MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SPECIAL COLLECTIONS a ARCHIVES so u R c E . . L^Lle^^.e - . . pa^i flS.. ■ft? ■%o^. i^igffr THE S' REGISTER, A MONTHLY PUBLICATION Oevoied to the imprarement of the Practice. PPORT OF THE IJ%^TERE!STS OF ^1GRI€UETURE, EDMUND RUFPIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. he gave it for his opinion, " that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of grass to grow upon a spot ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind^ and do more essential service to his coun- , than the whole race of politicians put together." Swijl. vol.. II. PUBLISHE1> BY THE PROPRIETOR '^m- FVKh y\. '2. TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. II Acid carbonic, production of in a liquid state 702 Acid soils, objections to their existence 640 — evidence in support of 729 Agricultural improvement, obstructed by prevailing nabits and opinions— by P. W. Harper 234 Agricultural journals, general value of 327— their uses to the cultivators of the rich western lands 327 Agricultural journals, French 432 Agricultural prospects of Virginia 762 Agricultural societies, usual improper course of their procedure 521— causes that lessen their utility 321 — improvements in, recommended 522, 523 — re- marks on their advantages and the indisposition to form and sustain them 564 Agricultural societies, the necessity of forming, and the Fariners' Register as an auxfliary, by N. E. Read 531 Agricultural Society of King William and King and Queen, formation of 317— address to by Wm. Boul- ■ware 481 Agricultural Society of Rockbridge, address to by Dr. R. R. Barton 548 Agricultural Society of Buckingham, formation of 317 — constitution 383 — premiums oifered by 580 Agricultural Society of New London, cattle show of and premiums av/arded 487— constitution of 489 — address to by Wm. Radford 490 Agricultural Society of Amherst, formation of 155— premiums offered by 297 Agricultural Society of Charlotte, papers of published on the improvement of agriculture 367 — on the cultivation of fruit trees 368— on the management of horses and mules, and their manure 415 Agricultural Society of Fredericksburg, address to by James M. Garnett 491 Agricultural Society of Norfolk, address to by Wm. Garnett Esq. 523 Agriculture, on the progress of its improvement and "the necessity for legislative aid for that purpose 416, 703— address of Gov. J. Barboer of trees from Mai'seilles, and planted them on his estate. He inionns me that they have perished to the roots by frost, every win- ter since he planted them. And yet in the garden of my friend Dr. Wray, of Augusta, (Geo.) I have seen a young olive tree, which for several years, has borne the winters in the open air. Of the European olive, hov\-ever, there are several va- rieties, and that wliich I saw in the garden of Dr, W, is not the one which is commonly cultivated, as it requires a nuich longer period to corae to ma- turity. Like the orange tree, the olive would pro- bably do Avell on the sea-coast and islands. I learn that the olWe has been reared at Augus- tine, Avhere oranges ai'e also produced m abun- dance. Indian com does Avell, and the crop is easily made. It may be planted the first week in March, and the cultivation completed early in June. When the spring is favorable, it may be planted in Februaiy, and the cultivation completed in aiay. Oats and rye do well, and ought to be exten- sively introduced to alternate with cotton and corn. V/heat has been but little tried, and I am una- ble to say with Avhat success. In the soU of Florida there is great diversity. The reader, perhaps, has not to be told that a large portion of the countiy is occupied by pine barrens, as they are called. Even in these, there is great diversity, some being quite productive, wliile others are extremely barren. In the former, the pines (pinus palustris, the long leaf, pitch pme) grow large and tall, and are associated with the Black Jack, ( Quercus nigra) in the latter they ai'e stunted in groAvth, and are associated Avith the "baiTens' scrub oak," (^Quercus Catesbcei) which, in common language, is often confounded with the "Blackjack." The richest uplands are the Hammocks or Hum- mocks, a "vvord which probably has its root in the Latin humidus, moist, or kmneo to be wet, indi- cating in this instance, not a wet or swampy soil, but its contiguity to some body of water, either a creek, river, or lake.* Intermediate between these are the oaky lands, which have a stitTer soil than the othei-s, and by many are thought to excel the hammocks in the production of cotton. The fre- quency and suddenness with which these soils change fi-om one to another, surprises every ob- server, and baffles every theory to account for it. Frequently after passing a dreary tract of pine- barrens, or barren «and-hills, you come, suddenly, on the borders of a hummock, which greets you like an oasis in a desert, contrasting with the for- mer fertility of its soil, and the beauty of its nu- merous evergreens. t * Or perhaps in allusion to the humidity of its atmos- phere, as the brandies of the trees and their dense'fo- liage detain the evaporation, and keep up a deg;ree of moisture very favorable to the 2;rowth of parasitics, as the Long Moss, Mistletoe, Epidendrum, &c. t Pre-eminent among these stands the stately Mag- FARMERS' REGISTER— WILD ONION. Marl is not rare in Florida, and the whole coun- tiy being based on a shell rock, it is, probably, abundant, j\nd will, in due time, be developed. I ha'v'e myseli" seen some very fine specimens. Veiy respectfully, yours, II. B. CROOM. Z,ake Lafayette, near Tallahasse, March, 1834. P. S. With respect to fruits, I may state, that peaches do very well, though they arc sometimes destroyed by the spring trosls. Ajiplcs, pears, cheiTies, &c. have not been sufficicntlj- tried. The number of wild plums in this coimtrj^, is remarka- ble, A species of goosebeny (Ribes rotundifo- lium of Michaux?) grows wild in the hammocks, and from the quantity of subaljiine growth, it might be inferred that this country would prove favorable to the production of most of the fruits of temperate climates. But the fact remains to be tested. Strawberries grow as large and as fine as I have seen them in any country. They are now rij)ening abundantly. (March 31st.) 'Some corn which I planted about the 20lh of February last, came up m due time, has been ploughed and hoed once, and is now thrifty and promising. It is probable tliat two crops of corn might be made in one season, if it Avere desirable to do so. But late corn in this climate is apt to be attacked by worms, while in roasting car. THE WILD ONIOJf. To tlic Eilitor of the Farmers' Register. Cambridge, Md. Jprll 18, 1834. Will you allow me through the medium of the Farmers' Register, to make the inquiry of your numerous coiTespondents, whether there is any effectual mode, and what it is, of extirpating that most destructive of all v>^eeds, the wild onion? I purchased several years ago, a farm near Cambridge, of poor clay sod, filkHl with starveling onions. I had always been impressed with tlie idea, that heavy manuring would eradicate them, by the substitution of other Aigorous vegetation; but experience teaches me the error of that opinion. I have made the land extremely rich, yet the onions have increased in number, and in Adgor of growth, pari passu with the improvement; and now at this moment, my wheat field exhibits the mortifying spectacle of a serious and doubtful conflict, between these best and worst of the vegetable creation: and I fear the onions will bear the palm. An answer to my inquiry will confer an obliga- tion on, Yours, verj^ tndy. j. e. m. P. S. Has an eflectual onion riddle ever been invented? — by whom? — and, where may it be ob- tained? J- E. M. nolia Graniliflora, accompanied by its relative the fra- grant Magnolia Aurienlata, the Olea Americana, Ho- pea tinctoria, Ilex Opaca, Prunus Carolifiiana, 8cc. Here too, are the Red-bud and tlie Beech, the elegant Stuartia, tlie showy Hydrangea, and the gay Azalea. These are often entwined about their tranks by these elegant creepers, the Carolina Jessanaine, tlie Coral Honeysuckle, the Decuraaria Sarmentosa, the luxuriant Cissus, and the splendid Bignonias, while the TilJand- sia Resneoides festoons their branches! Such is a Flo- rida hammock — ^the pride of Flora, and the paradise of botanists. A BREEDING MULE. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Spring Hill, Nansemond county, ") 2d 3fay, 1834. 5 A circumstance has occun-ed on my planta- tation, which seems to be against the general principles of nature. Oji the 23rd of April, 1834, a female nmle of mine, had a colt, never suspected by me until I saw its birth. I bo'i W3r!.cu iier hard all last year, upon the farm, and on the rail road, through the winter hauling marl, and all the month of March haiding logs, from a distance oilwo miles, six loads a day, and thirty logs each load, making twentj'-four miles each day. She was at work all April hauling out manure, untd the 23d. On that day I had gone, a little time before night, from the labors of the day, owing to one of my family being sick; and about 5 o'clock in the evening, the boy that drove the mule, came running to the house, saying that Jenny (for that was her name) had a colt. I went out and in a lew minutes thereafier, the thing (for I kno-.v not what to call it) was de- livered, and is now doing well. I never suspected the mother's being with foal, because I thought it contrary to nature, though I had for four or six weeks observed that her belly was enlarged, and so much so, that the cart had to be altered, as it rubbed her. She showed no other sign — so I did not suspect it. She has little or no bag, though I believe slie gives a plenty of suck, as hev child is now gettuig fat. At first it Avasver}^ poor. Noav you will ask what is the father of it? I cannot saj' — but Ijclieve, a colt of mine, now three j'ears old. He ran out on Sundays, with the nmles, and the black boy tells me tliat there was cause for such an efl'cct. So it is, the mule has a colt, and it is exactly like the young stallion. If this is a matter of curiosity, you may give publicity to it, under my name. Ilundreds can prove the fact — • and several can testify that they Avere present at the birth. JOHN THOMPSON KILBY. P. S. The mother certainly is a mvh, for she was foaled mine, and is noAv ten years old. [The fact stated by Mr. Kilby is particularly inte- resting, because so authenticated as to leave not tlie slightest ground for doubt. But though it is contrary to the general operation of a laAV of nature, for any mule or hybrid animal to be capable of procreation, it is well known to naturalists that 'There have been some (though rare) exceptions to the rule. Whether in these cases the oflspring is barren, according to the general and wise provision of nature, to prevent the continuance of mongrel breeds, or not, has not yet been determined]. YELLOW (or wild) LOCUST. The Genesee Farmer of April 5th, says that "yel- low locust seed is worth $4 or #5 tlie pound— say $1 the half pint. And trees of suitable size for setting may be had at several nurseries in Western New York at $G per hundred." At these prices, it AA^ould be a profitable employment of labor to gather the ripe pods of the wild locu^, where they are produced abun- dantly, as on the high calcareous banks of the lower James River. FARMERS' REGISTER— FECUNDITY OF A EWE, &c. For tlip Fanners' Register. FECUNDITY OF A EWE. I think it was on the 25th of Januarj-, 1833, that tho only ewe Avith black wool in my Hock, (and Avliich, therefore, could not be mistaken i'm- any other,) liad a lamb. On the 20th of April, ibllow- iniT, tliat lamb was killed, and eaten. On the 25th oC"thc panic month and year, (the ewe running upon a^^f"! clover field) the same ewe took the ram — (a brdafT-rarl, isint,e, unfortimately, dead.) On the IGth of July, the same ewe had a lamb, as I was first in^prnied by one of my family, (the slieep beino; then grazing in a lot around the house,) and I Avent out and found it so. That lamb was not killed, and is still living. From the IGth to the 201 h of September, in the same clover field, the ewe again took the ram; and during one of those snoAvs, either in January or Februaiy, last past, the boy that attends the sheep says, that one morning ujjon going to the fodder staclfs, - wliere the sheep Ave re kept, he found that this same CAve had lost a lamb — making tAvo births and a mlscai'riage in tAvelve or thirteen months. Probably the miscarriage aa^us occasioned by some hurt the eAve might have rcceiA^ed. HoAV long do ewes go Avith lamb"? I ha\'e be- heved about f )ur months and tAvcnty days; if so were not her births premature? I ask lor informa- tion. OBSERVER. lOih ^pril, 1834. them in melted graiting Avax, and Avind them on in such a manner as to make the Avhole air tight. If Avell done the pieces will unite at both ends, and soon extend so as to cover the Avound. BARKING TREES. From GoodscH's Goncspe Farmer. It often happens that fi'uit trees, more particu- larly apple and pear trees, are stripped of their l)ark during the Avinter by sheep, rabbits, or mice. When such accidents do hap]ien, such trees should not be looked upon as lost, but as soon as the sap begins to circulate freely in the spring, they should be repaired, by fitting in pieces, on eveiy side, to keep up the circulation, betAvoen the top, and the roots. The folloAving directions, AAnll enable those who ■shall be so unfortunate as to ha\'e any of their trees injured by mice, or otherwise, to repair them Avithout incurring any great expense. Where the bark has been taken from the bottom of a tree, as soon as it is discovered, it should be coA'ered up to prevent the Avood from becoming dry. During the month of INIay, uncover the wood, and Avith a chisel, or some other instru- ment, cut oil from the tree, so much Avood as aa'UI leave a flat surface, equal in Width, to the piece to be inserted. Let this extend so far up and doAA'n as to reach the sound bark, and make the cut Bfiuare in at the ends. Procure a piece of Avood from a groAving tree of the same kind, Avhcther ap- ple or pear, cut it of a suitable length, split off a piece from one side of it, cut the ends smooth AA'ith n knife, being careful not to bruise the bark, fit it closely into the place prepared in the side of the tree, having the greatest proportion of the sap floAV, or line lietAvcen the bark and Avood, that can be, come in contact. Proceed in the same Avay on diflerent sides of the tree, after Avhich bind the whole part Avith some bark-, or strings made from flax, and cover the Avhole Avith earth, if it does not extend too far up the tree. If the bark was re- moA-cd too lar up, to be couA'cnient for coA^ering with earth, take some strips of cotton cloth, dip WOOD SNAPPING ON THE FIRE. From the Genesee Farmer. I believe aa'C haA-e no wood in this countrj^ tliat is more Avorthless tor fuel than the Butternut. A f!3AV mis of this kind, howe\'er, about ten inches in diameter, had been split in tAvo, left some Aveeks to drj-, and then carried into my chandjer. On placing one stick on the fire, it began to snap most remai-kably: sometimes there were not less than fitleen or twenty sparks on the carpet at once; and the inconA'enience Avas serious. What Avas to be done? I happened to recollect a paragraph in your second volume, taken from some eastera paper, stating that xoood snaps on the fire from the side nearest to the heart. It Avas so in this case. I just turned the log over, and at once the difficulty Avas at an end; for though it continued to snap for some time against the back plate, yet no more sparks came into the room. When I put on the next log, I AA^as particular to turn the heart baclcAvards, and I have had no trouble from snapping since. Noav the knoAAdedge of this thing is but a trifle indeed, but it may be Avorth knoAving, for I liaA'e often seen the guests round a parlor fire starting up to put out the sparks, Avhen I presume nothing more Avas Avanting than to turn over a stick. a farmer. LIVE HEDGES. Extracts from the New England Farmer. " For the last t.Aventy years I ha\-e paid great attention to this subject, and A\"ill giA-e you the re- sult of my experience. The first hedge I set out (about 500 feet in length) Avas of the English haAV- thorn or quickset. The result was decidedly un- faA'orable. The plant is not adapted to this climate — it appears better suited to the moist atmosphere of England; our long summer drought injures it; it is peculiarly subject to the attacks of the borer; a species of mildcAV or blight almost inA^ariably assails it early in August, by -which it loses its leaves, and by the middle of August or first of September assumes a Avintry appearance. "My next experiment AvasAvith the three thorn- ed acacia, recommended by Judge Buel. The hedge Avas not more than fifty feet in length, but AA'as placed in exceftent soft and carefully attended. I had supposed that the long thorns Avith Avhich the plant is armed, Avould ha\'e made it peculiarly efficacious as a fence. The result was eA-en more unfortunate than before. Prune and clip it as I Avould, I could never make it groAv thick; it ap- pears to have a decided tendency to shoot upAvarda rather than to spread; the thorns groAv only upon or near the upper branches, and beloAv there w'as nothing but the bare stems to serve as a fence. It Avould often, too, lose as much during a hard Avinter, as it had groAA'n during a Avhole summer. After a trial of near ten years I dug up the Avhole and replaced it Avith the American buckthorn, (Rhamnus catharticus.) With this I have been completely successful. It has, it is true, but feAV thorns, but it groAvs naturally so thick as to be a comjilete protection to the land enclosed by it. It shoots early in the spring, and holds its A'erdure till A'eiy late in the fall. li' properly managed, it FARMERS' REGISTER— BEE MCXrH. is so close bolow ihut a rabbit could scarcely work its way throii2;h; wliile aliove, the stroni^ branches are so wattled and interlaced, that a man could not scale it, nor a hull iin'ce his way throup;h it. "1 have now in dilferent places at least half a mile ot'tliis hed^•e, which I shall be very happy (o show to any of your correspondents wlio mayAvish to sec it. "The mode of cultivation is very simple — it is set out either in the fiill or spring in the manner recommended by Judg-e, Euel; if in the fall, it is dipped the next spring wiihin about nine inches of the ground. Next spring it is clipped again at the height of about two Icct, the third spring at about three feet from the ground, with some side pnining. Tlie next summer your hedge is com- plete, and you may keep it at the heiglit and thick- ness desired at the expense of a little pruj)ing. "I have also tried plashmg. In 1818 or 19, my^ gardener, who was an Englishman, highly re- commended it, and at last persuaded me to let him attempt it upon a young and thriily hedge made of crab ap])le. He did it as it appeared to me, very skilfull}-, but it was a veiy long and tedi- ous operation, and the result was the hetlgc was ruined. His mode of operating (which is I believe the common one) was to sutler the main stem to remain upright, while all the side ones were par- tially cut and bent down nearly horizontally, and so confined either by interlacing or by staking them down; they did not thrive however — they perished by degrees, and I Avas at last forced to prune a^vay all the horizontal branches, and lost at least four years growth. "With the buckthorn I have never' found plash- ing to be in any degree necessary or useful. If managed in the way I have described, in three j-ears the hedge will be complete, requiring aflcr- wards very little care, and nearly as thick, and quite as impervious below as above." "Buckthorns should be set in a single row, from seven to nine inches apart; as soon as? they begin to vegetate, they should be headed down to about six inches from the ground, which will cause the liedge to become thick from the bottom. By keep- ing the ground clean, and occasionally shortening the stray shoots, it v/ill soon make a beautiful and efficient fence. It is an extremely vigorous, free growing plant, and in our opinion superior to any plant we are acquainted with in this country, for makins fi hedo-e." A WORD IN SEASON, OR AN EFFECTUAL, SECU- RITY AGAINST THE BEE MOTH. For the Fanners' Register. As soon as your, bees commence woi'king in the spring, examine your hives, and with a slab of wood, or piece of hoop iron, scrape the stand im- mediately under the hive, also around the inner edges of the box, taking care to remove all the web that may be attached to any part of the stand or hive, as the v\rhole secret consists in keeping them free from the web formed by the molh or fly. Having completed this operation, provide your- self with four square blocks of wood, and place one under each corner of j'our hive, so as to raise it not quite half an inch from the stand; this will enable you to clean the stand witliout removing the hive. This scraping operation must be re- peated eveiy three or four days, if there should be any appearance of web forming on the stand, or around the inner eilg-es of the hive. It seems ne- cessary to remark, that the moth or fly, makes its attaclvs by a kind of regular ap})roacli, first form- ing its web on the stand, and then extending it up the sides of tlie liive until it gets complete posses- sion. By a little attention in cleaning the stand and hive, as directed, you will certainly secure your bees from the ravages of the worm. In the win- ter, the blocks must be removed from under the hive, so as to allow it to rest immediately on the stand, which will secure it against the attacks of mice, &c. On this ])lan, it is advisable to make an entrance for the bees, by cutting a peqiendicu- lar slit in the front part of the hive, half way from the bottom, say two and a half inches in length, and one-eighth of an inch wide, with a kind of shelf just under it to serve as a resting place for the bees going and returning to the hive. Afkr being a little used to it, the bees seem to prefer this entrance to the one at the bottom of the hive. This plan has jiroved an eflt?ctual security against the worm, afler every other remedy has fiiiled; and not a single hive has been lost since it was adopted. z. (a) Entrance, one-eighth of an inch wide, and two and a half inches long. (66) Shelf below ^he entrance. MATERIALS FOR MANURE. Extract from an article by J. H. Coupcr, in the Soutlieru Agriculturist. A sufficient amount of manure is yielded to keep the soil in the most productive state, if a stock of animals be kept on the plantation, and the dry vegetable matter of the fields be carefully carted to the pens. The expressed cane, tops and leaves, from an acre of cane, }"ield about 10,000 lbs. of dry vegetable matter. An acre of cprn, including blades, stalks, shucks and cobs, about 2500 lbs., when the yield of corn has been 20 bushels: and the ailer crop of peas 1000 lbs., together 4500 lbs. An acre of solid peas 2000 lbs. The potatoe vines, pumpkins and turnips, being eat m-een, con- tribute only to the production of fluid manure. The total quantity of dry vegetable matter to be FARMERS' REGISTER— MATERIALS FOR CORDAGE. aj^plied to the manuring of 16 acres in crop, Avili therefore be, 4 acres in corn, at 4500 lbs. per acre, 18,000 lbs. 1 '< peas and turnii)s, 2,000 3 " cane, at 10,000 lbs. 30,000 50,000 which, if merely rotted by rain, will yield 100,000 ibs. of manure; and if rotted by the urine and dung of stock, from 150,000 lbs to 200,000 lbs., or at least 25,000 lbs. of manure to each of the 4 acres proposed to be manured. To this supply of ma- nure, must be added from 50 to 70 bushels of cotton- seed,from seven acres of cotton, to be applied to the four acres of corn; and the peas that are ploughed in, preparatory to the potatoe crop of vines. MATERIALS FOR COURAGE. For the Fanners' Register. Dr. Pcrrine, American Consul at one of the Mexican ports, has asked of Congress a grant of land in the peninsula of Florida, lor the purpose of introducing and cultivating the Jlgave jlmcri- cana, (the famous centennial Aloe) which he re- commends as a material lor cord.age. It is indeed nmch used for that purpose in Mexico and South A merica, where its growth is spontaneous. There is no doubt that this plant would do Avell in any part of the peninsula of Florida, for it bears the whiters at Charles^ton, S. C. and at Augusta, Geo. If, however, its cultivation is likely to prove pro- fitable, I see no reason why congress should be asked to give lands tor the pui-pose; and if not, we had then better let it alone. If any additional material for cordage is requi- site or desirable in this countr}-, we have one in a native plant, probably not inferior, for that purpose, to the Agave Americana. I allude to the Yucca jilamentosa, which grows spontaneously in light sandy soils, (and often on the very poorest) from Virginia to Florida, and is conuiionly known under the name oi' Bear grass, and sometimes under that of Silk grass. The fibres of this plant are remark- able lor their strength, and I have seen ropes made of it, equal in strength and appearance to any other. To obtain the fibres, the leaves are "rotted" in water, or by burying them in the earth. Mr. El- liott, in his "Sketch of the Botany of South Caro- lina and Georgia," says of this plant, that "it ap- pears to possess the strongest fibres of any vege- table wliatever;and, if itcanbe raised with facilitj^, may Ibrm a valuable article in domestic economy." The root is also a substitute for soap in washing woollens. 01' the facility of its production, I entertain no doubt. No plant is more hardy, or bears trans- phmting better. Its roots are extensive, having numerous eyes, or buds, and each one of these will produce a plant. There are millions of acres in the southern states unfit for the ordinary purposes of agriculture, which would produce this plant very well. H. B. c. A FLOOD OF THE MISSISSIPPT. ^ Many of our larger streams, such as the Missis- sippi,-the^Ohio, the Illinois, the Arkansas, and the Red River, exhibit, at certain seasons, the most extensive overflowings of their waters, to Avhicli the name of floods is more a]ipropriate than the term freshets, usually applied to the sudden risings of small streams. If we consider the vast extent of country through which an inland navigation is allbrdcd by the never-failing supply of water fur- nished by these wonderfiil rivers, we cannot sup- pose them exceeded in magnitude by any other in the known world. . It will easily be imagured what a wonderful sj)ectacle must present itself to the eye of the traveller, who, for the first time, \'iews the enormous mass of waters collected from the vast central regions of our continent, booming along, turbid and s^vollen to overflowing, in the broad channels of the Mississippi and Ohio, the latter of which has a course of more than a thousand miles, and the former of several thousands. To give you some idea of a booming flood of these gigantic streams, it is necessaiy to state the causes which give rise to it. These are the sud- den melting of the snows on the mountains, and , heavy rains continued for several weeks. AVhcn it happens that, during a severe winter, the Alle- ghany mountains have been covered with snow to the depth of several feet, and the accumulated mass has remained unmelted for a length of time, the materials of a flood are thus prepared. It now and then hajipens that the winter is huiried off by a sudden increase of temperature, when the ac- cumulated snows melt away simultaneously over the whole country, and the south easterly wind which then usually blows, brings along with it a continued fixli of heavy rain, which mingling with the dissolving snow, deluges the alluvial portions of the western country, filling up the rivulets, ra- vines, creeks, and small rivers. These delivering their waters to the great streams, cause the latter not merely to rise to a surprising height, but to overflow their banks, wherever the land is low. — On such occasions, the Ohio itself presents a splen- did, and at the same time, an appalling spectacle; but when its waters mingle with those of the Mis- sissippi, then kind reader, it is the time to view an American flood in all its astonishing magnificence. At the foot of the falls of the Ohio, the water has been known to rise upwards of sixty feet above its lowest level. The river at this point, has already run a coui'se of nearly seven hundred miles from its origin at Pittsburgh, in Pennsylvania, during which it has received the waters of its numberless tributaries, and overflowing all the bottom lands or vallics, has swept along the fences and dwell- ings, which have been unable to resist its violence. I could relate hundreds of incidents which might prove to you the dreadful eftects of such an inun- dation, and which have been witnessed by thou- sands besides mj'self I have known, for example, of a cow swimming through a window elevated at least seven hundred feet from the ground, and six- ty-two above low water mark. The house was then surrounded Avith water from the Ohio, which runs in front of it, while the neighboring countiy was overflowed; yet the family did not remove from it, but remained in its upper portion, having pre- viously takeii off the sashes of the lower Avindows, and opened the doors. But let us return to the Mississippi. There the overfloAv is astonishing; for no sooner has the water reached the upper part of the banks, than it rushes out and overspreads the whole of the neighboring swamps, presenting an ocean over- grown Avith stupendous forest trees. So sudden is the calamity, that every individual, whether man or beast, has to exert his utmost ingenuity to ena- FARMERS' REGISTER— FLOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI. ble liim to escape Irom the dreaded element. The Indian quickly reniov^es to the hills of the interior, the cattle and game sAvim to the different stripes of land that remain uncovered in the midst of the flood, or attempt to force their way through the waters until they perish with fatigue. Along the banks of the river the inhabitants have raits ready made, on Avhich they remove themselves, their cattle, and tlicir provisions, and which they then fiisten with ropes, or gi-ape \anes, to the larger trees, while they contemplate the melancholy spectacle presented by the cuiTent, as it carries off their houses and wood yards piece by piece. Some who have nothing to lose, and are usually known by the name oC squatters, take this opportunity of traversing the woods in canoes, for the purpose of procuring game, and particularly the skins of animals, such as the deer and bear, which may be converted into money. They re- sort to the low ridges, surrounded by the waters, and destroy thousands of deer, mei'ely for their skins, leaving the flesh to putrily. The river itself, rolling its swollen waters along, presents a spectable of the most imposing nature. Although no large vessel, unless propelled by steam, can now make its way against the cun-ent, it is seen covered "by boats laden with produce, "which running out from all the smaller streams, float silently towards the city of New Orleans, their owners, meanwhile, not very well assured of find- ing a landing place even there. The water is covered Avith yellow foam and pumice, the latter having floated from the rocky mountains of the north-Avest. The eddies are larger and more pow- erful than ever. Here and there tracts of forests are observed undermined, the trees gradually giv- ing way, and failing into the stream. Cattle, horses, bears and deer, are seen at times attempt- ing to swim across the impetuous mass of foaming and boiling Avaterj whilst here and there a vulture or an eagle is observed perched on a bloated car- cass, tearing it up in pieces, as regardless of the flood as on former occasions, it would have been of the numerous sawyers and planters with which the surface of the river is covered when the water is low. Even the streamer is frequently distress- ed. The numberless trees and logs that float along, break its paddles and retard its progress. Besides, it is on such occasions difficult to procure fuel to maintain its fires; and it is only at very dis- tant intervals that a wood-yard can be found which the water has not carried off. Following the river in your canoe, you reach those parts of the shores that are protected against the overflowing of the waters, and are called levees. There you find the whole population of the district at work, repairing and augmenting those artificial barriers Avhich are several feet above the level of the fields. Every person appears to dred the open- ing of the crevasse, by which the waters may rush into his fields. In spite of all exertions, hoAvever, the crevasse opens, the Avater bursts impetuously over the plantations, and lays waste the croj^s Avhich so lately AA-ere blooming in all the luxuri- ance of spring. It opens up a neAv channel, Avhich, for aught I know to the contrary, may carry its waters even to the Mexican Gulf. I have floated on the Mississippi and Ohio, when thus SAVollen, and have, in different places, visited the submersed lands of the interior, propelling a Ught canoe by the aid of a paddle. In this man- ner I have traversed immense portions of the coun- try, overfloAved by the AA^aters of these riv^ers; and, particidarly Avhilst floating over the Mississippi bottom-lands, I have been struck AAath aAA^e at the sight. Lhtle or no cuirent is met Avith, unless the canoe passes over the bed of a bayou. All is silent and melancholy, unless Avhen the mournful bleating of the hemmed-in deer reaches j'our ear, or the dismal scream of an eagle or raven is heard, as the foul bird rises, disturbed by j'our approach, from the carcass on Avhich it Avas allaying its cra- A-en appetite. Bears, cougars, lynxes, and all other quadrupeds that can ascend the trees, are observ- ed crouched among their top branches. Hmigry in the midst of abundance, although they see float- ing around them, the animals on Avhich they usu- ally prey, the)^ dare not venture to SAvim to them. Fatigued by the exertions Avhich they haA^e made in reaching the diy land, they Avill there stand the hunter's fire, as if to die by a ball Avere better than to perish amidst the waste of waters. On occa- sions like this, all these animals are shot by hun- dreds. Opposite the city of Natches, Avhich stands on a bluff bank of considerable elevation, the extent of inundated land is immense, the gi-eater portion of the tract lying between the JMississippi and the Red River, Avhich is more than thirty miles in breadth, being under Avater. The mail-bag has often been carried through the immersed forests, in a canoe, for eA'en a greater distance, in order to be fbrAvarded to Natchitochez. But noAv, kind reader, observe this great flood gradually subsiding, and again see the mighty changes which it has aflected. The Avaters have noAv been carried into the distant ocean. The earth is every Avliere covered by a deposite of mud- dy foam, AA^iich, in diying, splits into deep and naiTOAV chasms, presenting a reticulated appear- ance, and from Aviiich, as the Aveather becomes Avarmcr, disagreeable, and at times noxious exha- lations arise, and fill the loAver stratum of the at- mosphere, as Avith a dense fog. The banks of the river have almost every Avhere been broken down in a greater or less degree. Large streams are noAV found to exist, where none Avere formerly to be seen, having forced their Avay in direct lines from the upper parts of the bends. These are, by the naAdgator called short-cuts. Some of them have proved large enough to produce a change in the navigation of the Mississippi. If I mistake not, one of these, knoAvn by the name of Grand Cut-off, and only a feAV miles in length, has di- A-erted the river trom its natural course, and has shortened it by fifty miles. The upper parts of the islands present a buhvark, consisting of an enomious mass of floated trees of all kinds, Avhich haA-e lodged there. Large sand banks haA^e been completely removed by the impetuous Avhirls of the AA'aters, and haA^e been deposited in other places. Some appear quite neAv to the eye of the naA'igator, Avhohas to mark their situation and bearings in his log-book. The trees on the mar- gins of the banks, have in many parts giA-en AA^aj^ They are seen bending o\'er the stream, like the grounded arms of an overAA'helmed army of giants. Every Avhere are heard the lamentations of the farmer and planter, whilst their servants and them- seh^cs are busily employed in repairing the dama- ges occasioned by the floods. At one crevasse, an old ship or tAvo, dismantled for the purpose, are 8 FARMERS' REGISTER— HOGS— SHEEP, &c. sunk, to obstruct the passage opened by the still rushing waters, while new earth is brought to fill up the'^chasms. The sciuatter is seen shouldering his rifle, and making his way through the morass, in search of his lost stock, to drive the survivors home, and save the skins of the drowned. Nev/ fences have every wliere to ha formed; even new houses must be erected; to save Avhich Irom a like disaster, the settler places them on an elevated platform, sui)ported by pillars made of the tmnks of trees. The lands must be ploughed anew, and if the season is not too far advanced, a crop of corn and potatoes may yet be raised. But the rich prospects of the planter are blasted. The traveller is impeded in his journey, the creeks and smaller streams having broken up their banks in a degree proportionate in their size. A bank of sand, which seems firm and secure, suddenly gives way be- neath the traveller's horse, and the next moment the animal has sunk in the quick-sand, either to the chest in front, or over the crupper behind, Icav- ino" its master in a situation not to be envied. Unlike the mountain torrents and small rivers of other parts of the Avorld, the Mississippi rises but slowly during these floods, continuing for seve- ral weeks, to increase at the rate of about an inch in the day. When tit its height, it undergoes little fluctuation for some days, and after this subsides as slowly as it rose. The usual duration of a flood is from four to six weeks, although, on some occa- sions, it is protracted to two months. Every one knows how largely the idea of floods and cataclysms enters into the specidations of the geologist. If the streamlets of the European con- tinent afford illustrations of the formation of strata, how much more must the 3'lississippi, with its ever-shifting sand banks, its crumbling shores, its enormous masses of brift timber, the source of future beds of coal, its extensive and varied allu- vial deposits, and its mighty mass of waters rolling sullenly along, like the flood of eternity. DISEASES OF HOGS. From the Gencsoc Farmer. Mr. L. Tucker — I am engaged in milling, and have kept a stock of about three hundred hogs in a large frame pen, divided into twenty- four rooms, with plank floor, and lodging rooms covered and boarded, leaving open only sufficient room for them to enter. They have been fed on bran, shorts, and cross middlings. I have lost, during the last winter, about fifty — many of them were fat, and would Aveigh two hundred when dressed. They were taken with wealaiess in the back, and lose the use of their hind parts — generally live from two to three weeks. On opening them, have always found a great many slim worms a- bout an inch long in the leaf and about the back 'bone. I have tried all medicine recommended by farmers in this section, and in no instance had a cure. I have a neighbor, who purchased a drove last fall, and has given them seven hundred dollars worth of corn, and the stock now left are not worth the first cost in consequence of the same disease. You or your corresjiondents will confer a favor by giving me such information as you or they pos- sess, respecting a remedy. Yours, respectfully, r. h. h. Venice, Huron co., ( Ohio,) ^pril 2, 1834. ODDS AND ENDS. To tho Editor of the Farmers' Register. jUrunswickj March 31, 1834. I shall be glad to learn from some of the readers of the Farmers' Register, what I have becii try- ing tor thirty years in vain to find, a good and sure -method to destroy lice on hogs, cows, and horses. A decoction of tobacco will kill the lice, but will not destroy the nits. I have Ircciuently sheared hogs lor this purpose, and it is the best means to rid them of lice: but shearing a hog is a tedious job, which no one Avill be anxious to repeat. What is the best remedy lor worms in horses? By what means can house flies be destroyed, or rendered less numerous and troublesome? W hat safeguard can be used against the worm which cuts off young corn at the first joint in low grounds? I am sometimes compelled to plant mine three or ibur times, before I can get it to stand. What will prevent the i-avages of tlie fly which eats tobacco plants? Mine have been oflen al- most ei^-irely destroyed by these insects. But I am now mostly a cotton planter — though the rot and low prices together, have made me almost heartless. When I plant tobacco in lots where I can plough it well, I throw up beds of thirty-nine inches wide, with a two-horse plough, and stick the plants about twenty inches apart, on the mid- dle of each bed. I never prime (or take off tho lower leaves) when I top the plants: but when they are hilled up, some of the small leaves are taken off — such as probably were on the young plant when first set out. Planting from the 1st to the 10th of June, is preferred to any other time. I generally top high, if the season and the land will permit — and it" I can get the top leaves to make, (or mature) it is all I want. The cold dews, late in the growing season, help tobacco very much. I am much in favor of packing tobacco loose in the hogshead, (or without t}ing the leaves in buntlles,) because, if it is manufactured in this country, it takes much trouble to vmtie the six- leaf bundles, and then the tie-leaf is worth but very little. It seems strange to me that any one should approve of these small bundles. I planted a sinall kind of speckled pea in the same ])iece of land lor three or ibur years. Those made the last year that I planted them, were coal black, and as late as any other pea. To -what can this remarkable change be ascribed? j. k. AGE OF SHEEP. From tlie Mountain Sliejiherd's Manual. The age of a sheep may be known by examin- ing the front teeth. They are eight in number, and ap))ear during the first yefu', all of a small size. In the second year, the two middle ones fiUl out, and their place is supplied by two new teeth, wtiich are easily distinguished by being of a larger size. In the third year, two other small teeth, one from each side, drop out and arc re- placed by two large ones; so that there are now four large teeth in the middle, and two pointed ones on each side. In the fourth j'ear the large teeth are six in number, and only two small ones remain, one at each end of the range. In the fifth year the remaining small teeth are lost, and the whole front teeth are large. In the sixth year the whole begin to be worn; and in the seventh, some- times sooner, some lull out or are broken. FARMERS' REGISTER^EXIIAUSTING CULTIVATION. 0 To till! Editor of the Fanners' Register. EXHAUSTING ASD IMPROVING CULTIA^ATION. Powhatan, y/pril 13th, 1834. I have, for some time, desired that some one would undertake to correct the evils prevailing in out county, to the devastation and entire destruc- tion ol'tlie value of our lands, by hard and exces- sive culture, and which ought to have opened the eyes of more gentlemen who are really practical farmers, well-inlbrmed, and influential in many laudable things, but who appear to me, to have yielded without a struggle to this ruinous system of management. By pursuing this course, detri- mental to their own interest and diminishing the wealth of our beloved commonwealth, they liave already caused, and will continue to produce that abandonment oltheir native state and emigration to the west, which lias been forced upon our people by their increasing necessities. That this diminu- tion in the value of our lands is too mucii oiving to neglect and bad management, and that an im- proved jilan of cultivation ^vill, -with but little ad- flitional industry, effect a very great and desirable change in the present gloomy appearance of our lands, must, I think, be evident to all who bestow even a slight degree of attention on this important subject. To reclaim our exhausted lands, is not so imj)racticable as it has been considered: but it requires the dissemination of information acquired by experience, and the free interchange of o]>inion on agricultural subjects. The work in which you have engaged, is a proper channel for the commu- nication of this mutual instmction, which I look upon as a safeguard of our happiness, and a har- binger of our luture prosperity: and I' consider it the duty of each subscriber to tlie ' Register, ' to contribute all in his power to the general stock of information. Under a sense of this duty, and not with a vain expectation of imparting any material benefit to my brother farmers, I have been induced to address you; and I have been the more en- couraged to do so, trom having already observed the good which has resulted from the communica- tions of some of your earlier correspondents. Having lor eight or ten years past, been in the habit of jjartially grazing my land, and having found, as I supposed, an improvement therefrom, I took up an idea that by pursuing this course, with the addition of all my manure, (a scanty por- tion however,) I could restore my farm to its origi- nal productiveness. But the period within which I had hoped to effect this desirable change passed away, and instead ofimproving,! had impoverished my land. I determined, therefore, to resort to clover; and in 1831 I sowed a lot of about twenty- four acres with twenty gallons of clover seed. Upon about one-third of this lot, immediately afler sow- ing, I scattered the chaff of three crops of wheat, which had a veiy haj^py effect: for although the whole of the seed took tolerably well, it came up much thicker upon this portion of the lot, and would have produced more than twice the quan- tity, by weight, had it been cut and tried. The clover here lodged. It should be mentionetl how- ever, that the land on this part of the lot was better than the rest. In April, twelve months after the clover was sown, I had plastered it vv^ith one ton of plaster to the whole. This clover was turned under last August, (1833) with double ploughs, breaking the land to the depth of eix or eight inches. Vol. II.— 2 I tlien, with a couple of largo two-horse drags, harrowed the land the same way it was broken up, which smoothed the suiface, although the weather was very diy. On the 27th of September, following, I commenced sowing upon this lot about twenty-five bushels of wheat, harrowing it the same way that the land was ploughed, and lapping about half the -width of the liarrows, by which means the land was gone over twice, the lajiped part finishing tlie work as it went on ; the hoe hands followed, chopped over, cleared out the water-furro\^'s, and grips, and broke up all the clods. The prospect Ibr a crop is, at this time, very promising, and I shall not be much mistaken in my calculation when I say that the product will be more than seventy-five per cent, greater than I have ever made from the same land. I am con- fident that I have added to the fertility of this land more in two years than could have been done in six, in the way I at first attempted its improvement; and that by some similfvr course of cufture, land may be so highly improved,that a ci-oj> of small-grain will lodge upon it, and render the cultivation of other croj)s necessaiy to reduce its exuberant fertility. Having abandoned the three-shift system alto- gether, and pursuing noAV a different mode of cul- tivation, I may hereafter give you the results of my experience, when I have acquired more than I now possess. In the mean time, it may be not unin- teresting, to give you some account of the present state of* my little farm. It consists of about two hundred and thirty acres, divided by a fence run- ning nearly throuirh the middle of the plantation. On one side of this fence is the fresh land, being the smallest portion, and containing about one hundred acres, which is already sown in wheat and clover; (the clover up tolerably well:) on the opposite side are one hundred and thirty acres of land, much more lean. Each of these divisions will be subdivided by turning-rov/s, so as to make two fields of fitly acres on one side, and two of sixty-five on the other side of the fence. It is not my intention, however, to commence with corn upon anj- one of my fields until the year 1836: in the meantime the division of one hundred and thirty acres is to be fallov,'ed in the course of this summer, and laid down in wheat this fall; and in the spring ensuing the -whole of this part will be sown in clover. 1 have no standing pasture, but use a tract of rented land for grazing; and should be pleased to learn ^vhat kind of grass would be most profitable, and prosper best, if sown in the woods for a standing pasture, the undergrowth being first cleared up, the brush cleaned off, and the leaves raked up and hauled away. The production of my liirm in small grain, has been moderately increasing for several years, by its having been a little more nursed than some others..' I have lor some time been in the habit of top-dressing. I have top-dressed clover one year old with v>^heat straw, put on in the fall. This plan is well adapted to produce a -vigorous growth of clover in the ensuing- spring. I have also used ashes on the surface, at the rate of one bushel to thirty feet square, well spread, upon wheat and clover, then covered with litter from the stable; consisting principally of wheat straw, thrown out ever}' morning into a pen, and allowed to go throuffh a fermentation. This I tliink the beet top-di-essing I have ever tried. I have top-dressed land too poor to bring a crop 10 FARMERS' REGISTERr-USE OF TOBACCO. of any kind, with leaves from the wood, mixed with wheat straw, which I think answers well, if fallowed afterwards lor wheat. The most ahun- daut manure we have is that from the iLirni pen, the top-dressing with which should be done in a careful manner; great regidarity should be main- tained in spreading it to prevent the tender plants from being stifled: other advantages also v.'ill re- sult from this care: the manure will cover a greater surface, and tlie land will be regularly benefited, whereas, if it is carelessly spi'ead, the crop ^viil be uneven, unseemly to the eye, and much less pro- ductive. I am now trjnng an experiment in the cultiva- tion of new-ground corn, which I had heard of some time ago, as well as more recently. The land is not cleared of the leaves, trash, sticks, &c., which arc not too much in the way" of the plough or coulter; and after the operation of the coulter, the ground is liilled up five and a half feet apart one way, and two and a half tlie other, chopping down the hiUs low, opening holes at the same time, into which tour or five grains of corn in a hill are dropped. The crop is cultivated with coulters first, and then with bar-share jiloughs, and should be laid bj^ just before harvest. Once hill- ing Avill be sufficient, and that when the corn is about t^velvc inches high; taking care to chop out the bushes after harvest. A preparation of this kind is exactly calculated to add to the natural fer- tility of the land, and must, I think, be the best plan to preserve tlie productiveness of the maiden soil: it saves, besides, the labor of hauling off the litter, unless it is intended, by collecting and burn- ing it, that the first blow in the destruction of the soil should be struck by the hand of the ov/ner, in- stead of his adding to his land whatever may re- pay him for his labor in its cultivation. It is insisted that the next crop after the com should be tobacco, by which the planter may avoid tlie labor of hauling off or burning the leaves, and may, at tlie same time, imjirove his new land. Cut upon estimating the profit and loss uj)on the cultivation of tobacco for a centiuy past, (not half the time from its commencement,) I am disposed to think the planter a loser to no little amount. It is owing, in my opinion, to that crop principally, that the face of our country presents so melancholy an aspect. Take a glance at the states to the north of us, and see if it requires a Solomon to judge the difference of the two countries. Theirs is a grain and grass growing counfiy, and quad- ruples ours in the product of small grain to the acre: here, to the unsuccessful culture of grain and grass, we add a toljacco crop, the worst of all others to impart any benefit to the soil on which it groAvs. The labor in cultivating tobacco, can scarcely, at any time, be intermitted longer than three daj-s; and aU other crops Avhatever, except in time of harvest, (and I have seen thousands of plants topped in harvest,) must wait for the to- bacco; and after it is made, it frequently remains upon hand for twelve months or longer, because the price it can command, will not more than half repay the cost of the labor bestowed upon it; and when at length it is sold, not one hogshead in a thousand, perhaps, commands ten dollars. The remainder is sold at from three to five dollars per cwt. and during the numerous operations retjuisite in its cultivation and preparation for market, gal- leys are forming and uicreasing; and the fences are neglected and abandoned to destmction: whereas, if our lands Avere cultivated in grain and clover, with other valuable grasses, they would present a vciy different aspect, with much more valuable returns. In some instances, however, a farmer might make a small crop of tobacco with advantage. If lie owned only a small tract of land, and too many hands to find employment in the cultivation of a crop of small grain, and was unwilling to hire out any part ol' his negi-oes, he might, by resorting to a tobacco crop, keep them profitably employed for a few years. s. B. ORIGIN AND USE OF TOBACCO. From the London Penny Magazine. Tobacco was introduced into Europe from the province of Tabaca in St. Domingo, in 1559, by u Spanish gentleman, named Hernandez de Toledo, who broil gilt a small quantity uito Sjiain and Por- tugal. From thence, by the means ol'the French ambassador at Lislion, Jean Nicot, from whom it derived its name of Nicolia, it found its way to Paris, where it was used in the form of a powder by Catherine de Mechci. Tobacco then came un- der the patronage of the Cardinal Santa Croce, the pope's nuncio, who, returning frorh his embassy at the Spanish and Portuguese courts, caiTied the , plant to his own country, and thus acqiured a fame little inferior to that which, at another period, he had Avon by piously bringing a porticjn of the real cross from the Holy Land. Both in France and in the Papal States it was at once received Avith general enthusiasm, in the shape of snuff; but it Avas some time after the use of tobacco as snuff, that the practice of smoking it commenced. This practice is generally supposetl to have been introduced into England by Sir Walter Raleigh; but Camden says, in his ' Elizabeth,' that Sir Francis Drake and his companions, on their return Irom Virginia 1585, Avere " the first, as far as he knew, who introduced the Indian plant, called Tabacca or Nicotia, into England, having been taught by the Indians to use it as a remedy against indigestion. And from the time of their return," says he, " it immediately began to grow into very general use, and to bear a high price; a great many persons, some from luxurj^, and others for their health, being wont to draw in the strong-smelling smoke with insatiable greediness through an eartheuAvare tube, and then to puff it Ibilh again through their nostrils; so that tabacca-taverns, (taberna? tabaccante) are noAv as generally kept in all our toAvns, as Avine-houses or beer-houses." No doubt the tobacco-taverns of Queen Eliza- beth's times were not unworthy predecessors of the splendid cigar divans of the present day. It appears from a note in the ' Criminal Trials,' vol. i. p. 361, that in 1600, the French ambassador, in his despatches, represented the Peers, on the trial of the Earls of Essex and Southampton, as smok- ing tobacco copiously Avhile they deliberated on their verdict. Sir Walter Raleigh, too, Avas ac- cused of having sat Avith his pipe at the Avindow of the armoury, Avliile he looked on at the execu- tion of Essex in the Tower. Both these stories are probably untrue, but the mere relation of them by contemporaneous writers shows that they were not then monstrously mcredible, and they therefore prove the generality of the practice of FARMERS' REGISTER— AGE OF THE HORSE. 11 Binoking at that, time amongst the higlier class ol' societ)^ Arte a time, ho^\'•ever, the practice of smoking tobacco appears to have met with etre- nuoas opposition in high places, both in this coun- try and other parts of Europe. Its principal op- ponenti? were the priests, the physicians, and the sovereign ])riiices; by the lormer its use was de- clared sinful; and, in 1684, Pope Urban VIII. pub- lished a bull, exconununicating all persons found guilty of taking snidi'\\hGn in church. This bull was renewed in 1690, by Pojie Innocent; and, about twenty-nine years afterwards, the Sultan Amurath IV. made smoking a capital oflcnce. For a long time smoking was ibrbidden in Russia, under pain of having the nose cut ofl; and in some parts of Switzerland, it was likewise made a sub- ject of public prosecution — the police regulations of the Canton of Berne, in 1661, placing the pro- hibition of smoking in tlie list of the Ten Com- mandments, immediately imderthat against adul- tery. Na}^, that British Solomon, James I., did not think it beneath the royal dignity to take u}) his pen upon the subject. He accordingly, in 1603, published his famous ' Counterblaste to To- bacco,' in which the following remarkable passage occurs: — " It is a custom loathesome to the eye, hateful to the nose,harmfull to the braine, dangerous to the lungs, and in the black stinking fume thereof nearest resembling the horrible St}'gian smoke of the pit that is bottomless." But notwithstanding this regal and priestly Avrath, the use of the plant extended itsell'far and wide; and tobacco is at this moment, perhaps the most general luxuiy in exis- tence. The allui?ion to the practice in the follow- ing lines, taken from the ' Marrow of Compli- ment,' written in 16-54, seems to show the pre\'a- lence of smoking at that period: — } " Much meat doth Ghittony procure To feed men fat as swine; But he's a frugal man indeed. That on a leaf can dine ! He needs no napldn for his hands, His fingers' ends to wipe, That hath his kitchen in a box. His roast meat in a Pipe !" [Before meeting with the foregoing article, we had marked several passages from old authors on this sub- ject, which will make a suitable addition. King James in his Counterblaste says tobacco "makes a kitchen, also, often in the inward parts of men, soyl- ing and infecting them with an unctious and oily kind of soote, as hath been found in some great tobacco takers, that after their death were opened:" and in his Witty Apothegms, after observing that " a tobacco pipe is a lively image of hell," the royal author specifies the things , which he most abhoiTed, by saying that " were I to invite the devil to dinner, he should have three dishes — 1st a pig; 2d a pole of ling, and mustard; and 3d a pipe of tobacco for digesture." Old Burton in his Anatomy of Melancholy, says of tobacco — "a good vomit I confesse; a vertuous herbe, if it be well qualified, opportunely taken, and medi- cinally used; but as it is commonly used by most men, which take it as tinkers do ale, 'tis a plague, a mis- chiefe, a violent purger of goods, lands, health; hellish, develish, damned tobacco; the ruin and overthrow of body and soule." — Jlnaioiny of Melancholy. The following account of tobacco is from the Latin- English Diction;dry of Francis Holy-oke. The copy before us was printed in 1659, the last year of the hfe of Oliver Cromwell; but as it is the seventh edition, it is probable that the whole of this account of " Ta- bacco" is much older than the book itself, and was probably copied without alteration from the first, through every successive edition of the dictionaiy. " Tabacco herba ah insula Tabaco, §-c. A kind of herbe called Tabacco, it is like henbane, and may be called the Indian henbane, hot and dry in the third degree (as I take it.) The juyce of the greene leafe is good to cure any greene wound, though it be poysoned, the syrup is good for divers diseases, the smoake of the leai'e dryed and taken in a pipe, is used as in old time Tussilage was, for the cure of the Tissike, the cough of the lungs, distillations of Rheumes, cold, toothach, headach, and in fine whatsoever disease commeth of a cold and moyst cause, and good for all full bodies, that are cold and moyst of constitution, if it be moderately used, and taken upon an empty stomacke, and that it be good Indian, and not sophisticated, Iramoderatly taken, it diyeth the body, inflameth the blood, burteth [burneth?] the braine and intoxicateth, breedeth wind and crudity, and hath a bewitching facultie that when men use it overmuch they cannot leave it. See Week- erus and others; now of the syrupe of Tabacco they make a vomit."] Fiom the Library of Useful Knowledge. AGE OF TIIK HORSE. The method of judging the age of a horse is by examining the teeth, which amount to ibrty when complete; namely, six nippers, or incisors, as they are sometimes called, two tushes, and .six grinders on each side, in both jaws. A foal, when first born, has in each jaw the first and second grind- ers developed; in about a week the two centre nip- pers make their appearance, and within a month a third grinder. Between the sixth and ninth month the whole of the nippers appear, completing the coWs mouth. At the completion of the first year, a fourth grinder appears, and a fifth by the end of the second year. At this period a new process commences, the front or first grinder giv- ing way, which is succeeded by a larger and per- manent tooth, and between two years and a half and three years the two middle nippers are dis- placed, and succeeded by permanent teeth. At three years old the, sixth grinder has either made, or is about making its appearance. In the fourth year another pair of nippers and the second pair of grinders are shed; and the comer nippers, toward the end of the fifth year, are succeeded by permanent teeth, when the mouth is considered almost perfect, and the colt or filly becomes a horse or a mare. What is called the mark of the teeth by which a judgment of the age of a horse for several years may be formed, consists of a por- tion of the enamel bending over and forming a httle pit in the surface of the nipper, the inside and bottom of which becomes blackened by the food. This soon begins to wear down, and the mark becomes shorter and wider, and fainter. By the end of the first yetu- the mark in the two middle teeth is wide and faint, and becomes stOl wider and fainter till the end of the third year, by which time the centre nippers have been displaced by 19 FARMERS' REGISTER—VOLCANIC SOIL. the permanent teeth, which are larger tlian the others, though not yet so high, and the mark is long, narrow, deep, and black. At lorn' jcars the second pair of permanent nijjpers will be up, the marlf of which will be deep, while that of the first pair will be somewhat fainter, and that of the corner pair nearly effaced. At this age, too, the tushes Be- gin to ajipear. Bet^veen the Iburth and fifth year, the corner nijipers h;ive been shed, and the new teeth come quite up, showing the long deep irreg- ular mark; the other nippers bearing evident tokens of increasing wearing. At six years the mark on the centre nij^ipers is ^tvorn out, but there is still a brown hue in the centre of the tooth. At seven years the mark will be worn ii'om the four centre nippers, and will have completely disapi)eared at eight years from them all. It may be added, that it is the lower jaw of the horse that is usually ex- amined, and which is here described. The changes of the teeth taking place in both jaws about the same time, but the cavity of the teeth in the upper jaw being somewhat deeper, the mark lasts longer, though the exact pei'iod is a matter of controversj-. According to what may be considered good au- thority, however, it may be stated that at nine years the mark will be worn from the middle nip- pers, from the next pair at ten, and from all the uijper nippers at eleven. During all tliis time the tushes (the extremities of which are at first sharp-point- ed and curved) become gradually blunter, shorter, and rounder. THE3 CHANGE OF VOLCAKIO PRODUCTS TO FERTILE SOILi. [The slow but certain change of lava and other pro- ducts of volcanoes to feiiile soil, has long been known as a remarkable and general operation of na- ture. The length of time required for this process is as various as are the proportions of the materials acted on; and even the shortest periods have generally been too long to be recorded by authentic history. The neighborhood of Siena, in Italy, still remains as bar- ren and desolate as if the volcanic covering of the €arth was of recent formation: yet it is'knownthat the eruption that produced it took place more than three thousand years ago. To this, a remarkable contrast is presented in the following account of the island of Ascension, on which, the fertilizing effects of natural causes liave rapidly worked to convert a naked and desolate rock, to a fertile habitation for man.] From MorrcH's Vo3ases. The island of Ascension was formerly described as " a barren uninhabited island in the South At- lantic Ocean, without soil or vegetation," and as "an impracticable heap of volcanic ashes." This descri^jtion was once correct; but industry, skiU, and jjei'severance have now rendered a more fa- vorable one appro]>riate. The island is in fact a shattered volcano, the pulverized materials of which, are rapidly becoming converted into a rich and fertile soil, it formerly'belonged to the Por- tuguese, who discovered it in 1501; but in 1816, eome English families from the island of St. He- lena settled here, and it was taken ])ossession oi by the British government as a military station; and sixty transport ships provided the g-umson ol two hundred men Avith supplies from the Cape of Good Hope. A fort was erected, roads construct- ed, gardens planted, houses built, &c. This island is of triangidar shape, about twenty miles in circumference; being eight miles from north to south, and five miles and a half li'om east to west. It may be seen from the mast-head in clear weather at the distance of ten leagues, its appearance is imeven and rugged, being an as- semblage of hills, with a mountain overlooking them from the south. This is called Green Moun- tain, and is about eight hundred yards in height. The best anchorage at this island is in Turtle Cove, in eight or ten fathoms of water, Avith the flag-staff on Cross-Hill bearing south-east-half- east; Rat Corner, south-south-west. Distance from the nearest shore about one mile. A heavy surf of^en interrujjfs the landing for several daya together. The whole island is of volcanic origin, and the surface is now partly covered Avith a reddish soil, while in some places there is a yelloAv earth re- sembling ochre-. A fine black earth covers the bottom of the valleys, Avhich are now in a fine state of cultivation by the little military colony before alluded to. Tlie island is composed of several co- nic hiUs, from two hundred and filly to three hun- dred and fitly yards in lieight. Green Moimtain has a double top, rising in tAvo peaks, like the Grecian Parnassus. In almost every part of the island, as Mr. Purdy justly observes, are found prodigious quantities of rocks full of holes like a honey-comb; together with calcined stones, very light, and pumice-stones. " '^riie rocks, lying upon each other in a very irregular Avay, and mostly on the declivity of hUls, leave great chasms betAveen them; and as they have very little solidi- ty, an observer runs some risk who ventures with- out caution upon them." About the middle of the island, and betAveen the hills, there are seA'eral little plaijis, which are divided into small spaces, so remarkably distributed that you would take them for so many pieces of land cleared of stones, and separated from each other by long Avails. According to the statement of the officers of the English brig Slaney, Avho visited this island in February, 1827, Ascension was then (under the goAernmcnt of Lieutenant Colonel Nicholls) in a most flourishing state of progressive improve- ment as to its resources, both natural and :u"tificial. Roads are constructing from the several springs (sixteen in number) to convey water to the gar- rison; and hopes Avere entertained of being able to supply a squadron AA'ith that essential article in the course of a year, by means of iron pipes from the princij^al spring to a reservoir near the beach. Pasturay education, and early habits; and also by a de- gree of enthusiasm and ardor tijr a iixvorite ob- ject, which .causes it to be the sole object of pur- suit, to the neglect of others perhaps of ecjual im- portance. Fortunately for the success of such projectors of improvements, most of the aits, and our complicated employments, have been di- vided into as many septu-ate departments as the projier division of labor requires, and each man may find employment for his intellectual, as well as physical powers, in the particular pursuit in which he ieels most interested, without being dis- tracted by any other cngtigements. When Ark- wright (tor example) had, alter the study of years, conceived his plan ibr spinning cotton by ma- chinery, which has, by its success, revolutionized the mauutactures and commerce of the world, he had only to bring his directing mind to bear on workmen and materials of every, and ttie most perfect kind, to have his schemes reduced to prac- tice. He had only to give general directions, to state what he wanted, and whatever could be made with wood and metal, in the liands of the most skiliid -workmen, was soon ready for his ser- vice. But if Arkwright had not had such mecha- nical aids — had he been compelled to superintend and to direct eveiy particular operation, even from the cutting of his timber, rmd melting his metallic materials — and at last to be himsdf the cotton manutacturer, and the controller of its numerous laborers — there can be but little doubt that this great discovery would have completely failed.^ Arkwright would either never been Icnown except as the dreamy and indolent barber, whose schemes were considered (even by his own wife) as lead- ing to starvation instead of riches — or would have bet'ome bankrupt as a manuliicturer, because less capable of managing men and women, than to contrive, or even to construct the most complicated mechanism. It is unnecessary to cite other indi- vidual examples. Tlie fact is notorious that most of the men to whom tlie world lias been most in- debted for valuable improvements, have been such poor economists 'and managers of their business in general, as to liave lived and died poor. But we do not thinlc the less of the value of the thrash- ing machine, the cotton saw-gin, and the steam boat, because Meikle, and WJiitncy, and Fulton, obtained almost nothing li'om the sources of wealth which their several inventions offered to them- selves, as well as to the world. If a man has capital, prudence, energy, and ge- neral intelligence, he may succeed in many branches of business of great extent and compli- cation, though possessing but little knowledge of ■ any particular process — because he can call to his service talents of every kind desired, all made per- fect in their separate and limited departments. But not so in fariiiing. In this business (particu- larly in this country) there has been almost nodi- vision of mtellectual labor — and the farmer must understand every operation, and superintend and direct every laborer, or Ills interest Avill surely sut- ler. There is more naturtd and peculiar talent re- quired to manage a large liirming business, than to command an anny, or to be a passable minister of state — and there are fewer of the former, than there are men who are even renowned as war- riors or statesmen. The more ignorant the la- borers are, and the more imperfect the materials of every kind, so much the more of varied and extended talents are required in the directing mind: - and, therefore, it is much easier to be a successful farmer in England than in Virginia. If Mr. Coke, who has acquired and deserved so much fame for the excellent management of his Norfolk estate, could be placed in lower Virginia, to direct as large a business tlirough overseers and negroes, he could not by the apprenticeship of a long hfe, learn to make any clear profit. His general plans might be supposed to be faultless, and nothing wanting to carry them into effect that capital and judicious general arrangements could supply: still every thing would fail, more or less, in execution, be- cause it would be impossible that Mr. Coke cou.ld know how to provide for the most minute requi- sites, and also see that eveiy thing, however tri- vial, was executed. He would be, in fact, placed in the situation of a merchant, who before being able to build and em])loy a ship, would have to di- rect the preparation and use of every material, and then the mode of navigating the vessel — every order being supposed to be executed by ignorant and unwilling agents. It is for these reasons that farmers who are suf- ficiently zealous in pursuit of some object, to write ibr the instruction of others, are seldom qualified to attend well to all the details which a farmer's bu- siness requires: and even were it otherwise, the habit of wi-iting would probably withdraw from business that continual superintendence, and un- broken occupation of the mind, which is essen- tial to good management in business of every kind. The enthusiastic schemer, devoted to one object, whether he succeeds or fails in that pur- suit, will very surely not succeed in general ma- nagement. it", then, it were admitted that every wi'iter on agriculture was really as bad a farmer as has been charged by the spirit of ridicule, or by malice, it would by no means follow, that their instructions might not be highly valuable, even to such as were much better fiirmers (in practice) than the writers themselves. From each one, perhaps, something of value may be gained, though he "may be deficient in most, or in all other resiiects. But it is not only the wa-iters, but the readers ol books on agriculture that fall under popular ridi- cide, and eveiy marked deficiency exhibited on the lands of any "book farmer," is attributed to his applying to books for instruction. It will be ibund, however, upon investigation, that such bad management is almost always in violation of Aviitten instructions, instead of 'being in accordance with them. It is true, that we may find in books plenty of erroneous doctrines, and of true doctrines totally unsuited to our ciirumstanccs; and that sometimes, we err by following such wrong gui- dance: but errors of practice like these, are rare, and may easily be avoided by a discriminating judgment. With these views, I do not consider it necessary FARMERS' REGISTER— STEAM CARRIAGES. 19 that agriculturul books f^hould be i)erlect, to render them vakiabie and instructive — and that the prac- tice of a farmer should ))c good throughout, to make his example valuable in some, or perhaps many respects. I therefore readily accord the higiiest degree of merit to John Taylor, as an im- proving farmer, and a bciietactor to our country, although it is said that his plough-gear, and im- plements were of the lowest order — to eulogize tiic ed'orts, and highly prize the success of R. K. Meade in improving the live stock of Virginia, without encjuiring into the profits of his tillage — and (if you will permit such an illustration) Mr. Etlitor, I am content to })rofit by your opinions on calcareous manures, and your successful jiractical use of them, without testing them by your generid management as a farmer, which I have heard is very liir from being commendable. But I have conceded too much to our adversa- ries, by discussing this question on their own pre- mises. I deny that reading ever made any man a worse farmer. Books, and agricultural books, may serve to occupy the leisure of many an indo- lent farmer — but in that case the occupation is not the cause, but the eflect of negligent Jiabits, and serve to lessen instead of increasing its ill elTects. Of those who thus neglect their business, there are hundreds who change their pursuits to plea- sure or vice, while one does to study. It would also seem, from prevalent opinions and sarcasms, as if no reading farmers were successful in prac- tice. So far from this being the case, there are fi^w of the best farmers in Virginia, who have not been diligent and extensive readers of agi'icultu- ral works, and who do not owe much of their suc- cess to the general information thence acquired. I might name many striking examples — men who are known by reputation tJiroughout Virginia, as judicious and successful practical farmers — of whose claim to this distinction there would be no question, and who stand so high in this respect, that they are altogether unsuspected of the sin of reading agricultural books. If any of our despisers of theoretical and book farming, were asked by a foreigner "who ai-e the best ami most successful practical farmers in Vir- ginia?" the answer would most certainly include the names of several persons whom I know to be among the most extensive readers of agricultural books in general, and who would not hesitate to acknowledge their great oblifjations to these sources of instruction. Indeed, but for the gene- ral and strong prejudices on this subject, it would seem as idle and as ridiculous to adduce argu- ments to support my position, as to prove the ge- neral proposition tliat the pursuit of knowledge is aided by instruction. I will readily admit that a habit of reading works on agriculture, does not-always help to make a good farmer, any more than a habit of hearing sermons always makes a good christian: but that adjiiission does not mclude, what is generally claimed, that reading is injurious to working men. I will illustrate my view, by repeatmg a story which I have heard brought up for the purpose of condemning and ridiculing reading farmers. In one of the counties adjoining the Blue Ridge, some Iwelve yeai's ago, there were two ad- jacent farms, very similar in eveiy resjiect, except for their condition anil management; the one ex- hibiting every mark of care, industry, and econo- my, while the want of these, and dilaj-idation and waste of every kind, were as consjiicuous on the other. A traveller. Avho passed by the latter farm, on his way to visit the owner of the former, was forcibly impressed with the apparent contra^it, and asked his host to explain the cause. "The rea- son is plain enough," was the answer; "while my neighbor is in the house reading the American Farmer, I am ploughing." But the fault in this case was the indolence or carelessness of the farmer, and not in the particular amusement or study tor which his work w.is neglected. If he had spent the same time in gaming, driidcing, hunting, or paying visits to other idlers, his farm- ing would not have been better. Nothing will compensate lor the wantof industiy and economy: but the liu'mer wlio possesses these indispensable qualifications, will always be greatly benefited by intellectual improvement, and by the most exten- sive acquaintance with the opinions of the best tlirmers Throughout the worid: and these opinions are only to be Ji^^iund in books. Alter otlering these obsei"vations, it will not re- quire the signature to show that I am one of those who bear the repoach of being A BOOK FARMER. STEAM '^ARRI.VGES ON THE LIA ERPOOL RAIL- WAV. Extract Tumi Dr. Lindner's Lectures on the Steam Engine. Some time belbre it was opened a contest took place on this railway between three diflcrent steam coaches. The Rocket, constructed by Mr. Ste- venson; the Sanspareil, by Mr. Ilackworth; and tlie Novelty, by Messrs. Braithwait and Ericson, Jbr a prize of £500, offered by the directors to that which should accomplish the greatest dis- tance in the shortest time. On this occasion the Rocket, which gained the prize, went over the space of .30 miles in 2 hours 6 minutes and 49 seconds, being at the average rate of 14 1-5 miles per hour. But in the course of the journey it sometimes proceeded at the rate of abov^e 29 miles an hour, and its slowest motion was about 11 1-2 miles in that time.* In May last. Dr. Lardner saw the engine called the Victory draw on the same rail road the weight of 92 tons 19 cwt. 1 quarter, in twenty wagons, together with its ten- der containing fuel and water, from Liverpool to Manchester, a distance of 30 miles, in 1 hour 34 minutes and 45 seconds, besides 10 minutes spent in taking in water. The speed on this occasion vv'as in some places 25 1-2 miles an hour, and on level ground, where there was no wind, it was ge- nerally 20 miles an hour. On another day, the engine called the Samson, drew fitly wagons la- den with merchandise, and, with itself, making a gross weight of above 233 toixs, the same distance in 2 hours and 40 minutes, exclusive of delays upon the road for watering, &c. the rate of motion hiiving varied from 9 to IG miles an hour, and being on an average nearly 12 miles an hour. The coke consumed in this journey was 1762 lbs. or a quarter of a pound per ton per mile. The attendance required is only an engine-man and a fire-boy, the former of whom is paid Is. 6d. for * In another, place Dr. Lardner states that "the en- gine which conveyed Mr. Hu.^kisson to Manchester, after the unhappy occmTcncc which took place at the great trial, movecl at the rate of S5 miles an hour." 20 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON MALARIA. ciich trip, iiiid tlu; latter Is, Tlic expense of the orij^-itial coiistniction oC tlie cnginen, however, iuid ol' their \v(!iir iiiul tear in vi-ry :, as the first of the kind, has had to hear, and from tlie experience [mr- chased by which Ihlurc speculators will profit, it has been perlectly successful in a commercial point of view. 'J'he profils on the ca|)ita! investeil have been li'om the first above 6 per cent, per annum; and during \hr latter six months of 1831, it was at th(! rate of ahove 8 per cent, per nnnnm; and it Jias since probably exceeded tiiiil amount. The ori' power ibr coaches on common turn- pike roads; tin; (iicts continued in wliicli were prin- cipally derived from \\u' report on this sid)ji'ct ol' the Committee of the House of ('ommons, vvliich waa ordered to 1)(» printed, on the 121 h of October last. Dr. Lardner has here availed himself of tJUi information supplied by tlie same most intc- restiny and important |)arliamentii,ry [)aper; some of lh(5 ciu'ious details o-iven in which we may pos- Bil)ly t;d. 'J'h;it rales of loll have been iuijiosivl on .'•lean\ carriages, which would prohibit their being used on several lines of roadiicc(| hy the pestiferous exhalations FARMERS' REOISTER— ON MALARIA. 21 Africa, that leyiun ol" mental iliui(iic'8«, tliuLiij,'li harmless t(j tlu; iiativi^^s, ai'c Ji"uiof; and thus preserve their laborers in health." Many other instances might be men- tioned in wiiich malaria was produced by vegeta- bl<5 putrcliiclion, but those cited an; deemed suffi- cient to prove the position with which we set out." " We have already mentioned that four things are necessary to the developement of malaria; namely, heat, moisture, veo-et able matter, and the contact of air; if any one ol these requisites be ab- sent, malaria is not produced. From this iiict then we may deduce many of our preventive means; litr by reniosiiig any one of them we arrest the exhalation of this gas. Vegetable matter, with the co-operalion of lieat and moisture will every where produce disease, hence the grent necessity of enf()rcing the iitmost cleanliness in iiil large cities and towns, j)art,iculn.rly the removal of all collections of vegetable matter. The streets, yards, cellars, ponds, gnrdens, stores, &c., shoidd all be made to jiass fln-ough the most rigid inspection. Much good has resulted from fi)llowing this course, and dreadlid distress has been occasioned by neglecting it. Dr. Rush ob- serves, " in a manuscript of the life of doctor (af- terwards governor) Colden, of N(;w York, there is the f()llowing lad/. It was first connuunicated to the public in the daily Ca/.c-ttc of the capital of that state, on tlie 30tli of October, 1799.^' "A malignant lever having raged with exceeding vio- lence fi)r two sunimcrs successively in the city of New Yoi'k, about firty years ago, he communi- cated his thoughts to the [mblicon the most proba- ble cause of the calamity; lie published a little treatise on llu; occasion in which he collecled the sentiments of tliebestauthoi-ity, on the bad efli'cta of siagnatini^ waters, maifil air, damp cellars, filthy alores and dirly streets, lie showed how much these nuisances prevailed in many parts of the city, and jiointed out the remedies. The corpora- tion of the city voted him their ihanks, adoi)ted his reasoning, and eslaltlished a ])lan l()r draining and cleaning the city which was attended with the most happy elliicts." ''The United Provinces of Holland, (says Rush) hold their excnq)tion fi-om the |)lague only by the t«mor of their cleanliness. In the character given by Lullier of Pope Jrdius, he says "he kept the streets of J^^me so clean and sweet, that there were no plagues nor sickness during his lime." " Ponds of water should never be allowed to t'xist in cities or towns, or even in I heir neighbor- 22 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON MALARIA. hood. In such situations they too often become tlie reservoirs of oifal matter of ever}' descnption; which either by gradual accumulation, maj" finally rise above t)ie sui-face of tlie water, as happened in tlie instance related by Senac, or by evaporation of the water, may become exposed to the action of a hot sun, and in either event may exhale mi- asmata in abundance. " But as we have before observed, marshes, strictly so called, are the most fruitful souixes of miasmata. These abodes of this pestiferous air, from their great extent and other circumstances, will often not admit even of any attempt to change their nature; and all that is left us in such cases, is to interpose between them and us, the barriers to the progress of malaria witli which na- ture lias kindly turni'shed us, and which will be mentioned in a future part of this lecture. "Though, however, in many cases no favora- ble change can be effected, in numerous other in- stances much has been done to redeem marshes from their noxious state. The experience and industry of man have often triumplied over these laboratories of malaria, and from having been shunned as the foci of disease, they have been converted into the abodes of health and plenty. By a judicious use of ditcliing, so as to drain the soil of its superabundant Avater and subsequent cultivation, by wliich the earth, being frequently turned up to the drying action of tlie sun and air, wonderful changes have been effected. " With the aid of the purifying sea breeze, this course, (says Ferguson,) at the British colony of Dema- rara, within six degrees of the equator, has suc- ceeded in rendering the cultivated portion of the deepest and most extensive morass probably in the world, a healthy, beautiful, and fertile settle- ment."* " The Campagna tU Roma, now the abode of pestilence, was once comparatively healthy, and ivas indebted for it in a great measure to the " constant tillage," and " to the extreme attention paid to draining the de])osites of stagnant water," and to the aqueducts wliich then traversed it in eve- ry direction. " These, however, being broken down and destroyed by the Goths, by which the country became overflowed, it soon became exces- sively sicld}'. "In the neck below Philadelphia, since it has been drained, its agues have disappeared." " The clearing of wet land, should be followed up immediately by cultivation. Land of this de- scription having on it a growth of timber, should never have its wood cut down without the specific purpose and power immediately to devote the soil so cleared to agricultural uses; because experience has tauglit tliat the mere clearing of marshy land, is almost certain to be followed by disease in its neighborhood. In proof of this, Dr. Rush says, " it lias often been observed, that families enjoy good health, for many years in the swamps of Delaware and North Carolina, while they are in their natural state, but that sickness alwa3-s fol- lows the action of the sun upon the moist surface of the earth, after they are cleared. Fortius rea,- son the cultivation of a country should always fol- low the cutting down of its timber, in order to "Phil. Journal, No. 13, p. 20. prevent the new ground becoming, by its exhala- tions?, a source of disease." "Dr. Robert Jackson also eays, that "in this country, (America,) the unhealthiness of a place is often obviously increased by cutting down the woods of the neighboring swamps; therefore, no rule is more liable to exceptions, than that Avhich lias been so generally enforced, namely, that clear- ing a country of its woods invariably renders it healthy; unless the grounds be drained and cul- tivated as well as cleared, the efl'ect is likely to he tlie reverse." " Many places, previously healthy, have become immediately sickly upon cutting down an inter- vening Avood between them and the marsh, and on the other hand, many situations before sickly have been rendered liealthy from the growth of trees between them and marshy g'ounds. Dr. Jackson says, " histories aboimd ■\vith examples of destructive epidemics, which have followed the cutting down on the groves which covered mo- rasses or intercepted the approach of malaria."J Dr. Lisle in his memoir on malaria, translated by Dr. Johnson, and incorporated in his work on tropical climates, says "upon Mount Argintal, above the village of St. Stephano, there is a con- vent wliich has lost all the reputation lor salubrity it once enjoyed, since the lofty trees by which it was surrounded have been cut down." " He also says, " I have been informed by per- sons worthy of credit, that in consequence of fell- ing the wood before Asterna, near the Pontine marshes, Veletri was visited for three successive years by disease which made much greater havoc than usual throughout the whole country." "We will now mention those means of obviating the eftects of malaria, which are furnished us by our knoAvledge of some of its properties. The first rule we would suggest under this head, and it is one of cardinal importance too, is by all means to avoid the evening or night air, as well as an exposure to the atmosphere of the morning pre- vious to sunrise. The reason of this rule Avill be obvious, when it is recollected that miasma is dis- persed by heat of the sun, during the day, and that as soon as he withdraws his beams and sinks be- low the horizon, it begins to descend, and remains in the lower strata of atmosphere, until it is again rarifted and dispersed by his kindly rays. The instances already cited, show conclusively this characteristic of malaria, and wiU impress more strongly than any words of mine can do, the ne- cessity and advantage of the caution suggested," "Deiiisle says, "the evening dew is so much dreaded at-Rome, that as soon as it begins to be perceived, all the inhabitants shut themselves up in their houses:" and-again, "the people of Italy, and I supi;!ose of all countries Avhere the air is bad, never go abroad, unless absolutely obliged, till after sun rise, when the heat has disjiersed the pernicious vapors that have fldlen during the night." "In file next place we would recommend, that the upper apartments of houses should be used fijr sleeping; experience clearly establishing the fact, "that the lotvcr you are the denser are the strata FARMERS' REGISTER— RIDGING GROUND FOR MELONS. 23 ol" iniusmuta," and consequently the uioi'e violent tlie ellccts arising irom it. We have already mentioned several exanijiles in prod" ol' tlie supe- rior salubrily of" the second stories ot" liouees, mid need not repeat theoi here." ^ "The burning of a number of fires so as to dis- perse the malaria, by tiie artificial heat thus crea- ted, has otlcn been used with good e.ffect, in ward- ing oil' its attacks. Heat produced in this Avay, no doubt operates in tlie same manner as the heat of the sun, dilating and rarilying the gas in ques- tion, and foniiing an upward current, by which it is carried oil." ON ItlDGING TIIE GIIOUND FOR. MELOIVS. From llic XJcnoscc Farmer. I read the communication of my worthy friend VV. W. B. on ridging the ground for melons with rcspecttul attention, and have since appraised him that when ready, I would attend to the subject. He suggests tiiat his tailure was " probably in part owing to the season, and partly to the nature of the soil, " with which I acquiesce. The season was remarkably unfavorable to the gTOAvlh of melons. I have inquired of four of our best gar- deners, who have generally been ver}'' successful in this culture, and their answers have all been nearly to the same import: no success, or only a lew melons of inferior size. Their grounds were not ridged. To this testimony, I may add my own; and though I planted in a ridge, my water melons were very few and inferior; but my mush melons were good, and some were truly excellent. I think there can be no doubt that the soil in which melons are cultivated, should allow a quick transit to the wider in rainy weather. I was in- terested with Judge BueVs account of the expe- rijuent of underlaying the bed with straw three ■inches thick. In a late conversation with an ex- cellent iarmer, he remai-ked that he had genemlly been succeiasful in growing melons, Avhenever he had planted on a sod ploughed up and down tlie slope, so that the water could drain oil' under the sod along the botl^om of the furrows. He was careful to apply rich compost, or some equivalent manure to hasten the vegetation of the plants; and he considered this of more consequence, as the earth on a sod ncAvly inverted, is otlen crude and not sufficiently pulverized. From the lijliowing communication, written by my esteemed triend Dr. Stephen 3Iosher, at my particular request, — it would appear that melons do best when the stalile manure is mi a mass and covered up with earth. In my ridge it was mix- ed loith the soil: " I received yours of the 31st ultimo, request- ing the particulai-s of my success in raising me- lons on mounds and ridges. JMy first trial was on a new piece of sward ground which was plough- ed lor the purpose of ibrming a garden. On this I had drawn three loads of fresh stable manure, whicli was thrown into one heap, and covered with inverted sods to t?ic thickness of six or eight inches, in the iorm and manner of covering a large l)otato hill, which was Avhen finished, )jerhaps liiur leet high, and ten feet in diameter. On four sides about half way to the top, I made fi)ur excava- tions through the turf and into the manure, about eighteen inches in depth and diametci', partly fill- ing the holi's with fine rich earth so as to tbrm lour level hills. Iji each of these I planted five or six water melon seeds of what we cull the Car- olinia variety, at the same time that I planted about four square rods of the ground surrounding the heap, at the usual distances, with the same kind of seed. Within three days, the seed on the mound came up and grew most luxuriantly, while those planted in the adjacent ground, did not come up in less than fifteen daj s. During this time, the weather Avas unusually cold lor the season; and though several frosts occurred, yet the plants were not damaged in the least. VVhen those on the level ground came up, pale and sickly, — each of the former had four large green leaA^es. " The result A\'as, these lour hills planted on the mound, soon began to nm, and took possession of nearly the Avliole four squa.re rods, against which progress those on the gi-ound made 'but a feeble resistance. And from these four hilis I am sure I had a good Avagon load of as fine melons as I e\'er saw. From one single plant alone I weighed five melons that oA-errun tAventy pounds each^ — one of them Aveighed tAventy-five pounds; and on the same Adne were more than that number of smaller size. The produce of those planted round the heap was small and of little A'alue. ^'The last season, I A-aried the experiment by digging a trench three feet Avide, eighteen inches in depth, and some rods in length, — throAving the earth out on each side. This trench was filled to the level of the common earth Avith fresh stable manure, as in the first experiment, Avhen it Avas levelled and firmly trodden doAvn. The earth, consisting of a sandy loam, Avas then throAvn back x)n the manure, forming a ridge about a foot in height, gently rounded on the top. Along the middle of this ridge, I planted seed, both of the Avater and mush melon, Avhich came up in about four days, and greA\' luxuriantly, suffering less in dry toeather than jylants in the vicinity on the level ground, and producing an abundant crop of very fine melons. " These results are entirely in faA'or of ridging; but of the propriety of treating in that manner such a soil as W. W. B. cultivates, I presume not to judge. That kind of land hoAvever, constitutes but a very small proportion of our country. A heavy loam is the most prevalent, — though sandy tracts, and some of Considerable extent, occur in diflerent places. It may therefore be safe to conclude from the experiments reported, that melons should be planted on mounds or on ridges in nine-tenths of the gardens in the Genesee country. d. t. Greatfield, 4 mo. 21, 1834. HORSES IN BRAZTI,. The great increase of these animals, in a land Avhere none of the same genus had existed before the discover}^, a.ltered ca'cu the ])hysical teatures of thecounIrA'. The bulbous ])lants and the numerous kinds of aloes Q)itas or caraguatas^ Avith Avhich the plains were Ibrmerly OA-erspread, disappeared; and in their place the ground Avas coA-ercd with fine pasturage, and Avith a species of creeping thistle hardy enough to endure the trampling by Avhich the Ibrmer herbage had been destroyed. The insect as well as the vegetable Avorld Avas af- fected, and the indigenous animals of the countiy, birds as avcH as beasts of prey, acquired new habits. — (Sou'nafT-n<^+ir>n produce of their little gardens. The instruction that I give them, although somewhat more eleva- ted than what is generally obtained by persons of their rank in life, is directed to the rendering per- fect the senses and reflection, — to make them bet- ter practical men; drawing, the sciences of arith- metic and geometry, a uselul selection from the other sciences, all taught in the most unostenta- tious manner: the history of their native country, and an acquaintance with the different natural objects around them, together with music, form the extent of their literary instruction. "Religion is inculcated in every way. Public prayer, both at church and at school, is regularly performed in common with the schools of other countries. Besides this, these poor lads are taught to see the Creator in his works. When their ad- miration is roused by a natural object, they are accustomed to direct their thoughts to its Maker. "But here," said my venerable companion, "is the engine upon which I rely for affecting the moral regeneration of my country (and my atten- tion was directed to the men whom I had before seen in the morning;) these are the masters of village schools, come here to imbibe my principles and to perfect themselves in their duty. These men have six thousand pupils under them; and if, by the blessing of God. I can continue the direc- tion of them, success is certain." To insure success M. de Fellenberg spares no pains, — no expense. There are no less than thirty- two professors solely devoted to his establishment, who inhabit a house to themselves upon the pre- mises. In all, there ai-e about three hundred and fifly Vol. II.— 4 mdividuals in this little colony. Despite of his enemies, the sj)iritof De Fellenberg is spreading throughout Switzerland; and after having seen the parent institution, 1 visited several of his cstabhsh- ments in some of the remotest cmitons. A week closed my short sojourn at Hofwyl. I quitted it ^vith a heavy heart; and the recollection of the moral beauty of what I there \vitncssed will remain riveted on niy memory for ever. THE TANNIER. From the Southern Agriculturist. The tannier is a delicate and excellent substi- tute Ibr the potato, possessing some advantages over the sweet and Irish. It can be eaten with impunity by those who dare not touch potatoes; they will keep better also, and are good through- out the sunmicr. This plant was known and valued by the ancients, who used both the leaves and roots. There is little doubt of its having been introduced into the West Indies, at their early settlement by the Portuguese and Spaniards, and into South Carolina from Jamaica. It was classetl by the early botanists among the Arums, as ^vill appear by a reference to Linna?ua and Miller; but the moderns, (as I am informed,) place it among the Caladiums. Sloan, in his His- tory of Jamaica, mentions it as j^rum Maximum Egyptiacam, and says, it was brought into Portu- gal from Africa, where it gro^vs wild — that the slaves love it very much — that the hippo])Otamu3 lives on its roots, in Egypt — and the people feed on it as we do on turnips. Tayas or eddoes are eaten m Jamaica, and cause a heat in the throat, called scratching of the throat, and therefore only eaten by negroes. Sloan gives a very interesting account of this plant. At the early settlement of Carolina, many ne- groes were brought into it from Jamaica, and no doubt by them it was introduced. The name tan- nier is derived from Tayas, (tor in the course of my researches on the subject, I can find the word only in Dr. Willich's Domestic Encyclopaedia, and Mr. Webster's new Dictionarj^;) the former under the word eddoes, says, "another variety of the tan- nier, both these resemble each other, except that eddoes, are smaller, more acid, and require longer boiling than tanniers — they are planted in South Carolina" — and goes onto give some account of the mode of culture, &c. I would beg leave fo refer the reader for his amusement, to 1st vol. Sloan's Jamaica, p. 166, and 2d vol. p. 367 — also Willich's Domestic En- cyclopcedia, (read eddoes,) — Rees' Cyclopajdia, (title Arum.) Webster must have got the word tannier from Willich. See also Curtis's Botani- cal Magazine, vol. 21, No. 832, read Calla iEtheo- pica, a colored representation of leaf and blossom, from the production of an English hot-house. It is a perfect dwarf, compared to the production of our fields, which are magnificent and beautiful, the leaves often measuring three feet in length and two feet in width, of a perfect green color and velvet softness, and a leaf stalk three feet long and an inch in thickness. Catesby in his 2d vol. p. 45, gives also a colored representation, in miniature, and says, "A little before I left Carolina (100 years ago,) tliere was introduced a new kind, wholly without that bad quality (scratching the throat) and requiring no 26 FARMERS' REGISTER-TUSSERS "FIVE HUNDRED POINTES." more than common time to boil, and may be eaten raw without otlending the throat; this was a wel- come improvement among the negroes, and was esteemed a blessing, they being delighted with all their African food, particularly this, Avhich a great part of Africa subsists on." I will now give you my method of cultivation. Time of pkmting Irom the middle ol' JVIai-chto the first of May — soil rich and loose — neither too high and dry, or too low and wet. "Where old hog pens have been, answer well; at all events the ground should be ^vell manured to ensure a good crop; after the ground has been well dug up and levelled, make up hills three feet apart every way, or four leet if the ground is very rich, the hills not to be as large or as high as potato hills. II" you have no small tanniers, take the larger ones, slice off the top or crown part about an inch thick, and quarter the rem:under lengthwise, making five pieces from each; plant one small tannier, or one of the cut pieces (cut side down,) in the middle of each hill, about five inches deep — when u]>, and two leaves unfolded, haul up the earth to tliem and hoe the grass between the hills — three times hauling up will be sufficient, as the leaves soon prevent the further use of the hoe — nothing more will be required until harvest. As soon in October or November as the leaves indicate a smart frost, cut them off about a foot from the hill, and dig up the roots carefolly, ex- pose them to the sun and air all day, at night pile them up and cover them lightly with the leaves, or put them into the barn, first shaking off as much of tlie dirt as you can — in a few daj's you will find the stems of the leaves soft and rotting — you must then pare them off close to the root — trim off the fibrous roots — put them in your potato house, or other close place — separating the larger for use, and the smaller lor the next year's plant- ing; no vegetable is more easily cultivated, nor keeps better throughout the year. The tatinier should always be pealed before boiling, and the large roots cut into two or three parts, and three hours boiling will be sufficient. WILI^IAM LOGAN. ACCOUNT OF 'p'lVE HUNDRED POINTES OF GOOD HUSBANDRIE,' &C. By Thomas Tcjsser, Gent, first published in 1652. From the [Edinburgh] Farmers'" Magazme. Sir — The valuable papers in your Magazine, entitled, 'View of the Progress of Agriculture in Great Britain,' seem to have induced some of your corres])ondents to ])eruse the works of our earliest ■writers on rural affairs, which formerly had been thought unworthy of notice. It may excite sur- prise, in this book-making age, that the number of British agricultural publications, ]irior to 1700, ehould be comparative^ so very limited, and that none should be known to have existed prior to 1534. There appear to have been a few French translations circulated before this period; but history- assures us, that Fitz-Herbert is the first English author who wrote expressly on husbandry; and hence he has been frequently styled the Father of husbandry. In perusing the earliest writings on husbandry, it is not to be expected that the modern agricultu- rist is to derive much professional information. But certainly it is both pleasing and interesting to know the ancient state of agriculture, and the suc- cessive improvements it underwent. I therefore cordially approve of the plan you have adopted of giving a short view of the leading doctrines taught in our early works on that subject; and cannot help thinking, that a new echtion should be published of the greater number of them. The "object of the present communication is to give an account of the 'Five Hundred Pointes of Good Husbandrie,' &c. by Tliomas Tusser, some- what more full than is exhibited in the 'View of the Profrress of Agriculture in Great Britain.' This book was published in 1562, and has gone through several editions. The one before me is dated 1580. It is written in rhyme, but cannot, in general, boast of the beauties of p-oetiy. It contains much extraneous matter, particularly on religions subjects, a custom then very prevalent. But it has alwaj's been considered as containing a pretty faithful view of the state of agriculture at the time it was vv ritten. It appears, from Epistles to Lords Paget, father and son, and from an article with the title of the 'Author's Life,' that Tusser was born of a good family at Rivenhall, in Iilssex; received a lilDeral education; went to Court, where he seems to have been patronized by Lord Paget, and, for ten years, lived as other thoughtless young men do. He then married, and retired to Suffolk, v/here he seems to have engaged in agriculture rather from necessity than choice. It was here he first formed the plan of his Book; though, at this time, he does not appear to have had any high idea of the profession. 'As in this booke, wlio list to looke. Of husbandrie, and huswiferie, There may he find more of my minde Concerning this: To carke •&, care, and ever bare, With losse and paine, to little gaine. All this to have, to cram Sir Knave What life it is.' He did not live long in Suffolk, and indeed seems to have been too restless a person to remain long in any situation. After many vicissitudes, the last notice of him is, that he fled from London during the Plague, and settled at Cambridge, and proba- bly obtained some appointment in Trinity College, where he had completed his education. In his earljr years, he had been a singing-boy in a cathe- dral, and probably now turned his musical talents to some account; for, among other shifts 'to help to live,' he says, 'Let musicke win, let stocke come in.' He seems to have been altogether a veiy eccen- tric sort of person, but withal, at least in his latter days, remarkably devout and repentant, and veiy anxious to put j'oung people on their guard against the follies in which he had himself once indulged. The Booke of Husbandrie before us, alter 14 chapters of preliminaiy matter, complimentary, quaint, and somewhat dolorous, begins with Se])- teniber, and proceeds in regular succession, through all the other months of the year, though the ob- servations on the operations proper for that month, are not supposed to commence till Michaelmas, the term of entry to farms in England; and the observations in August are to be understood as extending to that period. FxiRMERS' REGISTER— TLSSER^S "FIVE HUNDRED POINTES. ■ 27 Instead ol' lullowiiig our author's plan, we shall give a short view a^' some of the courses oi^ ma- nagement he recommends. This will enable our readers to perceive more clearly the justness of his doctrines. We may first take notice of the agri- cultural implements then in use. A description of these is given in September, the beginning of the English iarmer's year under the title of 'a digres- sion to husbandry furniture.' Barn utensils are first enumerated, which need not be minutely de- tailed; though upon a reference to the book itself J they will be found to have been complete for the time. The two chief utensils are, ho^vever, want- ing— the lanners and thrashing machine. The stable utensils are next ad\-erted to; and then fol- lows a description of the implements more imme- diately connected with field operations. Both these inventories contain hints which may be found in- structive even to the farmer of the present day. Tiie j)lough, harrows, and roller then in use, are merely named; so no opinion can be given of their consti'uction or fitness for use. In regard to the first, it appears that both chain and swing-ploughs Avere employed; and our autlior recommends 'Two ploughs and a plough cheine, 2 culters 3 shares, With groundclouts and sideclouts for soile that so tares.' Horses and oxen are stated generally to have been employed in agriculture; but nothing is said regarding their comparative utility. He however recommends, with great propriety, that oxen to be used in draught be kept in good condition, and well shod. In regard to summer-fallowing, he re- commends that it receive the first ploughing in January, the second in May, and the thinl in July; afler which to harrow it, and let it remain in that state till it shall be found convenient to 'composse' (dung) it, when it is to be laid up, by which must be meant a fourth and last ploughing. With this treatment the Tallow could not be properly cleaned, the weeds having been allowed to grow from JNIay to July; but as cultivated herbage does not seem to liave been then introduced, this was probably thought profitable management in the circum- stances of the case. We shall take the liberty of quoting our author's sentiments on this subject. 'JANUARY. ♦Who breaketh up timely his fallow or ley, sets forward his husbandrie many a way. This timely wel ended doth fbrwardly bring not only thy tillage, but all other thing. "MAY. ••In Male atfhe farthest, tvvifallow thy land. Much drout may else after cause plough for to stand. This tilth being done, ye have passed the wurst, then after who ploweth, plow thou with the furst. 'august. 'Thy fallow once ended, go strike by and by both wheatland and barlie, and so let it lie: And as ye haue leisure go composse the same, Wheii up ye do lay it more fruitful to frame.' It does not appear that any drilled crops w«re cultivated. Turnips are mentioned merely as a gar- den crop. The crops cultivated are stated to have been — wheat, barley, oats, peas and beans, fitches, rj'e, flax, hemp and hops. Three varieties of wheat are treated of— Avhite, red and gray. Peas, white and gray, are spoken of as being in com- mon cultivtition. No varieties of' oats and barley flre adverted to. No mention is made of any pre- jjaration being given to any particular species of seed to prevent disease in the crop; nor is disease at all spoken of. He recommends early sowing, and the selection of the best qualities for seed; and is veiy particular in regard to harrowing and draAving of water furroAvs. Nothing is said of draining, which is rather remarkable. The ad- vice regarding the management of dimg in Feb- ruarj^ is incorrect, though too much sanctioned by the practice of later times; but the mode of apply- ing it is judicious, and too little attended to in the jiresent day. Oji these subjects we shall qtiote our author's words — 'Who laieth on doong er he laieth on plow, such husbandry useth as thrift cloth allow. One month er ye spred it, so stdl let it stand, er ever to plow it, ye take it in hand. 'Place doong heape alow, by the furrough" along, where water all winter time did it much wrong; So make ye the land to be lustie and fat, and corne thereon sown to be better for that.' But it must be observed, that the dung, applied at other periods of the year, is recommended to be covered in as soon as convenient; and some judi- cious hints are given in I'egard to collecting it. The author is silent on the subject of leases, as well as on that of serfs or bondsmen. The latter had probably been all emancipated before his time, and the fisrliier Avere perhaps Aery rare. Soils are not particularly treated of All that is said of them regards their adaptation for particu- lar crops. The author's sentiments on this sub- ject shall be extracted. 'Each soil hath no liking of every grain, nor barlie and \A"heat is for every \'aine. Yet know I no conntrie so barren of soile^ but some kind of corn may be gotten with toile. 'As gravel and sand, is for rie and not wheat, (oryieideth her burthen, to tone the more great) So peasen and barlie, delight not in sand, but rather in claie, or in rottener land. 'Gray wheat is the grossest j'et good for the clai, though woorst for the market, as fermer may say.' The mode of cropping enjoined in the Booke of Husbandrie is, in genera] agreeable to the loile Avhich regulates modern practice. Tavo succes- si\'e white crops are not recommended; but alter- nate white and pulse crojjs, or fidlow, are directed to be taken as the most advantageous. We can- not do our author greater justice than by quoting his OAvn Avords on this subject; from Avhich it will appear, that his mode of cropping Avas, in the cir- cumstances of the times, not only preferable to the plans of cotemporary Avriters, but the best that can be conceived in regard to the arrangement of the crops then cultiA'ated. 'Otes, rie, or else barlie, and Avheat that is gray, brings laad out of comlbrt, and soon to decay; One after another, no comfort between, is crop upon crop, as will quickly be seen. 'Still crop upon crop many farmers do take, and reap little profit for grcedines sake; [stand. Though breadcorne and drinkcorne, such croppers do count peason or brank, as a comfort to land. 'Some useth at first a good falloAV to make, toeoAV thereon barlie, the better to take; Next that to sow pease, and of that to sowe wheat; then falloAV again, or lie lay for thy neat. 'Where rie or else wheat, either barlie you sow, let codAvare be next thereupon for to grow. Thus having two crops, Avhereof codware is ton, thou hast tlic loss need to lay cost thereupon. 28 FARMERS' REGISTER-ADULTERATION OF MU.K, &c. 