has a white efflorescence on it, on drying, in some states of the atmosphere. The bed lies near the principal locality of salt on my land. The calca- rcous accompaniments, and the vicinity of salt, (a compound of sulphate of magnesia and muri- ate of soda,) have suggested the thought that an artificial compound might be formed, possessing most of the uigredients (if not in the same pro- portions) of the cendres de mer. By the way, may it not be possible, that the chief cause of ac- tivity in this far famed manure, is the circum- stance, that it contains about lime enough to neu- tralize the constantly tiarming vegetable acid, and thus leaves the gypsum at full liberty to do its of- fice? Or, perhaps, a total nullification of acid is not desiral)le,, as we find, that in countries con- taining highly calcareous soils, gypsum has not obtained much reputation as a manure. I am clear {or nullifying a little, and with that view, have offered eight cents a bushel for common ashes, three or lour miles from home. As yet, I iiave been able to purchase but twenty bushels. Have you observed, that excess in marling ope- rated as a drawback on the activity of gypsum ? A full development of the modus operandi of mi- neral manures, would very much expedite the grand benefits which they are most probably des- tined to bestow on agriculture. I shall make but small experiments with my gyjiseous clay on any but marled lands, lest I exhaust the bed uselessly. It is unfortunately more than half a mile from my little s{X)t of marled ground, which is now in wheat, and recently sown in clover. Great encouragement is given, in an excellent article, by " A Subscriber," in your first number, for using it after marl. There is, how- ever, so much calcareous matter in the rocks about it, that I think I might, at least for a small experiment, safely mix them together and spread them in some clover about six hundred yards from the bed. If I do not misunderstand the theory of this matter, gypsum may more fearlessly be trust- ed with but little lime on poor land than on rich ; unless the want of fertility is produced by an ac^- cumulation of acidity. In a letter in your 8th No. I mentioned, that a gentleman about ten miles to the west of this stripe of secondary formation, had found marl. I have just learned from young Mr. Dame, who analyzed it, that it was not marl, but selenite mix- ed with sand. He was informed that there was a vast quantity of it. The land on which it is found, belongs to Nicholas Edmunds, Esq. near the head of Little Roanoke Creek in Charlotte. I would judge, that of course, there must be lime in some otlier form, wherever selenite is found. Yet that quarter of the country has usually been considered of primary formation. There seems to be much in Virginia to confound the notions of the world makers. Mr. Edmunds lives in the course of the hornblende range, though I never was on his farm. CASTOR BEAN, AND OIL. * * * VvMien you find leisure to write again, I would thank you to inform me the probable cost of a machine for hulling or shelling the castor bean — what, I suppose, the Scotch would call a hummelling machine. The plant grows with ama- zing vigor, on my land. I do not know that 1 shall ever cultivate it ; but I sometimes think of it. There is so much leaf and stalk in proportion to the crop gathered, that it must be an improver. The cake, made of its bean, is certainly a wonder- FARMERS' REGISTER— GELATINE-AGRICULTURAL TERMS, &c. 701 ful manure. Perli;)ps it may not be necessary, in niakin*^ the cold pressed oil, to take off the shell. It was considered entirely necessary, I believe, when the oil was made by boiling, as the shell is said to be a powerful and dangerous emetic. [The hulling of the castor beans is not required in the preparation of the cold-pressed oil. Dr. T. G. Peachy of Williamsburg, who carries on this business, makes use of a powerful hydraulic press, which per- forms its required pui-pose admirably.] MARL, ON NOTTOWAY RIVER. Railroad, Souihampfnn, Va. \ Feh. I6th, 1834. \ With this letter you will receive a specimen of marl, which I obtained near this place a week or two ago. I found it on the bank of the Nottoway, near Savage's farm. The river there makes a bend; the bank where the marl lies is twenty five or thirty feet high — the lower part, say ten feet, composed wholly of marl, of which 1 send you a fair specimen. The proprietor of the land told us, that this bed of marl ran a quarter of a mile along the bank, .and then continued across his farm, to what distance he knew not — the breadth of the deposite on his lands being perhaps one hundred yards. I should not have cared to send you a sample of what has become so stale with you, but for the singularly fine position of this immense bed of shells — to wit, on the perpendicular bank of a navigable river — for a quarter of a mile, and probably more, perfectly convenient for batteaux — and within about one mile of the line of the rail road. The proprietor has lately bought the place, and proposes to apply the marl to his land. 1 hear of several other deposites of marl on the line of the road. During the last month I have had the pleasure of wading near half the time in swamps — fre- quently while frozen over." However, it was no great matter, when my boots had holes enough in them to draw otF the water. * * * (The marl described above is important on account of its richness, as well as for its convenient location. The specimen contained 52 per cent, of carbonate of June.] MOWING MACHINE. From Jlddreas of Henry Coltnan to Hampshire ^^Igric. Society. A mowing machine moved by horse power, and producing a great saving of manual labor has been for tu'o or three years in successful operation in Pennsylvania, and the western parts of New York ; and from the testimony of one of the largest far- mers in the United States, upon whose fiirm it has been t\vo years in use, is highly successful. We cannot inuigine what human skill and enterprize may yet effect. Professor Rafinesque, of Phila- delphia, a gentleman of distinguished scientific at- tainments, advertises for farmers, his " steam- ploughs, by which six furrows are ploughed at once; and he promises in one day to perform the work of a week in the best manner." Of their construction or operation I ha\ e no idea. GELATINE. At present there is a dispute among the chemists of Paris, whether this substance, which has hith- erto been considered extremely nutritious, possesses any alimentary powers whatever. At a late sitting of the Academy of Sciences, a M. Gannal an- nounced that he had, during seventy days, made experiments on gelatine, considered as an alimen- tary substance, and he concluded that it possessed no alimentary qualities v/hatever. He challenged the advocates of a contrary opinion to submit with him to a regime, which would have for its oliject to decide the important question. The Journal des Debats, with a due regard to the health and valua- ble lives of the Academicians, says it does not be- lieve that the challenge of JM. Gannal will iiuluce many of the Academicians to accept it, implying that so important a question shoukl not be decided by putting the healthy state of these respectable men's statements into jeopardy. — \^Nat. Gaz. ON THE L^SE OF PROVINCIAL, OR IMPROPER TERMS, IN AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. The complaint made by F. G. A. (in the earlier pages of this No.) of his perplexity caused by the use of strange names for implements, may be justly applied to almost every bi-anch of agricultural practice. Every district, indeed almost every neighborhood, has some peculiar terms in common use, or, (what is worse,) some peculiar application of a term generally known with diftercnt signification. Under these circumstances, it is scarcely possible for a writer on agiiculture to be al- ways intelligible, as he is not only compelled to use terms which are not correct, or in general use, but he is also liable to be misunderstood when his terms are pro- per, because they are improperly applied by readers. But great as may be this evil in the United States, it is far worse in England. Marshall has appended to seve- ral of his county surveys vocabularies formed of the provincial farming terms in Use in the counties describ- ed : and though his several lists, with the definitions, would fill more than half of one of his octavo volumes, yet he has not explained all the terms which he him- self has used. Good English scholars, for want of ac- quaintance with provincialisms, could not imderstand the meaning of many passages in the works of the best agricultural authors. The same objection applies, doubt- less, with more or less force, to the agricultural books of every country — and hence the great and peculiar difficulties of making correct translations from foreign languages, of articles on agriculture. As a specimen of description rendered unintelligible by the use of provincial terms, the following passage is presented entire, from one of the best informed, and voluminous English writers, and who had travelled more, and was better acquainted with the general practices and various language of farmers, than any other per- son whatsoever. The author is Arthur Young, and the work quoted from, the Survey o/.A'oj/oifc, drawn up, and published, by order of the Board of JlgricuUure. " Mr. Margateson, of North Walsham, breaks up the ollands of the second year, by riffling before har- vest ; he harrows down, and ploughs as fleet as he can ; after that, a full pitch for dibbling; he is clear that this is the best way for wheat, but as certainly a loss m the barley crop ; for the previous tillage he has brought the flag into such a state, that the wheat exhausts far more of the benefit, than when set on a whole furrow. " In general, they riffle the second year's lay before 702 FARMERS' REGISTER— FARINACEOUS ALIMENT FROM STRAW, &c. harvest at Westwick, &c. for dibbling ; but some on one furrow ; and many tliis year ; the dry weather having prevented some breaking the lays." The evil complained of cannot be entirely avoided, until there is something like an agricultural nomencla- ture adopted. There are veiy many things necessary to refer to, wlicn writing on farming, for which no names are to be found in dictionaries ; and for these, techni- cal, or provincial terms can only be used. The ex- change of the views of distant farmers, through the channel of agricultural journals, will do much good in this respect, by. extending the use of such terms as are already most general, or are most correct, and restrain- ing the use, or limiting the application, of others. There are other means by v^hich the correspondents of the Farmers' Register may aid in removing these hindrances to the diffusion of information, and which will be submitted to their consideration. It is desira- ble to collect, and have defined, all the provincial terms which are in sufficiently extended use, to deserve such notice. Every one is able to offer some of these terms correctly defined, with their locality stated, and accom- panied by a responsible name as authority, to prevent deception. These might be published from time to time, and would serve two viseful purposes, viz. by di- recting the avoidance of all such terms, whenever oth- ers of more general and correct use could besustituted — and by presenting the meaning of those which cannot be well substituted. As to the confusion arising from improper, or uncom- mon names being applied to ploughs and other imple- ments, there may be used an additional means of pre- vention, and which will be productive of other important benefits. It is desirable to give correct and well execu- ted wood engravings of all new implements, and even such old ones as are valuable, and not generally known The figures should be accompanied with a concise, Imi plain description of each implement or machine, and a statement of its peculiar uses, operation and price. If the makers of implements will furnish the necessary engravings and descriptions, they will be published in the Farmers' Register, without additional cost; and such publications on a I'egular and proper plan, would serve as the best advertisements, both for the sellers and buyers. It would, however, be required that the draw- ing should be correct, and the engraving executed in the best style; as otherwise, the figures would be neither ornamental to the work which would give them place, por useful to farmers and purchasers. FARIIVACEOUS ALIMENT OBTAINED FROM STRAW. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. The attention of agriculturists in France has been recently directed to the discovery of a me- thod of converting; straw into a kind of bran, or farine, for the feeding of domestic animals. This discovery has been claimed by two individuals: the first is a miller near Dijon, of whose name we are not informed, who, it is said, on trying the millstone of a new mill, discovered the possibility of converting straw into nourishing food; the se- cond is M. Joseph Maitre, founder of the fine ag- ricultural establishment of Vilotte, near Chatillon. This distinguished agriculturist, known for tlie purity and perfection of his breeds of sheep, con- ceived the idea of converting into farine, not only the straw of wheat and other orains, but of hay, trefoil, lucern, santfoin, &c. flis eflbrts are said to have been perfectly successful, and his discove- ry arrived at, not by chance, but by long experi- ment and research. The aliment which he has produced, is said to be a complete substitute for bran. It is given to slieep and Iambs, who con- sume it with avidity, and may be given to all other graminivorous animals as a grateful and substan- tial food. M. Maitre, with the view of bringing the process to perfection, has ordered a mill for its manufacture to be erected in the midst of his large farms : and he is preparing to communicate a report to the Royal Society of Agriculture, on the advantages in rural and domestic economy to be derived from this preparation. We are not, at the present moment, informed of the nature of this process. If it be a simple grinding of the straw, or fodder, and a separation of some of its fibrous matter, we can easily imagine the advantages that may result from it. We know in this country, that the mere chopping of straw adds greatly to its pow- ers, by facilitating mastication and digestion. We may believe that a more perfect comminution of its parts, will produce a corres|)onding efTect, and ex- tend very widely the uses of straw and other fod- der, as a means of feeding our domestic animals. NATURE OF EARTHS WITH REFERENCE TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. ' From the Revue EiicycIopeLlique. The Report of MM. Thenard and Sylvester, on a memoir upon this subject by M. J. St. Hilaire, is to the f(:)llowing purport. The author remarks that most persons who have analyzed arable earths, [soils,] have taken exclusively such as had been cultivated, and in which the original constitution had been more or less altered. He believes that the various kinds of earths in their first state have peculiar powers, of nourishing particular plants; and thinks that the exact knowledge of these pecu- liarities would enable cultivators to put those seeds in the ground whicli are most suited to it. From various analyses, he draws the following inferen- ces:— 1st, That all earths are composed of silica, alumina, lime, lime, magnesia, &c. in different proportions, together with a vegefo-animal matter, which is more abundant as the earth is more fitted for the nourisliment of plants ; 2dly, That plants placed in earths, of which the constituent parts have an analogy with the particular nature of the plants, do not exhaust the soil ; 3dly, That a series of observations on the different species, genera, and families, which grow naturally and in great numbers, perpetuating themselves on certain soils, with the analyses of these soils, would be of great utility in agriculture. The reporters think that agiicullure would draw from such labors general inductions, rather than positive directions, but still that these would possess great interest. MONTHLY COMMERCIAL REPORT. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Sir, — To give you a commercial article at this time, is almost the same as to write about a non- entity. The commerce of Virginia and of the states north of her, is at this moment limited chiefly to the small business which must at all times exist — that of supplying (he demand bv articles of ncces-:- FARMERS' REGISTER— DIARY OF THE WEATHER, &c. 703 Diary of the Weather at Fort Monroe, Old Point Comfort, for March 1834—37° N. Lat. Month Thermometer. WiiuU Weather VII. II. IX. Marcli A. M. p. M. p. !\I 1st 45 56 47 s. w. Clear. 2d 43 49 44 w. " 3d 31 40 38 N. (( 4tli 37 51 46 s. w. u 5lh 43 56 54 s. Cloudy. 6th 53 59 56 S. E. Clear. 7th 47 60 55 " " 8th 61 68 61 s. w. (( 9th 48 46 44 N. E. Cloud)^ 10th 44 50. 46 S.E. (( 11th 47 55 50 N. E. Rain. 12th 48 64 57 N.W. Clear. 13th 48 50 45 S. (( 14th 42 62 53 " Cloudy. 15 th 46 45 44 N. (1 16th 43 48 42 <( Clear. 17th 39 52 48 N. E. i: 18th 47 57 62 S.E " IDth 56 63 62 S. (f 20th 53 64 65 " « 21st 56 56 41 N. a 22d 32 44 39 " u 23d 39 56 54 S. Cloudy. 24th 53 57 52 S.E. " 2.5 th 53 68 59 N. E. " 26th 45 49 45 N. Clear. 27th 44 48 44 N. E. " 28th 48 57 51 u Rain. 29 th 50 60 56 (( Cloudy. 30th 37 46 41 N.W. Clear. 31st 41 50 45 N. E. Cloudy. REMARKS. Diary of the temperature and state of the Weather in March, observed at Shellbanks, Prince George County— 37° 14' N. Lat Fair, or sunshine, f — cloiuhj, c — rain, r. ^ ci •_ F^ Cj o o U^ .^ 5 i: 1) y keeping a well regulated breeding stock of cattle and sheep, chiefly the lat- ter, 7nore money may be drawn from an acre of light land in beef and mutton, than by any rotation of corn crops. Of course, the circumstances of each case nuist dictate to the larmcr the mode iii which he ought to set about the laying out of his farm, and the proportions to be put into permanent FARMERS' REGISTER-LIGHT SOILS, &c. 711 grass annually; but I will state what I am doing in my own case. I am now laying; to rest a farm of 500 acres, which has for the last twenty-five years been under a reg^ular rotation of five shifts, and it is my inten- tion to leave it in grass for five years, taking care that each division, as it is sown out, shall be in the highest condition into which I can afford to put it, for it is well known that a light soil laid out to grass in poor condition will rather deteriorate than improve. Having a breeding flock of sheep on an adjoining farm, 1 propose extending this profitable stock to sucli a number as will enable me to pas- ture all my j)ermanent grass, for the first year at least, with sheep; afterwards, it will be matter of calculation whether I shall continue to use the whole of my grass or let a part, so as to lessen tlie risk of stocking the whole. This process of lay- ing out my form, will, of course, require (ive years. I will gradually be reducing my working expen- diture until the last year of the five, when I will again have to muster my working strength; and that I expect to be well enabled to do by a sale on the ground of the corn crop on the last sown out division, — the manure which that crop should pro- duce not being wanted the following season.* I may here remark, that great cai'e should be taken to select the most approved grasses suited to the various soils, and not to be sparing in the quantity of seeds. I would also strongly recom- mend the frequent use of a heavy roller in spi-ing and autumn, giving, as often as circumstances may require, a light topdressing of any comj)ost (or even pulverized soil of a different quality from the field on which it is laid) previous to the spring rolling. This will be Ibund to invigorate and thicken the grass in an extraordinary degree. After this process of resting the soil is completed, I anticipate a full reward for all my labor and pa- tience, by seeing the land again in a firm and con- solidated state, quite fit to produce the alternate crops we were accustomed to thirty jears ago ; and, I trusl, I shall be warranted in breaking up my lea with a crop of wheat, or at any rate with barley. I propose ploughing the lea for wheat or barley, not in the old way, — of giving two furrows, and harrowing till the soil is sufficiently reduced for these crops, — but by one seed-furrow with the plough, followed by that invakndile implement on light soils — the presser, an instrument not so well known in Scotland as it ought to be. I subjoin a drawing for tlie information of any of my brother farmers who may wish to try the presser. From its simplicity and low price (varying from 51. to 71. according to the weight required) it is within the power of all to purchase and work it. A very striking instance of the utility of this machine was exhibited on a field belonging to my friend Captain Barclay AUardiceof Ury,who last season broke up a piece of grass-land near his mansion house, supposed to have lain out about a hundred years. It was on a strong soil, and re- quired four horses to work the plough, wiiich was followed by the presser, leaving the work in such a finished state, that although Ca[)lain Barclay's intention was to sow the field with oats after the preparation of a m' inter's exposure, he was imluced to try a crop of wheat, which succeeded beyond his expectation, having reaped fully fifty bushels per English acre, while the probability is, that if the field had been sown in spring with oats, they would all have rotted. The mode of working this implement is very simple. A presser is required for every two ploughs, the horse that draws it following the last plough of the two in the furrow, which so regu- lates the presser that it leaves the land exactly as if it had been gone over with a drill-sowing ma- chine ; the furrow-slices are laid flat at the bottom, and the surfiice left more like a field of fallow than grass land. By affixing a sowing-box to the presser, which could be very easily done, the whole process of ploughing, pressing and sowing, could be going on at the same time, and by a double tui'n of the harrows, the operation could be com- ])leteu without the usual risks of a change of weather, to which in this variable climate we are liable in every sowing season. I have used the presser for two seasons, and cah with confidence recommend it on all light soils, with every sort of corn-crop. It is an invention which we owe to our English neighbors. It has been in use in many counties in England for sevCT- ral years past. I shall now give a detailed description of the presser, hoping that the few hints which I havq given, may be us6ful to farmers of light soils. The scale of this figure is a quarter of an inch to the foot. * We would here suge:est to our friend, our present correspondent, whose opinion of the deterioration of light lands being caused by too frequent ploughing is correct^that instead of raising the means of working the farm when the grass was broken up, by selling the straw of any portion of the corn-crop, he should rather lay by annually for that purpose a portion of tlie money which was drawn from the land in the sliape of beef and mutton. It grieves us to the heart to see a farm robbed of its straw, under any pretence but that of vicinity to a large town, from which large supplies of extraneous manure may be obtained in exchange. — Ed. 712 FARMERS' REGISTER— USE OF CORN IN ENGLAND. In the fifjure, a a are llie pressers, made of cast- iron, and wei»;hin>^ 2^ cwt. each. They are made cither in the form of a wheel or of two cups, fas- tened at llie eih^e; they are 2 feet 9 indies in diameter; they are fastened on Ion<^' slip-boxes, which slide upon the axle c, and secured by ])inch- inp;-si rews h h at the width to suit tiie width of the furrows to be compressed, b is a cast-iron wheel, Avhich rolls on the land-side or sward, and carries the frame-work. This wheel and the two pres- sers are hung on the axle c, which rnns in plumber- blocks fiistened to the under side of the frame-ends y/, which are made, of stout ash, and bent so as' to suit the hei<),ht of the axle c and the draft of the shafts d d, betw^een which the horse is yoked, e e are chains, which pass over tlie pulleys i i, and are fastened to the draught-hooks of the collar of the horse, to equalize the draught of the machine. g g are two cleaners, made forked, and fastened with pinching sciews on the hindmost rail of the frame, and are made to shift, to suit the width of the j)resser ; they are intended to scrape off any earth that may adhere to the pressers during their action. h. w. USE OF CORN IN ENGLAND. Jlbridgdd from " Vegetable Substances used for the Food of Man." The Anglo-Saxon monks of the Abbej- of St. Edmund, in the eighth century, ate barley bread, because the income of the estal)lishment would not admit of their feeding twice or thrice a day on wheaten bread. The English laliorers o! the southern and midland counties, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, refused to eat bread made of one-third wheat, one-third rve, and one-third barley,saying, that" they had lost tlieir rye-teeth." It would be a cui ious and not unprofitable inquiry, to trace the progress of the national taste in this particular. It would show that whatever priva- tions the English laborer may now endure, and whatever he has endured for many generations, he has succeeded in rendering the dearest kind of vegetable food the general food of the country. This single circumstance is a security to him against those sufferings from actual famine which were familiar to his fore-elders, and which are still the objects of continual apprehension in those countries where the laborers live upon the cheapest substances. Wages cannot be depressed in such a manner as to deprive the laborer, for any length of time, of the power of maintaining himself upon the kind of food which habit has made necessary to him ; and as the ordinary food of the English laborer is not the very cheapest that can be got, it is in his power to have recourse for awhile to less expensive articles of subsistence should any tem porary scarcity of food or want of employment deprive him of his usual fiire, — an advantage not possessed by his Irish fellow-subjects, to whom the failure of a potato crop is a matter not of discom- Ibrt merely, but of absolute starvation. In the satire of Pierce Plowman, written in the time of Edward III., it is said, that ichen the new corn began to be sold, "AVoulde no beggar and breed that in it beraies were, But of cocket, and clemantyne, or else clene wheate." This taste, however, was only to be indulged " when the new corn began to be sold;" for then a short season of plenty succeeded to a long period of fasting ; the supply of corn was not equalized throughout the year by the provident effects of conunercial speculation. The fluctuations in the price of grain, experienced during this period, and which were partly owing to the insullicient agri- cultural skill, were sudden and excessive. On the securing of an abundant harvest in 1317, wheat, the price of which had been so high as 80s., fell immediately to 6s. 8d. i)er quarter. The people of those days always looked lor a great abatement in the price of grain on the successful gathering of every harvest; and the inordinate joy,of our ances- tors at their harvest-home — a joy which is 'faintly reflected in our own times — proceeded, tliere is little doul)t, from the change which the gathering of the crops produced, from want to abundance, fiom famine to fulness. That useful class of men who employ themselves in purchasing from the producers that they may sell again to the custo- mers, M'as then unknown in England. Immedi- ately after the harvest, the people bought their corn directly from the farmers at a cheap rate, and, as is usual under such circumstances, were improvi- dent in the use of it, so that the su|)ply fell short before the arrival of the following harvest, and prices advanced out of all proportion. The reformation, and the discovery of America, were events that had a considerable influence upon the condition of the great body of the people in England. The one drove away the inmates of the monasteries, from whence the poor were accus- tomed to receive donations of food ; the otlier, by pouring the precious metals into Europe, raised the price of provisions. In the latter half of the sixteenth century, wheat was three times as dear, both in England and France, as in the former half The price of wheat, upon an average of years, varied very little for four centuries before the metallic riches of the New World were brought into Europe ; upon an average of years, it has varied very little since. The people of the days of Henry VIII. felt the change in the money-value of provisions, although the real value remained the same; and they ascribed the circumstance to the dissolution of the monasteries. There is an old song of that day in the Somersetshire dialect, which indicates the nature of the popular error : — "I'll tell thee what, good vellowe, Before the vriars went hence, A bushel of the best wheate Was sold for vourteen pence ; And vofly eggs a penny That were both good and newe ; And this, I say, myself have seen, And yet 1 am no Jewe." When wheat was fourteen pence a bushel, it was probably consumed by the people, in seasons of plenty, and soon after harvest. During a portion of the year, there is little doubt that the English laborer, had better food than the French, who, in the fifteenth century, were described by Fortescue thus : — •" Thay dryiike water, thay eate apples, with bred riglit brown, made of rye." Locke, travelling in France, in 1678, says of the peasantry in his journal, " their ordinarj' food, rye bread and water." The English always disliked what they emphatically termed " changing the white loaf for the brown." Their dislike to brown bread in some degree prevented the change w hich they pro- verbially dreaded. In the latter part of the six- FARMERS' REGISTER— PROTECTING SEED-CORN, &c. ri3 teenth century, however, this change was pretty ijeneral, whatever was ihe previous condition of the peo[)le. Harrison says, speaking of the agri- cultural population, " as for whealen lircad, they eat it when they can reach unto the price of it, contenting themselves, in the meau time, with bread ma(lc of oates or barlie, a poore estate, God ■wot!" In another place, he says, " the bread throughout the land is made of such graine as the soil yieldeth; nevertheless, the gentilitie common- lie provide themselves sufficiently of wheate for their own tables, whilst their household aud poore neighbors, in some sliires, are inforced to content themselves with rye or barlie." Harrison tlit'ii goes on to describe the several sorts of bread made in England at this day, viz. manchet, cheat, or wheaten bread; another inferior sort of bread, called ravelled ; and lastly, brown bread. Of tiie latter there were two sorts: " One baked up as it Cometh from the mill, so that neither the bran nor the floure arc any whit diminished. The other halh no floure left therein at all ; and it is not only the worst and weakest of all the other sorts, but also appointed in old time for servants, slaves, and the inferior kind of people to feed upon. Here- unto, likewise, because it is drie and brickie in tiie Avorking, some add a portion of rie-meale in our time, whereby the rough drinesse thereof is some- what qualified, and then it is named mescelin, that is, bread made of mingled corne." In tlie hou.se- hold book of Sir Edward Coke, in 1596, we find constant entries of oat-meal for the use of the house, besides " otmell to make the poore iblkcs porage," and " rie-nicall, to make breade for the poore." The household wheaten bread was partly baked in the house and partly taken of the baker. In the same year it appears, from the historian Stow, that there was a great fluctuation in the price of corn ; and he particularly mentions tiie price of oat-meal, which would indicate that it was an article of general consumption, as well in a liquid form as in that of the oatcakes of the north of England. In 1626, Charles I., upon an occasion of subject- ing the brewers and maltsters to a royal license, de- clared that the measure was " for the relief of the poorer sort of his people, whose usual bread was barley ; and for the restraining of innkeepers and victuallers, who made their ale and beer too strong and heady." The grain to be saved by the weak- ness of the beer was for the benefit of the consu- mers of barley-bread. At the period of the Revolution, (1689,) wheaten bread formed, in comparison with its present con- sumption, a small portion of the food of the people of England. The following estimate of the then produce of the arable land in the kingdom tends to prove this position. This estimate was made by Gregory King, whose statistical calculations have generally been considered entitled to credit. At the commencement of the last century, wheaten bread became much more generally used by the laboring classes, a proof that their condition was improved. In 1725, it was even used in poor houses, in the southern counties. The author of "Three Tracts on the Corn Trade," published at the beginning of the reign of George III. says, " it is certain that bread made of wheat is become much more generally the food of the common peo- ple since 1689 than it was before that time; but it is still very far from being the food of the people in general." He then enters into a very curious calculation, the results of which are as follow : " The whole number of people is 6,000,000, and of those who eat Wheat, the number is, 3,750,000 Barley, - - - 739,000 Rye, - - - - 888,000 Oats, - - - - 623,000 Wheat, Rye, Barley, Oats," Pease, Beans, Vetches, Vol. I.— 90 Bushels 14,000,000 10,000,000 27,000,000 16,000,000 7,000,000 4,000,000 1,000,000 In all 79,000,000 Total 6,000,000" This calculation applies only to England and Wales. Of the numlier consuming wheat, the pro- portion assigned to the northern counties of York, Westmoreland, Durham, Cumberland and North- umberland, is only 30,000. Eden, in his History of the Poor, says, " about fifty years ago, (this was written in 1797,) so small was the quantity of wheat used in the county of Cumberland, that it v.as only a rich family that used a peck of v.heat in the course of the year, and that Avas used at Christmas. The usual treat for a stranger was a thick oatcake (called haver-bannock) and butter. An old laborer of eighty- five, remarks that, when he was a boy, he was at Carlisle market with his father, and wishing to indulge himself with a pen- ny loaf made of v. heat flour, he searched for it for some time, but could not procure a piece of wheat- en bread at any shop in the town." At the time of the Revolution, according to the estimate of Gregory King, 14,000,000 bushels of wheat were grown in England. In 1828, accord- ing to the estimate of Mr. Jacob, in his Tracts on the Corn Trade, 12,500,000quarters,or 100,000,000 bushels, were grown. The population of England at the Revolution was under five millions, so that each person consumed about three bushels annually. The population, at the present time, is under fifteen millions, so that each person consumes about seven bushels annually^ OS rROTECTING SEED-CORN FROM THE DE- PREDATIOJV OF BIRDS. From the Southern Agriculturist. January 25, 1834. INIr. Editor, — A Young Planter in your Novem- ber number says, " there are many of your readers who can make valuable communications." If you think the method I have adopted to get rid of minding corn when planted, as coming under that head, you are welcome to it. It is by sooting. Half a bushel of seed-corn is put in a tub, and hot water poured on it, a half-pint of tar is then added, and the coru kept constantly stirred until every grain is thinly coated with it. Soot is now put in and the whole stirred until every grain is perfectly black. This method I have adopted for many years; never have a minder, and the stand is much better than when I had to mind it. The crows and larks will visit your fields as soon as the 714 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON SEA-ASHES AS MANURE— FISHES. grain makes its appearance, (which will be two days later than when not sooted,) and try many of the hills, croping one ij;rain and then leaving!; and going to a second, ha\ ing ])lucked here and there, they will leave ihe field entirely, finding the grain too bitter to be eaten. As we always plant more than we mean to have, the few they take is not of the least conseciuence. If this communication is of any service, I shall be gratified, remembering this is nothing new, but it may be to some, of va- lue. H. C. R. We adopted this plan many years ago, and never had occasion to place any one in the fields, nor had we ever to supply more i)laces than was usual, Avhere there was a regular supply of little negroes to scare away the birds. In one respect, this plan answers better than the old one of minding, for less injury is sustained from larks; which birds being small, and tlying low, are exceedingly trou- blesome. The soaking in water ought never to be omitted, and we have usually found that twelve hours was not too much : Ave generally put the corn in water the night previous to its l)eing used. Should the grain not imbibe moisture enough be- fore it is coated with the tar, and dry weather fol- lov/ its planting, there Avill be a difficulty in getting it up, which will not be the case if soaked twelve hours. — [Ed. So. /Jgr. ON SEA-ASHES AS A MANURE. Extract of a letter addressed to the Hon. AVhitemarsh B. Sea- . brook, and communicated by liim for jjublication in the South, ern Agriculturist. Columbia (S. C.) Janiittry 26, 1834. Dear Sir, — The subject of the finest and best, together with the most profitable quality of cotton is, of course, one of the most important considera- tions, not merely to the cotton-planter, but to the state at large. I noticed some time since the title of an article proposing salt as a manure for the purpose of increasing tiie fine staple of the cotton. I have not read this article; liut I should judge, a priori, that the idea is probably a correct one ; for, most certainly, the finest cotton produced is that cultivated within the influence of tlie sea-air. This reminds me of a manure that has been in use in Holland, and adjoining countries, that is so valua- ble as to be transported, even by land carriage to very considerable distances, and has been for verv many years a most important article of commerce. It is called " Cendres-ch-mer ," (sea-ashes,) and is nothing else than salt or brackish marshor peat, reduced to ashes. By this process of burning, this substance is rendered comparatively very light, and probably its fertilizing properties concentrated. There is probably no country on this globe that has more of this substance than these Southern States, and I feel a great desire that it should have a full trial, not merely for the use of the cotton- planter; but for all other cultivators of the soil within a practicable distance from the seas. If I could procure in time, this coming spring, a small quantity of such ashes, w ere it only one or two barrels of it, I would give it a fair trial on my poor sandy land. You are so zealous an agricul- turist, that I would expect from you an experi- ment with this manure on your own land, and that you would also prevail on some of your nei^■hbors to try it. It appears to me that a kiln could easily be contrived, by which a considerable quantity of salt-marsh might be burnt at once, sutiicient for a full experiment, which, if successful, might induce some enterprising and patriotic persons to under- take the manufacture of this manure on a large scale and tor sale. It appears to me, my dear sir, that we need, in this country, something of this sort as a stimulus to ourselves as well as to our lands; for without some such encouragement, we become disjnrited by the unproductiveness of our soils after a few years cultivation. The possession of a convenient means of adding fertility to our fields, would most probably encourage us to further exertions, which would, most probably, be followed by due advantages. The selection of seed, with a view of procuring a finer staple of cotton, is, no doubt, an essential part of the business; but, is it sufficient.' Is it not probable that there is a great deal also in the quality of the land, and can an extensive planta- tion or field be expected to possess, in every part of it, those properties on which the best and most profitable product in cotton may depend.' It seems to me that such properties in the soil are more likely to be produced by the labor and inge- nuity of man, aided by science, observation, expe- riment antl untiring industry, than to be invariably or even frequently produced l>y nature. These " sea-ashes," which are found beneficial in Flan- ders, in France, &c. would, in all probability, be alike beneficial in tliis country, and we have very strong reasons to believe that this kind of manure is peculiarly adapted to the im})rovement of cotton. Ashes and salt being strongly stimulating manures, renders it very probable tliat by them you might obtain your desideratum, healthy and vigorous colton-i)lants, joined to fineness, length and strength of the product. This probability seems so great that it is most undoubtedly worth making the experiment. Permit me to repeat also, that as an article of internal commerce for the amelioration of all the lands within reach of navigation or rail road trans- portation, it may become an object, the importance of which, future times will alone fully a})preciate. I am, very respectfully, my dear sir. Your obedient servant, N. HERBEMONT. At were IVATURALIZATION OF FISHES. From Proc. Zool. Soc. a late meeting of the Zoological Society, read two letters from Mr. J. B. Arnold of Guernsey, containing particulars of his experiments in the naturalization of sea fislies in a lake chiefly supplied with fresh water. The area of the lake is about five acres ; its depth various ; and its bot- tom also various, being muddy, gravelly and rocky. The water is during nine months of the year drinkable for cattle, but in consequence of a supply which it receives through a tunnel commu- nicating with the sea, is rather salt in summer, at which season the fishes do not come down so plen- tifull)' as at other times. The fishes introduced into the lake have been the grey Mullet, Sole, Tur- bot, Jlrill, Plaice, Basse, Smelt, and grey Loach. All of these have thriven well, and are believed to have increased in numbers : the grey Mullet espe- cially is known to have bred as freely as in the sea itself. A single JF/t/'i/rig- having been caught for three successive years, was found to have grown considerably : a Pilchard also throve well. AH FARMERS' REGISTER— MANGEL WURTZEL— DRY STONE WALLS, &c. 715 the above-mentioned fishes were placed in (lie lake, except perhaps tlie Brill; but others, as the silver Bream, aj)pear to have introduced themselves. It is even suspected that hybrid fishes have been pro- duced, as several have been cau<^lit which were unknown to persons well acquainted with the spe- cies usually met with on tlie coast of Guernsey. Mr. Arnold adds that sea fishes, after having been naturalized in his lake, have been transferred to ponds of spring water, where they have not only lived, but done well ; and that such naturalized fishes have been carried to a long distance, being much more tenacious of lilis than those caught in the sea. ALK FROM MANGKL "WURTZEL. By a Correspondent of the Coventry Herald. From seeing an article in a newspaper, in the year 1829, describing how a good beverage might be produced from the mangel wurtzel, I have made a number of experiments, and have at length com- pletely succeeded. In the article before alluded to, it was stated, that a portion of about ten pounds of the root to a gallon would n)ake a good liquor; but with fifteen pounds weight to tlie gallon, an excellent ale will be produced; the addition of two pounds' weight of treacle to a firkin will be a great improvement. One-third malt and two- thirds mangel wurtzel liquor will make capital ale; so that, even in tliis way, an important saving will be effected. Our method is first to mash and clean the roots well, take off the top completely, sci'ape (rather })are) off the outer rind, slice and boil them until soft and pulpy ; squeeze the liquor from the jndp as much as possible, and then boil it again with about six ounces of hops to nine gallons, and work with yeast in the usual way. Thus a cottager, by boiling his pot over his winter fire of a night, and using the root as we have described, might seldom be without a refreshing beverage even, the greatest ])art of the year, for the roots may be kept in a cool place, in a proper state for use, during most of the winter. The leaves, stripped from the plant in August and September, are valuable for the cow or pig, not retarding its growth in the least ; and the roots, boiled and mashed in the liquor, and either milk or a small quantity of meal added, will feed the pig at a trifling expense. The culture of this invaluable root is very sim- ple. Let the single seeds be jnit on well manured ridges, eighteen inches apart, and six or eight inches between the plant; hoeing down and keep- ing clean from weeds will be all that is necessary. THE EXTINCT DODO. From Jameson's Journal. Naturalists have known for a long time, but only through means of figures and descriptions, executed in the sixteenth and the commencement of the seventeenth century, a great bird, incapable of flying, found in the Isle of France after its dis- covery, but which appears to have been since entirely extirpated. It was named Dronte, Dodo : it is the genus Raphus of Maering, or the Didus of Linnffius. All that is preserved of this l)ird, is a head and foot deposited in the Ashmolean Mu- seum at Oxford, and another fool, with a figure painted in oil, after the living animal, which are in the British Museum. Cauche, who also saw it in fhe Isle of France, has given an imperfect descrip- tion of it, in which he says it had l)ut three toes, which has caused some naturalists to form a second species, under the name Didus Nazarenus, the first being called Didus incptus. Leguat mentions another bird, resembling the Dodo, found in the Island of Rodrigue, and which has been named Didus solitarius. Cuvier had sent him, by an ex- cellent naturalist in the Isle of France, M. Desjar- dins, the large bones of a bird found in the Island of Rodrigue, in part encrusted with calc-tuffa, which Cuvier conjectured might be those of the Dodo. Judging from the cranium, sternum, and very small humerus, the thigh-bone and tarsus, he sup- posed they belonged to a gallinacious bird. M. Blainville, in a learned memoir, endeavors to show that the Dodo was a kind of vulture, which, he says, it resembles in beak, head, claws, and other circumstances of its organization. During his visit to England, Cuvier compared the remains of the Dodo preserved in the British Museum and in that of Oxford with the bones sent to him by Des- jardins, when he found that the heads were identi- cal, but the tarsus is more elongated than that of the British Museum, which, again, is thicker, but shorter, than that of Oxford. There is, therefore, some doulit as to the tarsus, but none as to the head, which he therefore refers to the Dodo ; and as this head, as also the sternum found along with it, and also the humerus and femur, undoubtedly belong to the GalliuEe, this bird falls to be placed in that tribe. DRY STONE WALLS AS A FENCE. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. Stone fences are always built l)y the piece, and paid for by the rood. A rood contains thirty square yards of solid building. A wall that is one yard high in the body will therefore contain one rood in every thirty yards of its length. The coping is never taken into the measurement, as its varying height, according to the materials of which it is composed, could afford no fixed data. In tak- ing the contents of a wall, the gateways are mea- sured over, as the trouble of building two corners in each is considered equivalent to the labor of building a piece of jdain work equal to the length of the gate- way, which is generally about ten feet in width. A rood of dry stone-wall generally costs ten shillings in building. At the dimensions already given, a wall requires at least thirty tons, or thirty double horse cart-loads of stones, which, at four-pence j)er load, the ordinary price of quarrying such stones, will make the material equal to ten shillings per rood. On an average of' distances on a farm, a pair of horses and a man will require at least one day to a load, drive, and empty the stones properly ; thirty loads, which, at ten shillings per day, the ordinary value of horse labor, will give other ten shillings per rood; so that, on the whole, a stone- fence will cost at the least thirty shillings per rood of thirty square yards, or one shilling per square yard of any dimensions. Hence we have only to take the superficial contents of the body of a stone- fence, and calculate that at one shilling per square yard, in order to get the value of the whole. This is a very simple formula of calculation. A man by himself will seldom build more than one rood per week, taking into account the chance of bad weather; but two men will build more than two roods per week under the same circumstances. 716 FARMERS' REGISTER— THE CULTIVATOR— VEGETATION, &c. Hence we find builders most anxious to undertake this kind of work in company. THE " CULTIVATOR. We have received tlie two first numbers of a new agricultural periodical, which will be issued monthly at Albany, New York. It is published by the New York State Agricultural Society, under the imniediate direc- tion ofii committee of publication, composed of Messrs. J. Buel, J. P. Beekman, and J. D. Wasson. Thus set on foot by the patronage of government, and sustained by editorial talents of the first order, and bestowed gratuitously, the "Cultivator" is furnished at the re- markably low jDrice of fifty cents a year, or eft twenty- five cents each, for a subscription for twenty or more copies. The monthly sheet has sixteen pages, large octavo. Its matter, so far, is good — and it cannot well be otherwise, while it has its present zealous and able conductors. We will take pleasure in receiving and ti'ansmitting subscriptions for this work. The price of this publication is fixed at this very low rate, for the purpose of inducing, if possible, every tiller of the soil in the state of New York to buy, and to read it. This is a noble object — and the steps taken to reach it, cannot but have consequences highly useful to the agricultural community. But while this acknow- ledgment is made, and notwithstanding the high opinion expressed of the work, and the abilities of its conduc- tors, we will venture to add our fears, that this good will be eflTected by the destruction of another of equal if not of greater value — the excellent agricultural papers already established in the western part of New York, by individual enterprise and capital, and which have rendered essential service to agriculture, at a very cheap rate — though not so cheap as to be able to compete with the Cultivator. It remains to be seen, whether this is the best mode of aiding the diffusion of agricultural knowledge, even putting aside the consideration of all losses of individuals. We are decidedly in favor of "free trade" — and consider that it is as unjust, and as imjDolitic, for government to injure any employment of capital and industry, by competing with, and underselling indi- vidual laborers or traders, as it is to commit the more common error of enabling them to make exorbitant profits, by indirect bounties, or restraints which destroy fair and general competition. Besides — however great the amount of talent, zeal, and influence, with which the Cultivator is now con- ducted, it cannot be expected that such services are to be retained in steady operation, without the incentive of reward, or emolument. The conductors would be more than men, if they can toil without flagging, in so humble a vocation, merely from the impulse of patriot- ism. And if, indeed, they should become weary, it will take place after all the other agricultural papers of New York have sunk, and the whole business of peri- odical instruction will be to re-construct. It may be thought that our fears are, in truth, for the Farmers' Register. This is not the case— for, though it may be mistaken, it is our opinion, that no periodical publication in New York, can lessen the circulation of ^ one in Virginia; nor can the latter injure one of the former. Any good agricultural journal, will be found instructive and useful to fiu-mers of every other country : but- still, the climate and system of husbandry of the state of New York, differ so much from those of Virgi- nia, that no such injurious competition can be maintain- ed, no matter by what difference of prices. On the con- trary, the circulation of any such journal in a distant region, will increase the readers' inclination for similar supplies nearer home, and more generally suited to their wants. We should be pleased if the Cultivator could be seen and read by every farmer in Virginia : and believe, if such was the case, that but few subscri- bers of the Farmers' Register would be thereby induced to give up the latter work — and very many others would be induced to become subscribers, by learning from so good a work, the great value of an agricultural journal, more particularly suited to their wants and habits. VEGETATION OF THE PAMPAS OF S. AMERICA. From Captain Head's Travels. The great plain of the Pampas, on the east of the Cordilleras, is about 900 miles in breadth, and the part which I visited, though under the same lati- tude, is divided into regions of different climate and produce. On leaving Buenos Ayres,the first of these regions is covered for 180 miles with clover and thistles; the second region, which ex- tends for 450 miles, produces long grass ; and the third region, which reaches the base of the Cordil- leras, is a grove of low trees and shrubs. The second and third of these regions have nearly the same appearance throughout the year; for the trees and shrubs are evergreens, and the immense plain of grass only changes its color from green to brown: but the first region varies with the four seasons of tlie year in a most extraordinary man- ner. In winter, the leaves of tlie thistles are large and luxuriant, and the wliolc surface of the coun- try has the rough appearance of a turnip field. The clover in this season is extremely rich and strong ; and the sight of the wild cattle grazing in full liberty on such pasture is very beautiful. In spring, the clover has vanished, the leaves of the thistles have extended along tiie ground, and the country still looks like a rough crop of turnips. In less than a month the change is most extraor- dinary; the whole region becomes a luxuriant region of enormous thistles, which have suddenly shot up to a height of ten or eleven feet, and all in full bloom; tlie road or path is hemmed in on both sides; the view is completely obstructed ; not an animal is to be seen ; and the stems of the thistles are so close to each other, and so strong, that, inde- pendent of the prickles with which they were arm- ed, they form an impenetrable barrier. The sud- (ien grov, th of these plants is quite astonishing, and though it would be an unusual )nisfbrtune in mili- tary history, yet it is really possible that an invad- ing army, unacquainted with this country, might be imprisoned by these thistles before they had time to escape from them. The summer is not over before the scene undergoes another rapid change ; the thistles suddenly lose their sap and verdure ; their heads droop, the leaves shrink and fiide, the stems become black and dead, and they remain rattling with the breeze one against another, until the violence of the pampero or hurricane levels them with the ground, where they rapidly decompose and disappear ; the clover rushes up, and the scene is again verdant. FARMERS' REGISTER— THE MOUSE. 717 TI-IT3 MOUSE. From Jesse's Gleanings of Natural History. An extraordinary instance of the rapid increase of mice, and of the injury they sometimes do, oc- curred a few years ago in the new plantations made byorder of the crown in Dean Forest, Glou- cestershire, and in the New Forest, Hampshire. Soon after the formation of these plantations, a sudden and rapid increase of mice took place in them, which threatened destruction to the whole of the young plants. Vast numbers of these were killed, — the mice having; eaten through the roots of tive-years' old oaks and chestnuts, generally just below the surface of the ground. Hollies also, which were five and six feet high, were barked round the bottom ; and in some instances the mice had crawled up the tree, and were seen feeding on the bark of the upper branches. In the reports made to government on the subject, it appeared that the roots had been eaten through wlierever they obstructed the runs of the mice, but that the bark of the trees con.slituted their food. This was ascertained by confining a numlier of the mice in cages, and supplying them with the fresh roots and bark of trees, when it was found that they fed greedily on the latter, and left the roots un- touched. Various plans were devised for their de- struction : traps were set, poison laid, and cats turned out, but nothing appeared to lessen their number. It was at last suggested, that if holes were dug, into which the mice might be enticed, or fall, their destruction might be effected. Holes therefore were made, about twenty yards assun- der, in some of tlie Dean Forest plantations, be- ing aliout twelve in each acre of ground. These holes were from eighteen to twenty inches in dejith, and two feet one way by one and a half the other; and they were much wider at the bottom than the top, being excavated or hollowed under, so that the animal, when once in, coidd not easily get out again. In these holes, at least 30,000 mice were caught in the course of three or four months, that number having been counted out, and paid for by the proper officers of the forest. It was, however, calculated, that a much greater number of mice than these were taken out of the. holes, after being caught, by stoats, weasels, kites, hawks, and owls, and also by crows, magpies, jays, &c. The cats also which had been turned out resorted to these holes to feed upon the mice; and in one instance, a dog was seen greedily eating them. In another, an owl had so gorged himself, that he was secured by one of the keepers. As the mice increased in number, so did the birds of prey, of which at last there werean incredible number. In addition to the quantity above-mentioned, a great many mice were destroyed in traps, by poison, and by animals and birds of prey : so that in Dean Forest alone, the number of those which were killed in various ways could not be calculated at much less than one hundred thousand. In the New Forest, from the weekly reports of the deputy surveyor of the fo- rest, about the same number were destroyed, al- lowing the same calculation for those eaten by vermin, &c. : in addition to which, it should be mentioned that these mice were found to eat each other when their food fell short in winter. BuiTon mentions this circumstance, and adds, that tliey not only devour the smaller of their own species, but also another description of mice, which he calls Campagnols. Putting these circumstances to- gether, the total destruction of mice in the two fo- rests in question would |)!-obaMy amount to more than two hundreil thousand. This calculation is made from olfiiial weekly returns and other cor- respdudcnce, and will show the enormous increase of these animals in a few months, as their depre- dations and destruction were equally sudden. There were two descri|)tions of these mice. One of them, called bv BulTon Mulof, is our long tailed field-mouse*. The other was a short tailed mouse, and seems to have been the ' Compagnol ' of Buf fon, from the Italian ' Compagnolo,' or tiie ' Mulot a courte queue.' There were about fifty of these latter taken to one of the former. The long-tailed mice had all white breasts, and the tail was about the same length as the body. One of them, caught in Haywood Enclosure, Dean Forest, was nearly as laroe as a weasel, and tlie back of its neck was f eautifully mottled. These latter mice were chief- ly cautiht on the wet greens in the forest, and the short-tailed both on wet as well as dry ground. The short-tailed mouse has a nmch thicker head_ than the long-tailed one, and its ears are very' siiort, and almost hid in the hair. Its body is about three inches long, and the tail one inch. The up- per part of the body is of a reddish brown, and the belly a deep ash color. Tiieir runs and nests are uniier the surface of the ground. They produce seven and eight, and in some instances nine young at a time. Amongst the birds of prey which made their appearance in Dean Foiest during the time the n)ice were in the greatest numl)ers, was a small white owl. None of these liirds had previously been observed in the forest, but in the space of a few months several were seen, and were considered to be the most destructive of any of the winged enemies of the mice. It was slated in a letter from a gentleman residing in the forest, that under the roost of one of these owls, in an enclosure called Birchwood, there were at least fifiy mice, which had passed through the owlrvhole. This assertion was repealed in some subsequent correspondence, though it is prolialiie that the pellets which owls cast up were mistaken for mice. These ovls are described as smaller than the brown owl, and asi having a kind of ruff round the head. Specimens of the mice taken in Dean and the New Forest were sent to Sir Joseph Banks, with an account of their depredations. In his answer he says, ' I have received a liberal supply of the mischievous vermin. The short-tailed field-mouse of Pennant and the field-mouse of the same author are, I believe, the- same as those sent; but I am not quite certain, because Pennant describes his field-mouse as having a tail longer than its body, and the breast of an ochre color. But those that I received have their tails of the same length as the body — the brcr.st white. I incline to conclude that they are young animals, and that the old ones will answer Pennant's description. ' I trust that it will be ascertained which of the animals is the enemy to planting that is complained of The proportionate quantities of each will be an oltject also of inquiry. ' I shall be glad to receive an accountoftlie mis- chief the mice have done. I have not in any w ork met with an account of mice having been accused of barking trees, which makes the fact a valuable + Lc Rat a la grande queue: Mus cauda longissima. 718 FARMERS' REGISTER— THE MOUSE— THE MOLE. addition, not only to natural liislory, but useful to all planters, who, when tlicy are made aware of the nature of tiie obstacles presented to tiiem, will have a better chance than otherwise would be the case of discovering- a remedy. ' In speakinii' of shrew-mice, Pennant tells us that the root of the while hellebore and staves-acre* mixed with meal is a certain poison for them. If so, it may be well to attempt by the same means to destroy these enemies.' In a subsequent letter Sir Joseph Banks says, ' On talking over the subject of the mice with a very intelligent practical" man, he suggested an idea that the evil of young ))lants being barked by mice may be much more prevalent than we sup- pose it to be, though attributed to the teeth of rab- bits and hares, instead of mice. He mentioned a wood of mine in Derbyshire, where abundance of young trees were planted, and the whole destroyed by rabbits, as my steward and himself supposed. Also much mischief in the woods of Lord Vernon at Sudbury Hall near TJttoxetcr in the same coun- ty. In both these cases the trees Avere never barked higher than about six inches from the ground — as high as a mouse can reach ; but a rab- bit can as easily bark a tree a loot from the ground as an inch. ' The notion in my judgment is worthy of inqui- ry and verilication. The officers of the forest can no doubt tell whether a rai)bit and a hare confined themselves in barking to the lowest six inches, or i-each with their teeth higher up.' In answer to this suggestion it may be stated that there were no rabbits and very few hares in the enclosure in Dean Forest, so tiiat the damage done to the plants could not have been occasioned by them. I3esides, several of the Ibrest woodmen and others attested that they had frequently seen the mice in the act of barking the trees, even at the height of three and four feet from the ground, having climbed up the trees to that distance. In another letter from Sir Joseph Banks, he says, ' I have inquired far and near, and I cannot meet with any who have suffered by the barking of young trees who attributes the mischief to mice. The discovery therelbre must prove advantageous to all planters.' In one of the Dean Forest enclosures many old hollies had been cut down to clear the way lor the plantations ; and from them bushes consisting of many young shoots, had grown up. Almost all of these in one month of the year (September) were observed to be in a state of greater or less decay, some quite black, some turning yellow, whilst a few still remained green. Upon inspect- ing them it was found that the bark had been gnawed off more or less, and more or less recently .iccording to the gradations of decay. The mice however barked indifferently young oaks, ash, beech, hollies, and willows, ancl but very few of the fir tribe. In the pits made for catching the mice, they ex- hausted themselves in efforts to climb up the sides, so that by far the greater number of them were taken out dead. Many were drowned where the water partly filled the holes; but so little did they dread water, that ash was seen fresh barked, the bottom of which was surrounded with water in such a way, that one of the officers of the forest * A kind of larkspur asserted, in an official report, that the mouse must liave L)ecn actually swimming at the time of bark- ing it. In the same report lie also mentions his belief that the weasels, at the time they are prey- ing on mice, swallow them whole, and that what they cannot digest, as the fur, &c., they void from their mouths in l)alls afterwards; so that it is scarcely ever perceptible where they have eaten their prey. In one of the retreats of a weasel ten mice were found ; and another weasel was seen to run into its hole with a mouse in its mouth. It is probable however that they were brought there as food lor the young. The weasel, I believe, gene- rally sucks the blood of its prey, at least that of the larger animals. It should be mentioned in conclusion that, in a plantation in Dean Forest, consisting of three liundred acres, not more than four or five ])lants were found Avhich were not injured by the mice or indeed destroyed by them. Many of the plants bitten through w ere as thick as a man's arm ; and the roots were gnawed so close to the stem, that some of the young trees were seen either reclining on one side, or level with the ground. The following account will show the numbers of mice caught in the different enclosures in Deau Forest in three months from September to Janua- ry, with the number of acres, and the proportion between the long and the short-tailed mice. Short-tailed. Long-tailed. Acres. Mice. Mice. Total. Haywood Enclosure 418 12,850 8 12,858 Oily Hill ditto -11 1,1(31 11 1,172 Crabtree Hill ditto 372 7,851 7,851 Park Hill ditto 113 2,665 2,665 Shutcastle ditto 163 484 33 517 Sallow Vallcts ditto 386 1,361 1,361 BarnhiU ditto 50 70 70 Birchwood ditto 50 3 3 WhitemeadParkdo. 100 1,559 15 1,574 Total Acres, 1,693 Total Mice, 28,071 I should not forget to mention that, in New Forest, foxes were frequently seen hunting after the mice, and eating them greedily. THE MOLE. From Jesse's Gleanings of Natural History. The mole-hills which we see in fields and mea- dows are thrown up by the mole probably during its search for food. Little was known of the natu- ral history of this animal, till a French naturalist, M. St. Hilaire, published lately some interesting particulars respecting it. The mole forms several under-ground passages ; and the way she proceeds in doing this is as follows : — she first makes a run in various directions, by undermining the ground, and unites this and several others at one point, making, however, some of them larger than the others. M. St. Hilaire says that she finishes by arranging them with the most perfect symmetry, plastering the sides with great care; and when completed, it may be called her encamjwient. In the centre of these works she establishes herself, and appropriates a separate place to the reception of her young, which is in some respects different- ly constructed from her own. In order to render the respective habitations which she and her young occupy not liable to be injured by the rain, she makes them almost even with the ground, and higher up than the runs, which serve as drains, or FARMERS' REGISTER— THE MOLE. 719 channels, to carry off the water. She makes choice of the phice of her abode with the p,rcatest care, sometimes constructing it at the loot of a wall, or near a hedge or a tree, where it has the least chance of being broken in. This abode is sometimes protected by having a quantity of earth thrown over it, especially in light soils, where I have seen a mound almost large enougii to fill a wheelbarrow. Sometimes, however, no earth is thrown up over the habitation. This |)recaution of the mole is very necessary, to prevent the j)laccs she has chosen ibr retreats for herself and her young from being tram])lcd in. When a mole has occasion to make her run through a gateway, I have observed that she generally carries it as near as possible to the gate-post, where it is less likely to be injured. Some runs are so near the surface, that I have seen the ground crack during the animal's progress in working them. The bed for the young is composedofthebladesofwheat,withv/liich the mole forms a sort of mattress. Four hundred and two of Ihem w'ere counted in one nest, and all so fresh in their appearance, that they had been probably col- lected liy tin's little animal in the course of two or three days. This shows not only herextraordinary industry, but the great depredation she nmst com- mit. The mole is never known to work for food near the place which she has fixed upon for her ai;)ode. She labors to procure it about two hours in the morning, and as many in the evening, and then re- turns to her home or resting-place, which is so constructed, that she is instantly made aware of any danger. This effect is jiroduced by forming the upper runs in a sort of circle, so as to commu- nicate a vibration when anything passes over them. The mole then takes alarm, and escapes by one of her safety runs. Tiie mole is not often seen on the surface of the earth. I once, however, caught one, and turned it loose upon the laun, the turf of whicii was on a bed of strong gravel, and particularly hard and dry. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the mole contrived to bury itself almost in an instant, working into the eartli by means of her snout and fins (for they can hardly be called feet) so fast, that the ground seemed to yield to her mere pressure. The power of smelling in the mole is very acute ; and it is supposed that this sense serves to direct her in the search of her food. She hunts after beetles and worms, which last she pursues eagerly, but not always successfully; for the earth-worm is aware of its clanger, and quick in escaping from it. Her search for })rey taking place in the morn- ing and evening, when birds arc more generally on their feed, must be the means of contributing greatly to their subsistence by driving worms to the surface of the earth, and furnishes another striking proof that the ' fbw Is of the air ' have their food provided by an Almighty and superintending Providence in a variety of ways. Le Court, who assisted M. St. Hilaire in his observations, and who appears to have been a sort of philosophical mole-catcher, was surprised when the naturalist expressed a doubt as to the mole see- ing. He informed him. that, in swimming rivers, they habitually guide themselves by their sight ; but, in order to satisfy 31. St. Hilaire on this point, he contrived the following experiment with him : — They made two openings in a dry tiled drain, at one of which several moles were successively in- troduced. Le Court took his stand at the other. If he stood quite still, the mole soon came out and escaped; but if, at tlie moment in which she showed herself at the hole, he moved only his thumb, she stopped and turned back. By repeat- ing this as often as she re-appeared, the mole was kept imprisoned in the drain. There has been a very general idea amongst our mole-catchers, that if the smallest drop of blood is taken from a mole, it occasions instant death. Le Court seems to account for this opinion in s()eaking of the fights which take place between the male moles, by saying, that if one is ever so slightly wounded in a vein near the ear, the wound is mortal. In order to ascertain the rate at w hich a mole moved, he put in j)ractice the following curious experiment : — He i)laced some slight sticks, with a little flag at the top of them, in the run of a mole, wliich he had [U'eviously ascertained by tracing it to be of considerable length, and along which the mole passed and re-passed four times a day in search of food. These slicks were placed at cer- tain intervals in the run, so that if the mole touched them, the flag would instantly show it. He then introduced a horn at one extremity of the run, and blowing it loudly, frightened the animal; and she then went along the run at such a rate, moving the flags in her passage, that Le Court and his friends, who were stationed at intervals along the run to assist in the oliservation, considered that she went as flist as a horse could trot at its greatest speed. Hunger in the mole is thought to be a more vi- olent feeling than fear ; and its a{)petite is singu- larly voracious. If it sees al>ird near, it quits its hole — apj)roaches as if to attack it ; and if the bird pecks it, the mole retires towards its hole, and tempts the bird to follow. She then watches her opportunity — darts upon it — seizes it by the belly, which siie tears open, assisting herself for that pur- pose with hei- flaps, and, thrusting her head into it, devours it. She drinks as greedily as she eats. The mole does not, like the mouse, lay up a store of food, as she preys on worms and various kinds of insects: she will also eat frogs, but will not touch a toad, if ever so hungry. A mole was tried with eggs and oysters, but refused to eat either. They will, however, eat fruit, and, Buffon says, acorns. If two moles are shut up together without food, the strongest will devour the weak- est, even to the bones : nothing init the skin is left, which they never eat, and which, when one has killed the other, is always seen to be ripped up along the belly. It was found that ten or twelve hours was the longest time thev could live without food. Tiiis fact seems to prove that the mole is not torpid in frosty weather, which LinnjEus as- serted she was. It is known that, in such seasons, worms, ants, and the larvaj of cock-chafers and beetles penetrate deep into the ground. It is pro- bable, therefore, that the runs of the mole made in search of f()od are regulated, as to their depth, by the habits of the grubs on which she feeds. One would suppose, from the texture of its fur, which is particularly short and thick, that the mole is not very susceptible of cold. Indeed, its whole formation is admirably adapted to its mode of life. It has been said that the mole, w hen the ground which it frequents is flooded, will climb up trees. ^20 FxVRMERS' REGISTER— CULTURE OF THE VIOLET CANE. This, however, seems to be unnecessary, as I have sesn it swim with perfect ease, which indeed Le Court had also oijserved. ON TIIK CULTURE OF THE VIOLET CANE, AS A FOOD FOU CATTLE. From the Southern Ag-ricultnrist. Bonavlsiure, (Lou.) July 30, 1S33. Dear Sir : — Your letter of the 24th of June is before me. I am truly sur])rised to learn that there is a want of original matter from the planters of your State, as well as from the South generally. My time, for the last three years, has been so en- tirely occupied, in attention to my i)laiitatiou, that it has been with diliiully I could appropriate a suf- ficiency of it to the writing necessarily devolving upon me. I have no relaxation as yet, but I wili endeavor to furnisli you with something that will serve to fill up a few pages, though it may not in- struct. I am residing at present, in a district almost ex- clusively devoted to the cultivation of the sugar- cane, and where every one is so completely en- grossed with his own affairs, as to afford but little op})ortunity for intercourse v/ith each other ; and our soil is so new and fertile as to require but little agricultural skill or knowledge, to insure an abun- dant return for the labor expended. It is known to you that nothing is more exhausting to the soil than sugar-cane, and yet, it is common here to find it in the same field for twelve or fifieen years successively, and yielding well all the while With such a soil, you may readily suppose, very little attention is })aid to manures, less to rotation of crops, and still less to the introduction of any thing like science among our planters. We, as a body, are very much embarrassed, owing to the three last fatal years, and the great want of a pro- per agricultural economy, consequently, few have leisure for any experiments, and many of those who would, for fear of failure, which would be ruin, will not attempt any improvement, in our present method of planting: nevertheless, I con- ceive, there is no staple grown in our country, the cultivation of which is so little understood as that of cane — it is a forced crop in this country, and there must be something to force its approach to maturity as nearly as possible in our climate, over and above what is practised in its cultivation, on the Islands and wilhin the tropics. Still, we are Avith a few exceptions, pursuing the old island method, and from those store-houses of ignorance, the Spanish Islands, we annually import as new, something that has been known, tried, and rejected here, twenty times. But, Sir, I ^m not disposed to send you an essay upon sugar planting: few of your readers are in- interested in it. I propose, however, to offer some- thing that will enable your planters, through five months of the year, and those months from No- vember to April, to keep fat cattle, horses and hogs, from one eighth of the ground that will keep them on corn. If you will turn to page 351 of your journal of this year, (it is in your July num- ber,) you will find it stated by Mr. Nicolau,of .Georgia, that the tops from one acre of corn, will go as far as the corn from eight acres.* This is * Our coiTespondent is mistaken in this. j\lr. Nico- lauin his communication, observes, "1 have found tJiat eight acres of corn will .support thirty head of cattle for not the case with us, perhaps, because our corn is so much better than that grown on the low swamp lands of Georgia. But, Sir, I assure you, that an acre of the Violet-cane wili furnish an abundance of food for thirty head of cattle twenty days, and if indulged with the tops, will keep them a month. The Violet-cane is termed by some, the Red Ribbon, by others, the Brazilian-cane, but here, it is most generally known as the Violet. I do not know that it possesses nutritious properties in a superior degree to the Striped Ribbon, or the common Creole-cane, but I know, from actual ex- periment, that it is better suited to our climate, than either of the others — because it resists the ac- tions of frost longer in the fall, will keep in ma- trass better, is not so liable to be injured by wet or cold in the ground after j)lanting in the spring, rises sooner, and grows oif with more rapidity and vigor in the early spring. If planted in strong land, it is apt to grow large, and a slight blow in September or October, will sometimes throw it on the ground, but this does not injure it half so much as it does the Striped Ribbon, whilst the Creole-cane is utterly destroyed by it. It affords more tillers, or shoots, from the original stalk; these put forth at an earlier period, and consequent- ly, are much more likely to make the best of a siiort season, than those of a moredilatory charac- ter ; its leaves are longer if not more abundant, are smooth, thick, and full of saccharine matter ; when properly cured, they make an excellent hay or it)dder, will not mildew and rot so soon as corn- Idades, or hay from any of the grasses which we possess : the rind it harder, and its juices not so abundant as is afforded by any other variety, but they are richer, and more nutritious as animal food. The former quality is an objection, when the cane is to be used for sugar, and the power for expressing the juice, animal; but to those who have an engine, 1 consider it superior to any cane planted in Louisiana, esjiecially if the soil be new and strong. Its progress to maturity, also is not so nuich affected by the seasons; its roots are larger and sink deejier into the earth than those of any other variety whatever; it resists our long suumicr droughts, and will continue to grow fine- ly, whilst it seems equally unaffected by the wet seasons of spring and tall. If things are not much altered since 1824, yours is a sad State for rearing stock, and particularly the lower secfk)n of it. It then, seemed to me, that this branch of rural economy was entirely neglected among you. The miserable skeletons that were to be seen culling a precarious subsis- tence along the road margins, were painful to one who delighted in fine cattle. Every thing seemed tortured to the utmost, to produce as much cotton as possible ; and was I not fisarful of touching a not yet cicatrised wound, I would charge to this very liict, nuich of the present agricultural distress of which you now complain. But yours is an intelli- gent and patriotic people; the energies and capaci- ties which you possess, will not sleep. The ex- ample of such as Dr. Ravenel, and others, will be emulated, and I have no fears but that South-Caro- lina will be herself again. In Louisiana, it has been considered impossible sixteen days, and one acre of cane tops will go as far as these eight acres of corn." It iscmie, and not corn tops, which he thinks so valuable. — [Ed. So. ^Igr. FARMERS' REGISTER-CULTIVATION OF THE POTATO. 721 to rear fine cattle. We have many difficulties to encounter ; a long, warm and relaxing summer, a superabundance of musquitoesand Hies, a scarci- ty of pasture land, and worse than ail, the })reya- lence of the mags^ot among our live stock, during the months of July, August and September. But with all these, Louisiana is a choice stock country, as I have proven beyond doubt : all that is requi- site, is attention There are now cows upon my place for which .S250 have been offered, not three years old, of the pure Durham short horned breed, and believe me, sir, there is not a planter in Caro- lina, who will bestow the proper attention, that cannot have the same in three years. The object of this communication is to endeavor to encourage your planters to make the experi- ment, of c:row"ing in abundance a proper food for their subsistence, during the winter and early spring months, and preparing a sufficiency of pas- ture for them during the remainder of the season; and to test my sincerity, I will furnish any gen- tleman this winter with a sufficiency of the Violel- cane to plant an ordinary square in his garden, (from which he can plant an acre the year suc- ceeding,) free of charge, save the freight, from New-Orleans to Charleston. And when he w ill promise, that he will attend to them, and endeavor to improve the breed and condition of the cattle in the State, and state that he has ten cows, and pas- turage sufficient for their entire support, I will present him with a full blooded ' short horned Durham yearling bull, and ship him to his order, Charleston. I would direct the manner of planting the cane, but I presume this, as well as its cultivation, is un- derstood there. With great regard, WILI.IAHI II. SPARKS. on the cultivation of the potato, avith a view to obtaining greatly increased crops; by the author op "the DOJIES- Tic gardener's manual." From the British Farmer's Magazine. Above two hundred and forty years have elapsed since the introduction of the potato into the British isles. During that period it has i)een gradually making its way in the favor of the inhabitants; but its progress fbr a long time was very limited. So slight, indeed, was the estimation in which it was held, even after the era of the revolution, that we find the celebrated Evelyn, in the year 1699, giving directions to plant potatoes in the worst grounds. " Take them up," he says, " in Novem- ber, fbr winter spending — there will enough re- main for a stock, though they be ever so exactly gathered " The potati) began, however, to be extensively cultivated about the middle of the last century ; and now it is grown in every farm and cottage garden, almost without exception. If experience seemed to have proved, bej'ond a doubt, that this root may be deemed one of the most important vegetable productions ; if, in the face of every assertion to the contrary, it be found a very valuable, and, generally speaking, a most salubrious article* of diet ; and admirably adapted *Jt has been argued that the potato, at least under certain conditions, possesses a slightly poisonous qnali- VoL. 1—91 to supply nutritious food for animals and poultry ; it becomes a matter of serious interest to determine with certainty, that mode of culture which shall at all times, and in all situations, tend to produce the heaviest crops, and of the finest quality. The common mode of planting and cultivating the potato is known to every cottager and farming man ; but that philosophic method which has re- cently been productive of enormous returns, may, perhaps, be referred chiefly, if not entirely, to the scientific President of the Horticultural Society. This method it is my object to describe, through the medium of your pages ; but before I enter up- on the detail of" Mr. Knight's directions, I think it a duty to request the reader's attention to a few important results, the particulars of which have been stated to me in letters lately received from that gentleman. As flicts, and very recent ones, they are peculiarly interesting, not only as they decisively show what may be, and has been effected during the late season, but also because they prove, to a demonstration, that science and hypothesis may go hand in hand with practice; and that, when the latter is founded upon the former, it loses alto- gether its empirical character, and becomes estab- lished upon the most unassailable basis. Mr. Knight has observed, that he planted his potatoes upon a soil naturally poor, and very shal- low, upon a rock full of fissures, giving no more manure than is usually given to a crop of turnips ; the manure was mixed up with the soil, and not thrown into the drills at the time of planting. The plants suffered from drought during a part of the year; nevertheless, he had very good crops from many varieties. These varieties he had himself originated from seed, and they possess the impor- tant quality of scarcely producing any blossoms ; anil, therefore, the vital powers of the plant are entirely employed in the production and support of those tuberous processes — the potatoes — which are the sole object of the cultivator. The produce of two of the sorts is particularly stated to me, and is as follows: of tlie one, twenty-three tons, two hundred weight, seventy-six pounds ; and theother, twenty tons, two hundred weight, one hundred and one pounds, per acre. Of four other varieties he observes, " the produce exceeded twenty tons each per acre, all of good quality." If the reader will reduce these weights to pounds, he will find them, (reckoning the yield at twenty tons only per acre) to amount to five hundred and sixty bushels, each of eighty pounds weight. Inthe winter of 1S31, I received a packet from Mr. Knight, enclosing several specimen potatoes raised by him. For the convenience of carriage, these were under the medium size, weighing about four ounces each ; they were, however, perfi3Ct in form and growth. Eight of them were selected, and plante^d in a row^, each widely apart one from the other. From these eight tubers, whose total weio'ht was barely two pounds, I obtained a produce of one hundred and fifty-six potatoes, ty. The idea may have originated in the botanic cha- racter of the plant": in fact, it is one of the family of the night shade — the solanum tiiberosimi of Linnseus, and of lie old natural oi der luridcc, which included plants whose appearance was described as being " dusky, dismal, and gloomy." The genus or family solanum, is the type of that numerous tribe or order in the natural system, sole- necE, many of whose members exhibit great beauty of appearance, and possess very useful properties. r22 FARMERS' REGISTER— CULTIVATION OF THE POTATO. weig-liing, in all, sixty-nine pounds. Some roots yielded more than others; one was peculiarly prolific — it furnished eighteen pounds ol potatoes, six of the largest of which weighed ten pounds. Having thus adduced a few general facts, it re- mains to point out the mode of operation by which such large results may be obtained. One of the chief, if not the primary, agents in effecting vegetable development and maturity, is light. Deprive a plant of that, and you either paralyze the operation of its vital principle, or in- duce imperfect and diseased action. The leaves of vegetables are the media upon which light acts ; and, therefore, it should be the object of the gardener so to arrange his crops, that the utmost breadth of their foliage may be exposed to the full influence of the solar rays. Hence, the rows of potatoes ought to point north and south; for, in the first place, plants so exposed, command the greatest breadth and duration of light; and in the second, the sun at the time of his highest meri- dian altitude — that is, at the hour of" noon — shines directly along the extent of the rows ; his light is also most equally distributed upon the whole foli- age as he approaches to, and recedes from the me- ridian. The perpendicularity of growth, which is of considerable importance to the complete success of the crop, is less likely to be disturbed by this mode of arrangement, than by any other that has lieretofbre been emj)loyed. It is generally the practice to plant small potatoes, or sets of larger tubers, cut with one or two eyes to each. — These sets are planted in rows from sixteen to twenty inches asunder, and the sets about half that distance, or nine inches apart, without any consideration being had to the aspect or direction of the rows. As the stems advance in growth they are very liable to fall over, and become entangled ,one with another, thus intercepting the solar liglit, which then acts unequally upon the disorderly masses of foliage. Hence tiie crops become very unequal in point of bulk and weight. Mr. Knight's philosophical directions lead to a very different result. He recommends the plant- ing of whole potatoes, and those only which are of fine medium size — none to be of less weight than four ounces ; and he often ijrefers tliose which weigh six or eight ounces. Tiie earlier sorts, and, indeed, all which seldtmi attain a greater height than two feet, are to be j)Ianted about four or five inches apart in the rows, centre from centre, the crown ends upward ; the rows to be from two feet six inches to three feet asunder. The late pota- toes, which produce a haulm above three feet in height, are to be placed five or six inches apart, centre from centre, in rows four or five feet asunder. When potatoes are thus planted in rows point- ing north and south, the utmost energy of the light will be exerted, not only upon the foliage of the plant, but upon the surface of the intervening spaces of ground. If we supjtose that the main crops will be planted at the latter end of March, and during the month of April, the sun's meridian altitude will be advancing daily, for at least nine weeks ; and during that period, the development and growth of the stem and leaves will be in a state of rapid progress. After the turn of days, and when the plants liave attained their full growth, the sun will continue to exert its mcjst powerful iiifl uence. S|jou!d the ground be of a proper texture and quality, the plants will stand erect, and the ma- turing piocess will proceed without interrujition; and after favorable summers, wherein there have been regular and jnoderate supplies of rain, particu- larly during May and June; with a prevalence, however, of l)right sunshine, the crops of potatoes will be regular, the tubers generally of a medium size, and the quality mealy, and altogether superior. If the soil be a strong mellow loam, enriched with much manure, the haulm will, in all probability, grow too rank, and finally fall over ; nevertheless, the large spaces between the rows will greatly remedy this evil, for the sun's beams will act upon one surface at the least, and the matting and other injurious consequences resulting from close drill- ing will be prevented or obviated. I cannot re- frain, in this place, from correcting an erroneous opinion, which almost universally prevails. We hear every where of potato plants running away to haulm, and thus expending their vital energy ujion useless stem and foliage, instead of employ- ing it in the production of tuberous roots. Now this remark is wholly opposed to philosophical fact, for invariably the strongest and heaviest bulk of po- tatoes is found attached to the most luxuriant haulm. The evil of over luxuriance is not to be referred to the paucity of tuberous product, for that is al- ways great; it is a consequence of an over-rich soil, which causes the haulm to grow so tall as to fiill over, become entangled, and thus to lose the maturing influence of light ; hence, such haulm seldom ripens in due time, it remains green even in December ; and the tubers, though large, nu- merous and heavy, are immature, void of meali- ness, and vapid in flavor. A fact of great importance to the growers of po- tatoes remains to be noticed. The outside rows, and all single rows, will be found to produce far greater crops than any of the interior rows of a plot in the garden or field. This depends upon a variety of causes, the chief of which is, the more perfect exposure of the foliage to the agency of air and light. Mr. Knight assures me, that he ob- tained from one outside row of an early seedling variety of the preceding year, which was two feet six inches exterior of an adjoining row, " a pro- duce equivalent to more than fifty-eight tons per acre. No conclusions," he adds, "can be drawn from the aniovmt of produce of an external row. I mention it only to show the enormous influence of light." In this philosophical remark I cordially acqui- esce, because experience has established its truth to my own satisfaction. I therefore earnestly re- commend every cultivator who has the opportuni- ty of cropping upon long detached slij)S, in airy, open situations, to make the experiment of close planting in single rows, either whole potatoes, or well cut sets from very large potatoes, each to contain two eyes at the least. These sets should be taken from the crown end, or middle of the tu- ber, and not from the lower or root end ; as I have found the latter to be compar-atively unpr-oductive. Sets may be planted at still less clistances in the rows than whole tubers; and although the prefer- ence ought in all cases to be given to a southern direction, where such can be conveniently given, still, for absolutely single rows, it is not indispen- salily required, because air and light will act on each side of the stem and foliage, and there will be no intervening shadow. FARMERS' REGISTER— TOBACCO— HESSIAN FLY, &c. 723 The soil ouo;ht to be sandy and light, though moderately rich ; that is, if fine, mealy and dry potatoes be required. It should not by any means be glutted with manure, and need not be deep. 1 have found no particular advantage in trenching for this crop; in fact, I am credibly informed by an observant gentleman, who has travelled exten- sively, that in North America, the finest potatoes are produced in extraordinary quantities upon grass meadows, by simjjly turning up the turf, inserting the potatoes, and reversing the turf by placing the grass surfiice downward upon them. With respect to the properties of this vegetable, and the purposes to which it may be applied, the following observations of an eminent physician may not be deemed inappropriate. I extract them from the " Pharmacologia" of Dr. Pare: — " Potatoes are found to produce " First — Cottony flax from the stalk. " Second — Sugar from the root. " Third — Potass by combustion. " Fourth — Vinegar from the apples. " Fifth — Soap, or a substitute for bleaching, from the tubercles. " And finally — When cooked by steam, the most farinaceous and economical of all vegetable food." It is also known that much farina, or rather amylum, or starch, is yielded by grinding and washing the pulpy mass. My experiments in 1828 led me to ascertain, that a fine mealy sort yielded from one-eighth to one-seventh of tiie total weight of the potatoes. This starch may be em- ployed as a substitute for that made from wheat; and as an article of diet, prepared as Indian arrow- root. It can also be introduced in making bread, though there is some dffiiculty in the manipula- tion. As food for all cattle of the farm — horses, cows, pigs, and likewise for poultry— potatoes are all but invaluable. Every creature apj)ears to relish them ; particularly when they are steamed or carefully boiled. It would be well worth the intelligent former's while to pay great attention to the use and effects of potatoes, raw and boiled. It is asserted that a cow may safely eat them in a raw state to the extent of, perhaps, fifty pounds per day, provided the eyes have broken and began to shoot. Whenever they be given raw, however, they should be chopped into pieces to prevent ac- cidents. The utility of raw potatoes is, however, doubted by man)', and therefore, the experiment requires close observation ; perhaps straw, hay and chair, might be employed as a very proper adjunct, with a few ounces of salt, added to each feed. Whenever steaming in the large way can be pro- fitably employed, it must be an advantage for pigs and poultry particularly ; and in all cases it would greatly tend to prevent the possibility of the dan- ger of sutTocation, which has been known to result from the hurry and greediness with which cattle devour the raw roots. I am, Sir, yours, respectfully, G. I. T. December I8th, 1832. ANSWER TO QUERIES ON TOBACCO, &C. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. In the last Register, (No. 10) a correspondent from Warren County, North Carolina, requests a more detailed account of Mr. Old's plan of culti- vating tobacco, by which the general improve- ment of his farm is reconciled with the growth of that destructive crop. It is hoped that Mr. Old, whose skill as a farmer is at least equalled i)y his capacity to convey to others his ideas on any sub- ject, will be induced lo furnish for the Register, a full account of his system. In the meantime, as I have called attention to his culture of tobacco, I will gratify your Warren correspondent as far as I am able. I did not state with sufficient clear- ness, in the communication in No. 7 of the Regis- ter, that the two lots designed for tobacco, must first be made very rich, "if not naturally so. — The oats are then sown after the tobacco crop is taken off — and when ripe, are rolled down with a heavy roller, or else ploughed in — the first having been usually preferred. When rolled down, the crop (being a heavy one) affords a good covering to the land ; besides which, they sprout and come up through the straw, forming a perfect covering to the earth. This is permitted to remain until the first favorable weather in the latter part of the winter. The land is then ploughed, and put into good tilth in the usual way. Mr. Old cultivates the Blue Prior Tobacco — tops to 12, 10, and 8 leaves successively — and permits it to be as ripe as possible before cutting. His lots are on low land — which is best, because, on account of its moisture, the plants live better when set out : otherwise, level high land is just as good. I have known Mr. Okl to make 30,000 lbs. of toi)acco from about 82,000 hills, one year— and 11,000 lbs. from 33,000 another )'ear. These were his i)est crops — init they are uniformly good in quantity and quality. Having enlarged his fiirm lately, he has changed his plans, and has now three lots — in- terposing a crop of wlieat and clover, between the crops of tobacco. Time has not yet shown whether this will do as well as the two lots with the oats — I don't think it will. He, however, gets a fine crop of wheat every third year, which may compensate for a less crop of toliacco. I will add, that Mr. Old's care of his tobacco, from the cutting to the prizing of it, is remarkable — to which is to be at- tributed, in part, the high prices he always gets. He is, moreover, a good manager of every thing he undertakes ; and thus it may be, that the mere adoption of one of his plans, may not insure similar results. I am his neighiior, and have the benefit of observing his whole management, and yet, I must confess, my farm exhibits no such ap- pearance as his — nor do my crops fill my pockets as well as do his. Yours, h. meade. March 31, 1834. For tlie Farmers' Register. HESSIAN FLY WEEVIL CHEAT. In page 351 of the 6th No. of the Register is inserted, a "simple method of destroying the Hes- sian fly," from the Canadian Courant. Many years past, I cut out of a paper the piece enclosed in this letter. This, with some desultory remarks of my own, is subjected to your control, as you may pos- sibly consider it proper for publicity. " The Hessian Fhj. — This destructive insect is proj)agated from the eggs of the fly deposited on the grains of wheat when ripening; the truth of which I learned from actual observations. The fly may be seen by the middle of June, and from that time tdl wheat is cut, flying about and light- ing upon ears of wheat. It deposits its eggs upon 724 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON HILL SIDE DITCHES. the outer end of the grain, -vvhere they may be seen with a good microscope or optic glass ; some- times fo the number of" six or seven on one grain. They remain there till the grain is sown. The warmth necessary to produce vegetation is suiB- cient to animate the insect. It bursts its shell and enters the shoot, where it lies in a torpid state till the next spring, except in some instances when wheat is sown early, the fly commences its rava- ges in the fall : when this is discovered, the best method is to turn sheep upon it and pasture it short, either in the fail or in the winter. The most effectual way fo check the propaga- tion, is in preparing the seed before sown, which should be in the following manner : — Put your seed into a hogshead, tub or vat, and cover it with water; let it stand ten or twelve hours; then put off the water, i)ut the wheat upon a barn floor, and sprinkle lime over, and with a shovel, mix it till it is well covered with lime. Let it remain in that state about twenty-four hours, and the eggs will be destroyed without any injury to the seed. The following brief sketch of the observations which led to the discovery abovementioned, is given, thatall who wish to be satisfied of the truth of it, may have ocular demonstration of the fact, if they will take the trouble. On viewing several grains of wheat in a nucroscope, something resem- bling the eggs of insects was observed upon them ; twenty grains were selected with those appearances; they were put upon some raw cotton and a little earth in a tumbler of water, and observed every day ; and on the day the grain opened and put forth its tender fibre, the insect burst from its shell and was not to be seen. Ten days after, five of the grains with their roots and blades, were taken from the glass and carefully examined. In three of tliem the insects were found. The other fifteen remained, and over- spread the top of the glass. They were preserved till spring, when, on examining, every stalk had an insect in it, some two, and one had four. Twenty other grains were selected, and the lime applied for twelve hours. It was then washed, and the color of the eggs was changed, and being put into a glass, in like manner as the other, the wheat grew, but the eggs did not produce. The roots were transplanted and grew well, and ten bushels of wheat, limed as above, produced a good crop, while the neighboring fields suffered mate- rially, and some were almost wholly destroyed by the fly. Jl farmer of Bucks Co. Pa." The fact stated in the above communication, in- duced me fo believe it probal)le, that the egg of the fly might be deposited on the soft grain ; and an occurrence eight years past, tended, as I think, to strengthen this notion. Having sowed a small part of my wheat in September, ten days after its appearance, being struck Avith its unhealthy ap- pearance, I discovered, on examination, the mag- got of the fly to abound, frequently six and eight to a spire; and by actual measurement, found at the least, one-third of the maggots two inches be- low the surface. At that time I considered it im- probable, that all the eggs, producing these mag- gots at such a depth, had been deposited on the leaf or stalk, and that the maggots had crawled down thus low. A confirmation of this notion is also derived from a fact communicated by an intelligent and highly respected acquaintance, viz. that he has seen a chrysalis (in the " flaxseed state,") in the interior of a grain of wheat. 1 however admit that many, very many of the eggs are deposited on the growing wheat : but they may derive their origin from the preservation of eggs deposited in the soft w heat grain ; and if so, any mode of destroy- ing them in the grain, prior to seeding, will be found highly beneficial. Being but an indolent farmer, I have only once tried the plan of the Pennsylvania farmer ; but neither soaked the wheat as long, nor suflered the wheat mixed with lime to lay as long as the receipt directs ; but the fly did not abound in the croji from this seed, to the extent of former years. The 6lh No. also contains two articles on wee- vil, and I briefly state flicts within my own know- ledge, which seem clearly to prove, that the eggs of both species, are sometimes deposited on the growing grain. Many years ago, my father had planted a few grainsof wheat of different varieties, to test their respective merits; and the product, when gathered, being rubbed out, was tied up in paper, deposited in a barrel of leaf tobacco about ten inches below the surface; and when taken out for seeding, one paper, I well remember, contained black weevil. I have several times selected from the field and rubbed out, on the same day, fine looking heads of wheat, in order to improve the crop by selected seed — tied up the grain in paper, deposited in a drawer of a desk placed in my din- ing room, and never unlocked but by myself, and yet the gray weevil has been often found in these samples. I have also frequently seen the shucks of flint corn perforated by the gray weevil, when standing on the stalk, in the month of October. I will venture to state one more fact as to cheat. My father-in-law, Col. John T. Woodford, re- moved to Kentucky in 1S20, where he purchased a tract of land, containing a timothy meadow. In the fall of 1832, he visited me, and related, after hearing a conversation on this vexed question, the following fact. This meadow had been in timothy from 1817, had never iTeen seeded in wheat from that period, had been grazed in the fall and winter regularly by cows, and had every year brought fine crops of hay, untd 1831. In this year, the meadow was indeed capricious, for it brought cheat, and he said a greater growth of wheat was never seen by him. In 1832, however, it quietly returned to its old habits, and brought a very heavy crop of timothy. Your readers will of course decide for them- selves as to the cheat controversy ; for myself, I have long been of opinion, that the Deity provided seed, "each after its own kind," and that when circumstances are favorable, or the reverse, that seeds vegetate, or continue dormant. JOHN TAYLOK. Caroline, March 30th, 1834. ON HILL SIDE DITCHES. . To the Editor of the P'armers' Register. Having just returned home from a small jaunt of eighty or an hundred miles, I find my table covered with many newspapers and several peri- odicals. Amongst them is the Farmers' Register; upon looking into the table of contents of which, I was directed to a piece headed " On hill side ditches, to prevent the washing of broken land." Knowing the great utility of these ditches, from an experience of four or five years, and being ex- FARMERS' REGISTER— .MR. JEFFERSON'S FARMING. r25 ceedino;!}' anxious 1o see them in o-eneral use by I harmless little dittlies, (pretty much upon the plan every farming; individual of the tommunity, I in stantly turned to tiie communication, to see tlic wonderful success tliey must have met willi, though I quickly saw that I should lie disappointed ; for I observed that the si^inature of my particular friend Wardsfork, of Charlotte, was appended to the es- say, whose sentiments I knew to be very adverse to this new plan of improvement, long previous to the appearance of his piece. Believing Wardsfork to be mistaken in his views upon the subject, and thinking his ideas more tlieoretical than he himself is disposed to imagine, I have thought it necessary to say a word or two in favor of these ditches, for fear that his arguments may induce many to pass over this valuable im- provement, unnoticed and untried. To show and to prove that tiie views of my friend are fallacious, and in a high degree theore- tical, but little is necessary for me to say ; for, as much might be gathered from his own communi- cation as would be all sufficient. But lest it may he considered that I assume more to myself than what properly belongs to me, I will leave Wards- fork and his essay for tlie present, and proceed to state of these ditches, wiiat I believe to be true and useful in speculation, and I know to be sound and efficacious in practice. Owning, as I do, three ol as broken, hilly, and in many places, as gullied farms as any in middle Virginia, I think I have had ample opportunity to test, in the most conclu- sive manner, every i)Ossible expedient that could be devised to stop gullies and prevent the lands washing. It is sufficient to say, that 1 have tried almost every plan that I iiave yet seen published — and all to no purpose. It has been my hal)it for several years, for the purpose of stopping gullies, to throw brusli, cornstalks, &c. into them — tomake wattle and stone dams across them, plough over them in various ways, then haul all the manure that could be spared and spread it over the land — but all was of no account: for frequently, in less than a week, they were washed deeper than ever, anci the fruits of all my labor swept down into the adjoining bottom. Meeting then with such repeated disappoint- ments, I v/as forced to abandon every plan, and to determine to throw away no more time nor labor upon the subject, but to suffer the gullies and the land through which they ran, to lie waste, till time should effect an improvement They were permitted to remain in tliis condition for about two years; when some one, (I do not now recol- lect who) informed me that hill side ditches would effectually stop every gully upon my firms. Think- ing ti)e plan a good one, from the idea I had taken of it, and being very desirous to effect this end, and restore my land to its original fertility, I re- solved upon giving the experiment a fair trial: and upon occurrence of the first leisure moment, I repaired to the different places, and laid off some ditches according to tiie instructions 1 had re- ceived: and to my entire satisfaction, they an- swered every end for which they had been sug- gested. Nay, they exceeded my most sanguine expectations ; for instead of gullies and barren land, are now to be seen some of as fine clover as grow upon any part of my farm. Thus, to borrow in some degree my friend's phraseology, I would say, if you wish to stop ten, fifteen, or more gullies, construct two or three that Wardsfork would lay off his beds) inclining to the horizon about two inches in every ten feet, until you meet with the adjacent bottom, branch, or stream.* Experience tells me that the course of these ditches should be as short and as straight as tlie nature of the ground will permit: so that they may empty themselves quickly, in heavy showers of rain, and thus prevent Ihe banks (which should be low) from breaking over. Construct your ditches as is here directed, and I will V, arrant that they will not, and cannot wash ; and I will insure that ihey will answer every end for which they are proposed, in the most convinc- ing manner. Before condemning the use of these ditches so prematurely, and in such round terms, Wardsfork should have shown that the evils of which he com- plains are the necessary and unavoidable conse- quences of their construction, under all circum- stances. Then he would have made manifest that the prin.ciple upon which they are founded, was false — then he would have shown that the use of them was " temporizing with dangerous tamper- ings," — then he would have !)roved that the agri- cultural interest speeddy required an abandonment of a plan so pernicious, and an experiirient so high- ly injurious. But this he did not, and could not do : and such an attempt would evidently have demolished the foundation upon which his own plan rested: for the mathematical axiom which declares that " things which are equal to the same thing, are equal to one another," is not more evi- dent to my senses, than the identity of the two principles which govern the hill side ditches, and Wardsfbrk's bedding plan of improvement. February 22fZ, 1834. MR. JEFFERSON S FARMING. [The following extract from the travels of the Duke de la Rochefoucault Liancourt may be interesting to many readers, both on account of the subject, and as pro- ceeding from a distinguished foreigner. We suspect, how- ever, that the author mistook, in some respects, the sys- tem which Mr. Jefferson intended to introduce, for that which was actually in operation.] Mr. Jefferson has divided all his land under cul- ture into four fiarms, and every farm into seven fields of forty acres. Each farm consists, there- tore, of two hundred and eighty acres. His sys- tem of rotation emliraces seven years; and this is the reason why each farm has been divided into seven fields. In the first of these seven years, wheat is cultivated ; in the second, Indian corn ; in the third, peas or potatoes; in the fourth, fetches ; in the filth, wheat; and, in the sixth and seventh, clo- ver. Thus, each of his fields yields some produce every year; and his rotation of successive culture, while it prepares the soil for the following crop, increases its produce. The ai)undance of clover, potatoes, peas, &c. will enable him to keep suffi- cient cattle for manuring his land, which at pre- sent receives hardly any dung at all, indej)endent- * I have not yet had it in my power to see Mr. Bruce's communication, and therefore cannot avail my- self of his views upon this subject. 726 FARMERS' REGISTER— DAIRY MANAGEMENT— COMMON SALT. ly of the great profit which he will in future de- rive from the sale of his cattle. Each fiinii, under the direction of a particular steward or liailitT, is cultivated by four negroes, four negresses, four oxen, and four horses. The bailiffs, who in general manage their farms sej)a- rately, assist each other during the harvest, as well as at any other time, when there is any pressing labor. The great declivity of the fields, which would render it extremely troublesome and tedi- ous to carry the produce, even of each farm, to one common central point, has induced Mr. Jef- ferson to construct, on each field, a barn, sufficient- ly capacious -to hold its produce in grain. The produce in forage is also housed there; hut this is generally so great, that it becomes necessary to make stacks near the barns. The latter are con- structed of trunks of trees, and the floors are boarded. The forests and slaves reduce the ex- pense of these buildings to a mere trifle. Mr. Jefferson possesses one of those excellent thrashing machines, which, a few years since, were invented in Scotland, and are already very common in England. 'J'his machine, the whole of which does not weigh two thousand pounds, is conveyed from one barn to another in a wagon, and thrashes from one hundred and twenty, to one hundred and fifty bushels a day. A worm, whose eggs are almost constantly deposited in the ear of the grain, renders it necessary to thrash the corn a short time after the harvest. In this case, the heat, occasioned by the mixture of grain with its envelope, from which it is disengaged, but with Avhich it continues mixed, destroys the vital prin- ciple of the egg, and protects ihe corn from the inconveniencies of its being hatched. If the grain continued in the ears, without being s])eedily l)ea- ten, it would be destroyed by the worm, which would be excluded from the eggs. This scourge, however, spreads no farther northwards than the Potomac, and is bounded to the west by the Blue Mountains. A few weeks after the corn has been beaten, it is free from all danger, winnowed, and sent to market. The Virginia jilanters have gene- rally their corn trodden out l)y horses ; but this way is slow , and there is no country in the world where this operation requires more despatch than in this pari of Virginia. JJesides, the straw is bruised by the treading of horses. Mr. Jefferson hopes that his machine, whirh has already found some imitators among his neighbors, will be generally adopted in Virginia. In a country where all the inhabitants possess plenty of wood, this machine may be made at a very trifling expense. DAIRY MANAGEMENT. From the Transactions of the Essex (Mass.) Agricultural Society. MARGARET VVARDWCLL'S STATEMENT. To the Committee on the Dairy. Gentlemen, — 1 offer for your examination a spe- cimen of butter. One jar was filled in June — the other in September. We have nine cows, — all of native breed, and from five to fifteen years old. From the 1st of June to the 9th of July, I made three hundred pounds of butter. I have made this season eight hundred and forty- eight pounds of butter, and five hundred and fifty pounds of cheese. I put dovy n two hundred pounds in June and July, which I should have exhibited. had it not been that the scarcity of butter the month past, induced me to part with it. We have had fourteen persons in the family through the season, who have used milk freely ; and we have sold milk to four other families. Our cows have had no feed, but common pasturing. I annex a specification of the times and quantities in which the butter was made, which is attested to, by those who a.ssisted in making it. MAUGARET WARDWELL. Andover, (S. P.) Sept. 1831. SPECIFICATION. 1831. Vpril 16 6 lbs May 31 141 lbs. July 18 lOJ lb 21 81 " June 1 15 " 21 14^ cc 25 7i " 4 121 " 26 8 cc 27 61 " 6 141 '•• 30 16 t( ^lay 2 91 " 8 151 " Aug. 3 15 ee 4 111 " 10 161 " 8 9 (C 6 111 « 13 161 " 12 12 (C 7 131 " 15 171 " 20 10^ (C 10 12 " 17 16 " 25 6 et 11 121 « 20 16-1 " 30 101 C( 13 12 " 22 27 " Sept. 3 14| (t 14 121 " 25 15 " 6 14 c< 16 14 " 27 15 " 9 141 i< 18 141 " 29 16 " 12 14 cc 20 141 " July 1 15 " 14 16^ ec 23 13 " 4 14 " 16 13| C( 24 11^ " 5 16 « 19 17i se 26 14^ " 6 15 " 23 14 ,e 28 17+ " 30 13| " 8 15 " 26 14 ce 9 14 " 27 14^ ct 28 7 (C ACCOUNT OF COMMON SALT. From Kidd's Bridgewater Treatise. It does not appear that the mineral kingdom contains a single species capable of being employed as food ; but there is one mineral species which indirectly contributes to the nourishment of many other animals as well as man, and that is common salt, the flavor of which, to a certain extent, is not only grateful to the palate, but, practically speak- ing, mankind could not exist, or at least never have existed without the constant use of it. Thus, though employed in very small quantities at a time by any individual, and almost exclusively for the purpose either of preserving or of render- ing his food more palatable, this substance may fairly be classed among the principal necessaries of life; and correspondently with this statement, we find that nature has supplied it in abundance, indeed, in profusion often, in various parts of the globe; for, to say nothing of those apparently in- exhaustible masses which occur among the solid strata of the earth, and which have been constant- ly quarried through successive ages from the earli- est records of history, the ocean itself is a never- failing source of this valuable substance. In other instances salt springs afford the means of a ready supplj' ; and throughout a considerable part of the sandy districts of Africa and Asia the soil itself abounds with it. The abundant supply of com- mon salt coincides with its extensive utility. It is every where indispensable to the comforts of man; and it is every where found, or easily obtained by him. And, though not to the same extent, the same observation holds with reference to many other natural saline compounds. Thus, carbonate FARMERS' REGISTER— THE CAUSE OF FARMERS. 727 of potasli, and natron or carbonate of soda, alum, borax, sal ammoniac, and sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, which are most extensively useful salts in many processes of the arts, are either found aliun- dantly in various parts of the world, or may be ob tained by very easy means : while a thousand oth- er saline compounds, which are rarely of any prac- tical im|)ortance, are scarcely known to exist in a native state. THE CAUSE OF FARMERS. From a Baccalaureate Address, pronounced at a commencement of the University of Nashville, Tenn. by Philip Lindsley, President. " I care as little about names as any man. If the 7ia77ie of college or university be unsavory in the ears of the people or of the people's guardians and conscience keepers, let it be cashiered. Let our colleges and universities be called academies, lyceums, gymnasia, common schools, or popular intellectual workshops — or by any other republi- can appellation, if any more acceptable or less in- vidious can be invented. It is the thing — the sub- stance— the knowledge — the mental enlargement and energy and power — that I would give to the people in as ample measure as possible. That they may be sovereign in fact as well as in name. That they may be capable of knowing and guard- ing and asserting their own rights and liberties, without the second sight of any political juggler or officious bankrupt Solomon. " I would create here in Nashville, or in Knox- ville, or in Memphis, or in each, a university or great common school — with accommodations for a thousand pupils — with able instructers, li braries, apparatus, and all manner of useful fix- tures and appurtenances — at the expense of the commonwealth. Every poor youth, properly qua- lified, should be admitted to its privileges gratis. The rich might pay for their sons. But none should be excluded tor want of means. If more than a thou- sand pupils should offer— enlarge the establishment or erect others upon the same plan. This would be a species of internal improvement worthy of the republic, and which would elevate Tennessee to a rank never yet attained by any people. And the Legislature which shall boldly lay the corner stone of such a magnificent temple of popular instruc- tion, will deserve and will gain a glorious immor- tality, whatever may be the verdict of their con- stituents or of their contemporaries. Their mag- nanimous and enlightened patriotism w ill be cele- brated a thousand lustrums after the petty inter- ests and conflicts of this selfish generation shall be forgotton. " I have asserted that colleges have done good, or that learning has been useful. That, like wealth and power, when possessed only by a few it has been often abused to the injury of others. That our college graduates have generally been the faithful sentinels and advocates of popular rights. That if any appear to be swerving from the straight path of rectitude, it is because they have discovered an ignorant mass on which to ope- rate. That the only remedy for the evil — the on- ly preventive of its recurrence and of its raj)id in- crease— is the immediate education of a much lar- ger proportion of the people. Not the giving them what is called a common school education — the most of them have this already — and it does not suffice. The man who can merely read and write is no match for the through-bred political gladia- tor. He cannot dispel tlio sophistry even of the village attorney or of the village gazette. He is just the man (') 1)C led astray by the new spaper es- sayist. And the newspaper is the very engine em- ployed to gull the people who can read, but who are too ignorant to discriminate, to reason and to judge. "Nonebut enemies of the people will ever grave- ly maintain that a common school education, in- the ordinary meaning of the phrase, is all they need. This would be virtually telling them to be hewers of wood and drawers of water under po- litical task masters for ever. Why is it that our lawyers rule the nation, and fill all our lucrative offices, from the presidency downwards.' Simply and solely because they can do something more than read and write. If our mechanics and far- mers would enter the lists with our lawyers, they must acquire the same degree of intellectual pow- er and address. Nor would this prove a very dif- ficult achievement. Take the common run of our lawyers— and they are no great things. The mechanics and farmers might easily beat them at their own game and with their own weapons. If they did but unilerstand their interests, they vyould unite with the schoolmaster, make common cause with him, and assert their natural rights and influ- ence in society. Let them take this matter of schools and colleges into their own hands. Let them rally around our most respectafile and meri- torious, though poor, persecuteil and much reviled university. Let them contrihute the trifle of a hundred thousand dollars or so, to its funds, and send to it a few hundred of their clever youths to acquire the art of lawyer-fighting — and we shall soon see them at the head of alfairs as they ought to be. This is the best advice that I can give them. If they prefer ignorance, and are determined to keep their sons in ignorance — -then, farewell to all their greatness, and to all the dignitj' which their position might justly command. They may frown upon colleges — they may aliuse them — they may starve them — they may scatter them to the winds — = but they only sink themselves the lower in the general scale of humanity. Instead of training their own sons to illustrate their names and to adorn the commonwealth, thcj' will become the spoil and the scorn of every Euro})ean or eastern adventurer who may choose to settle among them. For they cannot interdict the ingress of as much talent and learning from abroad as will suffice to discharge those ])ublic and prof(?ssional functions to which they would themselves be totallv inadequate. " 1 have l)een pleading the cause of farmers and mechanics for some ten or dozen years past. Be- cause upon them, as enlightened, judicious, inde- pendent, patriotic citizens, depend the destinies of this republic. The question is, shall they lead or be led.' Shall they arrest and put down the factious spirit of unprincipled amiiition, or shall they tame- ly lend themselves as the instruments and the vic- tims of its desperate and treasonable purposes.' The crisis has arrived when the people must speak and act wisely and resolutely, or their ability to speak and to act, with decisive efficiency, will be lost for ever. " The lawyers are now our sole political guides and instructers. They engross the learning of the country ; I mean all that learning which is brought to bear on government, legislation and public jx)l- 728 FARMERS' REGISTER— BONE MANURE. icy — for the pliysiciiiris rarely intermeddle in these atiairs ; and tiie clergy ouy;lU ibrever to i)e exclu- ded by law, if not by a hij^h sunso of duty. Our farmers and mechanics thoretbre, who constitute the great body of the people, are governed by tlie lawyers. Now it is not in iiuman nature, that in such a country as ours, there siioulii not grow up a son of professional aristocracy, which in time may become irresistible. Wherever tliere ms a privileged order, no matter how constituted — whe- ther like the pairiciaii of ancient, or the ecclesias- tic of modern Rome — it will, if not duly checked and counterbalanced, in the long run, become overbearing and tyrannical. I look to the coile;;e for a seasonable sujjply of countervailing agents. I look to a well educated independent yeomanry as the sheet anchor of the republic. I look forvvard to the period when it will not be deemed anti-re- publican ibr the college graduate to follow the jdough ; nor a seven day's wonder tor the laborer to be intellectual and to comprehend tlie constitu- tion of his country. " I am not unfriendly to lawyers. I could say much in tiieir praise, were I in the humor of jiro- nouncing encomiums. In their proper sphere, they are useful and necessary. But that they should engross the legislative, judicial and execu- tive functions of the government, is neither repub- lican, nor, safe, nor upon any ground, delensible. There would be reason in tlie thing, if like the farmers, they composed a large nun;erical majori- ty of the |)opulation But that a lew thousand of any particular profession, class or order should rule over millions is as ano nalous, and as inconsistent with the genius of our popular institutions, as would be an hereditary aristocracy possessing the same exclusive [irivilege. The farmers have no alternative but to yield their necks to the yoke, or to open up for their sons a great highway to the scientific halls of the university. Belonging, as I do, to their respectable fraternity l>y birth, by ear- ly association and by all the ties of kindred— the son of a laboring farmer, the brother of laboring farmers, and the father, it may be of laboring far- mers and mechanics — 1 cannot be iiulifferent to their welfare even upon the most selfish conside- rations. But I feel conscious of a higher motive. 1 seek to elevate my country, by imparting to all her sons the noblest attributes of humanity. That we may be forever a nation of enlightened, gene- rous, high-minded, self-governing freemen ' The envy and the admiration of the world.' " Who, let me ask, — I put the question to this assembly — to the good people of Tennessee, — who will oppose our projected instilution, designed, as it is, exclusively lor the benefit of this people.'' I will tell you. It will be opjjosed by the faint- hearted, the cowardly, the ignorant the covetous; and by all the enemies of light, truth, virtue and human happiness It will be opposed by that de- scription of selfish, arrogant, self-sufficient would be lords and Solomons, who exist in every petty village, and who always oppose what does not ori- ginate with themselves, or what is not submitted to their own wise management and control. It will be opposed by those who can, by any artifice or mis- representation, convert the scheme into a political hobby to ride into office. It will be opposed by those who despair of getting out of it a job — a Inir- gain — a money making speculation — some paltry private gain or advantage. But it will never be opj)osed by o!ic honest man, by one honorable man, by one-enliglitened man, by one j)atriotic man, by- one benevolent man, by one great and good man." noNK manuhe. Extract from a late English publication. [The Long Island lSi.ar, wlien j^ivnig ifie foilownig ar- ticle, stales, that the farmers of Long island are begin- ning to understand the value of bone manure. Not the least use of it has yet been made in Vnginia. Some of the intelligent "town farmers," who reside in Richmond or Peteisburg, might profit greatly by the general ne- glect and consequent cheapness of this very rich ma- il ure.] In several of the northern, as well as some of the midland counties, this excellent manure has been long used, progressively increasing in quantity from year to year, as experience taught its value, it is not a little extraordinary, that in many of the counties in the southern part of the kingdom, the farmers should lie so long ignorant of its virtues; but since its introduction into Berkshire and Sur- rey, about five years ago, with complete success, many who were sceptical, have now become warm advocates for its general use ; and ere long, the ag- riculturists of the counties around the metropolis at least, will be as loud in its praise as the experi- enced farmers of Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and Nottinghamshire. Of the use and advanlage of this manure, we will now proceed to give a brief description, the result'of our own experience. No manure etprals it for the turnip crop — Swe- dish, as well as all the other kinds. When land is dressed with bone manure, plants are rarely at- tacked by that dreadful destroyer of turnips, the fly; and even when subject to "the depredation of tliat insect, they thrive so rapidly that they gene- rally grow beyond its power of injury. It is al- most needless to call to the recollection of the far- mer the fields which lie has seen devoured by that voracious insect, as soon as the plant appears. Now l>y using bones this evil will scarcely ever occur. Bone" manure is cheap, Light of carriage, and possesses strength and durability — no slight re- commendations. pii'st — It is cheap. An acre of land, however poor and barren, will produce a good crop of tur- nips, by expending sixty shillings in bone manure ; and where the land is in good condition, an excel- lent crop will be obtained by using from thirty to forty shillings worth. Secondly— It is light of carriage. One wagon will casilv convey one hundred and thirty bushels. Let the average of land be estimated as requiring twenty bushels per acre, there will be enough in a wagon load for six acres. With a proper drill ten or Twelve acres can be manured in one day. Here is an immense saving of labor, at a season of the year too, when so much is to be done by the far- mer. If dung were to be had for nothing, and happened to be two miles from the field, the car- tage alone would cost nearly as much as the whole aii^ount of the bone dressing. But dung is sold in many parts of the kingdom at a high rate, the cost of it swallowing up not only the turnip crop, but a portion of tliat crop which follows. Where a larsie breadth of turnips is sown and where there is plenty of dung on the farm, how frequently do we see "the best part of the season gone before half FARMERS' REGISTER— DIKED MARSHES AND MALARIA, &c. 729 the turnips are sown. The reason is obvious — the cartage o[ this species of manure has taken up the time. Let us now consider, thirdly, the strength and durability of bone manure. !t is stron^i; enou<>h to produce as fine, nay, a superior crop of turnips to that produced by the richest dunf>"; and the crops of the three succeeding years will be quite as good as those fbllowini^; a crop of turnij)S from richduno-. In making these observations, we beg to be un- derstood as not depreciating the value of dung as a manure. We admit that it is of immense impor- tance; but we presume it will be conceded that few farmers have as much as they wish, and tlie majority have not lialf enough. If it be now ask- ed, how these deficiencies of manure are to be sup- plied, we answer, by bone manure. It would be a waste of time to enter info tlie question of carrying dung from large towns to a remote distance; but bone manure, from its light- ness of carriage, is not liable to that objection. There is no farm, however remote, that may not partake of its advantages. Even the distance of twenty miles from a navigable river or canal will not be deemed too great to fetch it, seeing that one team will draw home sufficient to dress six acres of land. To those persons, then, ivho have not as much dung as they would like to have, and to those who have not half as much, bone manure will prove inestimable. The best method of using this dressing istodrill it in with the .seed. It may, however, be sown broad cast with good effect. If drilled, it is liettcr when the soil is well |iulveri7.ed,to let the land re- main just as left by the drill, without lieing har- rowed or rolled. If the manure i)e usedhy broad- cast, ten or fifteen bushels per acre extra should be sown. Where land is higidy cultivated, from ten to sixteen bushels an acre drilled have been suffi- cient to produce excellent turnip-?. If the broad- cast system be practised, the bone manure must lie scattered after the laud is ploughed; then let it be harrowed once, and the seed must next be sown. The land must then be harrowed as it may re- quire. For barley, or oats, the bone manure is very good, and particularly fine for winter or si)ring vetches, as well as peas of all kinds; also for wheat. It is still better for rye. With each of these crops, it may be either drilled in with the seed, or sown broad-cast — taking he jjrecautionof using more, should the latter method be practised. The quantity used per acre, according as the soil is more or less fertile, varying from .