'Two crops of a tallow enricheth Ihe plough, though tone be of pease, it is land good enough. One crop and a fallow some soile will abide; where, if you go furder, lay profit aside.' A number of sensible remarks are also made re- garding the weeding, harvesting, thrashing, and disposing of the respective crops, sonic of whicli were apphcable only to the then existing slate ol things; but others deserve attention at present. The benefit of enclosures was duly appreciated by Mr. Tusser; and the importance of this mea- sure was rendered doidily great, from the circum- stance of many of the possessors of open lands being at that time not very scrupulous in observ- ing tiie line of their marches. In reference to which ho says, 'The country enclosed I praise, the tother deli ghteth not inc. 'More plenty of mutton and beefe, corn, butler, and cheese of the best; More wealth any wliere, (to be briefe) more people, more handsome and prest. Where finde ye? (go search any coast) than there where enclosure is most. 'More profit is quieter found (where pastures in severall be) Of one silly aker of ground, than champion maketh of three. Again, what a joy is it known when men may be bold of their own ?' A number of good obsei-vations are to be found regarding the treatment of Live Stock, which it may be unnecsessary to exhibit in detail. It may, however, be proper to take notice of the very ill judged, and, in many instances, ruinous practice which then prevailed, of milking ewes for too long a period after weaning their lambs. Yet expe- rience lias not been found so convincing as to abo- lish this reprehensible measure in the present day, although some have suffered severely by it. Our author says, 'At Lammas leave milking for fear of a thing, least requiem acternam in winter they sing.' Throughout the Booke are dispersed many ob- servations on gardening, addressed to the house- wife; from which it appears that Tusser considered the culture of the garden as her peculiar pro- vince. Upon this we shall also say, that if the ladies of the present day were to undertake tliis charge, it would at least put to silence the well Icnown proverb, tliat good farmers are always bad ganleners. hesion of the glands, and the nicest precision was required in separating the iniiMSor maxillary artery, as well as the jugular vein; but the ha'rnorrhage was inconsiderable. The relief afforded the ani- mal was instantly apparent, and truly gratifying to those who saw the operation. The animal is now quite well, and much improved in condition and appearance. The gland weighed five pounds. The improvements daily making in veterinary practice must be . highly satisfactory to gentlemen possessing valuable animals; and the advance- ment of this branch of science, which has been so many years neglected and left in unskilful hands, promises very desirable benefits to society. PECULIAR BREED OF SHEEP IN THE NEPAL COUNTRY. The huniah is a large tall breed, with slender, compressed, spirally-twisted horns, and short nar- row tail. Though now naturalized in the Kachar, it is of trans-Hlsmalayan origin. The color is almost invariably white. Individuals of this spe- cies are apt to have three, four, and even five bonis. The huniah cannot bear the heat of Nepal south of the northern division, and will doubtless flourish in England, where the experi- ment is making of naturalizing it. Its wool is supurb. — Journal of the j^siatic Society of Bengal. VETERINARY PRACTICE, From the British Farmers' Magazine. An operation of q,n unusual description, and attended with great success, was lately performed by our townsman, Mr, J. Barrett, veterinary sur- geon,on a valuable cow belonging to Robert Wins- low, Esq. of Wilton, Somerset. The removal of the sub-maxillaiy sparrotted gland, commonly call- ed wen, which had been increasing in size beneath the lower jaw, for the two past years, and fJir the last two months appeared to endanger the life of the animal fi'om suflocation and starvation, occa- sioned by its extreme pressure on the windpij^e. The incision that was necessarily made on tJie part, measured twelve inches: and nn arduous dis- section was then necessary on account of the nd- ADULTERATION OF MILK. From the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal. The subject of the aduUeration of milk has been lately investigated with great care, by M. Barruel of Paris. "Although his observations are intended to apply only to the milk of that city, yet there is little doubt that they will also be found applicable in a greater or less degree to all great towns. He sets out with stating that all instru- ments for ascertaining the purity of milk, which are calculated to attain this end by pointing out diilerences in its density or specific gravity, are in- accurate and useless. For, on the one hand, pure milk differs much in density, according to the fodder used by the dairy-man for his cows, the butyraceous matter which imparts lowness of density, being made to preponderate by some sorts of food, and the caseous part, which increases the density, being made pi'epoiiderant by other sorts. And, on the other hand, although water, the ordina- ry substance with which milk is adulterated by tlie dealers in the L'rench capital, Avould alone cause a great diminution of density, the dealers know very well how to prevent that eflect, and so ren- der the areometer useless. For this purpose, it is only necessary to dissolve in the milk a little sugar- candy, which is required at all events in order to correct the flat taste imparted to milk by diluting it with water. The result of M> Barruel 's inqui- ries on the adulteration of milk in Paris, is, that no positively noxious substance is ever to be found in it; that a common practice is to remove a con- siderable portion of the cream, by allowing tlie milk to stand for a limited time, and then to dilute the remainder, or skimmed milk, Avith water, and to give it the apparent qualities of new milk in one or other of the manners now to be mentioned. The opacity of the milk being much diminished by the water, so that the milk acquired a blueish appearance, it was at one time usual to correct this defect, by previously mixing wheat-flour with FARMERS' REGISTER— CANADA THISTLES. 29 the water with which the milk was dikited. liut tills adulteration was too obvious to the senses. Any person even of indillercnt delicacy ot" palate, could detect the altered taste of the niilic; and be- sides, after too hours' rest, the flour sank to the bottom, restoring the translucent blueness of the milk, and pointing out the nature of the fraud. To ])revent this mconvenience, the dealers boiled the tlour in the water before mixing it with the milk; and in this way an opaque mixture was pro- ciH-ed, which retained its opacity on standing. As even with this addition the fabricated liquid had a flat taste, sugar or sugar-candy was dissolved in it, by which means the peculiar sweetness of the milk was partly restored. This adulteration, how- ever, has become so easy of detection by means of iodine, which renders the mixture blue by its action on the fecula of the flour, that M. Barruel believes that the fraud now described is very little practised in the present day at Paris. In Britain, where the municipalities take no charge whatever of the purity of this most important article of food, it may be presumed that the adulteration with flour, sugar, and water is common enough, as it is a simple and cheap mode of accomplishing every purpose of the fraudulent dealer. The best mode of proving the presence of farinaceous mat- ter in such mixtures, is to heat the milk with a little sulphuric acid, to coagulate the casein, to filter the whey, and then to add to the latter the tincture of iodine; upon which a fine blue color will be struck. Driven from this species of adul- teration, the Parisian dealers have latterly resorted to another so ingenious, that M. Barruel con- ceives they could not have discovered it, without the aid of some scientific person. The method is simple, so cheap, that for ten-pence the opacity and color of the milk may be imparted to thirty English pints of water, and so far secret that no disao-reeable taste is conununicated. This is nothing more than the employment of an emul- sion of almonds, for which some dealers, more greedy and less cautious than the rest, have sub- .stituted hemp-seed, which however, is apt to im- part an acrid taste. By either of these means the milk may be diluted to an indefinite extent; and the only corrective required is a little sugar-candy to remove the flat taste. A peculiar advantage possessed by this mode of adulteration over every other is, that the vegeto-animal matter or vege- ble albumen of the emulsion by which the oifof almond is held in suspension, is coagulated, or curdled, like casein, by acids. The method re- commended by M. Barruel for detecting the fraud is founded on two circumstances, — the greatly in- ferior quantity of coagulum formed by acids in the mixture of milk and almond emulsion, compared with that formed in milk alone, and the facility with which, by kneading the coagulum with the fingers, oil may be squeezed out of the former, while none exists in the latter. On examming carefully four dilferent specitnens of pure millT, procured from different quarters in Paris he found that 300 parts of each, coagulated by heating them with an equal volume of vinegar, gave each a quantity of curd, which, when well drained, and equally pressed between folds of bibulous ])aper weighed 29 parts; and that the same quantity of milk taken from a cow in presence of a person sent to procure it, gave 30 parts of curd. He then found, that when the same milk was mixed with various portions of water, the quantity ol curd was exactly in the inverse ratio of the ])ro]iortion of water added. The water, therefore, did not pre- vent any portion of the curd i'rom being throAvn down by the usual modes of curdling the milk. He next found, that, if a given quantity of sugar was added to the mixture of milk and water, the quantity added could be separated exactly by evap- orating the whey to the consistence of an extract, heating this with alcohol, filtering the alcoholic solution, and evaporating to diyness. He then also found, when equal parts of almond emulsion and milk were mixed together, 300 parts of the mixture, curdled by vinegar as above, gave 16^ parts of curd; and that the same quantity of mix- ture containing two parts of emulsion to one of milk, gave only 10 4-5th parts of curd. So that filthough, as was to be expected, the adulteration with almond emulsion did not lessen the quantity of curd to the same extent as adulteration with water only, yet the decrease was very great, and very nearly in the ratio of the quantity of emulsion added. Lastly, on placing pure curd on white paper, no oily matter was thrown out; but the curd procured from the mixture of milk and almond emulsion, besides being less firm than the former, gave out in 24 or 48 hours, a quantity of oil suf^ licient to stain the paper. Another adulteration to which milk is subjected in Paris, is with carbo- nate of potass or soda. The object of this va- riety of adulteration is, in the hot summer months, to prevent the milk from becoming sour and curd- ling, or to break down the curd and correct asces- cency when the milk has actually become spoiled. In this process, acetate of potass or soda is formed. Neither of these salts, in moderate quantity, is injurious to the health; indeed, acetate of potass exists naturally in milk, and is the source of some embarrassment in the detection of the present fraud. The mode of analysis adopted by M. Bar- ruel is as follows: — As the alkaline acetates are converted by incineration into carbonates, he en- deavored, by means of this property, to ascertain the quantity of alkali naturally contained in whey. He therefore, evaporated a certain quantity of whey to dryness, incinerated the residue in a pla- tinum crucdilc, and procured an alkaline ley from the remainder, which by the process recommended by Decroisil, tor measuring the strength of alka- line fluids, indicated from one and a half to two degrees of alkalinity. Hence any increase of alkaline strength above the last of these points, must be considered as owing to the intentional ad- dition of carbonate of potass or soda. This is evidently the mostdilBcult of the processes recom- mended for detecting the various adulterations specified in M. Ban-ucfs paper. Indeed a chemist alone could conduct it. The others may be easily executed by any body. CANADA THISTLES. From the Genesee Fanner. I have recently noticed in the Genesee Farmer several articles on the destruction of the Canada thistle; but none of them seem to reach the root of the evil. I am, however, pleased to see the public attention draAvn to the subject. The extermination of this pest of our plough fields, is an object of great importance to all farm- ers, Avho are unfortunate enough to have them on 30 FARMERS' REGISTER— CANADA THISTLES. their lands; and it is tlierelbre, in a measure, in- cumbent on tliem to conmiunicate 'to each other whatever methods they liave taken lor that pur- pose, and particularly such as have had the de- sired effect. I have no expectation that this tliistlc is to he totally and entirely eradicated, and banished from the country, as it is a perennial plant, and is to be found on the road sides, in woods, and in all unoc- cupied lands, (at least in this vicinity.) All that can be done with such, if near at hand, is to cut them off and prevent their seeding. But being possessed of another manner of propagating them- selves, more sure and certain, by their side or ho- rizontal roots, which the cutting of the tops of the - plant does not effect or check; they thereibre must^ be permitted to remain, in such places, by a sort of compromise, that they are to be prevented from scattering their seeds on to our plough fields, from which I am confident they may be expelled, and after which, easily kept out; any further than this I shall not attempt doing or advise others to do. Some enactments of the legislature, as recom- * mended in the Farmer, would undoubtedly be of use. Such as obliging the owners "of land (at least such as is under improvement,) to cut them at the proper time — imposing a penalty for neglect — and making it the duty of overseers of high- ways to have this done on the margin of roads. It would likewise have the effect of calling the public attention to the thing, and spread the alarm. In articles of this sort, intended to guide the operations of others, unless one goes somewhat into detail, the object is in a measure lost; for those (if any there should be) who may be in- duced to adopt the method reconmiended, will have a wish to know all the particulars of the process belbre they commence. I shall therefore he compelled to make this of greater length than S supposed at first setting out would be necessary. What is here stated, however, is all from my own knowledge; nothing is given on hearsay. When I purchased The farm which I now oc- cupy, about thirty years ago, excepting some mea- dow lands, near a river, and some other small pieces, there were little or no improvements on it; being thrown out to commons, and mostly covered witli^small sapling wood and bushes — or as my Dutch neighbors expressed it, "it had run out to 6ifsA." In open spots in this bush, the Canada thistle was si)rinkled pretty liberally; and alter clearing and ploughing they began to spread to an alarming extent, and threatened to overrun the whole premises. This first led me (but not in time by many j^ears) to adopt some method more effectual than cutting off the tops to stop their progress. It is well known to all farmers as well as bota- nists, that the roots of no tree or plant, Avhether annual, biennial, or perennial, can long survive, if prevented from vegetating, and coming up to the light of day. My theory was based on this prin- ciple. I commenced o])erations about eight years ago, on some small patches in a field planted with corn, Hs soon as any thistles appeared afier plant- ing, cutting them oft' twice a week at first; and was very particular never to have it neglected. It would take but a few moments to go over a patch two or three rods square, whh a hoe; at the same time being very careful to leave none: and to be sure of this I generally went over the ground, row by row, a second time. The deeper they are cut otf with the corner of the hoe, the longer time of course it will require the new shoots to reach the surliice again. I followed them up in this way, and about the middle of August tliey began to come up thin and scattering, and appeared of a sickly, yellowish hue. This was encouraging, and we continued the operation, (though I tound it was not necessary to look to them quite as often as at first,) to about the first of October, or until no more appeared, and none have since shown themselves on these spots. By digging down to the main roots in August or September, they were found in a state of dcca)", being of a blackish color. The result of this first attempt, is already given; but I will give some- thing more of the details of the operation. That there should be no ditiiculty in finding the several patches when the corn had attained its full height, I placed high poles at each spot so that they could be seen over the tops of the corn, and kept a hoe on the ground to be ready at hand whenever I happened, in walking over my premises, to take them in my way, and. cut them oft' if any were to be seen. In this way, but little time was spent; in fact none worth noticing. And as early as the first of October, as before observed, they were completely conquered. I ascribe the early season at which these patches were subdued, to their be- ing allowed no breathing spell, and no omission being made through the season of operation, of cutting them oft' as fast as they appeared. I have sometimes in lieu of, or rather for the want of a hoe, used a piece of hard wood, flat- tened to two or three inches wide at one end, and sharpened; or what is still better, a piece of iron or steel, like a chisel, fastened to the end of a stick or walking cane. It is proper to have some kind of tool in hand, or at the spot, otherwise some might escape, when one was accidentally passing near them. Although the actual labor and time spent to de- stroy thistles in this way, is but trifling, at least in small patches; stiO it requires considerable patience and much diligence, that the thing may never on any account be neglected during the season of their growth; and I would caution all such as may have an inclination to tiy the experiment, that un- less they are tiUly determined to persevere, and have full confidence that they can do it for at least four months, not to attempt it; because by any ne- glect during the season, the previous time spent, is in part lost; as by allowing the plants a breath- ing spell in the sun and air, new life and vigor ia communicated to the roots, which is the thing in^ tended to be destroyed. As an evidence of this, in the season of 1828, 1 undertook to kill the thistles on a field of about fifteen acres planted with corn; and on which there were nearly twenty patches. Having placed the poles as before, I began cutting them as soon as any appeared after planting. They were fol- io vvecl up without any neglect, and as last as they appeared, until about the 20th of August, when they appeared nearly subdued, or in a fair Avay for it, beginning to come up scattering and yellow. At this time I was called away on a journey, and was absent nearly lour weeks, leaving strict in- junctions on my men not to neglect the thistles in my absence. How far they attended to it, I can- not say, for immediately on my return, I Wt\? FARMERS' REGISTER— CANADA THISTLES. 31 taken sick, and was confined until alter corn har- vest. The thistles of course were forgotten. To make the matter still worse, the ground instead of being planted again as it should have been, was sown with barley and peas, and in September fol- lowing with wheat, and the next spring stocked with clover for pasture. The same patches of thistles having revived, began to show themselves on the barley and peas, but being few in number and scattering, no attention was paid them. They have since continued to increase and sj;read by tlieir horizontal roots, so that there is nearly or quite as many on the field as at first; although they have been regularly mo^\'ed off every year, and sometimes a second time, and have not seeded. ing, and had become what is termed sward-bound, which checks the growth, although it does not kill the thistle. The same course was pursued as in former years, and the business was well and regu- larly attended to. But few appeared af^er the first of September, but they were not neglected as long as one was to be found. I think they are all de- stroyed; but to make the thing doubly sure, I in- tend to have it planted next season. A small piece at one end o this ground was planted Avith potatoes, on which I had never noticed any thistles. They however made their appearance, and were cut off with the rest. But when the tops of the potatoes began to fall on and cover the ground, it was with difficulty that the thistles could be This faUure was evidently owing to the business [ found, and probably enough has escaped to keep not being attended to as it should have been the latter part of the season; but might have been re- medied had the ground been planted with corn the second year, and which I shall do soon, and hope to avoid a like neglect, by which our labor m ex- perimenting this season was lost. The season of 1830, I planted another field with corn of about the same size of the last mentioned. There were on this field a number of patches of the thistle, some of them large, say over half an acre, some small. It was calculated that altoge- ther they would have covered two and a half acres of ground. Having as usual marked the spots ■with ))oles stuck in the ground, we com- menced cutting them at the proper time. The la- bor required on this field was more than on any I had yet taken in hand — the patches being large, and the thistles thick and strong. At first, and while vegetation was quick and rapid, the labor to go over them was equal to f^vo men a da}-; but in a short time one man would do it in the same time, and towards the close of summer in three or four hours. Some of these patches were obstinate, so that we were obliged to fbllo^v them up into Octo- ber; others gave up sooner. On the whole, thej" were totally destroyed. None escaped, and none are now to be found in any part of the field that has been ploughed. Although we succeeded in destroying the thistle on this field the first year, I should advise, where killing them is the great object, to plant with corn two years in succession, (although this m other cases might be bad ma- nagement,) that should any thistles escape the first, they may be finished the second j'car. I cannot state the expense of this experiment, as I kept no memorandum; but should think it would amount to not more than twenty dollars, if men had been hired for that express work; but as it was done mostly by boys, with myself j or some careful hand to overlook, I paid out nothing extra for labor that season on account of this job, and there was no neglect of other farming operations. But twenty or even forty dollars, would be nothing compared with the object attained, by clearing a good plough field of this nuisance. Had they been left to their natural course, they would in a few years by the running of their horizonttil roots, and scattering with the plough and han'ow, have spread over the whole field and ruined it for tillage. The last season I planted whh corn a small piece of about four and a half acres, much infest- ed with thistles. It was planted Avith the express \iew of kOling them — they were spread over a great part of the ground, but were small, the land having lain in pasture twelve jears without plough- fhe roots alive, and more or less will make their appearance another year. I therefore would ad- \ase never to plant potatoes where, and when, the great object is to destroy the thistle. On another account, I consider corn much the best crop to plant with this view. The roots of this plant, if it grows strong, run through and fill the gi'ound vWth small fibres, which has a tendency to keep the ground diy and hard; at the same time the tops form a shade, and altogether seem to have the ef- fect of checking the growth of the thistle, and aid in the operation of destroying it. To prevent the necessity of going over the ground as often as was required with the hoe, I last spring had made some iron tools not unlike a small light crowbar, flattened at the lower end to about a hand's breadth and length, and steeled. With this tool, in soft mellow ground, the thistle may be taken up to the depth of six to twelve inches; but the process is much slower, and perr haps the time employed in killing them in this wa}^, although the operation is not so often to be performed, is equal to doing it with a hoe, with which the gi'ound is much quicker gone over. The horizontal root of this plant, so often men- tioned as its principal instrument of propagation, will be found at various depths, according to soil. In lands under the plough, and in other rich mel- low ground, they push themselves along, in every direction from the main patch, and at every few inches send up a branch to the surface. On care- fully uncovering a space several feet square, I have found them in a matter connected and tied together with this root. Whenever they can be taken up below the horizontal root, they are mostly destroy- ed with once going over, and with the iron tool before described, tliis is frequently done; and where there may be a very small patch in a distant field, the inconvenience of looking to it as often as would be necessary with a hoe, might be avoided by taking this course. In wet rainy seasons, like the last two, I find they spread themselves much faster than m dry ones. The ground being soft, and the roots strong and vigorous, and meeting less re- sistance, they will push along a considerable tUs- tance in one summer. About nine years since, I had made a string of half .stone fence, with posts, and boards on top. The ground on which the wall was ])laccd, was rich bottom, and was set there to withstand the spring floods. It was made on the line of one of my neighbor's land, on which at a small distance was a large patch of Canada thistles. In a short time they pushed along and reached the wall, and have run along in, and under it, more than thirty rods, 32 FARMERS' REGISTER— VELOCITY OF THE WIND. or fitteen each way, in about seven years. Having heard that salt and strong brine would kill them, I procured, three years ago, a ((uantity talcen irom fish barrels, and taking oil' the top stones of the wall so as to come nearer the roots, the brine and salt was put on very bountitully. It had the et- ti'ct of killing the tops of the thistles, and wilted them down; but the next sunnner they came up through the wall as thrifty as beti)re. I see no re- medy in a case like this, but to remove the wall, otherwise they will travel to each end of it, and from this lodgment spread over the adjoining field. And I have no doubt, that if a strip of rich, mel- low land, reaching a distance of twenty miles, could be had, unobstructed by rivers, swamps, &c. a low stone wall placed thereon, and a lamily of thistles set a going at one end, but that they would in course of time, reach the other, and without the agency of any seed. On my mowing and pasture lands, such as are wet and never ploughed, there are some patches of the thistle; which have for twenty-fi\ie years past remained nearly stationary. They are al- ways mowed ofl' in July, before the seed is ripe, and if necessaiy a second time to prevent their seeding. In this kind of hard sward land, they are small and puny, and comparatively give but small trouble and annoyance. Whenever we have succeeded in expelling the thistle Irom our tillage lands, which is the extent of my expectations,"in respect to my own, and all that i would at present advise others to attempt doing, they may, I am confident, with little care and no expense, be easily kept otl' afterwards. The seedling thistle is very small, and as easily destroyed as a pigweed, should they happen to be observed. It requires Several years for them to form any considerable patch — their greatest secu- rity is their not being noticed, untU by their side or horizontal roots they have run out in different directions. Small patches may be killed by a deep covering of any thing that will keep them under, and prevent them from shooting up to the surface. This I have done with pomace put on to some very small bunches near my cider mill. Salting cattle and sheej) often on small pieces, will have the Uke eflect; but this must be done very often, and through the season of growing. The salt it- self does not have the eft'ect of destroying the roots, because it cannot reach them, but the f re- fluent licldng of the spot by the cattle takes off the shoots as fast as they come above the ground, Avhich is the same in its effects, as hoeing tliem off. AH these methods, however, cannot be practised except on a very small scale. I know of no plant or bush, with which the Ca- nada thistle so nearly compares in its habits and modes of propagation, as the common elder. This, like the thistle, has its seed, and its horizontal roots with which to form patches; and like it, also, in not being to be destroyed by cutting off the tops once, or even twice a year, but must be rooted out. The same treatment which kills the thistle would have the Uke effect on the elder; but this would be attended with too much trouble, for the small num- ber usually on our farms, — the better way, there- fore, is to dig and root them out at once. But I think it is as great an absurdity for a farmer to say that he will not attempt to destroy the clumps of elder on his mowing land, because his neighbor letg them alone to seed, as to refuse to kill the this- tle on his plough land lor the like cause. Since in either case, when they are once eradicated, they are easily kept out, let his neighbor's practice be what it may. In my various experiments, I have tested this method of destroying the thistle sufficiently to con- vince myself at least, that it is very practicable, and attended with but little expense,^ if pursued with due care and perseverance. If no failures had happened in my several and yearly attempts,^ another year would have completed the routine of my ploughing fields, but it Avill now take three — and as I am less than that, from three score and ten, and have a wish to complete what I have un- dertaken, I must be careful to avoid the like er- rors in future. I close this long article with the^ hope that it may be of use, by inducuig some of my brother farmers, who have a good stock of re- solution and jjerseverance, and a plenty of Cana- da thistles on their land, to try the experimc^nt, at first, if they please, on a small scale. I shall be pleased to be informed of the results, and particu- larly of their success. In the interim, I would in- ibrm them that I have allotted and set oft" for the ensuing year, a pretty large job of the same sort. The ground on two fieids being already once ploughed for corn, on which there are patches of thistles in plenty, enough to cover three and a half or four acres, of which, provided my hetilth is spared, I hope to be able to give a good account at the close of another year. A SUBSCRIBER. Note. — I would add one more remark, that no grass or weeds of any kind, must be permitted to grow on the spots or patches during the season of the operation, as they conceal the thistle sprouts, which may consequently escape the hoe. I have usually, on the spots where the thistles Avere thick and intermixed with weeds, hoed the ground well all over, as often as was necessary to destroy the weeds, and at the same time the thistle was taken oft' also. Showing the velocity of the wind in different circum- stances. 3Iiles per hour. 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 80 100 Feet per second. 1.47 2.93 4. 4 5.87 7.33 14.67 22. 29. .34 36.67 44.01 51.34 58.68 66.01 73.35 88.02 117.36 146.7 Perpendicular force on si]uar(> feet, in averdupois pounds and parts. 020 > hardly perceptible- 044 V*^®^ perceptible. io^ ? gently pleasant. 1107 { ples-santly brisk. ^ > very brisk. > high wind, > very high wind. 1.968 3.075 4.429 6.027 7,873 9.963 12.300 17.715 31.490 49,200 storm or tempest. great storm. hunicane. I hurricane that tears ■ up trees and carries I building-s before it. FARMERS' REGISTER— ANALYSIS OF GYPSUM. S3 PLAIN DIRECTIONS Foil ANALYZING GYPSUfll. For the Farmers' Register. It is not quite so ca.sy to analyze gypsum, and ascerlain tlie precise proportions of any Ibreign admixlures, as may be done with marl. Still it is not dill:.',ult, nor very troublesome, to go through such a process as will enable any larmer to avoid being deceived by any adulteration of gypsum of- fered ibr sale. In the pulverized state, as pre- pared for manure, it is impossible to detect the grossest and most injurions fraud, by merely the appearance or taste, or by handling the article. If chalk, and very white clay, (such as fonns some of the subsoils in Nelson county) were used to make half the weight of what is sold for g3'psum, it would scarcely be detected — and many iLn-mers might be cheated with a mixture containing not even the smallest proportion of gypsum. I know not whether such trauds are attempted — (and the character of the mills in Vii'ginia is enough to guarantee the purhy of their ground gypsum — ) out if attemjoted, there is nothing whatever to prevent their succeeding, unless chemical tests are employed for detection. The inspectors of gyp- sum appointed by law, who, it is to be presumed, judge altogether by the appearance, and other "sensible qualities, are no saleguard against decep- tion: and this particular branch of the inspection system, is even more useless, more deceptions, and operating more as a cheat upon the communi- ty, than the inspection of any other commodity whatever. I mean not to reflect on any individu- als by these remarks: the fault is in the system, and not in the persons appointed to carry it into operation But this is wandering from my sub- ject. Not being entitled to be considered either an operative or scientific chemist, I do not know whether a more correct and convenient method of analysis may not be practiced than mine; and there may exist in this, causes to produce inaccu- rate results, which my ignorance, lias prevented my discovering. If so, I hope some other person will point out my mistakes. G)'psum (sulphate of lime) is composed of cer- tain proportions of sulphuric acid, lime, and water, chemically combined. Some small admixtures of metal, &c. which always accompany the gyjisum of commerce, are too inconsiderable to affect the value materially, or to be ascertained by the pro- cess which will now be directed. Considerable admixtures of substances which could deceive the purchaser of ground g\-psum, must be of clay, or chalk. If sand, or silicious earth was contained in g}q:)sum, it would be evident enough to the teeth of the examiner. 1. Let a certain quantity, say 100 gi'ains, of gypsum of commerce be pounded finely, when quite diy, and then tried with muriatic acid, in the manner directed page 609, No. 10, of the Farmers' Register, for analyzing marl. Pure gypsum will not show any effervescence, or other effect, from the application of muriatic acid. But if there is any efferv^escence, it proceeds from the presence of chalk, or carbonate nf liriie, in some other form: and the proportion of this substance must be as- certained by the directions given in the paper just refeiTed to. 2. Then put into a glass another portion of the same article, say 25 grains, (finely pounded and Vol. II.— 5 sifted through muslin, belbre being weighed,) and pour to it a saturated (or very strong) solution of carbonate cf potash (which the apothecaries sell un- der the name oi'the super carbonate.yrhe two com- pounds thus placed in contact, sulphate of lime and 'carbonate of potash, Avill decompose each other, and exchange princij les in this manner: the suli)huric acid of the liist, will leave the lime and combine with the potash of the solution — and the lime will combine vrith tlic carbonic acid let loose Irom the j.otash: or rather with a ];art of it — lor the lime cannot hold as much carbonic acid as the potash lets go, and the sur])lus escapes into the air with' slow but continued eliervescence, which lasts as long as the process is going on. 3. When the effervescence ceases, (which may take sorne hours, and plenty of time should be al- lowed,) the chemical qualities of the mixture are totally changed. There no longer remains a par- ticle of sulphate of lime, nor of carbonate ol' pot- ash, (except the excess of the latter, wiiich haAing nothing to operate on, remains unchanged.) In- stead of these, there has been formed the sulphate of potash, and the carbonate of lime — the tojiner being dissolved in the fluid, and the latter in a so- lid form at the bottom of the glass. The appear- ance of the mixture is not perceptibly changed. 4. Pour off the clear fluid, and then add diluted muriatic acid slowly to the solid matter, which (if f^e gypsum was pure) Avill dissolve all that is solid (then carbonate of lime) Avith effervescence. If there was either clay or sand with the gypsum, they v\all remain at the bottom, after the action of the acid has ceased (as before described in the analysis of marl,) and may be separated by the filtering paper, and after being washed and dried, their Aveight will shoAV the proportion of such im- purities. . ' WhateA^er small metallic proportion may be in gypsum, Aviil be dissolved by the acid, and not shoAv in the result (as it should do,) as a part of the impurities. With this small exception, all the remainder of the matter dissolved may be consi- dered as carbonate of lime, and Avhich had been at first sulphate of lime, or pure gypsum, after de- ducting as much as Avas dissolved in the first step of the process. ■ Supposing then that 10 grains of the .100 had been dissolved by the muriatic acid, in the first trial — and that 7 per cent, of solid matter remained after the last, the proportions might be stated as fblloAVs: 100 grains of gypsum of commerce consisted of Carbonate of Ume, - - 10 grain.?. Clay and sand, - - - 7 " Pure gj'psum, - - - 83 " 100 The foregoing proportions AA'ould mark very impure, if not adulterated gypsum — though it is not more impure than some I recently tried Avhich Avas ground at the north. A specimen of the gypsum ground at Haxall's mill in Richmond, contained one per cent, of carbonate of lime only — Avhich very small proportion may perhaps ge- nerally accompany the rock, or it might have been an accidental admixture, caused by lime having been landed on the same Avharf. E. R. 34 FAI^MERS' REGISTER— TO DESTROY VERMIN OxN PLANTS, &c. JARDIN DES PLAiVTKS. The Jardin des Pla ite^-, at Paris, dates its origin trom tlie beginning of the seventeentli century; but, as a scliool oC botany and vegetable culture, was made what it is by the late Prof. Thouin, during the first years of the cqnsulshij). Speaking with reference only to what concerns plants and their culture, this garden isiniquestion- ably the first establishment of the kind in Euro}je. We have in Britain several botanic gardens, but none maintained for the same objects as tliat of Paris. These objects are two: first, to collect use- ful or remarkable plants from every part of the world, and to distribute them to every pa,rt of France, and, as far as practicable, to every other country; and secondly, to form a perpetual school of botany and vegetable culture. Plants are brought to the Paris garden from all countries, by a uni'versal correspondence, by particular natura- lists sent out at the expense of the nation, and by the general protection and favor of government to the objects of science and the pursuits of scientific men. Objects of natural history destined for the Paris garden, in whatever description of vessels they may arrive in a French port, pay no entrance duty, and they are mostly forwarded by govern- ment conveyances to Paris free of expense. Every warlike, exploring, or commercial expedition is eccompar;i;'d by naturalists officially appointed or voluntarily admitted, to whon\ every facility is afforded in the objects of their pursr"". Plants received in the Paris garden are propagated with- out loss of time, and distributed in the first place, to all the botanic gardens of France, of which there is at least oneln the capital of every depart- ment; next, seeds or plants are sent to such of the colonies as it is supposed may profit most fi-om them; and, lastly, they are sent to foreign con-es- pondents, in proportion to similar favors received, or returns expected. The departmental botanic gardens propagate with all rapidity the plants re- ceived from the central garden, and distribute them among the eminent proprietors and cultivators of the department. This, at all events, is remarka- bly good in tlieory. Botany is taught by the lec- tures, demonstrations, and herborisations of a pro- fessor., and illustrated by an exemplification of 124 orders of the Jussieuean system in living plants. A considerable number of these plants are neces- earily exotic, and kept under glass during winter; but, in May, bcf jre the demonstrations begin, they are brought out in the pots, and sunk in the earfh in their proper places in the systematic arrange- ment, with their names and the names of the orders to which they belong placed beside Ihem. The cultivation of vegetables, and all the diflerent operations of agriculture and gardening, are taught by another professor, with assistants, and exem- plified by different compartments in the gcu'den. For instance, there is one compartment in which all the different operations on plants and on the soil are exemplified, from the diflerent modes of preparing the soil for sowing or ])lanting, through all the species and varieties of propagation, train- ing, and pruning, even to hedge-growing and fence-making; another compartmeilt contains all the plants of field culture; another all the medicinal plants; another all the principal timber trees; ano- ther, as far as practicable, all the fruit trees. Specimen^ of the different im[)lements are kept in one building, and of the principal soils, manures* and composts in an appropriate enclosure; and so on. The essence of the lectures, accompanied by figures of such of the implements and operations as admit of representation by lines^ will be (bund in Tiunda's Cours de Culture et dc Naiuralisation dcs Fegetaux, by Oscar Leclerc, three vols. 8vo., with one quarto volume of plates; and a complete description of the garden is given in the well known work of Royer. — Gard. (Eng.) Ilag. TO DESTROY VERMIN OlS PJ.ANTS. Ty a coirespondent of tlie Gardeners' Magazine. In all the recipes for destroying j^cari which I have seen, sulphur is an ingredient; this, in its crude state, will not unite with the liriuids used for that pm'pose, and therefore it can have little or no effect, except when applied as a wash on the heated flues of a house. In order to make it unite with soap suds, tobacco water, and other liquids usually made use of lor destroying insects, it must be converted into a sulphuret, by boiling it with lime or an alkaline salt, as in the following mixture, which expeditiously and efiectually destroys the red spider, by merely immersing the plant, or part inf(?sted, in the mixture: — Common sofi soap half an ounce, sulphuret of lime* one ounce by measure (or two table spoonfuls,) soft water (hot) one ale quart. The soap and sulphuret to be first well mixed with an iron or wooden spoon, in the same manner as a mixture of egg and oil is made for a salad; the hot water is then to be added by degrees, stirring the mixture well with a painter's brush, as in making a lather, by which means a uniform fluid will be obtained, like whey, without any sedi- ment, wiiich may be used as soon as it is cool enough to bear the hand in it. This mixture will destroy every insect usually found in the green- house, by mere immersion, except the Coccus, or scaly insect, which adheres so closely to the stem, or under side of the leaf, llia.t the mixture cannot reach its vulnerable parts; therefore, in this case, the mixture must be applied with a brush that will dislodge the insect. If the mixture be put into a wooden bowl, or any other shallow vessel, small plants in pots, and the leaves and branches of larger ones, and of fruit trees, may be easily im- mersed in it by pressing them down with the hand. The above mixture will not destroy the black Aphides of the cherrj'- tree, nor the green Aphides of the plum tree, by immersing the lea^'es and branches in it; there being an oiliness on these inr sects which prevents its adhering to them. It will destroy them by applying it with a brush: but this is too tedious a process. It has been recommend- ed, by writers on horticulture, to wash these and other fruit trees agninst walls, before the leaves and buds appear, Avhh mixtures which cannot be safely applied after; lor which puqiose the above *The.sulpliuret of liine is easily made in the follow- ing manner: — Take of flonr of sulplinr one ounce; fresh lime, finely sifted, two ounces; soft water a qnart, boil the mixture in an iron vessel about a quarter of an hour, frequently stirring it after it begins to boil; let it stand to settle, and pour ofl' the clear liquor. If it is not used on the same day, it must be put into a bottle filled with it, and be well corked; for, if it be exposed to tlie air, it will soon attract oxygen, and will then curdle tlie soap, and smear the plants with a \\ liite sub- stance, which is not easih- washed off. FARMERS' REGISTER— REAPING GREEN WHEAT. 85 mixture, with tiie addition of spirits of turpentine, is likely to succeed as well as any other, or better: but I have not yet had an opportunity of giving it atrial. Half an ounce, by measure, of sjarits oi turpentine being first \vell mixed with the soap, and the sulphuret and water added as before; or the wash may be made slronger, by adding twice the quantity oi' each ingredient to the same quan- tity of water. For desiroying slugs and vi'orms there is no recipe so simple, atiendeel with so little trouble, and, when properly applied, so efl'ectual, us common lime-water. The jdants on which the slugs are Ibund must be watered with it twice at least, at an interval of three or lour minutes. li you place three or four slugs on the ground, and pour lime-water on them irom a watering pan, you will soon perceive them throwing off a kind ot slough, and afrer that crawling away; but if you sprinkle them again with the iime-water, they vvill not be able to throw oti' another slough, and soon die after the second operation. "SVhen a person has therefore watered as many plants as takes up the time of three or tour minutes, he must turn back to the place where he began, and water them again. Lime-Avater, for this purpose, may be easily made so as to be alwa3s ready. Into a trough, containing about fifty-five gallons of water, throw in two or three shovelfuls of lime, stir it up three or four times on that day, and the next day the liquor is clear and fit for use and will continue to answer the purpose for some time, without ad- ding any fresh lime, by stirring it up again before it is used, and letting it settle. If the lime-water be of sufiicient strength, it will destroy the large grey snail with tv\rice watering, and all worms that are out of the ground at the time of watering, and it will not injure the most tender plant when used in a clear state. THE CASTLE HOWARD OX. From the Biitish Fanners' Magazine. This most wonderful specimen of the short- horned breed was lately exhibited in York, and excited^the astonishment and admiration of crowds of persons who went to see it. Its color is white — stands about seventeen hands high — measures three feet four inches across the loins — and weighs upwards of 2G0 stone. ON REAPING WHEAT BEFORE THE GRAIN IS HARD. For ttie Fanners' Register. There have been published at different times various and opposite facts and opinions vvath re- gard to the prop.riety of reaping wheat before the grain is hard. In the agricultural journals both of Europe and the United States, reaping green has been announced by different persons as an im- portant discovery, and as if the practice was alto- gether new to the reporter and to his readers in feneral. To meet these statements, there have een others presented, of experiments conducted apparently with much care and accurac}^, of the comparative value of -grain reaped ripe and green, and the results of which showed a certain loss in the latter practice. Each of these various state- ments, sn far as I know, stands alone, and is not compared, or considered in connexion whh others v/hich are apparently in contradiction. I'his de- ficiency it is my object to supply, in addition to of- fering the results of my own practice in this re- spect. The subject, in my ojiinion, presents one of those cases in which both sides oi" the question are true, though each may app-em- erroneous to those who will not compare the opposite views, and take into consideration all the cu'cinnstimces which operate, or may be expected to operate, during the time of reaping. It may be true, (and i readily admit it as true,) that a head of wlieat permitted to become pediictly mature on its stalk in fine weather, will furnish the greatest possible weight of grain, and of the best quality, to be de- rived from the particular growth of wheat: and that another taken off in a soft and gxeen state, probably loses something, in quantity-, or quality, or both, and cannot possibly gain in either of those respects. This is the amount ofthe results shown by the experiments referred to above, even if it is conceded, (though very doubtfiil,) that the man- ner of making sucli comparative experiments was perfectly correct. -But though there may be no gain fi-ona reaping green in fine weather, and even some small loss of product, yet fine iveather we almost never have through harvest — and it will be better to lose five per cent, by reaping green (admitting such a loss to be certain,) than to save it by m; during, and then to lose fiir more from bad weather occurring while the wheat is standinqr in the field. This, I think, is the proper view ot" the subject, and the proper mode of institutino- a comparison of the products. If we could be sure of having dry weather, I entertain no doubt ofthe propriety and economy of not reaping until both grain and straw are ripe. But with the strong probability of more or less of rain — and the possi- bility of a .loni^ spell of it — I am as sure that a great saving will be found in reaping wheat aa early as the state of the grain will permit. What that state is, has not been described very particu- larly, in anj' of the publications I have read; and it is not unlikely that the uncertainty on this head has caused some of the differences of opinion aa to the propriety of the practice in general. I con- sider wheat fit for the scytlie when the grain is in the dough state — no matter h'ow soft, pro\'ided it ia clear of milk, or when no fluid comes out separate from the dough, when the grain is mashed be- tween the fingers. But no one square yard of wheat can be found, in which all the heads have reached this state at one time: and, therefore, when not more than one-tenth part of the grains contain milk, I think it safe to begin to reap. There will be some loss in the quantit)- of all the milky grains, (though no injury to the quality of the sample in general,) but less than would be usually found by waiting long enough for every grain to be free of milk. If the ]Mountain Purple Straw is the kind made (which has generally formed the greater part or the whole of my crop) it may be easily known by the puri}le tinge on the stalk, when the grain has reached the dough state. As I place the advantage of reaping green on the greater certainty of avoiding the effects of bad weather, it may be inferred that the expe- rience of several years would be required to make a correct decision. I began this jiractice in 1821, and have never since failed to begin har\^est as soon as enough wheat was fully in the dough 36 FARMERS' REGISTER— REAPING GREEN WHEAT. state, except in those years, when the pressure of other larm business made it necessary to let the wheat wait some days longer. ItJ therefore, this opinion is held by me improperly, it is not for want of experience, but for want of judgment. The universal practice in my neighborjiood be- fore 1821, was to wait for the grain to be hard; and if there was any doubt of the straw being perfectly sapless and dry, the wheat was left on the ground, without binding, for one or two days, to be dry enough to stack." My green reaping, when first commenced, was fully nine days earlier than was usual — and it was ])ronounced then that I was destroying my crop, by reaping it so green. My practice is" still condemned by many, who, however, have gradually and perhaps unconscious- ly, advanced the commencements of their har- vests, until they are not more than two or three days behind mine. The first year of my early reaping was most fortunately chosen. Ai'ter weather generally fine until the latter part of June, there began the long- est spell of rainy weather that I ever knew at that time of the year. The rain fell more or less for eeven days in succession, without enough sun- shine (if any) during the time to dry the wheat at any one time. I did not keep a farm journal that year, as was my general practice, but noted these circumstances before the next harvest, while they Avere fi-esh in my memory. I did not there state, and do not remember, the date of the begin- ning of my reaping in 1821; but the whole was finished, and the last reaped was shocked, just be- fore the long spell of rain began. It had rained gently one day only during my harvest; and a piece of thin wheat, of about 25 acres, had been cut down on that da}-, and still remained open on the ground. So much of this had sprouted before the rains ceased, and so much on the tops of the shocks throughout the crop, that I estimated my loss at one-tenth of the whole. But that loss was small indeed compared to that of my neighbors, and of lower Virginia generally. Some liad not begun to reap — but few had been as many as three days in harvest, when the spell of rain com- menced— and scarcely any wheat had been put up in shocks, or secured otherwise. The wheat left standing was so bent down, as not to be tolerably saved, besides being greatly damaged in quality; and what was on the ground was mostly sprouted. My notes state as the supposed estimate of gene- ral loss through our part of the country, from one- half to two-thirds of the crop. Some good ma- nagers, and many bad ones, did not make as much wheat as they had sowed, and that of such bad quality, as to be unfit to sow again. Indeed the destruction of wheat Avas so general, and so little was left good enough for seed, that it caused many who were before hesitating about such a change of crops on light soils, to abandon wheat entire!}'', and take cotton instead, as their principal crop for market. The saving made that year by early reaping was enough to pay for all the loss to be incurred by that plan in twenty years: and though such a spell of weather may not occur in a long life, there is scarcely any year in which more or less is not lost by rain compelling wljfeat to stand (or to lie,) too long in the field. When rain stops the reap- ing of green wheat for three or four days, the farmer is lef> just where he would have been with- out the rain, if he had waited to reap ripe. But to him whose wheat was dead ripe, having his reaping sus|)ended lor a few days is a most serious damage. Even if no grain is actually sprouted, every wetting and drymg after it is ripe, is inju- rious to its (luality. Besides this, no field can be reaped as easily, and as efiectually, after as before rain. Heavy wheat is lodged, and sometimes lost completely: and tlie stalks on the lightest and poorest land bend in curves, and in every direction, so as to render it impossible to be saved well when reaped. Now to consider the objections to reaping green-. I have admitted that there must be a loss, from shrinking, in every grain having an}^ of the milk remaining, and a general loss on the whole crop, on the supposition that a proportion will be in the milky state. But, (though it would be difficult to test it by fair experiment,) I do not believe that any thing is lost in either the weight or bulk of grain cut in the dough state. There is loss of la- bor however, (that is, if the weather continues dry,) and there is risk of loss, from putting the sheaves into shocks or stacks before their being perfectly cured. Green wheat may be made up into small sheaves, (the band being a single length of the straw,)-as last as it is cut down: but the straw will shrink so much on drying, that the bands will be apt to become loose, and many of the sheaves to fiiU to pieces. If the binders are kept half a day behind the reapers, that objection will be obviated: but others will be presented in the loss of labor when the I'eapers and binders are thus separated, and the exposure of a greater quantity of wheat, after its being reaped, to rain. But it should also be considered, that green wheat is less hurt when caught by rain, than the perfect- ly ripe would be. If the wheat is sheaved Avhen too green to put into shocks, it should be put up in "stooks" . of about six sheaves each, by setting the stubble ends of the sheaves far enough apart to give sufficient base, and letting the heads of aU the sheaves lean together so as to form a point. These stooks are easily made, will tlirow oft" a light rain, and will dry as they stand, if made wet by heavy rain. I have had such stooks to be wet and dry repeated- ly before the wheat could be put into shocks — v/ithout any more injury than would have been sustained if the wheat had been standing. But this was of the purple straw kind. Before I knew the diflerence, I permitted some white wheat to go through the same treatment, and found much of it sprouted by rain in the stooks. As to the quality of the grain, for making flour, I believe it is generally conceded that the wheat reaped green is best. What is the extent of the gradual advancement of the usual time of reaping, t cannot state, though aided by written memoranda of my own farm bu- siness for most of the years of the last twenty. Ma- ny of those who have never noted such things, are not aware that they now venture to reap in a state of greenness which they would have thought very hazardous formerly. I remember well that fifteen years ago, our iestival of the 4th of July always came in harvest, and that no one finished reaping before that time, unless he had sowed early wheat, and had a very small crop. In 1819, 1 began to reap on June 23d, (golden chafl' wheat,) and the entry on the journal of that day states that the grain was FARMERS' REGISTER— AMERICAN LOCUST. 37 not quite hard. I suppose that time to have been as early as any one would have ventured then. The ibliowing are all the dates of the connnence- nient of my liarvests, ^vhiL•h were recorded before my change of practice, and for some years alier- wards. 1818— June 25th. 1819— " 23rd. 8th. , 13th. lllh. 10th. 12th. — and might have been begun 5 days sooner, if" the state of other crops had permitted, 16th. — the ripening stated to have been made unusually late, by. the depredations of Hessian Fly, added to a cold season. 1822— 1823— 1824— 1825— 1826— 1827- 1828— 1829— 12th. ' 19th. — the beginning having been de- layed two or three daj-s by the pressure of other work. The purple straw, and golden chaff wheats, were the kinds sowed. There is so much difference in these dates, ad- ded to mj' recollection of our late harvests in gene- ral, formerly, that I am somewhat tempted to think that there has been an increase of average tempe- rature, as well as of change of practice in reaping. But if that was the case, so important a fact could not have escaped the notice of the many curious and particular observers of the changes of tempe- rature, as indicated by the thermometer. E. R. REMARKABLE HABITS OF THE A3IERICAN LO- CUST. There is no longer any doubt that these singu- lar insects are to make their usual periodical ap- pearance the present season. They are already easily to be found, at the depth of six or seven inches, in gardens, and especially in orchards, un- der old trees. By skimming off the surface of the earth, thousands of holes are perceptible, where they have been penetrating to the surface, in or- der we presume, that their way may not be ob- structed on their day of general resurrection. An old gentleman of tliis place, informs us that his father kept particular note of their appearance in four instances, and that he himself has followed it up, and preserved observations, also, in four tn- Btances — and that they have uniformly appeared ever}' seventeen years; but what is singularly strik- ing,that in all these eight instances,they were found to have a general resurrection day, which has re- gularly occurred on the 25th May. He further says, that two or three days previously, a few make their appearance, as a reconnoitering party; but on the 25th, the whole country is deluged with one interminable swarm.— G cnnantoto a Td. [If it is indeed true that there is so much regularity in the continuance of the dormant state of these insects, the time of their coming forth is not the same in differ- ent places. It was in 1829 that they appeared in pro- digious numbers in this county, (Prince George,) where they had not been observed before witliin the recollection of any person whose opinions we heard expressed. They were in much the greatest numbers in woodland where the soil was stiff and close: and in all such places, every tree was supplied with lo- custs in such numbers, that a traveller for miles togeth- er could perceive no cessation, or change in the loud but monotonous chorus kept up by their voices. These insects caused no injury. They-were not much more than half as large as the common green and black locusts, (or dry flies, as vulgarly called,) which, in small numbers, appear here every summer. The color of the former was touched with a pale dingy red, instead of the green which the common locust has. The name applied to both these insects is doubtless in- correct, as both difier widely from the great plague of the eai'th in other regions, of \^'hich we are so fortu- nate as to know notldng in this countiy, except by report. There is too much of the marvellous in the regidarly returning visits of our locusts for the statement to be altogether credited, though it has been stated in seve- ral publications besides that quoted above. But at any rate, there must be enough in the habits of these in- sects, that is both true and strange, to excite curiosity, and invite attempts at investigation.] HARDENIXG OF IROIV. From the Southern Pfanter. Dr. Bartldt — It may be considered presump- tion in me to attempt to give directions to a black- smith how to temper a tool when he has made it. If I cannot teadi a blacksmith I can tell a farmer how to avoid imposition. — I have noticed for several years that ploughs made and tempo I'ed by some smiths would last twice as long as the same kind made by others — this is owing to the manner of tempering. — ,In tempering a plough, all that ia necessarj' is to give it a thorough heating and cool it quick. In order to cool cjuick, it is necessa- ry to have plenty of water, and that of a good quality. — To undertake to cool a plough that weighs 8 or 10 pounds in two or three gallons of water, is absurd; more especially if that water has been heated a great many times. \VM. H. RAIFORD. Henry co. May 5th, 1834. ^ BUTTER MAKING IN CHILE. From Waldie's Journal of Belles Letters. In Chile, butter is packed in sheep skins, wth the wool side out, and would be very good, in spite of appearances, were it not so much salted. The operation of churning is performed by a donque [an ass;] the cream is put into large gourds, or dry skins, placed on his back, and then the animal is kept trotting round the j^ard till the but- ter is made. In this art they seem not to have ad- vanced a single step since its discovery; tor we are told that a countryman somewhere lost a large jug of cream, by carrying it for some distance on a hard-trotting horse, which accident led to the im- portant invention of churns and butter. A friend told me, that he had presented, some years ago, a Yankee'churn to a faniil}- residing near the capital, and taught them to use it. So long as it was a novelty they were pleased, but at the end of a fev/ weeks decided the donque made butter just as well, and conseqnenth' threw it aside! 38 FARMERS' REGISTER— HORSE TEAMS, &c. HORSE-TEAMS FEEDING EXPENSES LABOR. Extracts from the Fanners' Series of the Library of Useful Knowledge. Animal labor is an object of the deepest impor- tance, both to the public and to tliosc individuals who employ it: to the former, inasmuch as the amount of tbod thus consumed is so much ab- stracted ii-bm the general means of subsistence; and to the latter, as the value of its employment consists in the proportion of its cost to its power. It is, therefore, in every point of view, desirable to economize it, !?o tar as may be consistent with its efficient use, both through the saving of the labor and the teeding of the cattle by which it is performed; but to these considerations must be added a due regard both to the efl'ectual perform- ance of the work, and to the sufficient support of the animal. Less has been done for the farmer than Ibr the manufacturer, in the improvement of machinery, and unless the power of the steam- engine should at some future period be applied to the plough, he must still be dependent for the production of his crops upon the labor of cattle, which absorbs so large a portion of his profits, tho.t he cannot be too careful of this branch of his ex- penditure. In this, however, as in the regulation of manual labor, true economy lies more in duly apportioning the strength of the teams to the work to be performed, than in any mere saving of expense; and there is no ]iart of a farmers busi- ness that demands a sounder exercise of judgment than the selection and mangement of his working stock. It is usually considered that one team, if well kept, is sufficient for the cultivation of Irom 40 to 50 acres of heavy land, and from 50 to 60 acres of lighter soil, under common rotations; but the strength of that team depends so much upon the breed and condition of the animals, as well as upon soil and culture, that this is subject to much va- riation. Some tenacious clays cannot be worked with less than lour strong horses, or even more, on breaking them up; while a free loam may gen- erally be managed with a pair and whip-reins; and a course of constant tillage necessarily requires a greater number of ploughs than when a large portion of the land is allowed to rest for some years under grass.* Team.s should never be be- low the work to lie- executed: every such apjjarent saving will turn out a real loss to those who at- tem])t it, and even a supernumerary horse, for cases of emergency, will seldom be found bad eco- nomy. The great point is neither to be above nor below tlie mark: no exami)le need be adduced to show, that if too little power be employed, the work must be imperfectly done; and tliat if too much, a portion of' it must be thrown awaj'; nor, although working-cattle should not be pampered, is it necessary to prove the trulh of the old saying, ' if they won't pay for feeding, they won't pay for starving.' *In the report of the Morvich and Ctdmaily farms (Farmer's Series, No. 18 J consisting of 650 acres of arable land, it is stated that the whole work is perform- ed by seven pairs of horses, including one pair of mares in foal, and one pair of young horses, tlvown off to grass during summer: but the rotation on the greater part is, — 1st turnips; 2d barley; 3d, 4th, and 5th, grass; and Gth, oats: on the remainder, 1st rape and naked fallow; 2d wheat; 3d and 4th, grass; and 5th, oats; or nearly one-half in grass. J^egardiiig Morse Teams. It is a just observation, ' that one can hardly be at a loss to determine the character of a farmer fiom the condition of his horses*.' Very fine, high-fed cattle, exhibiting the appearance of being prepared' for sale, rather suggests the idea of idle- ness than of labor; but, on the other hand, lean, spiritless creatures, worn out by toil and hunger, are the certain indications of a bad farmer; of one not thriving and who does not deserve to thrive. The fnan who employs bad instruments cannot have his work well done, and one important and prevdous step towards good faniung, is to keep the laboring stock in good condition. Horses regularly fed, anel regularly wrous'ht, will perform a great deal of work without falling off either in strength or appearance: it is, therefore, of great im])ortance to distribute the labor as equally as possible through the various seasons of the year: and to take care that ifj as must sometimes be the case, an extra- ordinary exertion is to be made, they are in the proper order to make it. When once allowed to fidl off, it requires much more to restore them, than might have kept them in a good state. The feeding of farm horses forms so material a part of the cha.rges on agriculture, that the man- ner in which they can be cheapest maintained is a matter deserving the most serious attention. It is an established i)rinciple, that animal power can only be exerted in proportion to the quality, aa well as the quantity, of the food with which it is sustained. In conformity with that rule, hay and oats, or beans, given in their natural state, were long considered as the only horse provender pos- sessed of the re(iuisite degree of nutriment, and in consequence of its cost, penurious farmers stinted their horses, or those of an opposite disposition, who ' n^.dulge in the pride of teams,' were put to very great expense. Experience, however, haa proved that substitutes may be used to a very con- siderable extent, \^•ithout injuiy to the animal itselfj or diminution of its strength; and that different modes of jireparingits ordinary food maj^ be adopt- ed with advantage. The vegetables most commonlj^ resorted to as subst tides for corn and hay, are potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, and mangel-wurzel, with straw, and the haulm of beans and peas. Among these the potato ranks foremost, both in quality and in being more commonly cultivated than either par- snips or carrots; but it is attended with the incon- venience of requiring to be boiled, or steamed, as its'juice has been found prejudicial, and in some cases even fatal, to horses, when given raw, and both it and the yam, Avhich has lately been much employed fl)r the same purpose, are apt to ferment in the stomach, and occasion dangerous colic, when used in a crude state. Of turnip,s, the Swed- ish IS the only one that can be recommended to be given alone, though the common kinds may be advantageously mixed with ])otatoes; but, when given in that manner, they should be boiled sepa- rately, in order to preserve their juice, which if not given to the horses, will be found ser\iceable for store cattle and pigs. Carrots are much relished by all cattle, and when combined with diy food, have a most perceptible effect upon the horse's coat, soon imparting to it tliat glossy appearance which is one of the best tests of condition, and ♦E. Lothian Survey, p. 197, FARMERS- REGISTER— HORSE FEEDING. 39 consequently ol' health: they are also thought to improve the wind. Parsnij:s are still more nourish- ing, horses eat them greedily, but they soon clog the appetite; and, in the island of Jersey, where the root is ts^d extensively fur other purj;oses, it is never given to them, fur it is alleged that, when kept on that food, their eyes are apt to suller in- jury.* INI angel- wurzel, though inierior to. these, IS preferable to anj'turnij s, except Svvedcs.f All these roots, except jjotatoes, and turnips when used along with them or other substances, as a mash, are generally given raw, and care should betake;), in slicing them, to cut the pieces sufficiently small to prevent them from sticking in the throat if swal- lowed whole; an accident from which serious con- sequences have ensued. In mo^ instances only one half of the usual allowance of corn has been givea to horses thus fed, and they have notwithstanding gope through their customary labor wiJi as much apparent ease, and have been maintained in as good condition as when kept in the ordinary way. In some cases, all the' corn, and in others, all the hiy, also, has been withheld, and numberless accounts have been published to prove that the work has still been equally well done. Some of these are subjoined, in order that every one may judge for himsell" of the degree of attention to -which they are entitled. It must, however, be remarked, that although farm-horses may be kept in very fair condition, and their common field-labor may be performed, at some seasons, without corn, yet that hard work cannot be supported without high feeding, of which Bound hay and oats, and old beans or peas must ever form the chief part; though, even then, a portion of roots will be found serviceable in keep- ing the bowels open and the body in a healthy state. The following are a few of tlie statements most to be relied on. In the.details of managerrient on separate farms, already published in the ' Farmers' Series, ' we find that, in one instance, horses, constantly work- ed throughout the winter, as long as there is day- light, are maintained in good condition upon about a peck of oats, given in three feeds, chiefly of light corn, the last of which is made into a mash with yellow turnips, bran, and chatlj steamed or boiled together on the previous day : turnips are also given raw, and the only rack-meat appears to be oat-straw, j In another, only one feed of oats is given, together with hay and bean-haulm, and Swedes, both raw and steamed; and it seems that some farmers substitute Swedish and yellow tur- nips wholly for corn, yet their cattle are said to be fresh and in good working order: but it is admitted in both these instances, thtit when there is much carting, oats are allowed according to the work, and the quantity is increased in the spring.§ The late Mr. Curwen, who tried more experi- ments than most men in the feeding of cattle, kept ♦Quayle's Survey of the Island on tlie Coast of Nor- mandy, p. 103. t Statements of the proportionate value of these and other articles of cattle food, will be found under their respective heads in future chapters. X No. 18, p. 70. § Ibid, p. 97. See also No. 12, p. 43. N. B. One peck and a half of oats make four Scotch Uppies, or feeds, as alluded to in these accounts; or one- ^half more than the quantity usually considered as a feed in En£:land. nearly a hundred of his colliery and liirm-horses during the winter upon equal quantities of cut straw and potatoes, steamed together, in lieu of hay; and found that some which were worked in the same manner, but led with hay instead of potatoes, were not in equal condition wiih the others. * His mode of feeding, as detailed by the Carron company, who have adopted his plan, is thus:— 'They have three tubs steauung at a time: two of potatoes, and one of chopped straw, chaff, or dusting-seeds; ihey empty one tub of |;otatoe3 into a large mash-tub, by way of bottom layer; then the tub of chopped straw, and last, the re- maining tub of potatoes: the whole is wrought up and mixed with a large v/ooden pestle; and to this they add a small quantity of salt. A bucket is brought for each horse with his feed of corn (bruis- ed oats) in the bottom, and his proportion of the mash is filled in above; when it is eulptied into the manger, the corn is of course uppermost, and the horse feeder puts his hand through to mix it. ' t They feed warm. The quantitj- of food, and cal- culation of expense, are as follows: — Farm Horses. I-l stone of potatoes, at 3c/. Tibs, of cut straw Id.') and cutting Id. 5 Steaming - . _ 71bs. long straw - Sibs. of oats - - . Colliery Horses. 81bs. of ha}' and Slbs. of straw cut } together 3 Cutting- Tibs, of steamed potatoes 61bs. of carrots _ . - 121bs. of oats - - . - s. 0 d. 0 2 0 0 0 0, 8 1 4 s. d. 0 5h 0 1 0 1^ 0 2h 1 0 per horse, per day, 1 10^ The potatoes are estimated at 50s. per ton, in- clusive of the expense of steaming; oats at an average of about 3s. 4d. per bushel; hay at 21. 12s. 6d, and straw at 1.5s. 6c/. per load, exclusive of the cost of cutting. Afier several years expeaience of the compara- tive merits of steamed potatoes and straw, or hay, Mr. Curwen gave a decided preference to the for- mer, both as regards the saving of expense, its efiects upon the health of the animal, and its power of upholding their condition; but notwith- standing the api'arent candor of his testimony, and its being corroborated by many similar state- ments,f it is Avell known that, when much exertion is required, both hay and corn become necessar}% *'Hints on the Economy of Feeding Stock, &.c. &c. by J. C. Curwen, Esq. M. P. •f- Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. v. No. 10, p. 210. J See the Farmers' Magazine, vol. xi. p. 334, and xiv. p. 229; and the Suivey of Dumfriesshire, chap, xiv. p. 376. The latter account states the quantity given to be 42_lbs. of potatoes and about lOlbs. of straw, without any oats, except when the horses arc employed, on the road. 40 FARMERS' REGISTER— HORSE FEEDING— STEAM. In Essex, we have the authority of Messrs. Vancouver and Arthur Young,who separately sur- veyed the county, that working horses have been kept through the winter entirely on steanicd pota- toes, to every SOOlbs. of which tiiere was added hah' a pint ol" salt, and occasionally a small por- tion of surp^iur; and that, 'led in this manner, they performed with the greatest ease all the commnn labor of the. farm, without either hay or oats.'* The difference of the expense of a team of five, during half a year — calculating the potatoes as worth 40s. per ton, and hay and oats respectively at £3. the load, and 24s. per quarter, which nearly accords with the estimate of consumption in the survey, would stand thus: — Potatoes. 5 Horses 182 days, at 50 lbs. each, 45,000 lbs. t or 18 tons, at 405. Washing and steaming at 2d. per lOOlbs'. 3 Bushels of salt at 2s. Sulphur ----- Hay and Oats. £. 36 0 d. 0 3 15 0 40 4 4(a) £. s. d. 6 Horses 182 day.s, at 24 lbs. each, hay, 21,840 lbs. or 10 5-6 loads ^ 32 10 0 at £3 S Ditto 26 weeks, at 2 bushels each, oats 32 1 quarters at 24s. 39 0 0 £71 10 0 40 4 4 Balance in favor of potatoes, 31 5 8 The cost would thus be a fraction more than lO^d per day, and the saving about six guineas for each horse in the winter half year, if they could be kept in that manner so long; but this mode of feeding cannot be commenced before November, nor continued after February, for, notwithstand- ing the .assertion of the reporters, as Avell as of many other persons of veracity respecting the 'common labor of a farm,' during the depth of winter, it cannot be continued during the spring, upon land that is properly cultivated, without either an unusual number of horses, or an allow- ance of corn. J Upon this statement, it is also to be observed, that supposing the oats to weigh 35 lbs. per bushel, the dailj' allowance would then be 34 lbs. of hard meat, or Is. 7d. per day, which is the highest estimate that can be admitted for a common-sized cart-horse, and would assuredly support him in better condition than any quantity * Young's Survey of Essex, vol. 1, p. 398. t The cwt. of potatoes is usually calculated to weigh 126 lbs. Then 126 by 20=2520 by 18=45360. V. Thaer calculates 1 cwt. of hay as equivalent to 3 bushels of potatoes: both, however, necessarily vary much in quality. t A correspondent in the Farmers' Magazine, vol. ii. p. 217, recommends a mixture of 4 lbs. of boiled po- tatoes and 4 lbs. of bran, at each feed: adding, from six years' experience, that this method 'saved much corn, and gave his horses a very fine skin.' Were 2 lbs. of ground oil-cake substituted for the bran, it would form a far heartier feed, without much difference of cost. (a) The error in this calculation is in the original. [Ed. Farm. Reg.} of potatoes that he could consume. Were the allowances of corn and hay reduced in a fair pro- portion to the Avorking value of the food, the cost would, therefore, be more equalized; but although experience may not justily ihe sanguine expecta- tions of the advocates of leguminous plants, as hoiss-meat, to the iliU extent of their calculations, there can yet be no doubt that on light soils, and in situations which do not afford a market lor field roots, they may be advantageously substituted for hay, and when the work is not severe, even for a considerable portion of corn. Reo-arding carrots, we have also the evidence in their favor of Mr. Curwen, who substituted them for a portion of the usual allowance of corn, and has adduced a certificate from his groom and farrier, that "when from 8 lbs. to 12 lbs of oats are allowed to a work-horse per daj", according to its employment, 4 lbs. maybe deducted for 5 lbs. of carrots, and the sphit, condition, and ability of the horse to perform his work improved by the same:"* but the saving this effected amounted only to a shilling in the week. Other accounts state a bushel of carrots to be given daily instead of oats; and an Essex sportsman is mentioned, v/hose horses, thus fed, without any corn, follow a pack of har- riers twice a week.f In the Sandlings of Suffolk, horses are chiefly fed on carrots, with sometimes hay, and sometimes corn, and sometimes with only straw; viz: — 6 horses, 2 loads of 40 bushels per week, no corn, and a little hay. Do. 1 load, with corn in the spring-time, ajid little hay. Do. 72 bushels per Aveek; no oats, and half the usual alloAvance of haj'. The horses are said to be in superior condi- tion than when fed on oats; but this probably arises from their being allowed as much as they Avill eat, while oats are allowanced.f In Surrey, also, where carrots are extensively cultivated, a team of four good horses gets about 60 bushels per week until Christmas, with plenty of sweet chaff, or clover hay, but no corn; and after that 40 bushels are given, with 2 bushels of oats, and a suf- ficiency of chaff. II Common turnips scarcely merit notice as horse- food; but Swedes have been given in various in- stances, besides those already particularized, with evident advantage, both sliced in their raw state, and steamed; and as they are both more common- ly cultivated and less expensive than most other roots, they are deserving of the superior attention of economists. Steam. The chief A'alue of boiling, or steaming the food of animals, seems to consist in rendering it more easy of digestion, and thus, perhaps enabling them to retain a greater portion of its nutriment than * Hints on the Economy of Feeding Stock, &c,, p. 207. t Berkshire Report, p. 228. Essex do., vol. ii., p. 5. In the communications to the Board of Agriculture, there is also an instance of farm-horses fully worked and fed entirely on carrots, instead of ha)^; but they get 70 lbs. each, sliced, along with chaff. — Vol. vii., art. ii., part 1. J Suffolk Report, chap vii., p. 125—140. II Malcolm's Modern Husbandry of Surrey, Kent, and Sussex, p. 482. FARMERS' REGISTiER— STEAMED FOOD— FODDER. 41 when it is used in a crude state. For old horses especially, whose teeth being worn are incapahle of effectually grinding the corn which their work may render nece-ssary to their support, and whose powers of digestion are weakened b)" age, this is an incalculable advantage- Being softer than dry food, it is besides more readily consumed, and con- secjuently allows more time for lying down and taking rest, a difference ol' more importance in its favor than may be generally imagined, for a horse takes from three to four hours to masticate a stone [14 lbs.] of hay, but a mash of potatoes of double that weight may be eaten in forty minutes. But lor young and working cattle, in the full en- joyment of their health and strenglh, it may admit of doubt whether the constant use of such soft food e^e may not wearen the powers of digestion, and relax the tone of their muscular fibre; ibr it lias been found, from vcrj^ careful trials, that, when only a email quantity of roots is given, the health and condition of the animals are improved by giving them in a raw state, as, in that form, they have a kindly effect upon the bowels; and, besides pro- moting the digestion of grain and straw, which they do in a remarkable manner, they impart to the animal an additional degree of life and spirit. In cases, however, where they have formed the cliief article of food, boiling or steaming has been found to possess a more fattening quaHtVj for it has the effect of depriving vegetables of apart of their watery juices, leaving only the farinaceous and other solid portions: thui^ potatoes lose about an eighth of their weight by the evaporation of water, when they are steamed,and about one-sixth of kiln- dried or baked, in which state they are, from the chemical change which they have undergone, more nutritious than when raw. There is, however, very essential difference in the quantity of nutritive matter obtained from varioiis qualities of the potato; for although when dried, the fibrous, or solid matter may be of equal weight, j-ei it has been shown by various experiments that the product of starch, which constitutes the most nutritious por- tion of their substance, varies from one-fiflli to one-seventh of their product.* • The superiority of the method of fattening cattle with food thus prepared has been proved by many experiments; and it is even said, that some post- masters on tlie Western road having, in pursuance of a suggestion of the Bath Agricultund Society, boiled the oats for their horses, and given them the water to drink, have ascertained that a bushel given in that manner will maintain a horse in better condition than two in the common way. t So broad an assertion may well be received with hesitation: yet the experiment is worth a trial; and if used ^\-ith caution, and mixed with a certain quantity of diy food, there can be little doubt that steaming a portion of horse provender, whether mixed with roots or not, will be found an economi- cal plan. Mr. Cunven recommends it to be given warm; and no one at all acquainted with stable management can be ignorant of the comfort of a warm mash to a horse after extraordinary fatigue; it also improves the appearance of the coat, and the seeming condition; but it is not natural to the animal ;and notwithstanding the experience of Mr. Curwen, it may yet be doubted whether, as a con- Sir Humphry Davy's Agricultural Chemistiy, p. 128. t Mechanic's Magazine, October, 1831. Vol. II.— 6 stant practice, it would not be too relaxing. At the utmost, the mere chill sholdd be taken off. The objections usually urged against steaming are,-the expense, the trouble, and the difficulty of preparing the feeds for several teams* But an o^^ary steam apparatus may be put up for a mere trifle, and food enough for a dozen or twenty horsea be got ready, with little difficulty, in a short space of time, and with a very moderate quantity of fuel. When the cattle are not sufficiently numerous to justify the erection of a steaming-shed, the copper commonly placed in the corner of eveiy wash- house may be replaced by an iron boiler, and used for this purpose. J^odder. Notwithstanding the numberless experiments Avhich have been lately made on almost every kind of cattle food, and the extensive use of straw as fodder, it is remarkable, that no accurate account has yet been published of the relative proj)ertieg of the different sjjecies. Those writers who have treated the subject the most scientifically yet vary in their estimation of its quahties,* and these are subject to many gradations, according to the soil and season, as well as to the nature of the grain by which it is produced. It is thought that, when grown on gravelly or rich clay soils, it is more valuable as fodder, than when it is reared on black deep loam or cold moorish land; and it is now generally admitted that it possesses more succu- lence when the corn is rather green than when it is in a riper state. It is supposed by many that the straw of wheat is the most nutritive; it certain- ly makes the strongest manure, and is thought to be the best for either steaming or cutting into chaffs Although that of oats is usually preferred, as more soft and more ]:ialatable to cattle, that of barley is so poor and brittle, that it is only employed as litter; it is extremely difficult to save it in any toler^ able degree of order; and, though it has been said to possess more nutriment than that of wheat, yet, when the crop is fully ripe, the ears break off in handling, which has been contended as sufficient proof that it contains but veiy Uttle sap.j Rye- straw is so scarce in all except the northern coun- ties and some parts of Wales, and is in such de- mand for thatching, brickmaking, &c., Xhat it ia but seldom applied to other uses. When not allowed to be carried off the premi- ses, the chief value of white straw, for farm pur- poses, lies in its conversion into manure — for al- though it may carrj^ store -cattle through the winter, it will neither fatten them nor enable any animal to work — and its intrinsic worth, for the uses of litter and of occasional feeding, has been estimated by experienced farmers as high as 30s. the ton; J but that calculation was made at a time when all farm produce, and consequently manure, was higher than at present, and it may now be reduced to 20s. Weight for weight, there is a material difference between that and the common price of haj'; but as the same quantity cannot be substituted for hay, either its own proportionate increase of quantity, or the value of any other * Professor Von Thaer, Principes Raisonnes d'Agri- culture. Annalesde rAgriculture Francaises. t Scottish Husbandry, pp. 378—386. t Sir John Sinclair: Scottish Husbandry, 2d Ed., p. 880. Brown, of Markle, Treatise on Rural Aff'airi, vol. i. chap. V. 42 FARMERS' REGISTER— FODDER— DRY FOOD. food given to make up the deficiency, must be added in order to ascertain the saving: thus, sup- posing 24 lbs. ol' hay, at 31. per load, to be the daily allowance of a horse, and this to be replaced by 24 lbs. of straw, and 28 lbs. of Swedish tui-nios, the latter vLilued at 6s. 8d. per ton, or 4d. per c\-^* the ditierence excluding fractions would be d. 24 lbs. of hay, 24lbs. of straw 2^ "] or 9s. 4d. 01- 8-^d. 28 " turnips 1 to Ws.6d. drawing and slicing ^ J'perweek (if steamed) Saving per horse per day 2" j on a team 4 J of four, Whenever stmw is used, weight for weight, instead of hay, their relative value, per load, may be estimated according to the following scale: — lbs. fhay at45s.^strawat28s.6d. Hay36Trifsses,561bs.eacIit=2016 I " 60s.= " 38s. Straw do. 36 lbs. do. =12961 " 72s.= " 45s.7rf. [ « 84s.= " 53s.2rf. From which calculation it results that, even when the sale of straw is permitted, it may be economically substituted for hay, during the winter months; lor the customary market load of wheat- etraw seldom fetches iriore, even in great city mar- kets, than 36s., which, deducting the expenses ol binding and carriage, will not, in most places, leave eo much as the above sum net. J The haaliii of beans and peas, but especially the latter, when well harvested, forms a very hearty epecies of fodder. The stalk of the beans, indeed, is tough and somewhat woody, and is therefore commonly thrown out as farm-yard litter; but the coving chad" is very good manger-meat, and even the stalk, if bruised and cut and then steamed, would be found useful in a farm-stable. Pea-haulm is very generally employed as rack- meat, for which purpose it is well adapted, being eucculent and nutritious, and nearly as much re- lished by cattle as hay, and although it may not go quite so far, there is yet a great saving in its use. But both these, and all other kinds of straw and haulm, should be given as fresh as possible from the flail, for they grow brittle, and lose a por- tion of whatever sap they possess by exposure to the air: if long kept, they grow musty, and in that state neither are wholesome nor will be eaten by horses. Pea-haulm should be given cautiously, as it is flatulent and apt to occasion colic: it is also said to be productive of bots; but that, if true, is not so peculiar a property as to prevent its use. * The value of the turnips is calculated on the sup- position that the acre produces 15 tons of roots, ex- clusive of tops and tails, worth 5/. per acre on the ground. The quantity is too high for some soils, and some modes of cultivation, especially in the southern counties of England; in others, it is too low, but, as an average, it comes near the truth, and each farmer may make his own calculation according to the produce of his land. t N. B. — The market weight of the ti'uss of new hay, is 60 lbs., until the 4th of September. % Mr. Middleton calculates the expense of binding and marketing straw, within eight to ten miles of Lon- don, at 15s. Gtd. per load; viz. binding Is., two horses, cart, and driver lis. Qd., toll-gates Is., beer, market, and salesman's charges 2s., which, allowing 5s. Gd. for back carriage of dung, would reduce the net price to 26s. per load — Survey of Middlesex, 2d edit. sec. iv. p. 222. I The straw of canary-seed is also an excellent fodder; but the 'cultivation of the grain is too limit- ed to render it an object of generiU notice, Proportion of Dry Food. The most nourishing food given to horses con- sists of corn; and oais are con)monly considered as the best adapted to their constitution; but when any other species of grain is furnished in like pro- portion of weight, the nicest observers have not been able to discover any apparent difference in its qualities, provided it be mixed with a propor- tionate quantity of straw, chopped fine, or of bran, to supply the place of the husk of the oats, with- out which other corn should not be given. Horses when not pressed by hunger, oft&Q trj' to sepa- rate this chalf, or bran, from the *ain, and it is therefore customary to sprinkle it with water; but in that case the greatest care should be taken to thoroughly cleanse the manger, for nothing is more noxious to horses than tbod thus wetted and allowed to become stale. Grain of every descrip- tion ought to be li-ee from the natural fermentation which it undergoes if not in a perfectly dry state. Oats harvested in a wet season have been known to occasion epidemical disorders among cattle, and farmers frequently do serious injuries to their horses by supplying them with it soon after it has been reaped. Corn that has sprouted is not un- wholesome, provided it has not imbibed a bad smell fi-om having been heated; and malt, or bar- ley which has been onl^ slightly steeped for two or three days, though whhout being dry-malted, ig considered particularly nutritive. It is thought, indeed, that the comjiletion of the process adds much to its invigorating properties, and it is often used in that shape on the continent, though not in a larger proportion than one-third of other grain; * but, even if it has that effect, the duty on malt prevents its consumption by cattle in this country, and it cannot even be purposely wetted without incurring the suspicion of the excise. Many horses, also, which eat voraciously, are in the habit of bolting their food without chewing it; in which case their oats should never be given with- out being either mixed with chaff, or else bruised by cylinders, such as are used in bruising or grind- ing malt. Beans, and latterly peas, are also largely given to farm-horses, without any prejudicial effect; and, if care be taken not to supply them in summer, at which season they are found to be too heating, no bad eflect will be found to arise from their use: but, as they contain an unusual proportion of sap, they should be at least twelve months old: if they shrink in quantity, it will be made up in quality. When horses are fed on hay, it is a matter of dispute whether the light and apparently arid grass of uplands, or that of more fertile natural meadow ground, or the rich produce of the artificial grasses, is to be preferred. This must however depend on the quantity of corn with which they are supplied. When that is abundantly furnished, there can be no doubt that the former will be found better for their general health, and especially for their wind; but as farm-horses are generally limited in their consumption of grain, and the slowness of their movement renders the clearness of their wind a *Von Thaer, Priucipes Raisonnes d'Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 693. FARMERS' REGISTER— SOILING. 43 matter of comparatively little moment, the other kinds will be lound the most substantial, and consequently the best adapted to support their strength. There can be no doubt that the feeding of horses upon hay, in whatever quantity it may be suppli- ed, can never be entirely substituted with equal eflect lor corn; but opinions are also divided i-es- pecting the proportion in which it may be furnish- ed, both with regard to health and economy. On this, however, no general rule can be laid down, for it must not only depend upon the animal's con- Btitution, but also on the work which he has to support. It has, however, been calculated, by a foreign writer of great experience,* that ordinarily 8 lbs. of meadow-hay are equal in nourishment to 3 lbs. of oats: 7 lbs., however, of eainloin, tares, clover, or other succulent hay, are supposed equal to the same quantity, though sainfoin is jjerhaps entitled to the preference; but 9 lbs. are thought to be required Irom hay made of poor pasture. The longer too, within a certain time, that hay is allowed to stand in the stack, the better it is, and perhaps that which is a year old is the most whole- some for horses: the second growth is not equally nourishing. It should also be got into the stack as soon as properly dried, in order to preserve the freshness of its scent, which is peculiarly gratify- ing to cattle. In general, however, it is to be observed that, when the quantity of hay is augmented with a view to the diminution of the corn, altiiough horses will thereby acquire more fat than upon the same proportion of grain, yet they are less equal to the etforts of hard work; whereas, if the corn be increased and the hay diminished, though the cattle may appear to grow thin, yet tlieir flesh is more firm, they are capable of greater exertion, and are in what is usually termed 'better condition.' Soiling. "With respect to the advantages of soiling horses on green food, in the yard or stable, it seems to be now generally understood that, with proper ma- nagement, they can be supported Avith great health and vigor: its economy, however, must depend on the proportion which it bears to the price of dry food, and its convenience to the quantity in which it can be spared ibr other cattle. It is a very old, though by no means a universal practice,! and the experience of hundreds of farm- ers proves, that horses maintained in that manner for years have neither lost flesh nor strength suf- ficient for all farming purposes, although there was no palpable saving ol" their Avork, and that, though afterAvards placed on dry food durmg the winter, they continued in perfect healtli, It is an excellent plan to give some green food along Avith the corn and chaff', before the usual period of feed- ing entirely on dry fodder: the change from dry to freen, and again from green to dry food, should e gradual. In its commencement, the clover or * Professor Von Thaer, of the Exiyal Farm and Col- lege of Agriculture, established by the King of Prus- sia, at Moegelin, near Francfort upon the Oder. The translator of his Avork — the Baron de Crud-^-calculates that a horse consumes one-eighth less of meadoAV-hay than of that made from the artificial grasses. — Vol. i. p. 162, note. t It is mentioned in a treatise on Agriculture, en- titled ' Hartlib's Legacy,' so long ago as 1650, p. 245- tares should be cut, and mixed in small portions Avith straw, and a proportionate quantity of corn should be reduced. The green food is then insen- sibly increased, until the corn is entirely onutted, and the quantity of green meat is supplied without hmhation: it should, hoAvcver, be cut OA'er-night, and given only in small quantities gradually in- creased, to guard as much as pos.sible from acci- dents, Avhich may arise from its .succulence by hoving. When horses are soiled, they never should get much at a time, a practice liir too pre- valent among servants. The summer feeding of horses Avas formerly confined to pasturage; but of late years the prac- tice of soiling has become very general. The benefit of grazing consists in its requiring little attendance; and being the most natural, and there- fore the most healthful, it is preferable for all young cattle Avhich can be spared from constant labor, and on farms which contain a considerable portion of rough pasture. But for horses at regular work, these advantages are counterbalanced by the time lost in getting them up from the field; the indisposi- tion to labor Avhich they acquire by tteing at large; and the annoyance Avhich they suffer fi-om heat and flies Avhen turned out in the day-time. The value of their dung and urine is also in a great measure destroyed by being scattered upon the surface of the ground, and exposed to exhalation of the sun and Avind; and there is much waste of grass, and injury done to the melloAvncss of the soil, if it be valuable land, by the treading of all heavy stock, but especially of horses. The utility of soiling consists in a more economical consumption of grass, Avhether natural or artificial, than by grazing; in the accumulation of manure, and in the quiet and coolness Avhich the cattle enjoy un- der sheds, or in the stable, during mid-day, as well as in their being ahva} s ready Avhen wanted: the only disadvantage is the expense of cutting and carrying home the grass, against which may be fairiy set the increase of manure, if expense be really incurred; but as during summer, there ia usually a long interval of rest betAA'een the morn- ing and afternoon A\^ork, the carters can then cut the necessary quantity, Avhich may be draAvn to the homestead by one of the team-horses, if there should not be a supernumeraiy one left for odd jobs. When, hoAvever, the economy of the practice is not the chief consideration, horses on summer Avork may be both grazed mit and soiled. They may be put on cut cloA'er in the middle of the day, between yokings, and turned out during the night into a well-sheltered meadoAv or enclosure. In being kept under cover during the heat of the day, they Avill be sheltered from flies, and Avill feed more at ease; and in being pastured out during the night, they AAdll also have an opportunity of selecting those grasses Avhich act as condiments and are most agreeable to their palate. All animals like variety of gi'asses, selecting alAva3's Avhat is most palatable, Avhich they cannot do Avhen soiled, par- ticularly if fed on cut clover or tares. Exposure to the night air ie also found to be highly favora- ble both to their health and appearance. The economy of soiling, wherever it can be conveniently adopted, is, indeed, too generally ad- mitted to need the support of argument; and par- ticularly on soils on Avhich turnips are enta-ely consumed on the gi'ound, or on Avhich they cannot 44 FARMERS' REGISTER— GREEN FOOD FOR HORSES. be grown, and where, consequently, there is ditfi- j culty in converting the struw into manure during | the winter, it cannot be too strongly recommended. But it requires a succession of green crops; and as only the artificial grasses are resorted to in Eng- land— though in many parts of the continent the meadows are also mown lor that purpose — it is? ne- cessary that winter and summer tares should be sown at diflercnt periods, so as to aflbi'd a constant supply, both before clover comes in, and after the first crop is off. This is a great impediment to the practice in Scotland, and in some of our northern counties, where tares are an uncertain crop; though cattle are certainly soiled Avith great advantage, both there and in other places, on clover alone, in other situations too, tiirms, on strong cl^iy, fre- quently contain a large portion of meadow, and grazing being combined with tillage, the whole of the straw is consumed in the winter, in which case one of the chief advantages of summer soil- ing would be lost, as yard dung, without the addi- tion of straw, is of very little value. But even in this instance, or in others where the distance of the fields from the homestead may be opposed to the cartage of the grass, it is better to cut it dail}^, and give it on the ground in pens, or small inclo- sures hurdled off, so as to prevent the cattle from injuring the growing crop, than to allow them to range over and tramjjle it. By confining them in this maimer to a small space, and moving the hur- dles forward as the grass is eaten, the fertilizing properties" of the dung and urine, which would otherwise be lost, are in a considerable degree pre- served; and if the land be immediately ploughed, it will be nearly as much benefited as if it were more regularly manured. The artificial grasses used for soiling are the same as those already enumerated as hay, but here tares take the lead, both because tlie Avinter species is eaiiier ready than any other, except rye- grass, and affords a weightier crop. In most sea- sons, tares are ready tor the scythe towards the middle of May, for if left till they are quite ripe they will become unfit for soiling before the crop can be used; and although there may be some loss in using them ao soon, it Avill be compensated by the saving at the latter end, as well as by com- mencing the feoiling sooner than would be other- wise practicable. Before they are off, clover will be ready; the tares still standing may then be made into hay, and by the time the clover is be- coming strawy, and losing its succulence, spring- tares Avill come in, which, if they have been soAvn at intervals of about a fortnight each, will last until the second cut of clover: or, if spring-tares be not sown, the growth of part of the clover may be checked by light early feeding. There is also an excellent fashion regarding soiling in Dorsetshire, which consists in saving a portion of rye alone, to be cut green; then another portion of rye, with tares; and afterwards the remainder entirely Avith tares: the rye comes first into use, and assists in raising the earlier tares, Avhile those of later groAvth do not require any such nursing. Thus "horses may be kept upon a succession of green herbage, Avithout touching the meadoAVs, throughout four months of the summer and autumn, and, Avhile thus fed, require very little corn; Avhen stirring the fklloAvs, and during the hurry of harA'est a couple of feeds a day may be serAiceable, but more is un- necessaiy, and at other times should be Avholly omitted. ^ The mention of lucerne has been omitted, al- though extremely valuable lor soiling, because it requires a peculiar quality of land, and is not com- monly cultivated. In the Essex Report, it is said, that two horses have been supported during four montfis upon a quarter of an acre, Avith scarcely any thing given to them besides; and that six horses, at hard work, have been kept on lucerne, instead of hay, but Avith an alloAvance of oats and chaft' Ibr tAvelve Aveeks — six from the first cut; four from the second; and tAVO from the third: Avhich, valuing the hay saA^ed at 3s. per horse ])er Aveek, Avould amount to £ 10 16s.* A paper in the com- munications to the Board of Agriculture also states that, in one year, tAventy-three horses have been kept tAventy Aveeks, and in the next, tAventy^ eight horses during eighteen weeks, upon eleven acres alone; Avhich gives an average of three roods per horse in nineteen weeks. t It is also extensive- ly used on the coast of Normandy, and in the neighbormg islands of Guernsey and Jersey; but it is there said that horses, particularly those used for the saddle, require more precavition from over^ working, Avhen first gomg out of the stable, than Avhen fed on other hay; and, Avhat is singular, that when soiled on green lucerne, there is not the same danger.f In Holland and Flanders, where the feeding of cattle is supposed to be better understood than in- most places, the summer soiling of farm-horses is limited to half an acre of meadoAV grass, cut and carried to the stables, from the middle ol" May to the middle of June; from Avhicli time to the end of August one-sixth of an acre of clover is added, with 2 lbs daily of beans; and from thence to No- vember, Avhen the Avinter feeding commences, the clover is replaced by an equal quantity of carroty. From the number of horses stated, in this instance to be kept in proportion to the tillage — H to 150 acres, of alluvial soil — their labor can, hoAvever, be only light; though a pair is said to draAv a ton and a half of manure in the field, and three tons upon paA'ement.§ Accounts have been also published, shoAving that horses may be regularly Avorked throughout the summer, in this country, Avithout any corn: thus green crops, consumed by soiling, are said to go four times as far as Avhen grazed; and that, in this manner, one acre of clover is eoual to six of meadow pasture. But many of these statements rest only upon opinion, or upon insufficient data, and in all, so much depends upon the state of the crop, the size and health of the animal, and the Avork performed, of which the account is generally imperfect, that no safe conclusion can be draAvn * Young's Survey of Essex, vol. ii. pp. 71, 72. t Vol. vii. Art. 25. Part I. t Quay le's Survey of the Islands on the Coast of Normandy, p. 117. § Radcliff 's Report of the Agriculture of East and West Flanders, p. 216. Another farm, of 200 acres, mentioned in the same Report, is cultivated by eight horses, each of Avhich get daily, in winter, 15 lbs. of hay, 10 lbs. of straw, and 8 lbs. of oats; and, after every feed, a bucket of water, 'richly Avhitened Avith rye or oatmeal:' in summer, clover is substituted for hay, but the other feeding remains the same, and the 'white h'«t ier' is ncA^er omitted. — p. 54. FARMERS' REGISTER— WINTER FOOD. 45 from them: it is therefore unnecessary to reler to them; nor is the cause which they are meant to promote assisted by being advocated upon any other than its real merits. A medium-sized tarm- horse, at customary laT)or, consumes from 84 lbs. to one cwt. of green food daily, with an occasion- al allowance oi" corn. Now a good acre ol" tares, or of broad clover, will weigh twelve tons, (that is, presuming the tares to be cut only once, and the clover twice*; for although winter tares may be cut again, it is more usual to get them oil' the land as soon as po.ssible, either in order to sow tur- nips, or to form a bastard fallow;) and, taking that Aveight as the average of both, and the consump- tion at the highest rate, half an acre of either would support a horse during four months. This nearly accords with some instances in the county surveys; in others, more have been consumed, and for the reasons already stated, it is next to impossi- ble that any two accounts should agree; but, upon a rovigh estimate, it may be affirmed, that about a perch per day Avill be required for each horse in most seasons, and on most kinds of lands, if soiled, and that double that quantity will be necessary if pastured.! It must, however, be borne iri mind that the difference in the degree of succulence contained in various grasses must necessarily have a material influence on the state of the cattle by which they are consumed. Of this farmers are generally prettj' well informed, either through their own ob- servation, or by the experience of others; but an accurate acquaintance with the subject was not attained until the experiments made at VVoburn, ^y which Mr. Sinclair has been enabled to ascer- tain the quantity ofsoluble nutritive matter afforded by all those grasses which constitute the produce of the richest ancient pastures, as well as those of artificial growth, and which will be fully adverted to in a future poi-tion of this work. The custom of giving corn along with green meat is unprofitable; for the grain, thus mixed, passes rapiclly off the stomach, and is never per- fectly digested. When, however, increased exer- tion demands an addition of more substantial food and that corn is also allowed, it should be given only in the morning and at night, accompanied with a sufficient quantity of chaff to afford it con- sistence, and gi'een meat should only be given at mid-day. Farmers very generally omit that pre- * From an experiment made at Woburn, the green weight of an acre of broad clover was found to be 49,005 lbs.:=21 tons. 17 cwt. 2 quars. 5 lbs.; but the soil is described as a rich clayey loam, and the crop cannot be assumed as an average. See Sinclair's Hor- tus Gramineiis Wobvrnensis; and the Appendix to Sir H. Davy's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. fin one instance it is stated, that twenty horses have been supported for three months on six acres of tares (Rutlandshire Report, p 71;) and in another, that fifty-one heads of cattle — cows, oxen, and horses — \Yere kept, during that pei-iod, on 1-5 1-2 acres of mixed herbage; or, in each, about half a perch per day. (Comm. to the Board of Agriculture, vol. v'li. parti, art. 1.