-ixteen — the minimum — to forty bushels — the maximum — an acre. The late Sir Joseph Banks esteemed bone ma- nure highly for potatoes. This manure, for the crops above enumerated, is adapted fiir all soils, except strong clay; but the lighter, the drier, and the warmer the soil is, the more will the good elTects be manifested, and come quicker into operation. Asa dressing for t^rass land and young clover, on every kind of soil, clay, as well as the lighter species of land, it cannot be equalled. The proper periods for using it are, in the autumn, or very early in the spring, taking care to have the grass short, so that the manure may the more readilv reach the roots. If used in meadows, the best time is immediately after the hay is cleared off. Vol. I.— 92 Fifty bushels an acre on grass land would have a beneficial effect, even tolhetenth year. If a hun- dred bushels per acre were used on pasture lands, no more manure would be required for twenty years. It has the effectof producing white (dutch) clover, and other rich herbage, in the greatest abundance, upon which sheep and cattle thrive ex- ceedingly. Worn out meadows, and gentlemen's parks, even where situated in the poorest soils, will derive an incalculable benefit from its ferti- lizing powers. It may be advantageously used to be mixed up with any kind of ashes, or very rotten dung — about two-thirds ashes or dung, and one-third bones — after being mixed together, there will be a strong fermentation take place, which will cause the former to be almost as powerful as the bones. The bones will also decompose, and operate more speedily, than they otherwise would do. The hor- ticulturists and floi-ists, in their several departments, will find it excellent. No other manure will pro- duce flowers so luxuriantly as this; and from its easiness of carriage, it may be conveyed into the parterre without injuring the walks. In hot and green houses it will be found of great use. In fact, whether used in the field or garden, it cannot be misapplied. TO DESTROY RATS AND BIRDS. From the New York Farmer. Mr. Fleet — Take two ounces of Nux Vomica, bruise it in a mortar, pour on it one g-allon of boiling water, and let it stand twelve hours, frequently stirring it — then pour into this liquid a peck of wheat, rye or corn ; let is stand twelve hours lon- ger, then scatter the corn in places frequented bv mice, rats, squirrels or birds, and I presume we shall not soon hear of their depredalions again. The Rev. Mr. Decrue, of the Georgical Diction- ar\-, recommends one ounce of the seed of Cicuta, and I believe any part of the [jlant will answer the same purpose if treated in the same way, and it will prove an effectual remedy against the evil. Yours, R. M. w. DIKED MARSHES AXD MALARIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. My attention has been turned to the subject of dikes, years before you commenced your valuable work ; liut much more so of late, in consequence of the many excellent hints therein contained. No communication, however, has caused me more satisfaction, than theopinions of Sir John Sinclair, in your 9th No. }). 55(3, on the subject of malaria. The fact of there being much sunken land on tide water, in Virginia, and owning nmch myself, has awakened a deep solicitude in regard toddies; and an occurrence in Caroline County, which I will detail, induces me to endeavor to turn the attei.«tion of Virginia to this important topic, as many, be- sides myself, may be deterred from draining, until the rights of land-holders are defined, or settled by- legislative interft^rence The late Col. John Taylor of Caroline, expend- ed much labor in attempting to reclaim about 140 acres of land, more than half of it being expo.sed to tide water; and though not entirely successful, raised corn profitably on the larger portion. His widow persevered, and the embankment was pre- sented as a nuisance by the grand jury. The 730 FARMERS' REGISTER— RETAINING RAIN WATER, &c. presentment was however qimslicd from error in wording it. His grandson, the present owner, de- termined to make a spirited effort to succeed hy improving tlie ditches, and erecting a splash wiieel. The attempt to present was reiterated, hut failed, hy nearly an unanimous vote of the grand jury. An injunction was tiien obtained of the judge, to stay all the proprietor's proceedings; and thus it remains. The plea of its opponents, is, that the malaria thence arising, causes unhealthiness to the neigh- bors. The cutting down of forests, and reclaiming of sunken land, I have been taught to believe, would ab.vays make a country more healthy ; and Sir John Sinclair, I am pleased to see, is.ai) able advocate of this doctrine. The question at issue, is, can a farmer drain swamps, or reclaim marshes by dikes.'' And I deem it worthy of the attention of our legislature. The enclosing system, even clover raising, or any other improvement, causing an increased growth of vegetal de matter, may hereafter meet with similar opposition. Few of our farmers will attempt to reclaim marshes, if liable to presentments, or injunctions, more espe- cially as ! am told, injunctions may be perpetuated. Has a judge the right thus to interpose in the management of j)rivate properly.? If he has, the value of the tide water lands in Virginia, will cer- tainly be mucli impaired, and it is time to have a fixed rule, in lieu of the opinion of a judge or jury, both of whom may change their opinions at will. VIATOR. 3Iarch 1st, 1834. ON RETAINING RAIN WATER ON HILL SIDES, AND PREVENTING ITS ACCUMULATION, AND WASHING THE LAND. To the Editor of the Faniici-s' Register. Not long since, while reading an account of the life and labors of a pious minister of the gospel, whose lot was cast among a people, who })rocured a precarious subsistence, at the expense of severe exertion, and who had been driven by persecution, to an almost inaccessible location, near tiie summit of, perhaps, the Alps or Pyrenees, 1 was forcibly impressed with a sentinient advanced by the ex- cellent pastor, to induce his flock to exert their energy and enterprize, in order to obtain a better provision, and thereby enable (hem to devote more time to their spiritual welfiire. They were ex- tremely poor, sometimes suffering for the necessa- ries of life. I3ut notwithstanding their extreme poverty, resembling the more enlightened, hut less pious professors of the present day, they were exceedingly fearful of, and averse to a change or innovation, either in their spiritual or temporal concerns — and they ignorantly opposed the plans of their benevolent pastor for fheir welfare. He, however, finally dissipated their prejudices, an(l improved their condition by his jjersevering endea- vors. The sentiment which operated on the moun- taineers, and which attracted my attention in sub- stance, was this — that it was a sinful v.aste of the gifts of a bountiful Creator, to suffer the streams and rivulets to pass away into the sea, and by our negligence or want of energy, to lose the benefits which might be derived trom tlrem by irrigation. Favorable circumstances caused the remark to be profitable to me. Excited l)y it, and an account of the impro^ cment caused by a laborious scheme of irrigation carried into effect; by the advice and assistance of the pastor, I irrigated a small mea- dow of about five acres, from which 1 secured by estimation, from twelve to fifieen tons of hay. In the piosccution of the watering scheme tor the present crop, it occurred to me, that it was possible in some measure to obtain tiie advantages of irri- gation on our ujdands — particularly to the corn crop, which needs it most. On consideration, I arrived at the following conclusion; that although we cannot justify the expensive operation of con- ducting our streams, even wlien practicable, on our uplands, we yet may obtain some of the benefits of irrigation, coud)ined with other advantages, by the following expedient. In the last working, on the bedding plan, dams should be made across the water furrow, at the distance often or fifteen yards, in order to retain the water and prevent its accu- mulation to a single point, which is the cause of its l)reaking over the beds, and washing the land. For illustration, say the corn row, or bed, is one hundred yards long. If, from bad levelling, there is ten inches fidl, (and there is commonly more,) the dams at ten yards, will reduce the fall to one mch,and the water will be equally dislril.uied the whole length of the row ; and consequently, it will take ten times tlio quantity of water to breakover, with, as it would without the dams. I am fully convinced that the retention of the water, on al- most all ui)land, will doubly rei»ay for the labor of making the dams, besides effectually preventing all v.ashing. In this prescription, the remedy is applied to the cause of the disease, or rather as a preventive medicine — to prevent accumulation, whicli is the cause of washing — and retain and dis- tribute the rain water, for the nourishment of the crop. I have extended the operation to my oat crop. The work appears well. The labor is trifling. We performed (he work on all the land subject to wash, with one-fourth of the field hands in one day. The ingenuity of our fiirmers and planters has been exercised, and various plans sug- gested, to carry off the water. Hill side conductors, beds, and various other plans are used to prevent washing. I would ask, why conduct tlie water off at all.? why not retain it all in the lieds; for the dou- ble purpose of preventing washing, and answering in some measure the pui'pose of irrigation.' I liave cultivated corn on the bedding plan, for fifteen years, and have never seen it suffer from too much water, after the last working. But on the contrary, (he crop has always been curtailed, and sometimes almost destroyed, by the want of it. Then surely, the great object should be to retain, and not carry off the water. If the plan succeeds, it must prove a great improver, as the dams in the oat-land will remain to benefit the succeeding clover, or other grass crop. I only ask a trial before condenmation : and if this should (ail, perhaps it may be the means of eliciting something good, from some more suc- cessful and scientific fiirmer than myself AGRICOLA. LIME WATER FOR DESTROYING W^ORMS. Frnm the Scotsman. The use of lime water for destroying worms was lately discovered, in a garden near Edinburgh, by the overflowing of a brook strongly impregna- ted with alkali fiom the refuse lime of the gas- works. WMierever the soil of the garden was reached by this water, it threw up myriads of worms, which never returned again to their lioles. FARMERS' REGISTER— FARMING, &c. 731 FARMING, AND MANURKS OP THE EASTERIV SHORE OF VIRGINIA. JSyreville, Northampton, March 22, 1834. [n compliance with your request, in the first number of your va!ual)le Rep^ister, " that your friends and patroiis should communicate such facts as were in their possession, calcuidted to advance our agricultural condition," I have undertaken it, although, I fear, I sliall add Init little to the further- ing the object. I am a young farmer, and have had but few years experience: but those few years have convinced me, that industry and a proper at- tention to manuring, will work wonders in our heretofore abused and neglected lands. On my return from schcxil, in Pennsylvania, where F had seen the mode of Au-ming pursued by the industri- ous Germans of that state, I was struck with the poverty of my own county, and the miserably negligent mode pursued by our farmers, on llie most grateful soil in the ivorld — for you will fmd land here under cultivation, yielding a tolerable crop of oats and corn, which land has been in cul- tivation, for nearly a c^-ntury, without the slightest aid from its possessors, subject to all the abuses possible, and deriving aid solely from the saline atmosphere, which is the great preserver of our lands. Eeing Tully sensible of the necessity of doing something to improve the condition of m)' own i'arm, [ determined to alter the mode of culti- vation heretofore pursued, to attend particularly to manuring, and to cultivate less land. The practice here, as in many other counties of Virginia, is to divide our arable lands into two equal parts, the one for corn, the other for oats, alternating every year, leaving a small portion of land for a standing pasture, and that too poor to produce either corn, oats or grass, depending upon our (turned out) oat fields for summer pasturage, and our corn iields, after the crop is gathered, ibr winter pasturage, thereby keeping our lands under constant contribu- tion. The farm 1 live on, has rather more upland pasture, (that is, worn-out corntields,) and a great deal more marsh pasture, than most of the larms of the county possess; but with even this advan- tage, I found it iu'possilde, from my stock and horses, to raise more manure, with the strictest at- tention to it, than would manure more than tuelve or fourteen acres of land, together with my garden and small truck patches, such.asof sweet potatoes, pumpkins, and the like. I therefore set about look- ing over my land for other means to su])ply the deliciency. I found around the margin of the creek, (for you must know niy farm is surround- ed on three sides liy Cherrystone creek,) a vast number of little ravines, or sinks, formed by the tides, into which a great deposite of sea weed, grass, the decomposed leaves of trees, and the washings of the land, have accumulated. This I carted out in great quantities, together with the salt marsh turf, from which I derived great advantage, almost doubling my crop thereby. Scon after trying this, I met with a copy of Hales' Husbandry, in which he speaks of sea shells and their spawn as a ma- nure. Our creek abounding in oysters, and having an innumerable quantity of oyster beds, or " rocks," I was determined to try some; and to my great satisfaction, 1 found the very thing I desired, within one hundred \ ards of one of my fields, which at low water, is entirely bare — about fifty feet wide and eight hundred yards long, (and how deep I am unable to say,) composed of decayed oysters, clams, and other shell fish with their decayed spawn, toge- ther with a great deposite of sea drift, and of course, salt. The size of the largest piece of shell, did not exceed that of a fifty cent piece. The top of the rock, to the de])th of an inch and a half was of but little value, being subject to the action of the tide : but immediately under that, was a bed of the richest manure I ever saw. Being unpre- pared for my good luck, I could not take much advantage of if, and of course, could not make a trial of it, to any great extent. I managed, how- ever, to get up about forty cart loads, (hauled by a single mule, J which I spread upon a measured acre of land, and found it answered my most san- guine expectations. The corn looked as well, and bore as well, as corn in the same lot on land highly manured from the stable and hog pen. This year it is in oats, and even at this early period, they have a muckfiner color, than those adjoining; my friends, however, say, it was not a fair trial, as the land previous to the dressing, was in fine condition ; but tlie addition no doubt has improved it. This year, I have gone more fully into a trial of it, being bet- ter ])repared with lighters, and otiier implements, and have manured al)out eight acres at the same rate on as poor land as any in the state, along side a piece, originally the same, under a heavy dressing o! farm-pen and stable manure, at the rates of one hundred. and eighty loads per acre, and have left on the other side, a small piece, without any dress- ing at all. Tha result of my experiment you shall have, when it is fiilly tested. There 'are thousands of these " rocks" or beds in the creek, though none whose shells have so completely gone to pieces as this one; but they would, no doubt, be as useful for manure, by being mashed or broken, or even spread on the land as they come from the river, as a great deal of mud and salt adhere to them. I fear you miglil think from the commencement of my letter, that all our farmers j)ursue the same negligent course of farming, which is not the case ; many of our farmers, have turned their attention to the improvement of their farms, and are usino- every means, to add to their limited stock of ma- nure ; and you u ould be astonished to see the returns from our lands, (which appear to be almost sand) — for the little labor and attention bestowed. And [ firmly believe, there is no land in this, or in any other state, that yields so fiiir a return for the labor bestowed : for the soil is light and easy to cultivate, and where a little manure and proper attention have been bestov, ed, the crops are sur- prising- "NV. S. EYRE. [The oyster beds or slioals, described above, can scarcely fail to prove a valuable and important fund of manure, to many who are situated in like manner with Mr. Eyre. But it may not be useless to warn him and others, that his experiment, which is in progress, is a very unfair, or imperfect test, of the value of the calca- reous part of his manure, which is probably the most valuable part. The sea-weed, the remains of putres- cent'animal matter, and the rich mud, (probably con- taining much vegetable matter,) as they all furnish food for plants, will (like dung) best show effects on the poor- est soil. But the broken shells alone, would be enabled to give but httle evidence of their peculiar and gi-eat power r32 FARMERS' REGISTER— GARDENING AND AGRICULTURE, &c. as a manure, on so barren a soil : and their principal early use, when thus applied together with putrescent matters, will be to preserve the latter to the soil. This fixing or preserving power of calcareous manure, is higlily important: but its effects are not such as can be properly estimated in the first, or perhaps in the second crop. Calcareous manures economise and accu- mulate fertility — putrescent manures spend all they possess — unless, there is calcareous matter already in the soil, to prevent the entire waste.] IMPROA'ED PRODUCTS OF GARDEXIJVG AND AGRICULTURE. From British Hiisbandnj, (in the Library of Useful Knowledge.) The principles of gardening and of agriculture (confining the latter to tillage only, instead of the more extensive sense in which it is commonly un- derstood) are nearly similar; both are directed to the cultivation of vegetable productions, and the only material distinction is, that the former embra- ces a larger range, extending indeed, through the aid of artificial heat, to the whole vegetable crea- tion, and demanding more minute and scientific arrangement, with closer attention — while the lat- ter is conducted on a broader scale, and is necessa- rily limited to those plants which flourish in the open air. Through these arts, many herbs that were for ages regarded as weeds and others that were exotic, are now cultivated among tlie most valued, as well as the most common, of our esculent vegelaldcs; Avhile several of those now grown in the fields were, at no very distant period, either little known or considered as garden delicacies, and exclusively confined to the tables of the rich. There is still extant an ancient manual of cookery, entitled, " The Forme of Ciiry," supposed to have been compiled about the year 1390, by the master cooks of King Richard II., in which, although elaborate directions are given for the preparation of " ca- baches," no mention is made of any other vegeta- bles, except peas and beans, onions, leeks, and rapes; which latter were probably a species of turnip. Hume, indeed, tells us, that, " it was not until the end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any sallads, turnips, or other edible roots, were produ- ced in England; the little of these vegetables that was used being imported from Holland and Flan- ders, so that Queen Catherine, when she wanted a sallad, was obliged to despatch a messenger thither on purpose."* Still later, we learn from an entry, dated in 1595, in the household book of the Cliffords, ke})t at Skipton Castle, in Yorkshire, that eleven shillings (a large sum in those days) were paid "for vi cabishes and some caret-roots, bought at Hull" — a seaport at the distance of full eighty miles ; from which we may presume that they were imported, and purchased for some very particular occasion. In the commencement of the seventeenth century, one of the commonest of our present escu- lents, the potato, was regarded as so great a rarity, that it was only served in small quantities, and at the price of two shillings the pound, at the Queen's table; it was for a long time treated as a fruit, baked in pies with spices and wine, or eaten with sugar ; and nearly two hundred years elapsed, from its introduction into thiscountry,beforeit was cul- tivated as a field crop. * History of England, chap, xxiii. Since that lime, through the progress of botani- cal science, and the efforts made for the improve- ment of horticulture, many productions of the south have been naturalized in this country, and tiie introduction of the hot-house has made us fami- liar wi!h the rarest exotics. Still, various foreign vegetables remain strangers toour culture, though adapted to our climate, and even some, which are indigenous to our soil, have not yet been brought into use, or are only slowly obtaining attention. It is not, indeed, to foreign nations alone that we are to look for new species of plants. Those which we already possess become so improved by culti- vation, that new varieties of the same race are con- stantly produced, until, at length, by continued melioration, the parent stock is either lost, or neglected, and a new generation is created. Thus it has been supjiosed that not one of the numerous kinds and varieties of fruit, now found in our gar- dens and orchards, are what the}' were in their aboriginal state, and several appear to be absolutely new formations, the offspring of accident, or skill, rather than the spontaneous productions of nature. We are even ignorant of the native country, and existence in a wild stale, of some of the most im- portant of our plants; but we know that improved flowers and fruits are the necessary production of im])roved culture, and that the offspring, in a greater or less degree, inherits the cluiracter of its parent ; the austere crab of our woods has been converted into the golden pippin, and the nume- rous varieties of the plum can boast no other parent than our native sloe* Thus also, notwithstanding the attention bestowed by the ancients on the pro- ducts of their gardens, and the probability that they were acquainted with a great proportion of the vegetables still in use, yet botanists find it diffi- cult to reconcile the generic qualities of many plants, as they are described by the Greek and Roman authors, with the properties of those of the same species witii which we are acquainted; we may, therefore, confidently infer, that an ample and unexplored field for future discovery lies before us, in which nature does not seem to liave placed any limits to the success of our labors, if properly ap- plied.! BIACHIKE FOR EXCAVATIXG EARTH, From the Manchester [Eng.] Courier. jMr. G. V. Palmer, of Worcester, has been ten years and upwards engaged in constructing an ex- traordinary engine to excavate earth, &c. fOr which he has taken out a patent. 'I'his cni;ine works by steam, and is particularly adapted for cutting ca- nals, levelling hills for railways, and removing large masses of earth. The engine cuts, at a sin- gle blow, six feet in width and three feet in depth — delivering on either side, or into carts, one ton and ujjwards per minute: it also cuts and sifts gravel in the same proj)ortion for road-inaking. We un- derstand it is of great simplicity of construction, and the weight of the engine does not exceed three tons. * Introduction to the Transactions of the Horticultu- ral Society, and Journal of Science and the Arts, N,S., vol. i, p. 265, f Beckman's History of Inventions, art. " Kitchen Gardent;" and Transactions of the Hort. Soc, Introd. FARMERS' REGISTER— STRAIGHTENING STREAMS, &c. 733 ON STRAIGHTENING THE BEDS OF STREAMS, AND THE NEED OF LEGISLATIVE AID FOR DRAINING. To the Editor of the Farmers' Resister. While I do not presunie to enter as a laliorer in the field of splendid improvements, I have a very humble, but sincere desire, (o see all practicable in- ternal improvement prosper. It seems to me a matter of much interest, espe- cially to tobacco planlers, that the rich bottoms on small streams should be rendered safe (to a com- mon intent,) for cultivation. Many exertions are now, and have been for some time makino;, to ef- fect this ol)ject. One of the pfreatest obstacles is found to be in the fl\ct that there is little or no concert in those eiforts ; added to tiie fact, that there are no legal means by which a landholder owning land above, on a stream, can compel those below to open the bed of the stream, or straighten it ; or even prevent his neighbor below from fill- ing up the bed with timber, or other rubbish. This circumstance renders it almost useless for any one man to make an attempt to reclaim such lands, and is the principal cause why these fertile bottoms are almost useless. Indeed they are in most instances worse than useless ; and are found to be nuisances, producing, probably, more dis- ease, and death., than can be attributed to any other one cause. Such streams have generally a very circuitous bed, especially where the lowgrounds are wide, and the fall not great. The bcil being filled up, makes them easily overflow their banks; which causes them to remain in woods, or to be aban- doned, if cleared. The streams still smaller, hav- ing more fiill, are cleared, and the hills and banks cultivated ; and much mud is washed down to the margin of the main flat, forming bogs and pools of water, which cannot be drained, except the main stream could be generally opened — which, were it done, would render the whole arable : and the wa- ter being put in motion, would become compara- tively clear and healthful. When we consider how large a proportion of the tobacco making country will answer this descrii)tion, and how little tobacco can now be made any where but on these flats, it cannot appear a matter of very small importance to reduce them to cultivation. Neither can it be a matter of light consideration in regard to the general health of the country. Nor can the quantity of corn and other graiti and grass that might and would be raised, be a matter of small importance to a country like ours. Were these streams straightened as much as they well might be in most instances, and kept constantly open, it would be found that these desirable objects would be readily attained. For where the land is most valuable, though the fall is not very great, there is little or no rock near the surface ; and by straight- ening the channel, the fall, to the mile, would beat least doubled. The bed runs at least two miles, and in many instances much more, while a line along which a ditch might be easily carried, and not leave the lowgrounds, would not exceed one mile. Where the fidl would average four feet to the mile, following the course of the stream, it would average eight feet to the ndle, follcwing the ditch. Doul)ling the fall, to the mile, will make great difference in the water's motion. And car- rying the current in a straight line, will have a si- milar effect, though not in as great a degree. There would be numerous olheradvantages ; such as the preventing the washing of the land, making the l)anks deeper, occupying much less space for the bed. taking less fencing, less room for turning, (which will reduce the quantity of shrubbing in a great degree,) and rendering the supply of water to meadows, mills, &c. much u)ore regular and constant. For in running through a deep exten- sive bog, much water is taken in by the mud ; and in running on so wide a surface, and so slowh', much more is evaporated by being exposed to the sun and air: so that in many instances, a stout stream is entirely stopped from running,, in a hot dry season. That every man should straighten after this manner, would be more than I would say the law ought to do : because he might not be able. But it is what every man ouglit to do who can ; and what almost every man would do who could, if his neighbor would carry it on, or if he had even the power to })revent his neighbor be- low, by any ready and efficient means, from suf- fering the bed to fill up. An action, perhaps, might lie to recover damages for neglect in this particular ; but this would be too doubtful and slow. Might not the law appoint an overseer of the water course, in cases where the county court might think it needful, with powers similar to those of the overseer of the road — giving liim the hands living on or near the stream, to keep the bed of the stream- clear of obstructions.'' I think my- self such a law would be a considerable internal improvement in a domestic way. Leaving this matter to the county courts to execute, or not, at their discretion, would enable those neighborhoods who desired it, to derive the benefits : and at the same time secure others from being troubled about it who did not wish, or find it to their interest to put the law in execution. It might be trouble- some and useless, in some counties, for any thing 1 know; but I am sure it would not be found so in Charlotte — certainly not in many neighbor- hoods. The above remarks were written about 1S26, and carelessly thrown aside, but have been brought to mind by seeing a piece in the Farmers' Regis- ter, written about the same period, by a citizen of Nottov/ay, suggesting the propriety of some le- gislative provision in relation to this same subject. At the request of a friend, I have sent these very crude and imperfect views to you, in the hope that they might be of some service, by throwing out some hint that might be improved upon. Since writing the aliove remarks, I have ditched and diked considerably ; and, should you think those remarks worthy the notice of your paper, I shall probably trouble you farther with my views, warning you against niy mistakes, as well as in- forming you of any thing I may have found right- ly done, and further arguments in favor of that, or some other legislative provisions, m ith a view to attaining the objects alluded to by the writer from Nottoway. A CHARLOTTE MAN. [We invite "A Charlotte Man" to resume his pen on this subject, as promised above. There are few pro- cesses in our farming operations more imperfect than draining, as usually performed.. The great obstacle to to this improvement, however, is the lato — and until a change of law will permit, but few plans of eitensive 734 FARMERS' REGISTER— VIRGINIA NATURAL SILK WORM. drainage can be executed, except at great cost, and in an imperfect manner. There is, however, a law of Virginia (enacted about 1S26,) which indirectly offers aid and encouragement to one important kind of drainage, that of mill-ponds — by authorizing canals to be dug through the lands of any neighboring proprietors, by the assessment and paying of all damages thereby incurred. Very little, if any use has been yet made of the privileges offered by this law ; and it seems, indeed, that but few persons are aware of its being on the statute book. One valuable improvementof this kind has since been made in Hano- ver, under all the disadvantages of the absence of this law, because its existence was unknown to the person who was attempting, and succeeded in exchanging a pestilential pond, for a rich dry meadow, and obtaining at the same time, a far better sui^ply of water power for his mill. The benefit is incalculable that might be derived to Eastern Virginia, by a recourse to this plan, wherever the locality admits of it. It is not many years ago, that a farm of 1200 acres was gained in Dinwiddie, by cutting a mill-dam which backed the water over that quantity of land — and other mill-ponds still remain, in neighboring counties, which severally cover 300 to 400 acres of swamp land. Of all the causes of autumnal diseases in Virginia, mill-ponds are the most general, and most efficient — a_nd the destruc- tion of all, which are not well supplied with water in summer, would be a great benefit to the community,- even if nobetter water power was attainable by canals. There are many mill-ponds, the bottoms of which, if drained, would yield more corn, than the mills receive in toll, or perhaps, more than all the corn they grind in the year. In the case of mill-ponds, the law, though permitting and aiding their drainage to a certain extent, in other respects, presents insuperable obstacles, by arra3nng opposing interests. In general, the owner of a mill does not own the land covered by the water of his pond — and therefore, he has no interest in draining it. He simply possesses (by law) the right of inundating his jieighbors' lands, and of giving them the ague and fever every autumn — and enjoys the profit of the grinding, so dearly, though indirectly, paid for by others. Now the property in the bottom of a pond, which another has a right to keep full of water forever, and whose interest it served by doing so; is clearly not worth a cent. If the right to the bottom of the pond was vested in the mill owner, it would be conducive to his interest to lay it dry, and his neighbors would all thereby be benefitted, as well as himself. Yet if it was proposed so to vest this property, {real in law, but ideal in fact,) what a host of guardians of the "rights of property" would be awakened, and what loud and fierce denunciations of wrong and oppression would be uttered !] THE VIRGINIA NATURAL SILK WORM. [We are indebted to the last New England Farmer for the following curious piece of antiquity, which must be interesting to readers in the i-egion of whicli these won- ders were told. In the Farmers' Register, this poem after having been forgotten, ar^ well as its subject, for nearly two centuries, will probably be read by some of the descendents of those whose enterprize or good for- tune it was intended to commemorate — and who still bear the names inherited from ' Master William Wright of Nansemound,' 'worthy Bernard, that stout Colonel,' ' Mistress Garret and Mary Ward' or of 'no- ble Digs.' The lines' are as much wanting in truth, as in poetical or correct language. Still they must correctly set forth the fact, that high hopes were once entertained of immense profits being attainable by the rearing of the insect described — and the result sufficiently shows the fallacy of these hopes. The 'most noble Virginian natural silk worm,' is still found, though rarely. The cocoon, though of less size than described by the author, is very large in comparison to the common silk worm. The worm changes to a very large moth or butterfly, having a single circular spot on each wing, and in that respect, is similar to (and perhaps is the same with) the Peacock butterfly described in the Spectacle de la J^ature. We have seen, some of these butterflies, obtained from the cocoon, of a pale brown color. Others, similar in other respects, have been seen of a pale green, except the large circular spots just described, which in all were alike. It is still a subject worth inquiry, whether the labor of these insects, has ever been put to any actual use, or could be used to any profit.] The following poem (says the editor of .the New England Farmer,) is taken from a work, printed in London, in 1655, by John Streeter, entitled " The reformed Virginia Silk Worm, Or, a Rare and New Discovery of a speedy tvay, and easie means, found out by a young Lady in England, she having made full proof thereof in May, anno, 1652. For the feeding of Silk-XDorms in the Woods, on the Mulberry- Tree-leaves in Virginia: Who af- ter fourty dayes time, present their 7nost rich golden- ccloured silken Fleece, to the instant wonderful en- riching of all the Planters there, requiring from them neither cost, labor, or hindrance in any of their other employvients ivhatsoever. jJnd also to the good hopes, that the Indians, seeing and finding that there is neither Jlrt, Skill or Pains in the thing; they will readily set upon it, being by the benefit thereof inabled to buy of the English (in way of Truck for their Silk-bottoms) all those things that they most desire." POEM Upon the mo.st Nobie, Virginian natural Silk- VVorm her wonderful, various, plentiful food; The infinite, speedy, great wealth she will profiuce to her protector; (in forty-five days tiie time of her feeding) with small labor, cost, or skill, (learnt in an houres space by any child.) The singular aptness of that rare Superlative (Mimate, in Breeding them on so many several kinds of trees in her Woods where tlicy live, Feed and Spin, their mighty large, strange, double bot- toms* of Silk : to the acini iration^of this our Old World ; but to the exal tat ion and glory of incom- parable Virginia, in the New. * This word is synonymous with cocoon, as appears from the followinE; extrart from another part of the pamphlet. ' The Silk Bottome of the natnrall Worme in Virginia, found there in the Woods, is ten Inches about, and si-if Inches in leritith to admira- tion ; and whereas ours in Europe have their Sleave and loose Silke on the outside; and then 'in a more closer covering they intombe themselves. These rare AVorms, before they inclose themselves up, fill with Silke the great emptinesse, and atter- wards inclose themselVes in the middle of it, so they have a double Boltom. The loose Sleave Silk is all on the outside of this compass, for if that were reckoned in, the compass of the Bottom would far exceed this proportion: But this is sufficient to be the Wonder of the whole World : to the Glory of the Creator, and Exaltation of VIRGINIA.' FARMERS' REGISTER— VIRGINIA NATURAL SILK WORM. 735 Where Worms and Food doe naturally abound, A Gallant Silken Trade must there be found : Virginia excells the World jn both, Envie nor Malice can gaine say this troth Many a man the causes faine would heare, How these rare Worms came first or still come there, Insects produced are by heat and moisture Who in strange sliapes and forms do oft appeare. In Spring our trees the Caterpillers reare; Their trees likewise these noble creatures beare. And some proceed from eggs that scaped are From their enemies sight, which thing is rare. They feed not only on the Mulberry Which in our World sole food is held to be For all such precious Worms of that degree : But Poplar, Plum, Crab, Oake and Apple tree, Yea Cherry, and tree called Pohickery: So on the Shrubs and Bushes feed full many Her Worms are liuge whose bottoms dare AVith Lemmons of the largest size compare. And twenty one of ours will sure poize less Then one of theirs for weight and ponderousness. Master William Wright of J^^ansemound Found Bottoms above seven Inches round. And though the Silk prove not all out so fine As Persian, that's no let to the designe, For since a thousand of our Bottoms make But one pound of fine Silk, you'l ten pounds take From theirs. If we at Thirty shillings sell Our pound, for twenty they'l afibrd theirs well. The paines tliat's taken is alike in either But the gaines by theirs eight times greater: Then, we confined are to the Mulberry For food, their Worms have great Variety. Her dainty colored flies and large Worms In length and bigness do surpass menu's Thumbs. AVhereas ours short of -little fingers come. Our flies come out in twenty days and lay Eggs, theirs not still three hundred as they say O wondrous thing ! a Worm to fast so long And then come out a painted Fly so strong. Nine months full out our eggs unhatch't remaine Nine daies in Spring makes theirs revive againe A Planter (I wish they had him named) A spoonfull eggs from one fly he gained Which to five hundred at least amounted So shortly endless they must be counted. In March they first begin to live and feed In Jlprill they have done the Silken deed The sweetest, pleasantst time in all the yeare. You to this wealth the chanting Birds will cheare And ten moneths time they leave you with great ease To spend it in what j)rofit you shall please. Rare Worms who feeding five and forty daies On leaves of sundry Plants and shrubs repaies Their keepers with fine Silke which wants no strength And yet extends itself some miles in length And for the labour of a Man and Boy They gaine you Sixty poiuids which is no toy. If you from birds protect them on the trees (Their naturall mansions) 't will them best please Yo'ur paines is spar'd in giving them the leaves By which alone you gaine their Silken sleaves For non-parrel Virginia in her Woods, Brings forth as all men know these precious goods : Where thousand fleeces fit for Princes Robes On Virgin-trees shall hang in Silken Globes. The noble W^orm so hardy, strong and stout No weather ill is able them to rout. The reasons why the numbers are so small The Cruell Birds devoure most of them all When they are Worms, yea Eggs or Silken ball. Most bottoms likewise on the leaves are spun Both falling to the ground do perish soon Those only f jund that spun are on the branch Not by their care but providentiall chance Which only show themselves when all is bare To find in Summer any 'tis most rare. If to prevent both dangers you intend A Reedy-Arbour well will doe't, you'l find Or slightest coverture in any kind The skill and paines to all each Child can do; As you shall find on triall tis most true. And may in "Wealth compare with rich Peru. And for all Tooles that apperlaine thereto A Twelve-penny Reele is all it will cost you, No wit, no strength, no purse, no stock will need But eies and hands, the Worms to guard and feed. And thus you see is done the Silken deed : Which brings you so great wealth with so much speed. Five hundred pounds worth of rich Silk, all know Freights less than ten pounds in poore Tobacco Silkes are no trash, no toy, nor Pedlars ware ; Staple, good, and ready chinke every v»'here. Twenty shillings a paund t'will yield you cleare And Ships to fetch it will come flying there. dueenes of the best edition need not scorne In her owne Livery to serve this Worm: Only to give her leaves is all she craves And in reward with Silk shee'l make you brave. Out of her rich belly by her mouth spun Weaves it into a most curious bottom Which by a Reele tiu'ning with hand of man Is wholly wound oft" most neatly againe To feed Silk Worms no Caling can disdaine Seeing they yield you so much honest gaine No imployment in the World so likely To make so soone j'our loste Savage Wealthy. For his Silk Bottoms in exchange shall have From English, what he-so needs, begs and craves Red coats, hose, shooes, knives, they highly deeme J ewes-Trumps, Bells, Beads, all toys, no less esteeme. If all be thus the cause you now demand Why hath this knowledge been thus long detained And but now by the Ladies Books inflam'd Ignorance of Planters so strange hath been Till now ne're knew nor drcampt of this rich thing Confest it is, that oft some they have scene Rrgardlessly, but ne're did them esteeme. Which loss of Wealth and Honour they'l regaine And FtVg»!s Counsell follow will amaine The happy onset they this spring have made Assures them all a stately pretious trade Sir Henry ChicMy that Heroick Knight Affirms iher's not an ingenuous Wight In Virginia but makes all speed he can To be er'e long a Silken noble man. And say, Colonel Ludlow certifies That thence from Silk great profit will arise Yea worthy Bernard that stovit Colonel Informes the Lady the work most facile And of rich Silken stuffe, made shortly there He hopes that he and others shall soon wearc .So major John Weslropc saith, Silk will be A gallant designe for their brave Country. Thunder was that, that some men onely doubt But triall made this Spring puts that feare out In all Lands where Worms are kept tis wonder To hear that any were harm'd by thunder. Their naturall Worm proves this more truer Mr. Gorge Lobs that prudent old planter Tells her that Worms ne're spun Silk daintier. Lets give those Gentlewomen their full dues Mistress Garret and Burbage for Silk clues That ColoncU's Wife need not farr to rove Her Court affords a pleasant Mulberry Grove j But noble Digs carries the bell away (Lass! want of eggs made so small the essay) His two Jirmeniani from Tiirly sent Are now most busy on his brave attempt And had he stock sufficient for next yeare Ten thousand pound of Silk would then appeare And to the skies his worthy deeds uprcare. Loc here what mistress J\Iary Ward hath sent And to her Lady Cosin she presents Ten rare Bottoms took from her Apple tree 736 FARMERS' REGISTER— ANTS— SOILS— MANURES, &c. That all Ent^Iand may it beleeve and see. Her honor'd Kins-man Esquire Ferrar To confirme and make the wonder greater Ten more likewise hath sent her, ^vhich he found On stately Oakes, and Shrubs that kiss the ground And Doctor Russell that learned Pliisitian Hath with his, made a fall addition. For things more slowly do affect the minde Which eares do heare then those that ies do find Now from smoke Virginia shall be raised And throughout the World be duly praised. Ah Blest be God that now in his tlue time This Silken light apparently doth shine Then come, Oh come with sacred Lays Let us sound the Almighty's praise. J. F. TO DESTROY ANTS ON PEACH TREES. From the Corresponding Gardener's Magazine. Take thin slices of whcaten bread (say \ oz. ■wejfjht,) dry il slowly, but well, that it may easily pulverize in a mortar ; take ^ oz. fine loaf sugar, pulverize it also ; add to the two former ing property, the sooner it is got rid of the better, and we save the expense of trans- porting it to the field. But if it really consists of prepared or digested food, fitted for the organs and wants of plants, it is truly improvident to have it wasted and lost for all useful purposes. The latter is really the case.* The matter which escapes in fermentation is veget.able matter in a gaseous form, fitted by natural process, like chyle in the animal stomach, to enter into and become a constituent in a new generation of plants. It is principally car- bonic acid gass, the aliment of vegetables and the true staff of vegetable life. It has been vegetable matter, and will become vegetable matter again when brought info contact with the mouths or roots of plants. Without re.sorting to chemical proofs or authorities to prove this, I will suggest a mode by which the matter can be satisfactorily settled. Let any farmer, in the sjiring, before yard manure ferments, put twenty-five loads in a pile to rot, and take another twenty-five loads to the field where he intends to ])lanthis corn, spread it upon one acre, plough it well under, harrow the ground, and plant his seed. Let him plant another acre of corn along side this, ivit/ioui manure. As soon as the corn is harvested, carry on and spread the twenty-five loads of prejjared or rotted ma- nure left in the yard, or what remains of it, upon the acre not manured for corn, and sow both pieces to wheat. Unless my olisei'vation and practice have deceived me, he will find the result of^ the ex- periment to be this: the acre dressed with long manure will yield the most wheat, because the manure has been less exhausted in the process of summer rotting, and for the reason, that in culti- vating the corn, it has become better incorporated with the soil — and it will, besides, have yielded some twenty or thirty more bushels of corn, in consequence of the gases upon which the crop here fed and thrived, but which in the yard were dissipated by the winds and lost. Plants, like animals, require different modifica- tions of food. In general, the plants which afford large stocks or roots, as corn, potatoes, turnips and clover, thrive best on the gases which are given off from dung in the process of fermentation — while those exclusively cultivated for their seeds, as wheat, barley, &c. are often prejudiced by these volatile parts, which cause a rank growth of straw without improving the seed. Hence the first men- tioned crops may be fed on long manure without lessening its value for the second class, provided they immediately follow, and hence unfermented manures are most economically applied to hoed crops. Different rules should govern in the application of fermented and unfermented manures. The lat- ter should be buried at the bottom of the furrow *As soon as dung begins to decompose, or rot, it throws off its volatile parts, which are tiie most vahia- ble and most efficient. Dung which has fermented so as to become a mere soft cohesive mass, has generally lost from one-third to one-half of its most useful constituent elements. It evidently should be applied as soon as fer mentation begins, that it may exert its full action upon the plant, and lose none of its nutritive powers. — Davu. Vol. J.— 93 with the plough — the former only sujterficially with the harrow. The reasons are these — unfermen- tated dung operates mechanically while undergo- ing fermentation, in rendering the recumbent soil porous and pervious to heat and air, the great agents of decomposition and nutrition, and the ga- seous or volatile parts being specifically lighter than atmospheric air, ascend,* and supply the wants of the young roots. The next ploughing turns the residue of the dung to the surface, when it bene- fits on a different principle ; for fermented ma- nures consist of ponderable substances, which have a tendency only to descend. JManures possess a high value in all good farm- ing districts, where the natural fertility of the soil has been impaired by culture. In most of our large towns it is bought up at one or two dollars a cord, and transported ten or twenty miles by land carriage, and much farther by water. So essen- tial is it considered in Europe to profitable hus- bandry, that every material which imparts fertili- ty is sedulously economised, and applied to the soil. Among other things, ship loads of bones are annually brought from the continent into Great Britian, and ground for manure. Bone dust is in such high demand in Scotch husbandry, that its price has advanced to 3s. Qd. sterling per bushel. We possess no certain data to ascertain the sav- ing which may be i?itroduced into this branch of farm economy ; yet if we put down the number of farms .in the state at one-tenth of our population, or 200,000, and estimate that an average increase (>f five loads upon each farm might annuall)' be made, it would give us a total of one million loads, which, at the very moderate price of 25 cents, would amount to $:2.50,000 per annum. Farm implements. — We must all have noticed the great improvements which a few years have made in the mechanic and manufacturing arts. Scarcely a process is managed as it was twenty years ago. Scarcely an old machine but has un- dergone improvements, or given j)lace to a better model. Manufacturing operations have been sim- plified and abridged, and human labor has been reduced to a comparative cypher, by the substitu- tion of machinery and the power of steam. The effect has been a great reduction in the price of manufactured commodities, and an increase in their consumption. We are assured that during the twelve years which elapsed between 1818 and 1830, Sheffield wares — hardware and cutlery — experi- enced an average reduction in price of sixty per cent., varying upon different articles from 40 to 85 per cent.f Cotton goods, books and various other fabrics, have undergone a reduction no less remarkable within our time. These beneficial changes have resulted in a great measure from the aid which science has either itself imparted, or which it has elicited from mechanic skill — for a *A friend made this experiment: He trenched a quarter of his garden, and deposited a layer of dry straw, three inches thick, one foot below the surface, as the only manure, and planted it Avith water-melons. The crop, he said, was the finest he ever grew. On ex- amining the straw in autumn, he found it was complete- ly rotted, and reduced to the condition of short muck. He was satisfied that his melons had been highly bene- fitted by the straw while undergoing fermentation, and that had the straw rotted in the yard, the volatile por- tion of the manure would have been wholly lost. t Babbage on the Economy of. Macliinery. 738 FARxMERS' REGISTER— APPLICATION OF MANURES. useful invention often awakens latent genius, and calls forth successful competition, even in the un- learned. No sooner is an improvement in the manufacturing arts announced, than it is adopted whenever it can be rendered beneficial — such is the facility of intercourse — such the desire — the necessity — there, of profiting from every discovery which benefits their art. The fixrmer is less able and less willing to keep pace with the march of intel- lect. He has few opportunities of becoming ac- quainted wi^h tlie improvements of others, except by slow degrees ; and he is so liable to be taken in by the catch-penny productions of the day, and is withal so distrustful of new experiments, that he will hardly venture to buy new implements and machines, nor to adopt new practices, however beneficial they might prove on trial. JMr. Coke tells us that his examples in farming, (and few men ever gave better,) only enlarged the circle of their influence about a mile in a year. Hence, as regards this branch of improvement, we have much to do ere we can overtake the spirit of the age, as exemplified in our sister arts. Many of our farm implements have undergone improvement; yet there are others which have been either but partially introduced, or are hardly known, that are calculated to abridge labor and to increase the profits of the farm. There exists a great disparity in the quality of implements. In ploughs, for instance, there is a dilTerence which eludes superficial observation, particularly in re- gard to the force required to propel them, that is worth regarding. I have seen this difference, in Avhat have been termed good ploughs, amount to nearly fifty per cents,, or one half The perfection of our implements is intimately connected with a correct application of mechanical science, a branch of knowledge hitherto too little cultivated among us. Messrs. Many & Ward, the enterprising proprietors of an iron foundry in this city, have assured me that there are more than two hundred patterns of ploughs now in use in this state. Of this number some may be very good, but many must be comparatively bad. Eut what individu- al is able to decide ujjon tlieir relative merits, or even to become acquainted with the different sorts .? It would be rendering an important service to the state at large, and especially to the farming inte- rests, if a competent board was appointed, com- prising men of practical and scientific knowledge, to test thoroughly, by examination, and perfectly satisfactory trial, not only the plouglis, but the other implements of husbandry now in use, or which may be hereafter invented, and to publish the result of their examination, and certify their intrinsic and relative merits. Such board might meet once or twice in a year, and no inventor or vender who had confidence in the goodness of his machine would fail to repair to the place of trial. This would tend to call into action mechanical science and skill, in the confidence of receiving a just reward ; the public v.ould confide in the trial and opinions of the board : good implements would be extensively introduced and bad ones would be discarded. The expense of the examination would bear no proportion to the public benefit. Means for promoting the Improvement of j^gricul- ture. I have thus adverted, gentlemen, to those defects in our husbandry, to which I proposed at this time to call your attention, and have endeavored to show their magnitude, and the importance of applying efficient remedies. I will now call your attention to some of the available means of placing our ag- riculture on a more respectable and productive ba- sis. The means which 1 shall particularly com- mend to your notice, may be embraced under the following heads : 1. A school, toillustrate the principles of science ui)on which the labors of agriculture are based, and to teach the best models of practice. 2. A more general diffusion of useful know- ledge, in a cheap form, accessible to the humblest condition in life. 3. Agricultural associations; and, 4. The bestowment of pecuniary rewards, as stimulants to enterprise and industry. I need not stop to dwell upon the advantages which learning affords to agricultural labor. Sci- ence may be defined a study of the immutable laws of the Creator, which govern and regulate mind and matter. The study of these laws, and their ap- plication to the wants and comforts of life, have for ages constituted one of the highest and most useful em{)!oyments of man ; and have contributed, more than any other human effort, to refine and elevate us above the grosser and degraded condition of savage life. The concentrated benefits of these labors are not proffered to our hands. Tlie plea- sures and the benefits which they impart, are held out as noble rewards to mental labor, in the same spirit that the blessings of health and competence are promised to him who "earns his bread by the sweat of the brow." Labor, mental or bodily, is the inseparable attendant of rational enjoyment. And is that knowledge to be contemned, which has done so much good to the world, and which has countless blessings yet in store for the human family.' " In a theological view," says a late emi- nent writer* " science is nothing else than a ration- al inquiry into the arrangements and operations of the Almighty, in order to trace the perfections therein displayed. And what, continues our au- thor, are the truths which science has discovered? They may be regarded as so many rays of celes- tial light descending from the great source of intel- ligence to ilhmiinatethe human mind in the know- ledge of the J3ivine character and government, and to stimulate it to a still more vigorous exertion in similar investigations, just as the truths of revela- tion are so many emanations from the " Father of Lights," to enlighten thedarkness, and to counter- act the disorders of the moral world." Our state may be compared to a great family, the members of which are employed in diversified pursuits, all designed and calculated to promote the common weal — having a common as well as indi- vidual object, and all united by reciprocal ties. In this light it is considered as respects crime and want. One is punished, and the other relieved, by common consent, and at the common charge. We have erected splendid and extensive establishments for the vicious and the poor. The county of Al- bany has been at greater expense for its poor than would be required of the state toestablish and sup- port a school of agriculture. -Would it not evince both prudence and economy to endeavor to prevent, or to lessen, these growing evils in society, by de- voting a portion of the common means to schools, * Diclv on the Iinprovenient of Society by l,hc difiu- sion of knowledge. FARMERS' REGISTER— MAPLE SUGAR. 739 which should (each the hands useful labor, and imbue the heart with the love of virtue? The adage teaches, that " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." If ig-norance be one of the chief causes of vice, and indolence the parent of want; and if knowledge be one of the main- springs of virtuous conduct, and competence the sure reward of industry, — then the more know- ledge is diffused, and the more that industry is encouraged, the less we shall be called upon to expend upon poor-houses and penitentiaries. It no longer admits of doubt, that knowledge and industry are the great conservators of public mo- rals, as well as the great instruments of public wealth. It has been remarked, that the more we provide for any one class, the more it Avill increase. This would seem to hold good in regard to the vicious propensities of our nature, and v.'hy not in regard to habits that are commendable and praiseworthy.'' To speak practically. Our agriculture is greatly defective. It is susceptible of much improvement. How shall we effect this impi'ovement.' The old are too old to learn, or rather, to unlearn what have been the habits of their lives. The young cannot learn as they ought to learn, and as the public in- terests require, because we have no suitable school for their instruction. We have no place where they can learn the principles upon which the prac- tice of agriculture is based — none v/here they can be instructed in all the modern improvements of the art. It is devoutly to be hoped, that our fathers in council, justly appreciating the impor- tance of the subject, will add another to the proud trophies which New York has already won in the noble march of improvement, by properly respond- ing to the correct views of this su1)ject expressed in the message of our chief magistrate. Our periodical publications, devoted to the in- terests of the agricultural and mechanical classes, have proved highly beneficial, and are daily enlar- ging the sphere of their influence. These bene- fits, however, may be greatly multiplied by a cheap work, adapted to the means of persons ni humble circumstances, and to the economy of those who are able but unwilling to expend two or three dol- lars a year for an agricultural paper. It is believ- ed there are more than 200,000 farmers in the stale who read little or nothing calculated to improve their knowledge in the business by which they live. With the view of bringing this subject before the society, I have made inquiries as to the price at which a respectable publication of this character can be printed. The estimates have been predi- cated upon tlie supposition, that the editorial labors will be gratuitous, — that the subscriptions will uniformly be paid in advance, — that arrangements will be made to give it an extensive circulation, and that an edition of at least ten thousand copies will be disposed of The result of my inquiries is, that a monthly publication of 10 cpiarto pages to each number, making 192 pages in a year, can be furnished in parcels of twenty or more, at twenty- five cents per annum. The postage to any jilace within the state will swell the cost to the subscri- ber to thirty-seven and a half cents per annum. An amount so trivial, as to win indilfercnce, and to silence the objections of avarice. 1 submit to you, gentlemen, whether a more efficient mode of furthering one of the objects of our association,— the diffusion of useful knowledge — can be devised, than the one here presented. Through the libe- rality of two public-spirited and highly respected gentlemen, a specimen sheet of the proposed pub- lication has been published, and has been submit- ted (or public examination. Under the auspices of this society the Cultivator may be rendered a ve- hicle of useful knowledge, and a means of effecting great public good. I commend it to your guardian care. MAPLE SVGAR. From the Cultivator. As the season for its manufacture is at hand, we venture to offer some suggestions upon the subject, having been somewhat of a sugar boiler in our younger days. The first care should be to preserve the trees. It is not safe, in j)rimitive woods, to cut away all the other timber, and to leave only the maples stand- ing, in (his way they are robbed of their protec- tion, and are very liable to be prostrated by the wind. But trees growing in open situations adapt their forms to withstand the winds; and hence those v.hich are termed second growth ought to be carefully preserved. Trees are often destroyed, in a few years, by injudicious tapping. We have seen them half girdled in a season, in order to in- crease the sap. The consequence is, that the wounds do not heal ; the water lodges in the boxes and rots the wood; and the tree dies, or is broken off by the wind. A chisel and mallet are better than the axe to tap with, and a screw augur, two to five quarters in diameter, according to the size of the tree, is better than either — as the wound then soon closes, and little or no injury is inflicted on the tree. One or two holes may be bored on (he south, and the like on the north side of the tree, if the size will warrant it. The holes at first should not exceed three quarters of an inch, and the slope upwards should be so much that the sap will run freely in frosty weather, and not, by a slow motion, be liable to freeze in the mouth of the ori- fice. When the flow of sap begins to slacken, the holes may be increased to the depth of two and a half inches, or the depth of the sap or white wood, and with an augur a quarter larger than was first used. Tlie spout should not enter the whole more than half an inch ; as the farther it enters the more the running saj) is obstructed. In ordinary seasons the best time for making maple sugar is the last twelve days in March and the first twelve days in April. It must freeze at night and thaw in the day to constitute good sap-weather. A west wind is most favorable. The next object is, to preserve the sap clean, and to do this, it is necessary to have clean vessels for its reception. The old way was to use troughs roughly cut from timber previously split through the centre. These answered tolerable well the first year. But being suffered to remain under the trees, they were often found when wanted the next year, filled with leaves, ice and filth, which una- voidably mingled with the sap. The best vessels for this purpose are wooden buckets, made broader at the top tiian at bottom, that they may be packed away in nests under cover when the sugar season is over, and thus preserved clean. We have seen them sold at $S per hundred. They will last many years. It is found beneficial to put into each half barrel 740 FARMERS' REGISTER— LETTER FROM EARL STIMSON, &c. of sap a spoonful of slacked lime. This causes the impurities to rise ?jetter when boilin<^; which should be carefully skimmed off. The sap should be boiled before fermentation commences, which will happen, as the weather becomes warm, the second or third day. The greater the exposure of the surface to the atmosphere, when boiling, the greater will be the eva})oration. When the saj) has been reduced to a syrup, it should be strained through a woollen or hair cloth, and then stand a few hours to settle; after which it should be turn- ed carefully off from the sediment ^vhich has settled at the bottom. In boiling down, charcoal is the best fuel to use ; for although the heat should be pretty brisk, it should be equable, and be confined to the bottom of the kettle. The clarifying mate- rials should be added at the commencement of this process. These are generally milk, eggs, or what is better, calves' blood. The scum which rises should be carefully taken off. The impurities at- tach to these mucilaginous materials, and are car- ried with them to the surface. When the syi'up is sufficiently reduced, and taken from the fire, it should be stirred well for some time, in order to give it grain. This is effected by bringing every part of the mass in con- tact with the atmosphere ; for if turned into moulds immediately, and not stirred, it will not be grained, but resemble candy rather than sugar. If intended to be caked, it must be turned into moulds before cold. Under the best process there will be a por- tion which will not granulate, on account of Ihe vegetable mucilage which it contains, but which will drain off if the cask in which the sugar is de- posited has holes at its bottom through which it can pass. To prevent the sap or syrup rising, a piece of fat may be thrown in, or the inner rim of the kettle rubbed with a piece of flit pork. Molasses and vinegar are generally made from the last runnings, as the sap is then less adapted for sugar, abounding more in mucilage as the buds of the tree swell, and being more liable to ferment. The molasses, when properly clarified, is superior to that from the sugar cane, having a peculiarly grateful flavor. The vinegar, though excellent for ordinary use, is not so well adapted for pickles as that made from cider. HOW TO MAKE THE MOST OF A LITTLE LAND. From the Genesee Farmer. In the spring of 1830, 1 purchased in this city a house and lot ; the lot was fifty by one hundred and twenty feet. One third of the lot was covered by the building. When I purchased, there was not a free, shrub or plant, on the premises, notwith- standing the house had been constantly occupied for near forty years. I planted the first tree in the spring of 1831. I at that time planted three peach and three gage trees. One of the peach and the three gage trees bore fruit the past season. I ha\ e since added three more peach, four choice plum, one choice cherry, one quince, and four choice pear trees, which bid fair to bear fruit soon. I have also three fine grape vines, that will probably bear plentifully next season, judging from their size. I have also aliout a dozen smaller vines. I raised on the same ground the past season, cucumbers, beets, sallads, citron melons, and nasturtiums, in great abundance for family use and for pickling. I also had a great abundance of cabbage, both for summer and winter use. In addition to the above, I have at least fifty flowering shrulis and bushes, such as roses, syringoes, altlieas, lilacs, snowballs, rows acacias, flowering almonds, cape jasmines, &c. &c., with a plenty of the honeysuckle. I liave at least two thousand bulbous roots, such as hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus, &c. with equal that numlicr of anniial and biennial plants and flowers, and all of the aforementioned luxuries and necessaries are enjoyed from the spot of ground that has laid waste for so great a length of time. There is still another item of profit to be added to the foregoing list : nine tenths of the labor of cul- tivation has been performed with my own hands, morning and evening, when not engaged in my own regular business, unquestionably affording me a greater degree of health, and certainly a far greater degree of pleasure, tlian I should otherwise have enjoyed. I have also a lot in the rear of the above-mentioned, twenty-five by one hundred and twenty feet, on which there is a barn, cowshed, and pig-stye, covering forty by twenty-five feet, leav- ing eighty by twenty-five feet for cultivation. Around this I have a border of two feet wide, one fourth of which is occupied by currant bushes, one fourth by raspberry, one fourth as an asparagus bed, and one fourth for spinnage, for a cabbage plant bed, for early lettuce, &c. The centre is laid out in three squares of seventeen by twenty-three feet. The first square I plant with early potatoes, the second with Lima beans, and the third with sweet corn ; of the two latter, I have a great supplv for my family, and some for my neighbors. Potatoes we have of the finest kind, and in great abundance through the summer season. Last fall ''we put about four bushels in the cellar from the same patch. We Vv'ere in the summer nine in family, in the winter eight. The edge of my border I planted with bush beans; and I do not recollect that I paid a single cent for vegetables, except for the articles of green peas, and a few carrots and parsnips, the latter two of which 1 did not have of my own in consequence of sowing bad seed. I give you the above statement of facts, with the hope that if you should think them worth publish- ing, some one person may be induced to try the experiment, when he will learn that it will not only afford him a source of profit, but one of great pleasure, to grow his own vegetables; and that, while by beautifying his yard, he is not only ad- ding to his health and comforts, but, in most cases, adding very much to the value of his property. M. HUDSON. LETTER FUOM EARL STIMSON TO JESSE BUEL. From the Cultivator. Galway, I8th Bee. 1833. Dear Sir — In reply to yours of the 23d Nov.j requesting some information in regard to the differ- ence between good and bad farming, I submit the following facts: When the land was first cleared in this town, being about forty-five years since, its timber con- sisted ])rincipally of fjeach, maple, elm, ash and baswood. The soil j>roduced good crops of all kinds; but the farmers neglecting to save and apply their manure, the consequence was, that their crops decreased, and in about twenty-five years the land would not produce more than one half as much, on an average, as when it was first cleared. FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE— BREEDING CATTLE. m and this half cost them more labor than when they got double the quantity of li'rain or wn with, applying ^out the same quantity of manure every time I tuwied over the sod. In this way, in the course of twenty years, I got some of my fields to yield from eighty to one hundred Inishelsof corn, thirty-five to forty bushels of wheat, fifty to sixtv bushels of barley, and from two and an half to three and an half tons of hay per acre, and with less labor, except in harvesting, than when 1 did not raise only about one-third or one-quaitcr as much. I know from my own ex|)erience, that it does not cost one-half, if more than one third as much, to raise a bushel of grain by good husbandry, as it does by bad management. The farmers have much improved their farms in this town since our state agricultural society was organized, and of course their crops have increased in proportion. / have no doubt that the money ichich \oas appropriated by the state to encourage agriculture, has increased the wealth of this county MORE THAN T^VKNTY PER CE.\T A YEAR siuce, yet there seems to be a want of enterprise with our farmers in promoting their true interest. The crops in this town were generally good the last season, except corn, which owing to the unu- sually wet and cold season, did not yield more than one-third or one half of a usual crop. I planted a field of four acres, which was in ray highest slate of cultivation. Occupied as pasture I turned over the sod about the first of June, and planted it two feet eight inches apart, with eight rowed yellow corn. When the stalks were fit to cut, I had the curiosity to ascertain the weight of the corn and stalks on an acre, and found that I had 38,000 lbs. and 26,000 ears of corn. This was the heaviest growth I think that I ever raised, and I have no doubt that there was 150 or 160 bushels corn when fit to crib. Respectfully yours, earl stimson. J. Buel, Esq. THE CLAIBIS OF AGRICULTURE TO LEGISLA- TIVE AID. Extract from an Jlddress to the Farmers of New York. From the New York Farmer. You are now petitioning, humbly petitioning your legislature to grant you a little portion, merely a remnant of that which you have placed in their hands, to educate your sons, and assist your daugh- ters in the labors which they clieerfully bestowfor the good of tlie wjiole. You are virtually saying to your senators, legis- lators, a pi'incipal p.irtof whom are composed of law ■ yers, merchants and professional men— gentlemen, we have built your public works; our i)rea(l and viothing, toil and cash, have completed yourcanals, aided value to your lands, and rendered productive your other sources of revenue. Our toil, and the fruit of our labor, have also erected and adorned your public edifices, your h.alls of legislation, your court-houses, your offices, your churches, your colleges and academies, over which we have given you and your class a paramount control — will you be pleased, at our hund)le request, to give us back a little to assist us in our toil.'' We are more en- couraged to do this, as your governor has conde- scendingly said that by feeding the animal that lalors in the field he will do more work, and " be- nefit every other class!" This must surely betrue, if it is any lienefit to the man that labors in the mental and intellectual field, or in the shopor office, to have bread and clothing! Ah, farmers, had you a due proportion of members in your legislative halls, or could those v. ho are there feel any confi- dence in your united support, they would before this have spoken with an authority that would have brought to your immediate benefit a large portion of that revenue which is the fruit of your toil ; and you would have had an institution — yea, more than one — in progress, that would have eleva- ted the character of that profession in which it is your duty and pleasure to labor ; and in which your sons would be in a course of education to prepare them to render their labor more than doubly effec- tive to increase the productions of the earth, and to jirepare them, after they are produced, for the most pleasant and profital)le use — where thej' would be educated so that their influence might be felt where influence is desirable! EXTRACTS FROIM BRITISH HUSDANDRY, PUB- LISHED BY THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFU- SION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. LondOH, 1832, Improvements in Breeding Cattle. But it is not to the patriotism of the farmer that we appeal. That is a motive called into operation only on great occasions; it governs none of the common actions of life, and has no influence over ordinary minds; neither is it necessarj' toour pur- pose. Self interest alone is a suflicient inducement to most men to exert themselves in their peculiar walk, and, if properly directed, it accomplishes the ol)jectof society as well as if they were swayed by- higher principles of conduct. We, therefore, only- mean to call attention to the fact, that, when pur- sued with skill and assiduity, husbandry offers one of the surest sources, not merely of independence, but of fortune; in proof of which assertion, num- berless instances could be adduced of men now liv- ing in affluence, acquired solely by farming, as well as of others who have left large property to their heirs. Among the latter, Bakewell stands foremost — not so much for the fortune which he realized, as for the important results of his experiments, as a breeder, both to the public, and to his numeious followers; inasmuch as the improvements which he effected in live-stock, or to which his example has led the way, have contributed largely to the increase of animal food, and opened a" branch of farming as novel as it has proved lucrative. Efforts had, indeed, been maide before his time, to 742 FARMERS' REGISTER— BREEDING CATTLE. improve the different breeds; but they were com- paratively feeble and iU-jiidged, until his penetra- tion discovered the defects of the fornicr system. He observed, that the moderate sized, compact, small-boned animals were o'enerally in the best condition ; lie, therefore, endeavored to improve these desirable points, and to remove what he deemed blemishes; until, by slow decjrees, but with ^reat judjiiiient and perseverance, he j)rodu- ced tliose varieties, of both cattle and sheep, which have since been distinctively termed, from his place of residence, the " Dishlcy breeds.' Such was his success, that, in one season, he received twelve hundred (j;uineas for the hire of three rams, and two thousand ibr the use of seven ; and, during several successive years, he never obtained less than three thousand tor his entire letting'. The spirit of emulation thus excited, and since so v. idely spread, gave rise to a singular division of labor among the sheep- lireeder.s, who, until then, had usually been contented with the rams bred in their own flocks, but, from that period, it became a speculation to breed rams for the purpose of hiring them out. Some of these have been let so high as five hundred pounds for the season ; one, the pro- perty of Mr. Buckley, was hired, in 1811, at a thousand ; and, as the system has been extended from the Leicester to all the other favorite stocks, many of the " Tup -masters," as they are called, have profited largely by the innovation.* Equally extraordinary prices have been given for cattle of superior quality; and it will be remembered, that a Durham bull — Comet — belonging to Mr. Charles Colling, of Ketlon, was actually sold, by public auction, for a thousand guinea's.! Of Bakewell's immediate disciples, the Messrs. Culley, of Northumberland, were the most dis- tinguished. They were among the foremost pro- moters of all agricultural experiments; and their superior intelligence, unremitting industry, and judicious application of the ca})ital they gradually acquired, enabled them — from small original means — to leave their respective families each in the enjoyment of landed property to the amount of nearly four thousand pounds per annum, besides having largely contributed to the Aveliare of the surrounding country. J Improvements in Tillage, &fc. To these examples must be added, that of one, less known perhaps, but not less worthy of imita- tion. The late Mr. Dawson, of Frogden, in Rox- burgshire, was the son of a farmer in moderate circumstances. He was born in 1734 ; and after having assisted his father during some years, and having also obtained an insight into the En- glish mode of farming, in Yorkshire and Essex, he took the lands of Frogden, and there commen- ced the plan of growing alternate crops of grain and grasses, or roots, and particularly of turnips, which he cultivated according to TuU's method. * Gen. View of the Agric. of the County of Leices- ter, pp. 248, 260. f At this sale, which took place at Ketton, near Dar- lington, in October IS 10, forty-seven head of cattle of the same breed, many of them calves, fetched the gross sum of 7 163/. 7s. and at a subsequent sale at Brampton, ill the same county, sixty-one head of similar stock, the property of Mr. Robert ColUng, brought 7S5SZ. 4s. J Farmer's Magazine, vol. xlv. p. 274. He Avas also the first to introduce the Norfolk mode of ploughing, with two horses abreast, into that part of the country ; and, by perseverance in the prosecution of these improvements, he lived, not only materially to advance the husbandry of the neighboring district, but also to purchase a consi- derable estate, and to leave a numerous family in very great aflluence. He is described l)y his bio- grapher, as having been "exceedingly regular in his habits, and most correct and systematic in all his agricultural operations. His plans were the re- sult of an enlightened and sober calculation, and were persisted in, spile of every difficulty and dis- couragement, till they were reduced to practice. Every one who knows the obstacles that are thrown in the way of all innovations in agriculture, by the sneers and prejudice of obstinacy and ignorance, and not unfrequenlly by the evil offices of jealousy and malevolence, must he aware, that none but men of verj' strong minds, and of unceasing activity, are able to surmount them : but such S man was Mr. Dawson."* Yet this, however praiseworthy, is only the character by which every man of busi- ness should be distinguished: it displays none of that high talent which is the gift of nature, and may deter, if not defy imitation; nor any of those great acquirements which are only to be attained by deep study and laborious research. Mr. Daw- son's success was the simple result of the discern- ment with Avhich he had adopted theinqjrovements of others, combineii with the application of good sense, observation, and persevering assiduity, to an ol)ject which requires no extraordinary ability; and it surely is in the power of every man of plain understanding, and equal determination in the same pursuit, to follow in his footsteps, if not to attain equal eminence. He must, ho\vever, divest him- self of prejudice; nor reject improvements merely because they are innovations on the practice of his grandfather. Not that a farmer should try every new experiment that is proposed, far less adopt any novel plan without due consideration. But if, after having weighed its advantages and disadvantage.*?, w ith its applicability to the soil and means at his command, the former should appear to predomi- nate— then let him afford it a fair trial; and let him recollect, that if a short cut to fortune some- times lead a man astray, yet no one ever arrived at distinction by slavishly following the beaten track. It is, indeed, deeply to be lamented, that such distinguished examples have not been more gene- rally followed. Notwithstanding the acknowledged stride which agriculture has made in this country within the last half century, yet no science has been slower in its progress towards perfection ; and even admitting numberless existing instances of intelligence and spirited management among farmers of th.e higher class, it is still an undeniable fact, that the great mass are men of a very oppo- site description. Brought up without sufficient education to enable them to comprehend the first principles of their art, acquiring it mechanically, as a mere trade, and either too dull or too indolent to seek information from books, they reject every proposed improvement as the visionary schemes of mere theorists, and even neglect them after their value has been proved by experience. Thus they invariably pursue the same routine they have + Farmer's Magazine, vol. xvi, p. 168, FARMERS' REGISTER— BREEDING CATTLE. ^43 learned in their youtli,and adhere, with the obsti- nacy of satisfied ip;norance, to obsolete customs, as detrimental to their own interest as to that of their landlords and of the public ; and tlius it is, that the averao;e produce of many parts of the kingdom is below that of other districts of not "-reater natural fertility, and that the husbandry of the south, though more favored by climate, is generally inferior to that of the north. Book Farming. It is too true, that this jealousy of written infor- mation has been in a great measure justified by man)' crude publications of inexperienced persons, and that the sneers of practical men at what they contemptuously call " hook-farming " are not wholly groundless. Much injury has been done to the cause of agriculture by sanguine specula- tions, which have only led to expense and disap- pointment; but all works on agriculture are not of that character; nor should it be forgotten, that theory is the parent of practical knowledge, and that the very systems which farmers themselves adopt, were originally founded upon those theories which they so much affect to despise. Neither can it be denied, that systems grounded upon theory alone, unsupported by experiment, are properly viewed with distrust; for the most plausible rea- soning upon the operations of nature, without accompanying proof deduced from facts, may lead to a wrong conclusion, and it is often difficult to separate tliat which is really useful from that which is merely visionary. The art of husbandry depends so much upon patient observation and the test of repeated trial, and is influenced by so many casu- alties beyond our control, that it would be rasli to adopt any general rules as invariably applicable to the endless varieties of season, soil, and incidental circumstances. Prudence, therefore, dictates the necessity of caution ; hut ignorance is opposed to every change, from the mere want of judgment to discriminate between that which is purely specu- lative, and that which rests upon a more solid foun- dation. The prejudices of farmers against all innovation "upon their established habits are as old as agricul- ture itself In the dark ages of superslition, a man who by any improved method contrived to grow- larger crops than his fellows, was supposed to use supernatural means ; and if he escaped prosecution as a wizard, was at least shrewdly suspected of dealings with a power whom his more pious neigh- bors carefully avoided. On the introduction of hops into this country, the city of London petition- ed against their use, lest tiiey should injure the beer; and with equal wisdom the Kentish farmers, whose land was overrun with coppice, and who are now so largely benefitted by their cultivation, ob- jected to their growth "because they occasioned a spoile of wood for poles."