^ A third mentions, that twelve horses and five cows, which, togetlier may be considered equal to eighteen horses, consumed, in the same time, eight acres of tares, or 3 quarters and one-thirty-second part of a perch each daily (Middlesex Report, p. 257; j and a fourth states the allowance of pastured tares (for twelve horses) to be an acre per week, or nearly two perch each day. (Essex Report, vol. ii. p. 354. j caution, and it is a common custom among them to allow half the usual quantity of corn, without regard to the effect of the watery juices of grass upon the digestion; but they may be assured that a great portion of the nutriment contained in the grain is thus wasted. JFinter Food. It cannot be doubted that working horses can be supported during the autumn and winter, until the growth of the young grasses, with only roofs and hay, and plenty of hay and straw, without giving them any corn. But, although they can be main- tained in perfect health and apparent vigor, 3-et they will be incapable of any strong or unusual exertion. Perhaps the most wholesome root, and that most relished by them, is raw carrots, with- out the tops, and then coarsely Avashed and sliced. Although, as we have already seen, potatoes have been advantageously used, yet it must be admitted that they are thought to occasion a cer- tain want of spirit and flabbiness of flesh, which probably arises from the use of boiled food. It is also well known that, in many other cases, ani- mals have refused even to taste them. Thia, however, has probably arisen from some want of care in the preparation — for, if boiled too sofl, or in a mashed or wet state, they will not be eaten by horses: they should therefore be always steam- ed, and daily fresh dressed, nor should any other than the floury sorts be chosen. There is also some management requisite in getting horses to change their taste for any kind of' food with which they are unacquainted: thus, a new species of root should be given in a small quantity by hand, when there is nothing else to eat, and apparently to coax them: when they relish that, a portion may be mixed with their other food, and in that man- ner they will be induced to overcome their dislike. The cavalry alloioance of hay and oats to horses in barracks, is 12 lbs. of the former, and 10 lbs. of the latter, on which they are kept in high condi- tion; but it has been ascertained by experience, that a common cart-horse cannot be supported in good working order on less than 28 or 30 lbs. of the same food, or more, if straw be substituted for any portion of the hay, supposing him to be of a medium size, and only employed on the customa- ry farm labor; when greater exertion is required even that is insufficient. In some of the brewers' and coal-merchants' stables in the metropolis, the common allowance amounts to 36 lbs. of dry food daily; and in those of Messrs. Wiggins, the great cart-horse contractors, it varies from 36 lbs. to 40 lbs., according to size and work, in the propor- tion of 16 lbs. of clover or sainfoin hay, and 4 lbs. of straw to 18 lbs. of grain, consisting of oats or barley, beans or peas, and 2 lbs. of bran. The corn being given by weight, no difference is made in the amount of "the allowance whatever kind may be used, and the choice depends more on price than on any settled rule; except that oats are preferred to beans in suminer, and that rather more bran is allowed with the latter. Salt is not given regularly; but much benefit has been derived from'^the occasional use of carrots and Swedish turnips sliced along with the chaff. The Avhole of this food is given as manger-meat, no part of it being put into the rack. The hay and straw are cut ver}' short; the beans "are bruised, and the oats sometimes coarsely gi-ound; but it is 46 FARMERS' REGISTER— WINTER FOOD. found most advantageous to wet the barley, and allow it two or three days to sprout. The chaff is cut by a horse-mill, which a.t the same time bruises the beans by a small addition of machine- ry, and one horse with a couple of lads, one to un- bind and deliver the hay, and the other to fill the trough, will cut a load of hay in three hours. The macliinery, which consists of nothing more than a common chaff-cutter, of somewhat larger size than those used by hand, and a bruising apparatus of very easy construction — both ol' which may be readily added to a thrashing-mill — works in a loft above the horse-course, on the floor of which the whole provender is afterwards mixed: the chaff being spread first, next the bruised corn, and lasdy the bran, the whole is united in one mass; and having been separately weighed, is then measured off in distinct portions. The horses, thus il^d, are however, of the largest size, and being used for drawing very heavy weights, consequently require more sustenance than the common run of farm cattle, for which the amount of dry food already stated — 28 lbs. to 30 lbs. will generally be found sufficient. Taking the latter quantity, a suggestion published in the 'Sporting Magazine,' and recommended to the attention oJ" farmers, is deserving of notice, as furnishing some useful hints, founded upon long experience of an eminent medical gentleman, in feeding light draught horses, which undergo very considerable fatigue in constant journies, at a rapid pace, and yet, on that allowance, are kept in per- fect working order. The ingredients of the food are divided into four classes, containing different quantities of each, to be used as discretion or con- venience may dictate, in the following proportions: Isf. 2d. 3d. 4ih. JBruised, or ground beans, peas, or white corn 5 Hay cut into chaff 7 Straw, do. - - 7 Steamed potatoes - 5 Malt-dust,or ground oil-cake — Brewers' grains - 6 Bran _ . - — lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 5 10 5 8 10 8 10 10 8 5 — — 2—2 And 2 ozs. of salt to each* 30 30 30 30 The weight of each class is 30 lbs., and the quan- tity of nutritive matter contained in their ingre- dients is supposed to be equal. The first and second classes, of which potatoes form apart, are however preferred by Dr. Sully, though the grains had the oil-cake with which they are combined do not ap- pear to form an adequate substitute for the differ- ence made in the allowance of corn. Of grains, it may also be observed, that their too frequent or copious use has been found so injurious to horses, that those of brewers, when so fed, are said to be- come rotten and die in a few years; and on dissec- tion are found to have large stony concretions in their bladders.! As to the salt, the propriety of its daily use is ofyen to .question. That it contributes to the health of animals, is a fact too well established to admit of doubt; but the manner in which it acts * Letter from Dr. Sully, of Wiveliseombe. — Spoii. Mag., vol. xix. p. 15. t Middlesex Report, 2d Ed. p. 469. upon their constitution — whether by merely aiding dio-estion, or by cooling and correcting the impu- rities of the blood — lias not been sufficiently as- certained to fix with certainty cither the mode, or the amount of its application. Numberless experi- ments on this subject have, indeed, been recorded, all tending to prove that it is relished by cattle, and improves their condition; yet, still the quantity to be administered to each, the time when it should be given, and its precise efi'ects, remain to be determined, and can only be defined by more accurate trials than have been yet made. In this, however, as in all matter regarding the treatment of animals, nature, when she can be consulted, is ever the surest guide. The tastes with which she furnishes her creatures, instinctively direct them to those kinds of food which are the most nutritive and the most healthful; but, although most animals in a wild state evince a taste for salt, it yet is only occasionally, and not regularly, in- dulged. The 'salt licks' of America, which are masses of mineral salt, so named because they are licked by the beasts of the forest, afford abun- dant evidence in the excavations which have been thus made, that salt is essential to animal health: the elk, the deer, and the buffalo, traverse im- measurable wilds in search of them, and tracks are found leading directly to them from the re- motest pastures. But the instinct which leada those animals to seek the 'licks' and 'salt springs,' in which they are even said to bathe, is only pe- riodical; the impulse once obeyed, they retire to their usual haunts, nor return until the recurrence of the same season. This, singly, would go far to show that salt is only useful as a preventive of disease, and should be only occasionally adminis- tered in large doses; but there are so many other well-attested instances of animals which thrive upon the constant use of saline plants, and of wa- ter impregnated with salt, that it cannot be con- sidered as amounting to proof Thatit is not hurt- tul when given moderately, in any way, is certain: but whether it should be employed in small quan- tities daily, or to the extent of half a pound at a time, for horses, and only once a week, or whether the practice should be confined to summer, is not so clear: perhaps a better mode than either would be to place a lump of rock-salt in a corner of the manger, and allow the horse, after having made him acquainted with its taste, to use it at his plea^ sure. The points most worthy of imitafion in this gen- tleman's management are the order and economy of his stable. He justly observes, that grooms are wasteful of hay, aiid by allowing the horses an unlimited use of it, tempt them to eat too much: his stables, therefore, are without racks: the loft above contains the machinery for cutting and grinding the chaff and corn, and when prepared, each horse's provender is put into a tub, from which a tunnel leads to the manger vmderneath, by means of which it is conveyed to him without further trouble. It is given in small quantities at several times during the day, and at night enough is thrown into the tub to last until the morning. This is a most excellent plan, and might be still further improved by a contrivance m the tunnel to prevent more from descending than the horse will eat at one time. The method of converting the entire provender into manger-meat has been borrowed trom Flan^ FARMERS' REGISTER— NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD. 47 ders, in which country it is the universal practice, and the farm-horses are invariably in high condi- tion. Its value consists — 1st. In its requiring a more thorough mastica- tion of" the food than when it is given in the com- mon way, thereby assisting digestion, and conse- quently jiromoting the nutrition of the animal; for, it is not only true that old horses lose much of the power of mastication, and that young and greedy cattle are apt to devour a considerable part ol their corn entire, when it is given alone, which passing through them in the same state, affords no kind of nourishment, but all animals are known to de- rive nutriment from their solid food, in a certain degree, in proportion to the care Avith wliich it is chewed. 2nd. It is consumed in less time. 3d. By the mixture of the materials, some por- tion of which, as damaged hay, or straw, might be refused if given separatelj', an equal consump- tion of the whole is secured. 4th. By its admitting of being more readily- weighed, or measured, than when given separate- ly, it can be more accurately distributed to each horse; on which it may be observed, that more in- jury is often done to horses b}^ allowing them an unlimited quantity of rack-meat, than even by stinting them to a scanty allowance; for they wi'l not only pass whole nights in eating, when rest would do them more service, but, by this extraor- dinary distention of the stomach, its powers are weakened, and their general health is injured. 5th. It prevents waste, and consequently it goes farther. Many exaggerated accounts of the saving thus made have been pubhshed, some of which state it as high as one-third, others even one-halfj of the rack-meat: these are only calculated to mis- lead; or, by their improbabdity, to cast a doubt upon the testimony of those who have made such statements; but, according to the opinion of Messrs. Wiggins, whose business extends to the daily feeding of more than three hundred horses, it may be fairly estimated at one-sixth. These advan- tages are so obvious, that it is unnecessary to press them upon attention; but it must be admitted, that the practice is attended with the inconvenience of occupying more of the carter's time, — independ- ently of that employed in cutting the chaff — than the customarj' method; for horses being apt to blow upon manger-meat, and then to reject it, when given in a large quantity at one time, it must be administered with a sparing hand, and renewed when the manger is empty, thus requiring con- stant attendance until the last feed is put in. Before quitting this subject, it may not be irrele- vant to advert to the custom of giving oats in the straw, cut together, which, although recommended by some eminent agriculturists*, and common in many places — especially in East Kent, where it is mixed with the barn-chaff, provincially Haff and chaff, and co/der,'t — only deserves notice in order to be reprobated. Throughout the greater part of that country, the regular mode is to employ a a man and a mate to each team of four, when two turns of work are made in the day. The time of going to work is six in the morning, returning at ten, and then going out again at one until six: nine hours in the whole. It is the carter's busi- ness to bait the team from four in the morning until six, and the mate takes that duty during noon, and from six till ten, when the stable is shut tor the night. The food is wholly cut into chaff, and the corn, whether beans or oats, cut loitu it in the sheaf. The only advantage attending the |)ractice of cutting the oats is the paltry saving of thrashing, while it precludes all knowledge, be- yond a vague guess, of the acreable produce of the crop, the quantity of corn for the whole num- ber of horses, or the share which fiills to each, and it may be confidently pronounced a slovenly and unfarmer-like practice. Nutritive value of Food. The next consideration is the relative nutritive value which the different kinds of luinter food in common use bear to each other. Although chem- istry has enabled us to ascertain the component parts of^vegetablcs, and it may be presumed that the worth of all articles of cattle-food is in a great measure proportionate to the quantity of soluble, or nutritive matter which they contain, yet it has not clearly demonstrated that such proportions ac- tually denote their exact degree of merit. The essential elements of vegetables consist of what chemists call hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, in various proportions, combined in some cases with a small quantity of azote, and the different com- binations of all these produce gluten, or albumen, saccharine matter, mucilage, and starch. Gluten, which is the most nutritious, is nearly allied in its properties to animal substance; saccharine matter may be considered as possessing those of sugar, and mucilage those of gum; there is also an ex- tract which is not supposed to contain any nutri- tive matter, but has been found useful to animals in a medicinal view. According to an analysis, made by Sir Humphry Davy, of the amount of those substances found in 1000 parts of different kinds of corn and pulse, it appears that the fbllow- ing are their proportions in those employed as food for cattle. , p. 168. 462. * Parkinson: Essay on Live Stock, vol. ii Middleton: Survey of Middlesex, 2d Edit. p. t Kent Report, 2d Edit. p. 183. Complete Grazier, 5th Edit., p. 175—177. = a 'S > 5'S 1 •a i s s g 1 < 1 ■3 .i GEAIN. |5 1 I a % 72 o a f 0 1 Norfolk barley. 920 790 70 60 Yorkshire rye, - 792 645 38 109 Scotch oats, - - 743 641 15 87 Common beans, 570 426 103 41 Dry peas, - - - 574 501 22 35 16 But these results have been obtained by experi- ments made through solution in water, and it is not improbable that both the action of chewing the salavia, and the solvent juices of the stomach, may have a very different effect upon the food when it is eaten; for they are more beneficial in their joint operations than mere solution by com- * Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, 4to. p. 131. 48 FARMERS' REGISTER— NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOO0. mon water, and the properties of grain are known to change, or to be lost, in the processes of malt- ing and baking. It is also possible that certain combinations of those substances may be more nutritive than others; and therefore, although the chemical tests have thrown considerable light upon the subject, they yet cannot be deemed conclusive. There appear, indeed, to be about as many varie- ties of extract as there are species of plants: the difference of the properties probably in many cases de])ended upon thcur being combined with small quantities ol" other vegetable substances, or to. their containing different saline, alkaline, or earthy ingredients. It is probable that the excel- lence of the different articles as Ibod will "be found to be in a great measure ]iroportional to the quality of the nutritive matter they afford; but still their quantities cannot be regarded as absolutely direct- ing their value. Experience, however, which is the farmer's surest guide, has to a great extent confirmed the accuracy of the analysis, and has in this instance added one more to the many existing proofs of the assistance Avhicll husbandry derives from science. On reference to the table, it will be seen that oats are greatly superior in nutritive matter to beans; but this must be vmderstood with regard to their respective weight, for, used as they are in England, by measure, and taking the average weight of a bushel of common horse-beans at 56 lbs. and of Scotch oats at 40 lbs., the difference between tlfe two will be as 31,920 to •29.720, or nearly 16 to 15 per bushel, in favor of beans. The same remark will nearly apply to the relati\'e value of peas; with this distinction, however, that as they contain less gluten than beans, they are per- haps neither so heating, nor so nutritive; and ex- perience has shown them to be more flatulent. The difference in weight of the various grain used in feeding horses is not in general sufficiently considered. Most people look only to the prices, and finding beans at perhaps 5s., when oats are only at 3s. 6rf. the bushel, they conclude that the latter are cheaper in that proportion; without re- flecting that, were the bushels weighed, the prices would be found nearly equal, and that, were feeding regulated by weight, the cost of either would be about the same.* The custom o^ feeding by measure has led to a prevalent idea that beans are more nutritive than oats; though, weight for weight, we have seen that the contrary is the fact; and both that and the heating quality ascribed to them has probably aiisen as much ii-om the greater amount in an equal measure, as from any other cause; for, al- though it would appear that a bushel of either contains nearly an equal portion of nutritive mat- ter, yet bulk, or weight, is also of importance in feeding, and it is certain that, in practice, an equal measure of beans is superior to the same quantity * Taking for the sake of round numbers, the average price and weight of oats, at 3s. Ad. and 40 lbs. per bushel, they would be worth a penny the pound; and the relative value to them, of other grain used as horse- food, at their common average weight, when of equal- ly good quality, would be, Common Oats. Tick beans. H. beans. G. peas. Barley. Ryfi. Weight 40lbs. 601bs. 561bs. COlbs. 501bs. 521bs. Price, 35. 4rf. 55. Orf. 4s. 8rf. 5s. Qd. 45. 2d. 48, 4rf, of oats. It also occasions constant irregularity in the common fi^eding with oals alone; for these vary in weight, accordmgto soil and season, fiom 30 lbs.- to 42 lbs., and even more, per bushel: thus a quart- ern of good feed oats, which ought to weigh 2-^- lbs. is often reduced to 2 lbs., and ihough the horse is thereby deprived of one-fifth of his corn, yet, the same measure being thrown into the manger, the tact is seldom adverted to. The Ibllowing table * will show the quantit}^ of meal that is usually extracted li"om certain weights of that grain; and, though different results may be obtained by various qualities and seasons, yet the progressiv^e ratio of the produce will generally be found nearly similar: — Weigbt per busliel avoiidupois. lbs. A-i produce in meal 2.5 40 " .38 « { 36 " 34 " 32 " 30 " lbs. oz. lbs. oz. 2.5 2 ditto lU husk 16 14 23 6 " 16 13 21 12 f( IG 4 20 3 (t 15 13 18 11 " 15 5 17 5 a 14 11 16 1 " 13 5 Rye is very generally employed as horse-food in North America. It is there given coarsely ground, and sprinkled over straw and clover chaff', pre- viously wetted, by which means the whole mass is well incorporated; mastication also is so much assisted that no part is wasted, and the condition of the carriers' horses on the roads in Pennsylva- nia, where they are universally thus fed, and are seldom lodged in a stable, proves the excellence of the practice. It is also used in Germany; but generally in the shape of bread made fi-om the wliole flour and bran, and it is not unusual in tra- velling through some parts of that countrj", and of Holland, to see the postilions help themselves and their horses from the same loaf The plan of giving bread to horses was formerly adopted in some racing-stables in England, and the statute- book contains many acts of jiarliament regulating the making of horse-bread. In later times wheat- en bread of the finest quality was used, from an idea that the superior weight and value of the grain, and its well-known nutritive power, when the flour alone is converted into bread, would ren- der it more invigorating than oats: but the experi- ment did not succeed, and it furnishes one among many proofs, that reasoning from analogy alone will sometimes lead to erroneous conclusions. Barley is rarely used in this country for horses, and rye ]-)erhaps never, or only by chance ; yet throughout the south of Europe, the former along with straw, is the only food given to horses and mules, the latter of which go through very severe labor, and are generally in high condhion. There are various opinions concerning its properties — ■ some considering it as more heating, others as more cooling, than oats, and all perhaps equafly ill-founded. Where constantly used, it is not seen to have any prejudicial eflect ; and, as it appears to contain a larger portion of nutritive matter than oats, and is known to be more fattening, it is well worthy of attention, especially as the price is so much affected by mere color, which is of no im- portance in feeding, that inferior malting samples frequently fetch little more than feed oats of good * Survey of Antrim, p. 183. See a future chapter, on the cultivation of oats, in this publication; and also the Farmers' Magazine, vol. xvi. p. 188, vol. xvii. p. 413, and vol. xx. p. 308. FARMERS' REGISTER— HORSE FEEDING. 40 qualit}". Six bushels have been found, on com- 2)aralive trial, to be equal to ei;[^ht of oat«.* The British cavalry was led on barley duriug the greater part of the Peninsular war, and throve U[)on their allowance, though it was delivered by weight, and was only 10 lbs. instead of 12 lbs. of oatsj the barley being considered in that propor- tion more nutritive than oats, owing to the smaller quantity of husk. Now it lollows from this, that we have no guide on Avhich Ave can more securely rely than the weight of vegetable nutritive matter to regulate its consumption. Yet it has been contended that, in the leeJing of (iu'm-horses, barley — though lieavier than oats, and containing a larger quanti- ty of extractive matter — docs not contain so much nutritive substance. It is said to be more watery, and therefore, if given Avcight for weight, to de- prive horses of a portion of their regular nutri- ment. An article in the 'British Famner's Maga- zine,'t indeed, states the saving on leeding Avith barley as amounting to £G per annum, for each horse; but that grain Avas given, instead of oats, by AA^eight, AAdthout any distinction beiAveen the respective nutritiA'e qualities of either; noi does it appear Avhether the statement Avas made li'om the actual experience of an entire year, or Avas only assumed to amount to it, from a calculation made on the saAnngs of a shorter period. All account of its uses, in many instances, by Sir John Sinclair,^ states its being almost uniform- ly given Avith one-third of beans, bruised or broken AA'ith the barley, or boiled, Avhich is considered the better plan; though it certainly Avas not boiled for regimental service, nor is the proportionate quan- tities of barley and beans to oats stated: AA'e are also led to belicA'c that the former have been in most cases giA'en by measure, in consequence of the cheaper price of barley. Here, or Big, Ave also knoAv to be sometimes substituted Avith eco- nomy ibr oats in the north, but the difference of Aveight is not considered: in Nortblk, too, Mar- shall tells us that, Avhen barley is unsaleable at re- gular markets, it is sometimes given to horses, in AAdiich case it is usually 'malted,' that is, steeped for a feAv days until it begins to vegetate, in Avhich state it is thought to be less heating than Avhen fiven in the natural state. Being also frequently adly harvested, the pernicious effects of heat, or must, are prcA^ented by boiling. We AA'ill not hazard an opinion on the propor- tionate value of oats and barlej', Avhich can only be fairly tried by first depriAdng tAA'o horses for some days of any kind of corn, and then feeding them for a considerable time upon equal Aveights of each grain; but Ave certainly do feel someAvhat sceptical about the A'alue so loudly insisted upon of late, of boiled corn as food. That postmasters' * MarshalVs Minutes of .Agriculture, Digest, p. 4.3. In another experiment, besides that mentioned in the foregoing table, Sir Humphry Tixvy states the ditler- ence between 100 parts of oats and barley to be — ^ r79 starch 59^ Sussex oats ^ 6 Gluten 6 ,° ==^ " \ 1 Saccharine matter 2 f [Lect. III.] 8 Husk 33 J Elem. of Cliein. 100 100 t No. IV. p. 486; but see also No. V. p. 637. X In the British Farmer's Magazine, No. XI. p. 171. V^OL. II.— 7 horses, Avhich get an unlimited quantity, may be benefited by it, Ave will not deny; and a mash of boiled barley tAvice a Aveek Avill be found to im- prove the general health of the animals, as evinced by the sleekness and glossiness of their coats, as it certainly has an opening and cooling efliect on the boAvels, which cannot but be serviceable when fare quantities are consumed of heating food; but we may be permitted to doubt either its necessity or its utility lor fiirm-horses, connnonly fed: or that they require, in the winter months, more cooling food than a bi'an mash, instead of their corn, Avith an ounce of nitre, or common salt, on the Satur- day night. There is also a fact stated upon the authority of Sir John Sinclair, respecting the heating effects of unusuail)^ large quantities of corn upon the health of horses, Avhich is Avell worthy of attention. It is that of an extensiA-e coach-master, Avho regu- larly allowed thi'ee bushels of oats daily to each of his sets of eight horses, out of Avhich, during the course of many years' experience, he annually lost a great number. Upon reflection, hoAvever, he changed his mode of leeding, and allowed mstead lor each set, — 1 bushel of beans, 1 ditto oats, I ditto hay and straAV cut into chaff; — the consexjuence of Avhich Avas, that his horses Avere as hearty and as able to perlbrm their Avork as they Avere ever knoAvn, and that he has only lost one since the adoption of that plan.* In gentlemen's stables no other than vieadow- hny is generally admitted, and it is in all respects the best; but farmers find more profitable uses for it, in the feeding of fatting stock and coavs; and clover, either alone or Avith rye-grass, sainfoin, or tare-hay, though f oarser, answers every necessa- ry purpose lor liirm-horses, more especially \Adien cut into chaff and used along with straw. Sain- foin is commonly esteemed the first, and clover the next in quality, but tare-hay, if Avell made, is very hearty food: tliey are, indeed, so nearly alike, that it is unnecessary to dAvell upon their peculiar pro- perties, and, Avcre there eAen greater difierence between them, there is seldom much room for choice, as Avhatever may be the produce of a farm, it must be consumed, and no one thinks of pur- chasing fodder for the Avorking cattle. SJxpense. From the fbregomg statements, the necessary information may be collected as to the quantity and kind of food on Avhich farm-horses may be supported at constant labor. They lead also to the important consideration of the anmtal cost of a team, and of the labor it may be expected to per- form, Avithout an accurate knoAvledge of Avhicli no correct estimate can be made of the general ex- penses of cultivation, or of the particular charges on separate crops. The quantity of the different articles of food, in fact, depends on the size of the horses and the labor they perform; the A'alue, upon the prices of different seasons, and in CA^cry season upon the situation of the farm in respect to markets, partic- ularly hay and roots, Avhich bring \-eiy diiferent prices at large toAAms, and at a fcAV miles distance. It is for these reasons that the yearly expense of * Scottish Husbandry, vol. ii., Append. No. 23, 50 FARxVlERS' REGISTER— HORSE FEEDING, &c. a horse^b maintenance has been estimated at al- most every sum, from j£ 15 to £40. In the Lan- cashire Report,* the cost of a team of three, ploughing se\-en statute acres per week tlie year throughout, is thus estimated: — £ d. Oats, six bushels per week for six montlis, at 23s. per quarter Three ditto - six ditto Hay, six months at £1 Is. per week Grass and green food 15s. per ditto Wear and tare of two ploughs Shoeing, 10s. 6d., and farm expenses os each - - - In the General Report of Scotland,! the feeding is calculated on some iarms as high as 15 quarters of oats each, with 22 lbs. of hay, oran English acre of clover or tares, and a quarter of an acre of pota- toes, yams, or Swedish turnips while they are on etraAV, and Ihus the expense" of keep — oats being 25s. per quarter — is estimated for a pair at — 19 10 0 9 15 0 27 6 0 19 10 0 o 3 0 3 6 6 £81 10 6 £. s. 15 12 0 73 2 6 6 0 0 £94 14 6 Interest oh purchase, decline in value, and insurance from disease Food ■ Harness, shoeing and farrier Mr. Brown, of Markle, makes the charge of a plough-team of a pair, with dri- ver, amount toj - ... 135 1 0 Mr. Keer, of Berwick^ - - - 120 0 0 While others reduce the charge of a pair and driver more reasonably toU 90 0 0 And others again to|| - - - 80 0 0 Mr. Middle ton, of Middlesex** raises it to - - - - - - 157 10 0 But these estimates were made at various pe- riods, when great dilference existed in prices; the Middlesex report is rather meant for the road than for common plough-work; and perhaps the present general average of the kingdom, exclusive of the charge for interest, may be ctdculated at about £84. Some farm-horses, though workino; at the usual rate of common labor, are said to be supported during the summer on cut grass, almost without corn. 'When no beans are grown, their winter food is oat-straw or hay; but in all other cases, bean-straw alone forms their winter provender, from grass to grass, with a mess every night oi' bean-chaff, potatoes or turnips, and a little small corn, all boiled together and seasoned with salt; and two feeds of oats per day, but only when hard worked.' tt On tins fare they are stated to be kept in excellent condition, and others are said to consume only from 15 to 25 bushels, if good oats *Original and Corrected Report, p. 584. tVol. iii.p. 194. J Sir J. Sinclair, Husbandly of Scotland, p. 125. § Berwickshire Report, p. 406. "[T West Lotlrian, p. 178. II Library of Useful Knowledge, Farmer's Se- ries, No. 18. Dumbartonshire Report, p. 251. ** Mid- dleton's Middlesex, p. 97. tfEssay on the Agriculture of the Vale of Fortli, by Mr. Carmichael. — Prize Essays of the Highland Society, 1833, vol. iv. p. 24. are given; but as draughts (ligld corn) are cora- moidy used, the (luantity is proportionably in- creased. Now, if the meaning of this be,' that a cail-horse gets no more than that quantity in one year, it must be either made up of other nourishing food, or he must be so badly fed as to be unfit lor work. And, notwithstanding all that has been said of substhutes for grain— although admitting that roots may be economically and even heallhtully substituted — we must beg leave to doubt this possibility when the animal is forced to exert himself to the extent of his power. In proportion to the work which he usually and reg- id;u-ly exerts, he may be in excellent apparent order: but push him; try him wdth a few days' harder than ordinary toil, and you will fuul that it is not an additional quantity of roots, but of sound corn, that he requires to sustain him. The reason is evident: he may fill his stomach with roots, but they will not supply the quality of invigora- ting and nourishing substance which corn supphes in the same locight; aird having filled it, he can do no -more. Therefore, we repeat, that farm^horses moderately worked may do their regular days' labor with perfect satisiaclion to their employer; but compel them to the full extent of their vi^or, and tlrere will be ho advantage found in stinting them. When working cattle, more especially horses, are not judiciously as well as economi- cally fed, they are either suffered to go out of con- dition, or provender is unnecessarily wasted; and thus, in either case, considerable injury- is sustained through their deficiency of strength to perform their proper quantity of labor, or through the un- necessary expense of their keep. Some years horses require more corn than in others; sometimes soiling commences sooner than at other seasons; and at others, from the failure of the second crops of m-ass, they are sooner put on hay and corn. The hay, too, has not the same succulence in some years as in others, and consequently will not go so liir; and horses, like other animals, though of the same apparent strength, do not all consume similar quantities of food. In treating this subject minutely, it would be necessary to review the various methods of feeding horse-teams, practised by diflerent eminent fann- ers, but, besides that, tlxe enumeralion would be tedious, few men require such assistances to their judgment in forming an opinion of the most eligi- ble rnode, and it may be sufficient for the present purpose to assume that plan which can be most generally adopted, namely — of feeding upon corn and hay, or straw^ during the winter, and soiling in summer; leaving out of the question the sav- ings which may be made by the most economical employment of'" roots. Five horses will also be assumed as composing a team; for, even if plough- ed in pairs, three are sometimes wanted for other work; an odd horse is always useful; and with the aid of tlie farmer's own nag to hook on occasion- ally to a third plough, a couple of hundred acres of medium soil, under a moderate rotation, and with a fiur proportion of meadow, may be very well managed with that number, if there be not much out-cartage; and they may be easily worked by one carter and his mate, \vith a stout lad able to hold and drive, or one of the laborers, when a third plough is required. Supposing, then, the horses to be soiled from old May-day to Michael- FARMERS' REGISTER— HORSE FEEDING, &c. 51 mas on grasses n-orth £6 the acre, with two quarters ol" oats each, at 24s. to be given on work- ing days, and troni that time to be allowed each 10 lbs. daily of bruised beans, ground oats, or bar- ley, with 12 lbs. ol" clover or sainfoin hay, and 20 lbs. ol" straw or haulm for botii chaft" and litter; and calculating that quantity ol" each species ol" grain to be worth 9d.,* hay at 6.5s., and straw, or haulm, 20s. per ton,t on the liirm — which may be about the ])resent home value of the best quali- ties in most jilaces — the cost of feeding and tar- riery would be: — 20 weeks, 140 per- ches, at 9d. 2 qrs. oats 24s. One horse Summer soilin ^ 5 0 2 8 0 r. u • ^ Corn lOlbs. per > ,, One horse wui- , . „ , ^ > 0 7 13 0 ter-feeding per week. day, at 9d. Hay 1^- truss, 19-^^ 0 2 5;| Straw 14- cwt. Is. 0 13 32 weeks, --08 11:^=14 6 0 Shoeing and farriery, - - 1 10 0 £23 9 0 The annual charge of maintaining a single horse being thus ascertained, there remains to be added to the collective expense of the team, the interest of the capital sunk in their purchase, and in that of the implements for their use, including a wagon and carts, with their gear; and allowing these to cost £ 140, and the horses and harness, one with another, to stand in £26 each, with ten per cent, tor repeurs and deterioration of value, the whole account will appear thus: £. s. d. Maintenance of 5 horses at £ 23 9s. each, - - - - - 117 Interest on £270, cost of teams and implements, at 5 per cent. £ 13 10 0 Repairs and deterioration of dit to at 10 per cent. 5 0 27 0 0 First carter| — weekly wages, 31 5 0 C annual wages, 10 0 0 Second do. — < boai-d at 6s. per 40 10 0 week. - 15 12 0 Stable and contingent expenses, - Labor. 56 17 10 0 £224 12 0 The annual labor of a man and a pair of horses, with the necessary implements, will therefore cost £89 16s. 2J., or, "throwhig fractional parts aside, 6s. for every working day; but, as many elays occur on which they are only hali] or not at all em- * See note, p. 145, but those are assumed as the market prices; here they should be lower. t In point of fact, no charge should be made for straw when it is not allowed to be sold; for, if not eaten, it must be consumed as litter; and when charged to cattle, it must be again allowed for, in account, as dung. X The estimate of wages and board for each of the men is taken betweenthe highest and lowest rate; for out-door and in-door servants were both kept either in, or out of the house-^the amount, at a medium rate, would ba nearly similar. j)loyed, more than five days in each week, or 260 in the year, cannot be cafcidated on, which gives nearly 7s. per day, as the actual expense; and pre- suming them to be adequate to the cultivation of 40 to 60 acres, the tillage in each case will cost — 89£ . 16s. 2d. C 40 acres == 2£ . 5s. Od. ^ < 50 " =1 16 0 > per acre. say90£. ( 60 " =1 10 0 ) It will perhaps be objected, that as all the other work of a farm, such as statute-labor, carriage ot materials tor drains, repairs, &c. is also performed by tlie same teams, the entire charge should not lidl upon the tillage; but, as all those operations are incidental to the cultivation of the land, they may, in fact, be regarded as forming part of it, and any separate estimate would not alter the tottJ amount of the annual expense. Whenever it may be material to ascertain the actual cost of any spe- cific work, the time it occupies being known, the calculation can be readily made according to the above valuation; and farmers woidd find it useful m enabling them to form a correct judgment on many points of great importance were they to make out an accomit of the actual expense of their teams, and to charge each day's w-ork against the particular object on which it was employed. But in calculating the cost ot" the tillage of any one field, the mere charge of each day's ordinary Avork would be a fallacious guide; for that would only show the labor actually expended on the land A\ithout any share of the in- cidental labor of the whole farm: in such estimates, theretbre, the annual expense of the team must be divided by tlte number of days consumed in tUlage only; and supposing that to amount to but two- thirds of the entire labor, it would follow that, when each day's labor throughout the whole year costs 7s. the charge ibr a day's ploughing should be lOs.Gd. The daily labor of a team must necessarily be regulated by the maimer in which it is employed^ as well as by its strength. In some of the south- ern and midland counties, the carters who gene- rally sleep in the house, rise at four in the moriiing, teed, clean, and harness the horses, get breakfast, mid are ready to go a-field at six-'clock, or after seven in the AN-iuter, when they work till two, thus making at (he utmost a yoking of eight hours. When the horses return to the stable they have a little hay given to them whOe their attendants have dinner, by which time it is past four, when one of the men curries, feeds, and litters them down, while the other fetches their provender, either- green or dry, and usually finishes his evening by a lounge at the smithy, either to get the plough- share pointed, or to have some talk with his fel- lows, until the hour of eiglit leads him home to supper. Throughout the north, however, the usual hours of work are, in the spring and sum- mer, from six to eleven, and from two to six, or seven, allowing the intermediate three hours lor rest and feedino-: in winter, at the utmost from se- ven to four, witn one or two hours' rest at mid-day; though, at that season, it is a better practice to finish the day's work, without returning to the sta- ble, at one bout of seven hours, during Avhich the horses may get a feed from their nose-bags, wliile the ploughman takes his lunch, which he carries ' with him to the field. The connnon calculation is, tliat, taking the year round, an acre of land is thus ploughed in a day; and, generally speaking, this may not be wide of the fact: but the exact 52 FARMERS' REGISTER— HARVEST LABORS IN ENGLAND. quantity, and the requisite number of liorses must depend upon the nature and condition of the soil; the season; the way in which the work is perform- ed; and the sort of cattle emj)loyed. Notwithstand- ing the broad assertion 'that two-horse jjloughs are fiilly adequate to the tillage of any soil, howe- ver heavy,'* it is certain that there is land in the Weald of Kent, and the adjaceilt similar districts, so exceedingly stiff and wet, that lour powerful horses, or six strong Sussex oxen, ai'c sometimes brought to a stimd still in breaking it upij the mode oi' ploughing, too, sometimes i-equires that the horses should go at length, in which case three ai-e hardly more efficient than a pair abreast: and it is well known to practical men that, even with apparendy proportionate additional strength, an acre of stubborn clay cannot be broken up in the same time as a ley of triable loam. Much ingenuity has been exercised to facilitate the exe- cution of field-labor; various forms of the plough have been constructed to operate with less resist- ance, and tlie work has been executed by the ap- plication of less power. This is, no doubt, a great improvement, when the purpose can be equally well attained. It is pleasant to see a ploughman conduct a pair of well-trtiined horses to the field, and in a masterly manner jjerform the work which formerly required the aid ol' an awkward plough- boy and a number of unwieldy animals; and when the implements are good, and the ploughman in- telligent and dexterous, this, no doubt, may be done. But it has been v»'ell observed, by a writer of great experience, J that 'fashion overrules judg- ment, and too ill-appointed animals are oilen ex- pected to perform that vWiich is sufficient for the most powerful; the surface is slightly scratched, attention to preserve the depth of the soil is disre- garded, and the progress of cultivation and fertility retarded.' Adequate force should be employed to stir the ground to such a depth as a healthy vegetation requires; the breadth as well as the depth of the flirrow, too, and the pace at which it is turned, govern the quantity that can be plough- ed in a given time. The ground gone over in ploughing an aci'e is, with a broad furrow-slice, about eleven miles, or with one of eight inches, twelve miles and three furlongs, exclusive of turn- ings: and it has been ascertamed, that a team, walking at the different rates of one and a half and two miles an hour, will plough the following ((uantity of a medium soil, to the depth of five inches, nine hours: — Inches. a. r. p. Breadth of furrow 8 at 1^ miles per hour 1 0 0 9 " " 1 0 20 8 2 " 1 1 10 9 " " 12 0 The dilTerence in the quantity ploughed in these instances clearly demonstrates the VcUue of action in the horses; but it must at the same time be ob- sei'ved, that the distance travelled at the slow pace * Quarterly Journiil of Agriculture, No. XI. p. 714. fKent Report, 2d edit. p. 20. Surrey Report, (Ste- venson's,) p. 195. In some of the red clay land, in the Newbury district of Berksliire, five fiorses find hard work in turning up three-quarters of an acre in a day. Berks. Report, p. 119. t John Naismith, Esq., part iv. No. i. of the second vol. of the Appendix to the General Report of Scot- land. is only twelve, while at the quicker rate it is six- teen miles; and that a ploughman must possess more than ordinary strength and dexterity to go through that degree of labor, and perform it well; for altlioiigh he may rest himself occasionally by means of tjie plough tail, yet that is always at the expense both of the cattle, and of the regularity of the work. JMr. Parkinson mentions an instance of an Irish ploughman who, in a medium soil, and with a nine-mch fuiTow, turned over at the second ploughing', with a pair of horses of the hea\y dray kind,l acre and 20 perches (Irish mea- sure) in six hours and ten minutes, Avhich is at the rate of nearly 2 acres 2 roods in eight hours; the horses must therefore have walked during that time at the rate of three miles an hour; but he ad- mits that no horses, wth any keep, could have ma,intained such daily labor for a continuance.* On the whole, therefore, it may be concluded, that an acre and a half is the utmost that can be ploughed with a common furrow, on any soil; and that on an average, from an acre, to an acre and a quarter, in summer, and tliree-fourths of an acre in winter, may be considered as the day's work of a team; the strength being in pi'oportion to the land. MR. CXTRWEIV S DIARY OF HIS HARVEST LA- BORS, IN CUJIBERLAND. [It is not with the expectation that our readers can derive instruction for practice from the following diary, that it has been selected for their perusal. Harvest in Virginia is so widely different in every respect from harvest in the north of England, that scarcely any thing usual or proper in the one, would be fit for imi- tation in the other. The climate and unusual degree of moisture — the time of year — the reaping (or "shear- ing") implements — the kind of labor, and the manner of its application — all are different in that cold and dripping region, from ours: and with our views, it seems a wonder, under such circumstances as are nar- rated, that aU the wheat in the country was not lost, in- stead of being generally well saved But this veiy difference of our circumstances from those liere descri- bed, will lend some interest to the statements — and there is another thing that wiU serve to increase the interest to most readers, and it is this particular to which we especially invite attention. The pleasure wliich will be found in the perusal of this diary is almost en- tirely owing to the minuteness of the details. And if even a slight interest is thus produced, concerning a locality and circumstances altogether strange to us, mucli greater would it be, if as minute a statement was presented of a well conducted harvest in Virginia. And such a diary, would not only give pleasure, but instruction, in the best and most effective form. It is scarcely necessary to state that Mr. Curwen was one of the most intelligent and distinguished far- mers of England. This diary is extracted from his re- port to the Workington Agricultural Society of which he was the Pi-esident.] "PflrA: wheat— 22 acres.'] On the 2Sth of Au- gust, this crop was begun to be cut. It was fess injured than I expected from the situation of the * Parkinson on Live Stock, vol. ii. p. 132. FARMERS' REGISTER— HARVEST LABORS IN ENGLAND. 53 ground, which I attribute to its beiiio; drilled at twelve inches distance. Some parts were laid, but generally it was upstanding. Considering its low situation, it nuist be always subject to risk. If this had not been sown so particulariy thin, the crop would have been entirely spoilt. There were 11.35 stoolcs, or 51 upon an acre. The clover plant ■\ery good, and extremely clean. This crop Avas taken oil' beyond all expectations, and will be the first wheat in the neighborhood. The necessity of being most particularly attentive to cleaning and picking small [jotatoes, is apparent here; for there are still a great deal more growm^ than there ought to have been. They not only oflend the C}e, but injure the crop. " GildcrskUl — 30 acres.'] One part (about five acres) Avas very much laid, and had a great num- ber ot" black heads. I did not observe, however, any ajipearance of mildew. The wheat had been much injured b}" the frost. Sheep were jnit upon it tor a low days; and where they had led, it was much the best. It had been too ])roud before the sheej) were turned upon it, and they did not like it. The season, however, became so wet, tliat tliey could not have been kept long upon it. The highest part of the field was extremely good. There were 1105 stooks, or 36 per acre. Tliis ivheat was so ripe, that had there come any wind before it was cut, there must have been a great loss Irom the shake. "J/oor Close — 42 acres.] The two fields which were quite a new creation, produced a very good crop. Some ^e\v acres were laid and injured; but generally it was most productive, and had in one 802 stooks, and in the other 1058; and some parts of it turned out as fine grain as I ever beheld. Had the season been favorable, this would have been a most surprising crop. Those who en\y farmers their success, let them look to this season, and see the ruin which has threatened their whole produce; and unless the latter part of the season becomes favorable, I do not l-:no\v how farmers upon wet ground will be able to support their stock. The turnips and cabbages have made no progress for the last three weeks, and it can scarce be hoped they will gain the weight of half a tole- rable crop. "The advantage of behig near a town is very great. I was able to muster, without giAing extra wages, 220 persons. Women have 2s. per day, and work between nine and ten hours — men 2s. 6c?. In dilficult seasons, to be able to cut between 30 and 40 acres a day, greatly lessens the risk, and is an additional reason for having lands near towns under tillage, '^y/ugiisi 30/7i.] The incessant rain for five weeks saturated the ground to such a degree, as to put a stop to the growth of clover on wet soils, where it had been Tate cut. In some parts, the roots appear to have been affected, and the clover seemed to have lost its feeding quality. Plants appear to require the sun to bring them to perfec- tion, as much as the earth does the heat of his beams to promote flieir growth, "For one fortnight, the experimental cattle all lost weight, and the milch cows gave less milk. I was compelled to suspend soiling, and turn my cows upon the aftermath, to give the clover time to get a growth. What was first cut had made Fuch progress before the wet came on, that it was jiot materially affected, and cut uncommonly well. I attribute this to the i)lants covering tiie ground, and guarding the roots. The cover also kept it Avarm. The same observation is applicable to the pastures that were earliest cut. Turnips and other roots that Vv^ere verj^ JbrAvard, 'have suffered least. This unexampled season has been attended with difficulties I never experienced; and, unless the month of September turas out lavorabiy, the dis- tress will be general. The wet has. arrested the growth of the turnip. No crops come up better, or appear more promising. The rain seems to have suspended the vegetative jjower of the earth, and checked the growth of plants of aii kinds. Nothing could be more discouragisig than this day. I have never known the ground wetter, at any season. The cabbages Avere eciually stopped in their growth. "I was not prcA'iously aAvare of the full extent of fortitude and patience recjuired to make a good farmer. Philosopliy is not an acquirement of learning alone: it is one thing to argue Avell, and another to adopt the maxims of Avisdom as the rule of practice. In the midst of one of the A'io- lent shoAA^ers so connnon in this climate, I Avaa glad, with a friend Avho AA'as along AA^ith me, to take shelter in the house of a small farmer. Presently after our arriA^al, the master and his sen'ants were likeAvLse driven in. The children receiA'ed the pa- rent AA'ith delight, and he returned their caresses. The felicity their endearments inspired, seemed at once to restore the calm and tranquillity of his mind. Domestic sunshine disarmed the merciless peltings of the storm. Its injuries seemed no lon- ger felt or regarded. Struck Avith surprise I Avas resolved to prove Avhether tliis Avas the effects of indifference or real magnanimity. I began, Avith some asperit}", to rail at the Aveather, Avjiich Avaa answered by the good man Avith great composure, ' that God never sent a crop AA'ithout a season to get it in," And ha\"ing made this reply. AAiiich compiised all his knoAvledge and belief on the subject, continued his merriment and innocent pas- time AAdth the chUdren, I knoAV not what effect the recital may liaA-e on others; but on my friend and self it acted as an electric shock. We could neither refrain our admiration: and the train of ideas that floAved from it led us to this conclusion, that practical Avisdom is the offspring of virtue, and the tAvni sister of liapjnness, "A tAA'clve acre field of AA-heat at Moor Close, AA'hlch had been fed Avith sheep, cut uncommonly Avell, and Avas, in general, \'ery heavy, and an ex- cellent grain. There Avere 640 stooks, or 45 per acre. " The last of xiugust, and 'the first tAvo days in September, Avere a great blessing to the country. From the appearance of change on Saturday the 2d, I persevered cutting till it Avas nearly dark, and thereby saA'ed a part of o. field, A-ery ripe, and so exposed, that the high Avind Avhich came on in the night Avould haA-e greatly injured it. I own I am often surprised Avith the confidence I see placed in a climate so uncertain as ours. For mjselfj I disclaim all trust Avliich can be aA^oided by exer- tion. " September Wi.'] Cut one field of two acres from falloAA^, Avhich had 105 stoolvs — the Avheat uncommonly good. Much rain in the night, AA-ith l)artial shoAvers during the day. I discovered that in many parts of the spring Avhcat there were a ffreat number of black her. is. These are more »4 FARMERS' REGISTER— HARVEST LABORS IN ENGLAND. apparent as the sprinof wheat ripens. The few fine days have already made a sensible difierenee in the appearance of the turnips. AVhere the stitches have been opened by the plough, I have no doubt it will be proved that the earth has reco- vered part of its natund heat. '■'■Sepiemhe.r 6ih.'\ The weather relapsed. The warm gleams of sun were very injurious in making the corn heat and sprout. Tliis was a heart- breaking day to the farmer. " September 6th.'] Being wet in the morning, the afternoon broke out fine, and did infinite bene- fit to the grain which was cut. Lodged corn will now become every day worse. The first loss Vv'ili be found the least. It is expedient to cut what is in that state, and take the chance, by exposing it, that a part may thereby be saved. Cut above 500 etooks. " September Ith.] In the night there had been violent thunder sliowers. An unpromising morn- ing. It cleared up at ten o'clock; and 1 began cutting spiiag wheat, a very moderate crop, some- thing better than the last year. I doubt much whether I shall ever attempt sowing it again; cer- tainly not the kind common in this country". Early in the afternoon, a very heavy shower, which put a stop to any further cutting. The wet and heat is most injurious both to the lodged and the cut grain. Seeing the probability of a change, I was fortunate in getting all I had got cut both this and the former day hooded. In such a season, the Jarmer has the choice of difficulties: to wait is de- struction— to proceed is injurious. Prices will re- munerate the farmer; but what will be the situa- tion of the laborer and lower orders, who make no provision for a season of difficulty? The present prospect is as gloomy as possible. " September Sth.] A moist daj^, and not a breath of air to dry the ground. Cut two fields of wheat, with four acres of indifferent oats. The warmth of the weather, together with moisture, is most destructive to grain. Since the ploughing between the stitches, the turnips have made some progress, and recovered flieir color. Led and thrashed the winter barley, which, in the moist state of the straw, was attended with difficulty. The situation where it gre^v was veiy low, and imfavorable for barley: a part had been lodged, and suffered. Harvest demands redoubled exertion: an error or omission in this cannot be retrieved. Few can hit the happy medium, uniting energy with sound dis- cretion. To accelerate too much in carrying grain, is subject to loss: to omit a tolerably fiivorable op- portunity may be equally so. In such a season as this, the farmer ha-s only a choice of difficulties. Anxiety to get forward is the rock, I feel, I have to guard against. After endless plague, vexation and loss, I got my hay out of pike into stack. It had suffered less than I expected, though much more than I wished, and has proved a very light crop. Fortunately, disappointments are soon for- gotten; and however adverse seasons may be, upon every failure hope still renews her golden promises. For four days I have anxiously ex- pected to be able to secure a pai't of my crop, hav- ing upwards of 6000 stooks cut. " September 9th.'] The morning was dubious, but soon cleared up, and became a fine harvest day. Began to cany rather too soon. The height to which the stacks are elevated, gives them a great fidvanlage. Employed 150 shearers. A few 1 acres of the wheat in Mealrigs, was much disfi- gured by docks. I cannot account for it in any other way, than by supjiosing the seed was brought in sludge got from a tarn, into which the drainage of the town runs: this wae used as a top dressing, when this part of the field was under clover. I stacked 2000 stooks. In the state of the weather, this must be considered as particular- ly fortunate. . '^ Sunday, September lOth.] In the precarious state of the weather, that which would, in all other cases, be inexcusable, becomes an imperious duty. I hesitated not, this day, to employ every hand to secure the grain which was ready for canying. The preservation of life is a duty strictly enjoined us. That cannot be deemed a profanation of the ., Sabbath, which proceeds upon the principle of pre- serving what is necessary for the existence of a number of our fellow creatures. Were it a ques- tion of individual gain, it ought not to be done. In seasons when the weather is generally good, I should not recommend it. But after fifty days, mthout there having been twenty-four hours fair, the omission might hazard an inmiense loss to the public; and no argimient can be fairly deduced from this, to justify any neglect of religious duties. Led 1500 stooks. At twelve o'clock it came on again to rain, and superseded all further proceed- ings. I was glad to see the general exertion that was made by every fanner around to save his crop. The afternoon again cleared up; and io common and ordinary^ seasons, one might reasona- bly hope a fin« day would succeed. The wand has never been steady to any point for fourteen hours; and much of the rain has had tlve appear- ance of thunder storms. " September llth.] The return of sunshine, and a fine drying wind, reanimated the farmer's hopes. All was gratitude. Past miseries vanished. The joys of a good har\'est were anticipated. The difference laetwcen the sttite of the grain, at seven o'clock in the morning, and at six in the evening, was scarce to be described. Most melancholy was the appearance when the reapers began. The wheat was not in a state to bind till the aflernoon. Two hundred people were employed in the field between the Schoose and the town. All was gai- ety— so soon are sorrows forgotten. The impa- tience of the day before had led to the attempting too much; and a part of the stacks was obliged to be opened to prevent losses. The wind afibrded an opportunity of thrashing. Ninety Winchesters, or thirty Cumberland bushels, were dressed in the afternoon — the grain very good. " Commence sowing the newly enclosed com- mon to-morrow, which should have been done three weeks sooner, if the season would have per- mitted . I do not know I ever felt more real plea- sure than I experienced this day. The melancho- ly presages that the weather had insured, and the apprehensions resulting from the fear of scarcity, gave way to the more pleasing hopes of abun- dance. Good humor and cheerfulness animated the numerous group. To save and secure the ci'op seemed the prevailing sentiment of every breast. I passed eleven hours a spectator of this scene. If I had wanted individual causes of grat- itude and thankfulness, it would have been diffi- cult to have avoided sharing the content and hap- piness that were so \yidely diffused, Septembejr 12//i.] A continuation of fine wea- FARMERS' REGISTER— HARVEST LABORS IN ENGLAND. 65 ther, with a drying north wind. Led 1500 stooks, and thrashed three hundred Winchesters of the Park wheat, which turns out admirable. Began sovving wheat. TJiirteen pair of harrows upon tlie new enclosure. Employed a hundred and sixty persons shearing.. The ground slill as wet as during any part ot" the winter. An evident im- provement in the turnips. The country resounds with thechecrtid voices of the harve.stcrs. Every Quarter presents a scene ot" activity and bustle, ►ne very principal object in detailing the transac- tions ol" harvest is to show to those who have not the experience, what arc the dilficultics, what the anxieties, which liirniers must encounter. Though honey may be extracted from i;u-ming, it is very often gathered off the point of the thorn. Every kindness and indulgence is due to the industrious jarmer. " September ISth.] A tolerable day; but gave early appearance of change. Cut out a 16 acre field, adjoining Gilderskill, which had 1021 stooks, on clover lea. It was but a moderate crop. The Schoose field, 60 acres, had 4340 .stooks, or 72 per acre, after potatoes. My iriend, Mr. Ponsonby, was solicitous the grain should stand till the Meet- ing, as the most convincing proof tha,t could be given of the excellence of the drill husbandry. Stacked eight hundred stooks. Reduced my shea- rers to eighty, as some part of the spring wheat is scarce fit to cut. Employed forty boj's weed- ing Avild mustard fi-om the cole. The dilficulty of fixing the attention of cliildren is great. Force cannot be applied, as there is no delegating such a power. I hit upon this method to expedite the work. Four leaders were selected; and each had ten boys under him, who were chosen alternately by the captains, and a shilling was to be given in the moroing and afternoon, as a reward tor that company which performed the most in the best manner. Work at once changed its nature. Em- ulation fired each youthful mind; and that which, the day before, was an irksome labor, became a work of inclination. It was surprising what was done. As the best deserving, where all were me- ritorious, could not be decided, it ended in each company receivmg a reward, over and above their wages. " The farmer, whose servants have his interest at heart, possesses a real treasure. Hours ought not to be regarded- in seasons of difficulty. A crop may often be saved by continuing work a I'sw hours beyond the regular fixed times. And this is no more than justice; for, how often does the weather interrupt the regular portion of labor? An honest man keei^s this in mind, and amply com- pensates for it in harvest and seed time. " September 14th.'] A wet day. The ad^'an- tage ot' bejnof situated near to a town is very con- siderable. When -the shearers cannot work, the farmer incurs no expense. In places distant from towns, where the harvest people are hired into the. house., it tails very heavy, and adds much to the expense and difficulty of a bad season. Finished sowing 72 acres of wheat. Could the drill ha\-e been employed, it would have saved one pound per acre. " September loth.l A fine morning but no wind. The ground has, hitherto, dried very little. The distress of farmers cannot fail of being great, from ♦he prodigious failure of the turnip crop. I do not flatter myself with seeing mine average ten tons per acre. Had the season proved tolerable, they should have reached near forty, from the condi- tion of the ground, and the pains that have been taken with it. It is greatly_to be feared the pota- toes will, in many places, likewise be a very de- fective crop. Combining these two things, I look with very considerable anxiety of mind to carry- ing on my daily, which is now become a very es- sential source of support to numbers. In order to make every possible provision for supplying the delect, I have ordered thirty tons of oil-cake. This, when ground and boiled with chaff and cut straw, must be • the main support of my milch cows. This was the warmest day, with the most power- fal sun, we have had lor many weeks. The ground want.s heating to produce vegetation. In no year within memory, was there so poor an af- termath, which is entirely owin^ to the ground being so cooled by the continual rains. Stacked eight hundred stooks from IVlealrigs. Employed six pair of oxen, ploughing single, which, though difficult at first, wiU soon be accomplished- " September I6th.} A great fall of rain during the night: Cleared up at ten. Employed a hun- dred and twenty shearers in the afternoon. It takes five women, on an average, to cut an acre per day: Four good shearers will do it. Drilled grain is much easier to cut than broadcast The hopes of any continuance of fine weather grow daily less. I now lament I had not begun to house earlier the day before. If the night be fair, I shall feel myself compelled to employ all my strength to-morrow. '^ Sunday, September 17//i.] Six o'clock, the morning unpromising. Began at seven to make every exertion, as there was a strong appearance of change. The rain kept off till four, when w-e had fortunately concluded the cariying 3000 stooka of wheat, which finished the Schoose field. The order, regularity, and decency of those employed, marked the work as one of necessity, not of choice. On such occasions I incur a debt of obligation. Whatever remuneration I feel it proper for me to give, is bestowed as a free gratuity. Those who rescue the crop, have a strong and undeniable claim upon it, in ca.se of necessity. The heat of the earth has advanced some degrees in the last two daj's. " September ISth.] I shaU here conclude the details of the harvest, already, I fear, extended too far. I have given a faithful representation of my own feelings, from whence may be calculated what must be those of farmers, who have more at stake than credit. Frequentl}^, their whole means are embarked, and dependent upon their crops. If it has the good fortune to create an in- terest and consideration for this most respectable body, it answers the purpose I have in view. The exertions of yesterday saved 3000 stooks of wheat. The deluge of rain which has fallen this day, must do most material injury to the grain. With resig- nation and hope, I still look to a return of good weather, not only to save the crop, but to prei)are for that of a succeeding year. It would be distant from my wish to deter any one from the practice of farming, by a recital of its difficulties. Let it be remembered, tlierc is no honor without dan- ger; no j)uvsnit exempt froni anxiety and disap- pointment: These give zest to success. Unin- terrupted sunshine, ardently as I now pray for it, would prove equally destructive. " September 19th.'] The v- rlcnce and length of 66 FARMERS' REGISTER— WHEAT SHOCKS. the rain, on Monday, produced the greatest flood that has been known ibr fitly years. The damage was prodigious. Grain of various kinds was sti'ow- ed over tlie beach, from Workington to Harrington; and a great quantity was picked up, and carried ofl'. The break ol' my wind-mill had not been secured, and it was set to worlc, and not discovered till it had done considerable damage. The loss was something; the mortification infinitely more, as it prevented its being shown at work during the Meeting. " Sunday'the 24//;.] Secured above 3000 stooks of grain. The 2oth, finished shearing the small quantity of wheat remaining. Led all that had been previously cut. The conclusion of harvest was celebrated by edl my work people, at the Schoose. Upwards of three hundred of both sexes spent a lew hours in great festivity and good humor; rejoicing that the labors of harvest were concluded, and grateful tor the bounteous store which secures abundance to those by the sweat of whose brow it has been produced." [To this we vAW add part of the comments of the conductor of the Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine, upon the report and diary — who, it is believed from various indirect proofs furnished by the general work, was that excellent Scottish farmer, Robeil Brown, of Marlde.] The next rem.ark which we offer, is with regard to the carrying of corn upon the Sabbath day; a practice not only contrary to the laws of God and man, but also hostile to the welfare of the state, and the truest and best interests of m.ankind. The President pleads necessity as an excuse for work- ing upon that day; but this excuse cannot be al- lowed, unless circumstances be such ar; to demand immediate attention. If a house is on fire, every person knows that prompt exertion must be used to quench the flames, otherwise destruction to the premises would inevitably ensue; therefore, none wiU find fault with working on the Sabbath, in that case, or in others of like necessity. Thei-e is no occasion, however, to argue the point; the dullest capacity being sufriciently able to distinguish be- twixt works of necessity and mercy, which may be lawfully performed on the Sabbath, and those which ought to be deferred till another occasion. JJut, putting the morality of the question aside, we would ack Mr. Curwen, and other advocates for Sabbath days' work, what would become of the great body of the people, not only those who work for their daily bread, but also those regularly engaged in business, were not their bodies strength- ened by rest, and opportunity aftbrded for instruct- ing their minds, on a day hitherto considered, in this country, as set apart ibr these purposes. The bulk of mankind, even loifh the Sabbath, are ig- norant enough; but, withnid it, they would become not much belter than the b.-utal part of the creation, casting oft' all those restraints which serve to make them good subjects, and good members of society. We are quite avv^are that the term of canting may be applied to these remarks; but any thintp of that nature will give us small uneasiness. It may be added, that the plea of necessity urged by Mr. Curwen, for carrying corn on the Sabbath, cannot be allowed in our court as a relevant one, as, besides the moral objections already stated against the plea, we must whisper in his ear, that the writer of this article harvested many more acres of corn last year [1809] than mentioned by Mr. Curwen, and with far less strength than kept by him, ^vithout spoding a single sheaf thereof. In a word, if the fixed ordinary days of the week are well employed, there is no occasion tor work- ino; on the seventh. HOW TO BUILD WHEAT SHOCKS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. The diflcrent operations required for our wheat harvest, are the most important that most of us have to perform, and in which, bad management is followed by the most certain and heavy losses. Yet there is no branch of farming in which there has been greater difference of operation, on dif- ferent fiirms, and at different times on the same farms — and in no other has the introduction and dissemination of improved processes been more slow. The cause of this is to be found in the sup- posed necessity for every fiirmer attending closely to his own harvest, and the great inconvenience of any one's leaving his own business, even for a day, to ride 10 miles to see the harvest manage- ment of some one more experienced. I now know as to myself^, that I was sustaining losses for years together, from ignorance in various par- ticulars, which might have been easily avoided by giving a single day to viewing the operations of some better farmer. One of the things by which I suffered most was the want of knowledge of the proper mode of building "shocks" capable of withstanding the entrance of rains. After having been losing much in labor, and still more in grain, for sundry successive harvests, I was indebted to the late John Minge of Charles city, (one of the best practical farmers in our country,) for such verbal instructions on the subject, as served in a great measure to remove my difficulties, and to prevent the losses caused by bad shocks. As there are still veiy many who pursue as bad a plan as mine was formerly, and who are too industrious to learn by going to see better management, I will try to point out, for their use, the defects of the one, and the advantages of the other mode of building shocks. The plan which I formerly adopted in conformity witli the usage of my neighborhood, and which still prevails on many farms, may be described generally as follows: Sheaves were set up on their "huts," as close together as they could be ])ressed, and with the heads a little inclined to the centre of the intended shock, until a circular foun- dation was formed, about eight feet in diameter on the ground, and perhaps two feet less across the flat top, formed by the heads of the sheaves. On this body, or foundation, a conical top or roof was built in this manner. Four sheaves were laid flat on the top, their heads meeting and crossing on the centre, and their huts jutting out- side of the upper edge of the foundation — the four forming straight hues, and right angles, so as to divide the circidar top of the foundation into four equal parts. Four other sheaves were then laid in like manner, but so as to fall on the middles of the vacancies Icfl between the first. As the tops of all crossed the central point, of course their re- peated doubling there produced a rapidly rising pealc. Other sheaves were then laid so as to cover all the openings between the first eight, and still meeting at the peak, as long as sheaves would stand as placed, and so as to shape the roofj and FARMERS' REGISTER— HARVEST MANAGEMENT. 67 its point ill the best manner. Some ol' tlie most carelul placed over the jieak a cap-sheal; but this additional trouble added very little s'ecurity to a shock not properly roofed. A cover like this can- not prevent a lieavy rain, nor even a slow soaking rain, li'oni penetrating, although moderate rains may be partly thrown off, by the inclined portion of the slieavTs, and the water which penetrates may dry betbre it sprouts the wheat. In the latter circumstance consists the salety of bad shocks — Jbr tiiey let the water out, by evaporation, as rea- dily as they let it come in, by the tendency of its weight: and in our hot and sunny climate, wheat will not soon sprout, that is exposed to the ac- cess ol" sun and air, as well as to rain. Every wetting however, is injurious, though not con- tinued long enough to start the sprout. The principle upon which a shock is properly covered is altogether ditierent Irom that of the foregoing plan, and is similar to that of covering a roof with shingles. The foundation is begun with three or lour sheaves set up so as to form a little cone — that is, the buts on the ground set out so as to make a base broad enough lor them to stand when the heads are brought together, (as they should be) to a point. Other sheaves are set u]) in the breaks of the first, placed lirmly on the earth, and the heads inclined to the central point. This brings the base to a small circle, and the heap to a conical form. The builder (and there should be only one to a shock, to secure good and equal work,) now continues to add to this, by placing other sheaves on the ground and against the breaks between the preceding course, and thus going round the circular heap, until the ibunda- tion is large enough. The but of every sheaf should be well pressed to the earth, when jilaced, and its top pressed to the central \)oint, with in- creased Ibrce, as the size of the heap will bear the pressure without danger of its being moved. When the foundation is finished, instead of being fiat topped, it rises to a central point, and its whole profile is somewhat in the shape of the old liishioned Dutch or "hipped" roots of houses — the sides of the sheaves forming the lower slopes, and the heads, the upper. For covering the shocks the smaller sheaves should be reserved, and none very large there ad- mitted. The first course of the cover is made by striking some of the stubble ends of the straw upon the band of the outer sheaves of the foun- dation, so that some straws go within the band, and thus hold the sheaf where placed. The cir- cle is completed by sheaves so placed, the buts close to each other, and the heads leaning inwards towards the middle of the shock. A second course is carried around in like manner rising on the first, and resting on and within the bands of its sheaves. The point is now nearly reached and formed; and what it wants, is given by using the smallest sheaves. The heads of the last only are exposed, and they will be generally not more than four or five sheaves: and these are protected rmd secured in their places, by a cap, formed of a large ,sheaf turned with the but upward, and the heads so spread open as to hang over and all around the sides of the peak. If I have succeeded in making mj'' description intelligible, it will be seen that such a shock is completely shingled with sheaves, and that the straw of each course overhangs and protects the heads of all below. Of course it is not meiuit to be understood that such a covering is perl(.'ct: but if rain gets in at any oi>ening, the course of sheaves below will tend to throw it out at the eaves. Indeed, if the body of the shock has been well put up, and retains its position tolerably well, it will require unusual bad weather to produce any noticeable damage. Now, JMr. Editor, it may be said that I have used many words about a small matter, and to ex- plain Avhat every good manager knows as well, or better than the writer. Admitting all this, my la- bor may be useful to very many other persons — and every one who may thereby learn to save even one or two shocks of wheat in the approach- ing harvest, which would otherwise be lost, will be at least a gainer of as much as the cost of his year's subscription to the Farmers' Register. 3Iay 22d, 1834. Q. For the Farmers' Rcgistei'. The following remarks for the Register were written about twelve months ago, but being mis- laid until alter harvest, it was then thought more timely to publish them just before that season. HARVEST 3IA1VAGEBIEIXT. The communication under this head in the first No. of the Farmers' Register, contains too much interesting inlbrmation, not to have attracted ge- neral attention; but while it contains many useful details, which are at once recognized as sound and sensible by every practical farmer, your respecta^ ble correspondent, is laboring under one important error; and as it is an error generally prevalent in lower Virginia, as well as other districts, and I believe extensively mischievous; I feel myself call- ed upon by the interest of our common vocation, to give the full benefit of a corrective, tested by several years experience, to your correspondent, as well as all the other readers of the Register. The error to which I allude, is the custom, defend- ed in "Harvest Management," of giving ardent s]:)irits to our laborers. This practice is sustainable upon no grounds, more defensible than mere custom. The argu- ment once used, that ardent spirits imparted strength, has been laid aside with other vulgar errors. Medical science has noAv established as an axiom, that preternatural excitements are fol- lowed by proportional degrees of debility, and that the system in a state of collapse, is more liable to diseases. Of eighty, the whole number of the medical facult}^ of Boston, seventy-five have con- curred in the opinion, that the use of ardent spirits is not only unnecessary but injurious, and I be- lieve very nearly, if not an equal proportion of the medical faculty of other cities who have been consulted, have come to the same conclusion. In short, wherever impartial and enlightened inves- tigation has been directed to the subject, in the course of the great reformation, now happily per- vading almost every part of our country; the result has been the exposure of the absurdity of the once received opinions on this head, attributing the most opposite and contradictoiy eflecfs to the same be- witching cause. To the lights of science, have been lately added the practical discoveries upon this subject, of the American Temperance Societies, embodying in their reports a mass of evidence and facts, which 58 FARMERS' REGISTER— TO PREVENT GALLED BACKS. carry conviction, I believe, I may eaiely eay, to ninety-ninehuntlredthsof mankind who give them a fair examination, that. the use ol" ardent spirits is unnecessary, injurious, and demoralizing to all classes of men. My own experience and observations have brought me irresistibly to the same conclusion. Fot upwards oi" twenty years preceding the last four, I used from sixty to eighty gallons of spirits in harvest yearly. I then rarely got through the season without some accidents of a more or less serious character. .1 had several case.s of wounds, fi'om which the suflerers were long recovering — many cases of spasm, from drinking cold water after previous partial intoxication; and almost al- ways more or less disease immediately after har- vest. It is true, the period was marked by more noise and boisterous mirth, but it was attended with more broils and irregularities, often leading to the necessity of resorting to punishment. During the prevalence of this pernicious custom on my estate, it required from five to six dajs after har- vest, ibr the laborers to recover from what I then thought, was the necessary effect of the excessive labors of the season, but which subsequent expe- rience has proven, Avas the weakness and debility consequent upon the unusual excitement of ten days or a fortnight's use of ardent spirits; thus proving to demonstration, that the cheerfulness purchased by alcohol, must be paid for in bodily strength; to say nothing of the punishment often made necessary by its intoxicating eft'ecte. Since I have discontinued the use of ardent spirits in harvest, mark how the scene has been changed. I have saved my grain in better time and in better etyle, than I ever did before — I have less sickness — fewer accidents — I have no broils or irregulari- ties— my people are as fresh, and able to perform as good a day's work the next after harvest, as any- day in the year; and wdaat is still more interesting, (under the sj-stem of measures, of which absti- nence from the use of spirits in harvest is an indis- pensible part) nine^tenths of my laborers have become faitliful members of the temperance refor- mation; and this state of things has been brought about by their own consent, without the use ol' any other means than kindness and persuasion; and furthermore, I verily believe, the following recij)e will prove infallible in producing the same effects wherever it is iairly tried: Let each master take to himself as much self denial and christian resolution, as to enable him to join the temperance retbrmation; and then con- descend to explain its advantages to his own peo- ple. The fullest success will surely follow; fur there is no yeomanry on earth more docile to moral instruction, than the negroes of Virginia, if their masters will become their teachers. Total abstinence from ardent spirits, I consider of so much more importance in my "harvest man- agement," than any thing else, that it will seem like an inversion of the proper order of things to advert to other particulars; but, it may not be amiss to mention here, that I have substituted for the spirit formerly used, an equal measure of mo- lasses, which being itself a nutritious article of diet, as well as an ingredient in a cooling and pleasant beverage, is used by my people in tlie one way or the other, at their discretion. They are now loud and almost unanimous in their pre- ference of it, to their former allowance of whiskey. I hardly need add, that smce so large a portion of my slaves have given up th-e use of spirits, I have remarked the mo.st striking improvement in their moral characters. ONE OF YOUR CONSTANT READERS. TO PREVENT HORSES BEING GALLED BY THE BACK-BAND. To the Editor of the Fanners' Register. Powhatan Hill, 25th Jlpril, 1834. I am reminded by the season of planting com, to make the readers of the "Register" acquainted with a very simjile and efficacious contrivance, to save our plough horses from galled backs. I have used the saddle which I ami about to describe, for the last two years, a pattern having been made tor me by a gentleman from. Botetourt county. Since then, I have never had a mule's back cut by the back-band. My neighbors are adopting the expedient, and concur with me in recommending it highly. The sole objection is, that it may cause the slovenly practice of using a grape vine or a rope, in place of a proper back-band, as neither can injure a horse's back with this saddle under it. The saddle is made of two pieces of oak about eight inches in length and breadth, and with the corners "rounded off" — thick enough to be sub- stantial. The inner side is made convex to suit the horse's back, on each side of the back bone, where they rest. The two pieces are connected by two straps of leather, at each extremity of Avhich are cross straps or loops, through which the back- band is inserted, and which lies over and presses upon the wooden sides of the saddle. The back-band ought not to touch the back, so that the pieces must not be more than four inches apart. It is very light: oak is better than pine, only because it holds the tacks more securely by which the straps are lastened. This kind of saddle may be in common use in manypfirts of Virginia, but I never saw it before I used it on my own farm. I dare say it is new to many of your readers — and my object will be accomphshed if only a few poor mules shall be indebted to it lor their hides. ED. F. TAfl,OE, DRAINING. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Fairfax county^ Va. May 20th, 1834. I promised you some weeks past a communica- tion upon the subject of ditching or draining land. Indisposition on my part, and delay in the sur- veyor, have operated to retard my purpose. My main drain is something less than 3000 yards in length, having the capacity to receive and dis- charge the spring and flood water from seven or eight thousand acres of land. 1800 yards were cut through a mill pond which was made by a dam not more than two and a half leet high, which is now put down, by the kindness of the owner. Much ol" the country around is precipitous and broken; the water from which brought great quan- tities of sand and nuid into my drain, and often made it necessary to clean it out i'all and spring. This alone was great labor. Thirty-three years have passed over me since 1 began the work, and I cannot say that it is perfect. A drain like this i must have no angles in itj for they create eddies, \ FARMERS' REGISTER— DRAINING. 69 in which all wushiiigs will be lelt, and -the work ultimately ruined. This important liict in draining I had to learn by exi)eriment: and upon so long and crooked a stream, (and that a boundary) to straighten all the angles, and make tlie drain at my own cost and loss, was not exactly pleasant. As a short rule for making drains, let me say that they should he straight, and of fall cap.acity to contain the water thrown into them, always taking care to begin at the outlet or lowest point. By measure and estimate, sulliciently accurate 4br all my purposes, I have not less than ihirtj^ thousand yards ofwater and ience ditching,fii"teen-sixteenths of which is necessary to the drying and draining of my liu'm. Not less than one-quarter of all these must be scoured and cleaned every year. Like a gambler, I was drawn into this work by imper- ceptible degrees, and finally played on because I had already lost so much. Separately considered as a matter ol" profit, I am not prepared to justify such expensive works. Nevertheless they shovv young farmers that perseverance, with a very li- mited degree of knowledge and experience, will, in time, surmount what would seem to be ii'isupe- xable difficulties. TJiough my land was once re- markable lor its great growth of Rishes, I believe it would now be difficult to find one. Clover and plaster operate well even upon that land that was covered 50 years by the mill pond. As for co- vered drains, I have made many, but they were very unsatisfactory: and I would not advise any to make them. No wet land will be benefited by plaster: but the same land made dry, if it had ori- ginally good constitution, will give sur[)rising re- sults— a young farmer, by the use of clover and plaster may feel his way info necessary draining: lor wherever the land is diseased and unsound, from excess of water, plaster is as useless as sand. I will take this opportunity to say that I am no advocate lor deep ploughing, but a decided one for deep stirring. Five or six inches deep for the plough, and then 10 or 12 with the coulter (in- cluding that which is broken by the plough,) is ihe best that I have any knowledge of. No land thus cultivated, will ever Avash. It is a great de- fect in our laws that there is no way for constrain- ing all who are benefited by expensive drains to do their proportion of the work. Nothing can be more just. Bonaparte in his " Code Napoleon," provided for this — but in a community like this, where the politicians rule, and are found at the head and lead of those whose interest it is to keep vip a wide spread common, the waste and ultimate desolation of the country is a matter of certainly, and susceptible of mathematical demonstration. Since my agitation of this subject, I have been much amused to hear the little lawyers and politi- cal jaybirds chatter about " vested rights," and de- nounce the high handed aristocracy that would dare to claim the exclusive enjoyment of their own. Poor Virginia! — land of my fathers — land of the virtuous, the brave, and the patriotic — thy destiny may be paralized and arrested for a season — ^but, like the shorn and maltreated Sampson, time aiiust and will restore thee to thy pristine powers and loveliness — and with "healing on its wings," it is already upon our border. To our highly respected General Assembly I would say, "Ye are the salt of the earth — take care of her rights — to her lap sooner or later you must all go — and for all that I know, must render to her some account of your stewardship." The moral and political strength of every countiy can be measured by the condi- tion of its agriculture. Contrary to all my calculations, our young wheat promises well — I would rejoice to say the same of our currency: let us beUeve that " chastisement leadeth to wisdom." I have planted for 3 years, 7 or 800 locusts each season, and expect to double that number in future. They are planted on ditch banks and turning rows. I would not give up ray subscription to the Regis- ter tor the best horse advertised in the Richmond papers. Our oat crop is promising, and as I use this aa a part of my preparation for liillow, it is not unin- teresting; for it gives my horses a good support, and pajs well for making the land ready for our wheat crop. Our corn is very unpromising, as it has been cut down twice by irost, and can, at best, do no more than give the produce of crippled plants. My free use of the coulter is all that gives me hope. Though planted early in April, the corn is not visible at many yards distance. I am, nevertheless, giving it the third stirring with the coulter, and the earth is in fine tilth to the depth of ten inches. Should the season become more favorable, all that I can do will be already done for the security of the crop. Our clover is the Worst I have seen lor 20 years. I pray your correspondents to excuse my desul- tory^ and irregular conmiunication — ^but trust they will excuse a sick man. I am in debt to them, and offer this, crippled as it is, as " part and par- cel" of the currency of the times. JEREMIAH. THE Q,UAIL. About thirty years ago, this bird was unknown in Canada. It abounds in the Upper Province, but has not yet appeared in the Lower. Its habits appear remarkable, although probably not more so than those of any other wild fowl, when care- fully watched. A gentleman, of much patient research in remrd to wild animals, who has been a resident in Upper Canada since the cjuails first made their appearance, happened to have above a hundred at one period alive, and took much plea- svu'e in the evening Avatching their motions, where they were confined. As it grew dusk, the birds formed themselves into coveys or parties of twelve or fifteen in a circle, the heads out, and tails clus- tered in the centre. One bird always stood on guard to each party, and remained perfectly sta- tionarj' lor half an hour, when a particular chuck being given, another sentinel immediately took his place, and relieved him with as nuich regular- ity as any garrison could boast. It became a matter of further curiosity to observe how they Avould meet the extra duty occasioned by the ha- voc of the cook. For this also a remedy was found; and the gentleman remarked with admira- tion, that as their number decreased, the period of watch Avas extended from a half to a AAdiole hour, in the same form, and Avith unfluling regularity. [The quail here mentioned is supposed to be the Virginian Partridge, Pcrdix virginiana, the quail of Europe, Perdix Chturnix, not being indigen- ous in any part of America. — Edit.] — Quar. Jour, of Jlgr, FARMERS' REGISTER-DIARY-PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. J)iary of the temperature and state of the. weather in May, observed at Shellhanks, Prince George county, 37 deg. 14 min. JV. Lat. Fair or sunshine, f — cloudy, c — i-ain, r. == 1. ai — a s £5 5j . ^ f CO 3 'd ijr ) : o 'C ° c Oi Tjt (D ^ S ^3 . • S 3 ^ _o ^ 'cTj btj - -Jri g^ "3 "Ji 13 ■"r 0) § 'S'tp g H ^ o ^ H ^ 6^« 1 47 i f 62 C 2 49 f 72 f 63 C 3 65 f f 62 c 4 49 f 72 C 65 c 5 62 r c 73 c 6 50 {• f 72 c 7 66 c 70 c 8 62 r 67 f 9 43 f 72 c 69 c 10 51 c 67 f 61 c 11 45 f 79 f 75 c 12 65 f 75 f 68 c 13 48 f 61 c 54 14 42 f 15 42 f 16 38 t 61 f 56 f 17 40 f 75 f 56 f 18 46 f 85 f 72 f 19 86 f 75 f 20 65 f 85 f 76 f 21 66 c 81 f 74 c 22 64 c 88 f 79 f 23 64 f 87 f 78 f 24 69 f 78 r 73 r rain all night 25 69 c 79 c 75 c 26 c 71 r 72 r 27 c 73 r 70 c 28 66 c c 71 c 29 67 c r 76 f 30 67 r 86 f 74 c 31 66 r r 70 c >» EXTKACTS FROM PRIVATE CORREriPONUENCE. CHEAT r'RODUCED FROM WHEAT. Orange county, iV. C, April SOth, 1834. As a slio;ht compensation for the edification I hope to derive li'om your labors, I take the liberty of mentioning a fad whicli may tend to eluci- date a point, on ^vhich 1 observe, you are more than skeptical: I allude to the production of cheat from wheat, or, rather, the degeneration of the latter into the tbrmer under some circumstances. Some years ago I had a piece of gi'ass land containing about four acres; about one-half of which was a steep and rich hill side, Avhich was set in red clover and orchard grass; the other half, being the foot of the hill and a moist bottom, v/as in timothy. The whole had been mowed for hay for several years, twice annually, and was perfect- ly free from cheat and tolerably clear of other weeds. Between the grasses there was a trencli around the hill, along which my spring branch was carried for the purpose of irrigating the timo- thy. The clovered part requirin;^ new seeding, I planted the upper part of the hilf in corn, and in autumn laid it down in wheat. Soon afterwards and about the time the w^heat was sprouting, a hasty and hard rain fell Avhich washed a good deal of the soil from the hill side, so as to fill the small ditch at several points and then carried a good deal of earth upon the firm sod of the mea-- dow below, which had recently been mowed. Going into it immediately afterwards for the pur- pose of having the obstructions in the water trench removed and other damages rei)aired, I observed that Avith the earth left on the meadow were many grains of wheat. I had no apprehension of evil consequences at the time, and supposed that those seeds would either perish from want of covering, or the Avatering of the meadow daring winter, or Avould be wheat and removed at the next year's mowing. They hoAA'ever, vegetated and grew vigorously, and the next spring every bunch proved to be cAeflif, while not one single head of cheat was discovered among the wheat which remained and greiv on the hill where it A\'as sowed and ploughed in — which yielded a good crop, exceeding 20 bushels to the acre, and Avould have been larger, if it had not received injury, lor a short time, from the clover caterpillar. In addition, I have to state that in no part of the meadow was there cheat, except where the earth and seed wheat washed from the hill, Avere deposited. To me this phenomenon seems inexplicable, on your hypothesis — but I do not mean to reason^ on it — leaving that to you and "taking on myself the responsibility" for the fact only. Yet, while I dare not affirm that you are in error, I must say that it seems to me imprudent to deny positively the metamorphosis alleged by so many persons upon observations apparently careful and accurate. It is true that generally, "it hath pleased God to give to every seed his own body," and we ex- pect, in the order of nature, when we sow, to reap "after its kind." Nevertheless, we know but litde of substances, and Ave knoAV also that na- ture is constantly Avorking Avonders and producing monsters both in the animal and A^egetable por- tions of her productions. Facts alone can decide, a controversy, and they alone ought therefore to be looked after — and looked to. * * * » Sumpter District, S. C. Uth May, 1834. The subject of marl is a very important one, for the declining states of the Atlantic section. Is it not probable that it is to be found at the same dis- tance from the sea coast, and the primitive for- mation in the Carolinas ? I should suppose so. It is a great pity a good geological, topographi- cal, mineralogical and geographical surv'ej', could not be had of the States. Why could not there be a class at West Point especially organized for this purpose, Avhence Avould issue surA^eyors of the proper kind I W^ith these the States could join their intelligent Aouth, Avho formed into companies, could traverse the country AAnth their instruments, and confer all the benefit Avhich could be required. The seasons here huA^e been up to this period, A^ery disastrous to the cro]>s of cotton and corn, both of Avhich look miserable from the cxcessiA'e cold. Corn is selling in Columbia and Camden and the country bcknv, at 87^ to 100 cents per bushel, and Avill be in some districts Avorth 125 to 150 cents, before the harvest. In Charleston, the North Carolina corn is to be had at not less than 72. It Avould be curious to knoAA^, what part of these 72 cents go to the OTOAver: andAvhether a rail road from Roanolce to Fayetteville, and thence to the Peedee, AA'ould not put a larger portion into his pocket, and open a much more extensive . FARMERS' REGISTER— GYPSUM. 61 market. By growing a large quantity of oats, many planters might buy corn, iJ" sold at a cheap rate, and thus lor a lew years rest, could restore their land. Tsle of Wight, Va. 23d May, 1834. # * # # I now congratulate you on the success and high character, of that j)ublication. And I trust, it will greatly contribute to accelerate the hitherto slow, and almost imperceptible pro- gress of agricultural improvcineni in Virginia. I anj not one of those, however, Avho imagine that the exhausted lertility of the lands of our state, can be restored in any short period of time. The impoverishment and devastation, which it requir- ed more than two centuries to produce, can only be repaired by the succes^sivc efforts of several succeeding generations. Nor do I think that im- provement in agriculture, necessarily or even es- sentially depends on any particular system or man- ner of husbandly. There is only one thing, and that is manuring in some, way or other, essential to kcej) up tertility in land that is cultivated, or to import it in a short time to that which has been exhausted. ]My own opinion is, that expectations far too sanguine, are indulged by young farmers, as to the lacility of improving land; and these are unreasonably encouraged by most of our writers on the subject. And the disappointment of these unreasonable expectations, has perhajis as great a tendency to drive respectable emigrants to the west; as any other cause. THE FENCK LAW. 3fay 24th, 1834. I have seen several communications in the Farmers' Register on the subject of enclosing. Since, I have spoken to a dozen or more of my acquaintances on the propriety of our legislature, passing a law prohibiting cattle, hogs and sheep, from running at large, and thereby enabling us to do witiiout fences — andeveiy one of whom highly approved of the plan. I have no doubt but that the farming interest would derive more benefit from the passing such a law, than from any other legis- lative aid it could I'eceive. I entirely concur with the \news of your corres- pondent on that subject in No. 12 of the Farmers' Register, under the signature of "Anti-fence. " Before seeing that communication, I had been thinking myself of getting up a petition and cir- culating it in this county, praying the passage of such a law as that Anti-fence speaks of. R is my opinion it would receive the signatures of a decid- ed majority of the voters of the county. But as was sugo-ested by Anti-fence, for the sake of uni- formity, I thiidv it would be better that a petition come through the Farmers' Refjister. ERRONEOrS VIEWS RESPECTIIVG GYPSUJI. For the Fainicis' Register. The last Genesee Farmer, (of INIay 10th,) con- tains a communication professing to answer some earlier inquiries respecting g}iisum, which may be considered as a curiosity, on account of the number and magnitude of the errors which the Avriter has contrived to pack into so narrow a space. I will quote the whole piece, and in its regular order, but with my own remarks attached, or in- terlined, so as to require but few words to serve my purpose. "Mr. L. Tucker — I think your correspondent "T. S. P. may be assured that gypsum ground "fine, and laid for a long time exposed to the at- "mosphere, will lose muchof its fertilizing quality. "Gypsum and limestone, when reduced to powder, "have a strong afbnity for carbonic acid." [Neither of them has the slightest affinity for carbonic acid — for limestone is already fijrnished with as much as its proportion of earth (lime) can combine with — and gj-psum is equally saturated with a stronger acid (the sulj^huric) which effectually prevents any affinity for, or any effect being produced by car- bonic acid.] "and in as far as they are satu- "i-ated with this principle, they love their attraction "for it." [This taken alone is true, and would have ser\'ed to have overturned the preceding part of the same sentence, if the writer had known that one of the substances, limestone, is already and always saturated with this principle, and that the other, gypsum, cannot possibly take u^ the least particle of it.] "If cither be reduced to pow- "der, and spread thin on a plate, and the plate be ''set in [over] a fermenting tub of beer, they will "soon be converted to carbonate of lime, or chalk." [That is, would be converted to what the lime- stone is already, and what neither this, nor any exposure, can possibly make of gypsum. If quick lime, instead of limestone and gypsum, was the substance so treated, then such a conversion to carbonate of lime would take place.] "The same "will occur partially if left exposed to atmospheric "air, and in as far as they imbibe this principle, "they lose their fertilizing qualities. Such are my "ideas on this subject, and remain yours, R. M. "W." As such effects cannot take place at all, for the reasons before stated, under any circum- stances, it is not worth showing that this inference is as much mistaken, as the theory upon which it rests: nor is there any need of more words to show, that if gypsum loses its power by standing expos- ed to the air, (which cannot be inferred from its chemical composition or qualities,) we must search for other, and very difl'crent causes, than those presented by R. M. W. It is not however my intention to discuss that question, but simply to expose the eiTors which by being presented so confidently, and in so respectable a journal as the Genesee Farmer, might possibly be imposed on some readers for truth, and knowledge. j. b. OIV THE NECESSITY AND BIEANS FOR LEGIS- LATIVE AID TO AGRICULTURE— NO. 2. [Continued from page 690, Vol. 1.] For tliu Farmers' Register. According to the intention expressed in a for- mer communication, I proceed to consider the means by which government may promote the improvement of agriculture ; and shall direct my observations more particularly to those institutions and plans, which have been least discussed by my fellow laborers in this cause. I shtdl now consider ^Experimental and Pattern Inarms. Among the establishments for the improvement of agricultural science and skill, v/hich have been recommended at different times, a "model or pat- tern farm" has held a conspicuous place. If I have rightly understood what this establishment was to be, from the words of its advocates, the 62 FARMERS'" REGISTER— EXPERIMENTxVL FARMS. model larin was to exhibit, lor the example ol" the agricultural comniunit}', the best cultrvalion and management, the most perlect processes of farming, the use of the most improved utensils and ma- chines, and the trial of experiments on a plan ©al- culated to obtain full and satislactory results. Now all these subjects are important, and their being, attained is highly desirable: but by combining so many on one farm, and under one directing mind, I have no doubt of a Itulure in almost every part of the scheme. The view to profitable erojis and products, (the main object of course on a farm) would prevent any. thing like proper and continued attention to courses of experiments: arid "still there would be enough experiments, and trials. of .new utensils and machines, and of new plans ol" til- lage, to prevent economy and good management, and the permanency of any reguku- system, arid to cause every year to be marked-'by disappoint- ment and loss. It does not require much foresight to be satisfied, that a farm on this plan vvould ex- hibit'any thing but a pattern for others to coi>y, in all respects; and the contrast between its object and its results — its jiromise and its perrormance — woidd render it a subject for gener;tl and unsparing ridicule, and a means of injuring the -cause it was intended to sustain. But putting aside these obstacles to the deri-v^irig any farming profit from such an . establishment, it maybe well doubted whether profit could be made from the crops of any farm, under any possible management, when owned by,and"cultivated tor the benefit of an agricultural society, or the common- wealth. We know how wasteful is the manage- ment, and how unproductive the labors of the agents of the public, and of all joint stock associa- tions: and if a farm of the richest soil, and ccrm- pletely stocked, was managed in like manner, it Avoidd most. likely yield loss, rather thari profit, on the investment of capital. For all these reasohs, it would be safest not to calculate on any pecuniary ])rofit behig derived from such establishments; but to look for the benefits to be derived, from other sources, and through other means; and these will be found to promise- so rich a harvest, that the commomveaUh may well' afford to pay the cost of making such experiments. ' . Though an experiment sometimes leads at once to highly profitable results, such cases are very rare; and whatever may be the value of the truths thus established, to the public, the individual who. institutes exjieriments in agriculture, is almost sure to lose by ninety-nine of them in tlie hundred — and to have his losses increased (oii ■ the average) in proportion to the care, accuracy, and patience with which he conducts his experiments. In other words, his losses increase in proportion to the in- erease of benefit which the public derive (or might derive if they were made known,) from his labors. It is not therefore surprising that there are but fiiw experiments made by individual farmers — and scarcely any conducted in the careful, patient, and expensive manner which is required, to obtain un- doubted and valuable results. But this is not the worst. Though not one truth is ascertained by experiment, where one hundred ought to be, and might be, even the few which are discovered re- main unknown to the public, and are often Ibrgot- to his country, as they are to be hurtful to his own. private interest. In conformity with the \'iews formerly expressed on the subject of the legislative aid needed lor the improvement of agriculture in Virginia, I shall not notice those means which other.:; have treated of in the Farmers' Register; and I may pass over the discussion of the importance of experiments, and the course respecting them which agricultural societies ought to pui-sue, because these parts of the subject have been considered at large, in seve- ral pieces in the eaiiy numbers of this journal. Taking it for granted, or as proved, that numerous v.'oll planned and well conducted experiments on the dity)utcd and doubtful points in agriculture, would b'e highly beneficial, (if^ not more beneficial than all other aids,) to the improvement of agricul- tural science and practice, I proceed to maintain, that to secure this end, the state should establish one or more experimental -and pattern farms — not to reap fanning profits^but to obtain and dissemi- nate agricultural truths. Jf there were a do5:en'such establishments, there would be no lack of proper subjects for experi- ments. Indeed it may be truly said that there are more doctrines and facts in doubt, than have yel been clearly settled. Biit I am not advocating so large a commencement. One such farm would be enough to render great general benefit, and would consume but a small portion of the liinds Avhich the legislature ought to appropriate, and I hope will appropriate, for the general improve.ment of agriculture. But though I consider profitable farming as out of the question on such an establishment as I pro- pose, it does not follow that it may not show what good Itirming is, and serve as the best of models tor profitable farms. If 'it was intended to test the value of the product to be derived Irom a clover fallow, such as has been described by Mr. Carter and Mr. Selden in the "Farmers' Register, and lor that purpose all the operatioris were conducted in the most perfect manner, and the crops of wheat Avere to be thereby . doubled — it would not lessen the value of the result, that no regard . had been paid to economy in the general management. If there was exhibited an im))ortant result from the preparation of a certain field in a particular mode, or with particular kmds of ploughs and harrows, we could imitate tlie process, and obtain the like results, without imitating the bad and wasteful managemerit which might have been evident in thatj as in every other operation. When engi- neers, chemists, and scientific mechanics, have made a series" of^ experiments to establish some particular truths?, who was ever so silly as to ex- pect profit from such experiments, or to undervalue, the results on account of their cost ? Governmenfa have often ordered such experiments, and their wisdom iri so doing has always been deservedly applauded. Let our government only do the same for agriculture, which has a ten fold greater claim than all other arts, and has a ten ibid greatier need of such assistance. ' . . . It would be worth the employing- 6f the best chemical talent that our counti-y can produce, and the expenditure of !g! 10,000, if so much was re- quired, to carry through a proper series of experi- ten completely, for want of sufficient riieans off ments on the preparation, preservation, and use of communication: and thus, the labors of the ex- barn-yard and stable manure. All sorts of con- perimenting farmer are almost as sure to be useless 1 tradictory opinions are held and acted upon on this . FARMERS' RfiGlSTER-COMMERCUL REPORT. subject, although volumes on volumes have been .WTittCn, and a century conriumcd in the discussion, without havinfT decided finy thing. Perha])s none of these oi>inions and practices are right — and cer- tainiy the greater part must be wrong— and tlie manure destrojed and wasted by our igilorance in Viro;iiiia every. year, would support an experiment- al larm in every county in the stiite, and every other public institution that has been ever thought of lor agricullin-al improvement. There never will be much light thrown on the mysterious subject of the lermentation of manures, _until it is made a niatter of the most attentive investigation by scien-. tific and practical chemistg — and even if any one individual farmer could belbund who was qualified lor the investigation, there is none who could sub- mit to the long continued attention and labor, and the very heavy expenses, Avhich vv'ould be required lor the purpose. These illustrations are fnerely brought fonvard as examples of what an experimental farm could do, and not as the objects which it Avould be most advisable to begin upon. Every one who will think on the subject ^\■1I1 discovei-, i"n abundance, proper and profitable work (profitable for the gen- eral interests I mean,) to employ all the labor and money that may be appropriated for such purpose. If I induce any to think, it is enough: it is not my object, and is altogether needless, .to state what wiU occur to eveiy mind that is directed to the subject. R. N. MONTHLY COMMERCIAL REPORT. To the Editor^of the Fanners' Register. Sir — Since my last commimication there has been scarcely any change in the situation of com- mercial afi'airs. A state of torj)or prevails in all the large cities north of Virginia. The spirit of ■enterprise, which had given acti\'ity to conmierce and manufactures, continues paralyzed; the indus- try which was engaged in other than agricultural pursuits, finds no occupation, and not one of the many avocations which employed Jthe capital and labor of our northern brethren, retains its Ibrmer activity. Bankruptcies have ceased, because iiiw new engagements were made, after credit rec^ved its shock. This state of inactivity does not prevail so sensibly in the Southern States, whose com- merce, instead of being ramified like that ot" our large cities, throughout e^ery part of the world, is chiefly confined to supplying raw materials to the manufacturers of other countries. Those coun- tries Avill resort to us, as we do to Chinaj and caiTy on the trade of which we debar ourselves — a much largerporfion of our commerce is therefiSre" con- ducted on foreign account and with foreign capital than has been in fonner years. The prices of our produce have not varied ma- terially during the month. Very fine tobacco, of which the crop contains a smaller proportion than usual, sells at .^7 to 11 — good 5^ to 6^ — inferior and middling 3 to 5. The quantity inspected is less than any Ibrmer year. As usual at this season, there is no wheat in market, and most of the- mills are idle. Ofiers are made of early deliveries of the growing crop at. one dollar per bushel, or a fraction higher. Flour if? worth about %4. 