* New implements have been opposed upon much the same principle as the objection made about a century ago in Scotland, and so humorously as well as truly related by Sir Walter Scott, to the use of the winnowing ma- chine ;t and at this hour, the farmers in a large midland county assign as a reason for making the hinder wheels of their wagons j)reposterously larger than the fore, " that it places the body on a level in going up-hill ;" never reflecting, that it will have to come down again, or to move upon even ground. Among numberless instances of a similar nature^ it is told, that the late Duke of Bedford, — who, in his well-known zeal for the promotion of every agricultural improvement, took great pains to in- troduce the Norfolk manner of ploughing, with two horses abreast, — observing, while riding in the neighborhood of Woburn, one of his tenants at work, on that sandy soil, in the old-fashioned mode, with four at length, his Grace dismounted, yoked two of the horses together, and held the plough himself, explaining at the same time the advanta- ges of the new method; but his disappointment may be imagined, when the man, instead of being at all convinced by his reasoning, replied, " that such a plan might answer with his Grace, but was too expensive for him !" To which it may be ad- ded, that, notv/ithstanding the obvious economy and handiness of this mode of applying all light soils, and that, on such land, it has been adopted on every gentleman's farm throughout the kingdom, yet, with this example before the farmers' eyes, it has not yet entirely superseded the ancient cumber- some and expensive team. Even in the settled and customary management of a farm, unforeseen difficulties occur that baflle experience; and in some cases, the merely practi- cal farmer, who relies solely upon that, will be at a loss for expedients which an acquaintance with the practice of others might enable him to supply. There is, in this respect, assuredly much to learn, and no great difficulty in the task. For the rising generation, a more enlarged system of education is obviously the surest means ; but the farmer who has not had that advantage, may easily acquire a practical knowledge of the various modes of cul- ture and of rearing stock pursued in other districts, by occasionally visiting them after seed time, and adopting Bakewell's advice — " to see lohat others are doing." He will thus be enabled to compare, in the most effectual manner, theirdifferent fashions with his own; and it is in this manner, that the intelligent farmers of the North — of Northumber- land and of Norfi^lk, have surpassed their biethreri in active enterprise and im))roved husi)andry. There is an old and often repeated adage, that — "He wlio by the plough would thrive, Himself must either liold, or drive; and this, which has become a prevalent opinion, has deterred many a man who has sought relief from the cares of trade in the retirement of the country from availing himself of the profit, as well as the amusement, which he might have derived from farming. It is unquestionably true, that the man who, from early habit, is capable of holding the plough, must have great advantage in the practical + Harrison's ' Description of Englande,' book i. chap. f 'Your leddysliip and tlie steward hae been pleased to pi-opose, tliat my son Cuddie sold work in the barn ■wi' a new-fangled machine for dighting llie corn frae nounced from the pulpit, as impious the ciiatT, thus jjupiously tliwarting the will of divine Providence, by raising wind for your leddyship's ain particular use lay human airt, instead of soliciting it by prayer, or waiting patiently for wliatever dispensation of wind Providence was pleased to send upon tlie sheeling-hill." Tales of n-.y Landlord, Old Mortality, chap, vii. It was introduced in the year 1710, from Holland, by Fletcher of Saltoun, and its use was publicly de» nr FARMERS' REGISTER— BREEDING CATTLE. knovvledp;e of tliat niOst imi)ortant operation, over l)im who has not himself stood lietween tlie stilts ; and it is earnestly to he recommended, that- every youth who is destined to a farming: life should per sonally assist in all the labors of the field, as the surest means of enabling him to direct them here- after with effect; but nothinii' can be more errone- ous than the supposition that the continuance of the toil is necessary to success. Formerly, indeed, when husbandry was confined to one dull round of (lrud<;ery, and when farms were generally so small, that t!)e profit depended as much upon the personal lalior as the capacity of the tenant, it might be true : but since the introduction of the ):»resent improved modes of cultivation, the more systematic attention to live stock, and the enlarged size of farms; since, in fact, agriculture has be- come a science, rather than a mere meclianic art, Ihe time of a man who occcupies sufficient land to employ only a few laborers, would lie ill bestowed on manual "toil. The axiom is not, indeed, always applied in its literal sense; butthen it is construed to mean, that no man can hope to become a good farmer, who has not been bred to the business. Undoul)tedly personal experience is necessaiy : but it may be acquired at much less expense of time and money than is commonly imagined, by any man who will seduously devote h.is powers of re- flection to the principles, and his attention to the details of flirming operations, with a firm resolu- tion neither to relax in his exertions, nor to suffer himself to be daunted by disappointment in the commencement of his career. Such a man will be sure to succeed ; and, as encouragement to perse- verance, he may bear in mind, that many of the most eminent agriculturists, and those w ho have introduced the most important iniprovcments in rural economy, were not orignally tiirmers Jethro Tull, the fiUher of the 'drill husbandry, was bred to the law ; but having a small estate in Berkshire, he afterwards devoted himself to its cultivation. He was unsuccessful as a farmer, and he indubitably carried his tiieory respecting the continued growth of corn, without the intervention of fallows or green crops, too far. But the merit of his system of tillage, and especially that of horse- hoeing, on those soils to which it is applicable, has nevertheless been generally admittecl, although it was at first deemed visionary, and thirty years elapsed before if attracted practical attention. The original invention of the thrashing machine is also due to a lawyer — M r. Men/.ies, a Scotch advocate : we owe the introduction of mangel wurtzel to Dr. Lettsom; and the recent notice of florin to Dr. Richardson. Both the late Arthur Young, and Marshall, whose writings have contritiuted so much to the diffusion of agricultural knowledge, were brought up to commerce; and it was not until the latter had attained to a mature period ol life?, that he turned his attention to the plough- lie then, w ilh little other previous preparation than what he had acquired from reading, enfered^upon a farm within ten miles of London, of three hundred acres of mixed soil, and which had been greatly misman- aged. This, for one so unpractised, was an ardu- ous undertaking; yet within three months he dis- charged his bailiff, and became his own manager. The consequence, as niight be expected, was, that he at first committed some blunders; but at the end of three years, he published his " Minutes of y/gi~iciiltiire," containing the memoranda of his operations from 1774 to 1777, which, although not free from error, yet show, that he had even then attained to a greater proficiency than most of his contemporaries : but, to use his own language, " attendance and attention will make any man a farmer.'^* The notion that farming is unprofitable to any other than " regular-bred farmers," has been strengthened by numerous examples of persons who embarked in it during the late war, without any previous experience, or any other incentive than an expectation, encouraged by the high prices of the day and the exaggerated representations of some agricultural writers, that it would prove an advantageous speculation. Impressed with that idea, they gave exorbitant rents for land ; their stock was purchased at an equally extravagant rate; and when the markets declined, they incur- red enormous loss. The publication on the agri- cultural state of the kingdom in 1816, drawn up from the replies to a circular letter on the subject by the Board of Agriculture, teems with accounts of farms thrown up in every county; and, in many cases, the stock and crops were sold at less than half their original cost. To these instances are to be added those, con- stantly recurring, of men in easy circumstances, who, without any knowledge of either the theory or practice of husbandry, engage in it merely for amusement, and not condescending to stoop to the details, are exposed to numberless impositions of their tradesmen and servants. They pay higher wages, and obtain low er prices, than their neigh- bors; they grow large crops, but at an expense that the sale will not repay; and, retiring at length in disgust, they declare fiirming to be " a losing concern ;" but without acknowledging that it only became so through their own improvidence. That such failures, however, do not always occur, we have the evidence of a very competent judge, who, alluding to persons who, having been in other line's of business* yet having a strong inclination (or rural occupation, had betaken themselves to farming as a profession, says—" this class forms the most intelligent and accurate of husbandmen. Like converts in religion, they have more zeal, give more application, in short, have fewer preju- dices to surmount, and more enthusiasm for their new profession, than those who have been brought up in it from their infancy. They are, however^! at the first outset, more liable to error or mistake, from the want of practice; but their indefatigable attention makes more tlian amends for their igno- rance of the minutiae of the art ; and as they have been at some pains to acquire a knowledge in the theorv of agriculture, and hence established their ideas'on rational principles, they most commonly in the end make a distinguished ap|)earance, as their labors, if judiciously performed, though often in a new and experimental channel, seldom fail of being crowned with success."! He adds, that one of the best farmers in the county of Middlesex was a retired tailor. That farming, when properly attended to, is not unproductive even to gentlemen who cannot them- selves superintend all its details, we may appeal to + Digest of the Minutes, 4to , p. 63. t Middleion's View of the Agriculture of Middlesex, 2d Edit., p. 59. FARMERS' REGISTER— MANGOLD WURZEL. 745 the more recent testimony of Mr. Gawler; who, under all the disarlvantages of an indifferent soil, and a quantity of land inadequate to the charge of a bailiff, and pursuinc^ an unostentatious system of husbandry, unmarked by any jjccidiarity of man- agement or extraordinary expenditure, yet admits, in the very instructive account of 'his farm lately published, that he has succeeded in deriving a net average profit from its produce, much more coiisi- derable than any rent he could have obtained from a tenant; and has had, besides, the advantage of keeping the property in a state of neatness, the fences in a state of repair, and the land in progres- sive improvement, uninjured by (exhaustion.* It is, indeed, evident, that all those staple manu- factures, which contribute to the supply of our ab- solute necessities, must always yield a fair return, upon an average of years, upon the capital employ- ed, or they would be abandoned. Even the so much dreaded importation of foreign corn, would have no other permanent effect than to cause so much land to be thrown out of cultivation as, by diminishing the supply, would maintain prices at a remunerating rate; and farming v/ouid still conti- nue upon the same footing as brewing and malting, or tanning and v.eaving, or any other of the great manufactures of the country. A temporary re- duction of prices would no doubt ensue, farming- stock would sutrer in proportion, and, if the altera- tion were sudden, much individual embarrassment ■would be created; but corn cannot long continue to be sold for less than it costs to produce it, and Great Britain must ever rely upon'her own soil for the chief supj)ly of her wants, for, were her ports thrown open to the unrestricted admission of grain, it is not in the power of the united surplus capital and industry of the world to meet them. Rents may fall ; but farming profits caimot ; and, so long as there are consumers for the products of the land, so long will husbandry continue to reim- burse those who embark in it with adequate means and knowledge. Agriculture possesses, too^ the advantage of pre- senting a wider range than most trades, for the exertion of skill and industry; and if it does not so often lead to wealth, it affords a surer compe- tence, and is less subject to total failure. It is very important tliat these encouragements to the application of capital to the soil should be generally understood; for the national prosperif^^ is involved in its success as the main-spring of all industry, and in that every man in tiie kingdom, from the wealthiest peer to the poorest laborer, is interested. The term " National Prosperity" is very com- monly applied merely to the resources of govern- ment, and although these are derived from the common stock, it is yet difficult to convince a poor man, that he, who apparently sliares none of the national wealth, can be at all concerned in its amount. But although money may be accumula- ted in a few hands, and there remain inactive, and useless to the community, yet the fruits of the earth cannot lie so hoarded; when once produced Ihey must be distributed among the people, for no one can consume more than a certain quantity; and in proportion to the amount, each individual gets more or less, as his share. Each may not be * Libraiy of Useful Knowledo-e, Farmer.s' Series, No. 7 ; Report of a Farm in North Hants, by Henry G aw- er, Esq., p. 5. Vol. 1.— 94 able to procure as much as he wants ; but he cer- tainly would obtain still less, if less were produced in proportion to the poi)ulation. Every increase of product, however slight, and although only ap- parently beneficial to those who directly profit by it, is therefore eventually advantageous to the whole nation ; and not only is more food thus obtained, but work, by which it may be purchased, is also provided in the growth and manufacture of raw material. The whole wealth of the world has been acquired by labor. In the early stages of society, it was solely employed to procure food and shelter; but wh.en the course of civilization taught a more economical and effectual application of its power, it was found tliat a few individuals could supply the wants of many. Hence the su}>erfluous number became manufiicturers; and, as the arts advanced, and machinery was invented, those conveniences were gradually introduced which have now become indispensable to our comforts. The list of these has grown with the progress of knowledge and re- finement, and many things, which in the infancy of society were deemed luxuries, are now included among our most common necessaries. Thus, in every country, the condition of the people is seen to depend upon the degree of skilful labor which it can command : but tlic plougls is the prime mover of all, for until a sufficiency of food be produced for the common consumption, noone can be spared from the cultivation of the land; and it is obvious, tliat in proportion to the jicrfection of that cultiva- tion will be the amount of subsistence obtained, and the number of spare hands left for other pur- poses. The means of" support in other brandies of industry being thus secured, the demand for the produce of the land increases along with the pro- duce of that lalior ; more hands are then required for its cultivation, and these again require more manufactures. Thus industry and wealth keep pace with agriculture, and, each stimulating the other, contril)ule to the national prosperity. That such is the effect of agriculture on the welfare of tlie community, is proved by the history of its pro- gi'essive improveinent, and of the consequent change in the mode of living in this country ; of which a brief sketch may not, perhaps, be either irrelevant to our subject, or wholly unacceptible to the general reader. MANGOLD WURZEL.* Report of the committee of the Doncaster Ag- ricultural Association on the advantages of man- gold v.'urzel, as a fallow crop. Founded on returns received in answer to the queries issued by the committee of London, 1830. Pamph. 8vo, pp. 7. " The advantages of mangold wurzel are these: It is more sure to plant, being veiy little liable to the fly or grub ; it will produce more weight; it is off the land earlier; it is useful as a change of fallow crop, when the land is tired of turnips; it will grow on land where turnips cannot be raised; it is better spring food. On the other hand, in favor of Swedish turnips, it may be said, that the weeding and singling out are less expensive; there is rather more time for fallowing in the spring; the succeeding crop is better than after mangold wur- zel. Perhaps cattle feed best on Swedish turnips when they are used alone. It must however, be * Erroneously .spelled Mangel Wurtzel. 746 FARMERS' REGISTER— PLANTING OF HARDY EVERGREENS, &c. remarked, that these hist two evidences in favor of Swedish turnips are not fully proved, and only i>ar- tially supported. In conclusion, perhaps two ob- servations may be of use. First, that the very early season at which mangold wurzel should be sown, renders it )iii;hiy expedient that the land be made as clean as possible in tlie autumn, so that a few days in the spring may be sufficient to get it into a proper state lor the reception of the seed. Secondly, that wet seasons do not suit mangold wurzel so well as dry; and, consequently, for the last two years, the Swedish turnips have been the more valuable crop of the two. PLANTING OF HARDY EVERGREENS. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. By Mr. Macnab, Supernitendent of the Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh. Mr. Macnab says that he has planted evergreens at all seasons of the year, with more or less success, though from the middle of June to the middle of August, is the most unfavorable time for planting them. Tiie particular seasons which he recommends, are late in autumn, or during winter, or very early in spring; that is, from the middle of October till the middle of February. And of this period, he re- commends, as the best, from the middle of October till the middle of December, provided the weather and the ground be favorable; that is, provided there is no frost, no drying wind, nor much sun- shine, and the ground is not (oo mych saturated with wet, either from continued rain, or from the nature of the soil. Mr. Macnab also differs from others in the treatment of the plant, when putting jt in the ground. Some recommend, when the plants have been long out of the ground, to be par- ticular in drying their roots, by exposing them as much as possible to the sun and air, and not to be nice in planting. But the following are Mr. Macnab's views on this subject: — "One of tlie principal things to be attended to in planting ever- greens," says he, " is to fix on a dull day for win- ter planting, and a moist day for spring and autumn planting. There can be no secret in the proper treatment of evergreens. If tliere were, I siiould say, that it is in preventing their roots from be- coming dry, when out of the earth; to choose moist and cloudy weather for jdanting; and still better, if w^e had the power, by foresight or other- wise, to secure a continuance of^such weather some- time after they have been planted. If the roots of everlains, Loncr, on the preparation necessary for tiie tobacco crop, I come now to the second branch of the subject, proposed to be treated of, in tlie series laid down in my (irst essay, to wit: the cultivation of the crop. As this part of the business is much the most sim- ple, and consequently, more generally underslocx! and correctly practised by tiie mass of planters, I deem it unnecessary to treat it much in detail — and shall therefore content myself with a concise view of the most prominent points. The first working of the plants should be com- menced as soon as they have taken root sufliicient- ly to hear close cultivation with the hoe, which should be applied closely, but lightly, about them, SO as to loosen the earth, and remove all tiie grass from the young plants, which will give them a good start to grow. It is generally unnecessary to plough the land the first working, as the earth is usually loose, from the recent ])reparation for planting. Should it, however, lie hard, or Ijaked, the surifiice should then l;e thoroughly stirred with the hoes and ploughs. The harrow, with fine teeth, is usually the most approved instrument in such cases, as it is only necessary to stir the surface in the first working. This operation is commonly called " weeding out," or " trimming 4o>yn." About this period the planter should guard strictly against the ravages of the cut-worms, which usually harass the young plants very much ;ahout the time they are taking r(X)t ; and if not destroyed, will cause a great deal of trouble in getting the crop to stand ; and at last, will prove the means of making the crop very uneven, and irregular in ripening. This worm, about an inch in length, and of dark color, burrows around the roots of the plants, and if not speedil}' destroyed by the vigilant planter, will cut off an immense numher of plants just below the surface of the earth, and cause the roots to perish. Thej' can only be effectually caught early in the morning, or a cloudy day, as they retreat into the ground beyond the influence of the sun, as the heat of the day comes on. This worm can be best extracted with a small stick, or with the finger, according as the ground is hard or soft. These worms aie always most numerous and destructive in old lands that have much litter or coarse manure in them — more especially after a clover fallow. They coa- sequently rarely appear in lands recently cleared. 'Vhe second working should he commenced as soon as the land gets foul or hard, without regard to the si/e of the plants. This should le a deep and thorough working, as the roots have not yet exfentled in the way of the pkaigh ; and it is now time to preparellie land for (heir spreading w ith fa- cility. Plougli deep, Ihereibre, between (he rows, with the coulter, and follow it with (he hoe, add- ing ear(h to the plants according to (heir size. By this time, if the season has been favorable, the plants will have attained sufficient size to com- mence topping, which is generally the case in al;out six weeks after planting. This opera! ion should not be commenced too early, as I am satisfied, from long oliservation, that the size of the plant is very much diminished by [jremature topping. As a general rule, until the last of August, the plant should be at least eighteen inches high, before it is topped. After (hat time, it may be topped lower, according to (he advance of the season. I am fully satisfied, (after a fair trial of every mode practiseil in this country, of priming and to[)ping,) the ])lant comes to greater perfection in our climate and soil, jjrimed six inches, and topped to eight leaves. Many planters do not prime at all, helieviiig that they can make more tobacco in weigh(, ami of as good quality, by simi)iy topping to twelve leaves, four leaves usually being taken off in priming. They contend (and I confess with some p!ausihili(y,) (hat the lower leaves serve to shade the hill, and keep it moist, and conse- quently promote the growth of the plant ; and, that taking these off in priming, bleeds the plant, and retards i(sgrow(h. I am satisfied, however, (hat these results are not realized in the quality and weight of the plant, when it comes to perfection. For i( is clearly as- cer(aincd, and almost universally admitted, that the plant, primed and (0|)ped (o eight leaves, comes (o grea(er perfec(ion in weigh( and quality, than wi(h any other number. If this he (rue, (hen it follows as a consequence, that the non-priming system only increases the number of leaves, wi(h^ out any addition of quali(y or weight. And \ think it will accord with the experience of every planter who has tried the non-priming plan, that the additional number of leaves proves a great nuisance to him, in every stage, of the prepara^ tion of the crop for market, after it has been cut. For, in (he first place, the greater the number of leaves on a plant (he harder it is to cure, and still more difficult to cure uniformly. And in the se- cond place, these extra leaves growing very near (he ground, spread an mimensedeal of dir( (hrough the whole crop, when it comes to be " bulked down" for stripping, Irom which it would other- wise be comparatively free. But I have dwelt longer on this head than I intended ; though not longer, I trust, than its importance deserves. 'Fhe third working should also be deep, as it is (he last (ime (he land can he judicioush' ploughed, for fear of breaking (he roots, which is evidendy a great disadvan(age, especially if the weather be at all dry. This ploughing should be done with the shovel plough, or small Dagoii, and followed with the hoe enlarging (he hills. About this time the tobacco is usually visited with a green worm, called the " horn-worm," which feecls on the ten- der leaves, and sometimes will almost destroy a plant in a few days, if the worm is not destroyed. 752 FARMERS' REGISTER— THE TURKEY BUZZARD— BIRDS, &c. Tlie planter should he on the watch, and have tlieni cauglit while younp; and comparatively inno- cent. He should he careful to have the c^^s de- stroyed also, as Ihcy will soon hatch and keep up a succession of worms These may be found on the underside of the leaves near the fibres or stems. They are round and transparent, and about the size of a partridii;c shot. They are deposited on the leaves by a species of fly, commonly sup- posed to be the large tly, seen in a summer's even- ing about the blossoms of the James Town weed. But of this I am doubtful. About this period also, the plants begin to i)ut forth suckers, which, together with the worms, should be carefully kept off, by going over the crop at least once in ten days; as a little neglect at this time is attended with serious injury to the crop. The fourth working should be slight — merely scraping over the surl'ace with the hoes, so as not to interfere with the roots. Four v/orkings are generally considered sufficient, but I generally give my crops five — the fifth being similar to the Iburth — especially on my old land, as that requires more frequent stirring than ncv. In ab.out six- weeks from the time the plants are lopped, they will be rij)e, or ready for the knife — which brings me to the third branch of t!ic subject, that of cut- ting and curing. These will be treated of in a third essay, herenfter. G. IVardsfurk, Charlotte County. THK TURKEY BUZZARD. From the Baltimore American. A small pamphlet has been put into our hands by a friend, containing an account of some inte- resting experiments made at Charleston, South Carolina, during the winter, fi'r the purpose of de- termining certain facts in tiie natural history of the Vulture. The Turkey Buzzard and the Carrion Crow were the particular suijecfs of experiment, and the object was to determine whether they do in fact possess the extraordinary powers of smell- ing, which have been so unifitrmly attributed to them by naturalists, and whether it is their habit to feed only on putrid meat Mr. Audubon was the first writer on American Ornithology, who denied the Vulture thefoculty of smell, and maintained that it is guided by the eye only, in its search t()r food The experiments by which he arrived at this opinion, w'ere published in 1826, and have been treated on both sides of the Atlantic, with severity, as unsatisfactory, and in- deed palpably absurd. The pamphlet before us, written by Doctor Bachman of Charleston, details a series of experiments, made for the express pur- pose of testing the correctness of Mr. Audulion's opinion. That gentleman ',vas on a visit toCharles- ton, but took no part in them. They were wit- nessed by Robert Henry, President of the College of South Carolina ; Dr. John Wagner, Professor of Surgery of the Mediral College of the State; Dr. Henry Frost, Professor of the Materia Me- dica ; and C. F. Leitner, Lecturer on Botany and Natural History, in the same institution; Dr. B. B. Strobel, and Martin Strol)el, Esq. — all gentle- men of eminent standingand capacity. They have unanimously signed a certificate, stating that from theexperiments they have witnessed on the habits of the Vultures of Carolina, called t!ie Turkey Buzzard and the Carrion Crow, they " feel assured they devour fresh as well as putrid food of any kind, and that they are guided to their food alto- gether through the sense of siicht and not that of smell. The result, besides its bearing on a material part of natural history, is a gratifying testimony to the scientific accuracy of Mr. Audubon, and a sutiicient defence against the illiberal sneers with which his discovery has been treated. The expe- riments detailed, show not only that these birds are without any particular strength of smell, but that they are destitute of the sense altogether. Among other proofs of this, it was found that they were attracted by coarse pictures of dead animals, and were unable to perceive flesh, which was only hidden by a j)iece of canvass, although standing upon it at the time. The experiments were va- ried in such a way as to make it impossible there should be any mistake. There can be no doubt, that with respect to this part of the V'ulture fami- ly, the opinions that have prevailed for so many centuries are erroneous. Among tlie experiments was one to test the sto- ry, jjuhlished lately, — that if the eye of the Tur- key -Buzzard was put out liy pertbration, it would be restored, and the sight renewed, by putting the head under the wing, the down of which was said to perform the miracle. They found that the ball of the eye is refilled, but the sight was not restor- ed. They foimd, also, that a blind bird cannot per- ceive the most ofiensive animal substance, how- ever near. BIRD KILLING. From tlie Farmer and Mechanic. The following notice to gunners and hunters, signed by nineteen individuals, ap]ieared in a late number of the Germantown Telegraph. " We, the subscril;ers, of Lower Merion town- ship, iNIontgomery county, viewing with concern the astonishing increase of insects, and the im- mense damage done to oiir crops and fruit, for se- veral years past, and believing the cause to be principally owing to the killing of birds, do most respectfully admonish all persons to al)stain from shooting them, or destroying their nests or eggs ; and, for ourselves, we do absolutely forbid any person or ])ersons trespassing on our places, break- ing our fences, hunting or firing a gun on our re- spective lands, or with dogs of any species : there- tore, any persons entering on our j)remises, con- trary to this notice, must expect to be dealt with accordin'T to law." TO PREVENT MILK BECOMING SOUR. From the Mechanic's Magazine. To prevent milk from turning sour and curd- ling, as it is so apt to do in the heat of summer, the milk-men of Paris add a small quantity of sub-carbonate of potash or soda, which saturating the acetic acid as it forms, prevents the coa- gulation or separation of curd ; and some of them practise this with so much success, as to gain the reputation of selling milk that never turns. Often when coagulation has taken place, they restore the fiuidity by a greater or less addition of one or the other of the fixed alkalies. The acetate which is thus formed has no injurious effects, and besides milk, contains naturally a small quantity of ace- tate of potash, but not "an atom of free or carbo- nated alkali. FARMERS' REGISTER— FENCES. 753 To the Editor of the Faiiucrs' Keijistcr. PREJUDICES AGAINST MARL, AND THE GREAT LOVE OF FENCES ENTERTAINED BY FARM- ERS OF VIRGINIA. Sir: Necessity is the mother of invention, and nothing but stern necessity will make men, or at least us Virginians, move on in any other way than that in wliich their forefathers have trod. Would you believe it, sir, that three out of four farmers will laugh you in the lace while you m ay be Iccturuig upon the subject of marl, o.nd many an honest and good man, wiU reply to any praise that you may bestow on calcareous manures, that our Ibreliithers got along veiy Avell, and they see no reason why we should not be able to do the same; that there can be no virtue in any such thing as that. Some have said, thal^if there was any virtue in what is called marl, they would make their lands lich at once; hence they began, and soon over-dosed the land, and have smce declared a perpetual war agahist all marls, lime, and all calcareous earth. Others naturally disposed to be prejudiced against Ldl innovations upon old habits, readily seize hold of the very unfair trial of those Avho have not used this manure properly, and condemn the whole theoiy, and call you Aviid and \'isionaiy; and though the lands on * * * * * * river abounds in marl and calcareous manures, yielduig from 50 to 80 ]>er-cent. (of lime) — naj", miUions of it, can be obtained, not three feet below the sur- face of the earth, and much of it upon tlie top of the earth, yet such are the prejudices of the good people, that few, very {ew, will use it. Upon the subject of the benefits of marl, I want lo give you before long, my humble views, and particularly hi relation to clover. I discover, wherever I have used the marl or lime freelj^, that clover succeeds very well: and if I can possibly make out to divide my little larm in the way I finally contemplate, I should like for you to pay me a visit, if in the reach of possibihty,' that I might be enabled to have a full and free chat with you, and that you might yourself see the disad- vantages that I ha\e labored under, and what really should be thought of the benefit resulting from the use of calcareous manures. If I had such, (and on such land) as are lying in millions of loads on ****** * river, then, and tlien alone, Vv'ould I have a fair opportunity to use it. JBut, sir, the greatest inconvenience that I labor under is fencing — the jjublic road running through my little farm, and as it is him alone that the lire burns, or the shoe pmches, that will first cry out, so it is your hundile servant that now takes up his pen to protest against the present plan of Virginia fences. I have long labored in the cause of fence- reform — ^but as yet to no purpose. StiU, however, I do not despair, but that the legislature will, if ap- plication be properly made to them, suffer their minds to get quiet long enough from President- makmg, to attend to the wants of the farmers, the bone and sinew of the country, and the support of all. We grundile and growl about taxes, and really, sir, of all taxes that the Virguiia fiuiner ])ays, that of his fences is the dearest. Yes, ten- fold dearer than all. I assert it without the fear of, contradiction, that a million of dollars a year wdl not pay the expenses of the Virginia farmers in Vol. I.— 95 fencing, laying aside the timber which is wasted. I hold it to be clear, that he who is prodigal and wasteful, commits a sin in the eye of his Malierj and really, sir, it would make the heart of any re- flecting man ache to s5e the immense waste of valualjlc timbers in very many ways, in getting staves and lumber, and even in getting a few logs. All this the peoj)le of Virginia will, in time, want. Reason Avith them, and they ansAver you, that they never shall ^vant in their day, and that all those to come, must provide for themselves. However, so it is, they go on cutting and slaying, and wearing out their lands, clearing more, and the last step they take is to remove to the far west, leaving the land of their nativity, and the bones of their fathers and mothers, to seek a new home: when Virginia, and particularly Eastern Virginia, might be made to sustain a much larger popula- tion than she at this time does mamtain, and in- stead of (in the language of the author of the General JJcscript'wn of Virginia, being a sand barren, and the pme tops waving over the fields, and the worn out and exhausted fields continually presenting themselves to the travellers' view; a large proportion of the lands might be made pro- fitable to the cultivator, and as pleasing to the eye, as they now are otherwise. Nature has done much for us, while we have done nothing for our- selves. But to the point: remove the cause, and you remove the disease. I would at once, put the axe to the tree and destroy the whole of the de- fective plant. But that is impossible; and, there- fore, it is a subject that I will not now touch. But by uniting, and pressing our wants, — na}', our claims and demands, we may do mucla good. I, therefore, respectfully propose, that a petition be gotten up to the Virginia Legislature, praying them to pass some such law as Pennsylvania and New Jersey have, in relation to fences. That be- ing done, the Virginia farmer will begin to see the sun rise in splendor upon his labors; for then he can work Avi'ih some cheerfulness. It can be demonstrated to the plainest understanding, that the fences of Virginia are the heaviest taxes in the state; and next to them the road laws. If tlio members of the legislature will not regard our just complaints, and our final representations of the wants of agriculture, and the true interest of the country, then let us call a convention of farmers, to meet in Petersburg or Richmond, upon the fence sj-stem particularly. And I really believe^ that we can send pur complaints home to the le- gislature, so that they will be compelled, however degrading they may think agriculture, to attend to the real wants of the farmers; and if nothing shall be done the next winter for our benefit, m the spring of 1835 let us unite, and swear not to vote for any man who will not rest long enough Irorrk party politics to pay some little attention to the rights of agriculture and tlie soil of Virginia. Yes, sir, let us circulate throughout the countiy our pe-. titions; flood the land with them, and Ave shall fi- nally succeed. "What ! expend more than a miU lion of dollars every yem* in fences to keep off « parcel of poor liogs and catde that are not worth any thing at oil ! I speak noAv, sir, as to my own situation. I have just put U|) fences that have cost me three hundred dollars — finished last Thursday night — and to-day they are all down, laid pros- trate by the wind?, and all the live stock in the neighborhood (horees excepted,) arc »ot worth- 764 FARMERS' REGISTER— FENCES—HARNESSING. half the amount. Now, would it not be cheai)er f()r any man to keep up hi.-? stock, his hogs at least? Without doubt: and particularly the poor man, if (he rich man's stock was kept from run- ning at large, I could go, sir, into a detailed cal- culation, and shoAv beyond all question, that it would be the best way. Suppose, sir, a petUion was to come, for the sake oi' uniformity, through the Farmers' Register, to the Virginia Assembly, upon the subjectl I promise you" to circulate it in my county. " The people who Ihinic that they have wood in plenty, might object; but Middle Virgi- nia, I know must, and would willingly join in the demand. But this is the place to make the be- ginning. If we wish to break the force of preju- dices and old habits, let us begin Avhere there will be most opposition, and as we go on, we shall gather strength ten-fold. I do not, sir, despair, lor I am proud to tell you that we have some zeal- ous men in the cause of farming, and though they may be ridiculed, they still persevere; and some of them, sir, have authorised me to invite you to examine, in person, our lands, marls, &c. &c., and to stimulate them still more in the good cause. To show you that I have long been opposed to our fence policy, I send you some pieces which I cut out of the Whig as far back as the winter 1830- '31, in which this subject is discussed. Will you be so good as to publish, if you can obtain them, the laws relating to fences in Penn- .sylvania and New Jersey? Will you also publish, from your own recollection, or obtain ii'om the New Jersey lamier, now on James river, (refer- red to in your lOtli No.) a particular description of his hog sties, and manner of keeping hogs, from the pigging to the killiiig, and at what age he generally kills his hogs, and the weight of them? ANTI-FEXCE. 7th April, 1834. From tlic Richmond Wliig, of 1831. To Messrs Hives of Campbell, 3 f orris of Hanover, and Miller of Powhatan. Gentlemen: — I observe in the proceedings of the Legislature, that a resolution has been adopted, "instructing the Committee of Agriculture, to en- quire whether any, and if any, what measures are necessary, to promote the agricultural interests of this commonwealth; and the committee have leave to report by bill or othcnvise." Permit me, gentlemen, to implore you to use your best influence, and all your talents, to procure the insertion of a clause in the contemplated bill, to compel eveiy owner of stock, to confine his hor- ses, cows, hogs, and sheep, upon his own lands, either by small or large enclosures,as may suit his inclinations : — ^but let the penalty lor faihng to do so, be either a forfeiture of the stock, or the value thereof — at any rates,after the second offence. This will " promote the cause of agriculture," and the improvement of our lands, more than any other thing the Legislature can devise, if they were to continue in session six years, instead of six months. I pray you to reflect upon the subject — bring to your recollections, the circumstances whiclr have, within the last twenty years, produced contentions and hatred, quarreling and figliting, in your neigh- borhoods, and you will find, i verily believe, that the depredations of stock, lie at the foundation of five-sixths of those disagreements. What is 80 well calculated to make a man hate hie neighbor, as to lie in his bed at night and reflect that his neighbor's stock may at that moment be destroy- ing the crop lor which he has been toiling nine months of the year? — and how often tlo we rise of a morning and find our fears of such destruction realized by the fact ? I need not tell you,, gentle- men, that such a law would be beneficial to the poor — you must know it, il" you have ever given one hour's attention to the subject — and if you never have, I pray you now to do it. I verily be- lieve such a law would reduce the poor rates to almost nothing in less than ten years — and that there would not be a man or woman in the state, who would not, in the end, applaud your efforts upon this all important matter — for, rest assured, without such a law, extending its provisions Irom the Blue Ridge of mountains to the eastern bounda- ry of the state, or at least to the head of tide water, middle Virginia will become a poor despised coun- try'— all your rail roads, sluce navigation, and canal schemes to the contrary notwithstanding. Such a law is worth them all. It is the enclosing sys- tem (so much insisted on by all modern writers on agriculture) upon the largest scale; and what is still more desirable, its benefits will be general; and we shall obtain that benefit by a vast saving of money and labor. Col. Taylor, some twenty years ago, calculated the expense of cuttuig down tim- ber, mauling it into rails, and putting upon dead fences, as equal, on a very large farm, to one-tenth of all the labor bestowed upon the cultivation of that farm. If it is true in relation to a large farm, it is doubly so upon a small one, as every arith- metician knows it only requires double the number of rails to enclose four acres of land, that it requires to enclose one acre — consequently, the small iarm- er is at twice as much expense as the farmer who has double the quantity of land — I mean double the expense, in proportion to the quantity of land cultivated and enclosed. pkteu stoner. THE IMPORTANCE OF A PROPER MODE OP HARNESSING WORK HORSES. Translated for the Farmers' Register, from the Journal d' Agri- culture etc, des Pays-Bos. Wc were struck, on an-iving in France, at the difference which exists between two places, in the number of horses employed to draw a plough. But in observing these different methods, it was easy to perceive, that to an ill combined system of harnessing the horses, at least as much as to the faulty form ol" the ploughs, should be attributed a great loss of force, and, consequenth^, the necessi- ty of employing a greater number of horses. It is established irom the exact observations of M. Cordier, that the quantity of work performed by a single horse in Flanders equals the ordinaiy labor of six horses in the interior of France. It Avould then be useful to all persons whose situation obliges them to vise these animals, to point out the causes of this enormous difference; causes which M. Cor- dier has not been able to state, because they are so peculiar as to escape even the best informed persons, who have not made them a particular study, or who have not, by their condition, an ha- bitual acquaintance with them. In the manner of harHcsshig hoi'sce in Franc^e, the traces arc in an exactly horizontal din;ctton. FARMERS' REGISTER— CANADA THISTLE. 