50, except that made at the City Millf^, of high repute, and which is exported almost entirely to South America. Our farmers ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 63 may be enabled, in consequence of the immense establishments winch will be in flill operation thia summer, to obtain a higher price for their wheat than can be afforded by the northern millers, who have heretofore procured a portion of their suppUes from VH-gmia. The price of cotton (12 to 13 cents) has scarce- ly varied during the month, and has been hio-her in our markets than in those south of us, where all commercial operations are now greatly embar- rassed by the difficulty of making negotiafions. liilis on New York, which command a premium m Vii-gmia, are at a discount in the southern cities, and the requiste amount cannot be negotiated un- less at a sacrifice to brokers. x. P. S. Can }-ou not induce some of your intel- ligent agricultural friends in difierent paVts of the country, to. give you a monthly re]wrt of the orow- ing crops? From the 12th to the 16th of thia month there were severe frosts— most unusual in our climate. It would be intcrestino- to learn what injury wasdone. The Hessian Fly is said to have committed extensive ravages on the wheat croi)— this is another subject of interest. x iMay 28th, 1834. [Reports of seasons and crops have been already asked for, with ■ veiy little success. The facts allu- ded to by X. are enough to show the want of such in- formation. The effects ofthe frosts of the nights before and after the 16th, were not only unusually severe, but operated very unequally. No considerable damage however, it is believed, was sustained by any field crops — though the first alai-m caused some cotton to be ploughed up, and planted again. The Hessian Fly will ca.use much greater damage than has ever been pre- viously suffered by our own wheat, though it was sowed within the time which usually insures safety. Other neighboring fields suffer as much, and will not yield the half of average crops: but it is said that others within ten miles, are but little affected. Thus it is, that a single reporter, confined to his own farm, or even his own neighborhood, might serve to spread error, more than correct information on such subjects, though many reporters would fully serve the purpose desired, and be of great service to the whole agricul- tural community.] CHEAP EDITION OF THE FARMERS' REGISTER. The only objection which has been made to the Farmers' Register is its price— and this is the principal obstacle to its circulation being extemled very far be- yond its present, limits. It would not be difficult to show that the dearness of this work is alleged without good ground, and by a very unfair mode of comparison with low priced newspapers,' in which mere bulk is considered, without regard to the nature of the con- tents, or the execution of the work. The appe'arance of a paper that is usually thrown aside as soon as it has been looked over, is not judged severely by its subscri- bers; and if it is so printed as to be both legible and in- telligible, most readers are content. But a periodical 64 FARMERS' REGISTER— CHEAP EDITION OF. publication in the stylo in which the Farmers' llegis- ter appears, requires far more care and expense; and it is presumed that not many of its subscribers would be willing that it should lose its rank in this respect, even though accompanied by a reduction of price. There is another reason, and a very important one, why most papers, and even most agricultural papers, may be furnished at lower prices, in proportion to the amount of matter printed, than the Farmers' Re- gister. The latter derives no profit from advertise- ments entering the body of the work — and these fur- nish a considerable part, and generally much the great- est part of the profit of the paper that admits them. It is for our readers to compare this publication with others as to the quality and value of tlie matter furnished. Considering merely size and beauty, and correctness of execution, taken together, this is the cheapest periodical that has yet appeared in the south- ern states. But though justice requires that we should thus meet the objection to the alleged high price of the Farmers' Register, we know that the most conclusive arguments on this head wilj not avail much in extending its circu- lation. To eifect this object, it is necessary to furnish a publication which shall be cheap in every sense — and therefore it is intended to offer one which maybe com- pared with most others, as to price, by measure and bulk, without losing any thing in correctness, or in any other respect than external appearance. This ex- periment will be made forthwith — and it will be for the farming community to decide whether it shall be supported or not. 1)1 addition to the present monthly publication, the Farmers' Register will be issued in a single sheet of 16 pages, four times a month. By using paper of inferior quality, and saving the expense now incurred for press- ing, folding, and stitching and covering the sheets, and of the guarantee of the safe passage of the copies by mail, the price may be reduced to the following rates — at which the Cheap Edition will be furnished, com- mencing with this sheet. For one copy, or 48 sheets in 12 months, $3 00 For 4 copies, subscribed and paid for in ad- vance atone time, $10, or for each, - - 2 50 To any person who is already a subscriber to the monthly Farmers' Register, the price of a single copy of the cheap edition wiU be, - 2 50 And 5 subscribers to the monthly Farmers' Re- gister, may, by subscribing at once, for the cheap edition, receive their copies for $10, or for each, per annum, 2 00 The price of the cheap edition, in every case, must be paid in advance. The cheap edition will be commenced regularly as soon as the names of 500 subscribers are returned. As but few copies will be struck olF more than for actual subscribers, the year of subscription will generally be commenced with the last published number: but if de- sired by the subscriber, he will be supplied with back numbers, as long as they can be furnished. The mat- ter contained in every sheet will be precisely the same with that of tho monthly Farmers' Register. It is presumed that the low price at which it is of- fered to existing subscribers, will induce many to take the cheap edition, if for no other reason than the better preservation of the higher priced copy. To all such, who take the cheap edition, and who may choose to let tlieir higher priced monthly numbers remain with the publisher until the close of the volume, they shall be delivered in neat and strong half binding, (with leather backs and corners,) for an additional sum of 50 cents for each volume — or without any cliarge for binding, if the cheap edition was obtained at not less than $2 50. These several advantages offered to the subscribers to the monthly publication, it is presumed will be to them a sufficient pecuniary compensation for the facility which their subscriptions afford to the issuing the cheap edition. It is frankly admitted that it is the liberal aid already afforded by existing subscriptions to the Farmers' Register that enables the proprietor to offer this edition in so cheap a form — and that the future diminution of that aid, sliould it occur, will put an end to this plan, as soon as all existing engagements have been complied with: unless, indeed, the listof subscribers to the cheap edition should by that time become so extended, as to furnish of itself a source of profit. In that event, the monthly edition may also be reduced in price, though it will necessarily be always higher, for those who de- sire such paper and press work as will make a hand- some volume. Further — for the purpose of facilitating payments through the mail to those who wish to subscribe for more than one publication, and also as more suitable to the now general state of pecuniary embarrassment, the price of the Farmer^s Library will be reduced to $2 50, by its first proposed size being diminished in proportion. This change will be stated more particu- larly in an amended prospectus, which will be on tlie cover of this number of the Farmers' Register. The 2^1'oprietor cannot lose by tlie publication of the cheap edition for a year, even should it be then discontinued — and by its being made, the public will gain whatever may be the value of the extended diffu- sion of tlie information contained in this work. TO CORREPONDENTS AND SITESCRIBEES. The following communications have been received, and w'ill appear in No. 2: "On the diseases of Cattle and Sheep" — "On the cultivation of low grounds" — "On apprenticeships to farming," [continuation of Pattern Farms.} Supplementary sheets containing a list of subscri- bers, and a general index to Vol. I. will be sent with this number-*-which though not separately directed, postmasters will please to deliver to the subscribers for Vol. I. who still receive the Farmers' Register at their respective post offices. Priiiled by Robert Ricketts^ AT THE SHELLBANKS PRESS, Where the printing of books, pamphlPts, and other jobs, can be executed promptly, .and in the best style. THE FARM ERS' REGISTER. Vb L. II. JULY, 1834. No. 2, EDflirND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. ox THE CORN CROP. From the proceedings of the New York State Agricultural So- ciety. By .1. BuEL. There is no crop more beneficial to the Ameri- can llirmer than Indian corn. An eminent agri- culturist, the late John Taylor of Virginia, called it the "meal, meadow, and manure," of the larm. It is convertible into human Ibod in more Ibrms tlian any other grain; its value iu fattening domes- tic animals is not exceeded by any product of the farui; and no crbp returns more to the soil than tliis does in the ibrrn of manure. There are two important requisites, liowever, to its profitable cul- tivation. The first is, that the' soil be adapted to its growth; and the second, that tlie crop be well led and well tended: lor food and attention are as important to the plant as to the animtd. Ordina- rily spealiing, it costs less to take care of a good crop of corn, on proper corn land, than it does of a bad croj) on land not adapted to its culture. The first is light and dry. The latter stilT, wet or grassy. I put the average expense of cultivating and securing an acre, at .^'15, (a} incluchng a fair rent though it ordinarily exceeds this sum. The farmer, therefore, wlio obtains thirty bushels from tlie acre, estimating the grain at 50 cents per bushel,: gets a fair compensation for his labor, and tlie use of his land. Whatever the product falls short of this is an absolute loss; and whatever it may exceed it is net gain. Tlius the man who gets but twenty bushels from the acre, loses upon this estimate iij)29 worth of his labor, on ibur acres. He who raises 80 bushels an acre, on the other hand, realizes a net profit of $100 from four acres — making a.ditlerence in tlie profits of the two farmers, in the management of lour acres of corn, oi^ one hundred and twenty dollars! Tliese data are sufBciently accurate to show the importance of tlie two requisites I have suggested, and the value of a Httle calculation in the business of farming. The habit of noting down the expense, as well as the product of a crop, and thus ascertaining the relative profit and loss, is highly advantageous to the practical farmer, and one which cannot be too strenuously inculcated. It will perhaps be said, that I ought to add tlie value of the manure which IS employed in the large crop; but I reply that I ollset this against the increased forage which tliis crop furnishes. Besides, by applying the manure in the unfcrmented state in which it is generall)' found in the spring, it will be as beneficial to the succeding cro]js, as thouffh it had lain and fer- tility which it induces depends the profit of the crop. Long or unfermented manure is to be pre- ferred. It decomposes as the wants of the plant require it; while its mechanical operation, in ren- dering tlie soil light and porous, is beneficial to the crop. It should be e(iually spread over the whole surface, before it is jiloughed under. It then con- tinues to afford fresh pasture to the roots till the coi'n has matured, and is in its place to benefit the succeeding crop. If put into the hill, the roots soon extend beyond its hifluence, it does not so readily decompose, and the subsequent crop is prejudiced from its partial distribution in tlie soil, in a rotation of four or five years, in which this crop receives the manui'e, twenty-five or thirty or- dinary loads may be appHed to one acre with greater profit, than to two or three acres. Every addition tells in the product; and there is scarcely any danger of manuring too high for this favorite crop. Gypsum is applied broadcast before the last ploughing or harrowing, or strewed on the hills atler hoeing. I pursued the fii'st method, at the rate of a bushel to the acre, (d) The best preparation for a corn crop is a clover or other grass la-y, or lea, well covered with a long manure, recently spread, neatly ploughed, and harrowed lengthwise of the furrow. A roller may precede the harrow whh advantage. The time of performing these operations depends upon the texture of the soil, and the quality of the sod. If the first is inclining to clcxy, or the latter tough, or of long continuance, the ploughing may be per- formed the preceding autumn; but where sand or gravel greatly preponderate, or the sod is light and tender, it is best performed in the spring, and as near to the planting as convenient. The harrow" at least should immediately precede planting. All seeds do best when put into the fresh stirred mould- Stiff lands are ameliorated and broken down by fall ploughing; but light lands are rather prejudiced by it. When corn is preceded by a. tilled crop, the ground should be furrowed, and the seed deposited in the bottoms of the furrows. Where there is a sod, the rows should be superficially marked, and the seed planted upon the surface. Where the field is flat, or the sub-soil retentive of moisture, the land should be laid in ridges, that the excess of water v\fhich falls may pass off in the furrows. The time of planting must vary in different dis- tricts and in different seasons. The ground should be sufficiently warmed by vernal heat to cause a speedy germination. Natural vegetation affords mented in the yard, and been applied in the usual j the best guide. My rule has been to plant when way in the autumn, (b) the apple'is bursting its blossom buds, Avhich hag The soils adapted to the culture of Indian corn, generally been between the 12th and 20th of JVIaj'. are such as are permeable to heat, air fc) and Preparation of the seed. The enemies to be the roots of the plant, a.nd embrace those denomi- combatted are the v.-ire Avorm, brown grub, birds nated sandy, gravelly and loamy. Corn will not and squirrels. Of these, the first and two last prey succeed well on grounds that are stifl', hard or wet The roots grow to as great a length as the stalks, and the soil must be loose to permit their free ex- tension. The manures u$ed are generally yard and stable dung, and ])laster of pai-is, (sulphate of lime.^ The first ought to be abundant; as upon the fer- VoL. II.— 9 u])on the kernels, and against these tar ofters a complete protection. I soak my seed 12 to 20 hours in hot water, in which is dissolved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then add (say to eight quails of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed and ddijted with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn taken out, and fi« FARMERS' REGISTER— CORN CROP. ns much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. This impre filiates and partially coats the seed with the tar. The experience of years will wamxnt mc m confidently reconimending this as a protection for the seed. The manner of planting is ordinarily in hills, from two and a halt" to six tect apart, according to the variety of corn, the strength of the soil, and the fancy of the cultivator. The usual distance in my neighhorhood is three Icet. Some, howe- ver, plant in drills of one, two and three rows, hy which a greater crop is unquestionably obtained, though the expense of cultui'e is somewhat in- creased, (e) The quantity of seed should be double, and may be quadrujile (f) what is re- quired to stand. It is well known that a great difference is manifest in the appearance of the plants. Some appear feeble and sickly, which the best nursing will not render productive. The expense of seed, and the labor of pulling up all but three or four of the strongest plants in a hill, it is believed will be amply remunerated by the increased product. If the seed is covered, as it should be, with fine mould only, and not too deep, we may at least calculate upon eveiy hill or drill having its requisite number of j)lants. The after culture consists in keeping the soil loose and free from weeds, which is ordinarily ac- complished by two dressings, and in thimiing the plants, which latter may be done the first hoeing, or partially omitted till the last. The practice of ploughing among corn, and of making large hills, is justly getting into disrepute: for the plough bruises and cuts the roots of the plants, turns up the sod and manure to waste, and renders the crop more liable to suffer bj^ drought. The first dressing should be i)erfbrmed as soon as the size of the plants will permit, and the best implement to precede the hoe is a corn harrow, adapted to the width of the rows, which every farmer can make. This will destroy most of the weeds and pulverize the soil. The second hoeintr should be performed before or as soon as the tassels appear, and may be preceded by the corn harrow, a shal- low furrow of the plough, or what is better than either, by the cultivator, (g) A slight earthing is beneficial, providing the earth is scraped from the surface, and the sod and manure not exposed. It will be found beneficial to run the harrow or cultivator a third, or even a fourth time, between the rows, to destroy weeds and loosen the surface, particularly if the season is dry. (h) In harvesting the crop, one of three modes is adopted, viz. 1. The corn is cut at the surface of the ground, when the grain has become glazed, or hard upon the outside, put immediately into stooks, and when sufficiently dried, the corn and stalks are separated, and both secured. 2. The tops are taken ofl' when the corn has become glazed, and the grain permitted to remain till Oc- tober or November upon the huts. Or, 3. Both corn and stalks are left standing till the grain has fully ripened, and the latter becomes diy, when both are secured. There are other modes, such as leaving the huts or entn-e stalks, in the field, after the grain is gathered; but these are so Avasteful and slovenly as not to merit consideration. The stalks, blades, and tops of corn, if well secured, are an excellent fodder for neat cattle. If cut, or rut and steamed, so that they can be readily mas- ticated, they are superior to hay. Besides, their fertilizing properties, as a manure, are gieatly aug- mented by being fed out in the cattle yard, and imbibing the urine and liquids which always there abound, and which are lost to the farm, in ordinary- yards, without an abundance of dry litter to take them up. . By the first of these methods, the crop may be secured before the autumnal rains; the value of the fodder is increased, and the ground is cleared in time lor a winter crop of wheat or rye. The second mode impairs the value of the forage, recjuires more labor, and does not increase the quantity, or improve the quality, of the grain. The third mode requires the same labor as the first, may improve the quality of the gi-ain, but must in- evitably deteriorate the quality of the fodder. The com cannot be husked too promptly after it is gathered from the field. If permitted to heat, the value of the grain is seriously impaired, (i) Saving seed. The fairest and soundest ears are either selected in the field, or, at the time of husk- ing, a tew of the husks being lelt on, braided and preserved in an airy situation till wanted for use. In making a choice of sorts, the object should be to obtain the varieties Aviiich ripen early, and afford the greatest crop. I think these two proj)erties are best combined in a twelve rowed kind ^\iiich I ob- tained from Vermont some years ago, and which I call Dutton com, from the name of tlie gentleman from whom I received it. It is earlier than the common eight rowed yellow, or any other field va- riety I have seen, and at the same time gives the greatest product. I have invariably cut the crop in the first fourteen days in September, and once in the last week m August. The cob is large, but the grain is so compact iipon it, that two bush- els of sound ears have yielded five pecks of shelled grain, weighing 62 lbs. the bushel. In securing the fodder, precaution must be used. The buts become wet by standing on the ground, and if placed in large stacks, or in the barn, the moisture which they contain oflen induces fermen- tation and mouldiness. To avoid this I put them first in stacks so small, that the Avhole of the buts are exposed upon the outer surface; and when thoroughly dry they may be taken to the barn, or left to te moved as they are wanted to be fed out, merely regarding the propriety of removing a whole stock at the same time. NOTES. (a) Estimated expense of cultivating an acre of Indian corn: One ploughing, (suppose a clover lay,) - $2 00 Harrowing and planting, ----- 2 00 Two hocings, 4 days and horse team, - - 3 75 Harvesting, 2 days, ------- 150 Cutting and harvesting stalks, - - - - 1 50 Rent, - 5 00 $15 75 (h) Stable and yard manures lose 50 per cent, by the fermentation they undergo in the yard during the summer. This loss consists of the gases which are evolved in the process of rotting, and of the fluids which sink into the earth, or are carried ofl" by the rains. Plants receive their food either in a gaseous or liquid form. If manure rots in the soil, neither these gases or fluids are lost: the earth retains, and the roots of the plants im- bibe them. Yet recent manures are not proper to FARMERS' REGISTER— CORN CROP. 67 be ajijjlicd to small grain;?. They cause too rank a (growth of straw, and are apt to induce rust and mildew. Thus a crop of corn, potatoes, or ruta baga may be fed and faitened, if I may use the exjiression, uj)on the dung which is destined to nourish the wheat crop, without deteriorating its \ alue l()r the latter purpose, if it is applied to the corn, &c. before it has fermented. (cj We are on tlie northern border of the maize zone, and shouki make up for delect in cli- mate by selecting soils into which tlie heat readily penetrates. Air, besides conveying warmth in summer, imparts fertility by the vegetable tbod which is always susjoended in it in the Ibrm of gases.^ Dews are also charged with these proper- ties of vegetable luitriment, and when the soil is porous, they settle down as in a sponge, and im- jiart lertility to the roots (the true mouths) of plants. (d) I adopt the opinion of Davy, as the modus operandi of ];]astor of ])aris, that it forms a neces- sary constituent of plants which it benefits, and is of no direct benefit to plants which do notalibrdit on analysis. Among the first are the clovers, corn, potatoes, and generally such j)lants as hiive broad or succident leaves; while the latter embrace cuJ- miferous gniins and grasses, as wheat, rye, timo- thy, &c. Critical observation for years has con- firmed me in this conclusion. Gypsum, must be rendered soluble belbre it can be taicen up by the mouths of plants, and it requires 600 parts of wa- ter to dissolve one of this mineral. I inter from these (acts, that by burying it in the soil, it more rea- dily dissolves, and is more accessible to the mouths of plants, thiui if spread upon the surface of the ground. I am induced, fi-om these views of the sub- ject, to sow plaster, on grass grounds, in March, and upon corn and potato grounds belbre the last plough- ing for these crops. The latter was recommended and practised by the distinguished agriculturists, the j late Mr. Ta\ lor of Virginia, and Judge Peters, of Pennsylvania. (ej The following table exhibits the difference in product of various methods of planting, and pcrves also to exj)lain the manner in which large crops of this grain have been obtained. I have assumed in the estimate, that each stalk produces one ear of corn, and that the eara average one gill of sliclled grain. This is estimating the product low; for while I am penning this (October) I find that my largest ears give tv/o gUls, and 100 iiur ears half a bushel of shelled corn. The calcula- tion is also predicated upon the supposition, that there is no deficiency in the number of stalks, a contingency pretty sure on my method of planting. The same in do. .3 rows m a drill, as above, 3 ft. from centres of drills, 43,560 170 The fifth mode I have tried. The ground wa3 highly manured, the crop twice cleaned, and the entire acre gathered and weighed accurately, the same day. The product in ears was 103 btiskets, each 84 lbs. net, and 65 lbs. over. The last basket was shelled and measured, v/hich showed a pro- duct on the acre of 118 bushels 10 quarts. I gathered at the rate of more than 100' bushels the acre, from four rods ))lanted in the third method last summer; the result ascertained in the most ac- curate manner. Corn shrinks about 20 per cent atler it is cribbed. The sixth mode is the one by which the Messrs. Pratts, of Madison county, ob- tained the prodigious crop of 170 bushels per acre. These gentlemen, I am told, are of opinion, that the product of an acre may be increased to 200 bushels. 1. An acre in hills, 4 feet apart, each wav, will produce - 2. The saniej 3 by 3 feet, 3. The same, 3 by 2J feet, 4. The same in drills', at 3 feet, plants 6 inches apart, in the drills, 6. The same in do. 2 rows in a drill, 6 in. apart, and the plants 9 in. and 3 feet 9 in. from centre of drills thus, Hills, bush. qts. 2722 42 16 4S40 75 20 5808 93 28 29,040 113 14 . 30,970 120 31 Cf) I am told the Messrs. Pratts, above alluded to, used seven bushels of seed to the acre, the plants bemg subsequently reduced to the requisite number. (gj The cultivator is made in the form of a triangular hai'row, with two bulls; or if ui- tended to be graduEited to different widths, a centre bull is added, to which the exterior ones are at- tached by hinges. Iron slats, fixed to tlae exte- rior bulls, pass through a mortice in the centre one, perforated with holes, through which an iron pin passes to hold them at the graduated width. The teeth may be in any approved form, or reasonable number. ^ The cultivator I used has five teeth, two in each of the outward, and one upon the centre timber. The teeth have a stout shank, with a duck's foot termination, four inches broad, some- what cylindrical, rounded at the point, and inclined forward in an angle of 30 or 40 deg. This imple- ment is useful tor other purposes; and may be used, like Beatson's, as a substitute lor the plough, ia preparmg light soils for a crop. The handles are attached to the centre piece. The teeth have a shoulder, on the under side of the tindjcr, and are fastened with screws and nuts above. (h) Some entertain a mistaken notion, that it 13 prejudicial to stir tlie soil among corn in dry weather, and others that weeds serve to prevent the evaporation of moisture by a hot sun. The reverse of these opinions is true. The exhausiioii of moisture by a plant is in the ratio of the sur- face of its leaves and stalks presented- to the sun and air. (i) The leaves are the necessary organs for elaborating the food of plants, and when these are taken away the plant must cease to grow. The sap is useless until it undergoes elaboration in the leaves. Hence, when corn is tojiped in the usual wa}', the supply of tbod is cut ofl' from the grain, exce])t what may be elaborated in the husks. On comparing corn gathered by the first and second modes, it was the opinion of those who assisted in husking, tliat the first was soundest, brightest and heaviest. The third mode I have not tried. But it seems probable, that the grain might ac- quire an increase of volume, though it would lose again by depredation and waste. The first method has these further advantages that it presei-ves the cob from being saturated with rains, and secures the fodder, when it is in its highest peifection ruul greatest quanlit)'. 68 FARMERS' REGISTER— GARDEN— MANAGEMENT OF HORSES, THE GARDEN. From the (New York) Cultivator. Thoup;h we do not intend to enter into tlie mi- nute details of gardening, nor to say much of tlic ornamental portion of the art, yet we would lain encourage a taste for this branch of la,bor, which does much to multiply our conitbrts, and refine our manners, and pro Her such occasional directions as- may tend to benefit the generality of our readers. We go upon the i»rinciplc that we all ought to look for our chief happiness at Junne; and that the more this home is embellished, and provided mth the varied productions of the soil, the stronger will our attachments be to tt, and the niore multiplied will be our enjoyments. At all events, there arc many productions of the garden which are in a measure indispensable in every ilmiily; and the farmer can raise them with more economy than he can buj' them. It is in relation to the culture of these that Ave intend to offer some brief remarks. Among the general rules which ought to be re- garded in the management of a garden, and which in some measure apply to the management of a farm, we may particularize the following :^— 1. A garden should be enclosed by a secure fence — otherwise an unruly animal may destroy in a night the fi-uits of many a day's toil. 2. A garden should be rich: for here the maxim particularly applies, — that it is better to cultivate a small pjiece of ground Avell, than a large one slovenly and bad. " J Veil done" is the only '^good enough'''' for a garden. 3. Do not plant your roots and vines in the shade, or under the drippings' of trees, but in an open exposure. Appropriate these situations to medicinal plants and herbs. Trees impoverish the ground, and their shade is baleful to most crops. Plant trees u))on the north, east, and west borders, where their shade will be but partially prejudicial, or along a main alley. 4. Alternate your crops; that is, do not plant your onions or other vegetables two successive years on the same quarter. This ride is as im- portant to the garden as it is to the fiirm: and everj- ikrmer, at least every good liirmei', knows, that alternating his farm crops is of the first importance to profit. 5. Plant your seeds v.-hi^n the ground is fresh dug or ploughed, when it is filled with atmospheric air, and moist, and permeable to heat, three indis- pensable requisites to the vigorous germination oi the seeds. They wiU then sprout quick, and grow luxuriantly, 6. Seeds require to be kept moist till their roots have got firm hold ol" the earth, and their leaves have expanded above it. To ensure this, the soil must be brought in close contact with them, and they sufficiently covered. A good precaution is to tread the fresh dug soil on the line where the seeds are to be planted, which retards evaporation from below, or, when the seeds are covered to a sufficient depth, to compress the earth upon them Avith a hoe, spade or board, which not only tends to retain the moisture, but to break the soil and to bring it in close contact Avith them. Seeds often tail to grow, or, having began to germinate, are dried and lost, for the want of moisture. And many small seeds with husky coverings, particularly flower seeds, have been declared bad, because they have been planted Avithout due reference to this rule. 7. As soon as the plants are firmly rooted, the more the earth is stirted about them the. better. This iiicilitates the preparation of the vegetable food in the soil, and greatly promotes growth. Next to the destruction of weeds, nothing coun- teracts the effects of drought so much, in garden or field, as stirring the surface of the.soil. 8. Difiere'nt seed's require different temperatures to induce germination; and if they are'put into the ground when it is too cold, they are liable to rot. Wheat, rye, bariey, &c. will germinate at 45 de- grees, corn at perhaps 55, while the melon proba- bly requires a heat of 60 to 70 degi-ees. The com- mon bean will vegetate in a cold temperature, while the Lima bean will rot in a cold or Avet soil. Hence, in planting, regard is to be had to the hardiness of the plant Avhich-is to besown. The present month is an important one in the operations of the garden. If not already done, no time should be lost, in soAvingthe seed of onions, sallads, eai'ly cabbage, peas, radishes, and in plant- ing some early corn and potatoes. The beet, car- rot, parsnip, and summer squash may also be soAvn. Cabbages for AAinter use may be sowai in time, from the 20th to the 30th. As soon as the soil and the season are Avarm enough to bring up corn, which here irS generally from the 15th to the 20th , plant your melons, pumpkins and cucumbers, though it Avill do equally avcU to plant the latter, for pickles, in the early part of June. The 15th Avill ordinarily do' for Lima beans, AAdiich are the best of the bean family. . Soak the seed of these in Avarm Avater, a leAv hours, and cover them slightly. My practice is to save this crop for Avin- ter use. They afford a great product. When frost is apprehended, the beans are all picked, the unri]>e ones shelled and dried; and, if soaked be- fore cooking, are nearly as good as Avhen first gathered from the vines. An acquaintance digs a large hole, in Avhich he depositee a barroAV of dung, which ha covers Avith six inches of earth, and plants the Lima beans, and puts down poles upon the border of the irianured circle. In this Avay they are said to groAV luxuriantly, and to produce in great abundance. Of the pumpkin there are several ncAV and much esteemed varieties, as the Valparaiso, Porter and acorn 'squashes. These are rather later in coming ta maturity than the old yellow kind; though they have been success- fully cultivated among corn. We Avould commend the planting out, or sowing seeds of parsley, balm, Avorm-Avood, tanzy, garfick, hyssop, rue, sage, thyme, and other herbs, Avhich are oJlen required in a feniily. b. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF HORSES WHILST TRAVELLING. From the Southern Agriculturist. ''Jpril^Ath, 1834. Dear Sir, — As it is j^our request, I Avill noAv en- deaA^or to say something about- the treatment of a horse upon a journey, though, I assure you, that you ha\'e travelled much more than I haA^e. I will,, hoAvcA-er, say, hoAV I would treat my nags. It is of great importance that the horse be in good condition before the journey is commenced — not \-ery fat: he should eat nothing but the most solid food tor sometime before you start, nothing light or green; i'or nine out of ten horses Avill i'onn- dcr if fed on green food. Earlv in the morning FARMERS' REGISTER- THE LOCUST. 69 give a few svvalloAvs of waler; ibrsome houses will not eat without, particularl.y if leverish at night. Give three quarts of com soon after the water; he should not be limited in tbdder, but let him have if before liim from tlie time he is put up at night till you start. Give him as much wate"r as he \^[[\ drink belbre you start, travel very slow for the first hour, lor many horses are foundered from the body becoming suddenly hot when lull ot cold water, just as when the re-yerse hajipens, filling the body with cold water when it is hot. Give about -a gallon of water frequently, for by giving a small quantity ollen, the stomach is kept more cool, and there is less danger. Twice or three times during the day, put about a j",int of corn-meal and a little salt into the water, and stir it well in. Whenever you wateron the road, move off the horse imme- diately; to stand still afier drinking is very wi'ong. When you stop lor any time, say an hour or so, do not water till you are gomg off. I never give corn during the day — three or lour quarts of oats may be given, and fodder or ha}-, for the quantity he will eat will not injure him. In hot dusty weather it is very gratilying to the horse to wash or wipe the lace, and the inside of the nostrils with a sponge and cold water, and if you add a Uttle \-inegar, it is better; — do this at the time of anci. before Avatering. When you stop for the night", let the horse- go into a lotto wallow and walk about for half an hour, then let a few bundles of fodder or hay be "given to.hiin while he is rubbed, cunied, and brushed, and aftenvards as plentifully as can be given. When cool have his legs wash- ed with soap and cold \\'ater, and the feet ]ncked out, and then let him have his fill of water, but without salt. Be careilil that the horse always eats some tbdder before he gets his corn: give a strong large horse eight quarts of corn at night, or as many eare as are equal to it — it is better to teed on the ear than to shell it, as the horse eats not so last and will perhaps eat less. ' If the corn is new, give but half the quantity; always give oats in the morning if to be got, six quarts will not injure a horse. If the horse gets galled, wash the parts with s' on the journey, or loses his appetite, tie a lump of gimi assatoBtida on his bit, covered or wnapj)ed in a strong rag. This may be continued tbi" the whole journe)', and Ibe- iieve prevents, liis taking uny distejiiper if.j)ut with .sick horses, or in stables Avhere they, have been: it also is a preventive of fouiirler. Hgrses some- times get lame on that Britain as easily as some of our most common shririis. ft is said that the Camellia viridis, or green tea-plant, has been recently successtully planted by Mr. Rootsey, of Bristol, in a part- of Breconshire, near the source of the Usk, about 1,000 feel, above the level of the sea, and higher than the limits of the native woods, consisting of alder and birch. It endured the winter, and was not affected by the frost of the 7th of May, and it has now "made several vigorous shoots, — Q,uart. Joufn. jfgric. CLIMATE OF ENGLAND. In a paper recently published in the Transac- tions of the HortirAiltural Society of London, Mr* Knight says that he entertains no doubt whatever but that our Avinters are generally a good deal less severe than formerly, — our springs more cold and ungenial, — our summers, and particularly, the lat- ter parts of them, as warm, at least, as they for- merly Ave re, and our autumns considerably warmer. In accounting for these -changes,, our author ob- serves, thatAvithin the last fifty years, very exten- siA'e tracts of ground, AA'hich were preAaously co- vered with trees, have been oleared, and much Avasle land has been inclos'ed and cultivated; and by means ol" drains and improA'ements in agricul- ture, the Avater troni the clouds has been more ra])idly carried off. From these circums^tances, the ground becomes niore dry in the end of May thanitAvas formerly, and it consequently absorbs and retains much more of the Avarm summer rain than it did in an uncultiA-ated state; and as water in cooling is knoAvn to give out much heat to sur- rounding bodies, much AA'armth, must be commu- nicated to the ground, and this cannot fail to affect the temperature of the autumn. The Avarm au- tumnal rains, in conjunction with Those of summer, operate poAverfuUy upon the temperature of the Avinter; and, consistently Avith this hypothesis, Mr. Knight asserts that he has observed, that during the last forty years, when the summer and autumn have been veEy Avet, the succeeding Avinter has been mild; and that Avhen north-east Avinds have prcA'ailed after Avet seasons, the- AAinter has been cold and cloudy, but Avitlioiit severe irost, probably oAving to the ground upon the opposite shores of the continent being in a state similar to that on this side the Channel. Supposing the ground to contam less AA'ater in the commencement of Avinter, on account of the operations of the drains and improAemicnls before mentioned, more of the Ava,ter aftbrded by dissoh-- ing snoAvs and cold rains in Avinter Avill riece.ssarily be absorbed by i1; and in the end of February, hoAvever dry the ground may have been at the AAdnt'er solstice, it Avill almost ahvays' be .found saturated Avith water; and as the infkjence of the sun is as poAverful on the last day of February as on the 15th of October, and it is the high temper- ature of the ground in the latter period Avhich oc- casions the difference of temperature in those op- posite seasons, Mr. Knight, thinks it cannot be doubted, that if the soil be rendered- more cold by the absorption of Avater at nearly the freezing temperature, the Avcather of the spring must be, to some extent, injuriously aflected. — Trans. Hort. Soc. Lund. From the Libiar.v of Uspful Ti^nowlcdge — Faniici-'s Series. Mta.ES AND ASSES. A beast of draught throws fonvard as. much of his oAvn weight as enables him to overromt' the Aveight, or equivalent resistance, that is behind him; and the more s])irited the animal, AAnth the niore activity, will he exert himself; but, t-he exer- tion being measured by its rapidity, A-elocily is labor in another shape, and though he may dra.AV better (or a short space than a hoa\-ier and sloAver animal, yet he avIII tire sooner: weiglit is, there- fore, the steady poAver of heavy draught, and is a FARMERS^ REGISTER— MULES AND ASSES. 73 chief requisite in horses intended to be used on tenacious soils. It' is this which deprives mules of the power of hea\y drauQ'ht. They carry 20 stone of horse- man's wcioht, and travel daily upwards of thirty miles throup;h the mountainous cross-roads of the Spanish peninsula. Horses are incapable of such exertions under the pack ;_ but their weiirht tells v.-hen opp(ised to a c;irriagc with little muscular exertion, when the mule is forced to put forth his whole strength. . Mules are. sometimes produced by horses upon ehe-asses, but are more frequently the progeny of the jack-ass and the mare. The race is, however, in any shape, incapable of reproduction; for^ al- thougli some rare exceptions to this rule are upon record, it yet seems to. be a principle in nature, that all hybrid animals — as those are termed which are the offspring of distinct brqeds — should be sterile. Mules are highly esteerned in most parts of the south as beasts of burden for either the pack or the saddle; but in this country they are chiefly used for draught. They are more hardy in con- stitution, more patient, and more muscular in pro- portion to their weight, than horses; they are also less subject to disease, and fl\r longer lived, for they are commonly able to work during full tliirt}- or evqn forty years. They are, fed, too, at less ex- .pense; and, when in the hands of good masters, and treated with gentleness and humanity, the complaints commonly made of their restiveness are wliolly destitute of foundation.* They answer Avell for hard roads, and for harrowing, because the land is then generally ^y, and their feet, which are small, neither sink iiifo the ground, nor are they met by the dead pnll which they have to oppose in the iilouirh. The cattle, as well as the implement with which they are worked, should be in fact, suited to the soil;' and it would be £f[ua!ly incongruous to attempt ihe use of bulloclvs upon flinty land, as it woidd be to employ mules for the ploughing of wet and .heav)^ clay. They have' been long introduced into'treland,t a,nd- the breed has "been much improved in the north by the im- length of life, which extends to that of double the length of the horse, and no deficiency of.theistock is observable in those countries where they are commonly used in kibor. It may not either be genenillr known that, when a mare has not stood her siinting when covered by a slallion, she will, notwithstanding, probably prove in foul if after- wards covei'ed by an ass.* The appearance and manners of \hc domestic ass are so well known as to render any description unnecessary. : The domesticated race is, however, of comparatively recent adojjtion in Europe, for we are told by IlpUinshed that 'our lande did jicid no asses in the tune of Queene Elizabeth;' a)id, although in that lie is wrong, — for they are men- tioned as having been used in this country at a much earUer period, — j'et they iver.e jirobably scarce, and they are even still but rarely seen throughout the north. . Those known in England are an inferior kind, to wdoich no attention has been- ever ])aid; but there are various breeds of a superior species, which might be gready improved by crossing. The wild ass of Persia, and of Africa,— of which a foal has been recently irajiorted to London, and is now at the Suirey Zoological Gardens, — is known to be an animal of great speed and power. There is also a raec of xirabian origin, which is chiefly used for the saddle; and those reared at the island of Goz.o, in the Mediterranean, — a few of vvhicli have been brought to this country, as stal- lions for the production of mules, — have reached the height of tburteen hands, and have been sold for the sum of 100 guineas. xVsses are surprisingly little employed l)y far- mers, considering their use and economy, for they are supported by th§ worthless jjickings of lanes and bye^ways, or the scanty refase of other cattle; and yet they carry •hca\y loads, and m'ight be made.ver\" scr\-iceable in the supply of green fiiod to stall-fed beasts and working stock, as well as in carrying off ttie weeds from fields when under the hoe; all which might be done with children as drivers, and panniers made to let the load down at portation of a Maltese ass, which is described. as bottom. The saving ol" food by weeding may not having been an animal of a very superior descrip- tion. Wherever they .have- been .reo^ularly em- ploye*! in this country their utiUty has been also- admitted; but there is a prejudice against rearing them: farmers generally imagining that they are to obtain some notable animal out of any wretched mare, provided she be only covered by a sighth^ horse, and thence arise expectations we need not say how disappointed; -whereas, had they the good sense to serve them -u'lth powerihl stallion- asses, something useful tnight be produced: In Snain, where great attention is paid to the breed of mules, there is a royal stud of staHion-asses maintained at Reynosa, in the Asturias. .We're farmers thus touse the small class of mares com- monly found upon the moors and mountains in many extensive districts, they v/ould breed a far more valuable stock for their own immediate use, tlie intrinsic worth of Avhich, for all the common purposes of labor, would soon increase its price. As to the objection arising out of the impassibility of continiiing the breed from, the same animals, the remark may be met by that of their greater * Survey of Leicester, p. 294. ■ t Survey of the County of Antriin, p. S.37. Young's Tour in Ireland, vol. i. p. 297. amount to much in a money "calculation, though mai^y. herbs thus thrown away would be found palatable if gather-ed for cattle; but w«re these ani- moJs only employed to remove the weeds fromjjie ground when .hoed, it would be of great ser-vice, for at l6a.st one half of them strike root again after the first shower, and the remainder, if not • eaten, is lost to the dung-heap, whereas that doss would be prevented were they raked iip and collected. Their drivers also would be kept employedj .which Avou?d be found very serviceable to the poor, not alone as an addition, however trifling, to their earnings, hut as bringing tliem up in habits of in- dus.tiy, and as eaiTy. initiating them into the care of" domestic animals,' hy which their kindness and attention to brutes is fqund to he very much im- proved. This is so remarkahle in France, Spam, and Switzerland, that sheep and oxen regularly fbll&W their keepers to the field, instead . oi beijig driven; and the peasantry,' being more accustomed in their childhood to attendance upon animals, in consequence of the general want of inclosures, soon learn to treat them with tenderness and fa- miliarity, which is returned by the increased do- cility and the improved condition of their charge. Complete Grazier, 5tii edit., p. 192. 74 FARMERS" REGISTER-ARTESIAN WELLS. AUTKSIAN OK OVERFLOWING WELLS. The irruption of the waler, on first piercing these Rublerranean reservoirs, is ollcn very violent and is no sniiiii proof ol" tht; copioiisnciss oi' many ol" these wells. Some strikinir exiunples of tliis are quoted irom England in llic liihliolhetiue Uni- verselle, ♦. xxxix. p. lO'J. A Mr. Brook had sunk a bore in his garden 360 li-ct deep, and 4.-5 inches in diameter, ti-om which the water was discharged eo copiously, that it not only overllowed the whole yard round llie house;, but also submerged the ad- joining cellars. 'J'he damage was so great that the neighbors lodged a complaint, and the police were required to interpose. Two men now tried to close the bore vvitii a wooden peg, but they were constantly driven back by the violence of the water, even when a third came to their assistance. They were equally incapable of restraining the water by an iron stoi)])er. At last, they took the advice ol" a mason, and |)lanted several tubes of email diameter over 1hc bore, and thus succeeded at last in mastering tiie water. At a Mr. Lord's, in Tooting, where a bore had been closed, the wa- ter worked with such violence under the ground, that it burst l()rth in a space 15 yards in circum- ference, and certainly the walls woidd have been brought down if li-ee vent had not been given to it. This spring, say the inibrinants, on account of the lieight of its jet, and the quantity ol' water (600 litres per minute,) is worthy of Ix'iiig in a public square. The stream of a well heiongiiig to a neighbor of Mr. Lord, drove a water-wheel of 5 feet'^in diameter, and this again .set a pump in mo- tion which carried the water to the top of a three- storied house. We quote this passage fi-om an article in Jamcson^s Journal, No. 17, to direct the •epecial attention oi" the reader to the whole of the interesting and important paper*. ON AUTE.SIA.N WELLS; y/nd the employment of the toarvi water brought from a depth for economical purposes. Whence do artesian wells derive their water, mid how do they acquire their power of ascension, which sometimes occasions in the middle of plains, at a distance from hills and mountains, the sur- prising phenomenon of spouting springs? are questions which have been often proposed, and very variously answered. The most natural ex- planation is undoubtedly that which supposes the water ol" these wells, like that of natural wells, to be derived from the atmosphere, ami their power of ascension the hydrostatic pressure of a more elevated reservoii, with which the perforutcd canal or bore stands in connexion. Sometimes, however, the local relations are such that it is dillicult to reler the watt'r to such a source, and then it is that the liamers of wild hypotheses stand f)rth with their absurdities. A lale observation, which aflbrds a striking proof ol" the accuracy of the above explanation, is therefore the more worthy of being noticed. At Tours, on the Tjoire, an artesian well, with a bore of 3} inclies,which brought the water t"rom a dei)th of 335 feet to the surliice, was damaged, * M. Mallat, by an ingenious contrivance, is enabled to make use separately of two kinds of water, some- times found in a single boring, such as hard and soft water. and they were obliged (on tlie 30th of Januarj' of the year 1831) to remove the tube till within 12 feet of the surliice. The Avater suddenly rushed out, increased fully to a third more than its former quantity, and continued to flow for several hours. It was now no longer clear as before; on the con- trary, it Ill-ought along with it a great quantity of fine sand, and surprising enough, also numerous remains of plants and bivalve shells; Viranches of the thorn, several inches long, and blackened, owing to their residence in the Avater; further, fresh stems and roots of marsh-jilants, seeds of many different ])lants, and also l"resh water-shells, as Planorliis marginatvs, also Ilcllx rof^indata, and Helix striata. All these resembled those which are found after floods, on the sides of smaller rivers and brooks. This fiict is so remarkable, that the truth of it mifjht be called in (piestion, had it not been accurately determined. There results from it the following conclusions: — 1. The water of the artesian well of the city of Tours must occupy not more than four months in flowing through its subterranean canals, because the ripe seeds of harvest have reached the mouth of the well without being decomposed. 2. As the Avater carries along with it shells and pieces of wood, it cannot reach its place by filtra- tion through the layers of sand, but must have fiowed through more or less irregular canals. 3. The source of this water is to lie looked for in some moist valleys of Auvergne and the Vivarais. Th(>. remains of the plants and animals are de- posited in the mineral cabinet of the city. As soon as the seeds, five or six in number, are re- ferred to their plants, naturalists will, in places situated higher than the basin of the Loire, be able to make out the points where these subterra- nean waters are ))ouix'd out. It is to be wished that French observers would state how they prove that the waters of this well come fiom Auvergne, about 130 miles distant. If this eliall be proved, the considerable rise of arte- sian water in other ])laces, where no hills occur near, or where they are bored in the most elevated points in the neighborhood, will lose every thing puzzling. This rising is sufficiently remarkable to induce us to communicate some examples from Hericart. 0) o ■-1) o to the institution in tiirnishing presses'; 'dr in. ffi'e printing and di-^po- sition of the books. From nearly a year's full ex- periment, the committee are fully persuaded that tills brancli of our manual labor .has peculiar ad- v'antagie-s.in respect to its simplicity, its appropriate exercise, its general utility, and pecuniary results^; "In accordance with the sjjecial request of the printers' association of thi>! institution; it is intend- ed, as soon as "practicable, to adopt measures f&c llu' extension of this establishment; and troni the liiciiities here enjoyed lor cohductmg. the printing busines, it is hoped that a large portion of our stu- dents, at no very distant period, may enjoy the advantage of this employment." In the cabinet slioi^s connected with the institu- tion, rnnteriids have been furnished, and work liaid tor, by an establishment iii Cincinnati, The whole is placed under the superintendence of some of the most skillid workmen among the students, who are responsible to' the employers for all that is done, and have secured a pecmiiary profit ot iB701 35 in five months. The profit to- individuals is thus stated by the committee: • . "Several of the best workmen haveearned fi'om twelve and a half to fitleen cents" per houj-, and have received tor their services diiring. the time above specified, from forty to sixty dollars each; while those who have recently commenced learn- ing the business, have earned from ten to twenty dollars each. "While the fact is here rendered obvious, that a first-rate mechanic is eniirely independent in this institution, and can support liimself by his three hours' labor without inlringing at aU upon his study hours, the. committee wish it to be understood that such results are secured only by young men of ener- getic, industrious, and economical habits; and that those of difterent character, and who have little or no knowleflge of tools^ ought not to rely, to any considerable extent, at least for the first j'ear, upon their labor as the means of paying the expenses of tlie institution." A tarm of 110 acres is also annexed to the in- stitution, from which additional advantages are anticipated.- Such are the results of one of the most recent experiments on the manual labor system, and they seem to us to confirm the position we have main- tained, that while this, like every other system of education, needs afnuiidatinn on which to rest, and the taithtial, persevering eiforts of skiltul agents, it may be made a means of economy in education, and of imparting that vigor of constitution Avhich renders that education doubly valuable, and secures to tlie individual, enjoyments and hopes which are beyond all price. — Jinnals of Education. From the Nuw Vorti Fanner. LIVE STOCiC. Jldaplatioa of Breeds of Live Stock in the Uiiitcd States to the Soif. . Sir, — In some parts of the United States much attention has been paid to the improvement of five stock, and in nrany instances with success; but in others the improvement aimed at lias not bcffh at- tained, because the varieties of sod and climate hatl not bcei; duly considered. In looking over the large droves of cattle which are brquglit from the west every year in October and Noyember, though you see a strange medley of all ages, sizes, and every variety of condition, yet you see the same general character; nineteen out of twenty 'are red and middle-horned; CA-idently of the same race as th'e Devons, Herefofds, and Sussex cattle of Eng- land. In the droves of sheep, you may look at a hundred without seeing a good one, but amongst any twenty head of caUle, you can always find some ^oo;l; and what these- are, the Vv'hole might have beeiv made, by selection and care. Good ones iVould cost no more lo keep, if so much, and Avould always liit qiiicker, and be worth more monej^- ' . The great varieties of soil:' met with, rer[uire cUfierent kinds of cattle, yet on poor soils, as aveII as rich, most of our farmers aim more at size than symmetn,', and handling is never thought of as an . indication of qualities. It is URich to be desired that the farmers of the west, where so many cattle are bred, woidd attend to the grazing qualities of the stock they rear; and it is sur])rising that no breeders have attempted to establish a variety merely as milkers. . Good cows ■are to be found here and there, but you look in vain for any uniformity of character amongst them." A permanent variety may be raised in a lew years, by usefid management in always select- ing the best milkers to be found, and putting a bull to them which comes of a good milker. — This is a main point, and not easy to succeed in. A ^ood dairy bull ought to be clean in the head and neck, and aUogether of a more femirane ap- pearance than a common bull. In New England are many excellent cattle, all of the middle-horned kind; by selection for several generations, some parts of that country have now a breed hardly to be surpassed, asimitingthe three uses of cattle, that is, for beef, tlte yoke, and the dairy. Yet they have no kind bred for the dairy as the sole object. In the small territory of Great Britain are many varieties of soil, and many cattle, say from 30 to 40, generally well suited for their places. At the head of all are the Improved Short Horns, an admirable breed, yet from their size, form, and constitution, they can only be kept in fiivorable situations. If grazed in summer on second rate lands, and kept on hay from the same lands in winter, they woidd rapidly degenerate; even artificinl food woidd not make up for the want of qualit}' in the gi-ass and hay. Their early ma- turity AATJuld soon be lost with the A\Tetched winter keeping so common here. In their native districts, \Aith a moist, temperate climate, and rich soil, they are fed in the highest manner. Deep old grass land in summer, with abundant turnips, and rich ha}', in well littered, Avell sheltered yards during winter, keep them always up to the mark. On hiferior lands they would hardly five, yet there 78 FARMERS' REGISTER— AMERICAN NATURALIST. galloways would gel fat; while in the Highlands of Scotland even galloways could not live. Yet in that bleak country is Ibund a breed ol' cattle per- fectly adapted to their situation: small, compact, and hardy, beautiful to the eye of a grazier, and much better beef than the large breeds ot the south. Indeed, the richest lands do not ])roduce beef or mutton of so good a quality as lands of inferior lijrtility, especially of their own rearing. In some fine parts of Scotland the Improved .Short Horns have driven out the native breeds; but, on the whole, the Scotch cattle excel all others in their situations, and there are districts ol" this country, such as the northern slope of the Alle- ghanies, &c. where it is probable the Highlandere woiUd answer well. A iew galloway catde were several years since introduced by some Scotch setders in Caledonia, Livingston county, New- York, but have long been mixed, and are now said to be lost. West Highlanders, for bleak mountaiti lands, and Ayrshires for the dairy, would be a national acquisition.— Look at the noble pre- miums given yearly by the Scotch Highland Soci- ety for ttte improvement of their domestic animals and for the promotion of agriculture in every way. At their exhibition at Stirling, in 1832, the pre- mium for cattle alone amounted to 361 sovereigns, for about 1730 dollars, and in like proportion for sheep, swine, horses, &c. This looks Uke bemg in earnest: the subscribers know that they are spending their money wisely for an object of na- tional importance. It would be no difficult matter to buy at a Scotch fair ten or twenty A>Tshire cows, which would look as if all cast in the same mould, and Avhich would yield, lor three months after calving, twenty-four quarts each per day, and 60 on in proportion. These cows, too, would graze kindly when dry. The Northern Short Horn, used in the dairies wliich supply London with milk, shows in perlection the art of breeding for a particular purpose, and these breeds are in- valuable. Yet in a drier climate and different soil they might not retain their (lualities. Importing cattle is an expensive and hazardous business. To make it answer, several men in difierent quarters ought to combine their efforts, and unity of jnirpose and perseverance must be found in all of them. This would be a very diffi- cult matter. But selections from the stocks around him is in the power of any man who has capital and judgement. Cattle here are much better than sheep; tor, except some merinoes and Saxony sheep, the native kinds are a strange medley, but all bad, wanting symmetry and weight. The main object of this letter is, that all stock should be adapted to the soil they are put on. I have Leices- ters degenerating on lands where Chevoit sheep would have done well; and merinoes put on rich deep lands, Avhere heavy sheep would have got fat. Short Horns, too, may be seen on lands where they do not find themselves at home. Yours, H. AUDUBON, THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. John James Audubon, a native of Louisiana, has been Irom earlj^ youth addicted to the admira- tion of nature. In a" beautiful country, teeming^ with animal and vegetable life, the profusion of which at first tended to render him undecided as >o the particular path which he ought to pursue, he at length, struck by the beauty and variety of the leathered tribes, their manners and occupations, their wonderlid migrations and their mysterious instincts, resolved to make them the principal ob- ject ot' his study. A pure passion gave energy to his mind. He studied nature, not with the view of iauTiortalizing his name by his discoveries, nor even with a desire ol' infusing a portion of his spirit into his tellow men, much less with the hope ol' increasing his pecuniary stores, but sim])ly from an instinctive inqjulse, an admiration of, a love for, the objects that manilestedto him the attributes of their JUivine Author. To perpetuate their rcmem- bran.ce, and render them ever present to his mind, he first tried to preserve their skins. But their laded tints, the stillness which could not be avoid- ed hi restoring them to shape, and the consequent want of seeuiing animation, 'determined him to represent them by the pencd. Numberless draw- ings were made, but year after year they were consigned to the flames. At length, beginning to be somewhat pleased with his attempts to imitate nature, he commenced a collection of drawings, which, after more than twenty years of almost unremitted observation of the habits of birds, and after he had shot and examined specimens of all the forms that he could find in the vast regions of the United States, at length amounted to several hundred. Still lie had no other object in view than that of studying and depicting nature. Fi- nally, alter a visit to Philadelphia, which had opened his eyes to the ways of men, he began, in the solitude of the forest, to commune with him- self as to the possibility of laying his labors be- fore the world. "Happy days, and nights of pleas- ing dreams!" says he, "whom the wise men of the west had denounced as a wild woodsman, and whom, even his iriend, the Prince of Musignano designates as a 'painter-naturalist.' " "I read over the catalogue of my collection, and thought how it might be possible lor an unconnected and un- aided individual, like myself, to accomplish the grand scheme. I arranged my drawings, improv- ed them as much as was in my power; and, as I dady retired liirther from the haunts of men, de- termined to leave nothing undone, which my labor, my time, or my purse could accomplish." The "grand scheme," however, was destined to be accomplished, — at least it is in progress. Mr. Audubon left America and came to England. Hia native country was either unable to appreciate his genius, or unable to aid his efforts, and England did both. The Americans may justly be proud of their achievements, and no people can be more disposed to boast of their good qualities; but, al- though they may boast of an Audubon, they must leave to England the merit of having fostered him. "As I approached the coast of England," says he, "and for the first time beheld her fertile shores the despondency of my spirits became very great. I knew not an individual in the country, and al- though I was the bearer of letters from American friends, and statesmen of great eminence, my situ- ation appeared precarious in the extreme. I ima- gined that every individual whom I was about to ineet might be possessed of talents superior to those of any on our side the Allan tici Indeed, as I for the first time walked on the streets of Liver- pool, my heart nearly failed me, for not a glance of sympathy did I meet with in my wanderings FARMERS' REGISTER— THE COLD WEATHER IN MAY, &o. 79 for two days. To the woods I could not betake dom, and he will instantly and unhcsitatinfjly pro myself; for there were none near. But how soon did all around me.assume a ditierent aspect! How fresh is tlie recollection of the chansre! The very first letter which I tendered procured me a world of friends. JMy drawings were publicly exhibited and publicly praised. Joy swelled my heart: the first difficulty was suhriounted. Honors which, on application being made through my friends, Phi- ladelphia had refused to grant, Liverpool freely accorded,"' It is unnecessary to follow Mr. Audubon in his progress through England. Suffice it to say, that m Edinburgh, he commenced the publication of his "Birds of America." Alter a few plates had been presented to the world, difficulties occurred. The engrayer, Mr. W. H. Lizars, exjiressed his satisfaction at beinfr relieyed of the work, which was transferred to Mr. R. Hayell, jun., a London artist, who has continued the engravings. The work commenced in 1S27, and already the first volume, consisting of" 100 plates, is completed. It will be followed by at least three of equal size. On inspecting the plates in succession, one can- not fail to be struck by the peculiarities which they present. The most unj^ractised eye must in- stantly discover something in the aspect and atti- tudes of the birds, which he has never seen in art, and to obtain which recourse must be had to na- ture. The cause of this is to be found in the cir- cumstance of the author's having borrowed from living nature. Others draw not from birds but from dried skins. Their representations are as BtifT and distorted as it has pleased the bird-stuffer to make the originals. Mr. Audubon's method of representing birds is as follows. Finding in the woods, the jirairies, or the fields, a bird which he is desirous of figuring, he i"ollows it, steals upon it unperceived, as the Indian steals upon the White man in his encampment, observes its motions and attitudes, studies its j)eculiarities, and then shoots it. He restores it to its favorite or characteristic attitude, by a method Avhich, some j-ears ago, he exhibited to the Wernerian Natural History Socie- ty of Edinburgh, and while it j'et retains unim- paired the rapidly evanescent hues of its ej^es, bill and feet, he transfers its semb lance to his paper. The bin, the claws, the scales of the tarsi and toes, the feathers, and every other part of its exterior, are carefully measured, and the drawing becomes a fac-simile. Even this method, precise as it is beyond any other, will not necessarily lead to perfection. We know persons, who, although they are acquainted with it, blunder on as they have been wont to do, producing birds with three joints in their hind toes; legs, the origin of which is any where but in the right place; necks like a distaff enveloped in tow, and feathers formed of hogs' bristles. There must be an intimate know- ledge of the habits and peculiarities, of the whole family history of the different species, together with a proper acquaintance, not merely with the rules, but with the resouixes of art, before perfect representations of birds can be produced. As no mere naturalist can represent a bird, so can no mere painter; we have witnessed the attempts of both, and the results were wretched caricatures. He who woidd figure animals must be indeed a "painter-naturalist." Let any man conversant with birda lay before him any number of these plates selected at ran- nounce them true representations of nature. " The characteristics of the species are present, the forms and attitudes are copies, the occupations are dis- closed, the imagination of a poet has presided over the arrangement. From these j)lates, there is more to be learned by the student than he may at first imagine. Observing nature with the eye t f an enthusias- tic admirer, Mr. Audubon has traversed the dark forest of America, following the track of the dis- comfited and disconsolate Indian, has penetrated her cane-brakes and cypress-swamps, teeming with the loathsome and dangerous forms of reptile life, visited her ocean-lakes, wandered by the ver- dant margins of her magnificent rivers, and pad- dled his solitary canoe over the floods that have sjn'cad consternation and terror among the inhab- itants of the alluvial plains of her mictland regions. This, then, is the man, and not he who, seated in comfort by his table, fancies how things should be, from whom might be expected the completion of the descriptions of others who have pursued the same method. — Jamesoii's Journal. MONGRELS BETWEEN A DOG AND A SHE WOLF. Dr. A. F. Wiegmann, Jun. relates the fol- lowing circumstance as occurring at the Isle of Peacocks, near Potsdam. A setter dog copulated with a she wolf; and she aftenvards gave birth to three female pups, differing very nuich from each other. One, which die J, resembled a wolf more than the two others, particularly in the hair, hav- ing, on the anterior parts of the legs, the black line which characterizes that animal. The se- cond also resembled the mother, excepting in the position of the eyes, which was the same as in the dog. The third was, properly speaking, a setter dog, but imperfect in some respects; its cha- racter was gentle, whilst the others had a fero- cious appearance. The father was white, Avith brown spots; of the little ones, on the contrar\'y the first had the hair and color of the wolf] the second was white on the throat, cheeks, and oit the sides of the neck, and black on the back; and the third had a white band on the fore part of' the neck, and between the legs, the back of the same- color as the second, and the ears rounded, pendent, and of moderate length. The tail was not erect- ed in any of the three. — his. THE COLD "WEATHER IN MAY. From the Petersburg Intelligencer. The remarkable state of the weather during the past month is the subject of frequent notice in our exchange papers. The Philadelphia Gazette of the 29th ultimo, says: "The weather to-day, in this vicinity is exceedingly disagreeable — cold and unpleasant, with a smart gale from the north east. Overcoats and parlor fires are again in requisition." In Pittsburg, about the middle of the month, the mercury in Farenheit's thermometer fell to 25 de- grees, and the ground was frozen to a considerable depth. A paper published in Armstrong county, (Penn.) gives the following ficcount of a singular phenomenon which occurred in that section on the 13th IMay: "From the intense coldness of the atmosphere all the insects were frozen, so that nearly all kinds of small birds, that subssist on eruch fare, were pe- 80 FARMERS' REGISTER— MANURE— BUCKWHEAT, MILLET, &c. risked with huno;er and cold. We li;iAre been in- formed that sacks might have been filled with red and brown birds Iroui the banks of oar waters;in a short lime. Many flying into houses, of perch- ing themselves along sideot" persons seated out of doors. Others would alight upon the seats or row-locks of crafts when m the- river, instinctively seeking relief from the hand of humanity, and Avhen taken up m the hand would expire,' supposed to be overcome by the heat of the . hand. Our fi'osts have been so severe as to kill almost every kind of vegetation. It is said that the rye has suffered greatly — the gardens and.li'uit are destroy- . ed, excepting such roots or seeds as had not put forth their tender buds or seeds, and even the early wlieat has suffered materi<\I injury." The Keene (N. H^) Sentinel, states that the siiDW storm of the 15th May, was veiy severe in that vicinity, the. snow-dritls _:las in February. V/est of the mountains it was 'a foot deep on a-, level. The Rutland Herald sajs the storm raged with .fury troin'8 o'clock Wednesday evening -to Thursday atlenioon. The snow fell -12 inches. QUERIES OA" BUCKV>^I1EAT ^NI> atll.LET. For the Fanners' Register. Will some que of the many able correspondents of the Farmers' Register, iolbrrn H. through the medium of its ■ pages, whether buckwheat is as great an impoverisher of land as oats, and whether; if turned in, it becomes a good fertilizer? Wiiat soil is best adapted to its growth, and what quan- 1 ii;y is generally sown to the acre I Is millet made to any extent in any of the United States? Wliat soil suits it — is it an exhauster — and what is the price per bushel? Tiie object of these . enquiries, is to ascertain what cheap grain cf op is most suitable to sow. on poor light sandy land, in lower Virginia, on which clover will not grow, in consequence of the. suriimer droughts, and where the fields of this soil are so extensive that .the process of enrichirig them by manures, is too slow. ' • II. May 27 ih,lS34.. and spread immediately this woods Utter, or suffer it toTemain in iieaps until the winter or spring? I am inclined to think, land W(^d bo much im- pi'oved by being protected during the summer, previous to cultivating it, by a cover of leaves and mould from the WQuds, E. II. MANURE MAKING. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. King TVilliam, May 29ih, 1834. Having no marl I determined to make an expe-' riment in the way of manuring with leaves. Sic. from the woods. My force consists of a mule, a small boy and a woman. With these I get out from twenty to twenty-five loads a day, and ma- nure one acre per week, at the rate of one hundred loads per acre. I use hoes in scraping up the litter and take off something like an inch of the soil along whh the leaves. I also keep my stable yard well covered with leaves, say two feet thick; upon this, the manure from the stable is daily spread and the whole covered thinly with red clay every morning. The slops, soap-suds, &c. from the kitchen are carefully saved in barrels, provided for the purpose, and poured upon the heap. This mnnure, I intend carting out at the expiration of every three months, and then-commence another heap. Can you, or some of your experienced subscri- bers inform me whether it would be better to cart SHELIj^ ■ ON THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS OF THIBET. ■ At a meeting oC-the A&iatic Society of Calcutta, on 5lli May last, extracts from Mr. Gerard's let- ters, relative to the fossil shells collected by him in his late tour over the snowy mountains of the Thi- bet frontier, were read. The loftiest, altitude at which he picked up some .of them, was on the crest of a pass,' elevated 17,000 feet: and here also were fragments of rocks, 'bearing the impression.of shells, winch must laave been detached from the contiguous peaks rising far above the elevated level. Generally, however, the' rocks formed of these shells are at an altitude, of 16,000 ieet, a/iiZ one cliff 10 as a mile i-n perp&ndlcvlar height.above ,the nearest level. Mr. Gerard farther states, "Just before crossing the boundary of Ludak into Bus- salier, Iwas exceedingly gratified by the discove- ry of a bed of fossil oysters, cliuging to the rock as if they had been alive " In whatever point of view we are to consider the subject, it is sublime to think of .millions of organic remains lying at such an extraordinary altitude, and of vast cliffs of rocks formed out of them, frowning over the illimi- table and desolate waters, where the ocean once rolled. — jlsiutlc Res:ister. PACKING FRUIT TREES FOR EXPORTATION. As soon as the tree is taken out of the ground, the roots are dip])ed in a thick mixture of earth and water.' The roots are then tied in bundles, and dipped in all at once, and a mat is lapped over them"; to keep the earth round them together. They are afterwards placed in a box, and a piece of wood is fixed across the box, over the top part of the roots, to prevent them from moving, as the branches are not lapped up at all. Trees packed in this manner, have remained in the above con- dition four months; and, when unpacked, the roots were throwing out new fibres. This occurred last sifring; and, although the season was so unfavora- bR", Jhe trees made exceedingly fine strong shoots. The plan adopted by Messrs. Buel and Wilson, of the Albany nurserj^", in packing their fi'uit trees, is as foUoAvs: They dip the roots well in a mixture of earth and water; but instead of lapping the roots in a mat they lay them in the end of the box, and fill in between them •with ivet moss; so that the lid of the box presses against the moss and; thus prevents the roots from being shaken. IMMENSE QUANTITY OF FOSSIL BONES IN SIBERIA. M. Hcndestrom, who was a])pointed in 1808, by the Russian government to visit the coasts of the Icy Sea, from the Lena to the Colyma, states, that he has seen in the ice thousands of mam- moths, rhinoceroses, buffalos, and other fossil aui- mals.^your. de Geol. II. No. 7. FARMERS' REG'ISTE^R— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 81 INTERNAL I3IPIIOVE3IESTS OF KORTII CARO- LINA. Jla jiddress to the people of North Carolina. So much interest 1ms been expressed, tJirough the pre.ss and othervT^ise, in the proceedings of the convention which juet at the seat of government in November last,' tor the purj)ose of dchberating on tlie expediency ol' imj)rdvnng the transportation of the state,.that it is almost Unnecessary to call to your notice the fact that by a resolution of that body, tlieir president' was authorized to appoint a conninttee of ten to disseminate information on the subject of internal improvenwnt and to publish un address. The appointment of that connnittee has been made public, and in performance of the duty given in charge to .them by the convention, they respectfldly ask of their fellow-citizens their serious" consideration to a well meant attempt to brmg beiore them in a plain and unpretending manner the -causes of the admitted, depressed con- dition of the industry of the state, and of the reme- <1}', Jrom Avhich in the opinion of the convention (and of the committee) relief may be expected. As this subject is of vital concern to yourselves, and as it is inconceivable that the convention can have taken upon them the trouble and responsi- bility of devising and recommending a plan tor the improvement of our inland transport, from any other motive than the common good, it is hoped that no ajwlogy v.'ill be necessary for the demand now made on your time and attention. That .North Carolina, with an extensive territo- ry,-with a fine climate, with equal and just daws, with a numerous and intelligent and moral and in- dustrious people, has neit4ier the hiternal prosperity nor the political influence^ which would seem to be necessary results of these natural and social ad- vantages, none can deny. More than a century and a half has passed ft-way since the- settlement of this country by our ancestors, and what im- jjrovement has been made in the resources and wealth .of the state? We have, in the course oi' ev^ents, after, a long and bloody war, • with great glory to ourselves, etfected a separation from the parent country, and become a free and indepen- dent state, under a written constitution wliich se- cures to us civil and religious freedom. Since our independence as one of the United States, we have attained in an unparalleled short time .the' rank of a first rate power. 'SVc have little reason to expect a foreign war, and nothing to fear from it,, and we are secure in our property and persons by our written constitution, from any exaction- or op- pression under the laws, or under color of them, and in our. love of freedom and public spirit we liave, we trust, a sure vindication from anv at- tempt on our liberties in contempt'of the laws. li is surely a subject of honest." pride and of sober gratulation tiiat we are a free people, ami, beino* so, we ought to be what we surely are not, .a pros- perous people. Apart from our political institu- tions and our freedom under them, and of the rapid and. great increase of our population, in what do we diller iJrom our ancestors .'' AVe have the same noble domain, the. same benignant climate, but what have we done lor ourselves? What monu- ments in the useful or fine arts; what cities, what large towns, wiiat harbors, what canals, roads and Vol. II.— 10 biidges; what literary or humane institutions; whal hospitals, what public ■ libraries, what col- leges* or schools, what literary or scientific works have we to be proud of? 'Not only our foreign cornmerce, but our very coasting tmde is carried ■on in a great measure by vessels owniid and navi- gated by the citizens of our sister states. We have no mercantile marine beyond a few misera^ ble coasters, and a liiw keal and steam boats of inconsiderable buithen and value for Our inland. trade,and some of these are owned in a neighboring state. We have nothing that deserves the name of manufactures. No ]jrocesses for changing the value of the r8;w materials which are in use among us, except those cfa'cted either by manual labor, or by machinery of the simjdest and conmionest con- struction. Flouring and saw mills and a very lew paper mills, and maiihinesfbr sjdnning coarse cot- ton thread, constitute the totaJ of ourmanufacttiring establishments. Our agriculture, on which the whole of our labor has been expended, is fur,very lar' from being much distinguished for practical skill or science. The lands, foi- the lust thirty years only have been in some parts of the state, .well tilled; but no system of a rotation of crops- ot^ of manuring, by which the lands might be maintain- ed in their original fertility and"^ productiveness, has ever been attempted. .Far less lias it ever been thought of liiat they were capable of beuig rendered everj^ year more :productive. . Witla a total aibsence of conmierce, of manii- factures, and un.der a defective sj'stem of agricul- ture, is it surprising, that there should be little ac- cumulation of capital among us except in the. in- crease of our slaves. Our lands have had forced horn them a support of our white and colored pop- ulation, without any view to -an- increased con- sumption, and when they would no longer sup- port us;- our feltew-citizeiis, whh their children and slaves, without waiting lor the slow but certain ajjproach of poverty, have v/isely for themselres, and- Under present circumstances., fi^rtunately for us, sought ctMTi^jeteney or wealth in the fertile and wild lands of tlte west and south-west. It is con- fessedly the ,^reat and crying evil of the state', that our labor, (the Only source of wealth) is unj)ro- dUctive, and that there is a consequent want of capital for the pur[jcses of commerce, manufac- tures and agriculture. A most strikin": proof of * It will be imderstood by the publit in pressing on Lheir atteivtion the want of literary, institutions that the University of Nortli. Carolina is not forgotten by us. With all who love the state, \ve remember with plea- sure; and acknowledge witti pride the debt of gratitude due to the trustees, and especially to i\e professors of the University for the benefits they have conferred on the state. '.To their praise be it mentioned, that they liave manifested a devotedness v^-oi■thy of the g-cod cause in which they have been so lon^-e'.igiitred with so little profit to theiQ-oelves, and sp much to their fellow- citizens. They have; rot only with no sympathy from our public men, but against every discouragement, accomplishGd much good with little means. We ivfer with puia to the neglect of those, wlio by the constitution, are entrusted with the sacred duty of providing for public instruction, and only for the pur- pose of expressiiig the hope and belief, that ere long, tliey will e.^tend an elfectivo patronage to the tJniver- sit.y. They may then establish a just (we v.ould that it fiad been an early) claim to being the prcmoters of useful Icarninrr amon.ir us. 82 FARMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. '^ this is to be found in the history ol" our banks. For many years we have had ^3,200,000 of bank- ini' late years received a great deal of patronage from the general government, it is a town of not very high rank in point of ])opulation, and does not, we Delieve, abound in capital. A littld atten- tion to the history of the large commercial cities at home, and abroad, will show that they are the concomitants of a successful state of manuUictures and agriculture, or that they have been consequent on them. And that unless in a few instances, where they have enjoyed a carrying trade, or been connected with fisheries, they have never preceded, agriculture and manufactures. These causes are without doubt sutFicient lor the efiects ascribed to them, which ever ol' them be most ini))ortant. The want of a foreign trade and of manulactures, and the existence of an unskilllil husbandry are sutfi- cient to depress the industry of any people, and must continue to kec]) it dejjressed unless they can be removed or counterbalanced. Though ditlicult, it is by no means impossible to find a remedy for all these evils. During the centur}^ and a half we have been a political community, Ave have done something for ourselves under the weight of all inclinations and our habits have made us farmers, and will keep us so. It ie alike the result of ouf naturnl situation and the dictate of sound sense, that our whole energies should be directed to the subduing our wild lands to the dominion of the plough. When we have a. greater capil.il acquired trom a successful cultivation of our lands, than can be profitably re-invested in their improvement — when our ])o])u!alion begins to grow larger than can find room lor a gaintlil industry upon their' native fields, (if we are a prosperous community) our excess of capital and labor will be turned under individual enterprize towards mechanical employments and foreign trade for advantageous occupations But assuredly if any thing may be af- firmed as being beyond contradiction, in regard to our present condition or future prospects, it is, that we are, and must continue, for not less than a century, chiefly, if not exclusively an agricultural people. Nor let it be forgotten, that of all the em- ployments by which n)an earns a subsistence, oi* looks for profit, it is the most primitive, (and notvfitlistanding much misrepresentation to the contrary) among the most profitable and peculiarly favorable to health, to innocence and to Iiap])ines^ — to the culti\ation of the domestic and j)ublic virtues — to make us good men and disinterested patriots. All premature attempts to make us either forei(jn traders or mechanics, will not only certainly fiiil, these disadvantages, and we can, if we will but re- as we have neither acquired capital or natural fit- solve on an united and continued effort,triumph over them. We are not without the means of making a complete change in our agriculture, which as it is the natural occupation for our capital and indus- try should be our first and chief care. If we have the will, we have very certainly abundant ability to make this change. We have, as has already been said, an extensive territory, which though heretofore it has not afiforded much spare wealth, has supported a large population in comfort. Our lands, if not rich, are not so hopelessly sterile, but that by labor and capital judiciously applied, they may be made productive. If once we can improve our soil to an equality with that of our neighbours, we may counterbalance the advantage they have in the growing of cotton and other staples by les- sening the cost of our transport to market. If we can thus greatly increase the value and amount of our agricultural products, we will acquire a cajiital in lands and mone3', and at no very remote period be able to commence manufactures, for which we have great aptitude, especially in the mildness of our climate — the cheapness of provisions, and the •water power which is afforded by our rivers and their tributary streams. Our agriculture being freed from its embarrass- ments, we may even attempt, with a fair prospect of success, the improvement of our own ports and the commencement of a foreign commerce fiom them, or perhaps what will be more feasible and equally profitable, an active coasting trade. Our first step to improve the resources of the state — to increase our profits, and thereby to create or to enlarge our capital, must be made in bettering our agriculture. Our extent of territory, a large pro- portion of it yet covered with the native forests, invites to the cultivation of the soil. The pre- dilections of our people are for a farming life; their skill and capital, ever since the settlement of the country, have been turned to it; our interests, our ness for these occupations, but are not even desi- rable, as nothing is to be gained, either in point of wealth or happiness, by abandoning our present pursuits. Foreign trade, mechanical industry and the cultivation of the soil, as sources of national wealth, have each found at different periods, and in difierent countries, its advocates, who have eX tolled the favorite pursuit, at the expense of the other two; and on account of its supposed pre- eminence, have claimed from government, boun- ties for its encouragement or duties for hs protec- tion. We must not be understood so to advocate agriculture. All the^e three sources of wealth are looked upon by us as being in themselves on a perfect equality, fmd that one or the other, or all of them at once, are to be followed by any people according to the means they have, by nature or art, for a successful pursuit of them. We are of the number of those, who believe it best, that in- dividuals should be lefi by government to follow their own interests, and tliat in general, nothing more is necessary for the protection of industryj than equal laws and an economical public expen- diture. An exception is of necessity to be made to the doctrine of non-interference on the part of government, where there is some enterprize for the public welfiu'e of such magnitude^ that it re- quires the wealth and credit of the state to carry i( into effect, or some obstacle ol" such tlifficulty, tlint it is obviously not within the power of individual capital, or that of private association to remove it- Such, we think, is the case with us at present. We believe that nothing less than the wealth and credit of the whole state, nt the disposal of the people themselves, through the general assembly, can so improve our inland transport throughout our whole limits, as to place our industry on a level with our competitors hi frthcr states. It has been the })ractice of all wise rulers, fa make works of national inji)oitaiice, at the coiB- 84 FARxMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. mon expense; Fortifications, navies, ports and public Avays and many other things, in their nature ot" general interest, have ever been supposed to be within the proper care of the ij'overnnient. Even our imperlect system for miildng and repairing roads, has been, and now is, strictly' of public con- cern. Our highways have been for their more convenient administration , considered as part of the county police, and placed under the care of th-e county courts; but thus, under the direction of pub- lic functionaries, tliey are as much subjects of sovereign care, as if they were directly controlled by the general assemblj'-. We will now inquiie, how far our industry would be benefited by the adopiion of a system of internal improvement; for it is by no means as- sumed by us, that national wealth will follow, under all circumstances, li-omthemakingof canals or rail roads. Gain or loss will flow from an ex- penditure of labor on these works, as in all other cases; as the works themselves may be- needed or not, and may be well or ill planned and executed. Nor do the public, as has been sometimes errone- ously imagined, venture upon a public xvork on other terms than an individual docs on a private one.. It has been thouglit by some, that as the citizen is paid for his labor and materials on the public Avork, that even if the work docs not repay, that there has been only a transfer of capital from the government to the citizen, and no loss. But this is a very manifest error. There is an absolute loss of labor and materials to just the amount that is not re-paid; for the labor and materials might have been applied to a work that AvoUld have re- imbursed them by itsprofils, with interest; and the public having paid for them and misapplied them, has lost tliem. It is not otherwise, with an indi- vidual. If' he has work done, he pays for the labor and materials, and he who does the labor and sells the materials, being paid,- is no loser. So, if the proprietor has in the work something that Avill repay his expenditure with a reasonable profit, he is sajfe; but otherwise, if he has not, he has incur- red an absolute loss. It is impossible, from the wantdf sfatistical.in- formation, to make any estimate of the amount paid by ihe citizens of North Carolina, or of any particular district in the state, in money or Iabx)r, for inland tr?ms|)ort; and therefore, it cannot be shown what will be the saving effected by any railroad or canal that has been proposed. Nor can it be conjectured, what will be the increase of production from such road or canal. This impor- tant information can only be obtaine^l from surveys and reports made under legislative enactment, and at the public expense. Rut, in the absence of such useful knowledge, actually denied us by Qur last assembly, Ave are not Avithout facts, both as.to the effect of improved Avays in other cotmtries and in.this, to shoAV that we may expect the greatest advantages fi-om the improvement of our means of transport. We knoAV that almost the Avhole of our produce from the middle and Avestern counties is carried by Avagons from the farms on Avliich it is groAvh, to some toAvn in this state, or more gene- rally in another state, accessible to ri\'er boats or sea A^essels — that it is >sold there or delivered to a commission merchant, to be sent to a more favora- ble market. This carriagt^ over land is exceed- ingly expensive, because only very light Aveight can be draAvn at a very sIoav pace over our ill-made roads. The cost of the wagons and teams eni- ployed in transportation in ourAvestern and middle counties is not a liglit sum, but it is a mere trifle to Avhat is expended in the support of the horses- and the hire and support of tlie men employed on our mland carriage. If an estimate could be made of expenses, AA^e do not hesitate to believe, that the saving Avhich might be effected in it for a feAv yea-rs, on an improved system of public AvaA's, Avould be sufficient .to make all. the rail Eoads that have been projectedi Our Easterii people arc better off; they have very generally Avater carnage, and yet it has been shoAvn by calculation, that the indus.;ry efa fcAv eastern counties is taxed, annu- ally,, to- the large sum of $335,00,0, in delays •and in overcoming by lighterage, &Ci a single obstruc- tion. In speculatuig on the expediency of im- proving our country by making land and Avater carriage, quick and easy, it has been usual to make a comparison betAveen this state and Ncav York, since the cuttmg of her grand canal, and betAveen this state and England, in the present ' highly improA^ed- and improving condition of her high Avays by land and Avater. The great wealth derived by Ncav York and England from improve- ments by- roads and canals, is A^ery encouraging to us, Avho Avish to enter upon similar enterprizes. But our physical and social condition, and tbatof Ncav York and England, are so dissimilar, that any reasoning derived from theii' example has only a genertd ap])lication to u.s» EA^ery one knoAvs, Avhat an immense and rapid increase of wealth has been the result of the-gteat canal in NeAV York and Ave need not dAvell on it. There-are fact's con- nected Avith the improA'ement of the roads and canals in Englaiid, not so generally knoAvn, that hold out to us the most aniniating encouragement. It may not be knoAvn, that in England, &11 roads were repaired by contribution in labor to the reign of Charles II. (1650) and that not until 1767,.(:just sixty-seA-en years ago,) AA'as the system of improA'- ingthe great roads in that kingdom, by tolls taken for carriage and travelling on them, made general. It is more remarkable, that as late as in the yenr 176.?, there Avas but one coach running. betAA^een Edinburgh and London; it set out once a month and Avas from tAvclveto fourteen days oii the jour- ney. • ki 1825, there AA-ere six or seveir daily coaches, and they take forty hours between the Iavo cities — distance 400 niiles. All the provinces are noAv traversed by stagecoaches, an turnpike roads, aA'eraging a speed of ten miles per hour. In 17.55, the first act jmssed in I^ngland for a public canal, and in 1759, the Duke of BridgCAA^ater obtained his first act; and the complete success of his canal led to the general adoption of canals in England. NoAv the Avhole kingdom is intei'sected by canals for trade and passage, the details of Avhich AA'ould be foreign to this address; and since the inA'.ention or rather the perfecting of raihvays and the appli- cation of steam power to the attraction of loaded carriages on them, they are eA'ery where erected and erecting, and passengers are carried on them at a speed of from twenty to thirty miles, and mer- chandize at an a-A'emge of -fifteen miles per hour. VVonderfid and interesting as these facts are, they are equalled, by Avhat has been brought to pass in our oAvn country, and ev^en in our oAvh state. The fact, tJiat our post office system began in 1764, has not, perhaps, attracted the attention it deserves. In that year, a sum of £l'63 6s. was FARMERS^ REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 85 allowed by our general assembly to the [wstmaster general of the. provinces, for establishing a mail, tor -t-vvelve months, from Sutlbllc to the southern boundary ol' this province; probablj", the only mail then within our limits. In 1765, the following year, a committee of the assonibly was raised to contract with the postmaster general tor a mail Irom Siifiblk to S. Carolina. As latQ asthe'year 1804 or 1805, the mail was transported irom "Petersburg to the South, in a sulky or gig, twice a Aveek. Now, daily post coaches ply between Petersburg and Raleigh tor the. conveyance. of letters and passen- gers, and a rail road extends part of" the route from Petersburg to the Roanoke river, on. which there is a transit at an average speed of filleen miles per hour. And inclusive of the route through Raleigh there are no less than six lines of ])ost coaches crossing the state from north to south' three times a week, two to theeastAvardof Raleigh, and three to the westward. Besides, there are several Imes ol'i)o^^ioaches running west and east from Raleigh, and oiie running from the head of the Petersburg railway west; and there are lateral lines connected with these great routes. By the northern lines, the passengers reach Washington City in three days, Philadelphia in tour, and New York in less than five days from Raleicjh. It must be, that a system of conveyance which has sprung into such consequence as a public convenience, and on which such an amount of capital has found profit- able investment in the short space of thirty years, demands that it should be further improved by adopting the best roads and machines for locomo- tion which the genius of man has de\ise.d. If in this short period, we have passed from the humble conveyance of a gigon a single road, bringing a few antiquated letters at a rate, (stoppages includ- ed) perhaps not averaging a mile an hour, to havino; every considerable town in our state, visit- ed dail}', or at most in every two or three days, by four horse coaches,loadedwith persons and intelli- gence ti-esh from every quarter of the globe, we may, nay must, (we should say) venture upon an expense necessary to construct rail roads travelled by steam power, which would not only cany us and bring our letters and periodical literature at a s))eed of from 240 to 360 miles in the twenty-four hours, but would transport hundreds of tons of our products and of our imports in foreign necessaries and luxuries at the same rate, with perfect safety and with the most definite certainly as to time. Such an amount of stage coach travelling conduct- ed into the state, on one or more railways from and to proper points, on our northern and southern and eastern and western boundaries, would surely pay tinning it along the same travelling route to llie south, fiTom whence. the Petersburg railway has received its principal traveUing patronage. That the Petersburg railway receives from the carriage of passengers profits larger in amount, and at a higher rate, than fi-om produce, is not an anomal- ous fact and confined to that road, but it is in coincidence with tlic experience on other similar works. Such was the result, contrary to expecta- tion, on the great railway 1)etween Manchester aad Liverpool, as it is also on that between Phila- delphia and New York. In laying down railwajs with us, this law of their profits should not l^e lost sight of! The routes should always be chosen Avith a view to the transit of passengers, that from them, excessive profits being made, as light a toll as ])ossible may be taken tor the carriage of jn-o- duce and merchandize. For it is our great desid- eratimi, in the pursuit of wealth, that our agricul- tural products sliould not only be relieved from the enhancement of their value to us, by reason of the greater cost of their transportation, but that as to some of them, our scantiness of crop from an un- favorable soil and climate should be countervailed by a cheaper and quicker carriage to market. The plan devised by the general convention does not admit in our view of any improvement in its outline. Its details might be changed so as to obviate objections that have been made to them. According to this plan two routes of transport fi'om north to south, are proposed, the first partly by canals and partly by railway across the eastern part of the state, and the other passing through the centre of the state. These lines are to be in- . tersected by a railway, from the head of the west- ern waters, in this state, to tide water. The calcu- lations for the cost of these improvements made vuider the sanction of the convention are doubtless correct, and can be shown to be so if any are hardy enough. to impeach them. The sums to be raised lor the purpose woi'e also shown by the convention to be entirely within our means, nay to be a very light undertaking tor the state. It only remains on tiiis part of the subject to say, that the experiment may be made at very incon- siderable risk. Let a raihvay be extended to Fay- etteville, or to our southern boundary from the head of the Petersburg railway, and let it also be connect- ed with the Noriblk raihvay, so as to embrace the transportation of the LTnited States mail and all the IraveUing on the centre routes of post coaches and such part of that on the routes east and west of. the centre as Avill be invited to it Irom its .superior accommodatians, safety and speed. Let it also be understood, if this road succeed, that a general tolls on passengers and letters and papers at so plan of inland transport is to be gradually but high a rate that our exports and imports might be speedily adopted, equal to the wants of the whole carried at a proportionably low rate. They might thus be relieved from the enormous tax with which, according to the present mode of carriage they are burthened. On this part of the subjecr, it is per- tinent to remark, that our internal improvement convention had information before them on which they could implicitly rely, that the stock of the Petersburg railway was profitable, and that of its daily or weekly profits, the laro;er share was re- ceived fr-om the transport of passengers. The importance of this fact to our en(|uiry cannot be overrated: for v.'c have the power to extend Ibis very rail road through a country as rich as that between Petersburg and the Roanoke, and of con- tate so as to allay local jealousies. A railway in connexion -with those from Petersburg and Norfolk will witliout doubt, not only repay itself, but will afford a large surplus to be expended on other im- provements. When these roads from Petersburg and Norfolk, to the Roanoke, are extcn.ded to Fay- etteville, from tlie success or failure of the experi- ment, every man will be able to see and judge in what degree tlie state is" capable ot" a system of improved transport. If this first attempt be suc- cessful, the general plan may be gradually exe- cuted in the same cautious method, hy successive- Iv completing such portions of the general plan or of the particular works, asprom.ise to be most pro^ 66 FARMERS' REGISTER— INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. fitable. Nor do wo whose interests are in conmaon with yours, wish to make any ])Tiblic work that will nut pay lor ileelf with interest. It is in our opinion, no bad test of the utility of a work that its tolls will re]:)lace the expenditure made on it, with interest. It is certainly advisable that the tolls should never be raised much beyond what is neces- sary tor this purpose, as they will be (if too liifrh) jand inconvenient and probably a very unequal tax on the industry of the citizen. If any work be a useful one, besides the profits from the tolls, there will be accordinii; to all experience a f>;reat increase «f the wealth of the state, by the enhanced value that will be le of committing ravages upon mankind that I had represented to them. One of the sceptical of the faculty, on bemg requested to analyze the arti- cle, and report on the subject, : took a few of his iic(}uaintance8 some distance into the countiy, to dine at his father's farrn, where an opportunity of- fered to pi'ove -whether the ergot was injurious or not; lor a large quantity of it that had been sepa- rated from the rye was given to the pigs; and from its iiutii effects (aw it caused. their death the next day) the father became a convert to th-e- opinion. A number of iti1s, cats, and dogs, also fell sacrifices io its elTect!?, before the sceptical were convinced, i — iriiildaw on ihfi Causes of L\Jlar,miat'wn, Sfc. Ct LTIVATION OF LOW GIlOUNnS, To tl;p ■K;:iioi- of the Farmers' Register. I fed it a duty incumbent on me (as eveiy pcr- grounds would not answer to prepare for that crop; I should have too many water furrows — so many indeed as to occupy one-fourth of the surface. Afler a little consideration i concluded- to tlirow two beds together, making them twelve leet wide. I sowed my wheat on the. twelve feet beds, drag- ged-it in v/ith a large iron tooth drag, had the wa- ter furrows well opened, and cross flirrows, or grips, opened across the beds wherever there was a low place, that the water iiirrows could not drain; but having to make the middle ol the beds in the old turrowSj it caused the beds to be too low in tiie middle, and to hold water,: and consequently in- jured the wheat so much, that I made a short crop. . Now comes my second year, I now intend giving you my whole process of cultivation. Af- ter having the kmd well ditched and grubbed as before, I lldlow^ my land in the fall, or winter, with large turning ploughs, into twelve feet beds, and reliallow just before I commence planting corn, if I have time; if not, I run a large iron tooth drag over tlic beds, which kills mo.st of the young grass. I now open the rows with trowel hoe ])loughs, two rows on a bed. It will be well enough to mention here, that I cominence planting my low grounds about a ibrmight after having finiehed my high land, 'so as to give me an opportunity of working .over my highland before my low ground becomes very grassy. As soon as I finish working over my high land, "I commence in the low ground with small turning ])longhs, and itui one furrow on each side of the corn, tJirowing the earth from it; if the land is very grassy, I run (wo furrows on each side, making four furrows to the row. I now follow on alter the j)loughs with the hoes, and \veed the corji nicely, not putting any earth to it, unless it is likely to. fall down. In about five or Bon that -vvishes to see agriculture flourish ought,) to contribute my mite, be it ever so small, towards sustaining a worlc ,so valuable as the Farmers' Re- 1 six days ailer v.'eeding, I plough my corn again' gisier, which I have not the least hesitation in paying, in mj- humble Q]^,inion, is one of the most valuable publications that has ever been offered to the public, at least to the- farming oommunity, It is a work that should be in the possession of every farmer who can aflbrd to expend five dollars per annum, towards purchasing an agricultural paper. I have read the Farmers' Register regularly, and can sav, that I have acquired much valuable and useflil informatiGU therefrom. Under these con- siderations, I have concluded to give you, in my lame and imperfect manner, my experience in cul- tivating lo^v grounds, which probably may be of advantage to some of your subscribers, who have had sfili less, experience than I have. When I commenced farmii^, ailer having the land well ditched and grubbed, I had my low grounds thrown into six feet b-^tls, in the tidi, with large turning (or mould-board) ploughs; in the spring just be- fore I commenced planting corn I had the beds re- versed, wliich put the land in very good order for plantiiio;. The rows were then opened on the nuddle of the beds, -with common trowel hoe ploughs, and the corn .was planted with the hills Hbout two feet apart. My memory does not serve me well enough to statepvecisely, in what manner the land was cultivated, but I recollect I made a very good crop of corn. It was remarked by two of my oldest and most respectable neiixhhors, that it was the best corn they liad eecn grow on that l.ip.d i-M- several yeai's. But when I came to sow wheat, I li'.und that ihat plan of cultivating low with trowel hoe ploughs, -vvith small boards nailed to the side of the helve of the hoe, to throAV a lit- tle earth among the com, to cover theyoung grass, if there should be any. The third ploughuig is doiie with small turning ploughs, throwing the earth to Ihe corn, so as to strengthen and fortify ii against the winds and overfloAvings of the swamp. I plough very deep when finishing the furrow rows, so as to obtain deep water furrows, to carry ofl' the water as quick as possible, in case of an overflow; in the mean time taking care to plough very shallow when finishing the rows on the mid- dle of the beds, to avoid making deep furrows, as I shall have to make the middle of the beds, when I fallow for wheat, in those furrows, which if they were deep, would cause the wheat beds to be low in the middle, and hold w^ater, as I have before stated. The fourth and last ploughing is done precisely in the same manner as the third, and tbllov/ed with the hoe hands to cut down the weeds and adjust the earth around the corn. As soon as the corn is ripe enough to be taken ofl" of the land, I commence fallowing the land for wheat, with large turni no: ploughs, into Iweh^e leet beds, making the middle of the bed in the shallow furrows, by which means the middle of them are higher than any oilier part; I now sow my wheat, about one bushel to the acre, and drag it in with a kirge iron tooth drag. After dragfring I have all the water furrows well opened Avith large turning plouo-hs, and at the ends where they empf}" into a ditch or tlic main stream. I hav^ FARMERS' REGISTER— DISEASES OF SHEliP AND COWS. 89 tlieni opened with hoes or spades; and if there should be any low places in the land, I have cross ruiTows or grips cut across the beds, as before mentioned, ta the lowest point, by which means such j)laces are kept perlectly dry. I have pur- sued the last mentioned plan oi' culfiv^aiing low grouiid tor three 3'ears, and ha\c succeeded very Avell with botli^corn and wheat in every instance. In conclusion, I beg you to accept of my mogt cordial and sincere wishes, for the success of the noble ami valuable work, which \T)U have the honor of being editor. adolksckns. Prince George. DISKASES OP SHEEP AND COWS. For tlie Farmers' EcgistCr. Essex county, May 24th, 1834. Sheep and cattle like the human family, are suljject to a variety of diseases: but it is not my intention to notice more than one or two. There is a disease to which sheep are subject, that is probably more destructive to them than is general- ly supposed — that of the worm in the head. I liavc not unlrequently had sheep that were fat, that looked heakhy and well, to sicken ant! die in the course of a liiw days; and under the impres- sion that they had eaten something poisonous, such things were given them as arc genei'ally recommemled in books lor poison, but with no ad- vantage. Having purchased some Bakewell and Southdown sheep at from ^20 to $20 each, has probably induced me to pay ratlier more attention to my sheep than otherwise I should. One very cold day, winter before last,- 1 saw a half Bake- weil e\ve-i?t adding in tlie snliw about fifty yards from a shelter that had been erected tor my' sheep, and under which they hSd usually slept. Her head was down, and occasionally she moverl a little. Supposing that she had a young landj, I Avalked that course with a view of having the lamb moved to the shelter; but as I ajiproached her, she did not appear to observe me. I took hold of her and she appeared too stupid to notice it. iler head was inclined a little to one side, her eyes glared and appeared almost fixed in their or- bits. She was found too stupid to be driven to the l(_)ld, and had to be carried. She lived several days; at first she had slight spasms, and ibamed a little at the mouth, but alter a day or two, she was more strongly convulsed, and would tall down, but would again get up. Supposing her head to be the seat of the disease, after her death it was dissected, and a worm was found in one of the nostrils, a little belov/ the eye, about an inch in length and a quarter of an inch in thickness. Supposing that one alone had killed her, very little examination fi^n-ther was' made. In January last, two sheep on the same morning appeared to be sick, one a ewe of the common breed, in fine or- der, the other a half Bakew-ell ewe, and lat. The common ewe held her head as high or higher than usual, with it a little inclined to one side, the eyes resembled those of the one already described: on ap))roaching her, she aj)pearcd a little stupid, would sutler me to api)ix.ach very near, and then suddenly tlart ofi' as if she had just perceived me. The other held her head rather lower than usual, and surtered me to approach her rather nearer than tlie other, and appeared more stupid and sick, with po glaring of the eyes. Next day both of them were evidently worse, and the common ewe dis- posed to hang her head; and on the third day she laid down to get up no more. The glare of the eyes continued, the pu])il became enlarged, spasms came on, and a little loam was observed about the mouth. The spasm Avas first observed to throw the left ear in motion, then the left eye lid, quickly after which it appeared all over the tace, head, and neck, but as she was lying down the force of the spasm upon the body, could not be seen as upon the one the winter before. The morning she died, I was about leaving home when I was informed she was dead; but I requested her head to be ex- amined to see if any worm could be found. On my return a worm was brought me, about the size of the one already descrdaed, and it was stated it was taken out of the head between the ejes. I think it not improbable there might have been many more. The half Bakewell appeared more stupid and sick eveiy day, and held her head low- er aud lower, until her nose almost rested on the ground as she stood up. I saw her but a few times after the death of the other, but I think to- wards the last, the symptoms were very much like the other two. About a day and a half afier the death of the. other, I Avas informed the half BakeAvell Avas d3-ing. As night Avas fast coming on, and the Aveather Avas extremely cold, it Avas thought best to haA-e the sheep killed and skinned AA'hile Avarm, after Avhich the hotly was examined, but nothing found amiss. It AA^as getting too dark to dissect the head, and that Avas laid by for morn- ing. In dissecting, it was found filled Avith blood, haA'ing been knocked on the head Avith an axe to kill it. Under this disadvantage it AA'as dissected, and from the head was taken nineteen Avorms. Some AA^ere found high up the nostrils, some in the dilierent cavities of the head, and one large one AA^as found lying on the thin membrane that euA-elopes the brain; they Avere of all lengths,, from a quarter of an inch to an inch. They Avere placed upon a piece of paper, and none appeared to be alive: but aftcrAvards, Avhile looking at them by the fire, many Avcre found to move. It appears strange that so many should have been found in the head of one sheep, and that one quite fat. Wheth'er it Avas their particular location, or like the grubs in the horse, they remain for a time peaceable and ilioffensiA^e, and then suddenly de- stroy fife, I must leave for the reflection of others. Tlie Avorm is supposed to be the produce of a fly which deposites its eggs a little Avithin the margin of the nose, to avoid Avhich is the cause Avhy sheep gather together, and turn their noses iuAvards. Daubing the nose often Avith tar or train oil is said to be a preventive. About a table spoonful of a decoction of Scotch snuff injected up each nostril Avith a syringe, tiu'ce or four times from the 1st of October to the 1st of January, is said to be a good remedy, but is apt to make the sheep very drunk for a short time. ■ I cannot say I haA-e much con- fidence in either the preA-entive or remedy proving effectual, I Avill noAv notice one disease to AA'hich the cow is subject, that of an inflammation of the udder. I haA-e fre(iuently heard it stated, that it is pro- duced from the snake sucking the coav. The snake is supposed to be fond of milk, but as to any tamiliarity between the snake and the coa;v, I have ncA-er belieA"ed in it. The snake is more like Ish- niael of old, Avhosc hand Avas "against eA^ery man. 90 FARMERS' REGISTER— COTTON SEED OIL. and every man's hand against him." This dis- ease is not very uncommon to cows. A few years past one of the finest cows upon my iarm (a half Durham) became diseased in one quarter of her udder, and not knowing at that time the cause or remedy, that quarter gradually perished away, and has never since produced milk. To show the cause, the symptoms, and cure of this disease, I will make an extract from a treatise on stock, which was published in England, by J. B. Law- rence, and which has recently been republished in this country. ^'Downfall, udder-ill, inflammation of the \iMcr, ^c. — From what we hav^e said of the digestive pro- cess of the cow, and the intimate connection be- tween the Iburth stomach and the udder, the reader will be at no loss to understand that when that is out of order, the udder, and consequently the quality and quantity of the milk, must be ma- terially affected. These, or rather this complaint, for they are all one, or ditlerent stages of the same disease, of which the predisposing cause was bad feeding, and the exciting cause, a cold or in- flammation of the udder, is essential to be taken in time, and of the utmost consequence to the owners of young cattle, which are very liable to its attack, especially at the time of calving." ^^ Cause. — This disease may not only proceed from the above causes, but may also be induced by the animal drinking freely of cold water, when heated by exercise, or by cold exposure and lying down in cold and damp grass at the latter end of the year, Avhen the nights are cold and foggy, and at a time when the stomach is loaded witli food, and the blood plentiful." ^^ Symptoms. — One or more quarters of the udder becoroes swollen, hardened, hotter than common, find painflil when pressed; the milk is reduced in quantity,, and changed to a ragged, or bloody, or corrupt appearance. At other times, the secretion of milk is stopped, and the tumefied quarter pro- .ceeds to a state of suppuration." " Cure. — As soon as the disease is discovered, remove the animal from the pasture, and take from her from three to five quarts of blood; espe- cially if the cow be in good condition, and breathes quickly, and appears stupid." ■"If the weather be damp and cold, keep her under shelter, and feed her moderately with nourishing food; but if the weather be fine, turn her into a bare pasture, where she will be obliged to exert herself for her food. The swollen udder, or rather that part of it which is aflected (for there is seldom more than one part or quarter affected at a time) should have the bad milk drawn from it three or four times a day; for if sufiered to remain in it, it will irritate and increase the inflammation. Bathe it also after milking with olive oil, or elder ointment." The same writer recommends medicine to be given internally. His doses are compounds, and the ingredients are not generally kept by farmers, but as epsom salts enter largely into some of them, I imagine they would answer alone. My own impression is, that the best care would be, to let the calf run with the mother during the continu- ance of the inflammation, provided, it would suck all the teats. Extract from the same writer. " Sore teats. — Some cows are very subject to sore teats, particularly such as have newly calved; if this be the case in summer, they often become ulcerated, and the flies j)lague them to a dem-ee which renders them extremely difficult to milk: it is also a great nuisance at the time of milking, as blood and corrupt matter are apt to pass between the fingers into the milk. The following liniment is very useful for anointing sore teats, and should always be kept in readiness for use: Ointment of elder four ounces, yellow basilicon ointment four ounces, spirits of turpentine one ounce, mix and well incorporate them together on a slab, and it is fit for use. With this ointment you may weU rub the cows teats every night and morning after milking, if in the summer assafoetida or aloes in powder, and dissolve it along with the ointment. This wiU prevent the flies from teasing the animal. If the teats be tender only, and not sore, a little gentle rubbing with weak salt and water Avill in general be sufficient." Finding it inconvenient to prepare the ointment exactly as directed in the foregoing receij)t, a hancflul of the inner bark of the elder was taken and simmered in hogs lard. Six ounces of the elder ointment was then taken and while it was warm, one ounce of bees wax and one ounce of turpentine were added, and melted together. After being stirred awhile, the turpentine mostly sunk to the bottom and was thrown out: one ounce of spirits of turpentine was then added, and the whole stirred as long as it was in a liquid state. After the ointment was made, a little boy that had fallen to sleep in the room was waked up to go to bed, he was found unable to walk without assis- tance, in consequence of his feet being so much chopped and inflamed; they were rubbexl with the ointment, and by the morning there was no ap- pearance of inflammation, and the skin was soft and supple and they soon got well. Though this ointment is not prepared in the way directed, the same ingredients are used and almost exactly in the same proportions. It is an excellent ointment for man or beast, and should be kept in every family. edmund f. noel. COTTOIV SEED OIL. From the Petersburg Intelligencer. Our enterprising fellow-citizen, Jabez Smith, Esq. has succeeded in bringing to perfection the manufacture of cotton seed oil for the use of lamps. After a fair trial, we have given it the preference over any sperm oil we have seen for many years. It burns Avith a beautiful and clear light, without smoke and entirely free from any offensive smefl. We congratulate tlie southern countrj^ on the succesefiil eflbrt which has thus been made to give increased value to one of its staple products. The time is not far distant, when the oil from cotton seed, entering as it will into competition with sperm and linseed oil in the various uses to which they are applied, will become an important item in the exports of the southern and south-western states. When the experiment was first made, to burn this oil in lamps, an opinion was entertained by some, that the glutinous matter could never be sufficiently extracted to answer so desirable a purpose. The recent improvements of Mr. Smith have removed every doubt upon that subject; and he now offers to the public an oil, which is unsurpassed by any other article of that description. FARMERS' REGISTER— CUTTING CORN STALKS. 