755 If you except those of the horses hitched to the plough, this is the direction of the traces of all the horses harnessed one after the other, and even of those placed hi the shails of carts. Yet the shoul- der of the horse presenting a species of inclined plane to the collar, it follows that the draught ope- rating, in a right line, forces the collar to rise along the shoulder, for the same reason that a double cone rises along an inclined plane. This ascend- ing motion is stopped only by the throat, which sustains the greatest ]iart of the drawing, inso- much, that in great ellbrt.s, the brcatliing of the horse is often endangered. It is one of tlie causes which most usually tends to render horses tliick- winded. It is useless to demonstrate the disadvantage of making the throat bear what the eliouldei's ought to support; it is certainly in part to remedy this rising of the collar, and the sort of strangulation which results from it, that'those enormous collars have been contrived at Paris and in Noniiandy, in order that their counterpoise may diminish the in- jurious rising produced by drawing at an acute angle with the shoulder. But there still remains the ill-calculated point to which the traces are at- tached, for these in the French collars, are always placed on the very joint on the shoulder, a veiy great fault, which in the higliest degree cramps the motion of the horse and decreases his strength. The collars have besides the inconvenience (and it is known to many by sad experience) of wound- ing the shoulders and Avithers of the horse. This mass of 70 or SO pounds weight produces heating and continual imtation. In veiy warm weather, the air not being able to circulate under so com- pact a covering, the shoulders of the animal are always in a state of })erspiration, which easily makes the skin tender, and soon sores are openecl, Avhich work only poisons, and which sometimes become incurable. The Flemish way of harnessing horses obvi- ates all these inconveniences, by causing the draft to bear solely on the shoulders, in which the prin- cipal strength of the animal resides. For this reason, with less efficient means, but more judi- ciously employed, the Flemings execute more work. Two horses in Flanders easily draAV six thousand killogrammes upon a pavement; at Paris, it is true, there are horses which draw nearly as much, but these horses, brought mostly Irom Flanders, are much superior in size and strength to those used in the Flemish provinces. It is the elite of Belgian horses which is at Paris. All the good uncastrated colts which are found, are purchased at eighteen months old, liy traders of Normandy, who sell them again in Paris, at four or five years of age. There remain in Flanders only some stalUons reserved to propagate the breed, and if a Flemish farmer wished to have a choice team of unmutilated horses, he would be obliged to go to ])urchase them in France. This countiy then of- fers a valuable market to the horse-breeders of Belgium, whence more than ten thousand of these animals are annually taken by France. Valuing these at only five hundred francs each, there are five millions which this country dispenses yearly among the neighboring farmers, for this single ob- ject. Can we now be astonished at the sympathy of the Belgians? Those of the Belgian farmers who go to settle in France find advantages in the low jmce of tlie lands, in the saving which they make in the well directed employment of the strength of their horses, &c., &c. Besides the causes mentioned above with re- spect to the bad plan of draught in France, there are yet others, the most easy oi'which to be explain- ed, consists in thes):)ring-tree bars. In place of the moveable bars of Flanders, which force the dull horses to draw as much as the quick ones, they always use a fixed bar in France, and tlius the spirited horse must draw all that his lazy com- panion does not pull. This inconvenience, it is expected to remedy by violent ^vhipping, but these lashes only stupify the dull, and force the spirited to do all, by exciting them. Their ardor urges them forward, the double load forces them back; and these shocks kill a much gTcater number of horses than tlie true employment of the strength of the team. The whip and blows are as ineffi- cient on horses as rods on children: they brutify the nund and cow the courage m both. To tho Editor of tlic Farmers' Register. CANADA THISTLE. Poplar Grove, near Ccntreville, Md. > Jjpril 7(h, 1834. S I observe in your last number an editorial no- tice of the Canada Tliistle, in Avhich you justly express your apprehension that it will, without some legislative cftbrts to arrest its progress, get into Virginia and traverse the whole country. No plant that I have hitherto become acquainted with, is half so great a joest, nor half so difficult to era- dicate. I regTet a.lso to say to you, that this vile pest is not two or three hundi'ed miles from Vir- o'inia, as you suppose it to be. I have understood, but cannot vouch for the fact, that this thistle has, within a few years, appeared near Norfblli, in your state, ^vhere it is known by the name of the Ram-s-horn thistle, because of its twisting growth, and, perhaps, because also it has been supposed to have been introduced into that neighborhood by importations of merino sheep; and it is very pro- bable the seed may have been brought in the ■ivool of those animals. There is, I am sorry to say, no mistake in the existence of the plant on my farm, and I know not how it could have found its way here, unless brought in the wool of some Saxonys and South Downs, v\'hieh I obtained from Connecticut, a few years since. Some six or seven years since, I observed a single plant in one of my fields, on Chester river, which was then in blossom. I had the plant grubbed up, as I thought, roots and all, and care- fully burned. In the fiill, following, I examined the same spot, and found a nundjer of plants springing up in and around the spot occupied by the first })lant. I again grubbed and burned. The next season, the field went into corn, and the year after in Avheat, on the corn ground. After taking oft" the wheat, or probably before, while the plants were in bloom, I had them again grubbed, piled, and burned on the spot. They then occupied an area of fifteen feet across. Last year I contintied the same process lor extiqiation, they having then spread over a circumference of 1wen1y-five or thirty feet across. Becoming alarmed at Ihcir progress under such efforts for their destruction, I last fall had a small deep ditch cut round the spot 758 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON THE USE OF PLASTER. containing the roots oi' the plants, (w)iich appear to be as prolilic as the roots of Mr. Richardson's celebrated fiorin grass,) and ttien had the spot co- vered over with salt marsh nuul at least twenty inches deep, supjjosing the smothering of the turt and mud, aided by the salt it contained, would do the business; but, to my utter astonishment, early in the winter I tound the plants springing up here and there vigorously, through this bed of mud ! ! I shall add this summer, a i'ew bushels of salt to the bed of mud, and if this, during the hotmojiths, does not do the business, aided by the hoe, I pro- pose then to cover the whole over, first with brush wood, then with a toot thick of oyster shells, and set fire to the whole. Il" this does not succeed, I must acknowledge myself beaten, miless you can come to my aid. I recollect some years ago to have seen a reconmiendation by the celebrated General Armstrong, of New Yorlc, of malic acid, for the destruction of this plant on fields ! which he asserts to be effectual, and the only thing he knows of as sufficient. But this remedy, you will say, on a large scale, is about as impracticable as lay- ing ploughshares with gold. I may, however, if this should turn out a good apple year, be able to use it, in conjunction with the remedies I have in progress. Chemically, what will be the result of a com- bination of malic acid Avith the viuriate of soda? T. E3rORY. [We believe (thongh claiming to have but a very imperfect knowledge of chemical affinities and com- binations,) that there could be no chemical change pro- duced, by the malic acid (the acid found in apples) meeting with the muriate of soda, (common salt,) as the soda is held in combination witli the muriatic acid, by a stronger power of attraction, than the malic acid has for soda. If, however, any soda, not so combined; was present on the soil, or lime, the malic acid in pomace would so quickly combine with cither of them, as to have no effect on vegetation. What might be the properties and eficcts of the new combination so formed, on plants, is unknown. ■We trust that the report of the Canada Thistle being near Norfolk is founded on mistake — as it is certain that the Spanish Thistle (another pest which has been described by R. N. in No. 5) has reached the Eastern Shore of Marjdand. The width of the Chesapeake will not be a sufficient barrier to its progress, and it will extend across Virginia, befoi'e our legislature will resort to any means to arrest its progress. When no legisla- tive relief has been granted to agricultvire, from griev- ances under which it is actually suffering, it would be still more hopeless to expect any defence from prospec- tive injuries. But, if otherwise, it would be good policy in Virginia, to aid the eflbrts of New York and INIary- land to destroy this villainous plant witliin their limits, ratlier than to wait for its appearance in Virginia.] ON THE rSE OF PLASTER. From tlie Genesee Famier. iJ/r. L. Tucker — Yours of the 7th of June last, respectin;^ the use of Plaster, is now before me ; and this being the season in which farmers are bringing home their plaster, an answer ought not to be longer delayed. You ask of me that I should state, " First — on what kind of soil it is found most beneficial. Se- condly— tlie quantity used per acre, and the time and manner of applying it each year. Third — the course of cidture, or series of crops raised on lands to which it is applied ibr a number of years. And all such facts as it would be necessaiy for a new beginner to know, to use plaster to advan- tage. " Plaster has been applied, advantageously, in this part of the country, on a variety of soil. The larm I cidti vate h as, tor many years, at lea,st twenty, received liberal applications of plaster, and embrac- ing as it docs a variety of soils, I am enabled to judge of its ellectslbra series of years. The vari- eties of soil as indicated by the timber which grew upon them, arc oak and hickoiy — maple, bass, and some beech — another, heavy pine timber, with hemlock — a part was timbered with a young growth of maple, while oak lay decaying on the surface. On all these varieties, we consider plas- ter very beneficial, and ns yet, have not discovered its effects less beneficial. I have never but in one instance used plaster on deep alku-ial soil; and then, by experiments made on some rows of corn, while others were omitted, no eflect was perceived. On grass lands, where plaster has been sowed on strips by ^vay of experiment, a person in passing over such grounds in a morning, will find (he plas- tered grass more filled with dew than where no plaster has been put, one of the effects of plaster being to draw moisture from the atmosphere. Low moist grounds, consequently, do not require plaster as much as high chry lands; and at ])resent I consider it very doubtful, whether it will at any time be foiuid of much use on wet land. The second inquiry is — "The quantity used per acre, and the time and manner of applying it. " Much has been said about the quantity proper to be sown at one time. In certain parts of Pennsyl- vania, where the Nova Scotia plaster is used, only one half of a bushel is put upon an acre at one time. The cost of plaster will, upon examination, be f(:)und to regulate to a great extent, the quantity used in every section of the country. In this county, where the best ground plaster can be had at the mills for two dollars and fifty cents per ton, a large quantity is used. The quantity used here by our best farmers, at one application, varies from one to three bushels per acre. Experiments have been made of larger quantities — and it is supposed by intelligent farmers with whom I have convers- ed, that the greater the quantity the longer will the eflects remain. The general practice here is to sow two bushels per acre, and I think in ordi- nary cases this is enough. "The proper time to apply i:)laster" ibr wheat is in the spring of the year, as soon as the ground has become settled; on oats, as soon as it comes up; corn, at the first hoeing, (a small handfull on each hill;) on pasture, as soon as the grass starts. The manner of appljdng it, commonly adopted here is, sling a bag over the shoulder, and sow in lands. The best way to carry the plaster is to have a box of the following dimensions, made to curve a little to the body: two feet six inches long, one foot wide, and six inches deep; attach a strap to the inside corners, pass it over the right shoulder. A place should be cut through the outside of the box, or a handle put on like the handle of a corn basket, that the man can take hold and assist with his left hand in carrying. It has been recommend- ed, in the Farmer, I believe, to sow plaster with IPARMERS' REGISTER— GYPSUM. nit a shovel li-oiu a wagon, having it moving about •he field. This is a method 1 have ne\'er seen practised, and probably nevei- Fhall. "The course of" culture, or series of crops raised on lands to whicli it is apphed for a number of years. " Plaster is used in connection with clover to a great extent, by our farmers. Clover seed is pown on wheat in Marcli, then ])laster. The clo- ver seldom lails, the plaster protects the young plant during the early droughts. The next year early in June, tlie clover is turned under; there it remains until after harv'est: the land is then plough- ed and sown to wheat; the next spring clover seed and plaster is sown again. The clover is made This is denominated the water of crj'staliza- tion, which is one of the component parts of all < crjstalized substances. Now what would be the eflcct of heat upon tliis compound, or what change Avould it jn-oduce? If It be exposed to nearly a red heat, it flilla down into a soft powder, from parting with its water of ciystalization, but is not decomposed. It is still the sulphate of lime, has diminished about one-fourth in heft,* and, consequently, worth about one-fourth per ton more than our conmion gi'ound plaster tor agricultural purposes. If the heat be carried still higher, it is then decomposed and re- solved into its elementary principles, and no longer vigorous by the plaster, and a large grovrth being | aflbrds any nutrition to vegetables. But this can- turned under, a permanent manure is thus put upon | not be done without the addition of carbon or the land, which manure I hardly think vv*ould have charcoal. been improved by passing through the barn yard. Now if these be facts, (and I think they are By some farmers it isjthought to be good practice , susceptilile of demonstration) how is possible that to use plaster on the following crops, in the order in which I place them: commencing with grass land, break it up, plant it to corn, the nextyear sow it to oats, the same fall sow it to wheat, the next spring seed it Avith clover, pasture a i^aw years, and again subject it to the plough ; thus maldng the land by a comparatively small amount of labor, produce three crops. The last requisition you make of me, is, that I ehould " give such facts as it would be necessarj- for a new begimier to larow, to use plaster to ad- vantage. " Having occupied so much space in j'our paper already, I will only caution the inexperienced against buying plaster that has been kiln dried, Can expedient sometimes resorted to by dealers in me article to make it grind easy,) as it is supposed to be injurious. It should be ground fine; the finer the better. Finally, be cautious in adopting en- tirely the opinions of other men, but experiment lor yourself. Sow some lands caid leave others — put plaster on some rows of corn and leave others — in short, be cautious in the beginning, and a few years of observation will enable you ever after- wards to act knowingly. Feb. 26, 1834. « ostoadaga. simply heating plaster sufficient to diy the mois- ture from the surface, without any change being produced in its composition, can produce an injury', or render it less nutricious? If there can be any reasonable reply given to the above remarks, I should be glad to see it. CAMILLUS. GYPsrar not injured as sianure by being HEATED. From the Genesee Farmer. Mr. L. Tucker — In your paper of the 22d March, is an article upon the subject of plaster, signed " Onondaga." The writer has given some practical observa- tions upon the subject, which I think are judicious; but his concluding caution against the use of kihi- dried plaster has neither foundation in science or experience. In order to ascertain whether the process of drjing plaster produces any effect upon its influ- ence upon vegetation, it Avill be necessarj- to ex- amine its nature, and the eflect ])roduced" by the agency of caloric or heat upon its composition. Pure plaster (or g^i^sum) is a compound of sul- Fhuric acid and lime (or oxide of calcium) — and should consider that the adchtion of any other substance, would be considered an impurity, and would (hminish its salutary influence upon vegeta- , tion. It is found in nature in a state of crystali- zation, and is in combination with water in about three-fourths of the former, and one of the kitter. Extract from another part of the Genesee Fanner, on the samo subject. I should have no apprehension that kiln-dried plaster was damaged. I have assisted in heating it to make it grincl easier, and have no recollection that its efficacy was impaired. The lime and sul- phuric acid, cannot be separated by heat alone, al- though it ma}' be melted. At a low red heat, indeed, it loses its water of crj-stalization; but it readily recovers it; and I know of no reason for believing that calcination can alter its properties as a manure. a farmer. [The foregoing exh-acts fi-om the Genesee Farmer serve to show the opposite opinions of practical farmers as to the effect of heat on gj'psum. The reasoning of " Camillus " is coiTectly founded on the chemical com- position, and known properties, of gypsum. A moderate degree of heat certainly deprives tliis substance of no- thing but the water with which the otlier ingredients were chemically combined; and it is not easy to con- ceive, that the mere absence of a portion of water, which is so abundant in the atmosphere and the soil, can lessen the value of the manure. But, on the other hand, it will not be safe to be giuded by theoretical reasons alone, when deciding on tlie operation of a manure, so inexplicable as that of g3-psum — the well estabhshed great etiects of which, indeed, are altogether contrary to what theory and reason would teach, if we had not the louder facts, by which to decide on its value. It has been a generallj^ prevailing opinion among practical men, tliat the effect of gj7)sum was materially lessened by the stone having been heated: but no accurate ex-' periments have been made, (easy as they would be*to make,) to decide the disputed question. It is import- ant that proper experiments should be made for this purpose: for the labor of pulverizing gj^sum is greatly lessened by its being first moderately heated — and it is desirable for farmers to use this facility, if it does no * Weight. 7S§ FARMERS' REGISTER— PETERSBURG RAIL ROAD. harm — and to avoid being clieated by its use, when buying ground plaster, if indeed heat is injurious to the manure.] PROGRESS AND CONDITION OF THE PETERS- BURG AND RONOAKE RAIL ROAD. From the retcrsbuig lutcliigenecr. The Btockliolders of the Petersburg Rail Road Company, held their annual meeting on Monday last. We publish the Ibllowing report, submitted to them by the President and Directors, It will be seen by this document that the actual cost of consti^icting the road docs not materially vary from the sum originally contemplated, which was .^400,000; and which it was presumed, would embrace every thing connected with the comple- tion of the road itseltj not inclucUng land damages, which were, in some instances, liberally waived by those proprietors whose public spirit was ex- cited, but which in other instances, were assessed, we think, Avithout a just estimate or appreciation of the additional value conferred on the land, by the facilities afforded of a conveyance to market. This item of expense was scarcely apprehended in the first instance, as the public spirit and libe- rality of Virginians was relied on to aid in any way, so novel and useful an enterprise. But the mere construction of a rail road is not the only source of expenditure. The engines and vehicles for transporting passengers and merchan- dise, and the buildings to contain the latter, to- gether with an efficient corps of engineers, agents, mechanics, and attendants, must also be provided, and the cost of these have, in the present work, amounted to about filly per cent, on the cost of the road. So that rather more than ^000,000 has been expended by the company, and about ^50,000 more will be required. But all this expenditure is not in vain. There is every prospect of its yielding a remunerating interest, and when the projected road from Rich- mond to Fredericksburg shall be in operation, the great increase of travelling will Avarrant all the expenditure on both works. We call the attention of our citizens to this new enterprise, the success of which, is of the first im- portance to them, as nothing else can, in so great a degree, contribute to the prosperity of our work, as the success of that. The increased revenue derived from passengers will enable our company to reduce the rates of transportation on produce, and thus secure to our market the trade on which we originally founded our undertaking. We trust that wdien the books of subscription to the northern adjunct of our road shall be opened , our citizens Avill manifest their liberality and ibresight, by contributing handsomely to its capital stock. A few links more, and the Atlantic chain of com- munication will be completed. Extract from the Report. To the Stockholders of the Petersburg Rail Hood Company. Gentlemen — This being the day ai)pointed for our annual meeting, the President and Directors have to lay before you a statement of the affairs of the company. The annexed abstract exhibits the whole amount expended on the rail road li-om its commencement to the present time. The different items are classed, as you will ob- serve by the statement, so as to show under sepa- rate heads, the receipts of the company, (amount- ing previous to the 1st inst. to S-59,448 09,) and the cost of the road, of the locomotive engines, coaches and cars, and of the depots, and other constructions from one end of the line to the other, including the hotel at Blakcly, amounting in all to 8603,438 22. You will recollect that twelve months ago, wo could progress only as lar as Belfield with our one engine, (the Ronoake.) Early in March, we re- ceived two other engines, (the Liveqiool and Pi- oneer,) and in the first week in August, the road Avas so far completed, that the engines could tra- verse the Avhole distance to Blakeley. It AviU appear fi-om this, that the road AVas in readiness for use in less than tAvo years and seven months from the period of its commencement, in January, 1831. About the first of Novend^cr last, avc received tAvo other engines, (the Appomattox and Meher- rm,) Avhich Avere put in operation Avith little loss of time, and A\diich enabled us to relieve and re- pair the others, Avhich had been somcAvhat hardly used, as the transportation on the road had been heavy for the tAvo preceding months. Since No- vember, the business has gTadually diminished, until lately, OAving in some measure to the incle- mency of the season. It has been, hoAvever, in- creased since the beginning of last month, and Ave have no doubt the receipts of the current year Avill greatly exceed those of the past. It Avill be observed, that Avhilst the cost of rail road, (exclusiA-e of land damages and purchases of real estate,) docs not materially exceed the sum (515400,000) at AA'hich it Avas computed when un- dertaken, large additional expenditures haA^ebeen requii'cd for Avarehouses and Avork-shops at both ends of the road and at the intermediate depots, and for the locomotive engines, coaches and cars, indispensably necessary for the proper accommo- dation of the trade. Still farther expenditures Avill be requisite for additional engines, cars and car- riages, in the course of the present year, and an ad- ditional Avarehousc ^id shed, at the Petersburg de]")ot, during the present or ensuing year. To meet this increased expenditure, leaA^e waa obtained from the present Legislature to increase the capital stock of the company to such an ex- tent as might be necessary for the purpose, not exceeding an aggregate of ^660,000. In the present pressure of the money m.arket, it w^ould be impracticable to obtain additional sub- script ions of stock, and a permanent loan could not probably be made on terms, Avhich it would be advisable to accept. Under these circumstances, the president and directors Avould recommend that they be authorized to appropriate the receipts of the road, henceforth, as hitherto, to the use of the company; but that the nett profits of the same, after the payment of all expenses for repairs, for rencAval, and for transportation, be semi-annually ascertained by the board, and that certificates of loan, bearing interest, be from time to time issued for the same to the 'stockholders. The said cer- tificates to be hereafter couA-erted, if any increase of the ca]iital stock should bc made, at the option of the holder, into stock. By the adoption of this expedient, the stock- holders A\dll receive in scrip, Avhirh will be availa- ble to them, the dividends to which they are cnti- FARMERS' REGISTER-WHEAT-REAPING GREEN. rso tied, and a resort to it, and to such temporaiy loans as can conveniently be made, may enable the board to meet the exigencies of the company, until either an increase of caphal stock, or a permanent loan on favorable terms can be etlected. LARGE WHEAT CROP. From the Gcnescc Farnicv, At the annual meeting of the Agricultural So- ciety of this county, (Monroe) m October last, tlie society's first premium for the best acre of vrheat, was awarded to INIr. Jirah Blackmcr, of Wheat- land, the acre producing, according to the certifi- cates presented to the society, sixiy-eight bushels and farly-thrcc pounds. The conchtions on which the premium was gi-anted, not requiring a state- ment of the manner of its culture, Ivlr. 13. has, at our request, furnished the followmg: Mr.L. Tucker — Agi'eeableto the request which I recently observed in the Genesee Farmer, I give the excellent collection published by the agricultu- ral society of Chalons. It is generally Imown that for a seed to have ac- quired all the qualities Avhich render it proper for reproduction, it is necessary tliat the plant from which it proceeds, should have undergone the elaboration suitable, and passed through the pe- riods requisite lor a perlcct fructification. It is perhaps less Imown, although many writers have enlightened limners upon this point, that the ali- mentary qualities ui cereal plants are produced be- fore the complete maturity of the grain; and that a premature harv-est may, nevertheless, yield a good product, if, aller having been cut, the plant is subjected to a well regulated desiccation. Wc extract then, with pleasure, from the coiTespon- dencc of the society, a note of M. Procquez, a farmer, and the mayor at Sompuis, (arrondise- ment de Viiry') on the measures which he has taken lor several years with respect to his foJlen wheat. Tills note contains practical facts, which the so- you an account of the ciilture of an acre of wheat, ^^-^^ cgpecially desire in their communications with lor which the first prem.mm was awm'ded by the-Lj^^j.-'j^^j.|^.i^j|.^j.-glg_ r^^^^ Monroe County Agricultural Society, in October last. This acre v^-aspart of a field containing twen- ! ty-two acres, which had lain four years in clover, and been occupied as a pasture. It had never re- ceived any barn manure, but had several times been sowed with plaster orgjijsum. The acre which I selected, lay in a basin or hol- lo^v, and the surface of the gromid gradually de- scended towards it in every direction; and in a time of heavy rains, or the enow gomg oflf in the spring, it was generally flovv'ed with water, which made it veiy rich. The natural soil is a sandy loam with an excellent sub-soil. I had the stones and other obstructions to the plough, removed, and ditches cut to prevent the water from rumiing mto it m a wet time, and flowing it. In the fore part of June, the field was ploughed deep with a good team — in August it was haiTowed and cross ploughed quite deep; and the fore part of Septem- ber it was again haiTowed and ploughed very fine. On the 14th of September, it was sowed with a little less than a bushel of seed to the acre, one half white flint and the other red chafl", mixed to he results oi' the experience of our correspondent, while rccalUng facts already known, are not the proper ones for pubhcation, particularly ui the country adjacent to us, in Avliich the haiwest of each year is considerably diminished in its most important product, by the circumstance of the wheat ha\Tng fallen, in consequence of hea\y rams, and without any accident on landa where too great a depth of soil, too la\'isli an ap- plication of manure, or any other cause of this nature, produces too rank a vegetation. " It will, doubtless, not be indifferent to the agri- cultural society," saj's M. Procquez, "how I save my wheat which has fallen, or become entangled, and how chance instaicted me in this plan, which has perfectly succeeded. The first year that I became a flu'mcr, I had seen in some periodical works of agriculture, that a mould abundant, and filled with iertilizmg principles, might be obtained by spreading layers of earth mider the cattle, to take it up aftenvards and carry it out to the fields. I determined to make this expeiiment, which had all the promised success, but being ignorant of the strength of this manure, I applied three times as gether. It was harvested the 25th of July, when ^luch of it as was necessary: " At first, I was de- it was quite green, and the kernel but just ou of J y .^^^ ^^^j^ ^^^^ ^^^- ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ the milk. It stood the thickest on the ground of „H.^„*. v,^ ,^,/;„,,„.o„ ^♦■c.i,,..?.i.,.„t;,,„ "^c.^..^^!,, any wheat I ever saw, and the straAv was large and very tall, yet so firm that it did not lodge — the heads were unusually long and well fiIIed,"so that nine sheaves yielded a bushel. I would remark, that I am satisfied from expe- rience and observation, that plaster is not only highly beneficial to gi'ass lands, but of great ser- vice to grain crops, and I almost mvariably fail of a grain crop unless I plough deep. Yours, with respect, JIRAH BLACKMER. jneatland, March 17, 1834. ON THE ADVANTAGE OF CUTTING FALLEN WHEAT BEFORE IT IS RIPE. Translated for Hie Fanners' Register, from the Journal d'.Sgn- culture etc. dcs Pays-Bas. Although many distinguished writers on agii- •culture have protested against the practice of cut- ling wheat befiji'G it has reached its complete ma- wheat; but my joy was of short duration. Scarcely were the heads developed, when my wheat had already fallen to a very unusual degree. I ex- amined it often, and' perceived that the grain was sufficiently large, but was evidently whhcring. Judging that it would come to nothing, I resolved to have" it cut, green as it was. The reapers re- garded me as crazy to cut wheat so unripe. I, nevertheless, continued my operation, adding the precaution of leaving the sheaves for five or six days upon the field before putting them mto the barn. A month after, being in want of litter for my cattle, I had my wheat threshed. What was my surfirise when I saw a gram well filled, of a yellow color, and presenting a combmation of such quali- ties tliat I resolved to take it for seed ! Here I ac- quired a new lesson. This grain yielded excellent flour, which had little bran, and was very white; but it was useless ^ov seed, for it produced me at least two-thirds of smutted wheat, occasioning a considerable loss. But experience must be bought, turity, we think it, nevertheless, our duty, to insert m our journal the follo^ving article extracted from ' and this loss hius proved to me that to avoid having roo FARMERS' REGISTER— SOAP— ROAD LAW. tlie smut in wheat, it is necessary to sow no wheat which is not peiicctly ripe. Since that time, I have taken more care than ever to let my seed- wheat ripen, and I liave not since liad a head at- taclced by that disease. I liave, besides, made this observation, tliat the years succeeding wet harvests, in wliicli the wheat ripened w^ith diffi- culty, produce nuich smut in wheat. Let us return to laUen wheat. My first trial, which I have since repeated several times, lias al- Avays succeeded with me, and I am led to believe tl-iftt, provided the grain has attained its lull size, the greener the wheat is cut, the better will be the product. Rye which is too rank may be cut in the same way, and with the same results." SOAP. From the Genesee Farmer. Mr. L. Tucker — It is in vain to urge that Agri- cultural papers are of no use — the short article on making soap, in the Genesee Farmer, 22d Febru- ary, foUo 57, ir rightly understood, is worth at least five years subscription to every family who has soap to make. Some years ago I was knowing to a circum- stance as follows : A man, engaged in the pot ash business, had plenty of soap grease and leys. He set his pot ash boiler to manufacturing soap. He used leys from, five to ten days old, and the grease would not mix. He worked al3ove four days, and as often as he let the kettles rest, the grease and ley would separate. This stuff' was put into barrels, and some of it sold to a clothier, and came very near spoilm^ all his cloth, and the rest was mostly wasted. Had the ley been run through fresh lime it would have mixed with the grease instantly, and muchexpense and risk saved. Ley, on stancUng a fcAv days, will combine with carbonic acid, and will not mix with grease. Lime will take this acid away, and then there is no difficulty in making soap. katio. THE KOAD LAW. From the Lexington (Va.) Union. " The bent of civilization, (says one, entitled to consideration,) is to make good things cheaper;" and the most efficient mode of doing this, is to bring distant places nearer, by wefi constructed thorough- fares. No Virginian, however, — and especially, no inhabitant of the county of Rockbridge — VN^ould be willing that the scale of civiUzation should be graduated by the character of our roads. Our state is notorious fjr her highways throughout the Union; and if the horses of "Old Virginny" never tire, they are better off' than their visitors from the plains of the south, or the turnpikes of the north — and through our own county, would be the "/i;c, labor hoc opas^^ -part of a journey from the sea- board to Santa Fe. This is not to be attributed altogether to our want of enterprise, or of topographical abilitj'; lor we have theopuiionof one in that line, that almost every man in our county was a natural engineer. It may, I think, be traced to the injudicious ])ro- visions of our road law, and, as the spirit of im- provement is now awakening in our county, it in- terests us, that any obstacle, springing from defec- tive legislation, should, if practicable, be removed. No laAV ceui be thoroughly earned into execution, if it is not sustained by the moral sense of tlie community; LUid tliis is not, because it is unjust iu its entire organization, in lading the burden of opinion and keeping in repair the roads of tlio country, altogether upon the tithables — that is, upon persons, not upon property, when in fact there would seem to be a peculiar fitness in mak- ing this a land-charge, as the immediate efiect of good roads, is to enhance the value of that species of property, by giving mcreased fiicilities to the transportation of its productions. Under this sys- tem, the mechanic, who works in his sho]5, and owns neither land, wagon, caixiage, or horse, pays ibr tire opening of a road, for the better access to mill, by some half a dozen indi\iduals, aa much aa any of those, whose convenience is aided, orwhose property is increased in value. But if the road ia opened by unjust taxation, it is kept by unequal contribution of labor. " All male laboring persons of the age of sixteen years or more, except such as are masters of two or more male laboring slaves of the age of sixteen years or more, shaU be ap- pointed by the court to work on some public road." Thus it may happen, that an overseer with a son seventeen years old, may do more work, than hia employer, through whose^arm the road passes — and here again the mechanic, Avith little interest, is held CO ecjual contribution. But a system might be tolerated though unjust and opjiressive, if it was efficient; but this is deplorably weak. The sur- vej'or will not call as often as necessary upon his hands, because he feels unwiUing to be the instru- ment of exactmg a burdensome tax; and then no jury wiU impose a fine upon a surveyor, because they know his difficulties. And even when the tithables come to the road to prepare it for a ses- sion of the grand juiy, a work engaged in reluc- tantly, and moreover, unfamiliar to all, goes on slowly by hands who have to come five or six miles, and then return as far by night. No road, even the best located, coidd be kept in complete repair under such a system; and how lamentable then the deficiency, Avhen appUed to our roads, which climb a hiU only because the ground is less valuable for agriculture than the vale below — where a long circuit is made because a line fence is in the way — Avhere huge rocks are left to wear away by the gradual attrition of the wheels — and where mud-holes are mourned over as a neccssaiy evil. And this original fault of lo- cation is to be laid at the door of our road law. If any one applies for a road, the viewers^ are ap- pointed upon his nomination, and are, of course, men who agree, (honestly enough, no doubt,) vvitli him in nitcrest and opinion. Ujjon their re- port, if unopposed by others in the neighborhood, the road is similarly established; and thus, if by running up and down hill, and turning to the right and to the left, the neighborhood can be accom- modated, the public interest is but little regarded. And this evil soon becomes a parent one, almost unsusceptible of remedy; for men begin to build upon a road, and make their improvements, andlay out their farms by it, until the road, as it were, takes root amongst them, and removal is almost impossike. Other objections have been urged against the present system; but, if those I have noticed be not exaggerated, they are sufficient to Ccdl for some attempt at improvement; and he of our legislators, Avho would project and carry through a "road law, free from the; defects of the present, and in other respects efficient, would merit our thanks as a public benefactor. J.J. FARMERS' REGISTER— PERIODICALS. 761 THE "southern literary MESSEJfGER. We respectfully ask that the attention of our readers may be directed to Mr. White's prospectus, on our ad- vertising sheet, of a new literary periodical; a,nd hope that many will aid in giving it extensive circulation. It is indeed sti-ange, that no periodical of a character entirely literary, sliould exist in all the states south of the Potomac — and Mr. White will perform a most va- luable service to the southern states, if he can fill the existing void. Certainly this great region contains an abundance of the kind of talent requisite and compe- tent to support a literary journal. We know not to what extent Mr. White may be enabled to draw upon this gi'eat, but now unproductive fund of southern ta- lent— but every such acquisition will be a new value brought into being — and still more a public than a pri- vate benefit. Without works of this kind, there ex- ists almost no inducement to engage tlie pens of men of literary taste and retired habits — unless, that for want of more congenial employment, and better ob- jects, they engage in the miserable and degi'ading war- fare of party politics. Mr. White's taste and ability as a publisher, are well known to tire public. Some works from his press, (for example, the second edition of Judge Gaston's Address to the Philanthropic and'Dialectic Societies of Chapel Hill,) deserve to be ranked among the most beautiful specimens of typography. In this respect, we believe that his ambition as a publisher, would in- duce him to go beyond his duty to his patrons. We will take pleasure in receiving and transmitting to Mr. White the names of any of our correspondents who may wish to become subscribers to the Southern Literary Messenger. THE SCARCITY AXD HIGH PRICES OF FO- REIGN AGRICULTURAL BOOKS IN THE UNI- TED STATES AND PROPOSAL OF A REMEDY. " Books are printed and sold in this countrj^, at less than the first cost in England: and, consequently, the duty of 15 per cant, on imported books, is required neither for revenue, nor the protection of the home manufacture. Its immediate effects, as it regards the pecuniary national loss, are inconsiderable: but no part of the tariff can produce more of ultimate injury, when compared with the very slight benefits, expected from this duty. All the European works for which there is an extensive demand, are immediately furnished to the pubUc, by American publishers. Thus v»-e are regularly and cheaply supplied with all the ti-ash in- tended for the circulating libraries of England. But many works of great intrinsic value, which from the nature of things, would have but few readers, cannot be profitably reprinted here; and the duty obsti-ucts or pro- hibits their importation. The most striking example of this evil, is found in the dilliculty with Avhich Euro- pean agricultural works are obtained. In no other class is more discrimination necessary, for selecting such as are valuable, from the worthless mass; and none, even of the best, have fevrer purchasers, or read- ers. We know of but three European volumes on ag- riculture, which have been republished in the United States; and works of this description were seldom or never imported for sale, until within the last few years. The spirit of enquiiy which has lately arisen among farmers, has in some measure counteracted the prohi- bitory-tendency of this duty. Our booksellers have im- ported some valuable works, and (as might be expect- VoL. 1.-96 ed) still more winch are useless; and the necessary high price of all, has allowed so little profit to the im- porters, that we understand, no expectation remains of a repetition of the experiment. We admit that the most unreasonable price might not deter an individual from importing a work for his own use, the contents of which he knew to be valuable. But our prohibitory system has allowed so little information on this subject, that but fevi' individuals can form a just opinion oi' the merits of any foi-oign agricultural publication, until all the expenses of its importation are incuixed. The in- jury which may be sustained from tliis kind of depri- vation, cannot be estimated by dollars and cents. To oppose any obstacle v.hatever to the progress of intel- lectual improvement, presents a singular feature in the policy of a free goA-ernraent: yet not content with the present dutj' of i.5 per cent, on foreign books, it was proposed in 1320 by the Committee of Manufactures, and actually passed^ the House of Representatives, to increase it to 35 per cent." The foregoing well founded complaint was made by the United Agricultural Societies of Virgirda, in 1821, in the Report which accompanied their third and last petition to Congress for the relief of agi'icultural inte- rests from the burdens imposed by the protecting duty S)'stem. The struggle v/liich was then going on be- tween the supporters of free trade and agricultural in- terest on the one side, and of prohibit(Jry duties and manufacturing monopoly on tlie otlier, was ended in 1824, by the complete victory of the latter part}\ Since that time, we have not traced the progress, and noticed all the changes, of this, or any other class of duties, which -were intended to be prohibitoiy; for if that end was effected by a duty of only 20 per cent, the tax could not be made more oppressive; and in that case, our rulers were content not to raise the rate. V/ith re- gard to agricultural books, the state of tilings remains much the same as was described in the foregoing ex- tract. The present duty on English books, imported for sale, is 30 cents the pound (weight,) if bound, and 26 if in boards; and the tax, together with tlie high cost, serve to make importation for sale, too hazardous to be undertaken, except in'egularl}', and under some peculiar circumstances — and the farmers of this coun- try continue to be deprived of all the light and instruc- tion that might be derived from that source. It may be said that it is impossible that the former dutj' of 15 per cent, or even double that amount, could materially check the introduction of works of real va- lue. That might be true, if this value was known; but the intercourse which would otherwise have existed, has been so completely prevented, that it is almost im- possible for a farmer in Virginia to know how to select foreign agricultural works, for his own use — or a book- seller, for the purpose of selling again for pi'ofit. Per- haps in no department of literature (if that term may be so applied,) is there so much of worthless trash, compared to what is valuable, as in the whole mass of v>'ork3 on agriculture: and the purchaser who selects ihem at hazard, or merely by the titles, will, nineteen times in twenty, obtain a very poor remuneration for their cost. Neither will the name of the author be a much safer guide. Some of the best informed agi'icul- tural A\Titers, (as Marshall and Young,) whatever were their merits, were regular booJanakers — and in- stead of aiming to furnish th« best ideas, and the most instruction, in a form as much condensed as the subject 762 FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURAL BOOKS. admitted, it was their object to spread their matter through a3 many pages as possible, and to present the same in as many ditferent works, as their booksellers would buy, and their readers would tolerate. Besides, in addition to the risk of buying a worthless book, the American importer had the certainty of having a veiy high priced one, owing to the fashion in England of publishing most books in a very expensive form. For example — our copy of Dundonald's Connexion of Chemistry and x\griculture, was obtained by sending a special order to Philadelphia, and cost $7 25. It is a thin quarto, without plates, and containing only two- thirds as much matter as a single number of the Farm- ers' Register — and therefore could be furnished by re- publication in that work, at a cost of about 30 cents. The only copy of Elkington on Draining, that we have seen for sale in Virginia, was bought at $o; this work contains about as much as one of our numbers, and might cost 60 cents on account of a number of plates being required. At these rates, a duty of even 15 per cent, amounted to more than the whole cost at which such books could be published and sold in this coun- try— and a government that was wise, liberal, or even just, would have taken off the whole of a duty, which brought almost nothing to the treasury, and so much increased the great existing obstacles to the introduc- tion of agricultural knowledge. Whatever may be the causes — whether the duty on importation, the ori- ginal high prices, or our own cai-elessness and disre- gard of knowledge, may be most operative — the effect is, that scarcely any foreign agricultural works have been imported for sale in Virginia, since IS 18, and very few repubhcations have been made in the United States. For the purpose of making selections for the Farmers' Register, and to enable us the better to exe- cute the duties which we owe to our subscribers, we have ordered a small importation of agricultural works, by guessing at their contents from their titles — but with tlie expectation, founded on former similar adven- tures, tliat much the greater part of the expenditure will be thrown away on publications of little worth. No second trial of such purchase would have been at- tempted, merely with a view to individual gratification or instruction. The English works named above, it is admitted, pre- sent cases of unusual high prices: and farther, it is probable, as a cheap style of publication has lately become common in England, that many agricultural works might now be bought at much lower prices than formerly. If so, the fact would furnish an additional proof of the baneful operation of our restrictive duties: for so complete was the cessation of importation, and consequent loss of acquaintance with such works, that this supposed reduction of price has not had any ef- fect in increasing purcliases. The spirit of speculation (which affected this, as well as other branches of trade,) in 1817 and 1818, brought more foreign agri- cultural books into our country, at the then enormous prices, than all the demand, and subsequent reduction of price have done, within the last ten years. It is believed that there is no collection deserving the name of an agricultural library, public or private, in Virgi- nia; and the few wealthy and liberal farmers who have piade any considerable collections of such works, have obtaineil bnt little matter of real wortli, in return for a heavy expenditure. It is for others to say whether the state of things is better in other states of the Union. The prohibition of supply causeil by the combination of the different causes mentioned, has finally operated to produce a cessation of all effectual demand for fo- reign works on agriculture. This is sufficiently proved to be the opinion of our boolcsiillers,by their not repub- lishing sucli works for sale. But tiiougli they may be, and probably are, cori-ect in this respect, tliere is stiU a cheaper form and manner of publication, by which agricultural works may be furnished, viz: in periodical numbers, and upon previous subscription. If this was done, for example, in monthly numbers of tlie form and size of the Farmers' Register, about thrice as much matter would be given for the same price, as is done in most American editions of such works — and from five to ten times as much, as many English editions furnish. In this manner, a choice collection of standard agricultural works could be obtained, at a price so low as to be witliin the means of almost ev^ery industrious farmer — and yet presenting what would be in intiinsic value, in number, and also in neatness of mechanical execution, a better collection, than the most wealthy and liberal have yet been able to procure. This plan is submitted for the consideration of the readers of the Farmers' Register, and the agricultural community in general — and if tliere should be sufficient indication of its being well supported, we will here- after execute what is here proposed. The matter suit- able for this Fanners' Library and that for the Farmers' Register, would be altogether different, and the one publication coidd in no respect interfere with, or lessen the value of the contents of the other — while there would be many obvious advantages from the kindred works being under the same editorial direction. The extensive correspondence, the general acquaintance with books and wdth persons, which is desirable for conducting either publication, will equally conduce to the better management of the other. And as the use- fulness and interest of tlie proposed republication, can have no territorial limits, there is no reason why it may not be highly acceptable to many intelligent farm- ers, in each of the United States. But we beg not to be considered as expecting the subscriptions of any persons, because they have already aided the Farmers' Register. No such claim is made. If tlie plan pro- posed is in advance of the wishes of the farmers of our country, or has not sufficient claims to support, inde- pendent of all personal favor to the editor, it ought not to be supported: and no patronage would be permanent or profitable, that was not founded on a real demand for the work, founded on proper considerations of its usefulness. It is not pretended that every volume thus published, however carefully chosen, could furnish either instruc- tion or entertainment to every one, or even to the majority of subscribers. Many of the most valuable works are for reference, and not intended for regular reading; and no mode of selection could possibly suit every reader. But even if it should happen that three- fourths of the whole matter thus furnished should be as useless, and as little read, as (necessarily) is as large a , proportion of almost every newspaper, the remainder would amply repay the cost. Independent of individ- ual advantage, the wide dissemination of such works. FARMERS' REGISTER— TORNADO— ITS EFFECTS. 763 at this cheap rate, would be a general and public bene- fit, towards which public spirited citizens might con- tribute for the promotion of the prosperity of their country, without danger of being mistaken in the result: and still more may be hoped from the patronage which may be oifered, from similar views, by agricultural societies, and by tlie dilferent legislatures of the United States. Since -RTiting what is above, the arrival of some works lately purchased in London, permits the follow- ing comparison to be made of the present English prices with those of the proposed republication. The works are not cited as possessing peculiar value in this country, but because their cost and amount of contents are known. Radclili's .Agriculture of Flanders, cost in London, 13 shillings steriing, or at the usual rate of exchange with this country, $3 12, without counting the duty, or any other charges on the importation. This might be republished in 72 pages of the Farmers' Register, and at the cost (to subscribers) of -17 cents. The Complete Grazier (6th edition, 1833) cost 17 shillings, or $4 OS, in London. This work would fill 220 such pages as those of the Farmers' Register, and might be published in like manner for $1 50. The most esteemed agricultural periodicals now in the course of publication in England, are the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, and British Farmer''s Magazine. The price of the former was 6 shillings the No., in London, and of the latter, 4 shillings — or §9 60 a year for both, omitting (as before) the duty and other charges on importation. Both of these periodicals can be published entire, in less than two-thirds of one volume of the Farmers' Register, and might be fur- nished to subscribers for $3 a year for both. These statements of prices will best show what may be gained by subscribers to the republications proposed. The plan has been long in contemplation: but it would not have been announced until more time had been taken for reflection, and consultation, but for the unexpected necessity of the printing of the Farmers' Register being moved to the country. The inconve- niences, which threaten to attend the establishment of a country press and publication office, will be much les- sened, if not completely obviated, by giving profitable employment to some additional printers, so that enough of them, possessing the best qualifications, may be always retained. To furnish such employment, is an inducement to hasten the trial of this plan; and, accord- ingly, proposals to publish the Faemers' Library will be issued witliout more delay. THE TOUHTADO. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Petersburg, May lOih, 1834. Dear Sir — I will give you my impres-sions on the recent whirhvind, which is all the talk now. The clouds were gathered thick and davk in the Avest — which was all covered except a narro-\v stripe of clear sky just above the horizon. Pre- sentlj-, the cloud at one end of this clear belt as- sumed an extraordinary aspect, Avhich I can com- pare to nothing better than to dense smoke issuing from a furnace. For some time it appeared to be stationar}-, the cause of which I suppose was, that it was advancing in a right line towards me. At length when it had approached near enough to be more fully seen, it presented a regular figure — an inverted cone, lunnel-shaped — not unlike a vast balloon. Being black, and relieved on the clear white back-ground of the sky, the cone was very distinctly visible. By this time I concluded it was no freak of the clouds, but a water-spout — as I termed it, from its similarity to plates of water- spouts in books. Suddenly the cone dashed off through the top of the trees, at a right angle to its previous direction. I then resolved that it must be a fire in the woods. This was a transient hj'pothesis however; for the balloon soon came in lull view, and it was manifestly whirling on its axis, and describing a rapid curve around the south end of (he town. The dense cone of clouds seem- ed all the while boiling up like a vast cauldron: And a muttering lumbering thunder was audible; sounding like a car dragged with locked wheela over rugged ground, " grating harsh thunder. " As soon as the cone had passed the town, in the west the sun burst out "bright as the sun of Aus- terlitz;" in the east the clouds were piled in grand masses and fragments, in wild incongruity, and to crown the scene, a rainbow in a moment threw its span over the lurid sky. The effect w-as perhaps worthy of a word, too often misapplied — the word sublime. By reference to a Cyclopaedia, I have since found that a whirlwind and a water spout are essentially the same; that is, if a whirhvind should pass from land to Avater, as sometimes happens, the whirl- wind would produce or become a water spout. Malte Brun explains the phenomenon in this w'ay. Two winds meet — a vortex ensues — any cloud Avhich happens to lie between them, is con- densed into a conical ibrm, and turned round with gi'eat velocity. This rotation impresses all the particles of the cloud Avith a centrifugal force; they are driven towards the exterior surface; a vacuum is produced within, about the axis of the cone; Avater or any other body, lying beneath this vacuum is carried mto it, by the effect of gruAaty striving to re-establish an equilibrium. Vol, 1, Physical Geography. c. EFFECTS OF THE TORNADO IN PRINCE GEORGE AND ITS TERMINATION. To flic Editor of the Faimeis' Register. Dear Sir: At your request I attempt to give some account of mj^ observations on the course and eflects of the dreachul Avhirhvind, Avhich traA'ersed a portion of this county on Monday the 5th of this month, betAA'een three and lour o'clock in the afternoon. We haA^e learned from other source.s that it com- menced near Hungry ToAvn, in the county of Lunenburg, and after passing through NottoAvay and DiuAviddie, skirted the southern boundary of Petersburg and entered Prince George. My oAvn examination of its track Avas begun at Mrs. TliAA'eatt's residence about tAvo miles aboA^e the Court House. There its Aiolence and the effects of its fury Avere more evident than at any other place Avhich I have visited, probably from its haA'ing ci'ossed a greater extent of open land before reach- ing the dwclUngs. Every house upon the place, Avith the exception of the family residence, and 764 FARMERS' REGISTER— TORNADO— POTATOES. oue uther pj-otected by a row ol' very large locust trees, was levelled with tlie ground or hurled in shattered fragments through the air. The lighter articles, such as shingles, corn and tobacco li-om the cribs and barns, were blown, in some instances more than a mile. Many of the negroes were wounded, and one killed by the fall of the houses and chimneys, and some of those who in the alarm had rushed from the tumbling ruins,were raised up into the air and transported to considerable dis- tances. The track of the whirlwind at this place was (I think) fully a mile wide. As it was diffi- cult, li'om the number of trees which wei-e blown dov/n, to visit every place at which I had heard of the ravages of the wind, I confined my investiga- tion to crossing its course at such points on The roads as could be most conveniently done. After leaving the court house, jail &c., Avhich vv^ere just within the outer circumlercnce of the vortex, and Buffered but little injury, I took the cross-road nearly two miles lower dov»m, leading from the Btage road to Branchester Mill. At ratjier less than half way between these two points, the fury of the storm appeared to have been unabated, from the number and size of the trees that Avere pros- trated, none standing except such as were small enough to j'ield to a shock which none were large enough to withstand; but the Vv^dth of the deso- lating blast was not more than half a mile at this epot. Where I next crossed it, at about four miles further on, its breadth was yet more dimmished, and at the house of Trlr. Benjamin Fenner, (some two miles larther) it was not mora than three hundred yards wide. But the evidences of its fury were as distinct as ever: out of ten houses in his yard but three remained standing. And here v.ras ftirnished a convincing proof that the devas- tation was occasioned by a whirlwind proceeding, (in a neai-ly direct hne) with a violent rotatory mo- tion, and not by a hurricane blowing irom one point of the compass to an opposite one. Two of BIr. Fennefs houses stood nearly opposite, on the east and west sides of his yard: these were unroofed, and carried towards each other so as nearly to meet in the middle of the yard. This proof, how- ever, was afforded throughout its whole course by the trees, which at some points lay thrown with their heads generally towards the east, and at other places, within a verj' short distance, they as gener- ally fell to the west. Many particular trees were ob- served lying traasversely to the general direction of those near them, and in nxany instances the trunks oi' the largest trees were twisted oft" at various heights from the ground, as if by some pov/eriul engine. At about a quarter of a mile from Mr. Fenner's, the breadth of the wind's track did not exceed one hundred yards, and not far from this spot I lost all trace of its course, in a thick wood of the same sort of trees as those which it had over- thrown for the preceding half mile. It thus ap- peared to terminate abruptly, retaining to the last Its full force and velocity, for at but a few yards beyond the place where the last trees were tlirown down or wrenched off, the Avood bore no sign of having suffered fi-om even a moderate gale. As it may be supposed impossible that a whirlwind, proceeding with a violence sufficient to uproot the strongest trees of the forest, should stop at once so completely as not to leave a fallen bough or leaf to mark its further progress, the conclusion seems irresistible that -it ascended suddenly from the earth, rose above the tops of the wood, and spent its remaining fuiy in the upper air. Might we not suppose that it had formed an inverted cone, cornpressed and flattened at the bottom, or rather a frustrum of a cone, generating, by a gradual but irregular upward expansion of its axis, a true cone, until its apex being completely formed, its attraction to the earth was overcome, and it rose suddenly into the upper regions of the atmosphere? I am the more led to this supposition from having observed the little whirlwinds so frecjuent in our hot summer days, which, after raising dust, straws, feathers, and other light substances from the earth, cease to mark their further progress upon the ground, but continue to whirl about the articles already coUected, till their strength is dissipated, sometimes at a considerable height in the air. The point at which I consider the whirlwind to have ascejided, is about a mile £md a half south of James River, and the same distance west of Pow- ell's Creek. You will have obseived, that I speak only of eo much of this awful visitation as fell under my own view; but when we reflect that this scourge pursued a course of about seventy miles, the aggregate amount of its havoc must have been immense. I have heard the damage in this county alone, in houses and timber, estimated at various very large sums; but as these estimates do not seem to me to have been founded upon any very accurate data, I forbear to repeat them. Yet amidst all this loss and suffering, it is a consoling recollection, that whde numbers of beings were exposed to this im- minent, and, to' them, inevitable danger, the hand of Providence has-been so careful of human life that we have heard of the deaths of not more tlian ten persons. h. Prince George, llih May, 1834. ON THE CULTIVATION OF POTATOES. Addressed to Daniel P. Curtis, Esq. and communicated for pub- lication in the Farmers' Register. Pleasant Point, irarwick county, > - 3Iarch 12, 1834. 5 Dear Sir : I promised you, some time since, to give an account of my mode of cultivation, and preserva- tion of the Irish Potato (solanum tuberosum) — but, really, the duties of a country physician are so very arduous, that the time has not been my own, or the promise would have been redeemed long since. That one who has been engaged in agricultural pursuits only eight years, should give a useful dissertation on many subjects therewith connected, is not to be anticipated; but crude and iiTegular ideas may lead others, more experienced, to continue the subject to advantage; at least to those like situated v/ith myself, who are compelled to cultivate poor land. Without further remark, I will proceed to give you the history and cultiva- tion of tlie Irish potato. This species of solanum is properly a native of Peru, and may in truth be said to be the most nutritious of all the species, and I am confident there is none more ]iroductive, or more easily cultivated. Doctor Baldwin, late surgeon of the United States Frigate Congress, found this vegetable growing abundantly on the north side of the Rio de la Plata, in wild, unculti- vated situations, and entirely unknoAvn to the in- habitants. He also informs us of its being found FARMERS' REGISTER— POTATOES. 765 growing among the rocks ia Montevideo, and in the vicinity oFfilaldanado, intlie sand hills on the river shore; but he assures us, the jiotato thus found was far inferior to it wlien cultivated; the vegetable itself we all know to be very delicious; it might properly be classed among the Cerealia, except that it afibrds, no gluten or animal matter; and but lor the circumstance of the potato con- taining so much water, amounting nearly to one half of its weight, it would y-ieid as much nourish- ment as the cerealia; this circfimistance however renders them of easy digestion. Notwithstanding the strenuous exertions of M. Parmentier, who excited the ])hilosophers of his country to bring it into notice as an article of food, many of the higher order among Europeans were very slow to admit it into the list of aliments— whilst the vulgar, without theory, and bj' the dictates of experience alone, became reconciled to, and fond of it. The potato yields us a very fine starch, which answers well most of the purposes for which that article is used. I am in the habit of planting my potatoes the first good weather in Februarj^, and preparing the ground in the following manner. I plough my potato lot very deep m January ,- Mulberr}^ Island, Warwick County. ) GESTATION. From the Gcnpsco Fnrraor. The period of gestation, or the length of time, which different animals go with young, should be known to every farmer: that the season of co])ula- 766 FARMERS' REGISTER— COMMERCIAL REPORT. tion with his different kinds ol' stock, may be so regidated, as to have them bring Ibrlli their young, under the most favorable circumstances. Mares go a {ew days over eleven months, Avith foal. Cows go about forty weeks, or ten lunar months. Ewes bring forth at the end of five months. Goats, at four and a half months. Sows at four months. The term of incubation, or time which different foAvls set upon their eggs, before hatching, is as follows: Swan sets six weeks. Turkey sets thirty days. Goose, from twenty-seven to thirty days. Duck, li'om twenty-seven to thirty days. Hens, twenty-one days. Pigeons or Doves, fifteen days. STRANGE MODE OF CURING A VICIOUS HORSE I have seen vicious horses in Egypt cured of the habit of biting, by presenting to them, while in the act of doing so, a leg of mutton just taken from the fire: the pain which a horse feels in biting through the hot meat, causes it, after a few lessons, to abandon the vicious habit. — Burckhardfs Tra- vels. MONTHLY COMMERCIAL REPORT. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Sir: — There were some shght indications of a favorable change in the aspect of conunercial af- fairs last month; but they were merelj' momentarv, and the distress which lor some time past pressed heavily on the communities of the large commer- cial cities, has at length reached our ou'n. Heretofore the efiect wtis felt by us in the di- minirtion of our intercourse with the northern states, in the reduced demand existing in them for our products, in the difficulty of making remittances, and in losses sustained by our merchants from failures in the large cities. But the pressure has now reached Virginia. Her monied institutions, which for some time past have been prudently granting very moderate facilities, now find it ne- cessary not only to withhold them, but to reduce those which previously existed. This conunen- dable caution renders our banks safe, and none sustain a liigher credit; but the distress on the community is great and increasing. The disastrous fate of several banks in the ad- joining states, is a warning to others. The fre- quent transmissions of specie from one place to another, show that even the most favored institu- tions require strong efforts to sustain their credit unimpaired. These demands for specie first at one point, then at another, cramp the business of all banks, and reduce the circulating medium beloAv its ordinary ratio. Rumors, the most un- founded, are circulated by the thoughtless or the designing; and the timid or credulous holder of bank ])aper, is made the dupe and the prey of the knowing mone}'-dealer. The prices of produce and rates of exchange are very unsteady. Flour has again fallen from S5 to 4 3-8 — Tobacco has also declined in price — Cotton, now worth 12 to 13 cts. is the only article, the price of which is supported; and this probably will soon partake of the general depression, unless sustained by a continuation of orders on European account. Exchange on England, which had reached 5 per cent premium, is again verging down towards par. The coal trade, a most im- portant one to James River, has declined very greatly, in consequence of the suspension of ex- tent:ive iron works and other establishments, at the north, which consumed large quantities of that fuel. The business of manufacturing tobacco, which employed many hundred, nay, some thou- sand hands, has been reduced to a mere fraction of what it was. Thus the workmen engaged in various occupations, and also numerous coasting vessels, are thrown out of employment. But I am weaiy of the repetition of these un- pleasant subjects, and refer you to the annexed remarks from an English paper. 3Iay lOth, 1834. x. "The American Trade. — The unparallelled em- baiTassments amongst the commercial classes of the United States, have produced a great stagna- tion in the trade between this countiy and that recently flourishing republic. The numerous fail- ures which have occurred in New York, Philadel- phia, Baltimore, and the other cities of the union, have been felt both directly and indirectly in Eng- land. Directly in their effect on individual firms, and indirectly in their efiect on the general state of credit. There is of course, a great indisposition on this side .of the Atlantic to risk goods or to enter into commercial transactions at present, in a countiy in which undoubted solvency and unblemished in- tegrity are no securities against embarrassment and ruin, and the commercial classes on the other side find too much difficulty in meeting their en- gagements in tlie piesent disordered state of trade and suspension of credit, to have either disposition or ability to extend their concerns. Thus the prospects of a vast and profitable trade Avith the United States, which only a few months since seemed so bright, have been clouded, and it is impossible to tell when the cloud Avill pass aAvay. A rancorous spirit of party seems to have destroy- ed eveiy thing like reasonableness in the govern- ment. Under these circumstances, the close and intimate connection between the American Repub- lic and the British Empire, compels us to endure a considerable share of the inconvenience result- ing from the emban'assments of our trans-atlantic friends and customers. The exports of iron, wool- len goods, cutler}^, hosiery, and we have no doubt of all other articles, have received a severe check, from Avhich they will not recover until the Ameri- cans and their government recover their senses. When that Avill be it is impossible to guess, for up to the latest accounts, the exasperation of all par- ties seem only to be increased by the increasing miseiy of every class of the people. Each party lays the blame on the other, and none does any thing to restore pubhc or private confidence." London Courier. A Card. — X. requests that the printer will not corrupt his meaning, as he has done in some in- stances. The last and most flagrant one is in page 704, where " the usual competition of our mcTchants," is made 1o read "the usual corruption of our merchants! " FARMERS' REGISTER— TO SUBSCRIBERS. 767 TERMS OF THE FARMERS' REGISTER, VOL. II. The Farmers' Register is published in monthly num- bers, each containing 64 pages, large octavo, at $5 a year, payable in advance. The mechanical execution of the work will be in the best style oi book printing. There are no agents authorized by the editor to obtain subscribers, or to receive payments for subscriptions. But any person may constitute himself an agent for others, and shall receive an extra copy of the current volume, by sending the names of 4 subscribers, and $20, at one time: or any five new subscribers may, in like manner, obtain their first year's copies for $2d, or at $-1 each. But it is expressly declared, that no such compensation will be allowed hereafter, unless when all the names are sent at once, and with the pay- ment in advance. The editor assumes the risk of the mail, for all pay- ments made to him on account of tlie Farmers' Register, whether the person sending such payment has received any part of the publication previotislj', oris transmitting payment in advance, as a new subscriber. The evi- dence required for such transmission of money to the editor, will be either the certificate of the postmaster, or of some other person, of the letter containing the sum, having been placed in the hands of some post- master, or his assistant. The notes of any specie paying bank chartered by the state in which the subscriber resides, will be receiv- ed in payment for subscriptions: but an additional favor will be conferred, by sending notes either of the Bank of Virginia, Farmer's Bank of Virginia, or the Bank of the United States. When a copy of the Farmers' Register fails to reach any subscriber's post office, a duplicate copy will be sent, provided the following conditions are compUed with, viz : First, that the postmaster states that the missing number, or package had failed to reach his office — and. Secondly, that the application for a dupli- cate comes from a person who has complied with the terms of subscription. The editor incurs much ex- pense, and responsibility, to secure complete sets to all subscribers: and it cannot be thought that he requires any thing unreasonable, in the simple and easy condi- tions attached to his fulfilling such unusual obliga- tions. This guarantee of the receipt of every number, will compel, (even if other considerations did not,) the giving every proper care to mailing and directing the copies. No subscription will be permitted for less time than a year — nor hereafter, to commence otherwise, than at the beginning of a volume. If a subscription is not directed to be discontinued, before the first number of the next year has been pub- lished, it will be taken as a continuance of the sub- scription for the ensuing year: and no subscription will be discontinued while any thing remains due thereon, except at the option of the editor. The plan of publication remains as announced in the proposals for the work, (No. 1, Vol. I:) the like subjects only will continue to be discussed, and the " improve- ment of the practice, and support of the interests of agriculture," will still be exclusively tlie objects of the publication. The editor will reap no profit at the expense of his readers, by admitting advertisements into his pages; nor will he lighten his labor and expenses. by tlie insertion of any matter unsuitable to the work, and not considered useful or agreeable to his subscri- bers. TO SUBSCRIBERS. The distance of the place of publication of the Fai-mers' Register from the residence of its editor, has proved a source of much inconvenience to both the pi.b- lisher and editor. It became evident, that to do justice to his w-ork, to his subscribers, and to his own interest, there was no choice for the editor but to change his residence to Richmond, or to bring his printing to his home in the countiy: and the latter alternative has been adopted, as involving tlie smaller pecuniary sacrifice. The novel establishment of a good and complete printing ofiice in a country place, may possibly bring upon the proprietor new difficulties — but the risk will be all his own, while most of the benefits of the change will accrue to his subscribers. By incurring the heavy expense necessary to make this establishment, he has given a new guarantee to the public, of his devotion to the v>'ork he has undertaken, and of his confidence in its stability. No expense or care has been spared to insure that the Farmers' Register shall be as well printed at the Shellbanks press, as heretofore in Rich- mond: and the high praise which has been so generally and so deservedly av.arded to Mr. White, the former publisher, for the excellent mechanical execution of the work in general heretofore, is sufficient evidence of the character the Farmers' Register has in this res- pect acquired, and which it must preserve, or suffer immediately and greatly, in the pubhc estimation. By this mode of comparison tlie future publication will be tested — and by this standard the present publisher is willing that his work shall be judged. In other re- spects, of more importance than tlie mere beauty of form and appearance, some improvement in the publi- cation may be expected, from the immediate super- vision of the editor. The last sheet of this number, beginning with page 753, is the first issued from the new press. As the Shellbanks post office is on the main mail coach road from Norfolk to Petersburg, every facility is afforded for the distribution of the Farmers' Register, that could be found in any other place of publication. No disadvantage will be suffered from the change, by any subscriber. Those only who have heretofore re- ceived their copies at the publication office in Rich- mond might sustain some inconvenience, if not guarded against by tlie editor. But their situation will be kept unaltered, by their copies being sent, free of expense, to a place of delivery in Richmond. The publication of the Farmers' Register is no longer an experiment of doubtful result, for which its^best friends entertained much more of fear, than of hope. Contraiy to almost universal expectation, the success of the work has been such as to leave no ground for fear or doubt: and the prospects of extended circulation and increased usefulness, are ever}-' day becoming more sure. This success, this usefulness, and the beneficial influence already attributed to tlie Farmers' Register, are altogetlier owing to the many and able con- tributors to its pages. While such aid continues to be afforded, there will be no danger of diminished value, or interest, in the publication; witliout such aid, the 768 FARMERS' REGISTER— TO SUBSCRIBERS. editor is ready to admit that his work will sink — and without such, it never could have risen to a station either of usefulness, or celebrity. To the fi;reat majority of his subscribers, the editor owes thanks for the readiness with winch their pay- ments have been made, though payment in advance was not reqiured for the first volume. The names of those subscribers who may remain in debt for Vol. I, one month after its being finished, and whose remote places of residence entirely prevent their subscriptions being collected, will be stuck from the list. If any should be improperly included in this measure, by mistake, tlie error will gladly be corrected: and any who have thus fallen into arrears merely from inattention, will be able to have their names reinstated. The absolute necessity for such a rule will be apparent to all, and ought to serve as a sufficient apology to any to whom it may be applied improperly, from ignorance of their character and responsibility. The Farmers' Register during the first year of its existence, has been sent to every one applying for it, without payment accompa- nying the order, without knowledge of the subscriber, and in many cases to the most remote parts of the United States. Under these circumstances, many losses are to be expected — and the degree of promptness in making payments must be the principal means by which such remote subscribers can be known, and be properly estimated. As the risk of payments in advance for new subscriptions, as well as for those already on the list, is expressly assumed by the editor, there remains no reason for every order from a new and unknown subscriber, not being accompanied by the subscription money. In consequence of the transition state of the publi- cation and business of the Farmers' Register diu-ing tlie last month, it is probable that some of the orders of subscribers have not been executed. Any such omis- sions, or mistakes, will be put right, as soon as made known. The same circumstances have also made it impossible to publish a complete list of payments, for the previous month as usual, on the cover of No. 12, and therefore it will be deferred until No. 1 of volume II appears, which wiU be early in June. The full list of subscribers to volume I, and the general table of contents, will be furnished at the same time. Subscribers when WTiting any directions relating to their subscriptions, copies, or payments, are requested always to name the post office, to which their copies have been previously addressed. Copies of Vol. I, of the Farmers' Register can still be furnished to new subscribers. Subscribers who have failed to receive any of the Nos. 10, 11, 12, shall certainly be supplied with dupli- cates, on proper application being made. But when a whole package for any post office has failed, it is re- quested that full time may be allowed for its return from its improper route. In some cases of such fail- ures, duplicates have been furnished, and afterwards the first package was received: which has been either lost to the editor uselessly — or returned to him, bur- dened with the postage. The package of No. 9, (containing the copies belonging to 19 subscribers,) for Gloucester Court House, was within a few days of two months on its joiu-ney of 82 miles— and in that time might have passed through Passamaquoddy, or New Orleans, with less delay. Those persons who have received the first volume of the Farmers' Register, as compensation for obtain- ing subscribers, will be continued on the list on the foot- ing of subscribers for the next volume, unless their names are directed to be withdrawn. ACKNOAVI.Er)G3IEiVT OF C03IMUKICATI01VS. Tlie following articles will form part of No. 1, of vol. II — " Some account of the agriculture, soil, and products of Middle Florida"— "Materials for cordage" — "The wild onion" — "A breeding mule" — "On reaping wheat in a green state" — "Fecundity of a ewe " — " An effectual securitj' against the bee moth " " To prevent the backs of plough horses being galled" — Communications from S. B. of Powhatan, and /. K. of Brunswick. CONTENTS OF FARMERS' REGISTER, No. 12. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. On Draining, No. 2, page 705— Notice of the Cultivator, (a new agiicultural journal) 716— Answer to queries on tobacco, 723— Hessian Fly— Weevil— Clieat, 723— On Hill-side Ditclie.s, 724— Diked Marshes and Malaria, 729— On retaining rain water on hill sides, and preventing washing, 730 — Fanning, and ma- nures of tlie Eastern Shore of Virginia, 731 — On straishtenin" the beds of streams, and the need of legislative aid for drainhig" 733 — Canals instead of ponds to suppl.v mills, 734 — Diar}- of the weatlier, 747— Encouragement of agriculture hy the legislature of Virginia, 748 — An improved bee hive, 749 — Extracts from pri- vate correspondence, cmbractng — Farming in Virginia and New York; Queries; Labors and returns of large Farming, 750 To- bacco culture. No. 2; cultivation of the crop, 751 — Prejudices against mavl, and for fences in Virginia, 753 — Harnessing work horses, 754 — Canada thistle, 755 — On cutting fallen v.iieat before it is ripe, 759 — Southern Literary 3Iessenger, 7G1 — Scarcity and higli price of foreign agilcultural books, 761 — The tornado, 763— Eftects, and termination of the tornado, 763 — Cultivation of po- tatoes, 764 — Commercial report, 766 — Terms of the Farmers' Register, vol. 2, 767 — To subscribers, 767— AcknowUlgement of communications, 768. SELECTIONS. Diseases of poultry, 710— On consolidating light soils, 710 — Use of com in England, 712 — On protecting seed-corn from birds, 713 — On sea ashes as a manure, 714 — Naturalization of fishes, 714— Ale from mangel wurtzel, 715— Tlie extinct Dodo, 715— Dry stone walls as a fence, 715 — Vegetation of tlie Pampas of South America, 716— The mouse, 717 — The mole, 718 — On the violet cane, as food for cattle, 720— Cultivation of the pota- to, 721 — Mr. Jefferson's farming, 725 — Daiiy management, 726 — Account of common salt, 726 — The cause of farmers, 727 — Bone manure, 728 — To destroy rats and birds, 729 — Improved products of gardening and agiiculture, 7.32 — Machine for exca- vating earth, "iJi — The Virginia natural silk worm, 734^To destroy ants on peach trees, 736— Alteration of soils, 736 — Application of manures, 736— Maple sugar, 739 — How to make tlie most of a little land, 740 — Difference between good and bad farming, 740 — Claims of agriculture to legislative aid, 741 — Im- provements in breeding cattle, 741 — Improvements in tillage, 742 — Book fanning, 743 — IMangold v.urtzel, 745 — Planting hardy evergreens. 746 — Claying or whitening sugar, 746 — Plaster, 746 — Posts, 747 — Sheep, 747 — Leached ashes as a manure, 74S-— To destroy moles, 749 — Weight of live and dead cattle, 749 — The turkey buzzard, 752 — Bird killing, 752 — To prevent milk becom- ing sour, 752 — Tlie fence law, 754 — The use of plaster, 756 — GjTisum not injured by heat, 7.55 — Petersburg and Koanoke rail road, 758 — Large wheat crop, 759 — Soap, 760 — The road law, 760. — Gestation, 765 — Strange mode of curing a vicious horse, 766. ERRATUM. In Farming in Virginia and New York, p;ige 750, for "farms of the large size, if joiuig, " read "farms of the large size of yours. " S^riut€€l be^ Mobert MickcUs, AT THE SHELLBANK9 PRESS, Where the printing of books, pamphlets, and other jobf, can be executed promptly, and in the beet style. f ■••■ '..t: ><^*''