91 CUTTING CORN STALKS. From the Northern Farmer. Amonir the most irrational practices in aofricul- tiinil |)ursiiits, is that of cutting the stalks, or "topping the com," as it is otlen called, het()re the ears of corn are fully ripe. It is dilllcuh to count i'or the origin of the practice. It never was adopt- ed in England, for maize or Indian corn never was cultivated in that countiy. It is possible that in the early settlement of tiiis countiy, some be- gan to cut the green stalks to feed cattle, and the injury to the corn not being perceptible, the prac- tice, by degrees became extensive. At the present .day, farmers consider it as a mark of bad husband- ry, Avhen the corn fields are not top]ied early, or in good season. But regardless of such prejudices I have not topped my corn for several years; and I furthermore say, that I will never consent to have my corn stalks cut, until the corn has come to maturity, or is ready to harvest. I do not know of even a single beneficial purpose, which can be gained by adopting the common practice; and verily believe that, at no distant day, tanners, Generally, Avill condemn the present practice, and feel surprised at the stupid folly which formerly .countenanced it. In February 1832, 1 published a few remarks on this important subject, in the New England Far- mer. Other agriculturists had devoted some at- tention to it. Since that time, some fiiir experi- ments have been made, proving conclusively that the present practice is attended with an unneces- sary loss of labor, and a veiy great injury to the corn crops. We advert to the experiment of Wm. Clark, jr. of Northampton, stated in the Northern Farmer of July 7, 1832, by which it appears that the average loss, by cutting the stalks, exceeds twelve bushels per acre; and also that the corn weighs less by one pound per bushel. We wll add that the corn by shrivelling and shrinking, in consequence of mutilating the stalk, will be less. valuable in respect to its flavor. The agriculturi.st .should study the operations of nature. He will find these unerring and right. Science enlarges our conceptions and exalts our admiration of the works of the Creator, and pro- claims, at every step, as we advance our research- es into the vegetable as well as the animal king- doms, that "in wisdom He hath formed" the whole. The organic structure of every plant or vegetable is perfi^ct. The beautiful foliage of trees, and the broad blades or leaves of the com are as necessary to their growth and existence as are the lungs to the human body. The green leaves emit oxygen, or the \'ital part of the air, and absorb that part, which is injurious to the human health, on respi- ration. If we attentively examine each part of the growing corn, we discover that each part per- forms its natural function, all tending to advance the ear to maturity. The farina, which falls fVom the top at the appointed season in copious efl'usion upon the green silk or tassels, impregnates each kernel of the ear through the medium of the silk, one thread of which is attached to each kernel. But the stalk .above, as well as below the ears contains a sai^charine juice, which gently oozes into the cob, and from the cob into the kernel, and this operation does not cea.se until the kernel is fully ripe. It is not ripe until its inner part be- come.? rather hard, or Ja "out of the milk," as farmers say. The corn plant derives nutriment from the at- mospheric air as well as the soil. By depriving it of its top and a portion of its blades, we cut on' one source at least of its natural aliment. Such an unnatural practice arrests the natural circula- tion of the sap, whicli flows through the stalk. Some farmers may, perhaps believe, that by so doing, they can turn or force the juices into the ear in a mode more wisely than that already pro- vided by the Author of nature! It surely cannot require any great developement of the principles which govern vegetation, to con- vince the enlightened, that the common practice of catting off the corn stalks near the middle, while the coin is in the milk, and while nature is making her efforts to bring it to maturity, must necessarily be attended with the injurious consequences, which fair experiments have clearly demonstrated. But is the corn plant the only vegetable which will flourish better under the operation of the dis- secting knife? Try it upon the green potato vine, immediately after the potato has attained its full size. Strip the foliage from fruit trees, so soon as the fruit is fully grown. Try the experiment from a great variety of vegetables. The effect would not be doubtful. Let the farmer enquire, why the com plant should stand in the field as a solitary exception to other vegetables? Some fanners think that topping the com expe- dites its ripening, and gives a greater quantity of fodder for cattle. But it is fully ascertained that it will ripen sooner without cutting the stalks; and the tops and spreading blades furnish a partial protection against early frosts. This is admitted by some intelligent farmers, who still approve of "topping." But it seems to us, that this admis- sion in accordance with the fact, tends to support the poshion we have advanced. The stalks, if cut green and dried, containing the saccharine juice provided by nature for the ear, may be sweeter; but would they not weigh more, had they been cut afler the corn is fit for harvest- ing. But it is certain, that the whole stalks cut up at once, near the gi'ound, after the corn is fit to gather, will afford a greater quantity of fodder, the under stalks being much heavier than the tops. The "butts" are generally left and wasted in the field. Any portion of these, which the cattle will not eat, ought to be converted into manure. If the cattle have a keener appetite for stalks cut when green, we know that they also very greedily con- sume those cut at harvest time. If topping thd not injure the com, there cannot, therefore, be any gain by pursuing the present practice. But this practice is attended by useless labor. Some have recommended to cut up the com, when ripe, close to the ground, tie it in small bun- dles, and set it up in small stacl^s by the side of the corn field to dry, and afterwards to convey it to the barn to husk. But we think that in favora- ble seasons, when the standing corn is well dried, or fit for harvesting, it may be more judicious to cut up the corn close to the gi-ound, convey a few loads daily to the barn, spread it well upon the floor, husk it immediately, and put it into a gra- nary made for the purpose, standing on posts about three feet from the ground, properly ventilated. For several years this has been our practice. 92 FARMERS' REGISTER— FODDER GATHERING IN VIRGINIA. Another practice, among farmers, is very cen-| surable. They often pile up their corn in the barn in hirgo heaps in order to have what. are called "husldngs.'" In these heaps there arc often green materials, green stalks, green ears, and foul mat- ter, which after laying a short time, produce a state of termentation, the whole hea]) becomes warm, and tainted with the noxious gases or efflu- via which penetrate every |)art The corn is finally husked, and often placed in rooms not well ventilated. The corn may be sound and look' finely — the bread palatable, ]xn-haps .called good. But the question, whether it might not have been rendered far better and sweeter with pro])er ma- nagement, seldom, perhaps, enters the farmer's mind. w. claggett. Portsmouth, March 12, 1834. REMARKS ON GATHERING FOrrDER IN VIRGINIA. Several selected articles on the cujtting of corH tops have at different times been presented to the readers of the Farmers' Register, with the hope that .some persons would thereby be induced to give the fruits, of their observation and experience, on the same subject. But as this has not yet been done, we will attempt more pointedly to invite attention to what is in Vir- ginia, a far more important business than in New Eng- land, and which, if wrong, must be attended witla an- nual losses, of incalculable amount. The evils spoken of by Mr. Claggett in the foregoing communication, are attributed merely to the cutting oii the tops of corn — as northern farmers, seldom, if ever, strip oif the blades below the ears. In Virginia, we invariably do both; as few make any hay, and all rely principally on the corn blades for long forage for their horses. It is true, that every one admits that the tops and blades should not be removed until the "corn is forward enough to bear it:" but there is no one who does not every year violate this rule, in a vast number of cases, even in his own judgement — and perhaps in ten times as many, if the truth was clearly understood. No experiment has yet been made to try whether any, or what amount of injury is caused by depriving a green stalk of corn of its leaves and top: but it seems not improbable, as the process is usually conducted, that the loss of grain is more than equal to the whole net profit on the fodder. No experiment, however, wovdd be required by any one acquainted with the laws of vegetation, to be sa- tisfied that while the plant remains green, it must still be furnishing something to the unripe grain.. When all the grain is perfectly made, the leaves and tops have completed their intended functions, and they wither and die very soon afterwards. If in the short interval between the perfect maturity of the grain, and the drying of the blades, the latter could be gathered, it may be admitted that no harm would be done: but the fodder would already have been greatly injured by age, and the gatliering would be troublesome from the irregularity of the ripening. But without contending for the full extent of this position, let us test our practice by our generally pre- vailing opinions; and by that test, our practice wdl be found to be wasteful and injudicious. It is generally considered that when the outer part of the grain is hard, and shows the indenture that the large southern corn is marked with, the fodder may be gathered safe- ly. The arrival of that time is anxiously watched for by industrious farraersi and "pushing overseers," not oidy to save the crop of fodder in the best condition, but because there is then no regular crop work on hand, and regular employment is desirable for the la- boring force. The ripening of corn, of course, is ir- regular in every field, from the many replanted stalks, and from various other causes. If the opera- tion was put off until every stalk was considered ready for it, the greater part of the blades would' be dry and worthless — and therefore tlie time is chosen when the great majority of the plants have just reached (what is said to be) the safe and proper state. The laborers may be directed to pass by the immature plants: but they very rarely have care or judgement to do this; and every ear on such plants, is more or less damaged by the operation. For whether the plants are green or ripe, the stripping off all the leaves serves to kill them immediately. Whenever it is safe' to deprive the corn of all its leaves, it is as safie to cut off the whole plant, as is done sometimes at the north. If any one denies the damage caused more or less to every crop of corn by pulling fodder too early, let him now visit his. corn crib, and see what a large pro- pertion of ears have shrivelled grains, standing sepa- rate and loose on the cob. Every ear of this kind which had been planted not very late, nor on land too poor to perfect the plant, ovyes its deficiency to the fodder gathering. In some seasons, the leaves dry much sooner than others, compared to the hardening of the grain — and in those years, lest the fodder shoukl be totally lost, unusual damage is caused to the grain. This was the case in 18.32. Though the pulling of fodder was begun unusually late, and after it had lost much by being dried on the stalks, still the grain was generally too soft. When the corn was beaten out for sale, in the following spring, it was found very diffi- cult to separate the grain from the cob: and the grain was of inferior quality, from some (at least) of the Hghtest and warmest, as well as richest sods, on the lower James river. As even the earliest frost, in such situations, must give full time for Indian corn to be matured, these effects could only have been caused by the life of the plants having been destroyed, and the maturity of the grain prevented, by the too early ga- thering the fodder. It is hoped that careful and fair experiments may be made the next season so as to leave less of doubt on this subject — or to awaken doubts in those who may be pursuing a wrong course, without a suspicion of loss therefrom. BONE MANURE. Mr. Watson, a distinguished agriculturist of Perthshire, put 25 bushels per acre of bone dust on two Scotch acres, 25 cart-loads of barn manure on each of two more acres. The acres with bone manure produced 28 tons of turnips, and the other 22 tons. FARMERS' REGISTER— MARSH MUD AS MANURE. 93 fllARSII MUD AS MANURE. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Qacen- Ami's county, Eastern Shore of Md. To a query in your last "Register" in relation to niarsli mud, I answer, tliat 1 liave ior several years i^ed marsh mud with gi-eat success. My estate lies on a salt-water river, and marsh mud has never tailed in any application I have made of it. . I prefer it from small inlets which make irom the river into my lijelds, which liave been long in cuhivalion, as it is improved by tiie deposite li'om the uplands; but I find it ver}- vtduable from the salt marsh,-. where it has had no such improve- ment. Wheat, Indian corn, oals, and cJover grow kiiidly from its ellects, and I deem it more valuable than barn yard manure. I would recommend to your correspondent to begin with ;i small experiment, as it has bot uni- Ibrmly in this county answered expectations. A friend of mine, who resides on Chestelriver, some jears ago carried out a large quantity, from whicji he derived but little benefit, and for which, I have been unable to account, unless it be that the wa- tei-s of the Wye, (where I reside) are much' saltcr than lliose of "the Chester. I have apiece of hilly Iiuid, though not broken by gullies, in one of my fields, the cultivation of which had been for many years abandoned, on account-of its sterility: th« adjacent land by means of marl, I had ;^qt into a state of lertihty, but this being a cold soil, Avilh much gravel in i-t, I did not deem it in a state to be improved by marl. In 1831, I covered it with 'marsh mud, of good quali- ty, about seventy loads to' the acre,' and put it in wheat in the fall, but the whole of itljeing covered with sedge, I could not put it in a good state of lireparatiqu: I nevertheless-reaped -a tolerable crop, by estimation Irom- tlie shocks about ten bushels to the acre. Last year though -the season was unfavorable, it produced a good crop of Indian corn. It is now in oals and clover, and promises a fine croj). Though I have plenty of shell marl, lor immediate profit, I prefer marsh mud: if is more accessible, its effects are quicker, and much more can be done in the way of improvement for the same money. At the same time I confess, that the permanent advantages of marl arc mucli greater, and I think marl and marsh mud will both fee improved by combination. My present pro- ject is to' cover my fields convenient to the river, with mtirsh mud, wlijch I have in part effected: should I live to accomplish it, I shall consider my estate imj^roved an hundred per tjent. I am sorry to bear witness that the lands on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, like those of lower Virginia, are greatly impoverished, and that no- thuig can prevent the depopulation of a country, once fertile and still dear to us, but an improved system of agriculture, in the promotion of which, I think your Register well calculated to contribute. # *.# * # # # » OBSKRVATIOKS ON TirE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. From llie Southeni AgricnUvirist. The present crisis m our national affciirs is cer- tainly one, which ^the southern planter must re- gartl with the most ^Kiinful anxiety. It is one l)regnantwi^ consequence of the greatest import- tance to the nation at large. A dark and threat- ening cloud hangs over our land, and whether we shall be visited witli tlie whirlwind and the tem- pest, or whether it- shall pass by, and the sunshine of peace and contentment again illumine our pros- pects, yet remains in the womb of futurity; but it behoves us to be prepared for either event. If it be ordained that "the tornado shall sweep over our land, and our fair prospects of wealth and of greatness shall be blasted, we shall not be the worse off, for having contemplated the probability of such an event, and lor having endetivoured to avert its lui^^ Should our fears, however, prove groundlcssj and the rumbling- of the distant thun- der ccase'-to agitate our minds, yet shall we be benefited by having been prej)ared for it. It is not our intention to enter into any discussion on the gi'eat question which now agitates and distracts our councils. . Our present object is merely to throw out a few hints, which may perchance be of use to Some of our planters. - ' It is a well known fiict, that the quantity of cot- ton already grown is lldly equtd to the co;"i&ump' tion, and by many, it is believed, to exceed it. It is also ^vell known to our planters, that at the pre- sent prices, it is far from being a crop, which makes a good return for the capital vested in it. It is, we believe, a losing business to many — we say a losing business,:*br we consider all such, which does not yield us that interest on our capital, whicfi ' we could obtain fnr it in other pursuits. If such be the cas^e, and we think there are few who will deh}' it, it will require hut a small share of discern- ment to ascertain, that it has become necessar}' for us to retrench our expenses as far as possible, tluit we should live as much within our income a.s it is practicable; and that we should commence a sys- tem of frugality and economy, not only on our plantations, but even in our veiy families; . nay, more, it may been they are equal in point of wealth and security, preference will be given to the man- who is most punctual, who pays* most promptly and most cheerfully. Hence it is easy to explain why governmeitts are generally enabled to bor- row at a lower rate than individuals: It is be- cause their credit is better established and more generally known, and because too, the govern- metit stocks, in consequence of the known solvehcy and credit of the nation, can readily be converted into cash by sale in the market,- or niay Ix; made to perform, to a considerable extent, the functions of a circulating medium, by a ready translerence from hand to hand, through the whole extent of an empire: whereas the notes and bonds of indi- viduals have a sluggish circulation only, and that through very narrow districts or neighborhoods. Hence government stocks, payiiig the marketable rate of mterest, always sell beyond par, and hence too, Ave frequently find the three ;md four per cent, stocks selling higher in the market than those yielding higher dividends, because tlie lat- ter are liable to immediate liquidation, whereas the former perhaps may be irredeemable 'tor many years. When Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were in all their glory, with an extensive commerce pouring the riches of the world into their ports, they were enabled to borrow all the money they wanted at an interest of ti-om five to ten per cent., while the more powertul, but less wealthy and less punctual governments of Spain, France, and ■■Gemianj', were obliged to pay 30 and 40 per cent, interest, for the sums which they borrowed. It is needless to dwell longer on this point: every body knows that ceteris paribus the man of wealth anil respon- sibility can borrow money on better terras, than he who has no credit nor wealth. Second. The risk depends upon the nature of the investment to be made of the borrowed capi- tal, in all cases where the lender depends upon the success of the investment lor the repayment of his money. Thus there has ahvavs been more risk and hazard attendant on the .shipping trade than ujjon other commercial operations^ hence the interest of loans made on the credit of the shipping trade has always been high, particular- ly in ancient times, in consequence of greater risk then attendant on navigation in its in- fant and rude state. In Athens, we learn that the interest of the money employed in the trade with the countries on the'Euxine and Medi- terranean seas, amounted to 30— (Say says 60) per cent. — while money was generally lent -in the city on good security for only 12 per cent. In Virginia, and I believe in most of the states, there is no restriction, I sui)pose for the reasons just stated, on the interest of money lent upon the credit ol the shipping trade. Whftn a loan is made to an agriculturist, and. the principal secured by mortgage on the land, the rate of interest will always be near a minimum, in consequence of the great security. "No carjitalist would lend" says . SicCulloch "on the personal security of a gun powder manufacturer, and. on mortgage o\'er a valuable estate, at the s^ame rate of interest." The capital of the Ibrmer may be dissipated in a moment, and the ability to repay be entirely de- stroyed, Avhereas no accident caii destroy the abil- ity to rellind in the latter case. Extreme hazard is known to atteijd the mining operations in South America; niimy mines may be opened before one profitable one may be discovered. The risk being very great, the -rate of interest is likewise very high_l20 and 30 per cent, being frequently paid foV money employed.in those operations. The larger portion of the interest in these cases, is in fiict a sort of ])remium of -iilsurance, and- is to b.e con- sddered by no means as a hardship on the bor- rower; tor his profits rise with the risk of the in- vestment, and enable him, in case of success in the business, to pay the high rate of interest with just as' much advantage' to himsellj as lower rates ai'e paid by less hazardous trades. The risk nses to a maximum when' a spendthrill bon'ows money to pay his debts, without being able to give any security. In that case,^ the only hope of a re- turn is based. on the reform of the prodigal, and the confidence in his talents, industiy, or trade. Tlie risk in this case is so great, that few' can be found to lend to such persons at any interest, ex- cept warm inends or relations, andthcj^ are actu- ated rather by the spirit of charity- and friendship, than of gain, and consequently 'charge but mode- rate interest. Ileufce the'- apparent anomaly sometimes exhibited, of the reckless profligate bor- rowing money at the ordinary marketable rate of interest. •... ' ■'■' Third. The risk varies ^dth the character of the government and the administration of justice in tile body politic. Under a well regulated go- vernment, Avhere capital is well protected, con- tracts enforced, and every right secured to the possessor, the risk, so far as it depends on the go- vernment, is reduced to a minimum, becoming an almost evanescent element in the calculation. When the government, however, is bad, capital insecure, and contracts not enforced, the risk rises to a maximum, and predominates over every other element in the calculation. Thus in Rome, the constant quarrels between the Patricians and Ple- beians, and tlie frequent reversions of debt and in- terest, rendered loans exceedingly hazardous, and the rate of interest rose, as a necessary and inev- itable consequence, so high as to indemnify the borrower against this extraordinary risk, flowing ti-om the natui'-e of the government. Thus we find the' virtuous .Brutus taking 45 per cent, on money, and we are told that a frightful usury sprung up through thfe Roman commonwealth, the etlect of those very laws and clamors of the people directed against it. In the middle ages, property. was insecure, and governments bad, and the risk consequently very high; hence the preva- lence of an exorbitant fate of interest as a neces- sary conspquence. Hallam tells us, on the state- ment of Matthew Paris, that in the reign of. Henry . Ill, of England, the debtor paid 10 percent, every two months, or 60 per cent, per annum upon bor- rowed capital; whereas in Italy, interest was com- paratively low, because the' governments were there belter, and conti'acts enforced. At Verona, FARMERS^ REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS- 101 formerly, interest was fixed at 12-^ per cent., and the republic of Genoa paid only ironi seven to ten per cent, on borrowed -capital. It is upon this pi-incipje that Storch -explains the d-iffcrence be- tween the rates of interest in the United States, and Russia. Profits ■ are no doubt higher here generally than in Russia, and yet the marketable rate of interest is higher in Russia than in this country. The difference arises, says he, in the difference in the laws and administration of justice in the two countries. Capital is more secure here, contracts more rigidly enforced, and consequently, the risk of lending money less than in Russia. In the Alahomedan countries where capital is in- secure and liable to be seized on by the rapacious Pachas as soon as it makes its a])pearance, there is- a disposition to hoard; and besides .this, the law positively forbids any interest.whatevcr on money, and the consequence of these combined causes, says Montesquieu, is to increase the risk greatly beyorki what it is in better governed countries, and consequently to produce most frightful usury in all cases where- money is actually lent. Interest is said to- be ten or twenty times as high ordina- rily in those countries, as in Europe. Upon the same principle we may account for the exoibitant- ly high interest observed by Adam Smith to exist in Bengal, and the East Indies generally. If the stay and relief laws of Kentucky had been long continued, or should be frequently enacted from tirhe to time, so as to destroy the contltience of the community in the honesty of government, and the validity of contracts,, we should -witness in this country the same exorbltarit interest, the same frighttlil usury, which is now observed in the Maliomedran countries, and the east. r ha.ve thus given you, I hope, a satisfactory analysis of profits and risk, the two elements or ir^gredients of interest, and have found the latter still more fluctuating and uncertain than the former. How absurd then must be the usurj- laws, which endeavor to hmit and fix the rate of interest, which depends on elements that no hu- man Avisdom or power on earth can ever con- trol and regulate? I should as soon expect to make the fabled Isle of Dclos stalionar-y upon the mov- ing billows as to fix that which so essentially de- pended upon two such unstable elements. The other branches of the argument against the usury laws are but corollaries to this main proposition, which I have been attempting to establish. I chall now proceed to inquire into the manner in which these laws operate upon the public pros- perity and moralit}-, II. Pernicious influences of the Usury Laws. First then we assert, and the assertion requires no proof, that the usury laws are unjust and une- qual in their operations, restraining tlie holders of a particular species of capital from employing it in the most lucrative manner, whilst the holders of other species of capital are left in the enjoyrasnt of perfect liberty. The owner of lands and slaves may take what rent and hires he pleases — the merchant is not restrained as to his gains, nor the manufacturer to his, profits. Why then should the money holder be prevented from takfng the interest which the borrower is willing to give? Is it because the money holders are vicious, selfish press and discountenance? I apprehend not. Widows, orphans, the defenceless and helpless, are often the money holders. When a lather dies, to whom does he leave his money? JNIost fre- quently to the invalid son, or the exposed arnl de- fenceless daughter. To his sons who are fitted for action on the great theatre of life, he gives other kinds of property which require more skill q,nd care to manxige them. The salaried men and all the functionaries of society are to be ranked among the money holders: Are these cla-ses of such a character as to require the strong h-cxnd of legislation to correct their mal-practices? Cer- fainlj' not. As a class, I should say tlie money lenders are generally speaking, the most harmless and defenceless, or the most talented and respecta- ble m.embers of society. Is it because money is a commodity sui generis, the holder of which is enabled by its means to take what interest he pleases, the borrower being obliged to give, it? There are- man}-) I believe, Avho absurdly entertain this ophiion — who really believe that money is in the economical world what the superstitious be- lieve the witches to be in the physical, a some- thing not bound down and governed by the laws of gravity and- cohesion. — by the laws, of supply and demand, but as possessing an active principle of its own, a sort of vis iasita, of the most dan- gerous ch-aracter, not only not governed by the ordinary la^vs of nature, laut capable by its own energy, of resisting and deranging tliem. Those who entertain such an opinion however, either do not or cannot understand the nature of the circu- lating medium, and the laws which regulate the rate of interest. Interest,like the priceofeveiy thing, is determined in the market, by a strug-gie be- tween the borrower and lender; the' former of course wishing to fix it as low as possible, while the latter would make it as high as possible. When profits are high, or much is to be made by the use of capital, or the risk is great, more wiU be demanded on the one side and coiiceded on the other, than "u-hen the reverse is the case. Capi- talist competes with capitalist, as well as bor- rowei Avith borrower: where nmch is to be made by money, much -Cvill be given; where little is to be made, little Avill be given. Hence in the new states of our confederacy, interest is much higher than in the old, because more can be made by the use of money. In Alabama for example, eight per cent, in- terest may be legally taken, in JNlississippi ten, in Louisiana ten, in Indiana ten, in Illinois twelve and a half, and Missouri ten, — and it is believed these rates are generally rather below the marketa- ble rate of interest in those new states: whereas in a;ll the old states, with the exception of New York, South Carolina and Georgia, six per cent, is the legal rate, and perhaps in most cases nearly coin- cident with the average market interest. The interest of monej', it must be remembered, does not depend on the quantity of money in the countr}', but upon the whole quantity ofcapital, (of which money is one, and b}^ no means the most valuable item,) compared with the channels of pjfofi*^able investment. As I have already said, when money is borrowed, it is not the monej^, but the ■raonoy''s worth which is wanted. The mer- chant Avants goods, the agriculturist new lands, or improvement of old land; the manufacturer wants machines and raw materials; the lawyer beings, whom it is the policy of the laws to sup- 1 wants ' education and professional skill. They 102 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. boiTovv money for these several purposes, and the rafe which they are wilhng to give does not de- Eend on the quantity of money in the country, ut on ths gains wliicli the merchant, tlie manu- facturer, aad ihe agricuhurist, expect to make on their goods, on their manulactures, on their land, and uj;on the emokimcnts and reputation which the lawyer and doctor liave in prospect. Money is mere- ly the agent ol'circulalion ofcapital generally. If money, is scarce, its value rises; if too plenty, it falls; and iha rate of interest is never permanently af- fected by ils high or low value. If ^50 be worth to-day as much as $'100 was yesterday, ^3 in- terest on the Sp50 will be worth just the same as S6 on the ,^100. The only effect produced on interest is while the change in value is taking place. Thus, let us suppose the banks begin to' over-issue; there is a corjsequent increased facility of borrowing, which may lowet interest iempora- 7'ily; then an appreciation of prices ensues, and 80 soon as prices become stationary, interest rises to the rate which is determined by profits and risk. So far from tliere being any reason for restrain- ing the rate of interest, there are some reasons why it is better regulated by the laws of trade and the influence of public opinion than perhaps any thing which can possibly be mentioned in the whole catalogue of commercial transactions. First. Money being the universal measurer of value, is better known, its agency in the hands of indi\'id- uals better understood, than any other species of property whatever. Second. Great concentration of value in small bulk renders it the most trans- ferable of commodities, and consequently it passes more rapidly from places v^diere it is redundant to those where it is deficient, than any commodity we know of. From this cause it is, that compe- tition among capitalists is more certain to keep down the hire of money to a fair proportion to profits and risk, than any other species of hire whatever. You cannot carry land and houses from one section to another, to keep down rents: manufacturing estabhshments are incapable of loco- motion, and therefore the exorbitant jjrofits of one are slowly corrected by another: labor moves so sluggishly from disti'ict to district, that Smith pronounced man the most immoveable of lumber. Hence the slowness with which the equilibrium is restored in the labor market. But money passes from section to section with all the rapidity of the mail and the steam boat. Is there a great demand here for it to day, while there is a relative redun- dancy elsewhere? The easy transference of it from f'lace to place, will quickly restore tlie equilibrium, f A, a monied man, charges too high an interest in proportion to profit and risk, B, another mo nied man in the same neighborhood will find it to his interest to take less: and if neither will take a fair rate, capital will epeedily flow in fi'om other quarters, and relieve the pressure. At this mo- ment, large amounts in specie are pouring into the United States, ia consequence of the money pres- sure; and no doubt if public confidence could be suddenly restored, we should be found to have a greatly redundant circulating medium. Hires, rents, interest and prices of all descrip- tions, are determined by the ratio of the supply to the demand. Now if a restraining law should ever become necessary, it would be in those cases where the price rose generally greatly beyond the ratio of deficiency. Upon this principle, the great necessaries of life, corn and wheat particularly, would require the regulating agency of law, more than any other commodities whatever. When the harvests are deficient, the price of corn and wheat always rises immensely beyond the rate which would be indicated by the delect in the harvest. This is a lact which has been noticed as lar back as the time of D' A venant, in England. He has given us the tbllowing table, which al- though not perhaps mathematically con'ect, yet ia sufiiciently so, no doubt, to illustrate the liict. Defect in wlieat harvest. Above the common rate. 1 Tenth, ^ f 3 Tenths, 2 do. Raises the I 8 do. 3 do. > price of <{ 1.6 do. 4 do. wheat 2.8 do. 5 do. J J 4.5 do. Tooke in his verj^ able and elaborate work on prices, gives us this table of D'Avenant, with the remark that " there is some ground tor supposing that the estimate is not very wide of the truth, from the observation of the I'epeated occun-ence of the tact, that the price of coi'n in this country (England) has risen trom 100 to 200 per cent, and upwards, when the utmost computed deficiency of the crops has not been more than between one- sixth and third of an average:" and again he says, "considering the institutions of this country relative to the maintenance of the poor, if there should be a deficiency of the crojjs amounting to one-third, without any surplus from a former year, and loithuut any chance of relief by importation the price might rise five, six, or even ten Ibid." It is tor this reason that farmers who make more than enough to supply themselves are benefited by a general scarcity, in consequence of the more than proportional rise of produce. This remark I have often heard made by the most successful farmers with whom I am acquainted. Mr. Tooke ascribes (and I think very correctly) the extraor- dinary impulse which was given to the agricul- tural interest in Great Britain from 1793 to 1809 to an unusual number of bad harvests during this period, which raised the price of wheat greatly beyond the detect of the harvest, and consequently threw into the hands of the agriculturists a nmch larger amount of capital than more favorable har- vests would have done. Thus we see that the great staple of life, is precisely that article which rises most rapidly and to the greatest extent in the market, from a defect of quantity: If then the price of any article in the world should be regulated by law, the price of corn ought, because in time of scarcity the holders of this article can get much more than a remunerating price for it. Why then are not such laws passed now? Because they have been tried and found disastrous. They increase the very e^•il to be removed. The hold- ers of corn have ever been disposed to lock up, and secrete their produce when the law attempted to make them sell at less than the rate adjusted by the struggle between the buyers and sellers. It is certainly the interest of all the corn farmers in the world that there should, for example, be such a scarcity, as that each one on the average should have a sixth or third less for sale — for the price would rise greatly be3ond the defect — but no one apprehends ii-om this, a combination of ii\rmersto destroy a portion of their crops, because such a combinatioji is impossible, and, conseq^uently, it ia FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. 103 the interest of each to i)roduce as much as possi- ble. If com were made by a licensed few, under the control of a company of directors, there is no question but that such would be the interest of the producers, and a restraint on production might be laid by the company of directors. In that case the law might interpose with advantage, not in regulating the price, ibr even in that case tlie price should be left to tlie adjustment oi"the mar- ket— but in either destroying the monopoly, or controlling the directors, in regard to their I'estraint on production. If then there can be no necessity for a law to regulate the price of corn, which is known to rise higher from scarcity than any other article whatever, much k-ss can there be any need for the regulation of interest by law, because of the supposed advantage which the holders of the money capital possess, in the struggle for the ad- justment of' interest. The rate of interest de- pends on profits, and the latter, as we have seen, depend on the proportion of the whole capital of' the society to the channels of profitable invest- ment. The capacity of the capitalist therefore, to obtain a liigh rate of interest, increases in a par- ticular district of country fi'om adeficiency of capi- tal generally — and not -wholly from a deficit of mone}'. Now this general deficit of capital does not enable the money lender to raise the interest of money to any tiling like tlie height to Vvdiicli a si- milar deficit in corn or any other necessary of lite, will enable the holder of those articles to raise their j)rice. The laws then restraining the rate of interest cannot be justified upon the ground that the holders of money have it in their power to take what interest they please, for the fact is not so. They have not, as we have just seen, by any means so great a power ov'er the borrower as the corn holder has over the purchaser; and if policy requires the latter to be left fiee, surely tlie former ought likewise. Again, if it were true that the money holders, when the quantity of money was smaU, could com- mand a disproportionally large interest, then it ^vould follow, (lor the remark is susceptilile of great generalization,) that when the quantity of money happened to increase, the rate of interest would sink di3proportionaIl3dow. Tliat is universally the case with corn, and with all articles which rise in price, higher than in proportion to defect; they always sink more than in proportion to redundancy, so that if the holders gain in the former case, they equally lose in the latter. Now if it were true that mone}' holders could command an interest greater than in proportion to the deficiency of capital, they ought not to be restrained: for it would be certain that in case of redundancy of capital, interest would sink more than in proportion to I'edundancy — and consequently the loss and gain should surely be left upon every principle of equity and justice, to balance each other. Besides: public opinion has much more infiuence on money lenders than perhaps any other classes of the community, be- cause the value of money is well understood, the value of its agency estimated, and consequently, if the money lender, from a combination of circum- stances, shovdd be enabled to take advantage of the exigencies of the borroiver by the exaction of exorbitant interest, the transaction is at once as- saded by an indignant public opinion. Whereas you may take advantage of the customer in selling goods, or any other marketable commodities what- ever,merely because of the indefiniteness of quality and the general micertainty and instability of prices. I shall prove, before finishing the subject of interest, that public opinion has been too much excited against the money lender, and has pro- duced rattier a bad than a good effect. Certain it is however, that it is brought to operate against usurious interest, with as much power and elucacy as against any mercantile transaction whatever. I hope then I have shown that there is nothing in the nature of money, or money transactions, call- ing for the special interference of the legislator, and justifymg the restriction on the profits made by one class of capitalists, while all others are lefl li-ee to make what gains the state of the market will allow. I shall now show that the laws restraining the rate of interest are inexpedient and impolitic in relation to public prosperity. I Iiave before shown you that it is conducive to the public weal, to give to capital and labor, as much freedom as possible. Freedom of trade and action, contributes to the welfare of individuals, of countries, and nations. The law restraining the rate of interest, so far as it operates, impedes the wholesome circulation of capital from hand to hand— it is a clog thrown upon the great wheel of commerce — it is in fact, part and parcel of that detestable mercantile sys- tem, under whose blighting influence, the pros- perity of the south has been arrested, and a gar- den of Eden almost converted into a wilderness. A has money, and v/ishes to lend it to B ibr seven per cent, which B is willing to pay; but the law says "No, you shall not receive more than six." Does not the law in this case impertinently inter- fere with individual transactions, and claim to un- derstand their interests better than individuals themselves? What would be the fair presumption in this case, according to the principle of the free trade theory? Certainly that B would employ the money to greater advantage than A, and conse- quently it would be better that B should have it: but the law forbids him, and therefore A is in- duced to employ the money himself^ with less ad- vantage to the community. A perhaps may be a salaried man, a functionary of the state, whose entire services should be devoted to his office; tlie law forbids his lending at the fair marketable rate of interest, and consequent!}', may force him into trade, very much to his ovrii inconvenience and the detriment of the public. So far then as the usury laws ojierate, they act injuriously by checking that tree circulation of capital, so essential to the pros- perity of the country; they tend to prevent that perfect division of labor and trade, which the pro • gress of society generates. When the market- able rises above the legal rate of interest, the monied man, whether competent or not, is induced to enter into active business, and thereby exclude some more efficient indisidual, merely because the laws will not allow him to take a ftiir rate of in- terest for his money. Again, suppose an individual called on for the payment of a debt. He has property amply suf- ficient to meet all demands, but has not the ready cash: lie wishes to borrow at seven per cent., the law however will allow but six, v.hich we sup- pose less than the money can be borrowed at. Under these circumstances, his property must be sold, and we all know the result of' these forced sales. Real estate in Virginia which brings two- 104 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. thirds of its real value under the hammer, sells well. Wliat then is the ellect of the protecting law in this case? Why to make the debtor, by a sale- of property, pay 33^ per cent, virtually for money, instead of six." In times of great pecuni- ary embarrassment, like tlie present, the property sold ofiendoes not bring more than atburtli or fif h of its value. It v/ould be better in such cases that the debtor should pay two or three hundred per cent temporarily on money, than have his ])roperty thus sacrificed. If, during these pressures, money prices tall never to rise again, llien there would be no advantage in borrowing money to save pro- perty: but every body knows they are of short duration, and j^rices quickly regam their former level. Under these circumstances, the wisdom "of no set of legislators that have ever yet appeared in this world, can determine the rates which may be advantageously given for money by the bor- rower. Sucli circumstances evidently throw the B djject of interest entirely beyond the reach of definite calculation, and of course, out of the region of wise legislation. And suppose for a moment that a rate of interest, too exorbitant for the occa- sion, should be obtained, may not the borrower soon relieve himself trom the pressure by paying off his debts by new loans? whereas if your pro- perty is once sold under the hammer, at one-third or one-fifth of its real value, there is tin' end of the matter — the sacrifice is perlect and complete, with- out the possibility of palliating or averting it by subsequent good fortune. We know that tradesmen very frequently see an excellent opening for the employment of caj)ital: if they are enabled to command it immediately, high profits may be realized, and their Ibrtunes made. Such men must go bej^ond the ordinary rate of interest to procure the capital required; but the wisdom of the law steps -in, and interdicts the transaction, and thus robs the individual of his profits. Has this man, do you think, any reason to thank the guardian law lor its unlucky inter- ference7 Six per cent, is the legal rate in Virginia, and I believe for some time past has been the market rate too; and yet I have known instances of individuals borrowing at the rate of ten per cent, both for purposes of trade and agriculture, who have been enabled by their returns, to pay the interest, and reahze liandsome profits. Of course this happens only under peculiarly advantageous circumstances, and therefore, ordinarily to borrow money at ten ))er cent, for business or trade would be ruinous to the borrower, iint when those cir- cumstances do occur, the borrowing is an advan- tage, and the law is a very unwise one, which interposes a bar, and declares its judgement su- perior to that of the parlies concerned. A young man enters upon the great theatre of life, fidi of buoyant hope and of laudable zeal. He wishes to engage in the' business for which he is best prepared. Capital is wanted — having noth- ing but his energy, talents, and prudence to back .him, he is obliged to give a little more than the ordinary rate of interest to cover the great risk occasioned by lending upon personal security alone. But the wisdom of the law dissipates all his hopes and projects, by preventing his borrowing at such a rate as his circumstances may alone enable him to do. Can there be wisdom in a law which thus arrests the laudable enterprise of the aspiring young man, and forc-es him into a state of inac- tivity and apath}? The French pro\'erb well and truly, asserts "c'estle premier pas qui coute." The first step in life is' the most ditlicull and the-'^ost important; upon it Vv'ill generally depend your weal or woe. If then, when you come ibrth, with all ihe ardor of youth, pressing iorward to.the high mark which' imagination has pointed you to in the vista -ol" the future, and find all your enthusiasm repressed, and ardor chilled, by the unwise inter- lercnce of the law,"you sink into listlesness and idleness; the principle of energy is destroyed with- in you; and you are drawn by a desire of e:!feke- ment and by a disposition to relieve the insufferable tedium of idle hours, first into dissipated society, and then through all the scenes of youthfiil' fi-olic and youthlul sport, to the darker vices of. gambling and drinkmg, with all the black ' and melancholy train consequent on these prolific sources of mis- chiel' to the whole human fmnly. "Idleness" saj's Banyan "is the devil's workshop," and the money making propensity in the human farriily, much- as it has been reviled and slandered by the unreflecting, and unthscriminating observer, tu^ns us often from the path of iniquitj' and vice, gener- ates habits ,of regulaHty and order, and saves us from th;rt- intolerable idleness, that dreadtul ennui which drive too frequently their unfortunate vic- tims to the card table and the bottle. My warm and urgent advice to you, then is, that you should as early as possible when your education is com- pleted, and -you are prepared to enter actively upon the bustling scene of 'lile, engage in some business, some occupation, which may afford you profit and employment. A short seasori of vacancy at this period ol' your life may be decisive of your future liite: I cannot fhcfefore but look witli an eye of condemnation on any law which has a tendency to withhold capital from the grasp of the ardent and young adventurer intodife. We have already seen that profits in some trades are much higher than in others, owing to greater risk, uncertainty, expense, disagreeable- ness, &c., and that money lent to the adventurer in these hazardous trades, u]ion the credit of the business alone, must necessarily and properly be at a high rate to cover the great risk.. Again, I have shown you that higher. profits are made on small capitals than on large ones. Hence business fiov/s towards great cities, because of the gi-eat capital there accumulated, and the consequent cheap and advantageous .manner in which all trades of an enlarged and extensive character are carried on. Capitalists Avho have millions at com- mand are contented with two or three per cent, profit, men who have S^IOOO or #2000, or still more, >B100 only, must aini for higher] profits: two oi- tliree per cent.- profit would not stimulate ta action at all in the latter case; 50 or 100 per cent. ))rofit must be made, or the "business would be ifiven up. In the April No. of the Farmers' Re- gister, mention is' made of a capitalist in Kurope borrowing- ,9 10,000,000 at two and a half per cent, tor the purpose of talcing up some Pennsylvania stock. This is a good rate of interest on so large a capital, but it would not do for a caphal of ,^10,000 and much less tor one of i^lOO. It is for this rea- son that the small capitalists take possession of the little trades, -and the large capitalists, push fbr- ward tlic great business of the world, and thus arises a most salutary- division of lobor throughout' creation. The selling of poulti^'j of butter aud FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LA^VS. 105 milk, of vegetables and fruits, the busiiiees of the village grocer and the countrj^ merchant, &c. &c. always lirill into the hands of the little cai)halists, and yield high relative profits. ' The great im-;. port and export trade of every country," the great retail business of such towns as London, Paris and New York, ."ail the great Itictories fu;d manufac- turing establisliinents, all the great transactions ol commerce, all the great masses of property, tlie. roads and canals, the mines of gold and silv^er, and iron; the cargoes of. sugar, cotton and indigo, that are constantly being transterred Irom one possessor to anothei-"" on the royal exchange of London, or at New Orleans, or New York; all this is done by the intervention and agency ot great capitals. Men therefore who have very large capitals to lend,' naturally -seek men Avho are engaged, in large and extensive business; men who have but little to lend woidd seek those carrjing on some business comm.ensurate with the capital to be lent; and the rate of interest would and ought to vary in the two' cases. A man who lends out 50 or |;100 to tlie little village grocer, or the seller of vegetables and fruits, jnight^with propriety demand a veiy high interest, Avhereas he who would lend his thousands- to the great mercliant or farmer, wodld takt? the lowest rate. In London the great loans-consisti)ig of hundreds of thousands', and millions, are con- tracted tor at- two, three and four p^r cent.; the «mall one? at a much higher rate. Colquhoun, in his London Police, says that money is lent at ten per cent, per day to barrow-v,'omen who sell .fish, li'uit, &c. in the streets.* . ; Is it not then the ver3'climax of absurdity in the legislator to prescribe one rate of interest, in all these cases? The moral elTect of the law on those who have very small sums to lend, is of the most pernicious kind. It is no object Vv'itli a man who has iglOO only to lend out to gain .§6 on it: allow him, as circumstances direct, to get ten or twenty, which perhaps some little grocer or fruit seller might well atibrd to pay, and immediately you stimulate such an individual to save as much as possible — the principle oi" accumulation triumphs over that of dissipation. His gains, though still small, are sufficient to call all his energies into ac- tion, to summon him away from the grog shop or the cock-pit, to make him orderly and economical in his habits, cheerlld and contented in disposition; of such an individual, however humble his walk in life, we may truly say in the graphic laiiguage of the poet, "Motion is in -his days, ' "Rest in his slumbers; and cheerfulness "The handmaid of his toils." Such an iridividual becomes a good husband, a good father, and a good member of society. Let * The following table is given us in the Penny Mag- azine and serves to illustrate what I have advanced on t]iis head. It is given qn the authority of INIr. Mott, the contractor for Lambeth work house, said to be a most intelligent gentleman. "I made a calculation of the interest paid by them, for their tritling loans, says Mr. Mott, and I found it to be as follows: — If redeemed the same day pays interest at the rate of pr. ct. pr. ct, ) 5200 weekly 860 } .3900 " 650 V2600 " 433 1733 " 28S 1300 " 216 an unwise law however prevent him from procur- ing that rate of interest which his small capital will command, or in other words induce him to pocket his money without lending it out, or placing it in trade, and immediately such a man may well utter the iiiost appropriate prayer lor poor fi-ail lumian nature^ "Lord deliver us from temptation." The money in his j)ocket is .like fire in the moun- tains. Agitat totam molem. It in\-ites him to the scene of dissipation, it car- ries hiiTi to the tipjding shop, to the race field, to the cockpit, or the gambling table. The principle of dissipation trium{)lis. over that of accumulation. Such an individiuil may soon become the torment and disgrace of his family, the disturber of the neighborhood, and finally a fit subject for the gal- loAvs or the penitentiary. The law in this case as far as' it operates, produces the same eflect Sismondi so beautitidly describes as being produced in Flo- rence by the general insecurity of capital in conse- quence of the wai's, dissentions, invasions, &c. to which that city was liable duri^jg the troubles of the middle ages. The law limiting the rate of interest theii, evi- dently has a tendency to produce the most perni- cious influence on small capitalists, by checking Irugality and industry', and encouraging dissipation and prodigality; because a small rate of interest although an ampde. inducement to the large capi- tal ist.to save, is scarcely any wh ate ver to the small capitalist. Supposie then the rate of interest fixed by law at the lowest marketable rate, as is perhaps the case at this time in Virginia, what, let me ask, will be the general effect so fixr as law operates efficiently? The efiect of the law will be to throw the largest possible portion of the loanable capital of society into the hands of the rich, and those already es- tablished in business. The young, the enterprising, those engaged in hazardous or uncertain occupa- tions, all those in fine who cannot give the best security, must be unsupplied, for a very plain rea- son— the risk of a loan to them, is greater than when made to a wealthy man, and consequently the lowest niarketable rate is not sufficient to in- demnify the lender, except in those cases where there is ample wealth to make the security perfect. The law by drawing too large a portion of the capital into the hands of the rich, has a tendency to make the rich, richer, and the poor, poorer. It prevents that due distribution of capital over the various occupations of society, so conduciv'e to the morality, and prosperitj' of every community. That division of labor, so necessaiy to the rapid accumulation of wealth is checked, and all the trades of a hazardous or uncertain, character, no matter how profitable in -the main, are proscribed and denounced by the law. But sav the advocates of such a law, "all this is jiist as it shovdd be. In Ihe first place, when the legal coincides loiih the lowest market rate, a large portion of capital is drawn to the land just tuhere it should go. — j'/nd 2dly-. — men ivho are established in business are preferred to projectors, as they cer- tainly ought to be.'''' I hope I shall be able to show by a very brief examination, the utter fallacy of each of these arguments. First. Land it is said yields but a Iq.w rate of profit, and consequently can afford to pay but a low rate of interest: reduce interest to the lowest market rate, and land will 106 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. command all the capital required, because it affords the very best security. To this we answer, that in almost every country the general rate of profits is determined by agricultural profits — that there are some peculiar advantagps attendant on agriculture, which will always draw towards it its due share of labor and capital". In every country, from this cause, agricultural profits are near the minimum. So lar then from capital, in case of perfect tVeedom of. trade, tending' Avith too little gravity towards agri- culture, it perhaps generally, (but especially in those countries where there is a minute division of landed property, or Avhere the right of suffrage is attached to real ]iroperty alone,) tends towards this department of industry too much. Some distinguished writers are of opinion that in Ire- land and France, the too minute division of landed property has drawn to the land an undue share ol' labor and capha!, and in the course of time will produce the most lamentable consequences. At all events, there is no law required to throw into the agricultural business the capital which it requires, and the circumstance of agricultural profits being always near the minimum rate in every country, most conclusively proves this to the satisfaction of every sound political economist. The fact is, those who support the hmitationof therate of interest on this principle, must necessarily give up the free trade theory. For they can only support them- selves by the assertion "that capital, when left free, will not take the most advantageous direction. Secondly. It is asserted that when the legal rate of interest approximates nearly to the loAvest mar- ketable rate of interest, prodigals and projectors are prevented Irom getting money to the injury of those carrying on more regular and better establish- ed trades. Adam Smith, unfortunately, has given the sanction of his great name to this argument. He says "the legal rate, it is to be observed, though it ought to be somewhat above, ought not to be much above, the lowest market rate. If the legal rate of interest in Great Britain, for examj^le, was fixed so high as eight or ten per cent, the greater part of the money which was to be lent, Avould be lent to prodigals and projectors, who alone would be willing to give this high interest; sober people who will give lor the use of money no more than a part of what they are likely to make by the use of it, would not venture into the competition. A great ])ai't of the capital of the country, would thus, be kept out of the hands which Avere most likely to make a profitable and advantageous use of it, and thrown into those which were most likely to Avaste and destroy it; Avhere the legal interest on the con- trary, is fixed but \'ery little above the lowest mar- ket rate, sober people are uniA'ersally preferred as borrowers, to prodigals and projectors. Tiie per- son Avho lends money, gets nearly as much interest from the former as he dares take from the latter, and his money is much safer in the hands of the one set of people, than in those of the other. A great part of the capital of the country is thus thrown into the hands in which it is most likely to be employed Avith advantage." With regard to prodigals, I will content m^'self for the present with another quotation Irom Dr. Smith, AAdiich Avill be a sufficient ansAA'er to the aboA'c. "The number of prudent and successful undertakings (says he) is every Avhere much greater, than that of injudi- cious and unsuccessful ones. Afrer all our com- plaints of the frequency of bankruptcies, the un- happy men Avho fall into this misfortune, make but a A^ery small part of the whole number engaged in trade, "and all other sorts of business, not much more perhaps than one in a thousand." Again "It is the highest impertinence and ])rcsumption there- fore in kings and ministers, to pretend toioatch over the economy of private people, and to restrain their expense, either by sumptuar}^ Iuavs, or by prohi- biting the importation of foreigt^ luxuries. They are themselves always and Avithout exception the greatest spendthrifts in the society: let them look Avell alter their oAAm expense, and they may safely trust private people Avith theirs. If their oAvn ex- travagance does not ruin the state, that of their subjects ncA-er Avill." According to Dr. Smith's OAvn assertion then, it is the height of impertinence and absurdity in the legislator to endcaA-or to restrain private prodigality; Avhy then sliould he defend the usury Iuav upon this principle? Surely it must be granted, that in this case he goes against his OAvn best established principles. I shall again advert to the case of the prodigal under another head. With regard to projectors, I have to observe, that if according to Smith's OAAm admission, the waste- ful spendthrift fbrms not more than the thousandth part of society, reckless ]irojcctors form a still smaller portion, and therefore it is less necessary and more impertinent still for kings and ministers to meddle Avith their private concerns. "To err in the Avay of prodigality (says Jeremy Bentham in that inimitable and unansAverable production 'De- fence of Usury') is the lot, though as you Avill observe not of many men, in comparison of the AAdiole mass of mankind, yet at least of scrae. The sturt' fit to make a prodigal of, is to be found in CA^ery ale house, and under every hedge. But CA'en to err in the Avay of projecting, is the lot only of the privileged few. Prodigality, though not so common as to make any material drain from the general mass of Avealth, is hoAvcA'cr too common to be regarded as a mark of distinction or singular- itj'. But the stepping aside from any of the bea- ten paths of trafhc is regarded as a singularity, as ser\dng to distinguish a man from other men. When in comparison AAath the number of prodi- gals, AA'hich is too inconsidei'able to desei'A'e notice, the number of projectors of all kinds is much more inconsiderable, and Avhen from this inconsiderable number, must be deducted the not inconsiderable proportion of successful projectors, and from the remainder again, all those Avho can carry on their projects Avithout need of borroAving, think Avhether it be possible, that this last remainder could aflbrd a multitude, the reducing of Avhich, Avould be an object, deserving the interposition of goA^ernment by its magnitude, even taking for granted, that it Avere an object proj^er in its nature." Thus eA^en if projectors were like prodigals, unthrifty and dis- advantageous to the general prosperity of the community, still their number Avould not be suffi- cient to render them a \'ery material clog on the accumulation of Avealth. But this cry against pro- jectors is unmerited and unjust. Pi'ojectors are those Avho ex[)lore new channels of trade, make ncAV api)lications of established principles, aim at improvement in the arts and manufactures, &c. &c., and let ine ask, if these are not the A'ery men Avho have given the character to the age in Avhich we live. Your Watts, Fultons, Whitneys, ArkAvrights, &c. Avere all projectors, and the steam boat, the FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. 107 steam car, the cotton mills, power looms, and spin- ning m.achines, those miracles of the nirc, are the resuhs of their inappreciable labors. It is the pro- jector who has created the vast ditlcrence between the savage of North America and the cix'ilized European. It is the projectGr who has created the almost unmeasurable land ol' luxuries and cornforts enjoyed by the poorest peasant of modern times, biit which" the emi^erors and kings of the ancient world were deprived of. To raise our voice against the projector is in fact to declaim against the progress of civilization. But projectors ollen fail entirely in their schemes, and the capital bor- rowed and consumed by them, is a clear loss to the community. I am willing to grant all this, and even to allow the failures to be double, triple or quadruple the instances of success: the fierce of our argument is so exuberant, as to allow of any num- ber of Jailures short of the whole, and still be sound. There ma}^ be ninety-nine lixilurestbr ex- ample, before the discovery may be etiected, but when the discovery is once made, its benefits may endure forever. Columbus was a projector. He discovered a new world which was to be the home of the pilgrim, and the asylum of the persecuted ol all nations. If the whole" weahh of Portugal and Spain had been sunk in this discovery, the discove- ry would more than have compensated the loss. Fulton was a projector: and the very day that his boat moved by the impulse of steam power on the Hudson, he gave to the world, not what Avould compensate alone for the failures of those engaged in the investigation of steam power, but what would more than compensate for all the failures, of all projectors, from that moment to the present time. He gave to the world that Avhich has changed it^aspect and done more tbf the progress of civilization and wealth, than any invention since tlie introduction of the art of printing.* In like manner, he who at last makes some great improve- ment in agriculture, opens some new channels ol commerce, discovers new routes, invents new ma- * I cannot forbear making an extract from a discourse of Jud^e Story, delivered before the Mechanic's Insti- tute, Boston, in 1829. It will serve to show that the cold and withering treatment which the projector receives from the world, is amply sufficient to repress his ener- gies within proper limits, without the aid of law. "I myself have heard (says Judge Story) the illustrious inventor of the steam boat relate in an animating and affecting- manner, the history of his labors and discour- agement. 'When,' says he, 'I was building my first steam boat at New York, the project was received by the public either with indifiierence or with contempt, as a visionary scheme. My friends indeed were civil, but they were shy; they listened with patience to my ex- planations, but with a settled cast of incredulity on their countenances. I felt the full force of the lamen- tation of the poet — "Truths would you teach, to ?avc asinkui^' laiul, "jVll shuii, nouc aid you, and few uuderstaiid." •'The loud laugh often rose at my expense, the dry jest, the wise calculation of losses and expenditures, the dud, but endless repetition ofthe "Fulton Folly:" and even when the boat moved and the experiment succeeded — "All (says he) were still incredulous: none were willing to trust the evidences of their own senses. I was the victim of disappointment. Imagi- nation superseded the influence of fact, it was then doubted if it could be done a^ain, or if done, it was doubted if it would be made of any great value." chines, discovers new processes of industry, more than pays for all the iiiilures incurred by others. "The career of art (says Bcntham)the great road which receives the Jbotsteps of projectors, may be considered as a vast, and perhaps unbounded jdain, bestrewed with gulis, such as Curtius was swal- lowed up in. Each re{]uu-es a human victim to lall into it, ere it can close; but when it once closes, it closes to open no more, and so much of the path is safe to those who follow. What general, let him attack with ever so superior an army, but knows, that hundreds or perhaps thousands must perish at the first onset? Every man for himself, but "God,.'' adds thepnnerb, ("and it might have added the general and the legislator and all other public sen-ants) "lur us all." Thus do we see that the lew projectors who succeed, more than com- pensate for the liulures. I hope then I have suc- ceeded in clear] V proving that the usury laws can- not be defended on the ground that they favor those engaged in regular and old occupations, and prevent the lending" of money to projectors and prodigals. Bank interest should conform to the ordinary mar- ket rate. But it has been asked whether banks should not be restrained in the rate of interest which may be taken? To this I answer, that as banks not only afford a considerable portion of the ca]iital with which trade is carried on, but likewise the largest portion of the circulating medium of the countrj^, it behoves them, on this latter account, to be go- verned in lending money upon somewhat different principles from private individuals. There is no- thing more sensitive than a paper currency. Its value and credit depend on its ready convertibility into specie, when presented for payment. The cre- dit of a bank is like the chastity of woman; it must not be assailed by the brealh of suspicion even. Hence, a bank should not indulge a speculating spirit; all its transactions should be of the safest and surest character; its securities should be such as could be easily converted into cash, and it should never lend to doubtfid or suspected persons, be- cause the credit of the bank depending on the ready convertibility of its notes, it Avould be liable to be broken by a run at any time, if its debts could not be easily collected. For this reason banks ought not to lend in those cases where the risk is very great, because if they succeed the community would not be benefited, inasmuch as the profits would go to the stockholders in the shape of di\adend— and if they fail, the solvency of the bank might be endangered, the value of the notes destroyed, and the currency of the coun- try deranged. AV^e have seen that very high in- terest is generally the result of the risk which i-s run, and not of "the profits expected to be made: loans in these cases then, ought to be made by in- dividuals, and not bv banks, for the success or tailure of the individual would not effect the cur- rencv like that of the bank. For these reasons, I am" willing to allow a restriction of bank interest to the ordinary marketable rate, but never below this point— and I would have it to var}^ from time to time, with this rate. I am sony to find that in this opinion I am forced to differ from one of the most profound and intellectual statesmen, not only of this country, but of the age in which we live — a statesman whose penetrating and perspicacious 108 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. mind seizes with the lightning's rapidity on the important and essential points ol' his subjact, con- necting tliem. together by such a chaiii oi' close and logicar reasoning, as almost to prcscntj4:6 the mind, the lull rigor ot" mathematical demonstra- tion. Mr. Calhoun in the senate of the United States, while speaking on JMr. Webster's bill to prolong the charter of the United JjiLates Bank, says, " among others (limitations to be prescidbed) I entirely concur in the suggestion of the gentle- man from Georgia' (Mr. J^'orsyth) of fixing the rate of interest at five per cent.; a. suggestion -oi' the very highest importance, as having a most' important bearing on...the value of property and the prosperity of the country, in every '-branch of its industry."- I wish very nmch Mr. C. had given his .reasons ia exfenso, lor such a regu- lation. I know lidl well, they would have been the very best which could have been urged: "with- out such aid, however, I cannot conjecture any good -and substantial, argument in favor of the re- duction of bank interest, so- far below the marketa- ble rate in every portion of the vinion. .JNIany of the earlier writers on political economy were in favor of a low legal rate of interest upon the sup- position that the marketable rate might be regu- lated by loans at the banks. This is well tnown to proceed on the fallacious idea, that interest de- pends on the quantity of money, and not on the quantity of capital. If tlie. banks lor the purpose of lowering interest should make exorbitant issues, they immediately flood the country with paper, and a consequent depreciation must check the over-issue, by producing dralls on the banks for specie, or if sj)ecie payment should be suspended, then the paper monej^ would depreciate in propor- tion, and even much more than in proportion to the over-issue, so that you 'can never by the issue of notes increase the aggregate value of the whole circulathig medium. If the whole United States require a circulating medium of $: 100,000,000 to perform the functions of circulation, and you in- (;rease it by the issue of an inc6n\'ertible paper money (and remember this is the only Avay in which you can increase it) to ■$l200,000j000, you will just make two dollars after the issue, to be worth what one Avas before, and of course 200,000,000 AviU be worth no more than the 100,000,000. Property it is true, of every de- Kcrij^tion will rise in price, but it will be- a merely nominal v'ls'i, dependent entirely on the deprecia- tion of the currency. Even then, if interest de- pended on the amount of circulating medium, banks could hot lower it, for the very plain reason, that the issues ol' banks cannot possibly increase tlie aggi-cgatc value of the whole circulating me- dium. But you may say if bank interest is reduced to five per cent, banks will never lend, except- on the very best security, and they may accommodate with safety all who can furnish such security. To this I answer, that there is no fact better ascer- tained in the operation of banking, than that of a possibility of over-issue even upon th-e best secu- rity. The moment you bring bank interest below the marketable Tate of interest, every individual in jeach of a bank -will go to it for accomraod-ati'on • rather than to individuals, for the simple reason that he obtains the loan on cheaper terms. Un- der these circumstances, every body would be dis- posed to borrow of the nank, and pledge his pro- perty for repayment. The entire property of the country stands ready to mortgage itself to the banks tlie moment their rate of inrerest liills much below thq marketable rate. Mr. Ricardo says if the bank mierest in England falls below the mar- ketable rate, the bank is immediately besieged by a host of customers applying lor discounts, and the clerks are- all kept in the most constant and ac-- tive emiddyment. This is well known to have been particularly the case during the continental wars in Europe, when the immense loans con- tracted by government, together with a train of concomitant events, partly accidental, and partly growing out of the war, raised the market far above the bank interesi. On the contrary, when the bank rises above the market interest, the banks have little to do, the clerks are idle, lor money is borrowed from individuals where it can be gotten cheaper than from the banks. To show the im- propriety of. this great restritvtion on interest upon loans of the bank' of the United States, let us take, for illustration, the state of Illinois. Parties con- tracting may agree for interest in this state as high as 12^ per cent., and this is about the marketable rate. You establish here, as we will suppose, a branch bank of the United States, to lend money at 5 per cent: is ilr not evident that every borrower will gain 7^-.per cent, by going to the bank? And consequently everyone will give it preference over individuals, and the whole property of the com- munity wovdd be readily mortgaged for repayment; If then the bank pevsisted in fending in ev^ery case, the whole state would be inund-ated with paper; for there is no amount of money which the bank might not lend out. The bank then would be obliged to stop its issues long before all the com- munity was nccommodated: those wh& could not borrow from this source then, would go to indrvid- uals,_anl pay. 12^ per cent, for loans. Now I would ask- if, upon any principle of justice or poli- cy, any great monied institution ought to be re- quired to furnish a lew individuals in society with money at 5 per cent., while all other borrowers are obliged to pay 12^? Do you not by such a measure as this require of the bank to make a donation of 7^- per cent', in the capital boiTow-ed by each individual? Butj say you, the bank by lend- ing more than a sum equal to the reserve in tlie vaults, may make its fair profits even at an inte- rest of 5 per" cent. Grant it; a,nd what follows? Why that this is an argumeht for charginga bonus which ought to be equal to the advantage which accrues- from the monopoly of banking. If each of the branches of the United States bank, Avere allowed to charge an interest proportioned to the market rate in each state, wherQ located, the go- vernment might demand a bonus far bej'ond that which has been contracted for in the present char- ter, and justly demand it, foi' the whole community are -entitled to indemnification lor advantages yielded in the case of monopdi^s. . There are other considerations Avhicli would in- duce me to decide against the limitation proposed by Messrs. Calhoun and Forsyth. . Our great ob- jection to all national banks is that the power may become so great as to endanger the libertios' of the country. Reduce the rate -of interest to five per cent, and the power of the United. Si ates Bank will be greatly increased; I have shown the alter impossibility of such p, bank lending all the capi- tal which is. demanded; even on the best security. FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. 109 The bank directors then must determine, among those who apply tor loans,' wlao shall be favored and who not. They are a chosen divan, and will reject A or accept B according to their pleasure, without being obliged to give reasons (or it. The larlhcr tlie bank interest has been brought below the market interest, the greater Avill be the benefit from borrowing of the l^ank, the greater conse- quently the dependence of the trading portion-oi' the community on the bank, and of course,' the greater the jiowe'r of the bank. Siippose merchaiiis who are getting accommodation at the bank teel desirous to favor a measure which- the bank may disapi)rbve, would not the threat of the bank to' stop their discounts,- awe them at once into quiet submission to its will? Is it not a well known tact that when i>etitions are'liand«t>d about in London for signatures the merchants are Ircquently in the habit of 'confessing, that they would willingly Ihvor them, but dare not because of the hostility ot" the Bank of Engl and,fmd the consequent dcinget; ofa stoppage of thcif accommodation? If alt banks however lend at the same rate, and that be the market rate, then if one bank threaten you with a stoppage of accommodation, you may go to ano- ther; and if till the banks reject you, you may go to individuals, and that without any loss or injury. The independence of the borrower is thus secured, and the power -of the bank kept within proper hmits. Again: one great evil of all incorporations is, that they produce a concentrated ascertainable interest which alwa3's wars with great success against the unconcentrated, unascertainable and unharmonious interests which are arrayed against them. Thus taking the Bank gf the United Stales, the interest of the stockholders, directors and' debt- ors, is an ascertainable concentrated interest, which will always be capable , of much greater energy and exertion, than caiT be ex-ercised by the indefi- nite unconcentrated interest m opposition. Now reduce the rate of interest to five per cent., and all debtors, especially those in the west, wherethe mar- ket rate is so high, 'vvill feel a much greater interest in the perpetuation of the institution, than if it made loans at the market rate. Indeed, I can conceive of no plan better devised, to perpetuate and build up tlie power of the bank, than this limitation on interest: for the directors and stockhold^re will not' be injured by it, inasmuch, as they will pay less bonus, and issue more, and the debtors will be in- dissolubly bound to the bank. The Javored indi- viduals, those who get accpm'modation at tlie banlc, will ever raise their vofce in favor of the institution which feeds them, even though it be .done at the expense of justice and right. And recollect that their unconditional support, is apt to be much more energetic and elReient, than the hostility of those who are against it. One of the most prolific sources of error, misrule and oppressiohpin the world, is attributable to the energy, zeal and untiring perse- verance, with which particular concentrated inter- ests war upoji the general interests of the commu- nit}^ It is for this'reason, that banks, tarifi's, ar- mies, navies, and all incorporated interests, are so hard to put down, when once they have been es- tablished. . Again, Mr. Calhoun 'in his late beautiful and philosophical speech on the currency^ in which he has eminently displayed that admirable power so characteristic of his superior mind, the power of abstraction and generalization, has shown most conclusively the general tendency • of the banking system to over-issue, and a consequent constant jjrociivity to a meTe paper system. Now let me ask, would not the restriction of the Bank of the United States to..five per fcnt. interest, create a necessity on the' part of the whole establishment, to issue much more paper, than if tlie motlrer bank and each branch were peimitted at once to take the^ market rate in the several states where they are established? Most undoubtedly it would. We must recollect too, that the embarrassments of the United States Bank are apt to' be occasioned by causes of a very peculiar character, which causes will always be much stimulated and aggravated by .any general tendency in the whole Institution to an over-issue. The branches in the south and wpst, where five per cent, is much below the mar- ket rate, canissueanyamaunt of paper. This paper answertfin the stead of go'ld and silver. It is car- ried down, as- soon as emitted, to the great com- mercial cities. New York, Philadeljjhia, and Bal- timore, to purchase goods, never to be returned upon the branch banks, unless sent there by the banks in tliose. commercial cities alter having cashed them. If the banks however in those cities refuse to take the branch notes, as they were obliged to do when JMr. Cheves was .fii-st elevated to the presidency of the institution, and they are suddenly Returned upon the branch banks, then those banks must instantly curtail their issues, and call in their debt's; the stat"6 banks which have been issuing their notes to supply the local circulation, find themselves immediately at the mercy of the branch of tlie tJnited States Bank, and theexplo- sion of the sj^stem, or at least a disastrous derange- ment of- the cinrencj', is the inevitable- cdnse- quenee. Did not: the embarrassment of the United States Bank in 1818 and 1819 proceed trom this very cause? The southern and western branches over-issued, and the notes were taken at once to Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, to purchase goods. "The result was (sa3:s.M.r. Cheves) that, the bank and the great northern offices were drained' of their capital; aadon the 20th of July 1818, only eighteen months after the institution began its operations, it was obliged to commence a rapid and heavy curtailment of the business of the bank, and its offices. D.uring all this time, the bank had the advantage of immense government deposites." Again, in the same report he says, "the s!)ecic in the vaults (of the mother bank in Philadelphia) at theclose of -the day, on the first of April 1819, was only il2!6,OOd' 28, and the bank owed to the city banks, deducting' balances due to it, an aggregate balance of ^79,125 99". The NeAV York office was little better, and the of- fice at Boston a great deal wors6. The bank was - only saved by the transmission of specie from the west, and the rapid curtailment :of issues at all the branch banks, particularly in the west, toge- ther whh a determhiatin on the part of" the mother bank and branches in New York, Boston, &c. not to cash other- branch notes than those issued at their owjl oltices.' Then came the sudden and in- evitable ruin of the banks of the west, the total derangement 'of their currenc}'^ and the fbrcedand ruinous sale of half the real' property in that coun- try, to satisfy the claims of the banks. But enough of this .^ad and melancholy picture. It must I think, be evident, that marketable interest on bank loans in the west, 'wotdd cause the branches to is- 110 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURV LAWS. sue much less than they would when making only five per cent.; there would be less tendency to spe- culation, which over issues always produce; and consequently, not such distressing draughts upon the great eastern states, always Ibllovved by dread- ful reaction on the west. The last argument which I shall mention in fa- vor of making bank interest conform to the mar- ketable, is, that whenever bank interest is very low, a bank lever is instantly generated in the country. Every section, every little village, im- mediately comes forward for a bank; all are eager for the boon. When vv^as the banking mania greatest in England? Precisely at the time when the bank interest was farthest below market inte- rest— from 1795 to the termination of the continen- tal wars. Market interest was, during the time, rano-ing from five to fi'leen per cent., while bank interest' was only five. Look to our own country, and vou Avill find that whenever bank interest gets below the market, an instantaneous bank fever is the consequence. At this moment, bank interest is too low every where; and every where do we hear of new incorporations, and numberless ap- plications for banks — and this produces art almost irresistible tendency to a mere paper system. I hope then I have shown the policy of making bank interest conform to the marketable rate in every quarter where banks are established. With regard to the Bank of the United States, a ques- tioTi perhaps might arise, as to the propriety of in- demnifying the western states, where the interest would be highest; but this is not a question for me' to discuss. Effect of the Usury Laws during money pressures. I will now proceed to examine into the peculiar operation of the usury laws in those seasons of distrust and commercial embarrassment, when there is great pressure in the money market. My limits at present will not allow me to enter fully into this subject, and point out in detail the causes which produce these pressures: I can therefore give but a hasty and imperfect sketch of the gene- ral causes, and point out the pernicious influence of the usury laws. In almost every country, par- ticularly a highly commercial one, circumstances are constantly occurring to give an impulse to prices, either upwards or downwards; and accord- ingly as they are moving in the one direction, or the other, so will the spirit of speculation be fos- tered, or checked. When prices are rising, all are on the alert: the energies of man are drawn forth, his hopes which ever have an undue influence, are thrown into full play, and the imagination spreads the most enchanting schemes and projects before him; he is disposed to rush into business, or to get possession of property, whose enhance- ment in value from the rising tide of general pros- perity is alone expected to make him wealth}'-. In such a condition of things, the credit system will be pushed to the extreme limits. The borro-\j'er wants money to purchase, or enter into business with, and as property and business are improving, the lender is not so scrupulous about security. He lends upon moderate security because he be- lieves the improvement of prices will soon render it very ample. Buying and selling too under those circumstances will generally be on credit as ex- tended as possible. By and by, prices attain their maximum — there is a pause for a i'ew weeks be- fore the decline commences; then follows a state of things precisely the reverse of what I have just described. Every body wishes to sell, to avert the ruin which will arise from a farther fiill of prices — few are disposed to buy — the reaction, after the great extension of credit, must of course ruin the most adventurous. In this time of uncer- tainty and alarm, the money lender shrinks from the riiarket; what was good security a short time previous is not so now; hence he is disposed to withhold his money from the market. Purchases and sales become now a cash business, for the uni- versal destruction of confidence puts an end at once to the credit system. This increases the em- barrassments of the nation still farther, and pre- vents that wholesome and rapid circulation of cap- ital from place to place-, and hand to hand, so essential to the prosperity of eveiy country. Now let us ask, what are the chief causes of the advance or decline of prices and the consequent stimulus to speculation on the one hand, or ruinous stagnation of trade on the other? A deficiency at one time in all the necessaries of life, would of course give this upward impulse to prices; but such a general deficiency does not often occur. A par- tial deficiency will ha\e the same tendency, though not to the same extent. "Thus (says Mr. Tooke) a scarcity of agricultural produce, which would, under a fixed amount of currency, advance the monej' prices in a ratio more or less beyond the mere proportion of deficiency, is the occasion of an actual increase in the amount of the circulating medium, which increase is again, while progressive, the occasion of accelerating the rate and extending the range in the rise of prices." A deficiency of cotton, wool and sugar, would produce, thoucrh not perhaps to the same extent, the same spirit of speculation and enhance- ment of prices. We have all heard of the great but ruinous speculations in sugar at the commence- ment of the last war, when the West India supply was expected to fail. Another cause for the extension of credit and the generation of the spirit of speculation is the opening of new markets, or the extension of old ones. The hopes of man in this case are sure to have an undue influence on him. The merchant and manufacturer rush with tfieir capital to supply this new demand, and they are sure in the end to find that they have overrated it, and a re-vulsion soon takes place with aU the evils consequent on declining prices. We have all become acquainted with the immense influence exercised on prices in this country by the conlinental wars of Napoleon, and the awfiil re- vulsion consequent on a return to a state of peace. The unwise interference of government with la- bor and capital as I have shown elsewhere* has? a tendency to produce a singular effect. Govern- ment for example determines to foster and protect certain manufactures. This very circumstance in- stantly entices into the business a large portion of labor and capital, for the purpose of realizing the high profits which increased prices are to yield. This ])roduces an over-supply of manufactures, and a speedy reaction, with ruinous decline of prices. This was witnessed in New England im- mediately after the tariff^ of 1828, where it was supposed at least ^25,000,000 worth of capital was * Lectures on Restrictive System, FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. Ill Blink by unprofitable mamifacturing' establishments. Let us now examine tor a moment into the efiect which a rise or tiill in prices may produce on the circulating medium ol' a country, and how this reacts again on prices. First then, I will premise what I consider an axiom on this subject: that the efficiency of a circulatlag wedium depends on the cvmpimnd ratio «f its rjuaniity and velocity of cir- culation. If -S 100 change hands but once during a month, it has effected no more in the way of exchanges than iftlO which have passed through ten hands and ellected ten changes. In consider- ing the nature ol" a circulating medium, our states- men are led into great errors by confining their at- tention too exclusiveh" to bank paper and the me- tallic circulation. Every thing in fact which per- forms the functions of currency in society ought to be regarded as a component of the circulating me- dium. Money performs the functions of circula- tion most perfectly, because it represents value, but bears no interest during its detention in our hands: Bonds, promissory notes, bills of ex- change and stocks of all descriptions, are far in- ferior to money in performing the functions of cir- culmion. For, first, they bear interest, and the holder is in no hurr^' to part Avith them — and wlien they are transferred to another, interest is to be calculated on them; then they are to be discounted, and the amount of discount depending on so Ta:\ny fluctuating causes, the value of such paper be- comes very fluctuating and uncei'tain. Hence it has a very sluggish circulation; but so far as it does circulate, it most undoubtedly supplies the place of money. If I buy a tract of land for ^10,000 and pay in bonds, the bonds have un- doubtedly pro hue vice at least answered in the stead of money. "Liverpool and Manchester" says Thorntonj! "effect the whole of their larger mercantile payments, not b)^ country bank notes, of which none are issued by the banks of those places, but by bills of one or two months date, drawn on London." In the great manuiacmring county of Lancasliire "says Mr. McCulloch," and in part of Yorkshire; a bill on London at three months is reckoned a money payment; * and by far tJie largest projiortion of the currency consists either of bills of bankers drawn on their corres- pondents, or of those of the merchants and dealers scattered up and down the countiy. The same practice is Ibllowed, though to a less extent, in other districts; so that the aggregate amount of such bills afloat is enormous." Mr. Wade has estimated the bills of exchange alone in Great Britain as equal to ten times the amount of the money in the countrj'. In our country the pro- portion is not so great; but bills constitute here a very large portion of our currency. "The amount * A bill of this character, when passed from one to another is endorsed, and each endorser is held responsi- ble for the solidity of the bill, the number of endorse- ments therefore shows pretty accurately the circulation through which the bill has passed. We would be aston- ished at the circulation of small bills of exchange in Lancashire. When Mr. Lloyd, the principal partner in the opulent house of Jones, Lloyd St Co. was asked by a committee of the House of Commons whether he had not seen bills of exchange of £10 value with fifty or sixty names upon them? Answered, "Yes ! ivHh hvice that number. I have seen slips of paper attached to a bill as long as a sheet of paper could go, and when that was filled^ another attached to that!" of domestic bills of exchange" says Mr. Binney purchased in all parts of the union in 1832 (by the United States Bank alone) was i67,.516,673, "the half year ft-om December 1832, to June 1833, was .S'41,312,.982, showing a large increase in that time." The amount of domestic bills in 1832 col- lecteil by the United States Bank ibr others, was .<;42,096,062. And thus we find that the bills pur- chased and collected by the l^iited States bank alone in 1832, amounts to more tlran S 100,000,000; equal to all the paper money and specie in cir- culation. Having now explained my opinion as to the components of a circidating medium, 1 will pro- ceed to show how it is influenced by a rise in prices, and a spirit of speculation. As prices ad- vance, we have already seen that credit will be enlarged. The tarmer in buying land, gives his bond instead of money. The retail merchant not only buys goods to the amount of his capital, but buys to as great an extent as he can get credit. At the same time "tlie exporting merchant, says Tooke, gives his acceptance to the manu- facturer for the utmost amount which the latter will grant him credit for; the manufacturer at the same time having cleared his hands of fin- ished work, buys an additional quantity of the raw material, not only sufficient to replace, but probably to extend his stock, and possibly his buildings, machinery, &c. For these purposes he gives his acceptance as far as his own credit is available, and may further discoimt the accept- ances-which he has received, thus converting the credit of his customer conjointly with his own, into the means of obtaining the temporary command of capital beyond what his own property or credit Avould afford him;" and thus it is, that bonds, prom- issory notes, bills of exchange, &c., are greatly multiplied by the enhancement of prices and a spirit of speculation in the community. Again — the bank issues on such occasions are very apt to be excessive. The spirit of speculation, and the rise of prices, produce a disposition to borrow from the banks, and the banks arc disposed to accommo- date on such occasions, for the very same reasons that individuals are. This produces a redundant currency, which at first increases the spirit of spec- ulation, and enhances prices until there is a return of the notes on the banks for specie to send abroad; at this point the banks must cease to issue more under the penalty of being drained of their specie.* * It will be perceived that I have made the over- issue of the banks to bo rather the etlect than the cause of a rise in prices and a spirit of speculation. I be- lieve, in the great majority of cases, this will be found to be the fact. The banking system however, although first stimulated by the rise in prices to over-issue, im- mediately becomes in turn a powerfully operating cause, carrying up prices still higher, and increasing the speculative mania, by the facilities it otters in the money market. I have no doubt but that a bank like that of the United States, or the Bank of EnHand, might of itself, generate this tendency, without the in- tervention of causes which have been mentioned above, and this is one serious objection to such banks. For some able views on this subject, I must refer to the work of Mr Gouge, which would have supphed a de- sideratum in this country, if he had only given a fair and full statement of all the causes which generated the several money crises which have occurred in this country, all of which he has however, with too much cj- parte ingenuity referred to the operations of the 112 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY OF USURY LAWS. It is just at this .point that universal confidence has conipletely overstrained" the whole credit -system. Credit every wliere is substituted for cash among individuals, and the banks are makinsi: the largest possible issues with the smallest possible reserve of spcele in the vaults. Che circulation to*- be- comes much more rapid, and a consequent pro- digious economy in the use of money is the result. When confidence for example, is univereal, debits and credits are compared together, and the balance alone paid in cash-. Thus A'may oiveJB — B owe C — C owe D, and so ^n through the alphabet — and Z perhaps may stand indebted to A. Npw when confidence is perlect, and all are apparently moving Ibnvard in the full tide of prosperity, their accounls will be compared together, B will trans- fer his.-claim on A, to his creditor C; C to D, D to E,and soon through the alphabet,- until it reaches Z, who we suppoaS, stands indebted, to A in .the same amount. All these twenty-five transactions then would be selded at once, without.the passage oi" a sbigJe dollar, merely J^y balanculg debits and credits: and at all times Avhen confidence was 'gen- eral, cash would be required only for the balaiice due, alter comparing the debits and credits to- getlier. This is found -fo be actually the practice iii London. '-In order to economise the use of money'' says Mr. JNIcCuHoch '-the principal bank- ers.-of the mefropolis arc in the habit of sending a clerk each day to the clearing house in Lombard street, who carries with him the various bills in the possession of those bankers, which are drawn upon his constituents; the balance on the one side or other, is then paid in cash, or Bank of England paper. By this admirable contrivance,- the bank- ■ ers of London are enabled to settle, transactioiis to the amount of several miliions. a' day, by the in- tervention of not more, on an average", than from £200,000 to £300,000 of cash or bank notes." The exchanges, says j\tr. Gallatin inthe-report of the Union Committee, etfected daily ift the city of New York alone, amount in all to )»;5,000,000 us- ing to 1500,000,000 per year: payments are made and exchanges effected here, no doubt, upon prin- ciples similar .to those upon which the London bfinkers economise money. Thus do we see tliat in season.? of apparent prosperity, Avhen the-spirit of .speculation is afloat, confidence actually stands instead of money. On such occasions we may well say with Mr. "Wade, ^'by the the use of Bills of exchange, bills of lading, ch'ecks, scrip, notes, clearing houses, and a variety of other contri- vances, aided by a vast fabric of credit taken and given in open account, money .(in its common ac- ceptation)hardl}''-ever enters into mercantile affairs; banking system; thus taking, the effect in many cases for the cause. The fact is, these money pres- sures occur frequently in countries which have a purely mctalhc currency. Thus in Hamburg:, there are no banks: yet in 1799 there was. in Hamburg, a monty pressure, accompanied with a. fearful list of banknipt- cies^ and a rate of interest ranging up to. 15 per cent. .There are no bank notes m circulation in X,ancashire in England. Bills of exchange form more thaii nine- tenths of the currency "there,, and yet no district in England has sulfered more by money pressures. There are so many ways in which credit may be ex- tended without the agency of banks, that I am some- times disposed to doubt whether these money pressures would not take place to ahnost an equal extent with- out them. : " it is the substance really meant and shadowed forth; but it rarely, as one may -say bodily, passes from mei-cllant to merchant; "the business fttUhe mer- cantile, classes being reduced, by a. w^derful sys- tem of balancing payments, to litde more than a game at chess, or the' worldng in their counting houses of -an algejaraic equation consisting of the debit and credit side of each account, and commu- nicating the result to their agents, customers and correspondents, iif every.part of the globe.'? Now suppdsuig the wliole circulating.rtiedium to rcmairi the same, it is evident that a sudden shock given to public confidence, Avill retard the velocity ol cir- culation, and produce a money p^ressure at once. This we have lately seen fully exemplified in our own country since the, rash removal of the deposites 0.ur prcs'int pressure is not occasioned; by a dimi- "nution of bank paper as some hav« imagined, Ibr veryhtde, ifiany diminution has .taken place; it is owing -to the dimmished velocity of the cir- culation. So soon as you' destroy confidence, cre- dits, no longer serves for cash; A stands in-- debted to B, who wiU not take debts diie to. A in paygngnt as before: dealing becomes isolated* — debits and credits are no longer compared, and the balance struck. The daily transactions to the amount of millions in London and New York, can- not, under these circumstances, be settled|.by a lew hundred thousand pounds, or dollars. More cash is rerfui red. than before. Juat at this time the merchant seeing the storni that is gathering around him, mu.st keep more idle money about him to meet his occasional demands — every debtor must do the same. This produces a much greater ab- straction irom the currency than is generally ima- gined. Now what is the effect/of the usury laws in such a' crisis as this? Most evidently, to in- crease' the pressure. Men who have capital to lend in this season of alarm and uncertainty, will -not venture forth "with it, because legal interest will not cover the risk They hoard, therefore, rather than jeopard their capital, and thus it is, at a time when tjiere is the greatest demand for cap- ital, the usurj- laws cause it to disap])ear, and thus add to the calamities of the times. ._ It is said, du- ring the late commercial distress iii New York, the deposites were very, great in the most secure banks. In such times as these, oidy permit indi- viduals to take a fan- rate of interest for the risk in- curred, and all the capital of society Avill immedi- ately be drawn into active rise. You may say in- deed, that many wiU be rumed by the high rate of interest at which they borrow capital. Grant it — but would not that ruin equally and more certainly follojv, by forced sales of their property? And re- collect, that the loss incurred by a forced sale can * A^ a proof of the truth of the doctrine liere ad- vanced, I would advert to the two great money pres- sures ia England in 1793 and 1810 and 11. In both case"S'government determined to issue exchequer bills, and it seems that the mere determiflation of the govern- ment was sufficient to restore confidence and remov'e the pressure before the bills were issued. I have no doubt but that the phui- of Governor Marcv, in New York, to create .'b,;6,000,000 of stock, to b'e lent 'out in the state will, if it ^ha^ not already dona it, re- lieve the pressure in New York. I would not however for a inomfent be supposed capable of applauding such an immoral scheme: a scheme which proposes to make the state responsible for the acts and misconduct of banks and politicians. FAR:>IERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. ira never be remedied, whereas exorbitant interest ! bards, to even a greater extent than by the Jewsi maybe gotten rid of, by boiTOwing at a cheaper | Henry VII. one of the most vigilant penetrating rate from other (juartcrs. Moreov'er, whether the individuals borrowing are eventually ruined or not, much Avili^ most undoubtedly, be done to re- lieve the distress, by thus throwing the capital into circulation. We have just seen how the circu- lating medium is economised in times of general monarchs that ever sat on the British throne, en- acted laws not only against interest, but against all profits t)n bills of exchange; and the historian tells us, that^vith all his \igilaiice and energj^ he could not secure the execution of the law. In the reign of Henry Till, ten per cent; mtereet was allowed, confulence and tiuicied security, by the subslitution i and corresponded nearly whh the market rate: "but of credit for cash. Now in times of great pecu- | in the reign of his son, the prohibition was re- niary pressure, ever}^ single portion ot" property i vived, and continued during the feign of the bi- broijght into the market by the pressure, increases j gotted and persecuting IMarj-; and the effect was the demand for a circulating medium, because a- rise of intere^ to 14 percent. Coming nearer every such case is a new exchange of propert}- re- to our own times, we find that the rate of interest quiring money to etiect it, wliich will be of course ' was fixed in France as early as 1665 at five per prevented, ii money can be borrowed before tlie " ''~ ^"'''^ ''" ' '^ ^ :*r___, c *_ /• propert}^ is brought under the hammer. So far, I have beeai arguing against the usurj' laws upon the ground ol' the evils which tlicy pro- duce in case oT" tlieir efiicient operation. But I believe all history has satisfactorily proved that the usury laws will ever be broken or evaded, in spite of the law, or the judge. If the marketa- ble rate of interest i-ises beyond the legal, the lender of money then labors under a strong temp- tation to violate the law. Suppose tliat he does it openly, what is the consequence? why, in the first place, the risk which the law occasions be- comes a new element in the calculation, and he cent. In 1766 the law reduced it from five to lour. Instead however (says Storch) of reducing the market rate firom five to four, it was raised to six, an additional per cent, being required to cover the risk of illegality; and this very wisely produced a repeal of the measure. Again, m 17S6 the Em- press Catherine reduced the legal rate of interest ti-om six to five in Livonia. Hitherto, says Storch, those who had good security- to offer vrere enabled to borrow at six per cent, but henceforth they had to pay seven per cent, and upwards. Man)" other instances might be adduced, but it is not at all necessary to cite a greater number, to prove what ever}' man who is acquainted with the principles must exact higher interest to indemnity him against j of political economy must readily admit. it. In the second place, there is an. ignomiiiy in- curred by violating the law of his country, and he must charge on this account likewise, for no man will incur ignominy and degradation without behio- Avell paid ibr it. Tiiirdly — the hosicst conscientious and scrupulous capitalists either withdraw their capital altogether from the market, because of the insutficiency ol' the legal rate of interest, or use it themselves. This leaves the money market en- tirely in the hands of the unscrupulous and un- merciful moneylender, who in the absence of reg- ular competition, is enabled to charge a much high- er interest on his loans. For these three reasons it is, that laws restraining the rate of interest operate most oji])ressively on the needy borrower, by actually raising interest instead of lowering it. We have already seen to what an enormous heiffht the usury laws raised interest in Rome. Montesquieu says, mterest in the city Avas 34 per cent., in the provinces 48 per cent. • Brutus lent monej" at 45 per cent, in Cyprus. And we have seen too to what a height interest has risen in all Mahomedan countries, for the same reason, it he- ing in those countries ten or twenty times higher than in Europe, in consequence of the risk created by the laws themselves. During the middle ages, interest was generally prohibited altogether, or much restricted: and wiiat was the result ? Whv. In ever}" country' where usur}" laws exist, so soon as the market rate rises above the legal, besides the direct and positive infrmgements of the law which have just been considered, numerous de- vices are had recourse to, for the purpose of defeat- ing and evading its operation; and in spite of the assertion of Lord Mansfield that, ''wheii tlie real truth is a loan of rnoney, the wit of man cannot find a shift to take it out of the statute," these evasions do \ery frequcndy succeed in defeating the law. The usury laws are certainly penal sta- tutes, and according to a rule of interpretation ac- knowledged by all jurists, ought to be constmed strictl}".- In England, those laws have-been exe- cuted with as much ligor as perhaps in any other comitiy; and jet all the writers agree that the}' are very frequently and succossluljy evaded. They have given rise in that country to a species of gambluig in annuhies of the most pernicious char- acter. The following resolution appears in a very able report made by a committee of the House of Commons on the usury laws in 1818. "It is the opinion of this committee that the la^vs regulating or restraining the rate of interest have been ex- tensively evaded, and have failed of tlte effect of imposing a maximum on such rate: and that of late vears, from the constant excess of the market ' rate of interest above the legal, they have added the Jews, who were the c;reat monev lenders of; to the expense incuiTcd by liorrowers on real se- Europe, were in the habit of lending riiohev (savs j curity. and that such borrowers have been corn- Chief Justice Hale) at 40 per cent., and sonietimes ; pelled to resort to the mode of granting annuities as high as 50 or 100. In 1215 Edward I. under the j on lives, a mode which has been made a cover imnuTse of the most misguided political Aiews and for obtaining a higher rate of interest than the fanatical zeal, confiscated the pro]icrtvof the Jews rate limited by law, and has further subjected the in England, and banished them from the country. Fifteen thousand were thus robbed and driven into exile — and what says the historian of tlie result ? AVhy, that lending and bon-o^Anng must take place in everv countr}-, aiid that so soon as the Jew bon-owers to enormous charges, or forced Uiem to make very disadvantageous sales of dicir estates." The metliod resorted to m France for the purpose of evading the usur}" laws, is simply to give a bonus before comj^ieting the transaction, or wliich were driven away, the jiractice of usurA" was ex- | is the same thing, to fi-ame the obligation for a ercised by the English themselves, and the Lorn- i larger sum than was actually advanced by the Vol. II.— 12 114 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. lender. None of" the parties interested, can be called in to swear to the fact of sucli a bonus being given: unless therefore some third disinterested party was privy to the transaction, it remains unim- peachable. In Russia, the usury laws are con- stantly and successfully evaded. The rate fixed by law is I believe five per cent.; "mtmy people" says Jeremy Bentham "lend money, and no body at that rate; the lowest ordinary rate upon the very best real secmity is eight per cent., nine per cent, and even ten, upon such sccm'ity are common. The contract is renewed from year to year. For a thou- sand roubles, the borrower in his written contract obliges himself to pay at the end of the year, one thousand and fifty. Rcfore witnesses he receives his thousand roubles: and without [a witness] he immediately pays back his thirty roubles or what- ever the sum may be, tliat is necessary to bring the real rate of mterest to the rate verbally agreed on." In the state of Tirginia, the most common mode of evading the usury laws, is by purchase of bonds. The Court of Appeals have decided, that the pur- chase of bonds at discount, does not come with- in the pale of the law. Now suppose, A wishes to borrow $ 1000 of B, but he Icnows B will not lend at six per cent. He executes a bond, entirely fictitious to C, which C immediately sells to B at six per cent, discount; B pays C only .^940 wliich is handed over to A, and B knows nothing, or at least legally knows nothing, of tlie fictitious char- acter of the bond, and consequently cannot be re- sponsible under the usury laws. Another mode oi evading those laws, is by drawing and redrawing bills of exchange, and selling them at discount. But you may ask if these laws are so success- fully evaded, why should a clamor be raised against them, as they must be harmless on our own prin- ciples. To this I answer, that many money hold- ers are precluded by occupation and oilier circum- stances, li-om being enabled to prai-tice these de- vices; and again, public opinion al\\'ays brands them with some degree of ignominy, which drives a large portion of the scrupulous and conscientious ii-om the business, and leaves it consequently in the hands of those who, taking advantage of the monoj)oly which they enjoy, exact a much higher interest virtually, than if allowed to lend their money directly, without being forced by the law to practice a fraud. Thus, in England the method of borrowing by selling annuities, always enhances the interest; actually paid. "The laws against usury" says Mr. Holland, partner of the house of Baring, Brothers & Co. and one of the best intbrmed merchants in the country, says Mr. McCulloch, "drives men in distress, or in want of money, to much more disastrous modes of raising it, tlian they would adopt if no usuiylaws existed. The land o\vner requires capital to increase his live stock, or improve his lands, or for any other ]:>urjwsc, at a period when the government is bor- rowing money at above five per cent.; no one will then lend to the land owner, because his money is worth more to him than the law allows. The land owner must therefore either give up his im- provements, or borrow money on annuity interest, on much more disadvantageous terms than he would have done, if no law existed against usurj\" Mr. Sugden on being asked by a conunittce of the Ilouseoi'Commons, if whether there were no usury laws, better terms could be obtained by the borrower than those wliich he gets by borrowing on an- nuity interest, answered, "I am decidedly of opin- ion, that bdter terms could have been obtained; fbr there is a stigma which attaches to men who lend money upon annuities, that drives all respect- able men out of the market. Some leading men did latterly embark in such transactions; but I never knew a man of reputation in my own pro- fiission (law) lend money in such a majiner, al- though Ave have the best means of ascertaining the safest security, and of obtaining the best terms." Unfortunately, m our own state, public opinion is decidedly opposed to the business of purchasing bonds; and the consequence is, that comi)aratively little capital is employed in this manner, and the business being thus thrown inta the hands of a Hew, gives them a monopoly of tlie market and the power of dictating their own terms, especially ii^ times of pressure and alarm. The very best paper in New York has been dis- counted durmg the present pressure, at two, and two and a halt' per cent, per month; and such has been the embarrassment in the money market, that persons have borrowed, as has frequently been the case m such times in London, tor twenty-four hours only, at the enormous interest of one per cent, per diAi. I have no hesitation then in de- claring it as my honest conviction, that the usury laws injure that very class in whose defence they are enacted, and foster and pamper the veiy clas« against whom they are intended to operate. The unscrupulous heartless "shaver" is the man who reaps the greatest advantage from their opera- tion. He is in fact most interested in their con- tinuance. Thus do we see that the usury laws in every country will be either directly broken, or artfully evaded. That in both cases, instead of lowering mterest below the market rate, they actually raise it much higher than it would reach Avithout those laws, and thus injure the honest scrupulous money lender en the one side, who is unwilling to violate or even evade the laAvs of his countiy, while they on the other hand, oppress the borrower by actu- ally raising the interest of money for beyond the point it would reach, Avithout the artificial risk created by the law, and tJie stigma attached to all those transactions, by pultlic opinion. Moral influence of the Usury Laws. Let us now contemplate these laws for a moment, in relation to their influence on the moral condition of society. All law should spring naturally from the relations of society, and be of such a character as to command the sympathy of the community in favor of its execution, and not against it: all law should be based on natural justice as far as possible, and should be of such a character as will secure the perfect obedience of the members of the body politic. This wdl ensure always the reign of the law which is the vitality of genuine republicanism. Now what is the character of the usury laws'? They are evidently an infringement of the rights of a certain species of capitalists; they hold out the greatest temptation to a violation of the laAvs; they administer to the very worst passions of our nature, avarice, ingratitude, revenge; they sacrifice the honest niiui, and pamper and feed the dishonest and uiiRcrujiulous. They engender liypocrisy, cunning and false dealing on the one side, and treachery and cUshoncsty on the other. They ai-e FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. 115 Piiurcs unwisely laid by Uic legislature to under- luine ;uul destroy tlie characters of both borrower and lender, lie who violates or evades the usury laws sutlers iu character, and he who pleads tliem in bar ol' the payment of his debt, is pointed at Avith the (in<^er of scorn. How unwise is the law Avhich holds out a temptation to the borrower to become inti)rnier and prosecutor lor the jienalties, and thus to reap iniqidtous adv^antaye irom a transaction to which he was a willing, and perhaps a benefited party. Mr. Hay in 1817 in one of the ablest and most ])liilosophical speeches ever deliver- ed in the legislature of Virginia, justly saj's in re- lation to our usury laws "nmch, sir, as we from habit venerate tlie law in the abstract, its practical operation has been always odious. Sir, I have seen a borrower retire trom the supreme tribunal with a decision iri his favor. The instinctive hor- ror of the bj'-standers has opened a lane ibrhim to pass as if they feared contamination from his touch. These laws, are calculated to harden the heart of man; they offer him ai:)remiura forun- kindness." The disrepute into which the money lenders have fallen in most countries, is owing chiefly to the usury laws. Their rights have been violated by the law, and tiiey have been almost forced to give up their straight forward honest character, for one of cunning and evasion. Repeal those laws, let the capital of the scrupulous be brouglit into the mo- ney market, and inymediately you will secure ame- lioration of character in the money lender, and in- terest will rather be lowered than raised. I am not dealing in vain conjecture; we have facts to prove our assertion; "The case of Holland" says Mr. McCulloch, "ilirnishen a practical and striking proof of the correctness of the theory; It is an undoubted liict that the rate of interest has been for a very long period, lower in Holland, than in any other country in Europe, and yet Holland is the only country where usury laws are altogether unknown, where capitalists are allowed to demand, and borrowers to pa}', any rate of interest. Not- withstanding all the violent chmiges of the go- vernment and tJte extraordinary derangement of her financial concerns in the course of the last twenty years, the rate of interest in Holland has continued comparatively steady. During the Avhole of that period, persons w'lio could offer unexcep- tionable security, have been able to boiTow money at from three to five and a half per cent.; nor has the average rate of interest charged on catiital advanced on the worst species of security, ever exceeded six or seven per cent., except when the government was negotiating a forced loan. But in this countiy, Avhere the law declares that no more than five per cent, shall be taken, the rate of interest for capital advanced on the best landed security has in the same period, varied from five to 1(3 or 17 per cent., or five times as much as in Holland. Surely this ought to put to rest all doubts as to the inefficacy of the usury laws." In France the usury laws were abolished at the revo- lution, and Storch saj's the abolition was attended with no rise of interest. "In Hamburg, (sa^-s the reportof the House of Commons above alluded to) the rate of interest is quite unrestricted; or if there be a Avrittcn law restraining it, it has become alto- gether obsolete. The rate therefore varies according to circumstances: occasionally it has been at seven, eight and even ten per cent., mid in 1799, a period of great mercanlile embarrassment and insecurity, it was as high as 14 per cent.: generally however, the rate of discount on good bills does not exceed lour or five per cent." In New York the rate of interest is seven per cent., but I believe loans might easily have been negotiated before the present money pressure, on good security, for six per cent., and even less. In South Carolina the legal rate is seven per cent., but the marketable rate, says Dr. Cooper, is only six. We- need never fear then that the rate of Interest, wh.en lell free, will become exorbitant. It is bound over by laws as certain and unerring in their operation as those which govern the prices and hires of any other species of property in the com- munity. Compound Interest. Before leaving this branch of my subject, I will say a fi^w words on the subject of compound interest, or receiving interest on interest, as soon as it is due. This kind of interest is universally condemned in all countries: principally because of the rapidity with which it accumulates, and the severity with which it would operate on the debtor. Now I cannot possi- bly see the justice of those* la'\vs against compound interest, in all cases. I can well imagine that honest persons may be engaged in law suits Avhich may require years to carry them tlirough the labarjTi- thic mazes of a chanceiy court, and in such cases, 1 am very willing to allow that compound interest ought not to be granted: but in all cases where the obligation is an acknowledged one by the debtor, and he faOs to pay interest when due, I can see no reason, and I believe ingenuity cannot point out one, why the debtor should not pay interest on the interest which was due; The law in this case, violates the principle of a,ll good law — that no one should be allowed to take advantage of his own wrong. If the debtor, by fraud and stratagein, can evade the payment of interest, he gains by it — and the creditor is made to loose by his kindness and indulgence. There is surely no principle of justice which ca,n sanction the law against com- pound interest. If the interest is paid up when due, the creditor can lend it out again, and thus make coinpound interest. If the debtor Avithhold it, then it is nothing but justice that he should pay interest on it, as it has certainly become principal. Thus says Jeremy Bentham, "the cause of him whose contention is to catch again, is preferred to that of him whose contention is to avoid a loss; contrary' to the reasonable and usetijl maxim of that branch of the common law which has acquired the name of equity. The gain which the law in its tenderness thus bestows on the defciuher, is an encouragement, a reward, which it holds out for breach of fahh, for iniquity, for indolence, for negli- gence." III. Arguments used in favor of the Usury Laxos. I \vill now advert to some of the princiiile argu- ments urged in favor of the usury laws, and as their refutation is generally involved in the preced- ing reasonmg, I sliall be very brief. One very popular argument in favor of these laws is, that they have either a tendency to check prodigality, by preventing the prodigal from getting money at all, or if he succeeds, they prevcnthis ruin by forbidding high interest. In answer to this it has been justly urged, that either the prodigal has property, or he ha's none. If he has property he can gi\?e good 116 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. iiecurityj and consequently can borrow money at as cheap a rale as any one. In tact there is great ad- vantage in lending money to a prodigal on good security; for his career will soon bring his property into the marlcet and the lender who has a lien on it will generally be enabled to get it at his own price. This fact is well known to" all speculators in the money market. Suppose however that no one will lend to the prodigal, because of the restraint of the usury laws. Do you think thereby to prevent his spending his patrimony? Certainly not. He will get li-om tradesmen th.it credit which the law will not allow him to get irom the money lender. Suppose he. goes to the merchant and buys goods worth ^100, but is charged by the merchant !jj;133; does he not virtually boiTow in tins case at the enor- mous rate of 33 per cent.? lie may buy of the horse jockey tor #150 on credit, a horse worth but !B 100 cash. In this case he will give 50 per cent. Now I maintain, and I believe the proposition sus- ceptible of demonstration, that it is infinitely better to throw the prodigal into the hands of the money lender, than of the \-arious tradesmen of the com- munity; for in the first place, money lencUng is his business, and hke all r^ular dealers, he can do this business upon cheaper and more advan- tageous terms to the borrower, tlian he could who do'es not carry it on regularly. The dealer of whom the prodigal should purchase i^; 100 worth of goods, would think an advance of 33^ per cent on account of credit given, a mere trifle: a regular money lender would never tliink of exacting such exor- bitant interest. In the second i)Iace, public opinion acts ^vith more force against the exactions of the money lender than against those of any other class of dealers. The sales of the merchant, tailor, horse dealer, &c. may he-kept secret, or if known cannot be properly judged of, in consequence of the variable prices of the articles disposed of: but the money lender must record his securities, the trans- action thus gets publicity: money, as I hav^e before said, is an article of commerce whose agency and value are well understood, and a too exorbitant rate of interest would be sure to brand the money lender with a considerable degree of inicimy: the money lender therefore is in most cases the fittest person to obtain credit liom. Suppose however the pro- digal has no property? Then it is a matter of very little consequence whether he fall into tlie hands of the shaver or not: where there is no fleece there can be no shearing. The money lender will consent to lend, in all probability, in such a case at no in- terest whatever. Prodiii:als in this condition most generally borrow of li-iends (small sums from each) who make up their minds to lose Avhat they lend, and theretbre take no interest at all, or only the legal. Such loans partake principally of the na- ture of gifts, and therefore have but little to do with the subject under discussion. Thus do we see that even on the very principles of those who contend for the usury laws, they cannot check or diminish prodigality in the slightest degree; but on the contraiy, exert a most pernicious influence against the prodigal. But why, let me ask, all this solicitude — all this guardian care of the public for the prodigal and his interests'? Is he the most important member of society? You answer, no — In almost every point of view, he is one of the least worthy. Is there a universal proclivity in the human family to profligacy and prodigality? No not one in twenty ig a prodigal. Can it then be just and expedient, even if the usury laws checked prodigality (which they certainly do hot,) to impose restriction on the holders oi money throughout the nation, thereby violating every prin- ci})lc "of equity, nmning Counter to the great and harmonious system of tree trade and the regulating laws of supply and demand, tor the benefit of the least Worthy and the least numerous class of socie- ty? -Surely not. Again, iithas been urged that thes« laws prof ec^ the necessitous, the indigent., the simple, S)'C, 1 must refer to what has already been said as a sufficient refutation of such arguments, with the additional remark, that we do not assert that cases may not occur where borrowing on interest may ruin the individual. AH we assert is^ that borrowing mo- ney is generally better than other species ot credit, which may be obtained — that if under pe- culiar circumstances the. money lender has it sometimes in his power to oppress, and take un- due advantage of the necessities, of others, in other trades men do the same things, to a much greater extent. We are not near so liable to mnposition in borrowing money, as m many other transactions. I have known. a man who had ta- ken- a peculiar fancy to a horse, to give $;500 for him, when no man, not even the owner, could va- lue him at more than $;150. Is this undue ad- vantage taken by the owner any reason why the legislature should regulate the price of horses'? I have known a man to be obliged to pay five times the value of a jewel which Avas associated with his fondest recollections, merely because the owner knew his attachment to it, and took advantage of it. Is this any reason, to bring in a law to fix the ]3rice of jeweliy ? . Certainly not: and yet it Avould Idc just as reasonable, as to defend the usury laws for the purpose of protecting the necessitous, the simple, &c. And besides all this, the law can never attain its end. You may suppose it elTicient in one direction, bvU equally bad and even Avorse consequences Avill flow from some other quarter. You had as Avell expect to defend Virginia from the incursions of her future enemies, by building a cliain of forts around the mouth of the Pianki- tank alone, as to think of putting an end to prodi- gality, and of protecting the indigent, the necessi- tous, the simple, &g., b.y saying they should not borroAv money at more than six per cent. Worse than useless are the vain attempts of the legisla- tor to stop the floodgates through Avhich the Avealth of the prodigal and imprudent is floAving. "The fool and his money Avill soon part," in spite of all the officious, impertinent, intermeddling kindness of the laAvs. The last argument urged in favor of the usury laAvs, Avhich I shall examine is, that deriA^ed from the fact, that almost all nations from the time of il/oses to the present day, have either proscribed interest altogether, or restrained it within certain limits. Generally I have the utmost respect for those opinions universally prcA-alent among man- kind, and am Avilling even to concede that the uni- versality of belief, in the majority of cases is, pri- ma facie evidence of their correctness. We must make, hoAvever, distinction betAveen questions of feeling and of reason. "On questions of feeling'" I have elsewhere said "the opinions and senti- ments of the Avorld are generally correct." But on those Avhich depend on reason, common opin- ion is by no means so unening a guide. If I am FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. 117 asked why envy, malice, ingratitude, want of brotherly, filial, or parental affection, are con- sidered wrong, I would return you a satistlictoiy answer, by sayino; Ihat mankind in all nations and ages have felt and pronoiniccd them \\Tong. Ifl am asked however, why similar polygons are to each other in the du])!lcate ratio of their homo- logous sides, or why 1 know the sun to be the cen- tre of our solar system, and the i)lancts with their satellites to revolve in harmonious movement about this common centre, I can no longer answer you by sa} ing mankijid in all nations and ages have 'believed so." This is a'qwstion of reason and obscrvatioiT, and consequently not to be de- termined by popular oi)inion. The great problems of this character are solved but slowly in the lapse of ages, by the wise, the re-electing, and -the investigating portion of mankind, v/ho, ih com- parison with the great mass, the vulgum genus, forms but a small — a veiy small minority of the human tamily. On quei?tions of reason and ob- servation, the opinions of such men as Bacon, Locke, Newton, Smith, Turgot, and Franklin, are worth more than the opinions ol' the thousands, or even millions arrayed against them.* When we cast a retrospective glance at the ages that have gone by, and contemplate the progress of man, through the many gradations and stages which he has passed, and examine the systems of philoso- phy and of science which have had their day of admiration and devotion, and employed the busy spirits for a season, and then have sunk into neglect and contempt, we are ahnost disposed to believe that the cause ot" truth can never triumjih, until njan has been previously cursed with ages of error. How slowly has even the b.cautiful religion of our Saviour been spread abroad? How many millions are yet in darkness? How many ages must yet elapse before the gospel shall spread over the earth "as the waters co^-er the great deep?" And yet what exertions have been made — how many have been sent forth under tlie auspices of the christian religion into the heathen land? If then, religion itseh", under the sanctions of Jehov9.h, armed with the most mighty arguments in its de- fence, pushed forward with untiring zeal and per- severance by the ministers of the gospel, and so essential to the happiness and salvation of the world, has nevertheless advanced so slowly, that even at this day the va^t majority of the inhabi- tants of the world ;u-e still pagan — plunged into The grossest superstition and idolatry — can we wonder then, that legislators and governors should Btill be in error in regard to some polilico-economi- cal principles? especially when we recollect the sagacious remarks of David Hume, "tliat there is no subject on which the first impressions of men are so liable to be erroneous as the subject of po- litics."' Are we not the last people in the world to acknowledge a binding influence imposed by ancient usage and general belief? Are not all our institutions innovations on the past? If the ar- gument drawn from anti([uity be cont-lusive, would not the monarchial institutions of Europe stand on a firmer basis than ours?' Would not the mo- nopolies and restrictions of the middle ages be re- * AIthou2;h the majority be decidedly against us on the usuiy laws, we have in our favor almost every vmter of eminence, who has ever profoundly investi' gated the subject. vived? Would not the law against witchcraft be re-enacted, with its laughable yet tragical train of proofs and punishments? In fact, the laws against witchcraft are as ancient, and until- about two cen- turies past, as universal as the law against usur}^ Away then with with this argument, so contrary to the genuine spirit of civihzation and the on- ^v.ard march of the human race, Sou7xes of prejudice against Usury. But as my lord Coke has justly observed, that "to trace an error lo its source is to refute it,"- I will conclude by a rapid enumeration of the causes which have produced so universal a prejudice against usury. The first cause which I shall mention is a bigot- ted interpretation of a mvnicipal provision of the Jewish code. "Thou shalt not lend" says the law of Moses ''upon usury to thy brother: usury of money, usury of victuals, usury of any thing'that is lent." The punishment is of the severest character, "hath he given forth upon usury" "and hath taken increase, shall he five? He shall not live— he hath done all these enormities, he shall surely die: liis bloodshall be upon him." To thiswe answer rn the first place, that the langitage of such distant ages may not be accurately under- stood by us— secondl)^, that this prohibition (if we understand it aright) extended only to the Jews. IMoses wishing to make- all the Israelites a band of brothers, the Jews were permitted to take what interest they pleased of the heathens round about, and this could not have been considered immoral, or hurtllil, tor the lawgiver, says "thou shalt not vex a stranger, or oppress him, for ye were stran- gers in the land of Egypt." Now lending at interest could not have been considered as ehher vexa- tious or oppressive to the stranger. Again the parable of the talents most conclusively shows that usury so far from being reprob'ated by our Saviour, was actually enjoined. The unprofitable servant is rebuked for "not putting his money to the exchangers, tliat he might have received his own with usury." Although howevef, the law of Moses was a merely municipal regulation, apper- taining to the Jews alone, not restraining them in regard to other nations, and not sanctioned in the New Testament, yet has it had a most Avonderfid influence on the minds of men, and even to this day hasnot ceased to operate. For many ages in Eu- rope it was considered against the law of God to take any interest at all on moiley. There is no crime against which the fathers ia their homilies, de- claim with more liitterness. As late as the middle of the seventeenth century, the divines of England preached against all interest; even that which the law allowed, as a gross immorality: and early in the eighteenth century^, the same doctrines were supported in the British' House of Commons-. The editors of the Dictionaire Raisonnee in France about the middle of the eighteenth century em- ployed as many as fourteen columns to prove that interest might lawfully be taken; and Turo-ot wrote a volume as late as 1779 to prove the same thing. "A learned gentleman (says Steuart) of the Middle Temple, IMr. Plowden (a lawyer I believe of the Roman Catholic persuasion) who published about thirty years ago a treatise upon the law of usury and annuities, has employed no less than fifty-nine pages of his work in consider- ing the law of usury in a spiritual vieio, ih order 118 FARMERS' REGISTER— ESSAY ON USURY LAWS. to establish the Ibllowuig conclusion, Hhat it is not sinful, but lawful^ for a British subject Jo receive legal interest for the money lohich he may lend.'' Mons. Necktir too, in the notes annexed to his jEloge on Colbert, thought it necessary for him to offer an apology to the church of Rome lor the freedom with whicli he ventured to Avriteupon this critical subject. Thus do we see the wonderful influence produced by a misunderstanding of the law of Moses: and we have besides, an illustra- tion of what I have before .urged, of the great cUlliculty and slowness with which error is banish- ed from the world. Until very lately, all interest was considered immoral: that error is now ex- ploded, and I hope in due time, laws restrain- ing the rale of interest will meet with the same tble. Secondly. Men who are without property, or are vnlhrifiy, and sinking in the world, naturally en- vy and hate those who are rising and prospering. "The child who has eaten his cake" s;iys Jeremy Benlham, "is the natural enemy of the child who has preserved his." Thirdly. In ancient times, and during trie mid- dle ages, men harrowed money principally for the jmrpose of paying debts. The risk was great, and of course, the interest, very properly, was in pro- portion. The money lender had the borrow^er more in liis power on such occasions, and the pay- ment of the debt frequently rumed him. Thus the lender was made responsibls for the impru- dence and misfortune of the borrower, and became odious in the eyes of the world, especially in Rome, Avhere the lender could imprison, enslave^ and chastise his delinquent debtor. At this time how- ever, the great mass of capital lent, is for purposes of agriculture and commerce. It is to be hoped then, that the prejudice against usury will dimin- ish, since the wealthiest, and most prosperous men in society, are frequently the borrowers, pajing only a portion of their profits to the naoney lenders, who are frequently widows, orphans, invalids. &c., whom the law ought rather to favor than injure. Fourthly. 3Ioncyin the minds of the great majirrity of mankind has been identified with wealth. It has been supposed that if the legislator would bring down the interest of money, that profits would be reduced — of course, that this Avould bring down prices, and thus tiie nation prescribing a low rate of interest, Avould be enabled to undersell all others. This was the argument which seems to have in- fluenced the nrind of Sir Josiah Child, in recom- mending to the British ParUament to reduce it to three per cent. Turgot, to a certain extent, was of the same opinion. I am informed that when the bank question Avas agitated in the Virginia legis- lature in 1816, iiiany advocates of the banking system were under the impression that the quan- tity of money thrown into circulation Avould re- duce interest — /Aai would reduce profits — andtluis we should be enabled to come in competition with producers in other quarters of the world. Now, if there be any strength in the preceding reason- ing, this argument is Avholly fallacious, proceeding upon premises entirely fiilse. In the first place, money is not be identified v/ith national wealth: it constitutes a very small part of it. As Dr. Cooper has well expressed it, money is to be con- sidered as the counters that serve only to mark the points in the great game of commerce. Again, when the government is good, a high rate of profits is the most certain symptom of a thriving prosperous community; and he must be the merest political quack, who would now se- riously recommend measures for the purpose of reducing profits. Ey means of profits, capitals are increased, and of course the greater the for- mer, the more rapid the increase of the latter. This is most undoubtedly an axiomatic truth: and yet it is strange indeed, that so many should rea- son and argue as if perfectly ignorant of it. Fifthly. Debtors are more numerous than, credit- ors; their misfortunes are lamented andpiticd ivhile the creditor seems hard-hearted and uncharitable, luho appears so capable of relieving this distress, and yet exacts the inoney and penalty '^even to the pound (fjlesh.^'' We are not to wonder then that the sympathy of the Avorld, and the influence of numbers are arraj'ed in liivor of the borrower, and against the lender. As a proof of what is here asserted, Bentham has given us a most admirable illustration in theatrical representations. "It is the business of the dramatist (says he) to study and to conform to the humors and passions of those, on the pleasing of whom, he depends for success." Now I question Avhether among all the instance.g in which a borrower and a lender of money have been brought together upon the stage, from the days of Thespis to the present, there ever was one, in which the former was not recommended to favor, in some shape or other, either to admiration or to love, or to ])ity, or to all three; "and the other, the man of thrill, consigned to infamy," They have thus been ever represented as a hard-hearted race, without any bowels of compassion, for their tijllow men; yet as far as fiiets have come to my knowledge, in this state, I should assert that money lenders, take them as a class, are far from being uncharitable. We cannot proj^erly estimate their charity, because the distress which they relieve seems, in many cases, to be brought on by them. Suppose, for examjde. A, a money lender, has lent B i^lOOO, and taken a lien on all A's projierty, which is finally sold. It may be that A has taken only legal mterest, and that the loan when made, was of tfie utmost importance. Now, if he remits ijiSO or ^30 of the debt, he will still be considered as unfeeling and uncharitable by the multitude who look unjustly on the distress of B as occasion- ed by A, and yet not one in that multitude per- haps, if called on, would be willing to contribute $5 to relieve B's distress. There is no reason, if you will only reflect a moment, why the money lender should remit more of the tlebt than others of equal fortune are willing to subscribe to relieve the distress of the del;)tor. But on the contrary, there is an evident reason why he should do less in this respect, in each individual case, than other jiersons of equal wealth. His business necessari- ly brings such cases more frequently to his view, and thereibre his profits would be almost entirely destroyed if he were to be as charitable in every case as perhaps another individual might well af- lin-d to be in the very few case^, in winch his cha- rity was put to the test. The sixth cause of prejudice against usury which I sliaU mention, is iiuU'cd of a very puerile character, but it has had influence, and theref()re must not be passed by. It Avas besides, the espe- cial cause Avhich operated most powerfully on the great, the almost une(|ualled mind of Aristotle. It is this: 'Hhat interest ought to be charged on no- FARMERS' REGISTER— NEW ZEALAND FLAX. 119 thing tohick is inatpable of generating or breeding. Money is barren: one daric cannot generate ano- ther daric — therefore interest ought not to be charg- ed on money.'''' Thus you may charge lor the loan ol" shecj) or cattle. You may take hire lor lauds and slaves, &c. because sheep and cattle may Ijreed, aud laud and slaves may produce or gene- rate value. But you must not take interest on money, because Aristotle has made the wondcr- lial discovery thiit one piece of money cannot be- get another piece. "It is worthy of remark," says Steuart, "that the argument, such as it is, Avas manifestly suggested by the etj-mology of the word, tokos (interest) Irom tikto (pario,) an ety- mology which seems to imply that the principal begets the interest. The same idea too, occurs in the scene between Antonio and Shylock, in the Merchant of Venice. "If thou will lend this mone}% lend it not As to thy friend, (for when did friendship take .4 breed of barren metal from his fr'tend?) But lend it rather to thine enemy, Who, if he break, thou may'st with better face Exact the penalty." It is hardly necessary to inform you, after what lias already been advanced, that although one dollar cannot beget another dollar directly, in the way of generation, it may do it indirectly, in the way of business or trade. A borrows ^1000: he does not, it is true, expect this money to breed in his hands like cattle and sheep, l)ut he may buy a fiu-ra with it and stock it with labor, and cattle, and sheej), from the proceeds of which, he may sell yearly sj^slSOO worth of produce, thereby making 15 ))er cent, on the capital, 6 of which he can well aflbrd to pay the lender, who has enabled him to do this. Or if he be a merchant, he may buy goods to the amount of .^ 10,000, from New York, and sell them out for ^13,000, thereby making 30 per cent, on his borrowed capital. Or if he be intended for the professions of law, or medicine, he may obtain his education, purchase his books, buy his establishment, and support him- self in credit until hie practice may bring him in }i^'2,000 a year. Surely no one will now be hardy enough to deny the productive agency of money in these several cases. The seventh and last cause which I shall men- tion as operating in favor of the usury laws, is the generulincU nation of legislators to govern and or- ganise every thing iviihin their reach. "Arbitrary regulations (says Say) are extremely flattering to men in power, as giving them an air of" wisdom and foresight, and confirming their authority, Avhich seems to derive additional importance from tlie frequency of its exercise; and hence one prin- cipal cause of the constant tendency of all legis- lative bodies to over-action." The legislator who claims the right, and thinks himself endowed with wisdom sufficient to "organise the whole labor and capital of a country," and to regulate the rate of interest, is an infinitely more bustling, important character, especially in his own estimation, than he who believes that commerce contains within it- self, its own self-sustaining principles, and there- fore practises upon the simple but wise policy of "laisscz passer,'''' and ''laisscz faire.''^ I hope by this time, I have satisfied you as to the causes which have led to the almost universal adoption of the usury laws, and that you are now fully prepared to assent to the great proposition on this subject, which Bentham has established liy a chain of reasoning pronounced by the most intel- ligent, to be almost as rigorous as mathematical demonstration, "that no man of ripe years and sound mind, acting freely, and with his eyes open, ought to be hindered, w'lth a view to his advantage, from making such bargain in the way of obtaining money as he thinks fit: nor (what is a necessary- consequence) oi/!;^/<< a?!y /jocZy /o be hindered from supplying him, upon any terms he thinks proper to accede to.'''' If then I am correct in the views which I ha\e taken, the usury laws ought certam- ly to be repealed as speedily as possible. In or- dinary times, the legal rate, 6 per cent, corresponds with the market rate, and consequently no incon- venience whatever, would result from the repeal of the usury laws. Just at this time however, the market is much above the legal interest, and con- sequently some little inconvenience might result irom too sudden a repeal. But it would not be so great as generally apprehended: for the moment you repeal the usury laws, you would put an end to most of those circuitous devices which persons have recourse to for the purpose of evading those laws, and which uniformly impose, as I have be- fore shown, nuich harder conditions on the bor- rower, than when he is enabled to borrow directly. You may say indeed, that a sudden repeal would cause creditors to call immediately on their debtors to pay up, in order that they might lend to others. I doubt very much, however, whether the debtor would be placed in a worse situation than now; for at present the creditor who does not wish to jiush his debtor himself, just sells his bond to the broker, Avho will be certain to demand payment immedi ately, for he wants the money for purposes of sj)e culation. To obviate, however, all objections on this score, I would recommend, if the market should continue long above the legal rate in this state, to repeal the laws gradually; to raise the rate of interest one per cent, or one-half per cent, every year, until the laws may be -wholly abol- ished. Of course, there must still be a legal rate for all those cases not stipulated for, which might be fixed according to the wisdom of the legislature, fi-om time to time. I shall then conclude my lec- tures on this subject, by expressing the wish that the states of our union will, ere long, see that the usury laws are in fact a branch of that odious sys- tem of restriction, Avhich has blighted the prospe- rity of so many countries — which has raised the demon of discord in our own happy land, and threatened a dissolution of our confederacy: and that they will, by the repeal of those obnoxious laws, give another example of the innovatmg spi- rit of republicanism, which by its success here, and consequent adojition abroad, may have a ten- dency to break those chains of eiTor, authority and long continued prejudice, in which the people of Europe have been for centuries bound, as if un- der the influence of some potent magic spell. NEW ZEALAND FLAX — {Pkormium Tenax.') This plant stands the winter of England. In 1828 only 60 tons, valued at £2,6000, were im- ported from Sydney in Great Britain. In 1830 there were 814 tons, and in 1831, 1062 tons. The flax as prepared by the natives, is superior to any analogous material. Its price in London is from 15 to £25 pounds per ton. 120 FARMERS' REGISTER— SPONGE— HURRICANES. SPOKGE. This well known marine production has been in use from very early times, and naturalists were lon^ embarrassed whether to assign it a place in the animal or- vegetable kingdom. JNIost authori- ties now agree in putting the sponges in the low- est scale of animal liji^. There lire about fifty different species "of sponges, of which nine or ten belong to this country. They are found in the Srediterranean and those seas in warm and temper- ate latitudes, diminishing iu number and becom- ing of inferior qualiLy on the approfich to cold re- gions. They adhere to rocks in places the least exposed to the action of currents and waves, which the ebbing tide does not leave uncovered. The best sponges known to u-s are those which come fi'om the Archipelago", where they abound iiear many of the islands, whose inhabitants .may be said. to subsist by the sponge-fishery, if we may so call it. At the Cyclades, for instance, sponge- diving forms the chief employment of the popu- lation. The sea is at all times extremely clear, and the experienced divers are capable of^ distin- guishing fi'om the surface tlie points to which the sponge is aitached belowj when an unpractised eye could but dimly discern the bottom. Each boat is furnished with a large stone attached to a rope, and this the diver seizes in his hand on plung- ■ jng head foremost from the stern. He does this in order to increase the velocity of his descent; thus economizing his stock of breath, as Avell as to fa- cilitate his ascent when exhausted at the bottom, being then quickly hauled up by his companions. Few nien can remain longer than about two mi- niues below; and, as the process of detaching the nponge is very .tedious, three, and sometimes four divers descend successively to secure a particular- ly fine specimen. The best sponge is that which is the palest and lightest, has small holes, and is soft to the touch. By the old physicians, sponge was regarded as a cure for a long list of maladies; this la^t is now much abridged, though burned sponge,, iji which fijrni only it is used, still has a place in the materia medica. — Penny Magazine. rilE RECENT HURRICANES IN VIRGINIA. For tlie Fanners' Register. The tornado of May the 5th, of which some account was published in the Farmers' Register tor May, v/as without precedent in Virginia, in vi- olence and de5.tructiveness, and few persons, if any, could have anticipated the recurrence of a similar event. But within the short time that lias since passed, a much gi'cater extent of our country ha^ been swept by a hurricane no less \iolent than it.s forerunner, and leaving throughout its courscj a scene ot destitiction seldom ])roduced by such causes, except within the torrid zone. I shall not attempt a minute description of any part of this terrible visitation, nor to present a full statement of even the important facts, which would be too long for this place: but merely to furnish a concise statement of the general results, by collecting and condensing the various reports which have been made by the newspapers. The effects of the tornado of May 5th, reported in the May No. (page 7(53) were only a part of those which were suffered in the county of Piince George^ Similar scenes were presented through- out the course of' the whirlwind, of about seventy miles ill length, from its commencement in Lunen- burg, to its termination in Prince George. For- tunately, ils track wafe narrow, seldom being half a mile wide — but yet wide enough to leave many a farm a mass, of ruins-. .The greatest loss was sustained in Nottoway. • An ofFicial report from a committee- appointed to estimate the losses in that comity, states that between seventy and eighty house's wei'c blown down, three persons killed,, and many seriously hurt, besides the almost total de- struction of the large standing timber every where in llie course of the whirlwind. The damage to life and property in Dinwiddle, at one place, (the residence of Mr. Boisseau, near Petersburg,) was gi-eater than on any otlier one farm. On tiie same evening (May 5th) there was ano- ther Vvdiirlmnd which passed, through Ca-roline count}'', (separated from the other by a distance of more than sixty miles,) and which was nearly as violent and destructive within the narrower limits to which it was confined. . - But these disasters were exceeded in magnitude and extent by another storm which occurred on June the 4th. This commenced its ravages west of the Blue Ridge mountains, and spread in dif- ferent "si rcakg through the lower country. In Rockbridge county, the wind was not very vio- lent; but equal destruction, at least, was caused by hail, not less unusual in size and fjuantity. The folloANang is the statement of the Lexington Union of June 7th. "On Wednesday evening last a portion of this county [Rockbridge] was visited by a storm of wind .and hail more extensive and destructive in its progress than any storm of the like kind within the memoiy of our oldest citizens. Between 2 and .3 o'clock, the sky in the north and north-east assumed a dark and threatening aspect; distinct masses of black and angry clouds whirling and tos- sed by counter, currents of wind, were seen in every direction except in the south, where a serene blue sky prevailed. In about 20 or .30 minutes they congregated near the western end of the Jump mountains where they, commenced discharging their contents of hail. Immediately a north- wester sprang up, which difiused and drove the clouds down Carr's creek, the southern border pass- ing nearly over this place, and extenthng in breadth to the neighborhood of "Timberridge church, a distance of six miles. The cloud continued its progress down the north river and across the upper part .of Timberridge to theSouth mountainj ravag- ing a district of country of about 18 miles m length and 6 in breadth. We have conversed with a number of highly respectable citizens from the region of this stoiTn, ivho give most melancholy accounte of" the injuiy which has resulted from tt.. The crops of rye are said to be totally destroyed — so that in place of reserving tliem for the sickle," they have been given •up to the beasts of the field. The wheat crops are not so fatally injured — but in very many places have been abaiidoned, and stock tui'ned in upon them. The corn crops have also- suffered ' very seriouvsly. -.Several farmers have told us that they have seen large fields of grain with fewer stalks standing than is sometimes observed after reaping in harvest, and tiiat the stalks are not barely beaten down, but are shattered and broken. Numerous FAliateRS' REGISTER— EFFECTS OF THE HURRICANES. 121 other minor injuries have been sustained in broken windows, to the li'ait trees, &c.. . Tlie general size of the liail,jpxcept near the bor- ders ot the cloud is described to hav^e bcea so large as hen eggs — many ot them much larger— isome measuring S and 9 inches in circumference." Similar disasters are stated in the following ex- tract li-om the Sentinel of the Valley, to ha^■e vi- sited Shenandoah, another '.county west of the Blue Ridge, and of which the nearest part is more than fiily miles distant from Rockbridge. "This place [Woodstock] and neighborhodd were visited by a h;iil storm, on Wednesday atternoon, which has letl melancholy traces of its ravages in the prostration of trees and iences, the destruction ol'rye and other growing crops, and the breaking of thousands of panes of glass. In many places whole fields of rye have been literally cut to pieces, or so much injured as not to be worth the trouble of cutting. Most of the hail was as large as a hulled walnut, and niany were picked up which measured fi'om five to six inches in circumference. The storm n|iproached from the north west, and almost every .window facing iii that direction, which Was unpro- tected- by shutters, was more or less damaged. The destruction of window glass, indeed, has been im-' mense; so much so, that there is not enough to be had in the county, by onc-lburth, to replace what has been broken." The effects of the storm in Prince Edward, are thus described in the Faral^illG Chronicle of" June 7th. "The general direction appears to have been from west to east, south east; but it evidently per- formed, in many mstances, a very whimsical and whiding journey. Even in tliis village, it wound and twisted very much in the character of the whirlwind, bearing, with great force and violence, on buildings, so as to carry off' those of feeble con- si ruction,, and materitdly injuring some even of brick, of the best construction; then apparently wheeling nearly at right angles, leaving trail buil- . dings, and otlier'light objects near i'ts tract, unaf- fected. The width of its tract is probably not less than two or three miles, and it would seem,' that along this tract, there passed several dillerent and sepa- rate whirlwinds, always .very narrow in their re- spective tracts, in which alone, docs there appear to have been any great danger. The period of time wliich the alarming and dangerous operations of these whirludnds con- tinued, was very short, scarcely more than . one or two minutes; very possibly, not near so much, but the storm blew hard lor 8 or 10 minutes, possibly more." By the time the hurricane reached Nottoway and Mecklenburg, it exiiibited its greatest violence, as is inferred from the following extracts from the Petersburg. Intelligencer. "We briefly mentioned in our last the eflects of a tornado which pa.ssed through .the county of Chesterfield on Wednesday, the 4th instant. We have since received intormat ion of anolherdestruc- tive storm which occurred, at the same time, in the counties of Nottoway, Dinwiddle, Sussex, and. Southampton. These storms rival, in the extent of damage done to ])roperty, the memorable tor- nado of the 5th of .ftlay last. Dwellmg and out houses, tind)er, fences, in iiict every thing which came withiu the reach of their desolatmg liiry, were swept away; but we are haj)py to say, that the los-s of lilc has, as tar as our inlonijation enables us to speak, been umch less. Wtf havenot heard of thp. effects of the storm on the north side of the A]:)pomattox, higher up than Chesterfied Court House. From thence it pursued a direction inclining to the south of east, crossmg the river into Prince George near Broadway, about nine miles below this tov/n. Its width, in some places was fully three miles. The plantations through which it passed, suffered severely — on several scarcely an out house has been left stand- ing, the dwelling houses. more or less injured,. and the roads reridered impassable by the lidlen tim- ber. The tornado on the south side of the Appo- mattox, commenced in the upper part of JNot- to.way, and taking a direction to the north-west, passed through, the counties of Dinwiddle, Sussex and Southampton. The devastation is represented as appalling. • We annex a list of the sufierers as far as ascer- tained. In Chesterfield — Captain John W. Gill, Thoraa?) Shell, John Walthall, Walthall Pvlarshall, Wm. €orLing, Mrs. Archer, Mrs. Lynch, Wm. R Hill, the estate of the late Arraistead Hill, O. P. Hare, and T.-. P. Hare. At Mrs. Archers the overseer and one servant were injured — her loss in out- houses, timber, crop, &c. is very great. In Nottoway and Dinwiddle — Rev. T. Pryor, Dr. H. C. Worsham, James Jackson, estate of' Peter B. Jones, Wm. B. Wilson, E. G. Booth, jMrs., Bland, Mrs. Verser, JNIrs. Morgan, Mrs. Branch. Jones, JNIrs. F. Epes, Thos. Goode, Gen. Wm. H. Brodnax, Dr. Wm. Cutler, Mrs. Rose, John G. Williams, (one negro killed) J. Foulkes, ftwo negroes killedj I\lr. Edward Royal, fone negro killed.^ Mr. Greenway, flost his mill and all the tiirm houses.) We learn that at Kmgston, the residence ot' Gen. Brodnax, the family umn- sion is the only building letl standing, and even that bears marks of the tijry of the storm. In Not- toway several plantations which Buffered from the devastations of the tornado in INI ay, experienced severe injury on the present occasion. In Sussex— Wm. Wintleld, Mr. Thos. Wills, J. Lee, and Capt. N. Heath, Vv'ho lost every house on his farm — himselt^ his wife, sister, and all his ne- groes more or less injured, but none very daiiger- ously. \Ve have no certain accounts of the destruction in Southampton county except in the vicinity of the Barn Tavern, belonging to Mr. D. Simmons; there we. understand, several houses were blown dowii, and one person killed. The " plantations of C. Urquhart, Z. Simmons, and Jesse Little, suffer- ed considerable injury." "The only plantation [in Mecldenburg] fi-om which we have any particulars are those belong- ing to Major Thomas M. Nelson and Mark Alex- ander, Esq. The former lost every house except his dwelling;; a saw mill and -a large three stoiy grist mill were likewise entirely demolished. At Mr. Alexander's the mansion house is the only building which escaped destruction; and fifteen of his negroes.werc wounded, some of them seriously. These tempests Avere accomjjanied or preceded by hail." 122 FARMERS' REGISTER— SEASONS AND CROPS. Tile course throufyh Nansemond was marked liy dt'strurtion of similar character, tliough of less extent — and the storm tlioTiirJi much moderated in violence, was still awful and terrihle in its passage over Norfolk. The fi)llowing description is from the Norlljlk Herald of June 6th. "A dense and dusky cloud hung over our town on Wednesday evening, and discharged for the space of an hour, a torrent of rain and hail, with the severest thunder and lightning Ave have witnessed for many j'eai's. The lightning exhibit- ed one continued glare of flickering light, that left not the fhiiallest conceivable interval of darkness; while the thunder kept up an incessant and deafen- ing roar, enough to appal the stoutest heart. Two or three crashing peals that seemed as if they had rent the earth asunder proclaimed that the storm was not venting its fury harmlessly; — and we soon after learned, indeed, that the lightning had struck the livery stable of Mr. John Ford, but without doing any other injury than ripping off some of the boards. It also struck a small brick building, contiguous to the dwelling house of Mrs. Jane Collins, on Smith's Point, which it very much in- jured, and a young negro woman, who was at the latal moment stepping in at the cloor of the build- ing was knocked down, and so severely stunned that she is not expected to recover." The foregoing are but detached statements of scattered tixcts, and limited views. But from these it may be inferred that the amount of damage to property is enormous. The loss of lives, and the lesser personal injuries suffered, are much fewer than could have been supposed, from knowing the other eil'ects ol' the ditlerent storms — but still, the deaths and wounds inflicted, probably exceed in number, all produced in Virginia from similar causes, since the first settlement of the country. Perhaps the circumstance which was the most terrible of all in the diflerent storms, was the very short time in which the destruction was produced. The storm was raging with less, and no very un- coamion violence, lor a considerable time: but the hurricanes or whirlwinds passed over as it were in a moment, without giving scarcely an indication of approach, or even time to observe their pro- gress. Those who suflered most from the effects Ibund at once that their houses had been destroy- ed, and members of their family wounded or killed, beti:)re they well knew that the work of destruction iiad commenced. Opinions are various as to the duration oi" the storms in their greatest violence — but by none is it made more than a i'ew minutes, at any one ])lace. Some of the fiu-ms in Nottoway which had ex- perienced the tull force of the wind on May the 5th, were again visited, and the destruction com- pleted by that of June tlie 4th. The first storm passed near Petersburg, and exerted its greatest lliry a Cew miles south of that town. The second passed as near on the north. If eitjier had passed over the town, it Avould have been left in ruins. wind lasted only one or two minutes. In Williamsburg between thirty and forty chimneys were blown down, and several houses. On the farm of Scervant Jones, Esq. seven of his negro houses were demolish- ed— some of the negroes wounded. Col. William Wal- ler's granary and stable were blown down, and seven negroes more or less hurt. All the grain houses and stables on the fai-ms of Dr. Waller and of Mr. S. Bright, and similar damage was done at other places. At Jockey's Neck, the farm of Thomas Coleman, se- veral houses were blown down. Mr. Coleman and two of his negroes were crushed to death — his overseer had a limb broken, and four or five negroes were much in- jured. All these persons had taken shelter in one of the houses which were levelled by the storm. The course of the storm was from N. N. W. In crossing James river, it capsized three schooners, aud drove a brig ashore. The same storm, (or another at the same time) was in a different manner very desti'uctive in a part of Prince George county, on Warwick swamp. Hail there fell in prodigious quantity, and some of it very large. It remained on the earth, where lying thickest, for more than fourteen hours, notwithstanding the warmth of the earth and air, and a heavy rain which fell after the hail. The wheat in that neighborhood had not been reaped, and none is left lor the scythe. Corn and cotton was woefully torn and beaten down; but the former, if not both of these crops will probably recover.] [And yet another! Since the foregoing was in type accounts have been received of another tornado on June 21st, which, in the neighborhood of WilHams- burg, has produced effects no less awful and deplora- ble than those already reported. The violence of the AGRICULTURAL, INTELLIGENCE, Season and state of crops on the Lower Roanoke — observations on cotton, Sfc. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Bertie County, A\ C. June 20th, 1831. A paragraph in the last No. of your "Register," inviting the fanners residing in different sections of the country to give a report of seasons and crops in their respective vicmities, induces me to contri- bute my nute. Solar, the seasons have been rather unfavorable, and the effects are very visible on our farms. It has been generally dry, with occasional heavy and baking rains; unusually cold and hostile to vegeta- tion. As an accompaniment to the cold nights, the worms have been busy with our corn, and the blackbirds have done their share of mischief. From this cause we have an indiflerent stand of corn, both uneven and backward. These attacks of the worms are not confined exclusively to the low and wet places in the farm, but prevail extensively on high dry lands. Farmers of" lono; experience have frequently stated in my presence uiis spring, that in no former year have they been so much annoj^ed by worms, or have they been compelled to re-plant the same ground so often, Vvdth sucli httle success. A few years since, corn was the principal article of produce made for sale on this part of the Roan- oke; but latterly much time and attention are be- stowed on cotton. Tins is also more backward than it was last year at this time; the dry weather which succeeded af>er the cotton was planted, jire- ventcd it from coming up in the stifl' land, and it FARMERS' REGISTER— FARMING IN CAMPBELL. 123 dill not vet)'ctatc until the rain of the 25ih of May sollened tlie earth. While cominij^ up, it had to encounter two considerable frosts in ihe nighls of the 15th and 16th of May; owing to the dry state ol" tlie soil, tlie injury was not so severe as a Ivuowleilo'e of the sensitiveness of tlie plant in- duced me to expect. On very h'ght ridges, some damage was sustained: this was also the case on moist land. It was fortunate for the cotton farmers that no r;vin had been granted to their oft repeated Avishes, as it was the only thing which saved the cotton. In many fields the cotton exhibited black leaves — some of it died, but a great deal recovered — and the rain which descended, caused many seeds to come up which were still in the drill. Yet notwithstanding the cold and dry weather, we have a better stand than usual. The quantity of cotton to be made Avith us depends on the seasons, and visitations to which it is frequently subject. One of those visitations I will describe: it is called the rust, from its appearance, audits faculty ibr impart- ing a stain to any thing white Avhich comes in con- fact with it. GroAving cotton of all sizes is sub- ject to its attacks. It is caused by an insect Avhii^h fastens on the leaves, extracts the sap of the stalk, destroy its vitality, and forces the bolls to open be- flire they are matured. It is confined to no particular kind of soil, and generally spreads in a circular form imtil it covers a large portion of the field. Various remedies have been essayed in vain to arrest its progress — fat meat dragged over the cotton, brim- stone matches burnt under it, and healthy stalks pulled up all around to prevent its being in contact with the otlrcr cotton — but none have succeeded. I must avail myself of the present opportunity io place or record some fiicts respecting the small .injury inflicted on cotton by inundation from river Avater. In May 1833, we had a tremendous freshet in the Roanoke which inundated some of our lands Avliich had enjoyed a total exemption from such rude lavations for several years. A large portion of my cotton was completely immersed in water — some to the depth of three ieet^ After the sub- f;iding of the flood, in many places the grass was killed and the cotton was left alive, though much svashed. From one portion of my field the water retreated slowly, and to all ajijiearances left the grass and cotton both dead, and in a ikw days its leaves dropped oft', leaving the stalk still standing. I intended to plough and plant tins piece in corn; hut a fortnight after the freshet when I was about 1o plougli it u]), I observed that the Ixuhvas still alive, and for the sake of experiment I left it un- touched. Some time in July new leaves had come out, and I hoed it for the first time: it had been sided with the plough before the freshet. After this cleansing (for it was extremely foul) it grew oH" rapidl}', and at the end of the season equalled the other cotton in size; but it had been neglected too long, ami manj^ of the bolls were cut off bj^ the frost. From this, Ave may entertain some hopes of cotton, so long as the bud remains unin- jured. This commvmication should end Iiere, but I am desirous of bringing to the notice of cotton farm- ers the advantages to be derived fi'om [)lantingtlie "petty gulf" seed. These are brought from the south, and talce their name from a cotton groAving district near the Mississippi, which produces them. The stalks grow large in land adapted to cotton, .and bear more than ordinary cotton. The cotton is white and silky, Avith a superior staple. The bolls open \-ery Avidely, and the cotton awaits the slight pull of die laborer Avith impatience. From the ease Avith which it is i)Iuclced from the boll, a hand may pick one-l()urlh more during the day than he can in the conunon cotton, and do this Avith infinitely more ease. It is more liable to suf- fer from Avind and rain, and requires to be picked OA^er more frequently: yet notAvithstanding its lia- bility to drop out, still it AA'ill yield more than the common cotton, and from its appearance Avill un- doubtedly command a more ready sale and higher prices. It blossoms and matures as .soon as the other cotton. As an evidence of the value in AAdiich it is held by those Avho can easily procure the seed, many of the planters of Red ri\'er are in the habit of receiving amiual supplies to plant their crops. On the subject of cotton I have Avritten more Avith a wish to ascertain the views of others, than Avith the expectation of imparting any thing neAV. The importance of manuring begins to be un- derstood liere; and though destitute of marl, yet Ave can ett'ect a cliange in the face of the country by sowing small grain, resting our fields, and apply- ing the manure accumulated in our fami pens. So far, most of the iann pen manure is applied to our cotton land in the drill. On some of our lixrras Ave liaA'e found gama grass — as yet, few have turned their attention to it; it is a plant of rapid groAvth, and is eaten AAdth aA-idity by the stock that have access to it. When improperly located it is difficult to be destroyed, and a partial grubbing merely divides the large bunches and sets them out. ^y. w. p. STATE OF FARMIIVG IN CAMTBELL COUIVTY. To the Editor of tlic Fanners' Register. * * * * * You request your sub- scribers to communicate sny inlbrmation about the seasons, crops, mode of cultivation in those parts of the country where they respcctiA'ely reside. This part of the state, as you probably are aAvare^ is entirely given up to tobacco making, and very iiiw of us, and those very recently, haA^e de\'oted any attention whate\'er, to the imjirovement of land. In the immediate neighborhood, in Avhich I reside, a strong indisposition is felt to abandon the old mode of cultivation — to relinquish present for permanent future [irofit. Our lands are not natu- rally fertile, and cloA'er, and plaster are considered too costly means for giving them fertility. The price of the latter is about double what it is in Richmond, in consequence of the enormous freight, upon so heavy an article. We are Avithout the marl banks, Avhich . furnish so abundant, and so rich a manure in your tide-Avater country, or in- deed, any kinds of manure except Avhat is fur- nished by our flirm-pens and forests, and which are not common to this, Avith e\'ery other portion of the state. We are not howcA-er, I hope, Avith- out some adA-antages already knoAvn, and shall find, Avhen Ave turn our attention to the subject, that Ave enjoy others hitherto undiscoA'ered. We liave yet a good deal of fresh land, and forest; and our soil although not v^ery fertile, is peculiarly adapted to Avheat, a crop, Avhich I believe all our farmers are endeavoring to increase, Avhile others arc diminished. Considerable crops of it are now 124 FARMERS' REGISTER— FREDERICKSBURG RAILWAY. sown, hut. principally on corn-land, a small portion of it after tobacco. ■ Scarcely any persons among us fallow for wheat, and nobody has more than three shifts. All the manure from our fiirm-pens, and that a much .smaller ciuantity than might be made with a little industry, is hterally poured out on a .small spot intended for tobacco, to the utter deprivation of the remainder of our lands, most of which, are of course in a rapid state of deterio- ration. Many of us are. convinced of the expe- diency; nay necessity, for a change in our ftiode of cultivation. No individual has as yet been found among us combining the reciuisite qualifi- cation.s of energy, industry, some capital, and above all a determination to endure any p^y in- conveniences, and overcome any small difRetdties in the way, who will set an example of successfiil improvement to his neighbors. It is to be hoped, however, that some such person will in a short time give an impulse to our agricultural eflbrts. and enable us to contribute our mite. oi" informa- tion to your valuable paper. * * * On the 14th, 1.5th, 16th, 17tli and 18th of May, we had frosts, which on several of these mornings seriously injured vegetation. In some parts of the surrounding country, the corn and tobacco plants Avere bitten do-ivn to the roots, and scarcely any cultivator of cither, escaped entirely without da- mage. I am compelled to get my letter ready to be sent to the ])ost oillce, and no doubt very much lo your relief, have'only time toadd my best wishes lor the success of your patriotic and hazardous at- tempt to turn the attention of Virginians to a mgde of internal improvement, depending princi- pally on each individual, and independent of legis- lative patronage, * ■ * * * Buckingham Court House, Jane ^th, 1834. • Wheoi not as good a crop as Avas expected eai'ly in the sj)ring — not as tall as wished — grayi good — supposed about an average crop. Harvest will generally commence on Monday next the 23d (June) in this part of the county. — ^Oats verj- good. — Corn very small for the time' of year.-^- Clover not worth cutting hardly, except on good lots, where the land is very rich. The fi-ost of the 16th May did butlitde injury to the crops in this neighborhood. - Much more attention is j)aid to farming and im- ]>rovin^ the land in this part of the country than liirmerly. The extent of tobacco cultivation is very much lessened. Several gentlemen of the neighborhood have commenced improving the breed of neat cattle, sheep, and hogs, &c. Several of Meade's (of Fred- crick) fine cattle- arc in this neighborhood. , P. S. On the 4th of June the upper end and S3uth end of this county was visited by a tremen- dous hail storm and wind sweeping ever^' thing before it, destroying entirely, the crops in its course — hail as large as eggs — many houses were blown down, and other serious damages done to trees, fencing, &c. RTCIIBIOND, FREDDRICKSBURG AND POTOMAC RAILWAY. [Tlie unusual quickness with wliich a very large srdjscription lias been made for the Richmond and Fredericksburg railway as statedbelow, (and especially in this time of general pecuniary distress, which affects injuriously every such undertaking,) furnishes a grat- ifying augury of the complete success of the worlc . Northern capitalists, whose object of coarse is to ob- tain the best interest for their money, hav£ contributed very largely to this subscription; and theij participa- tion to so greiat an extent, is another sti'ong proof of the profits expected to be .derived.] From llie RiclimonJ Compiler. The hooks were closed yesterday. The residt will appear from the advertisement of the com- missioners in another column. More than three thousand shares of the stock have been subscribed; and the company is to be immediately organized. A meeting of the stockholders is called for this day week; at which time a president and five di- rectors will be elected. It is gratifying to perceive how much has been accomplished in this instance' by the efforts of a few individuals. It is less than a year since the scheme was first suggested in our paper. Many then pronounced it wholly visionarj^ In a few months, public sentiment was manifested most strongly in its favor — so strongly that in October when a small sum was wantingto defray the ex- pense of surveying the route, we believe subscrip- tions would most readily have been obtamed for the whole amount necessary' to execute the work. Since then a pressure has occurred in the money mai-ket, so great that many of those most strongly in favor of the railway thought it would be imprac- ticable to raise money for this or any other work at tlie present time, The commissioners however determined to make an effort, to obtain tlue sum requisite to organize the company; and that effort has proved successfU. Nothing can show more strongly the confidence now felt.in the scheme than the fact that stock to the amount of ^300,000 hae been taken, notwithstanding the pressure univer- sally complained of. The truth is that in this city, the opinion is nov/ general— indeed almost univer- sal— that an investment in this stock Will prove an exceedingly good one. So soon as the president and directors are elect- ed, prornpt measures will be takenfor the location of the road. By November or December, it is be- lieved fhat it will be practicable to put thirty miles of it luider contract. And in January the contract- ors will be able to commence the execution of the work. . In three years it will probably be finished to Fredericksburg, and then the trip may be made fi-om Richmond "to Washington in eight hours — between an early breakfast and a late dinner. When that happens the passengers between these two cities will be almost. without number. Then our representative in congress will never be at a loss to know the wishes of' his constituents. He Avill be able to visit us once a week without neglect- ing at all the public business. Even before the completion of the rail road, ifs effects will be very perceptible. It will no doubt be commenced near this city, and when it reaches as far as the Pamunky, there wdl be a considera- ble quantity of produce and a good number of passengers upon it. Dividends may then be de- clared, and thus the stockholders will be receiving the profits of their stock before they have paid up the whole amount. The arrival of the cars at FARMERS' REGISTER— COMMERCIAL REPORT. 125 stated hours every day with passengers and pro- duce will then give a most enlivenhig aspect to our city. We rejoice at the prospect. MONTtlLV COMiMEUClAL REPORT. To the Editor ot' tlie Fanners' Register. The annual period of commercial inactivity is now approaching — if in Virginia any period can l>e called inactive — for the succession of dilfcrent crops which her soil produces, is such, that one or the other occupies its respective dealers through- out the jear. Tlie crop of cotton, except an inconsiderable rcnniant, has been received and disposed of. The total receipts in Virginia lor the year ending 1st October next, may be estimated at 42,000 to 43,000 bales — disposed of thus: Bales. Shipped to foreign ports, - - 30,000 Coastwise, _ . • 6,000 Manufxctured in Petersburg, Richmond, &c. 5,000 Each of these items, it is believed, will be with- in the mark, but the last has not heretglbre been taken into account in estimating the crop. It be- gins now^ however, to assume sullicicnt impor- tance to deserve notice. The sapi)ly of cotton to Petersburg ti-om North Carolina, has been in- creased this year by the faciUty of getting it to market on the rail road. Whilst the operations of the manuflicturers in this country have been considerably diminished, and rendered unprofitable, those of England and France have inci'eascd, and thriven to such an extent as to require nearly all the raw material which had been furnished to them up to the latest date Irom thence: prices were consequently sup- ported there,, and an advance created here — the Petersburg cjuotation being now 12^ to 13^^. But as large supplies were to arrive in Europe afler that time, there is more likelihood of their having a redundant, than a limited stock. The crop of 1833, in the United States, it is estimated, will reach, if not exceed 1,200,000 bales— that of 1832 ' was 1,070,000. This is the season of greatest activity at the tobacco inspections, and as an impression prevails that the quantity will prove smaller than usual, prices have recently advanced, particularly of the finer quaUties — the general sales of such, are be- tween 8 and 10 cents, but for fine and superior 11, 12, 13, and even 15 in a few instances have been paid. The lowest quality sells at 3^ to 4, and other sorts at all the intermediate prices up to good and fine. The result of the crop, as to quantity, cannot be ascertained until October. The foreign orders, both for cotton and tobacco, have this }-ear been larger than usual. The increase of flour mUis in Richmond has in- creased the competition in the wheat market, and contracts have tieen made for the new crop at $\ 15 cents per bushel. The usual demand for new flour for the South American markets, as well for those of our northern cities, of which Vir- ginia furnishes the earliest and best supply, gives a great advantage to her farmers who ]:)ossess fa- cilities for delivering their crops early in the sea- son. It it pleasinfj to remark that the recently pro- jected work of extending a rail road from Rich- mond to the waters of Potomac is about to be un- dertaken. The sub^jcription of $300,000, for which books were opened, have been readily filled, and it is understood that operations will be commenced forthwith. When this work shall be completed, there will be a continued line of communication by steam power from Boston to Roanoke, with two very slight intermissions; and we may hope to see ere long similar improvements extended to Raleigh, and llirthcr south. The great work of improving the western com- munication from Richmond to Kanawha, is also said to have assumed a more favorable aspect. X. June 26, 1834. EXTRACTkS from private CURUKrfl'ONOENC'E. THE WOR.H IJV PINE TREES. Orange, jlpr'il 5th. We lost much of our best pine timber last sum- mer by a white worm (as it is supposed) that bores into the trees and kills them. They are in clusters of from ten to filty. I ajipreliend that it is an increasing evil, without remedy, more to be di-eaded than the Hessian fi}"^, and which cannot be exterminated, not even by the "restoration of the deposites." Information fi'om any quarter upon this subject, would be acceptable to many of your subscribers, no doubt, fijr I believe the in- jury to be extensive and extending. [The habits of the insect which is so destructive (under certain circumstances) to pine timber, will fur- nish an interesting as well as useful subject for inves- tigation— and we hope that the foregoing request for information will receive due attention from some of those who are able to give it. It is believed that the destruction of standing trees by these insects, is al- ways produced by the cutting down or killing a pine in the beginning of summer, and thus furnishing the most fit receptable for the eggs of the insect, which soon hatch in such numbers as to spread over, aad often to Idll many surrounding trees during the same sum- mer. From such facts, it would appear, that the worms speedily assume the winged state, and leave their native tree. But on the other hand, sap timber containing the eggs, or the worms, used in building- houses, will continue to be inhabited by them for a long time, and sometimes until they have eaten up nearly all the inside of the wood. The wide destruction of pine trees by the recent hurricanes of May and June, will probably be the means of producing these worms in immense numbers, and by their attacks, of extending still farther the loss of timber already sustained.] I purchased of R. K. Meade, Esf[. of Frederick county, Va. in May 1832, a pair of fine Frederick sheep; the buck two years old, the ewe one, for which I paid him $65 delivered in Alexandria. The ewe had a ewe lamb the 13th December, 1832 — tlie lamb remaining \vith her. She had a ram lamb the following July, the 13th, which I have sold for $25; and on the 24th January, 1834, she had two — a ewe and ram, and raised them both. Her first ewe lamb, which she had on the 13th December, 1832, now has a fine ewe 12(3 FARMERS' REGISTER— AMERICAN LOCUST. lamb by her side. She sheared 7 lbs. of wool "in the dirt." BAUI.EY CROrS IN C.LOUCESTER — CATERPIL- LARS WHEAT. Gloucester.) June 14i//, 1834. * * * * I am very well throiip;h with my barley harvest, and decidedly the heaviest crop I have ever made, or has been on the estate for many years. The wet weather in the spring (or something else) destroyed, as I lioped when I last wrote you, the caterpillar: I have not seCn one amongst the small grain this sununcr. I thuik not- withstanding the prospect for wheat appears to be very good, there cannot be a heavy crop in our section of country: the wet weather in the spring must have injured it, and the scab was generally ai)i)earing when I Icfi: the county about a week since. Barley was the staple of Gloucester untii within a few years: the crop so generally fiiiled tiiat it was nearly abandoned last year. PARTRIDGE PEA. Dorchester^ Md. June Vlth, 1834. * * * * When I spoke of the \vild onion, I might have added another pest iji a juirt of my grounds: — it is, I think, what is called the ''partridge, pea;" but the ground being ex- tremely rich, it runs up as a vine, and drags down and destroys my wheat. I have lately cut about two acres of my rankest wheat, so matted with this vine, that, togetJier, they will make me nothing but hay, and tlie horses and cattle are very fond of it. But it is a costly food — such fine wheat — and how shall I eradicate the vine ? [We refer our correspondent and others who suffer from this weed to page lOG of vol. I., for what are be- lieved to be the best means to prevent such losses.] * * * * It is the only way in which I can aid your establishment, in the success of which, I i'eel much interested, as the best mode of drawing the attention of our young men to the subject ol agriculture, thereby alfording constant and uselui employment, — the great secret and source of hu- man happiness. Few of us can remain idle vir- tuously. I think if St. Pard himself lived in the present day, he would consider idleness, rather than money, the root of all evil. God ibrbid that I should consider property as adding one particle to the character of an individual, — it only serves to make him more contemptible, in my estimation, if his conduct is not correct, — but generally speaking, in our country, where it is so easily acquired, if you show me a man destitute of property, I will show you one who has done nothing lor the ben- efit of his fellow men, and over whom society has no control. REMARKABLE HABITS OF THE ABIERICAN LOCUST. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Sir — In a note appended to an article in the last nund^-r of the Farmers'" Register, extracted ii-om tlic Germantown Telegraph, you remark that, "there is too much of the marvellous in tlie i-egularly returning visits of our locusts lor the statement to be altogether credited." So far fi'om its behig marvellous, I have never before heard it questioned. I have witnessed three regular re- turns of the locusts at the distance of seventeen years ftom each otherj viz: in 1792, 1S09, and 1826. Their appearance in thope years Avas fore- told by the old people long before it actually occurred: It is very certain that they do not make their appearance in all parts of the Uiiited States in the same year, but at any given place I am very confident that it will found to be regularly at intervals of seventeen years. I think you will be able to find some old persons in Prince George who crtn remove your doubts on this subject. I have frequently heard it asserted that well-diggers had found them ascending at considerable depths below the surface of the earth, in the years prece- ding their regular return. Respectfully j-our ob't. serv't. F. II. Louisa, 2lst June, 1834. [Before receiving the foregoing interesting state- ment we had been convinced by the force of the facts reported from various quarters, that the regular periodi- cal returns of the locusts were no less true than strange. According to the predictions published, they have appeared in vast numbers this summer in various parts of the United States. But though abundant both to the north and south of us, none have appeared in this county, nor (as it is said) any v.'here in lower Virginia. It is an additional wonder tha^ their visits should be at different times in different places, and yet in each, at i-egular periods of seventeen years.] ON THE PROBABILITY OF THE REVERSION OF AVHEAT INTO GRASS. By Mr. William Blackadder, Glammis. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, [Dec. 183.3.J When I was at the Trinity Muir market of Brechin in June last, Mr^ David Scott, of New- ton, near iVrbroath, came to me, and inquired if ever I had heard ^Hhat if the smut balls of wheat were sown, they would vegetateV and, on answer- ing in the negative, Mr. Scott stated, that Mr, Strachan and Mr. Bell, farmers near Montrose, had sown them for some years, a.nd the balls had always sprung, but had never advanced to matu- rity until this season, when some had actually flowered, and appeared to be a grass; and that he had requested a specimen to be brought to the market for my inspection. Just at this period of the conversation Sir. Bell made his appearance, and produced a specimen, which I recognised to be a species of JSrome; and on questioning Mr. Bell minutely as to the mode of its production from smutted wheat, 1 was satisfied that little, if' any, doubt could be entertaiaed of the fact. The discovery that smut balls vegetated was first made by Mr. Strachan, and then ex- periments were tried by Mr. Bell; that the ex- periments had been continued for years; but the balls having been usually sown in spring, they had never had time to flower. Last year, howe- ver, they were sown in the autumnal wheat seed- firne, y)art of which flowered this season, of which the one produced was a specimen. On my return home, I compared the specimen FARMERS' REGISTER— CHANGE OF WHEAT TO GRASS. 127 Avilh tlic family of llie bromes, in a herbarium of the Brilish irramhia^, which was prepared lor me by tlie late rclebrated JMr. Geoi-i^-e Don, of Forfar, and whicli lias been ireijucntly examined by emi- nent botanists, and much prized: but although it possessed the fveneral characters of a brome, it did not exactly coincide with any of the individual species in the herbarium. It then, fur the first time, occurred to nie, that it might more nearly agree with the giant fescue, and on turnnig over to it, Ibund this conjecture to be correct. Now this species Avas placed by Linn;eus in the bronie iiunily, hut removed to that of the fescue by Sir James Smith, whose authority is noAV followed; and it may be here observed, that in the natural .system of Jussieu, the xoheat is made the interme- diate link between the fescue and the brome. In the course of the season, I had mentioned the above particidars to various of my scientific li'iends, to whom I stated my conviction of their (ruth, not only from what I had learned Irom Mr. ■Scott, who is Avell versed in botany, but also Irom the circumstance, that, some years ago, when passing tlirough a field of joung grass, on the liirm of Dysart, in the same" district, which had been sown among ivhcat, I found a large tult of the giant lescue, and was puzzled how it had got there; and it also occurred to me, that if the brome was the type of our cultivated wheat, that other species might also spring from ditierent dis- eased states of It, and particularly the one which infests it so much, notwithstanding the care usual- ly taken to screen it out of the seed. Lattei'iy, liaving been urged to make farther in- quiry into tlie original facts, and having occasion to be lately in the neighborhood of Montrose, I called upon Mr. Bell; but his tuft of grass had been accidentally destroyed only a lew weeks be- fore. He, however, readily offered to accompany me to inspect what belonged to his neighbor, Mr. Strachan; and on our way, I was glad to learn fi"om liim, that the common brome (provincially named sleepies in that quarter, from the opinion that the bread made of its flour is conducive to sleep,) liad also made its apjjearance from the dis- eased seed; and that smutted wheat, sleepies, and another grass, had all grown from the smutted wheat-bails sown in the previous autumn; neither the Avheat nor sleepies having been in flower when I hud met Mr. Bell at Trinity Muir market. On our arrival at Balgove, Mr. Strachan took us info his garden, and we there saw a tuft, the l)roduce of smutted wheat-balls, consisting of a mixture of smutted wheat, sleepies, and another grass, but the latter not in a state to be accurately recognised, fixrther than that it was a brome; and at some distance, he showed us another tufl, which consisted partly of sound wheat, and partly of smutted balls, and which was the produce of winnoAvings, or small wheat, but clean and not smutted. Mr. Strachan also showed us some ncAvly braided from smut, sown this season, to see what may be the result next year, there being a bet depending on it in Montrose. He has also sown some of the seed of the sleepies; and Mr. Bell is likewise continuing his experiments. On inriuiry, JMr. Strachan, who is now an aged man, iiifi)rmetl me, that, fully twenty years ago, he hap[iened to throw out a mixture of small and smutted wlicat to the poultry, at a distance from the dunghiJ, and that, some time afterwards, he was surprised to observe a strong tuft of grass springing u[); for, as he justly concluded, it was very unlikely that the fowls would leave any of the grain; and it then occurred to him, the smut-balls would certainly vegetate, which he has repeated- ly verified since that time by direct experiments; and his neighbor Mr. Bell, having seen those, also began, six or seven years ago, to make similar ex- periments, and which have been attended with similar results; but as the sowing ahvajs took place in spring until last year, the plants had never flowered. It seems that particular care is necessarj' in sow- ing smut-balls, that none of tliem be m the least injured or broken; and also if" they get much rain or damp before they sprout, they will be destroyed; and to avoid risk, Mr. Strachan sometimes places the entire head into tlie soil, without takuig the balls out of the ear. On comparing a specimen of these s/ecp/es taken from Mr. Stracliau's tufl with the bromes, in my hcrbariuin, I find it to be the Bromvs jnuUiJlorus, and to which Mr. Don has appended the remark, '■'co7umon in lohcat-Jields.^^ Another specimen has the appearance of the Bromus mollis, but is so much decayed, that it cannot be accurately refer- red to. The untbrtiuiate destruction of the tuft raised by Mr. Bell, prevented me ascertaining Avhether there had been any more of what resem- bled the giant fescue. In regard to the origin of these specimens, the facts are as above narrated; and if they are hereafter verified by others, besides explaining very satisfactorily the cause <^'' the bromc-grass being such a fi'equent weed in wheat districts, will give rise to the new and uiteresting view in vegetable physiology, that, after a certain stage of cultivation, a limit takes place, beyond which cultivation caimot be carried; and that plants are subject to Avhat may be termed a disease, in respect to the wants of man; but which limitation may perhaps be a provision in nature, to revert the cultivated grains back into their original type. From the neat condensed view of the opinions of many eminent practical men and Baturalists upon smutted wheat, given in a late number of this Journal by Mr. Donaldson, the mystery of hs origin, its nature, and inveteracy of cure, are set forth in a very lucid manner. No notice, however, is taken of the vitality of smut, so as it can repro- duce grains or grass; neither liave I been able to trace that fixct elsewhere, and Mr. Straclian's dis- covery appears, therefore, to be entirely new. From his experiments it may be inferred, that smut is, at least, in certain cases, produced froni light seed, and that its vitality is not destroyed, but merely impaired ftom producing healthy wheat, as some stalks of it reproduce smutted balls, and others healthy brome seeds, which bear a strong resemblance to rye; and, as justly remarked by my friend, the Rev. John M'Yicar, these dillerent states of the balls become objects of much interest. That the brome of botanists is the true type of loheat, the present experiments certainly do not Avarrant, for the change may be merely an inter- mediate step. As, however, neither reheat nor rye has ever yet been found in a native state, it is to be hoped that Mr. Strachan's discovery will attract the serious attention of naturalists, and the results to which it points be flilly investigated; ami it is Av'ilh such a \iew only that 1 have teeu induced to 128 FARMERS' REGISTER— USEFULNESS OF BIRDS. draw up the precedino; narrative, being well aware that it will be received with much incredulity.* THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS TO THE FARMER. From the roifsmouth Journal. It has been the ravenous practice of man to de- stroy all those beautiful creatures — and the more beautiful, the more furious he is to destroy them, and that too without the least gain. ■ Now can wc be candid enough to consider the evil consequences of this practice, as well as the great benefits to be derived in forbea,rance of such a practice? It is my present intention to set forth some of the evils resulting Irom such brutal and- inhuman practices, and to endeavor to bring to view some of the benefits unavoidably resulting from their discontinuance. • It is a melancholy iiict in this vicinity, and pro- bably elsev/here, at least as far as the extent of the New England States, that our songsters, who give the most delightful of all melody, are so ex- tinct, that in our usual walks of business or of pleasure it is rare to hear or see a solitary one, especially one of those admired songsters the ma- vis or mock bird that is so distinguished above all others of the bird tribe, — especially to see her so bold as formerly, rise to the top of a high tree, de- termined that every note should be distinctly heard, and there for fifteen minutes in succession, with- out the least intermission, never repeat a single note; as sogn as her song is ended, she is sure to remove to another of the loftiest tops and pitcli another song in as clear and deliberate a manner as any of the human tribe possibly can. — Now the poor songster, if she presumesto show her head, or sing us one of her old hundreds, even in a bush, she is immediately put to death. The singing of birds in general, is above all music particularly at the closing of our long frozen winters, after being long shut up and excluded from most of the enlivening exhibitions of nature. The sight of a variety, and of plenty of those birds with their warbling voices around us in our walks, and in our business, would change the pre- sent melancholy scene very much. It is surprising that we notice the very great ditl'erence w;ithin a few years; I could once see a tolerable number of different species in my orchard, and about my farm; but men as they call themselves, and boys, would flock around my dwellings, and in dry sea- sons, when there was much danger of fire being kindled from their guns. Every bird of every description, was shot on it's nest, or oft" no matter, if a bunch of birds could be obtained to carry home for a show. I am not troubled with those * It may be right to notice that, in tlie experiments here described, no precaution seems to have been taken to provide against the possible existence of the brome or the fescue seed in the soil in which the smutted wheat was sown. The experiments cannot, therefore, be regarded as conclusive. Farther, when we consider that the brome-grasses have a panicled inflorescence, whUe the wheats are spiked, and that the glume of bromus is many-valve, while that of Triticum is bi- valve only, we ought not readily to admit the^probabil- ity of the one genus passing into the other, even by crossing of pollen, far less by accidental disease. Ne- vertheless we should like to see the statements con- tained in this paper either verified or refuted by accu- rately conducted experiments. — editor jour. agr. gunners now; there are no birds on my farm save barn swallows, and a pair of pewee;?, v/ho are sure to come home every season, and breed in an out- buikling undisturbed. We endeavor to protect them from guns and stones.- They are as lame as we wish them; and they lake off a lew of the in- sects that infest our eyes and ears. Besides the privation named of the sight and music of those birds, we are sensible of a great in- crease of insects that infest our fruit trees, and that prey upon our grain and corn fiekls. We ma)^ positively assert, that if birJs were increased a thousand to one, hopping over our grounds in search for their food, that there wovild be a great diminution of those insects amounting to nearly to- tal extinction. There are many that feed on the inflects on fruit trees, which if undisturbed, from a common course of nature, Avould free them from these pests which ruin the iruit. The different species of woodpeckers used to be plenty, which are now almost extinct, from their exposed state, in searching out fruit orchards. The cuckoo is a fine but I'are bird; she exposes herself from singing her very melodious songs; also from the circum- stance of her particular manner of living, which I believe is Avholly on caterpillars. I have seen them light at a new nest and clear it coin]>letel\'. •There are many species of birds vvdiich I have not mentioned as to their beavity and usefulness, and some few that are mischievous. My design- has been to show that we once were delighted with, and benefited by those birds, and that we are noAv living in this dreary land, without their company, and without their great benefit. And now I will show that if we choose, we can soon enjoy their company again. The remedy is practicable, it is only to legislate in their favor. To make tlie thing more perfect, every state should go hand in hand. A heavy fine should be laid against those who destroy any birds, except the most mischievous. TO DESTROY MOEES IN GARDENS. Collect earthworms, kill them and mix them with the powder of mix vomica. After the mix- ture has remained in a heap for 24 houi-s, take the worms and place one or two here and there in the routes and holes of the moles. The desired effect is said to be the result. — Bulletin Universal. TO correspondents. The communications headed "Norfolk, its facilities for commerce, &c. — "Beaufort, or Port Royal, in South Carolina, &c." — "Irish Potatoes as food for sheep" — "On the effects of gypsum near salt water" — "On ma- nures"— "Loss and gain" — "On wild onion, &.c." — - "On the discovery of green sand [called marl in New Jersey] in the calcareous deposites of Eastern Virgi- nia"— "Apparatus for analyzing marl, and carbonates in general" — "Desultory observations on buckwheat as a green manure. Sec." were received too late for this No., but will appear in the next. The subject of the article on certain laws in South Carolina, is not embraced in the plan of our publica- tion, and therefore we are compelled reluctantly to deny it a place in the Farmers' Register. Priiiteil by Robert Riekctts, AT THE SHELLBANKS PRESS, Prince George County, Va. Where the printing of books, paniplilets, and otlior jobs, can be executed promptly, and iii the best style. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. Vol. II. AUGUST, 1834. No. 3, ED3IUNI) RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. ON THE DISCOVERY OF GREEN SAND IN THE CAI.CAREOUS DEPOSITE OF EASTERN VIR- GINIA, AND ON THE PROBABLE EXISTENCE OF THIS SUBSTANCE IN EXTE?:SIVE BEDS NEAR THE WESTERN LIMITS OF OUR ORDI- NARY MARL. TVilliam and 3Iary College, June 2G, 1834. To the Eiiitor of the Fanners' Register. Since my attention was drawn to the nature and properties of the New Jersey Green Sand, by the specimens which yoii sent me for analysis, and by our more recent conversations on the sub- ject, I have made a visit to tlie rep;ion in which it is found, and liave witnessed the most striking evidences of its utility as a manure. Durincj this excursion, I examined the marl in all its varieties, and learned many interesting particulars respect- ing its use, Irom intelligent farmers, long expe- rienced in applying it to the soil. I have moreo- ver analyzed several specimens collected on the spot with the view, if possible, of throwing some light upon its agency when applied to the soil. Since my return, I have made diligent search for this substance in our marl beds and the accom- panying strata, and am at present directing my in- quiries to that region of Lower V^irginia in which, according to geological laws, as well as fi-om some indications of which I have heard, this deposife may reasonably be expected to occur. As fiir as relates to the marl beds of this vicinity, mv search has been unexpectedly successiul. With scarce a single exception, I have discovered particles of the green sand, mingled with the ordinary sand, clay, and shells; and in some instances, in so large a proportion as no doubt greatly to enhance the use- ful agency of the calcareous matter. Indeed, I am inclined to believe, that in some cases, the ag- ricultural efficacy of the marl is chiefly owing to the green sand which it contains. In this coiiclu- sion I think I shall be sustained by facts hereafter to be noticed. The general occurrence of this substance in our marl beds, is certainly a discovery of some interest; and though I may perhaps exaggerate its import- ance in a practical point of view, I eannot but think that it is worthy of the attention of our farmers. I speak of its gen eraZ occurrence, because, although I have examined but few specimens fl'om a dis- tance, the general resemblance of our marl depo- site throughout, together with the almost invaria- ble presence of the green particles in such as I have inspected, would seem to justify the conclu- sion that it is a usual accompaniment of our marl formation, though by no means in equal propor- tions in all localities. Out of more than tbrty spe- cimens which I have examined, there were only two in which the green particles could not be dis- covered; and as tliey frequently occur in patches, and not generally diffused throughout the bed, it is probable that even in the beds from which these two specimens Avere procured, the green sand might be elsewhere found. Some of the most ef- ficient marls in the neighborhood of Williams- burg, contain a marked proportion of this sub- VoL. II.— 13 stance. At Burwell's Mill, (three miles below the city towards Yorktown) the intermixture is so large, "that the sand and detritus of shells washed down by the spring ireshet display a very distinct greenish olive tinge, which even travellers observe as they pass througli the valley in which the de- posite exists. At this place, the shells, as they are taken out of the extensiv^e bank recently ex- |)osed by the torrent, are frequently filled with a dark mass containing as much as thirty per cent, of the green particles. In fact the whole bank is strong!}' tinged by them and the stratum which over- liesthe shells, in some places five feet in thickness, is precisely similar to some of the poorer deposites in New Jersey, and contains upwards ol" thirty per cent, of this substance. In Judge Semple's marl beds, in the same vicinity, the green particles are eriually abundant — and, as in the former case, ex- tend into the incumbent stratum of non-calcareouS matter. In many instances, this layer of overly- ing earth has been found even more efficacious on the soil than the subjacent marl — a fact which might naturally he interred, when the green parti- cles abound chiefly in the upper stratum, fi'om the extraordinary efficiency of the gi'een sand as ex- perienced in' New Jersey. But by far the most interesting locality of this substance iii point of extent, which I have examined, occurs on the shore of James river, adjacent to King's Mill and Littletown. Here the banks rise pen)endicularly to the height of from firty to sixty feet, and for about three-fourths of this elevation are composed of shells and earth mingled with a large propor- tion of the green sand \vhich in some places im- parts a distinct color to the surface. The sand of the beach is also filled with these particles which the rains have washed down, and which, at first view, present the appearance of the com- mon black sand of our river, though in much larger quantity. At Bellefield, and other places on the York river, the banks and beach are simi- larly impregnated. The green particles may be readily recdgnised by their want of histre, the ease with which they may be bruised .witli the point of a penknife, and the" bright green stain which they then produce. In examining earth or marl in which they are very sparsely scattered, the particles are sometimes difficult to separate from the other matter. My method is to moisten the end of the knife blade by applying it to the tongue, and then to remove se- veral of' the particles by adhesion. When placed upon a card and bruised, they leave a brilliant stain. This test may be confidently relied on. The occurrence of the green sand so extensively through our marl region, affords strong grounds for hoping that valuable beds of this substance, like those of New Jerse)^, almost entirely unrain- gled with other matters, may be brought to light by a judicious and enterprising examination of the district on the western limits of our marl. And should such a discovery be made, the agiiculture of Lower Virginia would become pof?sessed of a new and powerful auxiliary in furthering its al- ready rapid career of amelioration. Even the fact 180 FARMERS' REGISTER— GREEN SAND FORMATION. that the green earid often exists in considerable quantities in and above our ordinaiy marl beds, wliich is I think now sufficiently established, may furnish no unimporiant aid in the improvement oi^ our lands, by leading to a more varied and judi- cio'is adaptation in the application of our mai)ui'e9. Independently of the existence of the green sand in a scattered state in our calcareous strata, there are otlier and stronger reasons for believing that a deposite similar to that in Ncsv Jersey wijl be found in the appropriate region. In a geologi- cal arrangement of our various formations, the marl beds of Eastern Virginia and Carolina, as well as those of ISIarjiandj'belong to a. later pe- riod in the physical history of our country, than the green sand formation of New Jersey — the former being rcferred to the tertiary — and the latter to the secondary epoch of geologists. Now this tertiary deposite extends- into New Jersey, and is found in many places in the latter state nearly contiguous to the green sand. Moreover, indications of the Nev/ Jersey formation have been found in Maryland — and such is the general regu- larity with which the different geological deposites arc arranged, that we may fairly infer the exis- tence in Eastern Virginia of the green sand, or eome deposite equivalent in a geological point of view — though at the same time it by no means follows that the green sand,- if actually found, would be sufficiently near the surface to render it extensively available as a manure. The object however is of such magnitude, as to justify a very diligent examination, and I am therefore desirous of enlisting in this research all those readers of the Register who reside in the region which has been alluded to before. As however the success of this investigation will be greatly proinoted by an acquaintance with the indications by which the green sand, or its geological equivalents are to be recognised, and some knowledge of the properties and constitution of the substance itself, I shall here give a brief account of the New Jersey for- mation which I visited, together with the re- sult of several chemical analysis of the sand care- fully executed by myself and others: and further to interest your readers in this important inquiry, I shall add a statement of such facts bearing upon the application and agency of the marl, as I was enabled to collect during my visit to the beautiful region which it has so largely contributed to fer- tilize and adorn. The New Jersey green sand is apparently iden- tical with that series of deposites recognised in Europe by the name of the green sand formation, characterised by a predominance of minute green particles in many of its strata. In Europe these strata are generally found alternating with beds of chalk; but in this country no chalk is found, unless in the region west of the Mississippi. The fbs- eils embedded in the green sand on both sides of the Atlantic, are however so strictly alike, that the geological equivalence of the American and Eu- ropean beds can scarcely admit of question; and is therefore generally conceded as an established point. It is relevant here to remark that in tracing cotemporaneous or equivalent geological forma- tions in different regions, geologists are accustom- ed to rely almost exclusively upon the fossils, whether shells, bones, or vegetable remains, which the strata may contain — a procedure to which they have been led by the whole tenor of modem de- vetopements in geology. Now with reference to. the New Jersey formation, though it would be impossible without numerous drawings, .and much descriptive iilatter, uninteresting to general rea- ders, to convey a knowledge of even the principal shells and other fossils existing in the green sand, some account of.a few of these fossils may possi- bly be useful in the inquiries which I trilst many of your readers will h^ prompted to undertake. 1st. Lignite, or- carbonized wood, often asso- ciated with iron pyi-ites of a bright yellow lustre, frequently occurs in the beds overiying the green sand' formation, though it sometimes occurs ia other situations. 2nd. Amber is often found in a similar position, as was the case at the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal. , 3d. B'cUmnites — a fossil of a yellow or brown color, in shape somewhat like a cigar, but rather thicker — ^\-ery brittle, and usually found- broken transversely so as to exhibit- its tubular character within. 4th. y-Immonifes — a fossil ]oresenting the appear- ance of a snake coiled up in a flat coil, and fre- quently large and ponderous. . 5th. The Ecliinvs, or Sea Urchin-^sometimes globular, at other times much flattened, having numerous little warty prominences, and minute perforations symmetrically arranged- on its surtuce, and Avhen entire, occasionally furnished with spines or prickles. 6th. Gryphaa — a shell having one valve very deep and convex, and the other flat. It somewhat resembles the small shell (chama) very abundant- ly found in our marl beds. This, latter \^ smaller — has a rougher exterior, and has two muscular impressions in each valve — whereas the Gryphaea has but one. 7th. JSxngyra — a shell like the former, with one convex and one flat valve — but a great deal rougher and more irregular in aspect, and of large dimensions. 8th. The Falcated Oyster — a beautiful shell about one and a half or two inches in length and bent like a Turkish scimetar. These rude dcscri])tions, which have no preten- sions to scientific accuracy, are designed to draw attention to such fossils as may be brought to light in the region in which the m-een sand may be ex- pected to occur — and in this point of view may prove of real value in examining for that deposite. Of course a scientific inspection of the fossils would be necessary to establish their identity, but this can readily be procured by transmitting them to the Academy of Sciences in Philadelphia, or by sending them to VVdliam and Mary, where they Avould be carefully examined and compared with the New Jersey fossils as collected and de- scribed. Indeed there is reason to believe that some of the characteristic fossils have already been found in Eastern Virginia. A bed of Lignite has been lately discovered on the Rappahannock, a few miles below Fredericksburg, the very point at which it might be expected to appear, and from information recently received, I am disposed to be- lieve that Belemnites may be found near the mouth of Potomac Creek. It has been said aleo that the Gryphaea has been found, but I have not heard in what vicinity. These facts should furnish an ad- ditional Gtimulua to inquiry, and literally no stone F^AHMERS' REGliStER— GREEN SAND, OR NEW JERSEY MARL. 131 ehoukl be left unturned in pursuit of so important a discovery. The New Jersey green sand is generally found in the valley and meadows, though occasionally it rises to some height in the suiTounding hills. Its depth in many places is very great, and several strata occur, separated by layers of shells, or blue clay, or sand colored by iron. The general aspect of the green sand is that of a bank of moist bluish clay — though in some places the green tint is very percepttble. This however only occurs where the earth is dry. When thrown into heaps by the side of the pit, the mass falls into a coarse pow- der, in texture and color very closely resembling gunpowder, on which account it is verj- commonly known by the name of gunpowder marl. This mass consisis in very large proportion of the pure green sand, having a slight admixture of clay, and in many places of minute fragments of shells. Occasionally, the bank presents a mass of the pure green sand itself — and again, in some places the shells predominate. In one of the beds in tlie vi- cinity of New Egvpt, I discovered small spiculte of gypsum, or nuij)hate of lime: but this occurred at no other locality— -and in this place the cr}-stals were so minute and few in number as to require the use oi^ a microiHcope to be' seen distinctly. The moist marl when warmed in the hand exhales a strong phosphoric odour, a fact which I believe has not been hitherto remarked. As already observed, the marl freqaently con- tains shells both in an entire and broken condition. This however is by no means universal. In fact, the great majority of those beds in actual use con- tain either no calcareous matter, or a very minute proportion of it. Tiiis I ascertained by chemical examination. In the vicinity of Arney's Town, Crosswick's Creek, and Shrewsbury, as well as other places, much of the marl which the farmers spread over their land, contains no carbonate of lime; while at New Egypt the calcareous and non- calcareous marls are both extensively employed. The same is true likewise, of the beds farther south at Muliica Hill. The green particles them- selves have an invariable composition — and those of our Virginia marl beds are perfectly identical •with those of the New Jersey deposite. Thirty grains of the green sand pelded by careful analy- sis— Silica, Protoxide of iron, Potash, Water, Magnesia, a trace. 15.51 grs. 7.56 " 3.10 " 3.00 " These results agree ver\' closely with the deter- mination of Berthier of France, a,nd Seybert of Philadelphia. The former operated upon the freen sand of Europe, the latter upon that of few Jersey. It appears therefore that the pre- dominant constituents are silica and oxide of iron. The potash, amounting to about ten per cent, is most probably the ingredient chiefly concerned in the agricultural agency of the marl, though in what way its connexion with the other ingredients is severed w^hen the marl is spread upon the land, I am at a loss to conjecture. Throughout all the district in which this depo- .«ite occurs, it is extensively employed in agi-icul- ture. In the neighborhood of Arney's Town, one of the points which I visited, it has been used aa a manure for tiie last thirty years — but its general introduction is of more recent date. In the region in which the marl chiefly abounds, the soil is loamy, having in some places a large intermixture of tenacious clay. East of this tract, which is a narrow band nearly parallel to the Delaware Ri- ver, the countiy assumes an appearance very si- milar to that of the sandy lands of Eas:ern Virgi- nia, covered with a thick growth of pine, and com- paratively unproductive. On both theses varieties of soil the green sand is continually used with the most striking benefit. For the clay soils, the more sandy marls are of course pre fenced; and for the sandy soils, those which contain some clay along with the marl. The proportion in common, use near Arney's Town, is from ten to twenty loads per acre. In other places five loads or even less is found to be sufficient. The action of the marl appears to be very permanent, as will be evinced by the following statement. In a large quadran- gular field over which I walked, four successive applications of the marl had been made at inter- vals of four years — commencing about twenty years ago. The first dressing was applied to the north side — the second to the south — the third ta the east, and the fourth to the west — while a small space in the centre was left without any marl. AH four sides were covered with a verj' heavy crop of clover, which was nearly, if not quite as luxuriant on the north as eitlier of the other sides — while the space in the middle was almost, bare. The action of the marl appears to be most powerililly felt by clover and gTass — but it is very conspicu- ous also with small. grain and corn. A very intel- ligent farmer told me that it more than tripled hia clover and grass crop, and doubled liis small ^rain. In general it is spread upon the clover every fourth year, and ploughed in for the next crop, Tliat it is very efficient upon sandy soils is e\-inced by the following striking fact. Some years ago an en- terprising flirmer near New Egypt, purcliased two hundred acres of the Pine Barren, which, by marling, he has converted into pasture sufiicient for one'^ hundred head of cattle. Such is the de- mand for the marl, even at a considerable distance, that it has become an article of great profit to the proprietors of the pits, and more than one individu- al was pointed out to me who had risen to wealth by the sale of marl. * From what has been stated it will at once be e-ddent, that the discover}- of extensive and acce.s- sible beds of this manure in Virginia would be a most important accession to the resources of the state, and that an active and diligent search ought Ibrthwith to be commenced throughout all the re- cfion in which there is a probability that it exists. Every aid which it is in my power to give, will be. cheerfully bestowed in furtherance of this inquiiy: and as Ifeel the double interest of a scientific cu- riosity, and a sincere solicitude for the agricultural prosperity of our state, I shall gladly receive all fossils and other specimens whicTi may be trans- mitted for inspection or analysis, giving them a prompt attention, and communicating in reply such liints as may promise to be most useful in this deeply interesting and important investigation. WM. B. ROGERS. 132 FARMERS' REGISTER— REAPING WITH THE SCYTHE. A CHEAP AND USEFUL WATER-CART. From tlie British Farmers' Magazine, [of February 1834.] I subjoin a description of a very cheap and use- ful water-cart. A barrel, holding 100 to 200 gal- lons, is placed on a pair of wheels and shafis in the usual way. A pump, three inches in diame- ter, is placed close by the side oi' the ban-el, and to the under end of the pump is made fast a leather pipe of indefinite length, with a rose copper end, and in the pipe small copper or tin rings are placed, two inches distant, to prevent the external air from pressing together the sides of the pipe, and thus excluding the water. The cart being placed on the bank of a river, brook, or pond, and the pipe thrown into the Avaterwith the rose end immersed, a man will pump 150 gallons in 10 minutes, with- out the trouble of having a road into the bottom of the river, and with the great advantage of the horse standing dr\', and not plunged into three feet of cold water in a winter day, in the usual way of filling by ladle and standish." A stop cock is fixed iaehind for discharging the water. When the cart is travelling the leather pipe lies over the barrel, fastened by two iron catches. The barrel being filled, and driven to the place required, the leather pipe is immersed in the ban-el by a hole in the top, sutficient to admit the rose end. A small iron rod screws down by the side of the piston rod, upon the upper valve, and shuts it fast. A rising main, with a check valve, is opened between the two buckets in tlie pumji, upon which is screwed fast a leather pipe with a copper tube on the end. One man directing this pipe, and another pumping, converts the cart into a sort of fire engine, that may be very useful in cases of emergency, throwing the water 40 feet horizontal- ly, and over any house of two stories, any hay Black or corn rick, and also very useful for garden Avails and fruit trees. By increasing the size of the barrel, and by applying more power, a very sufficient engine may be made, and answering other purposes at the same time. The above de- scribed is very simple and cheap, and is very use- ful. JOHN DONALDSON. ON REAPING WITH THE SCYTHE. [ It is not only interesting, but profitable, to compare our own opinions and practices with those of other farmers having the same general object in view, but placed under very different circumstances. For want of making such comparisons, we fall into one of two errors, which are directly opposed to each other. We sometimes refuse to copy a plan adopted in England, for example, because we consider the difference of ex- isting circumstances renders it altogether unsuited to our use: and in other cases, we assent without dispute or examination, to the superiority of some process in that country, because the operations of agriculture there are in general so much more perfectly performed, when perhaps in truth, our own labor saving substi- tute is preferable, and would be adopted by English farmers, if the same want of means for comparison had not kept them even more ignorant of our improve- ments than we are of theirs. The piece which we will present below, furnishes a strikhig illustration of tlie ignorance of both countries of the practices of each otlier. The cradled scythe which the scarcity of labor, and the former general li'^htness of our crops of wheat, forced us to adopt in the United States, instead of the English sickle, or reaping hook, and which has become so perfect an im- plement by successive improvements, has never been known in England. But, it has been supposed by us that this rejection of this implement so indispensable here, by British farmers, was a proof that their mode of reaping wheat was still more perfect than ours; and that if we could command enough hired labor in har- vest, and at as low wages compared to the value of the crop, that we would profit by exchanghig our scythe and cradle, for the English sickle. But it seems that our mode would have been preferred by English farm- ers if they had known it, and that they are now be- ginning to adopt, as a new and valuable improvement, a mode of reaping similar to ours, but (as we infer) still gi-eatly inferior. The Hainault scythe (alluded to be- low) which Sir John Sinclair saw used in Belgium, and tlie inhroduction of which he strongly urged in England, was formerly used in New York, where it had been brought by the early settlers from the Neth- erlands, but was abandoned for the scythe and cradle. The scythe described in the following article is con- nected with a sort of a cradle, but certainly very in- ferior to ours. We omit the plate, but can make its form perfectly understood by referring to our cradle, which is familiar to every reader. The sued (or snead) has a handle for the left hand, as well as one like oura for the right. The blade is perfectly straight except at and very near the point, in which short distance the curve is much greater than in our blades, which curve gently throughout, and mostly towards the point. To our eyes, the English blade would seem totally un- fit for its pui-pose. The fingers are only three in num- ber, and would be precisely represented by tlie three fingers next the blade of one of our cradles being cut off, so that the lowest was left only one third tlie length of the blade, the next something longer, and the third (and most distant from the blade,) about half its length. They are all straight. They are unfit to catch and hold the cut wheat as do our cradles of five or six curved fingers nearly as long as the blade. But even this addition is objected to in another and later article which is in the succeeding No. of the Quarterly Jour- nal of Agriculture. This states that — "About 30 years ago an attempt had been made, (in 'Aberdeensliire ) and persisted in ibr two years, to cut the 'corn crops with the scythe; but as a notion had been then 'entertained, that it was indispensable, for laying the 'ears even, to attach some sort of additional machinery 'to the common scythe, and which was attempted in the 'form of a comb or heckle projecting above the blade, 'the scheme became abortive, owing, as experience 'now teaches us, to that veiy notion; and all thought 'of employing the scythe for harvest work passed 'away, till it was again revived at the time above 'stated. The implement now employed is just the 'common scythe, universally in use over the kingdom 'for cutting grass and clover-hay. No change whate- 'ver is made in it for cutting heavy or lodged grain- 'crops; but for light standing crops, a very simple ad- 'dition is found of advantage. Tnis consists of a small 'rod or shoot, nearly an inch in diameter, of green 'willow, or row-an or broom, or any other flexible and FARMERS' REGISTER— MACHINES FOR REAPING. 133 'tough young wood. It has its thick end twisted into •the small iron rod, which aids in attaching the blade 'ol' the scythe to its handle, named provincially the 'grass-nail. Its small end passes over the upper side 'of the blade as far as' the back, where it is bent up- 'wards in an even curve, and is brought backward, 'and tied with several rounds of strong twine to the 'handle, about 15 inches above the blade. A piece of 'sti-ong iron wire is sometimes substituted for the wil- 'low rod; but the latter is more approved of, being 'more easily adjusted to the nature and lay of the crop, •according to the judgement of the scythesman." From this passage, it seems that in fact the British reaping with the scythe approaches in simplicity the mowing of grass: and if so, and the wheat can be laid straight enough to be saved well, there would be a great advantage found in exchanging for that mode, our cumbrous and expensive scythe and cradle, howe- ver superior it may be to the sickle, or the implement described in the following article. We have omitted those portions of the piece which do not relate specially to the operation of reaping.] From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. It is certainly a remarkable circumstance in the history of mechanical science in this country, that the art of cutting down the cidtivated crops should be so inadequately supplied with instruments. The tools whicli are employed in every other art evidently display an ingenious adaptation of means to an end. Not so the reaping-hook. Unlike eve- ry other mechanical instrument, it is the physical power and dexterity of the laborer alone Avhich constitute the efficacy of the reaping-hook. Its extremely simple tbrm cannot alone have prevent- ed the invention of a substitute. The kniie and the spade are as simple in form as it; and yet the former has been displaced by many mechanical contrivances to which the power of steam is ap- plied; and the latter is insignificant, when com- pared to the plough moved by the power of the horse, in every operation of magnitude in the field. Like the sjjade, the reaping-hook may be useful in the minuter and lighter operations of the gar- den; but its continued use in the field is attended with immense loss of time and money. It is ne- vertheless an efficientimplement lor executing good work in the hands of the dexterous laborer; though there is no single operation in tiirm management which is attended with the annual outlay of so much money, and the waste of so much valuable time, and so dependent, at the same time, on ad- venlitious aid, as the reaping of the culmiferous crops. The expense incurred at harvest- work with the reaping-hook is seldom under 12s. an acre. Judging only by the magnitude of the work, it might surely be executed by horse or steam power for a third of that sum. One hun- dred acres of corn costs an outlay of money to the extent of £60 a year lor reaping. Of this sum, £4-5 a year is expended uselessly; and^ which in the course of nineteen years' duration of a lease, with the simple interest thereof, would amount to nearly £ 1000 — a sum which, if saved would purchase many comforts for the declining years of lite. We say this sum is expended us<" lessly, tor it is generally carried off by stranr^j'^- The time, too, which "the reaping alone '^ J"^ corn occupies is generally three weeks— ^ perioa much too long for the precious fruits of ^ twelve- month's toils to be exposed to the vicissitudes ol' a variable climate. These difficulties were long felt, without being attempted to be remedied. Attempts, however, were at last made to substitute machines driven by horses for the reaping-hook. They have not yet been crowned with success, thouph they have no doubt laid a foundation upon which some fu- ture contriver, more ingenious tlian the rest, may erect a simple and useful structure. Simple as the reaping of corn appeai-s to a spec- tator, it is in reality a very troublesome sort of work. The cutting it dow^i by the ground is not the only consideration which is required. All the manipulations which the corn has to undergo in future must be, and can only be, facUitated at har- vest. It must be bound up into sheaves, for the conveniency of transportation. It must be expo- sed in small portions to the sun and wind for a time, before it can be safely preserved in large quantities; it must be carried ofl' in small quanti- ties at a time from the fields to a more convenient place to be preserved, and to pass again through hands in the thrashing and cleaning process, be- fore it can be made available to the consumer. That machine must be very ingeniously construct- ed, indeed, which can ])rei)are a crop of corn tor all these successive but necessary manipula- tions. Our surprise may therefore be a litde abated at the hitherto unsuccessful attempts in the construc- tion of reaping machines, Avhen w-e consider the nature of the work which they have to perform. Tliough much ingenuity has been displayed in both Mr. Bell's and Mr. Mann's reaping-ma- chines, they cannot, it is evident, realise all our expectations on that subject. That of Mr. Bell cuts the corn so surely, that not a single straw can escape; but it does not lay the swath of corn, when cut, in a direction at right angles to the line of draught, which it must be made to do before the corn can be taken ofi' the ground in the best and most expeditious manner to be bound into sheaves. It appears to us to require considerable power to move it; and it certainly requires more dexterity to manage its motions than the generality of ploughmen possess Avho have the charge of farm- horses. Mr. aiann's machine lays the corn at right angles to the fine of draught, and therefore more perfectly than Mr. Bell's; though it is ques- tionable, if it will be able to cut it so surelv. Mr. Mann's anpears to be as easily moved with one horse as Mr. Bell's is with two. Mr Mann a has not yet received a fa^^ trial Would a com- bination of the best f'arts of the two machmes effect the cuttinc- '^"f^ laying down of the corn in a satisfactory m-'^er? . ■ u i But hoi'-' ^'f^'" ^^*^11 these may be simultaneously accomi^vsbed by the same machine, no reaping- macAine can be said to approach nearly to per- fection, that only reaps, and lays down tlie com when cvt in a swath; but which does not collect the co-n into bundles, ready to be bound into phep^'es. Farther than this it is perhaps beyond i]id power of machinery to accomplish in this kind >)f work, though short of this no mechanician should rest satisfied with the capability of his reap-, ino'-maehine. The making of bands, the binding of sheaves, and the setting of stocks, must be confided to manual dexterity. The locomotion necessaiy to a reaping-machine, when in the per- 1S4 FARMERS' REGISTER— REAPING WITH THE SCYTHE. formance of its work, will always present an ob- struction to the perlection of its construction; though many greater mechanical difficulties have ah-eady been surmounted by our ingenious artisans. An insurmountable difficulty will sometimes be found to the use of reaping-machines in the state of the growing coi'ns. A portion of it may be standing erect, or only a little swa3'ed, while others may be twisted and laid flat in every possi- ble direction. High winds and heavy rains may ravel and beat down a whole crop in a single day. With the corn in that state it will be impossible to derive much assistance from the I'eapmg-ma- chine; Fortunately a laid crop is not of very fre- quent occurrence, tiiou^gh, to a partial extent, por- tions of laid corn will be found on every farm in every season. To reap three-fourths, or even ons-'half, of the crop with efficient reaping-ma- chines will insure a considerable saving, though the laid portions may have to be reaped with the sickle. Until tire appearance of an efficient reaping- machine, much saving of money may be effected in reaping by the substitution of the scythe for the sickle. The scythe has long been in use in agri- culture, and powerful as the implement is in the hands of the laborer, in comparison with the sickle, it is surprising it has not been more used at har- vest-work in this coiuitry. It is used in France and Switzerland, in many parts of England, and in Aberdeenshire. The IlainauU, scythe takes xip an intermediate position between the scythe and the sickle. The scytiie can only be wielded by Btout men, and whatever work is perflarmed by it requires the assistance of laborers besides the mower. These circumstances have no doubt had the effect of restricting the use of the scythe. On the other hand, every boy and girl, as well as grown up person, can assist at harvest- work with the sickle. # * # * * The land must be prepared by rolling for tlie use of the scythe. Clods and stones soon blunt and break the edge of the scythe: the roller should be heavy. All stones which are not compressed into the soil by the weight of the roller should be removed, and this is easily accom])lished by mounting a box on the frame work, into which the man who drives the horses can throw the Etones if they are few in number, or should tliey be numerous, another person can follow the roller and lift thetn up. The stones can be dis- posed of at the ends of the field. The best time to carry off these lavjre stones is when the field is preparmg for tlae crop \,liich is to be rolled. Roll- ing the wliole crop impose., it ig true, additional labor m spring; but it is absoluwiy ^gggggm-y^^rhen the scythe is to be employed in rec^i,^o>, "Wheat is generally rolled at any rate after the'^ass-sceds are sown in it in spring, and most pe^iv^jg pj.g_ fer rolling the barley after it is sown, in orcWi- to make as smooth a surface as possible for the braird of that kind of grain, so that the additior^al labor only consists in rolling the oats. It is alwav,-g ad- vantageous to roll oats early in a dry season to prevent the ground becoming too dry, for of -41 the cuhnileious crops the oat is most affected by drought. Tlie scythe employed in reaping corn requires more nicety in the construction of its several parts than one for common purposes. The blade should be of patent steel, strengthened by aj)late of iron along the back, and its temper should not be too hard, which can be determined by examining closely the edge of the blade, and observing that it is smooth and not serrated. A good mewer al- ways prefers a long blade, more than four feet in length. The shank or sned should always be straight and not curved. • The curved may seem m.ore convenient in form to the hand, but as the line c." draught must always be straight, the straight «ned always gives the greatest command over the scythe. A Avell.dried young larch tree, barked and "reduced by the plane to the desired thickness, with a" natural slight curve outwards at the root end of the tree for receiving the blade in a proper position, makes the best sned for reaping. When painted, such an one will last lor many years. A hone of fine sand to preserve a fine edge, and a fine sandstone to whet the edge of the scythe occasionally, are necessary ajipertenances. To gather the corn and lay it down in a regular swath when cut, a simple apparatus called a rake or cradle is attached to the scythe. This rake, as its name implies, consists of three long teeth, di- minishing in length from the uppermost to the un- dermost,^ fastened to an upright stem, and strengthened by two rods passing through them parallel to the stem. It should he wholly made of the finest ash, and as light and slim as the strength of the wood permits. The upper tooth should be two feet or a little more in length, and that of the other two, each three inches shorter than tlie one above it; and all of them curved simi- larly to the back of the blade of the scj'the. The stem of the rake is driven into a socket of iron, but not fastened to it with a nail; the socket has a wedge-shaped toe kneed at right angles to it, in the direction of the teeth of the rake. It is fasten- ed to the sned so as to stand in a perpendicular po- sition when the scythe is to be used, Avith the same iron ring and wedges which fasten the blade and sned together. The rake stands with the socket about" thirteen inches in height, and the spaces between the teeth and the undermost tooth and the blade of the scythe, are about four inches. The adjustment of the scythe consists in placing the blade in such a position as that its point shall be as far from the handle by which the mower supports the scythe in his right hand, as the length of the blade itself, and as this han- dle is from the butt end of the blade. In short, the butt end, and the point of the blade, and the right-hand handle, stand in the angles of an equalateral triangle, the edge of the blade for reaping, should not be so low set as that of the scythe which gardeners use lor cutting grass walks, nor so high as for the cutting of clover. The left-hand handle is placed the distance of the elbow to the exti-emity of the middle finger of the man who is to use the scj^the from the right-hand one. The right-hand handle should be curved and placed on the sned, so as the scythe should be suspended in a working position: both are fastened in the tightest manner to the rings which slide on the sned, by the shank of the rings passing en- tirely through their length and rivetted. The hone is hooked on with two nails at the upper ex- t's<"-mity of the sned; the sned is about seven feet m Vvigth, and is shod at the upper extremity witlj a socVt and pike; the pike when inserted into the ground &%rving to render the scythe steady in the act of whfcuing. A strong cord is requisite from FARMERS' REGISTER— HARVEST LABORS IN BRITAIN. 135 the outward rod which strengthens the teeth of the rake to a nail- in the sned, a little below the rij^ht-hand handle, to serve the double purpose cf keeping the rake in the desired position, and- of laying the corn over in swath. Thus equipped, the reaping scythe-should balance itselt" exactly on both sides of the right-hand handle. ... ' The relation of these minutiie will not, we hope, be considered tedious," tiir. upon the proper adjust- ment of the component parts of a scythe depends in a great measure the success of reaping the corn neatly and quickl3% Reaphig with the scythe , is hard v/ork under any circumstances,, but atten- tion to minutKB relieves if of irksomeness. * * The best position of the corn for^, reaping with the scythe, is the upright, or a little swayed, either naturally, orby the wind from the mower. The best direction to reap in respect to the ridges, is across. The gromid is then always straight for the stroke of the scythe-, and the furrows of the ridges are easily cleared. In commencing to reap a field of corn, a little consideration is requisite. The general position of the corn over the whole field must first be considered, then the quarter from which the wind blows, and, lastly the direc- tion of the ridges. If all are favorable, the work will proceed clieerfuUy, if not, a compromise must be made, with the opponent. The wind must be always in the back or on the right-hand of the mower. A strong wind will sometimes overrule the natural position of the corn. A diagonal di- rection across the ridges should always be prefer- red to one along them. At whichever side of the field operations are to commence, that side must be entirely opened up by cutting down a breadth of corn in the line of the ridges, equal to the v.diole band of mowers. This cleared road-way gives access either across or hi a diagonal direction over the ridges.. To carry on the reaping in a regular manner, it is necessary to classify the mowers into bands of two each, according to their ability, that each band may be equally dexterous. Twx) mexpe- rienced or weak-bodied mowers ought not to be together, as they will assuredly cause a hinderance to the work, at one time or another. Let a steady jgood mower take the lead of the first band, and let each band keep its leader and people and place of precedence ever aller, otliervvise confusion of work and wrangling among the mowers will inev- itably ensue. Every band may be arranged in this manner: two. scythe-men to reap; a person, generally a wo- man, to follow each scythe, to make bands and take up the corn, and place it in the bands in bun- The bandsters liave al\v;iys"hard Work among barley. Wheat is beautitiilly" laid in swath when mown. The takers- up and bandsters have less labor among wheat than the mowers, who must be powerful men to continue a length of time at the work. Indeed Eome farmers, who use the scythe pretty exten- Eively in harvest, reap the wheat with the sickle. There is no necessity tor this change. Men can reap a strong crop of wheat with the scythe as well as the other kinds of grain, provided they are not k.^pt day after day at it lor a length of time. Their physical energies could not with- stand the fatigue. But there are modes of equal- ising this labor, and of course of duninishing the fatigue. For example: When a field of wheat and a field of oats are nearly ready tor reaping, it is an excellent arranijement to reap the oats in the dewy mornings belbre breakfast, or as long as there is any dampness on the corn, and then to go to the wheat, or to the barley if there be little wheat on the farm, during the dry period of the day. By this plan much valuable time can be saved m reaping the whole crop. Oats are not the worse by being reaped in a damp state. It is a remarkable facf, that oats reaped in a damp etate with the scythe will be nearly as soon ready for the stack as when reaped dry. Not so with barley. Stooks of oats which are reaped dry, but have afterwards been soaked with rain will be longer of being read}' for the stack than oats that have been reaped in a damp state. It is a still more remarkable fact, that damp oats reaped with the scythe will be sooner ready for the stack than would the same oats reaped in a dry slate with the 6;ickle. Oats reaped whh the scythe will be qi i'e ready for the stack in eight days, whereas oats reaped Avith the siclde require at least a fortnight; and stooks that have been reaped with the scythe wiil avert nuich more rain than those reajied with the sickle. We remember a remarkable instance of this, and have repeatedly witnessed the facts mentioned above. Atler a quantity of potato-oats had been cut down both by the sickle and the scythe in the same field, an uninterruptedly heavy rain fell for three days. We expected the rain to have soaked through every stook. When they Avere examined, however, atterit fiiired, the stooks which were reaped with the scythe were only wetted on the outside, and every sheaf v.'as quite dry in the heart; and they were ready for the stack in a short time alter; whereas those which had been reaped with the sickle were not only soaked through, but they had all to be loosened out to the sun and wind before they could be stacked a fort- nifirht afterwards. ^rhis difference, strange as it may appear, is not difficult to be accounted for. Corn reaped with the sickle, bemg gathered firmly in the hand, its straw in the sheaves becomes as it were a bundle of parallel rods; between which the rain easily enters, and passes among them into the half-crush- ed straw in the heart of the sheaf, where it lodges as if in a sponge, and where little air can pene- trate to evaporate moisture. On the contrary, a eheaf reaped with the scythe is always in an ojjen and loose state through which the wind can freely pass; and its outside coating consists not so much of a bundle of parallel rods, as of a kind of net- work of straw, the several tlireads of which direct the rain to some projecting jjicce of bent straw, wliich serves as a spout to throw ofl' the water li'om it to another till it reaches the ground. These tricklings of water from point to fjoint we have often observed along the sides of the stooks which were reaped with the scythe, with a curious satis- faction. In other stooks, the dropping of water ia almost always confined to the lower ends of the hood sheaves; the side sheaves, from the circum- stances already mentioned, and their inclined po- sition, absorbing most of" the rain which fiills airainst them. OPINIONS ON SAI.T, AND CARBONATE OF SODA, AS MANURES. The last No. of the British Farmers' Magazine (for May 1834) which we liave just received, contains a review of a new pamphlet which has the follovvuig title: ".4ft Mdress to the Owners and Occupiers of Land in Great Britain, Sfc. on the Important Discovery of the Decomposition of Common Salt, for the purposes of Manure; ichereby an Jlcre of Land is prepared for the reception of any crop, at the cost of Ten Shillings only. By Henry Kemp." The substance obtained by the decomposition of common salt is doubtless the carbonate of soda, an alkali having very nearly the same properties with the carbonate of potash, which constitutes the principal value of unleached ashes as manure. There can be no question, but that this substance would be very efficient as manure: if it could be obtained from salt (which is a compound of muriatic acid and soda,) by a process sufficiently cheap — but the author does not disclose the process which he has discovered, and thcpjfore his publication conveys no available instruc- tion on that head. It is therefore, not so much to an- nounce this supposed discovery that we refer to the publication, as to present to our readers the concurrent opinions of the author and his reviewer, of the worth- lessness of salt itself as manure — of which such won- derful effects have been reported from time to time. The reviewer says: "Of the use of salt, in an unprepared state, as a manure, we have always held a most contemptible opinion. True, it is, much has been written in its praise, but we have, hitherto, failed to meet with any person who really thought it worthy of a second trial." The following quotation from the author exhibits his opinions in ttiis respect: "My only object in this investigation, respecting the value of unprepared salt as a fertilizer, is the elu- cidation of truth; and, I am sure, no lover of it will find fault with my exposition, though it may induce him to think less lavorably of salt than he did before. That there are many persons who entertain a good opinion of it for its manuring qualities, I very much doubt; for, I have never conversed or corresponded on the subject with any one who has materially dilfercd from me in this respect. I know many farmers who have submitted it for trial on a variety of crops, and who have expressed their disappointment at the re- sults. It was in consequence of the great dissatisfaction which I experienced, after repeated experiments to ascertain its efficiency, that I was induced to attempt the decomposition of it; and, for the complete success 138 FARMERS' REGISTER— BUCKWHEAT AND CLOVER. which attended lay efforts I am indebted to the failure of all those hopes I had previously entertained, that salt had only to be applied to the ground, to establish an important chara,cter as a great fructifier of it. I beg to repsat, that the idea of decomposing salt for agricultural purposes first suggested itself to my mind, from the disappointment thjit ensued on using it in its natural state. Influenced by a sanguine expectation that great good would attends its use, I commenced trying it, on a great variety of crops, immediately on the duty being removed in 1824. I employed it in quantities of irom eight to sixteen bushels, applying it at diilerent seasons of the year, and on soils exhibit- ing every variety of texture, from a retentive clay, to the lightest sand; and, from the minute attention whi'ch I paid to these trials, I can confidently state, that no good etfects resulted worth notice, excepting, perhaps, to the potato crops: on these it was thought to have done a little good, but certaiidy nothing of a striking character." COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE OF BUCKWHEAT AND RED CLOVER AS GREEN MANURE HUSBANDRY OF THE VALLEY OF VIRGINIA. Jlockingham, June 16, 1834. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. In sendins; to you my second j'ears' subscrip- tion for the Farmers' Register, I have annexed fiome desultory remarks, principally u]}on the sub- ject of buckwheat as a green manure. I have not observed in any of the communications on- this subject, published in the Farmers' Regteter, that property ascribed to buckwheat, wdiich in my es- timation, constitutes its chief value in the improve- ment of a tarm; that is, its tendency to cleanse the land of noxious weeds, blue-grass, briers, &c. Ol" its value as a green manure, I do not think highly. In this respect I diH'er wholly with your correspondent who in your 8tli No. (I believe, for I have not the No. before me) expresses the opin- ion that an equal amount in value in clover seed, buckwheat and plaster, would at the end of. the first year with the buckwheat (two crops being plastered and ploughed in) benefit the land as much or more than the clover would do (manage it as you will) at the end of the second year.. I have certainly never made any experiment mere- ly for the purpose of testing the relative merits of buckwheat and red clover, as agents in fertilizing the soil, though I have several times used the former, and all my life (as a farmer I mean) been in the constant use of the latter, with the view both to pasturage and the improvement of the land — and am very decidedly ol' the opinion, that iipon my land at least, (generally a sandy loam) -the buckwheat (manage it as you may) cannot impart one-lburth — perhaps not a tythe of the fer- tility to the soil that the clover would, if properl}' managed. From the results of my several ex- periments, I believe, that upon such a soil as mine, (it might perhaps be different in stifle, hard, clay lands,) a piece of land well set in clover, and having a proper dressing of plaster of paris would derive more benefit from the roots and stubble of the clover, (when the first crop had been mowed for hay and the seed saved ii-otn the second crop) than any quantity' of buckwheat straw, that could grow u|)on and be ploughed under in one season, could impart to it. But whilst I believe that there can be but little comparison between the value as green manure, of buckwheat and red clover, (when it is sown upon lands in a proper state lor the reception of the seed) I do not mean to de- preciate buckwheat: on the contrary^ I think it a valuable auxiliary in the improvement of our lands. Judiciously used, it would be an excellent pioneer to the introduction of clover into lands that are too poor, or too foul to produce it Witiiout the aid of manure, or some cleansinjg crop. I have found it valuable in subduing a stubborn blue-grass, and in preparing lands so infested, for Avheat. This blue (or as it is sometimes here called wire or iron) grass, frequently dispossesses the clover in parts of our fields the second year that they are in clover, in which case it is fre([uently extremely difficult so to prepare the land for wheat as to pre- vent the encroachments of this grass in the spring. I have often seen fields of wheats sown on a clover lay, almost totally destroyed by it. Last year a small part of the field that I cuhivated in corn (say seven or eight acres) had become com- pletely sodded over with it. The field had been in wheat the year before, sown on a clover lay, and this nuisance had sprung up, and diminished the product of the wheat at least fifty per cent, upon this spot wdiere the grass had supplanted the clover the. year before. Upon this spot, instead of planting corn, I determined to sow buckwheat, (say a bushel to the acre, about the last of May.) It produced a very heavy crop, Avliich, when in full perfeciion I had rolled down and ploughed in. The whole field is now in wheat: where the buck- wheat grew scarcely a spire of blue-grass appears; whilst in some of the corn lands adjoining, though it had been well cultivated ivith the plough and hoe, and particularly so where any of this grass appeared, the grass is by no means so completely destroyed. It may perhaps also be proper to re- mark, that this grassy spot had also been some- wdiat infested with sassafras bushes. None of them grew with the buckwheat, nor do they yet appear in the wheat. But as this is the only piece of my land that is infested with sassafras, and this the only experiment upon it, I cannot pre- tend to determine whether they are- permanently destroyed or not. From this experiment, and others previously made, lam satisfied that buck- wheat is valuable in preparing foul land, lor wheat: but all my observations concur in proving (to my mind conclusively) that its capacity of impartuig fertility to the soil can scarcely bear any compari- son at all with that of red clover. In the case above stated, the crop of buck- wdieat was so luxuriant, that several of my neigh- bors declared it was a pity to plough it down; and yet there is not much superiority in the wheat on this spot over that on the adjoining corn land,^ while it is decidedly inferior to every other part of the field, which contains about eighty acres. Buckwheat when suffered to stand until it ripens the grain, is a very great exhauster indeed — and the straw, when dry, is of less value for manure than any other vegetable substance that I know of, (hemp shoves only excepted.) When plough- ed in as green manure, the land should be well compacted with a heavy^ roller passed over it more or less frequently, according to the looseness of the soil, otherwise it renders the ground entirely too spongy for wheat, and more especiahy if clover seed is intended to be sown wnth- the wheat, the roller is almost indispensable. But the growth of the clover seed may be ensured by the use of FARMERS' REGISTER— HUSBANDRY OP THE VALLEY. 139 the pew roller, (an implement, used in Albemarle, and made in tlie common manner, with strong pegs five or six inches long inserted into the roller with a 1-i- or 2 inch auger at intervals of six or eight inclies each w cottcigers, have an op- portunity kind'y afforded them, provided the}^ pos- sess also the will, to obtain a superipr sort of ani- mal to that of the count)-. A number of in-calf heifers are annuallvdrauiihted, and allowed to the purchasers at £12, £3 being returned by Mr. Coke, if the purchaser choose, for the calf, what- soever its sex, and should one of these heifers, or all of them, prove bad milkers, they are replaced by others. Thus instead of being imposed on by a jobber at a fiiir, each small holder has a good dci.\ry cow certain, and in proportion as they are disseminated, the country benefits in its breed of cattle. It is not foreign to the .subject of thcs'>. small holders, to observe, respecting them that they are generally Mr. Coke's laborers, who have been put forward by a judicious promotion, Avhich follov/s a career of sober industry. I witnessed the announcement of his advance to what would be a provision for his declining years, to one of the workmen, who wascmiaged superintending some ploughs at -work. " Need I add the announcement was well received, but evidently excitedno surprise, and appeared to be considered as the result of a compact, well and tacitly understood betvv^een the emplover and the employed, the benefactor and the meritorious. I do not consider that Mv. Coke could with propriety keep any other ca+tle, as a breeding- aYid dairy stock, at Holkham. The stock next in fitness would be the Scots, but the Devons mature earlier, and, I think, judging from his spe- cimens, they will pay a good deal more money. Of his own north Devon oxen he works none, but he has at plough twenty pair of south Devons, somc- Avhat laro-er, coarser, and showing less purity of blood. They are, however, admirable workers, vers- active and docile, and in conjunction with the advantacjes of saving horse labor, while also they continue sTrowing, possess a disposition to fatten quite^ufficient to indemnify' those who employ and feed them, in an ample manner. I am Avell con- Aanced, from seeing the stock at Holkham, from hearing Mr. Coke's sentiments, and from every circumstance I meet with, at all bearing on the subject, thdt with the Devons, as well as the larger breeds, it is folly to attempt to increase size — that there is onlv one best model for all — and that is, the fram-^ combininff great substance, well compacted toffether, with deep ribs, and short le^s. It remains to observe, Avith respect to the Holkham Devons, that their pastures had, in common with all in the county, suffered much from the drought, but not- Avithstanding this, and that thej^ had only a sheep- bite AAdien I saAV them, the cows AA-ere, most of them, fat and healthy, and exhibited, in a striking decrree, their fitness to fiffht their way under the difficulties attending a light thin soil, and short bite of grass. Among the tenants, Avhose stock T inspected, it Avould bc'AATonc: to omit mention of Mr. Blomfield, Avho has a superior herd of Devons, and to Avhom the country is indebted for the hints Avhich led to the transplantation of turf, for the purpose of lay- ing- doAvn land to permanent pasture, at Holkham. This gentleman's coaa^s were particularly good in the fore-quarters, and appeared to giAT a great deal of milk. They have been bred a good while very 144 FARMERS' REGISTER— SHEEP AND CATTLE BREEDING, closely, and one or two defects were, in consequence, becoming prominent and treneral. Mr. Blomfield appeared to be fully sensible of this, and to admit the necessity ot a cross. He informed me his cows would average an ounce of butter to a pint of milk, and that experience had convinced him, he could graze, and keep in hiyh condition, four Devon cows, on tlie same quantity of land as would sup- port three home-breds, or Norfolk cattle, in indif- ferent condition. Strange, that, with ficts such as this before them, and stated on t.he authoritv of so respectable a man, and able a farmer as Mr. Blom- field, the Norfolk tenantry should not at once, and for ever, banish the home-breds. With regard to stock, the grand ft?ature, and one that everv day assumes, and -will continue to as- sume, additional importance, is the improvement of the Southdown flock at Holkham. When Mr. Coke first came to the estate, the lonff-leo-gexl, misshapen, unsightly, and unthrifty Noifolk breed, had possession of the country, keeping alive an active struggle with the rabbits, for the scanty herbage, a struggle which their length of limb and great speed well fitted them to maintain. * « * * # Very shortly after this, the Southdowns were seen in possession of the inclo- sures at Holkham, and long continued to bask in the rays of public approbation, and to e\'ince pro- perties well deserving it. But they did not, under succeeding circumstances, satisfy the enterprising mind of their breeder. One of those fluctuations which are perpetually occurring in manufactures, as in every thing else, demanded a difierent de- scription of wool, and the question was how to ob- tain it? Other circumstances also forced them- selves on attention. The Southdowns, like the Leicesters, and all improved breeds of sheep and cattle, under similar circumstances, beiran to run to fat, and to want, in both fat and lean condition, lean meat. The le;^s of mutton were becoming abridged of their fiiir proportions; delicacy of con- stitution threatened a dangerous inroad; lambs fell Aveakly, and often perished; and the ewes were be- cominrobab]y,less neatness; indeed, if reduced to the Heref()rd degree of neatness, constitutional degen- eracy, and utter worthlessness, would be una'\"oid- ably implied. Again, with respect to a less firm quality of flesh in an unfed state, every one ac- quainted with the subject knows that the early ma- turity, so conspicuous in the improved short-horns, would be incompatible with any other r|uality of flesh and hide, for there can be no doubt the later maturity of the Herefords is owing to the unyield- ing nature of their hide and flesh. A beast, there- fore, which is to come into the market, matured a and the same standard, whereby to judge of ani- { year earlier than his opponent, may well be allow mals of dillerent breeds, at various periods of their ' ed those qualities on which his quicker growth and FARMERS' REGISTER— IMPROVED BREEDS OF SHEEP. 145 maturity depend, and as be is known when fed to want none of tlie requisite firmness of flesli, it is at that period only wlien the two breeds ought to be compared." I have been led in'.o the foreo;oing' remarks and statement, liy a consideration of the steps pursued by Mr. Colce in tlie progress of the improvement effected in his slieep, and by the reflections which presented themselves during nn endeavor to as- certain the principles whicii actuated liim, for though he would readily have gone most fully into any particulars I might have requested, on this, as well as on any other occurrence of interest, it has always appeared to me a not unprofitable exercise of the mind, to attempt an investigation of the views of those whose endeavors have been crowned with success. It is very evident, on the inspection of the Ilolk- ham flock, that JMr. Coke knew how to draw ad- mirable results from, what would appear to many, very unpromising particidars, and that the want of resemblance in tlie Hampshire sheep to the more correct models presented by the Leicesters and Southdowns, by no means dismayed him. He did not act upon the piinciple I have been censur- mg, and abstain li'oni the cross with Hampshire sheep, because they were unlike his Southdowns, or because they were not in themselves what he considered sheep ought to be, but he adopted them for a cross under the assurance that they could fur- nish vrhat lie wanted, and relied on his own skill to obviate the inconveniences which might arise from that proceeding. In this ability to foresee, in what the ma.jority of observers would consider un- promising combinations, a great luture excellence, and, on the other hand, to detect those cases in which particular combinations will be productive of disastrous results, consists the superiority of a breeder over his competitors. Persons of less skill may, indeed, for a time go on successfully, with a good stock, but, without this tact, they wiU fail to originate any essential improvement, otherwise than by chance. Nothing can, in the first instance, be imagined more unpromising than the Hamp- shire sheep, and, indeed, the produce of the first cross with the Southdown is any thing but attrac- tive to the eye. But under the investigation of the hand, qualities become apparent which the eye Itiiled to discover, and it is evident, materials are presented wherewith a skilful breeder, returning again to the jiure Southdown, may produce those results, to obtain which the cross was instituted. Under these circumstances, and personally direct- ing eveiy selection, JMr. Coke has produced a flock, diflering from pure Southdowns only in these particulars, viz. — in the possession of more ■useful frame (a description comprehending much that is highly important) — a superior quality and quantity of wool — and a greater quantity of mutton, par- ticularly distinguished for a sufficiency of lean meat, per acre, and he has not, in the least, sacri- ficed the early maturity of the Southdowns. Many persons may doubt the last mentioned fact, on plausible theoretical grounds, but in this case the great access of constitutional stamina resulting from the cross has more than atoned for any loss of the maturing quality, which might, under other circumstances, have been experienced. Practical men will immediately recognize the particulars in which the last mentioned advantages would be realized. Vol. II.-ll It is impossible for me, myself a breeder, and an advocate tor crossing, under circumstances I have li-equently stated, to dismiss this part, of my subject without expressing a conviction, that independent- ly of all the advantages Avhich result to the public fi-om the adoption and perfection of this judicioua cross, we are no less indebted to JMr. Colic Ibr tlie example* he has set us, of successfidly breaking through one of the trammels by which breeders suffer their exertions to be paralyzed, and, too Ire- quently, their stocks ruined. All things equal, ex- cept purity of blood, I should assuredly give the preference to a pure stock, but if such a stock be evidently rapidly tending towards that state, in which nothing will remain but its purity to recom- mend it, why should we suffer ourselves to be fet- tered by idle, and not merely useless, but mischiev- oug distinctions, acting as if the word pure (to which, by the bye, but few stocks can lay claim,) possessed a talismanic power, not only to shield them li-om deterioration, but to promote their im- provement? To some persons all this may sound strangely, coming irom a breeder of pure im- proved short-horns, but a fair interpretation of my humble labors in the field of agriculture, will acquit me of ever aiming to promote any thing which appeared otherwise than useful, according to the best of myjudgement. As in the case of the Devon cattle, Mr. Coke's improvement on his flock of sheep is insufTiciently valued among his tenantry, but from what I saw and heard, I doubt not his rams will soon be ge- nerally resorted to. Among the Holkham tenant- ry to whom I was kindly inti'oduced at their own houses, was Mr. Kendle, on Avliose farm Kippen Ash Fair is held. This gentleman informed me he was using the improved rams, and confidently relied on realising the advantages I have enume- rated. He particularly considered he should gain in weight oi^ mutton, per acre, as up to that period he had stocked his sheep as closely as formerly. But the most important fact, resulting from his adopting the improved rams, Mr. Kendle consid- ered to be, that the lambs being dropped rougher and hardier than those of the pure Southdown, he considered himself a gainer, in consequence, to the amount of fifteen or twenty in a hundred! Add to the foregoing, that he was making a considerable addition to his flock of ewes, in consequence of finding he can now turn off his sheep as yearlings. These facts were well authenticated and known, and yet at the fair before mentioned, where up- wards of 20,000 sheep were penned, the long- legged Norfolk sheep only were in demand, and I was assured that, as sheep, nothing nuich worse could be imagined — a fact easily credited from the specimens which came under my notice in differ- ent parts of the county. On this subject a singu- lar fact came out in conversation with Mr. Kendle. He informed me the jobbers would not give so much, by sev^en shillings each, for his superior sheep as for the wretched Norfolks. To these middle men I ascribe, in great measure, the infat- * With respect to sheep in particular, this example is of the utmost importance, for it is probable that con- venience or fashion will frequently call on the breeder to vary the staple of his wool, and immense losses have been sustained while breeders have hesitated whether they should follow fashion, or wait for its re-adoption of the article they produce. 113 FARMERS' REGISTERr-IMPROVEMENTS AT HOLKHAM. ualion which prevails on this subject. They can more readily provide lor the demand of tlie article they deal in from the widely-spread Norlblk sheep, than li'om the pure or improved Downs, in com- paratively lew hands. It is therefore manilestly their interest to encourage prejudice, and keep down the price of the two latter, and especially not to all'ord customers any opportunity of comparing them, as to their progress in leeding, with the much slower Norfolk. Any intelligence on this subject would create a demand they would find very embarrassing. Thus a n>ajority of the Nor- folk farmers, practising the best sjstem of tillage in England, allow themselves to be gulled and cheated out of a very considerable proportion of the profit derivable from their superior turnip man- agement. But it is some consolation to believe, that lime, which dissipates other inlatuations, will, in the end, prove fatal to this also. I offer-no apol- ogy for tile ii-eedom of these remarks: I will never withhold the humble meed of appiobation from any practice which appears worthy of it, neither shall I omit to censure a proceeding injurious to the country, and, to the parties adopting it, most particularly.l^urtful. - I shall close my somewhat lengthy remarks on the Holkham sheep by a brief statement which bears on the question, as to the comparative value of their fleeces. A lot of pure Soulhdowns, pur- chased to be fatted for the use of the house, cut one pound and a quarter, each less wool, and of inferior quality, tlian sheep of the same age of the improved stock. ***** I have already had occasion to allude to the difficulty of observing a connected and regular line of narrative, where circumstances tempt so strongly to digression, and must, once tor all again, solicit the reader's forbearance on this account, while I carry him back with me to INIr. Garwood's farm. I understood that this was one of the worst of Mr. Coke's estates, and assuredly nothing can present a more decided proof of the wonders to be performed under most discouragino- circumstances, by the skill and enterprise which have been at work in every direction around Holk- ham. On this estate, of one thousand acres^ there existed, some years ago, a bog of fifty acres, from which peat fuel was dug, and the nature of which may be understood from the f ict, that an unfortu- nate man, attempting to cross, was suffocated in it. What was bog, profitless, except for fuel, is now a fine water meadow, which, the occupier informed me, he valued along with the farm, at three pounds per acre.' In the late dry summer, being enabled to water it, he informed me the produce was almost incredible — at all events he kept on the fifty acres the following stock, viz. more than ten sheep per acre, twenty bullocks, from four to six years old, and ten horses.* Early in his occupation of this farm, Mr. Garwood had a predilection for the Nor- folk home-bred cattle, of which he selected and bred some of the best. Being, however, superior to prejudice, he was induced to go into Devonshire, and jiurchase the cattle of that county. Having tried both, he came to the conclusion, that, in point *Is it not singular, that, within about ten miles of Holkham, and within the reach of almost every day experience of the value of moadow thus circumsfanccd, I should see a considerable tract of land inviting irrira- tion, a brook running along side and above it, but tempting the sluggard in vain? of profit, the home-breds are far inferior, and, as might be expected, much greater consumers oJ* food. An examination of his books gave an aver- age of four pounds of butter, per week, lor each Devon cow. Among the numerous visits paid to the tenantry of Holkham, highly as all gratified me, certainly, that which introduced me to Mr. Pettingal, and his farm, proved the most agreeable; a fact to be ascribed to the circumstance that Mr, Pettingal, having only very recently entered on his occupa- tion of an estate in want of improvement, I had the opportunity afforded me of observing how much may be done, and how rapidly, under the infl.uence of a good understanding and perfect con- fidence existing between a landlord and his tenant- rj^. It may be proper to mention in this place, that Mr. Coke values his OAvn estates, and the best commentary on the' manner in which he acquita himself is furnished by the fixct, that no dispiite has ever arisen, during" any of these transactions, to drive a tenant fiom an estate, who felt any desire to remain on it. If a difference of opinion has oc- cured on the question of value, it has been over- come, on the one hand, by considerate and liberal concession, on the other, by implicit confidence. I would not be understood by the foregoing remarks, or by what may follow, to recommend gentlemen, generally, to take this nice and difficult afiair into their own hands; such arecomuiendatiouwouldbe absurd on eveiy account, and little likely to obtain attention, for nothing but confusion and mischief would follow an assumption of that for which the parlies are generally tottdly disqualified. My sole object is to show what an early devotion of time and ability, to a subject of infinite importance to country gentlemen, may achieve under favorable circumstances, when I assert that the cost of agen- cy on this princely and highly managed ]:)roperty is considerably less than that on any otlier in the kingdom of, perhaps, half its -extent and value. But such is Mr. Coke's systematic arrangement that every difficulty vanishes before it. When Mr. Pettingal applied for hi§ farm, Mr, Coke's idea of its value was stated to him, and it was fairly submitted, that a great outia}' would be requisite to insure a profitable taking. He closed with the offer at once, expressing himself much pleased to have the farm, one of seven hundred and eighty acres, and concluded with these re- markable words, "Sir, I cannot put my money into so good a bank as your land." I believe he had, at the time when I saw him, occupied the estate about two years, during which period neither land- lord nor tenant had been idle. A beautiful house, replete with every convenience, had risen, and Mr. Pettingal, on taking us through it, pointed out with marks of genuine satisfaction, the arrange- ments which had been made to provide for every comfort of his family. On the other hand, Mr. Coke's jileasure and approval of what his tenant had done, with a feeling corresponding to that of his landlord, were as ardently and [unequivocally expressed. This enterprising tenant had, at the time I mention, comjiietcd very little short of one hundred miles ni' drains, with tiles drawn fi'om a great distance, li'om the Holkham kilns. It is but justice to both parties to add, that the tenant up to this period had never asked for' his lease, "Ixit," remarked Mr. Coke, "I have made him safi?, lest any accident should befal me." FARMERS' REGISTER— IMPROVEMENTS AT HOLKIIAM. 147 Tlie extensive and eubstantial outbuildings which were erecting on this liirm, naturally intro- duced the subject ol the Holkham j)lantations, ibr the massive and beautiful beams used in the pro- gress of the work were the produce of silver fir trees y)Ianted eight years after Mr. Coke caine to Ilolkham, an event which took place in 1776. Thus we find trees of forty-nine 3'ears' growth producing beams of substance and strength am|)le enough tor the largest agricultural buildings. But it was not in a solitaiy instance, that of the silver fir only, that the propriety of devoting the atten- tion of early life to planting Avas manifested; the floorings also were composed of beautiful oak tim- ber, likewise the production of plantations of" Mi-. Coke's own making. There is something really rare and wonderful in thus beholding a man gazing as it were upon a creation of his own, and il' any circumstance in this world is calculated to make us bitterly acknowledge and lament the mispent days and neglected opportunities, never to be recalled, it is something similar to what I witnessed on this occasion. Mr. Coke Avas kind enough to take me, after service on Sunday evening, upon the tower of Holkham Church, the elevation of which is ad- mirably calculated to display to advantage the tastefully disposed and thriving plantations of the park and surrounding farms. We had driven a good deal through the plantations and marked their healthful state, and the bird's eye view of the whole, obtained from the church tower, was the best im- aginable finish. The soil about Holkham presents little attractive to the planter, but in this respect as in every thing else, ditficulties and discouragements have been disregarded and overcome. The plan- tations are admirably managed, particularly witlx rcfq^ect to pruning, an account of which, as appli- ed to tiirest trees, has already appeared in this work. There is, however, one part of the practice here which I presume is little known, because sel- dom carried into effect ekewhere, and yet it is of the first importance to the owners of the extensive tracts of copsewood, which prevail in some parts of the island. The general practice in falling coppice is to cut downwards, by which means the stump is rather shattered than cut, and, consequently, the rain is admitted, — rottenness follows, — and the pe- riod of the ensuing fall is considerably protracted. The Holkham method is to cut upwards. The division is thus effected perfectly clean, without shattering, and it may be fairly cfilculated tliat the coppice is ready to fidl again two jcars sooner than under the influence of the ordinary mode'-of" opera- tion. The average annual value of the -thirmings of Mr. Coke's plantations is tliree hundred poimds! These thinnings leave no apparent gaps, and are rendered requisite by the rapid growth of the trees intended to .constitute useful and ornamental tim- ber. The silver fir is, deservedly, a great favorite in these plantations, and among a number of beau- tiful specimens of the kind, which attracted rriy at- tention, I took tlie girth of one in particular, which proved to be six feet ten inches. The value of the tree at the then price of timber was nine pounds! A prett\- ample return made to a plahte.r, during liis lifetime, for the exertion of inserting a diminu- tive sapling irra sandy waste! But it'is not in his regular plantations alone, that Mr. Coke lias manifested the "capabilities of hie country. He has seized and rendered available to his one great object, circumstances such as cer- tainly never occurred, as matters of promise, to other men. I rode with him through a beautiful wood, the extent of which was one hundred and five acres, closely planted with oak trees of spon- taneous growth. Originally, these trees could boast only a few old stunted oak pollards, and the rental of the ground was five pounds. Fifty years ago Mr. Coke inclosed it, leaving the pollards to do the rest, and from their annual deposit of acorns has risen the present wood, Avhich pays him a rental of six hundred pounds! About five miles from the house, and at the en- trance from London, a very thriving plantation is now rapidly proceeding to ornament, on each side, two miles of the road. The trees have been plant- ed on a very barren unpromising shingle, and the attempt, perfectly successful, was the "suggestion of Mr. Blakie, Avho acted for some years as Mr. Coke's agent. Mr. Coke, with a kLndhness of feeling highly honorable to him, and at the same time compli- mentary to his agent, has named this "The Blakie Entrance." I ought not to omit stating, that the fall of fir timber always takes place, at Holkham, during summer, Avhen the wood is in that state, as to hs turpentine, Avhich tends most to its preservation. In connexion with the plantations, it is impossi- ble to overlooktheirnumerous tenantry, the game. "Were I to attempt to describe the numbers in which hares, pheasants, and partridges swarmed in every direction, and wherever we turned our heads, I should be suspected of exaggeration. But I wondered not so much at their numbers, as at the circumstance of any thing like a crop of^ grain escaping them; yet, such is the case, as the high averages of the different crops show. I believe this to be attributable to the cause assigned, viz. the thickness of the sowing and of the crops. So thick are they, that the game cannot Avith comfort get into them; and I have inA'aribly obserA'ed, that, Avhile any moisture remains on the growing corn, birds, unless dri\-en, are averse to enter it. They have also a great dislike to any cover from which they cannot at once rise Avithout entanglement. I knoAV not hoAV others maj^ be reconciled to the reasons here assigned, but the fact that the game is abundant almost beyond belief^ and yet does little mischief, is notorious. * # # * * In the park I met Avith a, to me ncAA^ description of game, in the numerous flocks of Avild turkeys Avliich ti'equenlly presented them- sehes. They Avere splendid birds, and, I am in- formed, a great delicacy, under proper manage- ment, on the table. Their flights during the shoot- ing season, when they become alarmed, are of great length. It is singular that they do not med- dle Avith the corn. The system of cultiA-ation at Holkham may be described as that Avhich has since been adopted, more or less, by the best agriculturists, on soil of similar quaUty. The difference consists in the su- periority-of its application here. If, hoAve\-er, there is one part of Mr. Coke's practice Avhich is more strikingly superior than another, it is his manage- ment of a naturally bad soil tor Avheat. This crop is grown on a clover ley, manured Avitli rape diist drilled into the soil. The Avheat is afterwards drilled at intervals of nine inches across the roAvsof rape, as it is considered that immediate contact with that MS FARMERS' REGISTER— CURING CLOVER If AY. manure is undesirable. One drill completes eight acres per day, and the (juantity of seed, per acre, varies Ironi three and a half to four and a half bushels, according to the state of the land, and the season. Mr. Coke's tenant, Mr. Blomfield, has even sown so much as five bushels per acre, with the best results, and an experiment was stated to me, in which much more than the rental of any land was obtained by thicker sowing. A material, indeed on this light sandy soil, an essential, part of the management, is the rolluag, which is effec- tually performed by heavy h'on rollers. To those persons, occupiers of sandy soil, who consider the cultivation of Avheat may not be successfully at- tempted on their farms, the following statement resjjecting the wheat crop of 1832 may be instruc- tive and useful. Mr. Coke kindly permitted me to extract it from the farming accounts:— 306 acres produced 2632 coombs of wheat. — Aver- age per acre a fraction over 34 bushels, disposed of as follows, viz. : — Sold £2273 3 0 Seed ---------- 329 2 0 Poor at Christmas -------700 Inferior tail to pigs, poultry, &c. - - 21 3 0 £2632 8 0 It is not to Holkham alone that Mr. Coke has confined his attention, or limited his creative power. The reference which he permitted me to make to his books and statements of accounts, presented many similar instances of successful en- terprise in other places. From among these I was particularly tempted to select that afforded by Elmham Park. In the year 1817 he commenced improving (his property, by means of draining, clearing ditches, and top-dressing witli the soil taken from them. In these labors a sum of £510. 15s. was expended, by means of which tlie annual value ol" the estate had increased froiii 1817 1o 1827 to the amount of £500, and a progressive increase of value has, since the last-named year, regularly continued. ON TXIE CURING OF CLOVER. The common method of curing clover is bad. The object to be attained is, to cure it in the cheapest and best manner. I'he common practice of spread- ing clover from the swath, causes the leaves and blossoms to dry and crumble, ere the haulm or stalks are sufficiently cured. Tims either the finer parts of the hay are lost, or the crop is housed with so much moisture, as to cause it to heat, and often to spoil. Clover should only be spread when it has become wet in the swath and should be gathered again before the leaves dry and crumble. Both these evils may be avoided, and labor saved withal, by curing the grass wholly in the swath and cock. After experiencing the serious disadvantages of the old method, I adopted the one I am about to recommend, and have pursued it satisfactorily ten or a dozen years. My practice has been to leave the clover to wilt in the swath, and when partially dried, either to turn the swaths, or to make grass cocks the same day, so as to secure the dried por- tions from the dew. That which is not put into cocks the first day, is thus secured the second day, or as soon as it becomes partially dried. TIrese grass according as the weather is, and as the curing process has progressed, when they are opened at nine or ten o'clock on a fair day, the hay turned over between eleven and three, and soon after turning, gathered again for the cart. Thus cured, the hay is perfectly bright and s-weet, and hardly a blossom or a leaf wasted. Some cave is required in making tlie cocks. The grass is collected with forks and placed on dry ground, between five swaths, in as small a compass as convenient at the base, say two or three feet in diameter, and rising in a cone to the height of four or five leet. The^advantages of this mode of curing clover are: 1. The labor of spreading from the swath iy saved. 2. The labor of the hand rake is abridged, or may be wholly dispensed with, if the horse rake is used to glean the field when the hay is taken oft", the forks sullicing to collect it tolerably clean in tho cockujg. process. 3. It prevents in a great measure, injuiy from dew and rain — for these cocks if rightly construct- ed, (not by rolling) will sustain a rain of some days — that is, they have done this with me — with- out heating, or becoming more than superficially wet. 4. Clover hay made in this way may almost invariably be housed in good condition; and if rain falls after the grass is mown, the quality of the hay is infinitely superior to what it would be under the old process of curing. The rationale is this: the outside of the clover parts with much of its moisture while in the swath, and what is called sweating in cock is merely the passage of moisture remaining in the succulent stalks, to their exterior, and to their leaves and blossoms — it is adiifusion — an equalization of tlie remaining moisture in the cock. When tliis has tfiken place, evaporation is greatly facilitated, and the whole mass acquires a imiform dryness on ofiening the cocks to the influence of the sun, and winds, if too long an exposure is guarded against. Evaporation progresses in the cocks, after the hay is gathered for the cart, and during the operation of loading and unloading. — Cultivator. EXPERIMENTS PROPOSED. From the British Fanners' Magazine, [May 1834.] The following hints upon experiments in agri- culture have been just received by the committee [of the Saffron Walden Agricultural Society] and printed, in the hope that as it is quite unnecessary, in order to arrive at a practically useful result, that any experiment should be tried upon a large scale, some of the members of the society may turn their attention to the subjects. The celebrated De Candolle, in his Vegetable Physiology, has pointed out several ways in which persons who are engaged in various scientific or economic pursuits, may assist in perfecting the general theory of vegetation. To each class he proposes a separate series of experiments to be undertaken by them; and, among other notices, he lays down a few rules by which an agricultural experinjenter should direct his researches. We would more particularly refer to the following: — 1. That a set of com/?ara/ /re experiments shoidd be instituted, in all cases where any positive result cocksarepermittedtostaiidone,tvvo, ortlueedays, 'may be desired. For instance, if we wish to FARMERS' REGISTER— HAY MAKING. 119 know (lie eflVct which any particular treatment of the fc;oil will jiroducc upon a certain crop, then we should al the same time ascertain what is the etlcct of the soil under ordinary circumstances upon a crop of the same kind. We should not be satisfi- ed with the results of a single experiment, but should repeat it on ditlerent soils and in dillerent situations. 2. No remaVks that are made during the progress of an experiment should be trusted to the rnemorj', but should always be carefully and scrupulously recorded in wi'iting. 3. The experimenter shoukl be careful to state his lixcts in such scientific or technical teriiis as may generally be understood, or, if he uses merely local and j)opukir language, he should so explain himseh", as to be clearly intelligible. Had attention^ been paid to these rule^^, the re- sults of many important experiments would have been available to science which arc now no better than lost labor. De Candolle has particularl}^ alluded to the* fol- lowing experiments, among others, which may be proposed to agriculturists, as Hkely to afford inter- esting results: — 1. To ascertain whether blue \'itriol (sulphate of copper) is serviceable in preventing the rust, smut, and some other diseases in corn, which depend upon the attacks of minute fungi. 2. To ascertain the precise effects of gypsum or plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime) in agriculture. (a) W-hether it be equally efficacious, calcined or unburnt, in promoting the growth of green forage, as tares, peas, &c. (LegumcnoscB.) (b) Whether it be useful as a manure for any other tribes of plants. (c) Whether its use hardens the seeds of the Legumenosa? so as to render them difficult to be cooked. 3. To deteiTuine, by exact and varied experi- ments, whether dilftrent kinds of corn intermixed in the same field will yield a greater or less pro- duce than when gi'own in separate fields. 4. To prove by experiments on physiological and chemical principles, (as laid down by De Can- dolle,) what rotation of crops may be most advan- tageously adopted on ditlerent soils, and what soils, by a rotation of crops, will peld all the advantages of which the alternate system is capable. OIV HAY MAKIXG. From Hayward's Science of Agriculture. Having observed that in a season Avhen there was no rain whatever, and the hay had been made with rapidity, and carted within a short time after it had been cut, that a greater quantity was de- stroyed and injured, by being overheated and burnt, than incatchingirregularseason: that when hay had not heated in the stalk, it was frecjuently mouldy; that as haj' lost its native green color, and approached a brown, it lost its nutritive qualities; and that altogether the making of hay, as usually conducted, was a ver\" precarious and teasing oper- ation: I determined on trying to arrange a system on some more regular and certain principles, in which I succeeded; and by adopting a certain and regular course of operations,was enabled to make my hay of a uniform good quality; and, let the weather be as it might, at a regular expense of labor. And considering such a process not only of importance, as it ensures a more perfect quality; but as it afibi'ds a more certain in'otection against the injuries usually consequent on the uncertainly of the weather, and overheating in the stack, and that it thus removes two great causes of anxiety, it may be well worth the public attention. In the first place us to the state of the weather, it generally happens at this season of the year that there are three or four days rain and three or lour days dry; therefore on beginning to cut the giass, as it is well known that during wet weather grass maybe cut, and suffered to remain in the swath for several days without injury; and it being de- sirable, where hands are plenty, to have a good quantity, or so much as will complete a stack in a day in the same state of forwardness; I should prefer beginning to cut during the rainy weather: however be this as it may, the swards should not be opened but on a certain fine day; and when this is done the grass should be well shaken apart and equally spread over the ground. As soon as the upper surface is dry, turn it well over; and in this operation great care should be taken to open and spread any cocks that may not have been divided in the first opening. This being done, commence raking into wind-rows, in time that the whole may be made into small cocks before night. The second day these cocks must remain untouched; let the weather be wet or dry; the third day, if the weather be certain and fine, tlirow the cocks open; but if the weather be wet or threatening, they may remain another day, or until the weather is certain to be fine for the day. The cocks should then be thrown, according to the crop, into beds of two or three rows and afler three or four hours exposure, turned over; and taking time to gather the whole into wind-rows and cocks bef ire nigh+, let this operation commence accordingly, and none be left open: the day after this which "in fine weather will be the fourth; the cocks must again remain untouched, or not be Qj^ened, whether the weather be wet or diy. On the fifth or next day, these cocks will only require to be opened for an hour or two, when they will be fit for the stack.— The novelty of this mode consists only in suffering the hay to remain in the cock the second and third or alternate days; and at first sight it must appear that so much tune in fine weather must be lost, but this is not the case. Whilstthe hay remains in cocks, a slight fermentation, or what is termed sweating, will take place and in consequence, after it has been openeD OR CANDI>EBERRY MYRTLE, A RE- MEDY AGAINST THE DEPREDATIONS OCCA- SIONED BY^ THE WEEVIL. From the Southern Agriculturist. Dear Sir, — Information on all and any subject, connected with agricultural pursuits will, I "pre- sume, find admittance into your periodical, and al- though the notice may be of apparently small mat- ters, yet to some one of your readers, it may be new, and let me add, valuable. I am induced to make these remarks from the inconvenience I suf- fered for many years, from the destruction of my suggested and tried; the land was all broken up deep in the winter, with a ])lough; the seed Avas coated with tar and soot, and finally was brought from one of the sea-islands at a distance and j)lant- ed. The crops, I think, were improved by each of the remedies in quantity, but the enemy still retain- ed his position, unmoved, and apparently immova- ble. I was one day mentioning the circumstance to a friend, who told me that he had understood, that the wild myrtle, (Myrica cerifera) was a sovereign remedy for this seemingly incurable dis- ease. At this time the destruction had commenced, and the insects were to be seen in every direction; a quantity of myrtle was procured, and spread over the top of the corn, and directions given to follow it up, if any effect was visible. My remo- val to town for the summer, prevented my attend- ing to the business any farther, and I learned upon inquiry in the fall, that "it seemed to check the weevil in some degree." This was not satisfacto- ry, and as the corn in the field was apparently more tiian usually infested, I determined to give the ex- periment a fair trial. The corn-house was emptied, and swept, and washed with boiling water; the floor was then covered with myrtle; a Ir^yer of corn about a foot deep was then brought in, and then a layer of mjTtle, and this management continued throughout the whole harvest, observing to cover the top of the corn with a bed of these little bushes. During the winter I several times examined the corn, near the door, and saw no weevil, yet I was fearful, that in the body of the house, the mischief might still be going on. Late in the sj^ring we began to use the corn freely, and still found no weevil; the crop was eventually consumed, and was to the last, entirely free from insects of all and every kind. This was to me satisfactory, and the rule has been uniformly observed of strewing the house with myrtle, and no weevil have since been seen. My corn-house is divided info two bins, and an entry; and this year I had planted a small field alone, and desired that it might be kept separate. Into this entry it was thrown, and no myrtle was put with it, but the two bins were as usual well supplied. Upon my examining the corn-house, I found the corn in the entry filled with weevil, while that in the bins was perfectly lreQ.from all insects. Tiie corn was immediatel}^ removed, and though filled with insects, was divided between the two bins, and myrtle plentifully strewed over the top of each. I ani now eating the corn, and the weevil are no where to be found. FARMERS' REGISTER— EXCRETIONS OF PLANTS. 157 Tliis la,^t accidental experiment is more con- vinciiio; than either of the others; here the two bins were tree Irom weevil, and the corn which was separated li'oni theui, only by a loose board parti- tion Avas filled, and I have little doubt,, would have been rendered unfit for use before the summer was over. Perhaps, Mr. Editor, in giving you and your readers the information detailed in this paper, I have been carrying "coals to Newcastle;" it" so light your spn-it lamp with it, and I shall be satis- lied, as my only object is to do good and not to see myself in pruit. With my best wishes for your restoration to liealth, and success in your pursuits, I remain your friend. z. ON THE EXCRETOUY POWERS OF PLANTS, By Mr. Towers, Author of the Domestic Gardener's Manual. From Uio [British] Journal of Agriculture, of 1834. The paper, at page 320 of this volume of the Journal, enthled "De Candolle's Theory of the Rotation (Jrops,"* refers to one of tlie most inter- esting disquisitions that has ever claimed the at- tention of the agriculturist. It is on a subject that may perhaps stimulate the farmer to reflection and experiment, and tend to abate that prejudice which has but too extensively induced the culti- vator to view the reasonings, and even the dis- coveries, of scientific men, as so many innovations upon the beaten path of routine practice. Upon these considerations, I hail the appear- ance of this article, which I have perused and reperused, again and again, with fresh satisfaction. But, while I earnestly recommend the intelligent agriculturist to study it witli deep attention, and cordially join in the hope expressed by the Editor, "that the chemists of our own country will prose- cute the interesting investigations of M. Macaire;" — while I thus urge the ti^rmer to study, and the man of science to investigate, the theory, it is but justice to myself to vindicate my own claim to originality, — comparatively so at least in respect to the hypotheses brought Ibrward at this time, and said to be established by facts. I disclaim wholly the idea of detracting from the merits of any author, or of building upon any man's foun- dation; but when I perceive that a theory is ad- vanced or claimed as recent, which I can prove, beyond a doubt, to have been pointedly and dis- tinctly advocated by me above three years since, I conceive that I am imperatively called upon to make public, by the means at my command, those remarks upon the excretory powers of plants, wliich I penned in the year 18.30. They Avho are in possession of the Domestic Gardener'' s Manual, will obser\'e, that when no- ticing the '^Rotation of Crops,'''' at paragraph 539, page 430, of that work, I add, — "A rotation of crops is considered by most to be of absolute ne- cessity; and chiefly on the supposition that each plant draws a somewhat different nourishment." I am jircpared to admit that each individual vege- tablt^ elaborates its own specific nutriment; that is, it induces decompositions, which aflbrd it a supply congenial to its own peculiar habit and constitution. I also advocate a rotation or change of crops, * For the theory of De Candolle referred to above — sec page 317, vol. 1, Farmers' Register. not, however, on account of the necessity of re- cruiting an exhausted soil, but for the reasons adduced at paragraph 499, under the article '^liaspberry.''^ Referring to that paragraph, page 397, we find — • "Experience proves, that to have a consttuit supply of fine fruit year after year, the ground must be frequently changed. Thus, after the rasjjber- ries have borne fruit four or five years, one or two roots should be taken up, the strongest suckers selected, and immediately planted in fresh ground. Whenever rasj)berry ])lants are removed to ano- ther situation, the old ground ought to be well manured, deeply digged, and turned; and then it sliould be placed under some vegetable crop. By this mode of treatment it will be brought into a condition to support raspbeijies again in two or three years. This is a curious and interesling fact, one which proves that it is not solely by exhaust- ing the soil that certain }dants deteriorate, if planted in the same ground, year after year; for, were this the case, manure would renovate the ground; but it fails to do so, and thus, if peas or wlieat, for example, be grown repeatedly on a piece of land, the farmer *tnay manure to whatever extent he cliooses, his crops ivill dwindle and become poorer and poorer. This is remarkably the case in the Isle of Thanet, where, to use a local term, if the land be " orerpea'ti, " it becomes as it were poi- soned; and if peas be again planted, though they rise from the soil, they soon turn yellow, arc '[/bxed," and produce nothing of a crop. "To account for this specific poisoning of the soil, we must suppose thai particular plants convey into the soil, through the channels of their reducent^ vessels, certain specific fluids, which in process of" time saturate it, and thus render it incapable of furnishing those plants any longer with wholesome aliment. In fact, the soil becomes replete to ith fecu- lent or excrementitions matter; and on such the in- dividual plant which has jdeldetl it cannot feed : But it is not exhausted; so far from that, it is, to ali intents and purposes, matured for a crop of a dif- ferent nature; and thus, by the theory of inter- change between the fluids of the plant and those of the soil, we are enabled philosophically to ac- count for the benefit which is derived from a change of crops." It was thus that I expressed my opinion in 18-30, and by the above quotations of two passages from the Gardener's Manual, I think that I have in- contestably established my claim to priority. It is stated in the article on M. De Candolle's Theory, (page 324,) that "Brugjnans had supposed a por- tion of the juices which are absorbed by the roofs of plants are, afier the salutiferous portions have been extracted by the vessels of the plant, again thrown out by exudation from the roots, and de- posited in the soil." This may be the fact, nor am I disposed to deny that two men may enter- tain the same ideas upon any subject, without any intercourse Avith, or assistance from, each other. Still I assert, that the theory I adduced was, at the time, purely my own; for, I cannot trace in any accredited author, the least hint of the facts alluded to.* Indeed, in a letter received m May last from * The opinion of Professor Lindley, published in 1832, in his "Outlines of the First Principles of Hor- ticulture," is at page 19, i^i paragraphs 52, 53, 54, and 55, thus expressed; — 158 FARMERS' REGISTER— EXCRETIONS OF PLANTS. the venerable President of the Horticultural So- ciety of London, that gentleman evinces his opin- ion of the absolute novelty of the theory; thus, "the continental naturalists have lately imagined that trees emit some matter into the soil, of the nature of excrement, which subsequently proves noxious; but I do not assent to this o|)inion." What Brugmans ^stales is in accordance with my theory, and with that now advocated by M. De Candolle; in fact, I do not see how and in what way we can by any possibility support, in all its bearings, the theoiy of the rotation of crops, otherwise than by that of the excretory power of the roots of plants, and the consequent effects pro- duced upon the soil. I shall now shortly explain what I mean by ''the interchange between the fluids of the plants and those of the so?7;" and then proceed to notice particularly some of the leading facts stated in tlie review of the new theoiy. . • I have throughout my work maintained .that the vital powers of every living vegetable are stimu- lated by the electrising principle of light; by the agency of which, the nutritive substances being about the radicals, are decomposed, and then at- tracted and propelled into the recipient vessels of the roots. The element so prepared, I consider and designate the "fluids of the soil,'''' which, by the same exciting energy, are, I conceive, carri- ed upwards through the cellular sj^stem, till at length they are deposited in the leaves, wherein they are elaborated, and become the vital, nutri- tive, j9ro/)er juices of the plant. These juices are then, I argue, carried back from the leaves, and distributed in due specific proportions, into cells or vessels appropriated to every required function of the plant; but certain portions are carried to and through the roots, and propelled into the soil; not, however, in the simple bland state of those taken up by the vessels of supply, but imbued with pe- culiar compound, odorous, and sapid qualities, the effects of the process of elaboration within the vessels of the leaves of the bark. These exuded juices I style the 'fluids of the plant j'''' and as the processes of supply and ascent, and those of return and exusion, are unintermitting and coincident,— the results of the same mighty electrising princi- ple,— I view and describe them as acting inter- changeably, as by the law of electric induction, whatever is excited positively induces a negative condition in a body immediately within the range of its energy. It is evident that the vital princi- ple stimulates the decomposition of the previously inert matters of the soil about the roots of plants, and that to a considerable distance, otherwise no food could be introduced into the inconceivable fine vessels of the fibrils. This food is pale, void of taste or odor; whereas the prepared sap, which distributes the nutritious matter to every part of the vegetable, is frequently possessed of color, "Spongioles secrete excrem^ntitious matter, which is unsuitable to the same species afterwards as food: for poisonous substances are as fatal to the species that secrete them, as to any other species." _ "But to other species the excrementitlous matter is either not unsuitaWe, or not deleterious." "Hence, soil may be rendered impure, (or, as we inaccurately say, worn out,) for one species, which will not be impure for others." "This is the true key of \he theory of rotation of crops." flavor, and scent, and these to a high degree in many species; and the portion that is carried down to the roots, is found to emit a peculiar and very perceptible odor. In the present state of electrical science, it will scarcely be denied that a subtile fluid pervades all matter; that it is present in, and ])erhaps the ex- citing agent of, all chemical action; and, moreover, that it is the source of all the magnetic phenome- na. "Will it then be deemed a mere play of the fancy, to suppose that the whole of the processes of the ascent of the raw sap, the elaboration of that sap, its distribution, the exusion of a certain por- tion of it, are specific electrical phenomena, pro- duced almost instantaneously, and inducing one another? I confess that I see no possibility of otherwise accounting for the agency and effects of vegetable vital action, unless, indeed, we consider the vital ])rinciple of plants as res'embJing that of the animal creation, and consequently as including a sentient and discerning faculty, a power of voli- tion and of choice ! Without dwelling upon an inquiry into the pre- cise nature of vegetable vitalitj', I shall take it for granted that the vital principle is stimulated by external agency, and that all the functions of the plant are at least excited by solar light and atmos- pheric energy, whereby attractions are produced, and decompositions effected, with regularity and precision, and in an order that, is exactly suitable to the constitution of each individual vegetable. With this principle before me, I shall now revert to the hypothesis of M. De Candolle, in connec- tion with, and supported as it is by, the experi- ments of M. Macaire. The former philosopher conceives that the true theory of the rotation of «rops may be found iu the fact, that plants exude more or less of excre- mentitious matters from their roots; and M. Ma- caire has followed up the idea by a variety of chemical experiments, whereby he appears to have ascertained that certain plants — one of which was BIcrcuriaUs annua — took up, by the absorbent powers of their roots, portions of acetate of lead or of lime, which they again yielded to the distilled water, in which the roots were subsequently im- mersed; and that the fact was proved by chemical reagents or tests best calculated to detect the small- est portions of each of these substances. "The roots being partly placed in lime-water and partly in pure water, the plant.? lived Avell, and the pure water soon showed the presence of lime by the oxalate of ammonia." Oxalate of ammonia is readily prepared by dissolving a por- tion— say one drachm — of carbonate of ammonia in as much Avarm rain or distilled Avatcr as will take it up in solution. Into this, a quantity of pure oxalic acid dissolved in water is to be dropped, till effervescence ceases, -when it maybe conchided that a neutral salt is formed. This salt can he pro- duced in crystals; but as this is not required for the experiment in question, I shall not dwell upon it. The saline neutral liquor being simply filtrated through blotting-paper will amply suffice as a test; and, indeed, it is one of the most subtile tests for the presence of lime in solution that we possess; perhaps one-hundredth part of a grain of lime in a gallon or more of pure water would be detected -by' it. With this reagent (and it is one of those which every analyst of the eoil should possess himself FARMERS' REGISTER— EXCRETIONS OF PLANTS. 159 of,) the pure Avatcr, wherein a portion of the roots grew, Avas tested, by letting fall a drop or two of the li(iuid oxalate of ammonia into it; when a milkines.^, arising trom the union of the oxalic acid ol" the test with the lime exuded Irom half of the- roots into the pure water, was produced. Such, we may conclude, was tlie nature and result of'one of M. Macaire's experiments, and certainly it IS very conclusive. Oxalate of lime is an al- most insoluble compound; it therelore is manifest- ed in the form of a white powder; the ammonia of Ihc test IS liberated, and distributed through the bullc of the water. These chemical experiments arc delightful in themselves, and possess very great interest; but, in the present case, an inquiry of greater moment presents-.itself. Whence came the lime, admitting the fact to be as stated? Nine-tenths of the water of wells, and even ol' many rivers, contain lime in one form or another, and to a certain extent. But the recital states that one portion of the roots was placed in lime-water, and another portion of the roots of the same plant in pure water. IJy this latter term, a chemist understands (Z/siiV/cf/, or per- fectly pure and filtrated jva'/i-water, collected in glass or glazed vessels, as it falls from the clouds. In such water Hme will scarcely be traceable; and, therefore, whatever portion was detected in the pure water, must have passed through the media of the vegetable vessels. "Similar results were made with a weak solution of marine salt" (com- mon table salt,) "and with a like result-" The test employed is not stated in the paper, but I conclude it to have been the nitrate of silver, because that chemical preparation is one of the most delicate tests for muriatic acid, in conse- quence of the strong affinity — or rather electro- chemical attraction — which is exerted between that acid and silver whenever tlie latter is held in a state of solution. • Many other experiments are refeiTed to, and all have tended to prove the correctness of the opin- ion, that a rofwfion o/cro/^s fs required, in conse- quence of the excretions from the roots cf plants. Having thus adverted to a few of the experi- ments mentioned in the article, I shall now state the facts which led me to the opinion that I formed • above four years since, and in which I have been confirmed by repeated subsequent observations. It was notorious that many crops could not be made to succeed, if repeatedly placed in the same indi- vidual portions of ground. Manures were found ineffectual; and, therefore, the deterioration of the crops coulfl not proceed from a want of sufficient aliment.- The necessity of a rotation was observa- ble chiefly in the farm; still, however, the garden afforded many instances confirmatory of the fact. As I was writing solely upon the produce of the garden, it occurred to me, when treating upon the singular and sudden deterioration of the raspberry, that to the same causes which produced the de- struction of a fruit-bearing shrub, migiit be as- cribed the debility that ever followed the succes- sive repetition of a corn crop upon the farm. I had observed that the soil about the roots of rasp- berries acquired a peculiar color and texture; it differed fl'om that of any other soil of the garden: manure AVas freely applied, and still the plants be- came weaker, shorter in growth, and less fruitful. J did not know the age of my plants, because the bed had been formed before I came into possession of the ground; but I really ascertained that plants of the white Antwerp variety, which I purchased and placed along-side of an outermost row of the bed, would not take to the soil; and about the pe- riod that the whole bed became almost worthless, I saw several remarkai)le fine plots of the shrub, and conversed with the owners, from whom I learned a variety of facts, which, though detailed in the plain, unphilosophical manner of cottage gardeners, led me to conclude that the raspberry plant deposited feculent matter in the soil, which, afler a certain period, rendered the sod utterly unfit to support the shrub and enable it to produce fine fruit. Reflection and recollection, at the same time, informed me that a variety of vegetable crops imparted a manifest odor to the soil; so much so, that in digging up a croji, the whole plot was perceived to be imbedded witli a specific aro- ma. I confirmed these facts, and then wrote the passages that I have quoted in the early part ol" this article. Subsequent observations and much experience have confirmed the opmion that I then noted doAvn; so that the reader may rely upon the correctness of the following facts. When peas are sown in pots or boxes, Avilh a vieAV to future transplantation into rows or plots, the vessels be- come replete with matted roots. Upon removing the peas to their place in the garden, the soil they grow in is found to be com])letch' saturated with odorous matter; it emits a powerful peculiar smell, that cannot be mistaken. The kidney-bean (pha- seohis) produces a similar effect, but the odor dif- fers from that of the pea: the same may be ob- served in plants of the leguminous tribe in general; and I have little doubt that this Iribc will be found particularly to require a frequent change of situa- tion. I have already referred to a Avell known effect produced by the pea upon the shallow, loamy soil, of that eastern point of Kent, called the Isle of Tbanet; and the experiment of M. Macaire with the bean ( Vicia Faba) is in accordance with, or at least may be adduced in support of' tlie fi:ictsj named above. The Brassica tribe, cabbage, broccoli &c. also impregnate the soil with a marked and peculiar odor. From whence do the gases which produce these efl'ects proceed? Many, perhaps, will be inclined to suppose that it is not the soil Avhich gives forth the smell, but the root itself; but how can any plant retain within its substance an odor that'is externally sensible? If a flower, a rose for in- stance, be held at some distance from the nose, the specific aroma of thftt deliglitful flower be- comes manifest; but could this be the case if the rose did not emit the gaseous vapor which dissem- inates the odor? Whatever it "be that yields odor or scent, whether that be acfreeable or offensive, must be material, because it produces a positive eflect upon one of the senses; and, moreover, the^ odor of flowers is very frequently productive of faintness and debility ! If the roots of a plant ra- diate odor, the earth about them, being the me- dium- in Avhich they germinate, must receive the odorific matter; and, in fact, a spade can scarcely be put into a plot of soil that has borne a crop of some vegetables, Avithout liberating, as before stated, a A-olume of vapor sufficient to be dis- cerned, at the distance of a foot or more, above the surface. Again, if soil be perfectly fresh, that la to say. 160 FARMERS' REGISTER— EXCRETIONS OF PLANTS. raised from the de[)th of two or three feet below the surface, it will generally be found of a differ- ent color Irom the old worked soil of the garden or field. A hazel-loam, which is a combination of sand; aluminous and chalky impalpable matter, colored by oxide of iron, is frequently found at the depth mentioned, and may be considered pure vir- gin earth. If such soil be planted with strawber- ries, or almost any vegetable crop, its color will un- dergo a change, and become many shades darker. Is this change of tint effected by carbonaceous mat- ter excreted from the roots, by the decomposition of carbonic acid derived from the air, or by the partial de-exiodation of the ferruginous constituent of the earth? The latter maj^ probably operate to a certain extent, but I hold it more philosophical to conclude that the change in color is to be as- cribed to hydrogen gas (holduig, perhaps, carbon and other matters in solution,) emitted from the roots into the soil, and therein effecting chemical decompositions by specific elective, or rather elec- tric attractions. This blackening of the soil may be suspected by some to proceed from the decomposition of car- bonaceous matters; and it is highly probable that it does so proceed; but even admitting that ma- nures have been placed in the soil, their decoinpo- sition and absorption, according to the received opinion, by the roots of the crop, ought to abstract the carbon from the soil, and not to deposite it therein ! But I am supposing a case wherein pure \'irgin sandy loam, without manure, is em- ployed; and, to simplify the experiment, I saj' — let a middle-sized garden-pot be filled Avith such soil, and in it let a single vigorous strawberry plant be |)laced in the month of February, and be reg- ularly watered; by the end of August following, that is, about the period when the growing season is almost passed, the soil will be found of a deeper color, by many shades, than it exhibited when placed in the pot. My experience has taught me this fact, and I ascribe the effect to the matter emitted by the roots into the earth. Earth so colored, is not, I conceive exhaused: it is doubtless changed, and in time would be incapable of sujijiorting the vege- tation of the plant which had deposited the color- ing matter within it, but in respect to mere abstract quality, it is unquestionably richer than it prima- rily was, having received more than it gave out, and is, in fact, manure for another species of vegetable. This is in accordance with the very valuable ex- periment of M. Macaire, which indicates that yellow coloring matter was aflorded by the bean to pure water, which yellow matter was taken up by "|)lants of wheat," that "lived well," and afforded evidence of having "absorbed a portion of the matter discharged by the first" (the beans.) My own reflection, and observation of fiicts, have satisfied me that certain plants do emit hydro-car- bonus compounds into the soil, that poison it, inas- much as refers to themselves individually; but such experiments, as those of M. Macaire, are invalu- able, and ought to be persisted in, m conjunction with daily observations of the soil of the field and garden, t'ill the fact in all ils bearing be establish- ed. 1 for one intend, if life be spared to the next spring, to follow the advice given at page 327 of this volume, and to "prosecute those interesting investigations" as far as the means within my command ^vill permit, for they can scarcely fail to lead to important results. It remains to be observed, that the doctrine of the excretory powers of plants does not strictly apply to all vegetables; at least, it is manitest that trees and many shrubs will live on, and improve in, the same piece of ground lor an almost indefi- nite period. Many garden vegetables furnish also exceptions to the rule, and I particularly notice the potato. Fn fact, the experiment of M. INIacaire seems to afford evidence that this vegetable does not secrete matter of any decisive character. I know those who have assured me, that potatoes liave been set for ten or even t^venty years on the same land, with little or no other manure than coal-ashes and the scrapings of road-sand. This sand was, in the county I allude to, obtained from the calca- reous stone of the neighborhood, and it proved a powerful melioratmg substance to the cold clayey soil of the district. I venture to suggest, that grain and other crops^ which expend all their vegetative energy upon the production of seed-vessels, are less likely to protrude matter from their roots than other crops which abound with large bulky foliage; they, therefore, cannot prove manure crops for their con- genors, although they may render the soil un- healthy to themselves indiA-idually. With respect to the potato, I think it evident, that its foliage elaborates much vegetative matter, a large portion of which is expended in the production and sup- port of tubers under ground. These tubers are not ' the roots proper, but enlarged processes, the de- positories of jnuch nutritive matter. It is highly probable, that the plants which produce bulbs, tu- bers, or spindle roots, Avhose foliage is abundant or very large, will in general be innoxious to them- selves, at least comparatively so, in consequence of the absorbent powers of their bulky root pro- cesses. They will in proportion also, be of little service to corn or other crops, unless much ma- nure be previously applied. In a word, the vast foliage which they develope, must claim a great supply of raw sap from the soil. This, or the pre- pared portion of it, is returned with interest to the roots, but it is then diverted into peculiar channels, and is employed in the production of those pro- cesses that constitute so large a portion of the food of man and of catffe. The bulb or tuber-bearing plants are generally but indiffisrent preparers of the soil for other crops, for they must exhaust itg decomposable materials; but they may be grown (though not to full perfection perhaps) on the same ground without becoming diseased. Such, I think, will be found to be generally the fact; and this, as far as the experiment goes, has been con- firmed by the observation of M. Macaire. From all that has been said, it is, I think, fair to conclude that, although plants decompose and take up the nutritive maUevs of the soil, and render manuring indisj)ensable, yet it is not by exhaustion that a soil is rendered unfit for a repetition of an individual crop. Facts in abundance might be multiplied, in order to prove that a rotation is called for, in consequence of the feculent matter previous- ly deposited affecting the nutritive power of the soil in supporting any individual crop. FARMERS' REGISTER— EXPERIMENTAL FARMS, &c. 161 ON THE NECESSITY AND IWEANS FOR LEGISLA- TIVE AID TO AGRICULTURE NO. 3. [Conliuued from page 63, Vol. II.] For the Fanners' Register. There is another important purpose which mio'ht be served by an experimental farm, whicli is ahnost entirely wanting in this country — the in- struction of apprentices to farming. I do not mean apprentices in the common acceptation of that term — but rather pupils, who by giving their time for six or eio-ht months, and their close attention, and manual labor, as well as time, to the business of the fann, might be taught how to pertbrme\'ery operation in the most perfect manner — and which are not learned, and indeed not seen, bj' most farmers in twenty years,if ever. It would be pro- ductive of no less honor than profit to the sons of the Avealthiest tarmers, who are designed to Ibllow their fathers' business, to attend, and labor at such a school of industry: and to those who are to be farmers on a small scale, with scanty means, there would be still greater advantages, because, they would in the routine of their own business, find but little ojiportunity of receiving instructioti in good husbandry, or of being convinced of what was bad, except by dear bought and slowly ac- quired experience. The business of a farmer, which ref;uires more varied qualifications to cany on well than any other whatever, is the only one that is generally undertaken without preAdous in- struction cr training, and which, it would seem, men are expected to understand by a sort of natu- ral instinct, (perhaps I ought to except the busi- ness of statesmen and legislators, which it appears that every man is fit for.) A young man of large landed estate, who expects to derive his entire support from that source, and to spend his life on his farm, and as a farmer, usually passes his whole minority in learning other things in no way con- nected with the cultivation of the soil, or in idle- ness— and then connnences his' business in the most profound ignorance of its details, and with habits altogether unsuited to proceeding either with profit or pleasure. If he has "a turn for farming and management," as Ave call it, and a natural fondness fbr the business, he may, and generally will become a good farmer, notwithstanding all these early disadvantages. Indeed, such instances of success are found in men vrho have lived long in towns, and who were almost entirely unacquainted A\nth the countiy and with farming, during all the early part of their lives. But whatever such men have done, under their existing disadvantages, would have been much better and sooner done, and with far less waste of capital and labor, if they had enjoA-ed the means I have recommended for receiving instruction. To poor farmers, the value of such means for instruction, would be still greater, because their close confinement to a very limited sphere of action, in Avhich their circumstances and habits Avill probably retain them throughout life, would prevent their receiving after instruction bj- travel, books, or conversation with the best farm- ers, and personal observation of their labors. To one of those men who practice farming as the agents of others, or overseers, the expense of an apprenticeship, or course of instruction at a pat- tern farm, Avould be paid back to him in his next year's wages; and his value to his employers, and as a member of tlie community, would be soon doubled, unless he was incapable of being im- proved by instruction. These observations bring me back to what I endeavored to establish in a preceding number, viz: that the business of the pattern fiirm might be (and no doubt would be) conducted with a de- plorable Avant of economy and good management — and therefore Avith loss, instead of profit to the oAvner, and yet this be no sound objection to the use of the processes carried on, fbr experiment of their Avorth, or fbr the purpose of conveying in- struction. If a young man desired to learn Iioaa',. in the best manner, to plough land under diflerent circumstances— -to sow seed regularly — to reap wheat, and secure it Avell — to knoAv the proper management of a thrashing machine, &c. &c., it Avould be sufficient that he should find on the pat- tern farm, suitable land, crops, and implements to exhibit all these operations, and the best laborers employed in executing them — and that he should join in those labors, until he had become dexterous and competent in each process. It would be ut- terly unimportant to the person thus acquiring instruction, Avhether the lessons Avhich he receive! were more costly or profitable, to those at Avhose expense they were furnished. ' Apprenticeships to farming, upon a different plan, have been resorted to AAdth much adA-antage in Great Britain. Young men who were to be the possessors of good estates, have been proud to assist fbr months together, in the labors of such distinguished flirmers as DaAvson, and Walker, and BroAvn: and at least one of these teachers, (DaAvson, Avho earned the honorable title of "the fiifher of Scottish husbandry,) OAved his early lights, and after success, to alike course of train- ing on a farm in a distant region, where the state of agriculture Avas far more advanced than in Scot- land at that time. In these remarks on farming apprenticeships, I have referred merely to instruction in the labors of agriculture. There is another branch of instrac- tion, the scientific or theoretical, AA'hich should not be omitted. This might be derived from a sepa- rate institution, as a professorship of scientific ag- riculture, or perhaps the practical and theoretical branches might be united in a manual labor school. This scheme I should be glad to hear discussed — but as I am not sanguine of success (that is, if any pecuniary ])rofit is expected) from establishments of this kind, I leave the subject to others, r. k. k Vol. II.— 15 THE SKINLESS OAT. To the Editor of Uie I'armers' Register. In perusing j'our A^aluable journal, I liaA^e not been able to see mention made of Avhat is called the "sldnless oat;" can you or any of your readers inform us any thing about them? In conversing Avith an English farmer a feAV days ago on a visit to Virginia, (avIio presented me Avith a spoonfull as a curiosity) he stated that they AA^ere introduced into Englancl in 1830 by himself] that they Avere indigenous of China, and succeeded remarkably well in that climate. Their product is astonish- ing, bemg twenty-six barrels of fourteen stone per acre — A'ciy hardy and standing their Avinters. The advantages that ttiis grain possesses over all others of the kind, are Avhen thrashed out perfectly free from husk, fit for immediate use, either for culinary or other purposes, their fla\'or being de- lightful, and contains more farinaceous matter than 162 FARMERS' REGISTEli— SPELT AND CHEAT, &c. our oats by ttiree to one. They have produced two crops in England within twelve months; fit for tlie blade in three months alter seeding. He sent over to a gentleman of New York a few bushels as an experiment the last spring, and aathey will show theiTiselves this season, I shtdl be enabled to hear their result m a lew days. II they succeed in our climate, ol' which I have no reason to doubt, they will be a great acquisition to tlie Virginia agriculturist. brooicville. P. S. Since penning the above, I have received a bill of lading for one bushel sent me, which I shall leave at the apothecary store of Messrs. Grubby & Dudley for inspection, as also a pack- age for yourself at the dry good store of Colton & Clarke, Richmond, IRISH POTATOES AS FOOD FOR SHEEP. For the Fanners' Register. In conversation with a gentleman (who has travelled about a good deal) some weeks since, about managing and raising stock, &c,, lie told me in travelling in the western part of this state, or in Ohio, some years since, he stopped at an old Quaker's house to stay all night; and while there, he saw some one about the establishment chop- ping up Irish potatoes, to about the size of par- trido-e eggs. He enquired what the chopped mass wasMntemled for: the Quaker replied, "It is lor my eheep: wilh chopped potatoes and a small quantity of hay, I can keep a flock of sheep fatter, and in better health, than any other wayJhave ever tried or seen tried." The gentleman says he saw the flock of sheep before he left, and fhier fatter looking sheep he never saw. philip. CAUSES OF SPELT AND CHEAT IN WHEAT. To tlie Editor of tlic Farmers' Register. I observe in diffevei>t Nos. of your Register that a considerable difference of opinion appears to exist in the minds of different correspondents with regard to the cause of spelt and cheat appearing in wheat. An experiment reported to have been made by Mr. Thomas Cocke and yourself, goes far to prove that neither spelt nor cheat is the neces- sary production of degenerate w^heat: whilst others are as firmly of opinion that spelt and cheat are the production of, not only degenerate, but perfectly formed wheat, to which latter opinion, I myself in- cline, and do not think that the small grains of wheat are more apt to produce either spelt or cheat, than those which are perfectly formed and filled. In both of the instances cited by your correspondents,ofspelt having been produced from wheat, the covering was either very slight or none at all; the wheat having been deposited by chance and left in the Bituation in which it was placed — ^vhich want of, or slightness of covering, I think was the cause of the production of the spelt fi-om pure seed. AYc have not until late years heard or known much of these pests of our wheat crops, and I think the reason is obvious: our fathers were in the habit of turning hogs, horses, and cows into tfieir wheat fields as soon as their wheat was taken off, by which means all, or by fiir the greater part of the wheat left after harvest, Avas destroyed, and none Icfl, to take root, with almost, or quite no covering, and thus produce these noxious plants. I hope it will not DO understood from these remarkfs, that I am an advocate for grazing our cultivated lands: lor I believe very few persons are more opposed to close grazing than I am, but I see no alterna- tive between turning our hogs on our wheat fields which are intended lor fallow, and having the spelt eternally annoying us. We could put rings into the noses of these animals and thus prevent their rooting Another way in which I think pure wheat de- generates into spelt or cheat is, the manner in which some, if not most, of our good farmers are in the habit of getting in their wheat— which is^, ];)loughing in the wheat after a crop of corn, and^ clrao-.ring after this ploughing, by Vi'hich, much of thc°vheat is brought near or quite to the surface, and thus has not sufficient depth to prevent the wheat turning to spelt. I have known one gen- tleman in this neighborhood pursue the plan hereira objected to with pure, unmixed smooth-headed golden-chaff wheat (the prettiest wheat I ever saw) and the fir.^it crop produced from this seed was smartly mixed with spelt — the second hati more than double what was in tlie first crop, and the third (the same seed having been used all three years*) had, I really believe, more grains of spelt than of wheatv I have several times observed in fields which had been hi Avheat the previous year and the fields not grazed, and not being cultivated the next year, a great deal of cheat and some spelt — and but in few instances (wliere I suppose some acci- dent had given the seed left a deeper covering than the most of it had,) wheat the next year. Now, you know that I am a slovenly, as well as as-mall farmei', and I feel some backwardness in palm- ing my own opinions upon others; but I reaily think it the duty of every individual to contribute his mite to the general stock of infonuation, expe- rience or observation, to that community of which he is a member — and hope my brother farmers will excuse what may be deemed by some, my temerity in ofiering to the public my plan of get- ting in wheat — by which, neither spelt nor cheat has ever increased upon me. I have alwaj's sown wheat on corn land, except one yeur, and plough- ed it in about three or three and a half inchest deep, never using the drag afterwards, which I think, would tend to expose the wheat too near the surface — though I believe that the land being fallowed first, and the wheat sown on this fiillow and well dragged in, might obviate this difficulty. The last fall I obtained my seed-wheat from two different sources: in one parcel there was some spelt: in the product of tliat part, there was still some. In the other, there was none that I could perceive, and in the product of that, there was not (I think) one head of spelt. In the experiment made by Mr. Cocke and yourself, the grains of wheat though extremely faulty, were deposited at a sufficient depth, and thereby the production of spelt or cheat avoided.* ROBERT BATTS. Prince George, July 2d, 1834. * Our correspondent is mistaken as to this part of the experiment, which he refers to. The grains of wheat were placed in lines slightly traced on the hard sur- face, and barely covered by sprinkling a little earth over them. The covering was no where more than half an inch deep-^generally less. FARMERS' REGISTER— LIVE AND DEAD WEIGHT OF CATTLE, &c. IG3 ON THE SUPPOSED TRANSMUTATION OF WHEAT TO CHEAT. Far the Farmers' Register. The statement made by a correspondent of Orange county, N. C. at page 60 of the Fanners' Register, is a very fair examjile of the manner in which many farmers allow themselves to be de- ceived. The facts were these: soon after a hill- side field had been sown with wheat, a heavy rain Avashed down some of the loose earth, together with some of tlie grain, over a strip of timotliy meadow at the base of the hill; after which the grain so washed down, grew vigorously; but at harvest, nothing was seen except cheat, and the inference drawn by your correspondent is, that all the wheat turned into cheat. To me however, the chain of reasoning appears to be very defec- tive. In the first place he has not shown that the seed V.''heat contained no cheat amongst it; and posi- tive evidence of such fact woidd be requisite to warrant the conclusion that he has drawn. Now unless extraorchnary care and pains have been taken for that express and particular purpose, we have a right to conclude just the contrary; for what fl^rmers commonly call clean seed wheat, has been proved in various instances, to contain from four to niore than twenty grains of cheat in every handful. Assuming therefore, as we have aright to do on this occasion, that his seed wheat was not fi'ee from cheat, it follows that the whole aflair can be easily and satisfactorily explained without referring to the doctrine of transmutation. It ap- pears tiiat the meadow was watered during the winter, which is sutFicient to account lor the disap- pearance of the wheat; and the cheat being a much hardier plant, kept the sole and undisputed possession* He has said irideed that ''every bunch [of wheat] proved to be cheat;" but I cannot supjiose that he marked them; and without closer observations than are generally made in such cases, he would not be able to discriminate between the bunches of wheat and of cheat that appeared in the fall; neither would he be likely to miss the former in the spring. He informs us that the hill-side was "rich," and this circumstance will assist in explaining why "not a single heaJ of cheat was discovered among the wheat." Cheat though a hardier plant, is ge- nerally overshadowed and partially smothered by wheat when the latter is not winter-killed, but grows closely together; and that toeed under such circumstances, not being conspicuous, is common- ly overlooked, so that farmers conclude there is none in their stubbles, when there is more than enough to seed the whole ground. Cheat is a very variable plant in regard to size: I have seen it scarcely four inches high with only a soli- tary seed on the top, and I have seen it four feet high, with between two and three thousand seeds. Cayuga county, A. Y. A FARMER. TO PREVENT THE SPROUTING OF STORE ONIONS DURING THE WINTER. A|)|)ly a heated iron for a few seconds to the nozzle of the onion Avhence the roots protruded, and it will be an efl'ectual mode of" preserving tliem. — Gardmer''3 Magazim. ON THE LIVE AND DEAD WEIGHTS OF CATTLE. From tlic [Britisli] Farmer's Magazine. iS7r — Having heanl much in favor of a work Avhich has recently issued from the press of the Society for Diliueing Useful Knowledge, entitled, The Farmer^s Scries, I purchased that portion of it which treats on Bi-itish cattle, and on reading it I met witli a statement in the first page oflhe ninth number, of the proportion Avliich Ihe dead weights of cattle, sheep, and calves, bore to their live weight, so completely at variance Avith every experiment I had made in mj endeavors to ascer- tain their true proportion; and having recently con- versed with so many extensive tanners and gra- ziers, and not a fcAV butcliers, who had adopted the commonly received opinion that the dead weights were about two-thirds of the live weights of fUirly fed beasts, sheep, and calves; that I am induced to lay before the public, through the me- dium of your valuable and widely-circulated Ma- gazine, a. short account of the live and dead weights of a few animals which were weighed either under my immediate inspection, or by per- sons on whose accuracy I can place implicit con- fidence. In laying these experiments before the public, it is not my object or Avish to cast any slur on this useful publication; from Avhich I have derived much valuable information^ and AA'hich, in my opinion, merits a place in the library of every ag- riculturist; but solely tor the purpose of guarding my brother graziers against a disappointment which they Avill certainly experience, if they weigh their beasts alive before they send them to market, and estimating their dead Aveights by the rule laid doAvn in this Avork, expect to receive a price equi- valent to those estimated Aveighls. In the present depressed state of agriculture it is highly essential to ever}^ farmer to be able to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the Aveight of tho animal he has to dispose of, so that he may be ac- quainted Avith its real A'aliie; and the best mode he can adopt to ascertain this is hy AA'eigliing it alive, Avhich, if an ox or cow, can be done on the ma- chines that are attached to most of the turnpike gates, at a trifiing expense. If a sheep or calf^^ — by getting a piece of stout canvas rather more than a yard long, and about tAventy inches Avide, and soAA'ing at each end a piece of strong Avood about two feet in length; from the centre of each piece of AA'Ood a small rope is attached — pass the cauA'as round the body of the sheep or calf, and suspend it by the ropes either to a steelya,rd or to the arm of a scales-beam, when the weight may be easily ascertained. I ha\-e also found Carey's Scale, which I have used for many }"ears, to be wery accurate; I haA'e rarely found it to be 20 lbs. out in the Aveight of a beast, and ofien knoAAm it to tell Avithin 7 or 8 lbs., and in one instance lately it gaA-e Avithin 5 lbs. of the AA-eio-ht of a heifer of tweiit y-eight score. As I invariably sell all the beasts^ sheep, and calves, Avdiich my butcher purchases liom me, by Aveight, and haA-e also the opportunity of measuring those Avhich he purchases elsewhere, and of afterwards seeing them AA^eighed, I haA^c had the means of trying the meritsof the scale pretty largelj", and can confidentl}^ assert, that it^ the beasts are mea- sured Avith propel- accuracy the scale will giA-e AA-ithin a fcAv veiy few pounds of the real Aveight. 164 FARMERS' REGISTER— LIVE AND DEADWEIGHT OF CATTLE. In the statement made in the before mentioned work, they set'tlie average gross weight of mar- ketable beasts at 800 lbs.; whether this average be laid too high or too low is immaterial to our present object; according to their rule, the gross weight being 800 lbs., the dead weight of the car- cass, after deducting the oil'al, will be 550 lbs., or, in the proportion ot" 13| lbs. dead, lor 20 lbs. live weight. Now, I consider (and am borne out in * my opinion by all the experiments I have made) that ti-om 14\ lbs. to l\^ lbs. is the average pro- portion of tairly fed beasts, and I have no hesita- tion in saying, that if a lot of beasts, fed to the or- dinary state of fatness, Avere weiglied at home, (say 100 miles from London) they would scarcely average 11 lbs. dead v/eight there, lor every 20 lbs. they weighed alive at home. I consider, takini^ one season of the year with another, that a iiit Deast of 100 stone will lose 50 lbs. in live weight for every hundred miles it travels. Wc next come to sheep and lambs; these they take at an average of 78 lbs. live weight, which according to their rule, will give 50 lbs. dead, or in the proportion of 12| dead for 20 hve weight; this is a considerably higher proportion than I have been able to obtain, those I have made being in the proportion of 11.^ to 20, as you wUl perceive by the annexed extracts from my books. We will now proceed to examine their state- ment with respect to calves. They say a calf of 140 lbs. hve weight will weigh 105 lbs. dead, or in the proportion of 15 dead to 20; in this estimate I consider them farther from the real proportion than in the beasts or sheep. I have been ibr some years in the habit of vealing calves, rather exten- sively, and have fed some as fat calves as most persons, and some Avhich have been allowed to be the best and fattest calves ever seen in the places where they have been killed, and yet, in no in- stance, did any of them exceed 13 in 20. One, and only one, approached that weight, her live weight being 332, dead 214; she was twelve weeks and two days old, and was a very remark- able small calf, (a cross between the Durham and Devon breeds;) her hind quarters weighed 58 lbs. each, the loins 26, the legs 32; while her fore quarters weighed only 49. When alive, her fore quarters were considered to be fully as heavy as the hind; the difi'erence was occasioned by the ex- treme size and fatness of her kidneys, which had above 10 lbs of suet on each: she was estimated by several good judges at 45 lbs. a quarter, and bets Avere made that she would not weigh 47; she had 23 lbs. of rough fat. You wUl perceive, by the statements annexed, that 12 lbs. is about the aver- age proportion; small calves, if not very liU, will scarcely reach that proportion. In corroboration of my statements, I avail myself of an extract from a letter from Mr. Alton, on the subject of vealing calves, which appeared in the 23d or 24th nutnber of the British Farmer's Magazine, in which he mentions an extraordinary calf whose hve weight was 4 cwt. 3 qrs., or 532, its dead weiijht 308 lbs. — rather less than 12 in 20. You will perceive by the following accounts of the beasts which I have selected to support my Btatements, that they were fully fit for any market; indeed, with one or two exceptions, they were much fatter than I should wish for my own use, as the weights of their rough fat, which I have purposely given, will show, ajid most of them be- ing young, they were as likely to ' have as little offal as any beasts that could have been selected for the purpose; several of them were either short- horns, or a cross of that breed and tlie Devon, and were allowed, particularly the two year old,) by all who saw them, to be the best they had ever seen of their ages. No. 1. A three j^ears old short-horn heifer, of my own feeding, slaughtered in May, 1830, by Mr. Warren, butcher, of Taunton; live weight 1584, dead weight 942, rough fat 116 lbs.; her dead weight was as nearly as possible 12 in 20. . - No. 2. A two years old half short-hom steer, also of my own feeding, slaughtered by Mr. War- ren, of Taunton, in June, 1830; live weight 1568 lbs., dead weight 924, rough iiat 112 lbs.; his dead weight bore the proportion of 11| to 20 live. No. 3. A three years old heifer, of my own feeding, slaughtered in 1830; live weight 1092, dead 648, rough fat 83 lbs.; her dead weight was about 11| to 20. No. 4. An aged cow, slaughtered in 1832; live weight 952, dead 531, rough fat 79 lbs.; her dead weight as 11 to 20. No. 5. A two years old Durham and Devon steer, of my own breeding and feeding, slaughter- ed in March, 1833, by Mr. William Dannicl, of Abergavenny; live weight 1428, dead 876, rough lilt 140 lbs.; liis dead weight as nearly as possible 12 to 20 live. No. 6. A two years old Durham and Devon heifer, also my own breedii5g and feechng, slaugh- tered by JNIr. Danniel, of Abergavenny, 10th June, 1833; her live weight 1232, dead weight 708 lbs. rough fat 98 lbs.; her dead weight was about llf to 20 live. She had been fed on the morning of the 17th of January, when she Avas dried, and, consequently, was ted on the morning of the 8th of June, the day on which she was weighed before being slaughtered; had she not been fed in the morning, her dead weight would have borne a higher proportion than it did. These last two beasts were allowed by all who saw them, to be, ahve and dead, the two fattest and best beasts of their age ever killed in Aber- gavenny. No. 7. A small cow; live weight 630 lbs., dead 356, rough fat 55; about 11^ dead to 20 hve weight. These being all very fat, bore a higher propor- tion than the average of beasts will do. Calves, most of them bred, and all Jed by me. No. 1. Calf out of a Durham and Devon heifer, twelve weeks and five days old; live weight 335 lbs., dead 208, or about 12i to 20. No. 2. Calf out of a Durham and Devon heifer^ twelve weeks and two days old; live Aveight 332, dead 214, or about 13 to 20. Live weight, the 5th of Januaiy, 1833, Avas 332 Ditto 16th of October, 1832, 86 Increase in 81 days, 246 No. 3. Calf out of a Durham and Dutch heifer, ten Aveeks and five days old; IIa'c weight 302, dead 181, or about 12 to 20. No. 4. Calf out of a two years old Durham and Devon heiler, eight weeks and five days old; Uve weight 242, dead 147, or about 12 to 20. FARMERS' REGISTER— EXTENSIVE SALE OF STOCK, &c. 165 No. 5. Calf out ofa two years old Durham and Devon heiler, seven weeks old; live weight 197, dead 122, or about 12| to 20. No. 6. Eou<):ht calfj six we,eks and five days old; live weight 185, dead 103, or about llf to 20. No. 7. Bull calf out ofa yearling heifer, third cross of the Durham bull on Devon cow; live weight ISl, dead 116, or 12^- to 20. Live weight on the 4th of January, 1834, 181 Ditto 30th of November, 1833, 78 Increase in 35 days, 103 This calf was forty days old, and never had any milk except his dam's, who gave more than he could take till he was five weeks old. No. 8. Bull calf out of a Durham and De\'on cow, five weeks and three days old; live weight 218 lbs. dead 135, or about 12^ to 20. Live weight, the 4th of March, 1834, 218 Ditto 25th January, " 100 Increase in 38 days, 118 This calf never had any milk except his dam's, who gave much more milk than he could take up to the day he was slaughtered. He was killed b}^ Mr. Booker, of Campden, and Avas considered to be the best, heaviest, and fattest calf of liLs age ever killed there. Sheep. No. 1. In April, before shearing, live weight 172, dead 89; about 10| to 20. No. 2. In January, live weight 178, dead 97; about 11 to 20. No. 3. In March before shearing, live weight 174, dead 91; about lOJ to 20. No. 4. In August, live weight 162, dead 92; about Hi to 20. No. 5. In March, before shearing, live weight 147, dead 78; about 11 to 20. . No. 6. In March, before shearing, live weight 193, dead 99; about 10| to 20, Yours truly, C. H. BOLTOIV. UR. BLAMIRE S EXTEKSIVE SALE OF STOCK, From the New Fanner's Journal. The recent sale of stock, &c. belonging to VV. Blamire, Esq. M, P., was the largest sale that ever took place in the county of Cumberland, and was also the most numerously attended. Early in the day the roads in almost all directions lead- ing to Gaitsgill were thronged with people making towards the sale, which commenced between ten and eleven o'clock. There were, it is computed, upwards of 3000 persons present, many of them from a considerable distance. The arrangements were so well contrived, and every thing conducted with so much regularly, that not the slightest con- fusion took place. A ring, of about thirty yards diameter, was strongly done about with posts and double rails. Behind which, at the distance of about six feet, were two rows of planks, one a lit- tle elevated above the other, the lower about a foot from the ground, and which were densely crowded irom end to end. The space between the planks and rails was also occupied by a great number standing on the ground. A large quanti- t)- of substantial viands was prepared for the re- freshment of the -company, of which all might partake that were inclined. Legs of veal, hams, rounds of beef, &c. &c. disappeared in rapid suc- cession, and in the vanquishing of which some performed prodigies of valor. Provision was made for a large attendance, but so much was the influx greater than expected that there was far from suf- ficient on the first day. On the second day the at- tendance was comparatively small, and, of course, they tared the better. Tlie cattle were in a field adjoining, which was connected with the ring by a space strongly fenced ofl" on each side, along which the cattle were conducted, and admitted into the ring according to the number in the cata- logue. As soon as the auctioneer had knocked down one lot it was immediately driven out by tm opening in the opposite side, and another brought in, so that the sale of the second was commenced almost before the other had quitted the ring. Tlie auctioneer (M. Armstrong, to whom great credit is due for the manner in which he performed his part of the business,) was thus kept perpetually employed, and the sale Avent on with great rapidity. The sale, like all public auctions, was various, some lots being much dearer than others, but, upon the Avhole, it was considered high. The price of the fat cattle ranged from £9 to" £22. Two fat Highland bullocks attracted particular attention, and were knocked down at £ 63. The price of the calving heifers varied from ten to twenty guineas. Lots 52, 74, and 113, none of which Avere A^ery strong heifers, Avere sold, the first for £ 19 5s., the second for £21 5s., and the third for £ 20. The advance upon stock of all kinds could not average less than 20 per cent. Many articles Avhich Avere purchased Avith- in the last few Aveeks AA-ere sold at an incredible advance. A number of sheep, which Avere pur- chased Avithin a lew days of the sale for 23s. 6d. sold at the auction for 33s. 6d.; and coavs Avhich Avere bought for about £ 14, sold for 20 guineas. Two fat Sutherland bullocks, Avhich had been va- lued at £20 to £21 each, sold for £31 10s. each. Even the lean stock, (much of Avhich was in very poor condition,) sold at incredible prices. There Ave re about 300 head of cattle in all; but we un- derstand not a few of the goods sold belonged to neio;hboring farmers. NEAV BIETHOD OF DESTROYING RATS. M. Tenard lately read a note to the Academy of Sciences, in Paris, in which he recommends the foUoAving as a sim})le and effectual method of de- stroying rats. If there be several of their holes, begin by closing them up; those in their most fre- quented routs Avill soon be reopened, and in this Avay their chief resorts Avill be discoA^ered. Intro- duce into one of the apertures, (agaui closing the others,) the mouth of a glass retort, and make it air tight Avith common luting. Sulphuret of iron is then to be introduced into the apparatus by the tubulure, and diluted sulphuric acid poured cau- tiously upon it. Sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved, Avhich, entering by the hole, penetrates all the cre\ices into Avhich the rats may retire, and speed- ily destroys them. — Gazette Medkale. 166 FARMERS' REGISTER— LOSS AND GAIN. LOSS ASD GAIN. For .the Farmers' Register. In this communication I propose to examine a few of the disadvantages Jittending our present motle of roalcing corn. The first inquiry will be, what kind of land is general]}^ cultivated in corn, and liow much it produces to the acre. In order to ascertain this, I will first arrange or class the land cultivated iu corn under three heads. First, bottom or flat land; second, the best high land; and the third, old or worn out lands. I find some ditficiilly in saying Avhat portion oj'the crop is cul- tivated on the dilierent kinds ol" land as described; but li'oni observation and inquiry, I will give as nearly as I can, the proportions of each. One-filth of the land may be classed as flat — two-filths good high laud, and the other tvvo-fiftlis old or worn out laud. Th3 flat usually produces from four to six barrels per acre; the best high lan.d Ir-om two and a half to three and a lialf barrels the acre, and the old land ii'om two to five bushels per acre. From iliis calculation, as much corn can be made with the same amount of labor upon the one as the other of the two first qualities described, the high land requiring less labor; hut the last class will ref(uire as much or more labor than either of the rest, having but little, if any vegetable matter to keep the land open and light — and the corn neces- sarily has to be worked later, as it will not grow otf as early. This statement may not be applica- ble to all parts of the state, but I know that it will liold good in a greater part of tiie tobacco growing country; that something like two-fifths of the land cuUivated does not yield more tlian one barrel to the acre— which is not more than sufficient to feed the teams whilst employed in making the crop. Is it not a great loss to the farming interest, whilst this is tlie case, that something like tv/o- fifths of the labor has been spent tor nought, and worse than nothing — the horses worn out, tools and land much injured? Would it not be better to keep tiiwer horses, and let all such lands rest, than cultivate them on those terms? I will leave the settlement of this question to those who are in the habit of cultivating such lands, (and they are not a few) with the hope that tliey maj-- do it according to the good old rule of loss and gain which has gone so much out of fashion these late days, The idea which prevails in many parts of the country that so much nmst be cultivated, to the hand, of tobacco, wheat, corn, oats, &c., lias con- tributed very much toward tfie bringing about such a state of things. Whether the land would bring any thing, or not, it must be cultivated. The overseer was not tliought to be worth much unless he could cultivate and keep clear of grass 10,000 hills (or that much space) of each (which was not very difficult on much of our land.) This Btatc of things is owmg to the want of a proper application ol" the good old rule of loss and gain. As I have mentioned the overseers, I would re- commend to many of the good farmers and plant- ers of yirginia to work the sum by tlie same rule in reki^inn to them, and see on which side of tlie leger tlie largest sum will stand. I know that this is a difficult subject, and hard to estimate aright. In the general, tlie interest of the em- pjoyer and overseer are opposite — more particu- )pr]y where the crop is divided. The overseer does not feel interested to attend to improvements of any kind, nor is it expected of him: his princi- pal object is to get his reputation up as an over- seer, which (in the general) can only be done by making large crops. ERROR IN PAINTING IIOVSES. Norfolk County, July 1st, 1834. To the Eilitor of the Fanners' Register. I read in a No. of your "Farmers' Register," an article showing an error in the usual manner of mixing paints, by exhibiting the fact, that the quantit3''^of spirits of turpentine added, decomjiosed a relative proDortion of the oil, and thereby letl the white lead, or coloring matter, an useless (if not an injurious) powder on the painted surface.* From the able manner in which that piece was written, I was satisfied that the author was master of the subject, and indulged the hope that he Avould again resume it; but as some time has elapsed and he has failed to do so, I have thought it expedient to make a few remarks on the subject, which, may be of importance to many of your readers. In order that the object intended in th-s painting of houses (whether it be the interest of the owner, by preserving the wood^ or the comfort of those who inhabit ihem,) may be attained, it is as ne- cessary that the paint shall be of the proper color, as it is that it shall consist of the proper materials. And if there be an error in using spirits of tur- pentine in paints, (which I think has been satis- factorily proven by the author of the piece above alluded to,) proof no less satisfactory can be given in support of the assertion that, there is a tunda- mental and almost universal error in painting the outside or roofs of houses black. That black ra- diates more heat, and white less than any other color, is a fact too well established to admit of doubt by those at all acquainted with the subject — and it is equally well known that black is quite pervious to the solar rays, while white is almost, if not altogether impervious to them. But should there be one among the number of those who read your work, who for want of evidence doubts the fact, he can with a lens or common sun glass, experiment to his full satisfaction, and in a lew minutes remove every doubt. Let him with the glass converge the raj^s which fall on its surface to a focus, and place them on a piece of white cloth or a sheet of white paper, and he will perceive the paper not in the least affected by them; then let him discolor the paper and use the glass and he will find the pa|)er almost instantly burned. And though the diflerence of the effects of the so- lar rays on the two colors may be more striking in the concentrated, than in the diffused state, yet the effect is the same as to the number of rays ra- diated or rejected. Black radiating more, and white less than that of other colors, it necessarily follows, that houses painted black suffer more, and those painted white less than those of any other color by change of temperature. For, a black roof, by receiving the solar rays Avhich fall on it by day and parting with them by night, undergoes such changes of temperature as will cause the shingles with wiiich it is covered, to expand and * The article referred to is at page 249 of vol. I. FARMERS' REGISTER^ERROR IN PAINTING HOUSES. 167 contract to such a degree, that parts of them on whicli tliere is no paint will be exposed to tlie in- clemency of the weatlier and thereby caused to rot. Nor is this the only evil: tlir the paint itselt suffers Irora the intense heat in summer; and cracks, as well as the shingles, and admits the water to assist in decomposing the wood — ti'om all wJiich evils white, by radiating less, is exempt. Then it" the preservation of the wood is the object to be attained by painting, just so far as black is inferior to all olhcr colors by radiating more — ijust so far is white superior to all other colors by radiat- ing less. But the preservation of the wood is not the highest consideration with me m giving pre- ference to white over black; it is the comfort of a cool room to sleep in after the latigues of a sum- mers' day are over, instead of an oven; for on going into an upper room of a low pitched black roof house, a sensation is experienced very simi- lar (I think) to that which one would feel on being thrust into a baker's oven iiX'hich has been jjartially heated. Indeed, one who has not realized it can scarcely imagine the anxious restlessness attendant on sleeping in such a room. 'Tis true one may aller the labors of a summers' day are over, go early to bed — but not to sleep — he must turn and change from one eide of the bed to the other, and search for a place sufficiently cool to enable him to eleep, but in vain, until a late hour, when the tempera- ture of the room shall have cooled down in a con- siderable degree; then; aided by exhaustion, he falls into a deep sleep, and the room still continu- ing to grow colder, he becomes chilled, and wakes in the morning but httle refreshed, and perhaps with pain in the head, back, and limbs, the pre- monitory symptoms of bilious, or ague and fever. I have long been of opinion that many places reputed as being very sickly, owe the character which they sustain in a greater degree to the co- . lor which the houses are painted, than to any cause dependent on their local situations. And it' the faculty were consulted, I believe it would be ascertained that many cases of disease which have been attributed to miasmata, had their ori- gin in the great change of temperature to which the system was subjected during the night, pro- duced by the great quantity ol" heat radiated in the day by black roofs. And many cases of dis- ease produced by miasmata, were primarily caused by the same circumstance. The room being at bed time disagreeably warm (and the system there- by much more exposed to the attack of disease) the windows are thrown u]) to admit the cool air, free access is given to miasmata which enters the apartment, seizes its unguarded victim, and prostrates hiin on a bed of disease and suflering. If upon examination it shall be ascertained that the foregoing .statements are true, it becomes an imperious duty, that all who are laboring under the evils before spoken of, should throw them off by substituting white for black in the painting of their houses: and to the farmer I would say, if it be necessary in order to preserve the ivood and contribute to the hea,lth and comfort of his family that Ills dwelling should be painted white, it is equally necessary that his stables should be white, that his horses may.have a cool place to stay in after they have done work: and if it be important that his milic and butter should be kept cool and sweet, his dairy should be white, and indeed, I do not know of a house on a farm that should Rot be painted white in preference to black, as almost every thing raised on a farm, whether it be grain, ha}', potatoes or any tiling else, keeps better in a regular and moderately cool temperature. 1 hope the time is not fiir distant when this sub- ject will elicit the attention which it merits, and the learned be induced to throw the weight of their influence in the .^xale, that rea.'on may pre- ponderate, and the fickle gothlees fashion in her sooty garb be compelled to risk the beam, light be restored, and the evil banished. MATHEW. ON THE USE OF DUTCH ASHES AS MANURE, By Mr. John Mitchell, jr. Leith. From the Prize Essay and transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, for 1833, In a short communication sent to the society some time ago, I endeavored to bring under their notice a very valuable and cheap species of ma- nure, which, on a late tour made by me on the continent, I observed was much prized, particu- larly in Flanders. I then placed at the disposal of the society twenty casks (about seven tons) of the substance in question, which have been de- livered free of any charge to several noblemen and gentlemen, eminent agriculturists, who will have an opportunity of trying their efficiency- When in Flanders, I found the farmers gene- rally complaining of the serious injury they were likely to sustiiin in consequence of bein^ almost entirel}' deprived, from interruption of me com- munication with Holland, of an article which they considered essentially necessary to their domestic economy, namely, Dutcti ashes; and as that arti- cle can he imported at a very moderate price, it is of importance to consider how far it may be pro- per to introduce it into this country. In Holland, there are two kinds of turf or peats used for burning, namely, those cut as in this country from the bogs, which burn easily, but give a whitish kind of ashes, which are of little use; and another kind, more generally used, as being more durable. Having witnessed the mode of making this kind, I sliall here describe it. At ditches or ponds made by cutting away the com- mon peats, or upper parts of the bogs, men were em]}lo3"ed in dragging from the bottom, by meana of long sticks, having hooped bags at the end, the soft portion of the peat under water. They poured it out on the adjacent ground, when the water was allowed to drain off. After exposure to the air, this substance becomes in a few days sufficiently consistent to be cut into pieces of the size of a common building brick, which are dried for use. The ashes from this kind of peat are of a yellow- ish brown color, and are the kind eo much prized in Flanders; carts go regularly round to the various houses ^vhere this turf is used, and carefliily col- lect all that can be obtained. When the commu- nication was open with Belgium, the ashes were sent by water to Brussels and other places in that country, and, after a long water carriage, they were often conve3-ed fifty, and even a hundred miles farther by land. These ashes are used in various waj's in Flan- ders. They are generally sown uiion clover, at the rate of 2-5 cuvelles per hectare, equal to about 19 bushels per acre, imperial measure. They are sown on clover, wheat, and pastures, in March 168 FARMERS' REGISTER— DUTCH ASHES AS MANURE. and April; on oats and beans in the bcginninir of May; on rye in October and November. They are also used in gardens with great benefit to the crops, by being scattered over tiic surface, after the land is sown and raked. They are also good for hops, a handful being given to each plant. When applied to grain, they promote its early growth; but are principally useful m increasing the quantity. They are generally sown by the hand like grain, but care must be taken to leave no part of the surll\ce without its just pro[)or1ion. In Holland, the mode of applying them is as follows : In March, the wheat is worked with the hoe between the rows, and sown with clover, and in May, the rows of wh«at are weeded. The wheat being reaped, and as soon as the danger of floods is past in the spring, the land is haiTowed, and thereafter they strew about 20 imperial bushels on the acre of clover. This practice is greatly recommended, and found to be highly advan- tageous. An eminent Dutch agriculturist, F. L. W. Brakkel, in a work lately pubUshed by him at Utrecht, points out the advantages of using Dutch ashes on the clover in this way, his alternation of crops being potatoes, rape-seed, peas, wheat, clo- •ver andoats. Another writer on agriculture, J. R. Schwarz, says the, ashes must be used in their dry state, and thinly strewed, and on ploughed land niusfbe harrowed in before or at the sowing. They are of most use on cold wet grass lands to dry the ground, destroy the acidity, and kill the mosses. They are so nmch persuaded in Belgium of the great use of Dutch ashes, that the farmers have the following proverb : "He who buys ashes for clover, pays nothing; but he who neglects do- ing so, pays a double price." The great advan- tages to be derived from this practice are also pomted out by Sir John Sinclair, in his tour in Flanders; and many other testimonies might be adduced in its favor. By an analysis made by Professor Brande of the Royal Institution, the contents of the specimen given him were : Siliceous earth, - - - - 32 Sulphate of lime, - - - 12 Sulphate and muriate of soda, - 6 Carbonate of hme, - - - 40 Oxide of iron, _ . - - 3 Impurities and loss, _ - - 7 100 The great advantages Avhich the Dutch ashes hold out to the farmer are, their being a cheaper and (at least lor some purposes) more certain and beneficial manure, than any now in use. They can be easily transported to a great distance, they give a greater number of bushels to the ton than bones or rape-cake, and they are only about half the price per ton of" either. It has also to be re- marked, that bones are getting scarce abroad, and are rising in price. Besides, the Dutch ashes re- quire no previous expense, or jireparation in this country, but can be immediately applied after be- ing landed; whereas, bones and rape-cake have to unilergo the process of grinding, before they are fit for use. Aar a top dressing, these ashes are superior to common manure, it having been found, on making comparative trials in Flanders, that the crops of clover, where tlie ashes were used, were much eariier, heavier, and superior iij every respect to those which had undergone a top-dressing ol horse and cow dung. As a top-dressing to the second crop of clover, they will be found highly advan- tageous, as by being used this way, they won- derfully increase the rapidity of growth and pro- duce. One of the best proofs of their usefulness is the fact, that while we have frequently in this country very Ijackward and light crojis of clover and grass, in Flanders, where this top-dressing is used, such a defection seldom if ever occurs. They are therefore likely tol»e of great use to the farmer on the lands which have "grown sick of clover;" and the importance of having a ^ood crop of clover is the more obvious, when it is. considered that, in general, the succeeding crop_ of wheat is only good when the preceding crop of clover has been so. Besides fertilizing the land, the ashes may be of great advantage in preventing the injuries arising from worms or insects; and will no doubt be highly useful as a top-dressing, if regularly persevered in for a certain time, in destroying the mosses and lichens so apt to injure the lawns and natural pas- ture in this country. I have found a bushel of these ashes to be about forty pounds in weight. The ton therefore, con- sists of about fifty-six bushels. At £3 per ton, which will be the price f iom the shop, free of every charge, the expense of manuring an acre will only be about £1— [or ^4 80.] BREAD BIACHIKERY. Mr. Cawderoy has patented the undennentioned improvements in macliinery to be used in tlie pro- cess of manufacturing bread and biscuits. This patentee has. devoted his attention to every part of the process of bread manufacture; he com- mences the operation by causing the fiour to pass through a sieve, by means of a cylindrical brush, in very minute quantities, and with much uni- formity. From this sieve, the flour descends, into a mixing vessel, with an inclined bottom. The Uijuid to be mixed with the flour, to consitute the sponge, is admitted from a reservoir through a pipe near the bottom of the mixing vessel, and the quantity admitted during the process is adjusted to the quantity of flour passed through the sieve, by means of a stop-cock. On the inclined bottom of this vessel, a series of vertical rods, constituting a kind of rake, is made by means of a crank, to move forwards and backwards on the inclined bot- tom, in a direction at right angles to the inclina- tion; and the apparatus is so arranged, that the quantity of inclination may be varied at pleasure, to suit difl'erent qualities of the bread intended, or of the materials employed in its manufacture. The greater the mclination, of course the quicker will the mixture pass off from the rake into tlie. second mixing vessel, placed a little lower than the first, to receive it. This vessel, which has its bottom horizontal, is likewise furnished with a traversing rake, to mix the ingredients still more intimately. The sponge is afterwards returned into the mixing vessels, to have an additional sup- ply of materials to complete the dough, the usual time being allowed for it to rise andfidl, to pre))are it for separation into loaves and the operation of baking. The dough is next ti-ansferred to a press- FARMERS' REGISTER— AGRICULTURE IN BAVARIA. 169 inp; vessel, throvifjh an aperture at the bottom of Avhich it is tbrced' by means of a ])iston, into a long trough, Avliere it is separated into loaves, by meaas- of a frame tiu-nishod with projections ot" the size of the intended loaves. The fianie descends till the dividing partitions cut half through the dough ,ip the trough. The dpugh is ihcn turned by means G-f the trough frame, in which it is held swinging on two pivots, and the dividing frame is brought down again to complete the separation of the loaves. The loaves are then conveyed into an oven on a stage mounted on rollers, and tlirnished with an endless band of cloth, or other suitable material, by the motion of which they are delivered in succession li-oni the stage upon the oven floor; and when the baking is completed, this stage, with its endless band, is forced into the oven under the loaves, and brings them all out at one time. And thus will be obtained a much greater uniformity of" baking than can be effected by the usual me- thod of tilling and cmpt3-mg the oven. — Trans. Soc. jirts. AGRICULTURE IN BAVARIA ITS IMPROVE- MEIVT BY THE POLICY OF GOVERNMENT. From the British Farmer's Magazine. Bavarian agriculture, previously to . the first French revolution, was, according to all accounts, less advanced than that of any other state in Ger- many, and, indeed, remained stationary for ages. By far the greater part of the land in cultivation was the ]iroperty of the religious establishments; and the capital, Munich, was, as the German name (M.unchin) implies, ■ the city of monks. When,, however, the estates of the religious estab- lishments were sold, they were chiefly divided into lots so small, that almost ever}' individual who was head of a fi:imily became a purchaser. These pur- chases were made at very low prices, oh long cre- dits; and a very great number of them, perhaps the greater number, were agreed to be paid for by the occupant m a terminable annuity; that is, he paid a fixed rent for a certain number of years, after which the land became his own freehold. The laborers who had thus suddenly become proprietors, had, for the most part previously cultivated the .same lands for the religious establishments, and, therefore, the external change was, at first, Iiardly apparent. Every estate, however, abounding in timber and stone tor building, and a great part of the country being on a basis of limestone rock, or limestone gravel, facilities were readily afforded for a laborer to enlarge his cottage, and to add to it the necessary agricultural buildings. Scarcely any outlay was required from him but labor, and, as the ])roduce was entirely for his own benefit and for that of his family, his exertions were extraor- dinary. By degrees, cottage-dwellings, of a some- what improved description, and small farm-houses and farmeries, appeared in those parts of the country where the soil was richest; not, however, detached, as in Britain, but chiefly congregated to- gether in small villages. The system of cultui-e did not, at first, improve as a system; but, the common operations of the established practice be- ing more carefully performed, better crops were produced. Ultimately, however, the system be- came improved, in consequence of the operation of the national education that was established when the monasteries were put down, and by the teach- ing of agriculture and gardening, both by books and exami)les, in these schools! One of the first consequences was unimproved rotation of crops. Almost the whole of the details of agricuUm-al im- provement in Bavaiia have originated with M. IIa7;zi, an. agricultural writer, and editor of an ag- ricultural journal in JMunich. The activity and patriotic benevolence of this gentleman are beyond ;dl praise. It was chiefly through his exertions that a piece of ground, was adiled to every paro- chial school in Bavaria, to be cultivated "by the scholars in their leisure hours, under the direction of the master. In these schools, Ilazzi's catechism of gardening, of agriculture, of domestic economy and cookery, of forest culture, of orchard culture, and others, all small 12mo vols., with woodcuts; sold at about 4d. each, are taught to all the boys, and those of gardening, the management of silk- worms, and domestic economy, to the girls. Since these schools have come" into action, an entirely new generation of cultivators has arisen; and the consequence is, that agriculture in Bavaria, and especially what may be called cottage agriculture and economy, is, as far as we are able to judge, carried to a higher degree of perfection than it is any whei-e else in the central states of Germany; at all events, we can affirm that we never saw finer crops of drilled Swedish and common turnips, or finer surfaces of J^oung clovers, than we observed along the road sides in October and November, 1828. The fences, also, were generally in perfect order, and a degree of neatness apjjcared about the cot- tages which is far from common cither in France or Germany, These remarks ai-e not the result of observations made, as is frequently the case, from the cabriolet of a public diligence, but from deliber- ate inspection, and fi-om entering many of the cot- tages and schools. To enable us to do this, we travelled, every where in Germany, in a private carriage, and never in the dark. We had also, as we have before stated, the advantage, while in Munich, of constant intercourse with M. Hazzi, M. Sckell, and other membej-s of the agricultural society; wkh the chief engineer, Baader7 who had been many years in Scotland; with Baron Eichthal, the proprietor of a large estate, on which he has introduced the Scotch husbandrj^, and with whom we were acquainted in London; and, with his very intelligent tenant, an east Lothian farmer. The result of the whole of the information procured, and of the observations made, is, that we think the inhabitants of Bavaria promise soon to be, if they are not already, among tlie happiest people in Germany. The climate of the country will pi'event its agriculture and gardening from advancing be- j-ond a certain point, but to that point both will very soon be carried. So desirous is the government of improvmg not only the agriculture, but even the face of the coun- try, that they have a standing commission, con- sisting of counsellors, engineers, architects, and the landscape gardener Sckell, solely for the pur- pose of devising improvements in the direction of public roads, canals, bridges, public buildings, and gardens, nationa,l forests, but, above all, for lining the public roads with trees. These trees are, in some places, in the suburbs of towns, chiefly orna- mental; in others they are fruit trees, or mulberry trees cultivated for the silkworm, (a catechism on the management of which is also published by M. 170 FARMERS' REGISTER— ON THE CULTURE OF CLOVER, &c. Ilazzi;) ami, AvUere nothing more profitable or or- namental will grow, forest trees. An extraordina- ry degree ot" attention is paid to the mile-stones and to the guide-posts, neither of which are want- ing on any road. The guide-posts are generally painted black, with the letters in white or red, the black contrasting better with the snow, which, in some jiarts of the country, covers the ground tor six months in every year. Some of the mile-stones have a bench of stone, forming a [jlinth or base around them, as a seat; others, where stone is not so plentiful, have a semi-circular area of turf around them, bounded by a bench of the same material, as a seat, and planted behind with pop- lars or other trees. The neatness with which these turf benches, and the ditches or other fences, and also the grass margins by the sides of the roads, are kept, tar surpasses any thing of the kind which we have ever seen in Britam. With us, if any thing of this kind is met with in the public roads, it is chiefly the result of accident, either in the situation or circumstances of the road; or arises ii-om the appointment of a road surveyor who hap- pens to have at once some taste, and more than ordinary facilities for displaying it. In Bavaria the whole is the result of design and system, the entire management of the roads being in the hands of the government. The same' ought certainly to be the case in this country; for, otherwise, it is utterly impossible to adopt one general S3'stem of improve- ment.— Weekly Dispatch. PRICES OF IMPROVEn SHORT-IIORJV CATTLE IN ENGLAND. From the British Farmer's Magazine. At the Rev. H. Berry's fourth sale of improved short-horns, on the 11th February, 1834, the fol- lowing prices were obtained: Lot 1. 2 vears old, . . £24 3 0 2. Ditto, . . . 86 15 0 3. Ditto. Bought in. £45 bid, 4. 3 years. Ditto, Ditto, 5. 3 years, . , , 29 18 0 6. Calf; sold with the above, 7. 3 years, . . . 30 9 0 8. 3 years, . . . 38 17 0 9. 8 years, . . . 32 12 0 10. 9 years, . . . 26 5 0 11. Heifer calf, . . 15 15 0 12. 10 years, . . . 36 15 0 13. 10 years, . . , 48 6 0 14. 2 years old bull, , 39 18 0 15. 1 year old ditto, . , 45 3 0 16. Bull calf, . , , 15 15 0 17. Ditto, , , , , 31 10 0 18. Ditto, 9 weeks old, , 32 110 NEW PLANTS, Baron Ilagal, the Austrian botanist, who lately visited the Neilgherr^- Hills, in India, declares that the unknown varieties of trees and shrubs, existing there alone, exceed 10,000. The wild rose inns up to the top of the highest trees, and grows to the thickness of four or five inches. — A delicious speci- men of orange but not exceeding a filbert in size, is also found there. In the orange valley below Kotagherry, about 4500 fiiet above the level of the sea, numerous fruit trees are found, amongst which are the wild fig and lemon tree, the latter bearing iruit little inferior in size and flavor to that of Spain, ox THE CULTURE OF CLOVER. From the Albany Cultivator. Few tilings have contributed more lara'ely to the modern improvement ol husbandry, than the introduction of clover in connexion with the rota- tion of crops. This plant serves to ameliorate and fertilize the soil, and at the same time it afiords an abundance of wholesome food for every descrip- tion of ftirin stock. Whether cut for winter stores, for soiling in the yard, or ted off b}' stock, but few crops surjjass it in the quantity of cattle food which it affords. Although cultivated in Holland and Flanders from an early period, with gi'eat advan- tage, it was not introduced into Great Britain till the 16th century. At present, clovers enter large- ly into the succession of crops there, on all soils, and in evey ])roductive course of management. They are principally instrumental in giving to Flanders its high celebrity as an agricultural coun- try, greatly in advance, in improvement, of the states around it. The clover system has con- verted some of the poorest districts in England, into the most productive and profitable. In the United States it is comparatively of recent intro- duction; and even at this day its benefits are but partially appreciated or appUed as they ought to be. In connexion with g}'psum, clover first became a subject of notice and culture in the counties about Philadelphia, and in the county of Dutchess, some forty years ago; and we are much indebted to the example and writings of Chancellor Living- ston, Judge Peters, and other gentlemen of learn- ing, wealth and enterprise, for the improvement and wealth which it has conferred on our land. Many of our farmers have yet much to learn, be- fore the}' can realize the full benefits which it is ca])able of aflbrding in the profits of the farm.. Although botanists enumerate nearly fifty species of the clover family, our present remarks are intend- ed to apply merely to the common red kind (trifo- Hum pratense.) There are three faults in the management of clover Avhich we design briefly to notice in refer- ence to alternate husbandry. Two of these are: 1. Too little seed is usually soton. The ob- ject of the clover croj) is to procure a cheap food for animals and plants. Few if any crops surpass it in the quantity which it afl!ords of these — and tew exhaust the fertility of the soil less. One farmer sows four to six pounds of seed to the acre, and gets in return a thin but coarse crop of hay or pasture. Another sows ten to fourteen pounds, obtains double the burthen of the first, and at a trifling extra expense of less than a dollar to the acre for seed, while his land is doubly benefited by the green crop to be ploughed in. From ten to fourteen pounds of seed should be sown to the acre, whether the object is to benefit the stock or the land. The product will be somewhat in the ratio of the seed sown; and the advantages of heavy stocking both in the hay and to the soil, will far outbalance the cost of the extra seed, 2. Clover lays are permitted to remain too long before they are brought under the plough. The common clover is a biennial, or at most a trien- nial plant; and if not ploughed under before the third year, its advantages to the soil, as a green crop are mostly, or wholly lost; while after the second year it adds very little to the crop of hay. But if turned under the first or second year, it fur- nishes to the soil a great quantity of vegetable mat-- FARMERS' REGISTER— LOSS IN COOKING ANIMAL FOOD, &c. 171 ter, the true food of plants. It not only serves as a manure, but it benefits mechanically. Its tap roots penetrate and di\ide the soil, and as they ilecay render it friable, and permeable to heat, air, and moisture. A well set clover lay inijiarts to the soil as much benefit, in our opinion, as ten loads of yard manure to the acre. When a broad- cast crop is to be Ibliowcd by a tillage crop, as corn, potatoes, or small grain, there is manifestly a decided advantage in stocking it with clover, though it is to be turned under the ensuing lall or spring. We estimate its value as manure, to saj' nothing of the pasture which it aflbrds, at fron) five to ten dollars per acre, while the cost of the seed does not ordinarily exceed one dollar. I have sown rye and clover, upon a piece of poor sandy land, for which I had no manure to spare, three years in succession with manifest advantage. LOSS OF WEIGHT'IN COOKING ANIMAL FOOD. It is well known that, in whatever way the flesh of animals is prepared for food, a considerable di- minution takes place in its weight. As it is a sub- ject both useful and curious in domestic economy, we shall give the results of a set of experiments, which were actually made in a public establish- ment: they were not undertaken from mere curiosi- ty, but to serve a purpose of practical utility. 28 nieces of beef, weighing 280 lbs., lost in boiling 73 lbs. 14 oz. Hence the loss of beef in boiling was about 20| lbs. in 100 lbs.: 19 pieces of beeij weighmg 190 lbs., lost in roasting 61 lbs. 2 oz. The weight of beef lost in roasting appears to be 82 lbs. per hundred lbs. 9 pieces of beefj weighing 90 lbs., lost in baking 27 lbs. Weight lost by bee] in baking is 30 lbs. per 100 lbs. 27 legs of mutton, Aveighing 2G0 lbs. lost in boiling, and by having the shank-bones taken off, 62 lbs. 4 oz. The shank- bones were estunated at 4 oz. each, therefore the loss in boiling was 55 lbs. 8 oz. The loss of weight in boiling legs of mutton is 21 lbs. j:)er 100 lbs. 35 shoulders of nuitton, weighing 350 lbs., lost in roasting 109 lbs, 10 oz. Uiie loss of weight of nuitton in roasting was 31.^ lbs. per 100 lbs. 16 loiiis of mutton, weighing 141 lbs., lost in roasting 49 lbs. 14 oz. Hence loins of mutton lose by roast- ing about 35^ lbs. per 100 lbs. 10 necks of mut- ton, weighing 100 lbs., lost in roasting .32 lbs. 6oz. From tile foregoing statement, two practical in- ferences may be drawn. 1st. In respect of econo- my, it is more profitable to boil meat than to roast It. 2nd. W^hether we roast or boil meat, it loses by cooking from one-third to one-fifth of its whole weight. — Philosophical Magazine. CONJUGAL AFFECTION OF A SHARK. From tlie Journal of a West India Proprietor. By the late Mat- thew G. Lewis. 'As I am particularly fond of proofs of conjugal attachment between animals (in the human species they are so universal that I set no store by them,) an instance of that kind which the captain related to me this morning gave me great pleasure. While lying in Black River harbor, Jamaica, two sharks were frequently seen playing about the ship; at length the female was killed, and the desolation of the male was excessive: — "Che faro senz' Eurydice?" What he did xoiihout her remains a secret, but what he did with her was clear enough; for scarce was the breath out of his Euiydice's body wbea he stuck his teeth in her, and began to eat her up with all jjossible exj'edition. Even the sailors felt their sensibility excited by so jjeculiar a mark of posthumous attachment; and to enable him to jier- fbrm this melancholy duty the more easily, they of- fered to be his carver.-?, lowered their boat, and |)ro- ceeded to chop his better half in pieces with their hatchets; while the widower opened his jaws as wide as possible, and gulped down pounds u|)on pounds of the dear departed as fast as they were thrown to him, with the greatest delight and all the avitlity imaginable. I make no doubt that all the while he was eating, he was thoroughly persuaded that every morsel which went into his stomach would make its wny to hie heart directly! "She was perfectly consistent," he said to himself; "she was excellent through life, and really she's extreme- ly good now she's dead!" WILD ANIStALS OF THE ILLINOIS, NORTH AMERICA. Al)riilged from the Illijiois Monthly Magazine. The bufTaloc has entirely left us. Before the country was settled, our immense prairies aflbrded pasturage to large herds of this animal, and the traces of them are still remaining, in the "bidla- loe i^aths" which are to be seen in several parts of the state. These are well beaten tracks, leading generally from the prairies ni the interior of the state, to the margins of the large rivers; showing the course of their migrations, as they changed their pastures periodicidly, from the low marshy alluvion, to the dry ui)land plains. In the heat of summer they would be driven from the latter by prairie flies; "in the autumn they would be expelled from the former by the musquitoes; in the spring the grass of the plains would aflfbrd abundant pas- turage, while the herds could enjoy the warmth of the sun, and snuff the breeze that sweeps so freely over them; in the winter the rich cane of the river banks, which is an evergreen, Avould furnish food, while the low grounds, thickly covered with brush and forest, would afford protection from the bleak winds. I know fijw subjects more interesting than the migration of wild animals, connecting, as it does, the singular displajs of brute mstinct, with a wonderful exliibition of the various supplies which nature has provided lor the support of animal life, under an endless variety of circumstances. These paths are narrow, and remarkably direct, showing that the animals travelled in single file through the woods, and pursued the most direct course to their places of destination. Deer are more abundant than at the first settle- ment of the country. They increase, to a ceriain extent, Avith the population. The reason of this appears to be, that they find protection in the neighborhood of man, from the beasts of prey that assail them in the wilderness, and from whose attacks their young, particularly, can with difficul- ty escape, They'sufler most from the Avolves, who hunt in packs like hounds, and who seldom give up the chase until a deer is taken. We have often sat, on a moonlight summer night, at the door of a log cabin on one of our ])rairies, and heard the wolves in full chase of a deer, yelling^ very nearly in the same manner as a pack of hounds. Sometimes the cry would be heard at a 172 FARMERS' REGISTER— WILD ANIMALS OF THE ILLINOIS. fifreat distance over the plain; then it would die away, and again be distinguished at, a nearer point, and in anotlier direction — now the full cry would burst ujjon us irom a neighboring thicket, and we could almost hear the sobs of the exhaust- ed deer; and again it would be borne away and lost in distance. . We have passed nearly whole nights in listening to such sounds; and once we saw a deer dash through the yard, and immediately passed the door at which we sat, followed by his audacious pursuers, who were but a lew ytuds in his rear. Immense numbers of deer are killed every year by our himters, who take them lor their hams and skins alone, throwing away the rest of the carcass. Venison hams and hides are important articles of export. The fonner are purchased Irom the hunt- ers at 25 cents a jjalr, the latter at 20 cents a pound. In our villages we purchase, lor our tables, the saddle of venison, with the hams attached, tor 37^ cents, which would be something like one cent a pound. The Elk has disappeared. A few have been Been in late years, and some taken; but it is not known that any remain at this time within the hmits of the state. The hear is seldom seen. This animal inhabits those parts of the country that are thickly wooded, and delights particularly in cane brakes, where it feeds in the winter on the tender shoots of the young cane. The meat is tender, and finely ilavored, and is esteemed a great delicacy. Wolves are very numerous in every part of the state. There are two kinds; the common, or black wolf, and the prairie w^olf. The former is a large, fierce animal, and very destructive to sheep, pigs, calves, poultry, and even young colts. They hunt in large packs, and after using every stratagem to (Circumvent their prey, attack it with remarkable ferocity. Like the Indian, they always endeavor to surprise their victim, and strike the mortal blow without exposing themselves to danger. They seldom attack man, except when asleep, or wound- ed. The largest animals, when wounded, entan- gled, or otherwise disabled, become their prey, but in general they only attack such as are incapable of resistance. They have been known to lie in wait upon the bank of a stream which th€. buffa- loes were in the habit of crossing, and when one of those unwieldy animals Avas so unfortunate as to sink in the mire, spring suddenly upon it, and worry it to death, while thus disabled from resist- ance. Their most common prey is the deer, which they hunt regularly; but all defenceless animals are alike acceptable to their ravenous appetites. When tempted by hunger, they approach the farm houses in the night, and snatch their prey from under the very eye of the farmer; and when the latter is ab- sent with his dogs, the wolf is sometimes seen by the females lurkmg about in mid-day, as if aware of the unprotected state of the family. Our hero- ic females have sometimes shot them under such circiunstances. The smell of burning assafoetida has a remark- able effect upon this animal. If a fire be made in the woods, and a portion of tliis drug thrown into it, so as to saturate the atmosphere with the odor, the wolves, if any are within reach of the scent, immediately assemble around, howling in the most mournful manner; and such is the remarka- ble fascination under which they seem to labor that they will often sufler themselves to be shot down, rather than quit the spot. Of the very ^c.\y instances of their attacking human beings, of which Ave have heard, the fol- lowing may serve to give some idea of their hab- its. In very early times, a negro man was passing in the night, in the lov/er part of Kentucky, tj-om one settlement to another. The distance was several miles, and the country over which he travelled entirely unsettled. In the mornuig his carcass was found, entirely stripped of flesh. Near it lay his axe, covered. with blood, and all aroimd the bushes were beaten down, the ground trod- den, and the number of foot tracks so great, as to show that the unlbrtunate victim had Ibuglit long and manfully. On pursuing his track, it ai»peared that the wolves had ])ui'sued him for a consider- able distance, he had often turned upon them and driven them back. Several times they had attack- ed him, and been repelled, as appeared by the blood and tracks. He had killed some of them before the final onset, and in the last conflict had destroy- ed several. His axe was his only weapon. The prairie wolf is a smaller species, which takes its name from its habit of residing entirely upon the ojien plains. Even when hunted with dogs, it will make circuit after circuit round the prairie, carefully avoiding the forest, or only dash- ing into it occasionally, when hard pressed, and then returning to the plain. In size and appearance this animal is midway between the wolf and the fox, and in color it resembles the latter, being of a verj' light red. It preys upoii poultry, rabbits, young pigs, calves, &,c. The most friendly rela- tions subsist between this animal and the common wolfj and they constantly hunt in packs together. Nothing is more common than to see a large black wolf in company with several prairie wolves. I am well satisfied that the latter is the jackall of Asia. Sevaral j-ears ago an agricultural societ}', which was established at the seat of government, ofl^ercd a large premium to the person who should kill the greatest number of wolves in one year. The legislature, at the same time, offered a bounty for each wolf-scalp that should be taken. The con- sequence was, that the expenditure for wolf-scalps became so great, as to render it necessary to re- peal the law. These animals, although still nume- rous, and troublesome to the farmer, are greatly decreased in number, and are no longer dangerous to man. We know of no instances, in late years, of a human being having been attacked by them. We have t\\(^.fox, in some places in great num- bers; though, generally speaking, I think the ani- mal is scarce. It will, undoubtedly, increase with the ]iopulation. 1l^\\q panther and wild-cat are found in our for- ests. Our open country is not, however, well suit- ed to their shj' habita, and they are less frequently seen than in some of the neighboring states. The heaver and otter were, once numerous, but are now seldom seen, except on our frontiers. The gopher* is, as we suppose, a nondescript. * The writer of this interesting article, appears not to be aware that tlie Gopher has already been de- scribed. It belongs to the class Mammalia, order Ro- dentia. It was formerly included in the genus Mus, of Linnseus, but Rafinesque has given the elegant name of "Geomys." It is tlie "Pseudostoma" of Say, and the Mus Bursarius of Shaw. There is but one FARMERS' REGISTER— FOREIGN CORN TRADE. 173 The name does not occur in books of natural his- tory, nor do We findanj^ animalof a corresponding description. The only account lliat we liav^e seen of it is in "Long's Second Expedition." - In a residence in this state of eleven years, we have never seen one, nor have we ever conversed with a person who has seen one — we n>ean, who has seen one near enough to examine it, and to he certain that it was not something else. That such -an animal exists is doubtless, but they are very shy, and their numbers small. They burrow in the earth, find are supposed to throw up those hillocks which are seen in such vast abundance over our |)rairies. Tliis is to some extent a mis- take, lor we know that many of these little mounds arc thrown up bycraw-fi^li, and by ants. The polecat is very destructiv^e to our poultry. The raccoon and opossimi arc very numerous, and extremely troublesome to the farmer, as they not only attack his poultry, but plunder his corn- lields. They are hunted by boys, and large num- bers of them destroyed. The skins of tlie rac- coons pay well fbr the trouble of taking tliem, as the lur is in demand. Rabbits are very abundant, and in some places extremely destructive to the joung orchards, and garden vegetables. We have the large grey squirrel, and the ground squirrel. There are no rats, except along the large rivers, where they have landed from the boats. — Feather- stonhaugh's Journal. ON THE FOJIEIGN CORN TRADE. By Mr. Isaac Dimsdale, London, Editor of the . Universal Corn Reporter. In giving an account of how the corn trade is conducted in different parts of the world, a con- siderable detail must necessarily be introduced. I shall begin by stating the mode in which ibreign corn is obtained. As the celebrated report of Mr. Jacob is always quoted on this subject as the "highest known au- thority," I shtUl probably be deemed presumptuous in expressing my opinion that his report is in many instances very erroneous, and I account for it in this way. The letters of introduction, &c. which a gentleman going out on a special mission from the British government would take with him, would be addressed to men of the highest rank and station, who, from this very circumstance, could not be supposed to possess a correct knowledge of the detads of trade ; for if, in this enlightened country, where a nobleman and a merchant are so nearly on a footing in society, it is frequently amu- sing to witness the singular ignorance displayed by large landed proprietors of the corn trade, what must be the case in countries where civilization has not reached to nearly the same height? How could these people in high rank abroad give Mr. Jacob the requisite inlbrmation? But I attribute the incorrectness of Mr. Jacob's report principally species yet known, the Gcoimjs Bursariits or Earth Rat loith Pouches. It is the size of a rat, of a reddish grey color, has deep cheek pouches, which open exter- nally, enlarging the sides of the head and neck. When it was first figured in the Transactions of the Linna^n Society, and in Shaw, vol. 2, part 1; these pouches were represented turned inside out, as though it had been a bag on each side of the heak. to his ignorance of the German language, the ac- quisition of which must be imUspensably necessa- ry to obtain correct inlbrmation. People are very jealous of writing down aught by which they might commit themselves; but in colloquial inter- courseround the table or elsewhere, the most use- ful hints are occasionally thrown out, where olten "more is ineant than meets the 's reckon on obtaining 2Gs. per quarter for my wheat dehvered at Danzig, I and my neighbors woukl be perfectly satisfied," The merchant who buys the wheat, either stores it on speculation, — sells it at a certain price, ?ree on board a vessel, — or shi[)s it on consignment to a corn-factor in London, or any other port where he imagines it can be sold to the best account. The expense of freight and insurance varies according to the season of the year, scarcity of vessels, and other causes. At present the nite is only 3s. 6d. per quarter, with 10 per cent, "jirimage" or gratui- ty to the master, frequenlly designated "hat money," and the msurance is 15s. per cent. On arriving in London, the cargo is entered "in bond," unless in- tended for immediate sale, when the duty is forth- with paid, and the cargo sold and delivered to the buyers direct from the vessel. if landed, an expense of 7d. per quarter for lighterage is incurred, and about 8d. per quarter city-due!s for metering the coni; this work being performed by sworn officers, apjiointed by the cor- poration, and who alone can measure grain out of any vessel arriving in the port of London. Several attempts have been made to do away with this monopoly J but inefi'ectually. It is certainly an im- proper state of things, that a man may not employ his own workmen to take his own corn out of his own vessel; but such is the case in London, and in JLondon only, I am happy to say. When the wheat is landed, the granary rent im- mediately commences at the rate of 5s. per 100 quarters per week. "Turning and screening," should the corn lie long and require it, are 7s. per 100 quarters; and there is, lastly, an expense of about 4d. per quarter again paid to the corporation for re-metering the corn out of granary. Tlie ex- penses of sale in Mark Lane are Is. per quarter, and 1 per cent, for guaranteeing the debt, tohich oil London corn-factors do, they never acting in the capacity of brokers. The credit given is one month, consequently the net proceeds are due in cash one month from the date of sale; but the fo- reigner generally re-imburses himself by drawing a bill at two or three months' date, when he hands the bill of lading of the wheat for about two-thirds of the probable net proceeds, and the balance is either remitted, or a bill at sight drawn by the shipper lor the same. A good deal of corn is changed against ducats; the ducats are, in general, coined in Holland. The bankers in Hamburg and the bankers in London do the business on joint account; they send those ducats to Danzig and Konigsberg, and against them they get bills upon London, sometimes at two or three per cent., sometimes at one per cent., and through that medium they thus get a market for their bills. The people in Poland generally take gold or ducats; these ducats are in general new Dutch ones, and they go there at a particular value, about twenty-eight guilders. Tlie next princij)al market for grain to Danzig, as regards an export trade to England, is Hamburg, that being a considerable depot for the com grown on the banks of the Elbe and neighboring territo- ries. When a sufficient price can be given, barley is sometimes sent to Hamburg from Bolumia, in which province some of the finest quality is grown; indeed, it is fit for malting purposes, and always commands a preference in the London market. To the .agricultural reader, it may not be iminterest- ing to learn' how tillage is conducted in those dis- tricts which are at a comparatively shoil distance from us. Instead of a plough in the Duchy of Mecklen- burg (to which I shall principally confine mj^self) an instrument called "hacke" is usually applied. It is merely a broad coulter, somewhat curved at the bottom; hence the tearing up of the soil is not called ploughing but "hacking." .In fallowing, the land is hacked tour times; namely, in autumn, in June, in Julv, and the fourth time in September or October. The first hacking is called the stubble furrow; the second, the fallow furrow; the third, the turn furrow; and the fourth, the seed furrotv< For barley, which follows after the winter corn, the ground is furrowed three times, viz. in autumn the winter furrow, in April the turning furrow, and in May the seed furrow. For the oats, which fol- low after barley, the land is hacked twice, first in autumn, called the turn furrow, and the second in May, called the seed furrow. Peas, when sown in the first course after the Avinter's corn, are fur- rowed twice; when sown in the second course three times. Beans are not much cultivated; the soil, qualified for their growth, not being abundant in that country. Rape requires five courses, or one time more than wheat and rye. The harrow is applied each time after the tearing up of the soil with the hacke. A good soil is usually harrowed, first Avith an iron-tined, and afterwards with a wooden-tined harrow. With the latter the land is generally cross-harrowed, that is to say, in ari oblique way, on patches of ground of about two rods in width. The rollers are particularly appli- ed in the turnfiirrow (April) for crushing the clods. Some agriculturists use also the roller after sowing for the purpose of making the soft, soil either more solid, or crushing the clods on the strong lands. Others prefer to liave the clods that are found in the seed furrows broken by the hands of laborers. On the lands Avhich are neither too loose, nor liable to form into clods, the roller is not generally ap- plied. A laborer can moW and bind in a day^ of wheat ly-ffrv acre; of rye 1 jo"(,- acre; of barleys ^^m acre; of oats \j-^\ acre. However, the space of land which can be mown in a day, by one laborer, de- pends very much on the strength of the corn itself; and the expense of mowing ought, on that ground, to be calculated rather in the proportion of the quantity of produce than the extent of surface. The binding is generally done by women, the shocking by men. The rj^e is usuall}' bound to- gether behind the scythe; the female binder fol-- lowing immediatelj' after the moAver, a method Avhich is not practised AA'ith the other sorts of grain. On some estates, this mode of binding the rye, close behind the scythe, has been done away Avith. The value of 100,000 Mecklenburg roods, equal to 536~/n acres of land, of medium soil, Avith suita- lile buildings, and sufficient Avood belongmg to it, is £4082 "9 0 sterling. An estate of 1834 acres has recently been sold ibr 82,000 dollars, or £ 13,960 Bterling, which is in equal ratio to the abo\'e voJua- FARMERS' REGISTER— FOREIGN CORN TRADE. 175 tion. The t.ixes on this estate amovuited to £. 13 19 10 ster]ui<;'. On an estate of 1152 acres, I have been furnished with the foilowino- particulars ol taxation, which may be deenu'ii interesting: — 1. Church-rates, clergymen, re[)airing the minister's house, and conveyance of materials, £9 18 2 2. Insurance of the building implements and live stock against fire, also insu- rance of tlie croj)s against hail, - - 17 1 9 3. Repairs of bridges, roads, ditches, and canals, _---__-- 386 4. Support of the poor, ----- 7 13 5 5. School tax, about ------ 7 13 2 £45 15 0 The extent of estates varies from 320 to 2850 acres. Sucii estates are managed in one fjirming establishment; but tliere are otliers of a still larger extent, arising trom the annexation of smaller estates to the j)rincipal ones. There is a novel kind of association established, called the "Board of Hypothecation," where each estate has its hyjiothecation book clepositcd. In this book all the mortgages with which the estate is encumbered, are inscribed. This system has the effect of giving a hill and clear view of the state of incumbrances on the estates. Besides this institution, a credit vereiii (credit association) has been formed, to which a considerable part of the proprietors of the estates of Mecklenburg belong. The estates which thus belong to this association, are mutual guarantees ibr halt" the amount of the taxed valuation, when that sum is borrowed upon their security. Tlie directors of this association issue transferable bonds, bearing 4 per cent, inter- est, but the landholders pay ^ per cent, more, or 4| per cent., from which the expense of administra- tion is defrayed, and the remainder is applied to- wards forming a reserve fund. Wlieat can be produced at 25s. per quarter, on an average of late years. I say of late, because from the year 1796 to 1808, wheat often sold there at 9s. per bushel, and even more! The expense of receiving wheat into store at Hamburg is 9d. per quarter, and the granary rent, so long as it re- mains there in warehouse, is 2d. per quarter per month. The expenses of freight and insurance are in general about half those trom Danzig; some- times even less. When the traders (who sail at stated periods full or 7wt) cannot get a cargo, I have known the li-eight as low as Is. per quarter. The other charges are precisely the same as those already enumerated. Of late 3'ears a considerable trade has been carried on with Odessa; but the immense distance will always militate against a very large importa- tion direct from thence. Much business has, how- ever, been done by means of shipping to Malta, Gibraltar, &c. taking out and cooling the cargo, il' requisite, and then reshipping it for England. — As some may not know the meaning of "cooling," it is necessary to state, that many cargoes ha\'e been so heated on the voyage, as to render the pick-axe necessary to get tlie wheat out of the ship's hold and in several instances the whole has been thrown overboard by permission of the Board of Customs, or burnt for manure, as it would have endangered the safety of the warehouses, from the intense heat which it engenders} fbr, even spread ing out heated corn on a floor three or four inches thick will not cool it. lnde|)endently of the length of voyage from Odessa, there is another circumstance attending the trade there, which forms a consider- able impediment to it, namely, that the money must be advanced to the growers belbre harvest, or they will not send it down to Odessa, the ex- pense being so heavy, and the confidence in that country so little; but I believe the merchant is mostly the suiferer, as the farmers frequently pock- et the money, and never send the wheat. I should mention, that a good deal of wheat is shipped li-om Odessa to Malta, where it is landed and stored in the Jlock, and then hermetically sealed, the advantages of which are these, thatany worm in the wlieat rises to the top and dies; and if the Avheat is put into the Rock in good condition, Avhenever it is removed the condition v/ill be equally sound, and the expense of keeping it is only one per cent, per annum. In case of any demand arising, the wlicat is within a reasonable distance, and can be tbrthwith shijip.ed off, which is of course a great convenience to the owners. Having thus given a summary statement of how foreign cui-n is cultivated and sent to England, it may not be uninteresting to many to know a litUe more of the details of the trade. And, in the first place, to describe how grain is brouglit from the interior to the shipping ports. In Russia, Prussia, Germany, Poland, &c. where the estates lie con- tiguous to rivers, the corn is sent down them in flat-bottomed barks or barges; but the navigation is Irequently very dangerous, and at all times pre- carious. In winter, the rivers are sid)ject to great inundations on the breaking up of the ice; and in summer they are sometimes quite unnavigable for want of water. These causes, preventmgsupplies from coming to market, occasionally produce a considerable advance in the prices. The river Dnieper has many cataracts and shallows, so that barks can pass fbr a very short period only in the spring, and those only of a small size. Conse- quently most of the corn that goes to Odessa is sent in carts, carrying about 5 quarters each. These carts are drawn by oxen, and they travel in parties of 100 to 150. The oxen are pastured dur- ing the night, and they take advantage of the time wlien the ]5easantry are not occupied with the har- vest; so that the proprietors can send their wheat 300 or 400 miles at a veiy trifling charge. These districts might be cultivated to almost any extent, should an increased demand for grain arise, andthe soil is what is termed '^virgin land,'''' requiring no manure whatever. The wheat is generally dried in the sun at Odessa, before shipment, vvhich is a far preferable mode of drying, in respect to that grain, to kiln-dryintj; but, as I have before men- tioned, even this will not entirely preserve it from healing, fbr I never knew a cargo to arrive direct from thence without sustaining more or less injury on the voyage, which is the reason why the Medi- terranean ports are made depots fbr Odessa wheat. From the Baltic ports corn is generally shipped fi'om May 15tli to the end of October, and some- times later. As respects quality, the finest wheat in the world is grown in Volhynia, and shipped from Danzig, Elbing, or Konigsherg. The peculiarity of this wheat is the little bran it yields, which makes it much sought after by the English (but more espe- cially by the London) millers. It possesses, like- 176 FARMERS' REGISTER— FOREIGN CORN TRADE. wise, a surprising degree of whiteness, and yields more farina than any other sort of wheats not ex- cepting the finest Essex or Kentish. This superior description is denominated "fine high mixed;" ahiiost all the Danzigwheat coming m/xet/, in pro- portion to the quantity of red wheat, so much lower are the quality and value of the article. Tiie general propoition of ordinary runs is one-third white to two-thirds red. The different denomina- tions are, "finest high mbced;" "good and fine mixed;" "ditto, adapted for Scodand and north of England;" "red mixed," and "ordinary and light;" the first weighingfrom 61 lbs., to 63 lbs. per bushel, and the latter 56 lbs. to 57 lbs. ])er bushel. The difference in price varies from lOs. to l-5s. per quarter. In the Mediterranean, there is some ver^- fine white wheat grown, both "solf" and "hard." A considerable importation took place from Genoa, Naples, &c. a year or two since, which. wiSs fi-eely purchased by our millers, at hifjh prices; but this description of grain is ])rinci pally used for making maccaroni in Italy and France, and is not exported unless a better price can be obtained for it else- where, which is not generally the case. The most inferior wheat comes from Riga. It is extremely small berried, of a dingy red color, and full of little black seeds. There is, however, Bome of better quality, but the generality is of an inferior description, and the price obtained for it is proportionally low,. being 10s. and 15s. per quarter, under the finest Danzig. There is occasionally an import of wheat from Canada, the United States, &c.; but the supply principally comes to Liverpool, and in the shape of Hour, of which a very large quantity annually arrives. The duty on wheat from the British co- lonies is only 5s. per quarter, and on flour 3s. 6d. per cvvt. During the present year, I had a consignment of wheat Irom Van Dieman's Land, the quality of which was very superior, as may be supposed, when I readily obtained 8s. per bushel for it. I should, however, remark, that a portion of it which was sown on one of the finest farms in Bedford- shire, would not grow; and I am informed, that scarcely any wheat was ever known to vegetate in this country that had crossed the line, unless par- ticular care be taken to preserve it from the effects of the atmosphere. The best red wheat comes from Stettin, Ro- stock, JVismar, &c. This grain is very like Eng- lish wlieat, and when it arrives in good condition, is much esteemed, especially when we are visited with a "dripping harvest," it being then almost indispensably necessary to mix with our new corn, in order to render it fit for grinding. The finest barley comes from Bohemia, Silesia, and the banks of the Saale, by which river it is transported to the Elbe, and thence to Hamburg. This barley will frequently malt as well as Eng- lish; but nearly all other continental descriptions are only fit tor grinding, being mostly of very light indifferent quality. The greatest quantity is grown on the Danish islands; but there is a good deal shipped from Danzig and Konigsbcrg. Its value at present in those ports is 12s. 6d. to 14s. per quarter. Beans are not cultivated to a great extent; but from Denmark a tolerable quantity is annually ex- ported, the quality being pretty good. They are generally of the harrow-tick description; butsome- t:imes "Heligoland" or small pigeon arc exported, which obtain high prices. The Egyptian beans are of a very ])ecidiar red color, occasioned by the intense heat to which they are exposed when ri- pening, ill addition to which they generally become very heated on the voyage, insomuch that whole cargoes have been totally destroyed. They were formerly an article of great speculation; but the consumption o'f beans has much decreased of late, in consequence of the comparative cheapness of oats; so that very few are now imported direct from Egypt, but occasionally some come from Leg- horn, Marseilles, &c. where there are magazines of them, -as of Odessa wheat. Their value in those places is at present 16s. per quarter. Although we were originally indebted to Prus- sia, it is supposed, lor our best stock of blue peas, the cultivation of them is. not now carried to any great extent, but we occasioiially get from thence some fine white boiling peas. Their present value is about 21s. or 20s. per quarter, free on board. Rye is grown to a very great extent in Poland, principally lor home consumption; but there is like- wise a considerable export trade, chiefiy to New- castle, where a large quantity is annually used, the quality being generally very fair: — present ship- ping price, 20s. to 22s. per quarter. Buckwheat, or brank, is grown to some extent ill East Friesland, Denmark, &c. and was formerly much esteemed here for distilling purposes; but barley has latterly been so extremely low in' price, that the distillers have preferred purchasing this grain on the spot, to incurring the risk of a voyage in importing buckioheat. This grain may now'be purchased at Hamburg at 16s. 6d. to 20s. per quar- ter. Tares are shipped in quantities from the Danish islands, where they can he produced at a very rea- sonable rale, say 15s. to 17s. per quarter. The finest heavy Poland and potato oats are grown in East Friesland m\A. Holland. What are termed the '■^ Dutch Brew,'''' oats seldom weigh less than 41 lbs. to 42 lbs. per bushel, and often much heavier. The Archangel oats are of quite a dif- ferent description, being extremely thin skinned, sharp, long, and of a bright yellow color. Post and coach masters are very partial to this corn, as it has little husk. Rtga and Petersburg oats are somewhat similar, but they do not generally weigh so heavy as the Archangel, neither are they so bright. The cause of this brilliant yellow color, is the intense heat of the weather dunng harvest. In France is grown a peculiar grey-colored oat; but generally much corn is not exported from that country, as they consume their own growth. Oc- casionally, hovv^ever, great quantities have been sent over, for I never yet knew foreigners refuse to ship corn to this countr>^, if they could only obtain a good price for it. They will live on husks or any thing, and part with nearly all their grain; but only for a consideration. John Bull, on the con- trary, will have a belly full of the good things of this life; at any rate he goes upon short allowance with a verjr bad grace. The manufitcture of oil cakes is carried on to a great extent in Germany, Flanders, France, and Holland, from whence the English graziers and farmers are principally supplied; indeed, occasion- ally, the English crushers import foreign cakes, and re-^ress them through their own mills, extract- FARMERS' REGISTER— REFLECTIONS ON FARMING. 17? ing a oOhsideral)!c portion of oil tlierefrom;' and then thoj^ Ibrin them into a "town made shape," and sell "them as "home manutlicturcdj" which, in point of liict, they really are. . • To couch ale tliis outline of -ihe manner in which corn is produced abroad and shijjped to this coun- try^-it remains only to remark, that all the principal shippers of corn in the Bai-tic are also ship owners; consequently they keep their vessels employed in trarrs[)orting grain, seeds, or oil cakes,, which they do at a more moderate li'eight thaa an English captain will engage for. But so much more es- teemed are an Enirli.sh master and his vessel, that frequently more height is paid.theui by the mer- chant here in ])rflerence to shipping in a Ibreign bottoui. ThcEntjlishman Avill h'Cfiuehtly make the voyage ui half the time that a tijreigner can, and sometimes even arrive before, or as soon, as- the bill of ladingj and thus save tire expense of insurance, which, from the distant ports, is fre- quently very heavy. If I made a choice, I should always prefer Scotch captains; they are generally shrewd, pushing fellows, and I need not say how much dependence may not be placed on an active, honest, and" clever master of a vessel to go a long voyage to a distant port, where the purchaser of a carg-o is at the mercy of a man many miles dis- tant, who, as he takes care to get paid for the corn, before it arrives, is not always very particu- lar as to its. quality. * * * * I believe 1 have now touched on all the topics likely to interest the general reader, but before concluding, I will take the opportunity of redeem- ing from disgrace a most useful part of the com- munity, I mean "the speculators hi foreign corn,'''' who are too frequently held up to public odium. In Sweden, Prussia, Spain, Denmark, ^c. maga- zines or storehouseti of grain are obliged to be erected in different places, in order to guard aii:ainst bad seasons. In Spain alone, there, are upwards of 5000 of those depositories (denomi- nated ";5osi7as.") Every occupier of land is obliged to bring a certain quantity of corn, propor- tionate to the extent of his fai'm; the following year he takes back the corn he has thus dejXisited; and replenishes the empty garner Avith a. larger quantity, and thus he continues annually to in- crease the stock by these contributions, called "cresws," till a certain measure of grain is deposit- ed; then every one receives back the whole corn which he has furnished, and replaces it by an equal quantity of new corn. Whenever a scarci- ty lia])pcns, these repositories are opened, and the corn dealt out to the people at a moderate price of popular hatred, when, in fact, the}' are amongst the most serviceable members of the community; but for their operations, the people must either in- cur the chances of famine, or the clumsy machine- ry of- government be resorted to. In ofiering these remarks, I do it solely from a sense of justice, as I iiiyself do not belong to this class of individuals. THE FIRE-SIDE REFLECTIONS OF A BUCKING- HAM FARMER, ON AGRICULTURE* From the Virginia Farmer. Our ancestors came to this country to acquire good lands and realize independent fortunes — to obtain .the first object was .easy, but the attain- ment of the second, required activity and labor. Extensive and unreclaimed forests, a virgin soil of great ferlility and a congenial climate, admon- ished our fbreiathers, that the cultivation of tobac- co would be profitable. Land being abundant and cheap, it was not to be expected, that an en- lightened system- of -agriculture would prevail, and but little effort was made to improve or preserve the fertility of the soil. To clear the forests, make tobacco, so long.as the land would produce the ar- ticle, then plant corn, plough it up hill and down, and in a fevv years convert the field into a common, was, ins-hor-t, the practice of our ancestoi-s. When land could, as then, be purchased for a trifle, they perhaps did not act very unwisel)''. Men of intel- ligence and wealth entrusted the management of their estates to overseers, and those in middle life, instead of superintending their own farms, obeyed the dictates of vanity and they too employed over- seers. Thus to a great extent, the land and labor of the country, were under the control and super- vision of a class, (I do not mean all, as there are honorable exceptions) who were then, and are now, as ignorant and self-conceited, as they are avaricious and obstinate. Each succeeding gene- ration, unmindful of the fact, that population was increasing and tliat land would necessarily appre- ciate in value, reverencing the habits and usages of the previous one, pertinaciously adhering to the same system, and deriving no instruction from the improvements of other countries or the sad expe- rience of past times, has persisted in this plan of exterminating the forest and devastating one of the fairest portions of the civilized world. Now that our farms scathed with gullies and studded with pine thickets, and presenting other indicationg of poverty, our citizens becoming dissatisfied with the state, because they cannot go on to make to- bacco, corn, and wheat as heretofore — are lasting In some places, seed corn is distributed to ne- 1 evidences of the impropriety of our management cessitous husbandmen, who are bound to restore — the almost entire change'ln the aspect of our ;is much in lieu of it the next harvest. The institu- tion of such a system as this, is no' doubt highly necessary in a countiy .only in an imperf^ict stg,te ol ci\-ilization; but that whicdi requires the au- thority of government to accomplish abroati^, is in England brought about by less questionable means. The commercial and enterprising genius and spirit of our countiymen, induce them to en- ter into speculative purchases, and risk the invest- ment of their capital in grain at one period, with a chance of reaping a profiit during the deficient season that may succeed, and thus the supplies of a good season and a bad one, are in a great mea- sure equalized to the consumers. In the ruder land and situation, in connexion with the great importance of an alteration in the mode of con- ducting our agricultural affairs, calls for mature ■reflection. The system, that at one time might have been profitable and called for by the situa- tion of the country, inasmuch as the land was mostly in woods and selling for a mere trifle, may be ruinous under a different state of circumstances. Whether our situation in an agricidtural point of view, and the objects to which our attention should be called, are not materially diflerent fi-om what they might justly be considered some time back, I shall leave to others more fully to discuss, but that this is a critical and important crisis to the states of society speculators in corn are the objecxs ' planters and fiirmevs generally, "and those whose Vol. II.— 16 17s FARMERS' REGISTER— REFLECTIONS ON FARMING, interests are intimately connected with and must participate in their good or bad condition, is so ap- parent, that I tliink lew will be disposed to ques- tion the assertion, much less to attempt its relli- tation. The present depressed condition of the state is attributed to a variety of causes, by ditferent per- sons. One will chai'gc it to the taritl^ — one to the banks — another to the want of roads and canals — a fourth to tubacco-tnakuin: — and a fifth to slavery — but very few will own, (I know none that have) that they are or have been, amongst the many causes, or even connected therewith. It is almost always ascribed to something, or some one else. That all these causes have had m-ore or less ef- fect, I shall not attempt to disprove, but as it is more easy generally to give a theory than to prove one to be incorrect, I shall content myself by stat- ing my views on the subject, which are as follows: Is it not much more reasonable to attribute by far the greater part of our grievances and misfortunes, to our own bad management in reference to agri- cultural matters, and to the fact that men of talents and wealth are, and have been, too much disposed to exchange the simplicity and ^^otiimi cimi digni- tate''' of the farmer, for the intrigues of office and tlie allurements of political distinction; as well as to the custom of estimating their wealth more by the quantity of land and number of slaves, than by the fertility of the one, or the profitable employ- ment of the other? We all know that tlie lower class in society, ape the higher — let the latter be negligent, luxurious, and reckless — givmg to a third or fourth jierson to do, what they should per- sonally attend to — manifest an aversion to engage actively in agricultural pursuits — leave their farms and domestic concerns, in the hands of ignortmt agents, with every inducement to conduct busi- ness entirely with a view to present profit, regard- less of future consequences — and it woidd require no great length of time for the same spirit to per- vade society generally — and the consequence would be, that the same state of things would be induced, as we have at present. But suppose a difierent course to be pursued by the better in- formed and more Avealthy people, and that they had not suffered themselves to be idle spectators, on the one hand, or aspiring politicians on the other. (I mean in the general) — and, that they had acted the part of good stewards over the com- monwealth, and have taken as much interest in teaching by example in the field and with the plough share, as on the floor of legislation. Would it be an overstrained deduction, to infer in that case, that the condition of the state, would be the very reverse of Avhat it is at this time — probably with a high degree of agricultural im- provement, we would have been enabled to have retained our population, increased our wealth and standing in the union, and by our thrifty condition* attracting talents from one quarter, and wealth from another, Virginia might have been spared the reflection, much more the morhfication of being jeered about her declension from the high stand she once occupied in this repubfic. Of one fact there can be but litde doubt, that with all the ad- vantages in the world we need never calculate on succeeding well, without good management, eco- -nomy, and personal attention to business, and this is equally as true when applied to farming, as to ©ther concerns of life— but with these latter re- quisites in conjunctjon wi:th our other advantages, we can achieve wonders, and cwnbat successfully, a host of opposing elements, I know some farm- ers who go to tloe bank for money — siome who supply their famiJies in foreign goodst — others far removed from improved roads and canals — and other.5 who own many slaves and make tobacco — oJl hajve been and are i'mproving theii" estates, and accumulating wealth by jvadieious manage- ment and wise economy, as last as most prudent nferc need wish, notwithstanding all these draw- backs. In giving my views, however, I do not intend to assume, that the opinions of others are wrong, and my own only, true — it is enough for me to in- dulge in a little speculation, ending in the coavie- tion that whether the disease has been ascribed to the proper causes or not, that one fact is undoubt- edly true, that our country is far from being in a prosperous condition. With this conviction, I am not very solicitous to know the causes which pro- duced this decline — while the evil is apparent and demands a prompt and efficient remedy. Indi- viduals can, by a combination of efforts, applied to different pursuits, all more or less convergmg to one grand object, do much towards relieving the state from its difficulties. That system which, in adding to individual wealth and happiness, will equally promote national prosperity, without legis- lative interference, eminently deserves a thorough consideration — and the more especially when the fact is so notorious that the peo])le prefer a plain and cheap government, and one that will interfere as little as possible, in the control and regulation of their lo.bor. An observing eye, in glancing over the state, though it may see much to criticise and to deplore — yet must perceive, that in our agricultural ope- rations, a revolution has commenced and is pro- gressing, which if vigorously prosecuted for a few years, will materially improve its appearance. Taking this for granted, may we not expect, that with the aid of our talented men, a judicious de- velopement of our physical advantages, and a proper application of our domestic energies, we would be able yet to obtain that high degree of perfection, in an agricultural point of view to which our cUmate and soil entitle us. A great poet remarks, that " there is a tide in the affairs of men which when taken at the flood leads on to fortune,'' and now that the current is changing, it is much to be hoped that Virginians generally, would redouble their efforts, and by their conduct proclaim, that if the "Old Dominion does not over- come her embarrassments and stand first Eunong the foremost, that she shall go down with colors nailed to the mast." Let us only come to the de- termination, and by our acts evince our desire to carry on an agricultural reform. Let us, by hold- ing out inducements, endeavor to attract public at- tentioTi to the subject. Let the fiirmers, convince their sons, that honor and w^ealth can be as suc- cessfully obtained in agricultural pursuits, as in either of the learned professions. Let the farmers read and profit by the experience of other coun- tries and other times — let them have their clubs or societies and agricultural papers, and who would be so skeptical as not to be convinced with all these assurances, that our march would be on- ward? As I have indulged in the flattering assertion, FARMERS' REGISTER— REFLECTIONS ON FARMING. 179 that a change in our farming business, is taking place for the better, it may not be amiss to cite some of the evidences upon which I ground my be- liet^^ — several oJ" which 1 will now brietly mention. A farmer and planter in our vicinity who conducts business on a very large scale, is now setting us in the management of his farms, a uselljl and va- luable examj)le, and so ti^ir as he is concerned, it is highly profitable, while it gives full scope to an in- dustry and sagacity, of which but i'ew can boast. Strangers would be astonished at his rapid pro- gress annuall}-, in improving his farmsj by ma- nuring largely, clovering and plastering, in con- nexion with sk'ilful management, while at the same time, very large crops are made. He has given a practical illustration of the fact, that an extensive and judicious system of im- provem(^nt, is by no means incompatible with great annual profits; and that the expense and la- bor of improving is Amply repaid by the addition- al productiveness and increased value of the land. Another neighbor is devoting a portion of his time and capital to raising the most improved breeds of cows and sheep — and I dare say, that no one Avho has seen his stock can tliink them un- worthy of the attention either of the proprietor, or | of the public. The introduction of such animals | will be highly advantageous to our section of the state, as well as creditable to the liberality and en- terprise of the intelligent and worthy gentleman, under whose auspices they were introduced. A third gentleman has been for several years past, enjoying all the luxuries which a spacious garden, containing a very great number and variety of the most choice fruits and vegetables, selected from all quarters oi the union can afiord. It is true, his garden could not be compared either with a green-house establishment, exhibiting splendid trifles, and foreign plants of every latitude, tiintas- ticall)^ arranged to please the eye or regale the .senses, or with Prince's noted collection, but it is .<;uch an establishment as would be a valuable ap- pendage to any larm, indicating at the same time, the good sense and taste of the proprietor. Such persons as those above alluded to, combine the "utile et dulce," or to give it a farmer's version, they can work and talk too. They have done, and will do more towards advancing our perma- nent interests, than a small host of p&eudo-politi- cians; and the public countenance should make it manifest, that such evidences of good manage- ment and laudable enterprise, though they may not elicit songs of praise, yet that they are viewed with great satisfaction. I have heard many very gr)od planters say, they had rather improve apiece of tolerable land, than clear the same quantity even tor tobacco. Now this, a few years ago, would have been thought rather singular, but it peetlis we are now finding out, that it costs about the same labor to make good land first rate, that it does to prepare the like quantity for cultivation. Tliis I consider a great point gained. Our culti- vation is better than when I could first recollect — we have less surface Avork, less ploughing uj) and down hills — but we are deficient in many things yet— that is about the depth of turning lands — the propriety of breaking all lands deep — the advan- tages of coulters, and the best time and method of preparing lands for different crops — also, the most judicious method of making manure — whether it would not answer as well to use most articles as manures previous to their undergoing partial decomjiosition in the farm pens, and whether a top dressing, or the usual Avay of using manures, is most advantageous? The plan of hav- ing farms divided into from lour to five fields, and a more frequent rotation of crops, seems to be more generally pui-sued. A rotation of crops, I have no doubt, could be carried to a much gi-eater ex- tent, and with greater profit, than most persona are willing to believe. Many instances have been recorded, of fields being cultivated in various crops in quick succession, and of their rajndly improving. Our farmers would do welHo investigate this sub- ject. Probably almost as much depends on a quick and varied succession of crops, as on skilliil cultivation or manuring. To ascertain in our cli- mate and soil, Avhat crops succeed best after each other, is not unworthy of notice, as Ave have all seen more or less of its efTects, and it may not be unreasonable to suppose, that some crops would be to their successors almost as a coat of manure, by the superior condition in which they leave the ground for their propagation. The propriety of cultivating less land, and of having that good, is, I think, daily gaining ground, and in fact most of us appear for a long time, to have thought, that to make crops, a great deal of land must be culti- vated, even if it was rich, but if poor, then an enormous quantity. We seemed to have lost sight of our reason, and to look only at the land and the crop we Avished to get, without taldng into consideration the labor and the best plan of ap- plying that to produce Avhat we wanted. Most persons are Avilling to admit, that a s.nall crop well Avorked, is better than a large one half Avorked, or that one acre of rich land Aviil produce as much as two of common. Now Avould it not be best in good land to lessen the crop, and to spend a part of the labor which Avould be used in the cultiva- tion of tAvo acres of poor land, and make one rich, and then get the crop? Suppose, for example, you take fiekls instead of acres — say a farm AA'ith four fields, sub-divided into eight — say you improve one of these small fiekls every year; in eight years your farm Avould be rich — then you could go on to double and treble what you formeily made. It is true, in the commencement, these things Avill be on a small scale, but every year they are gaining, and this annual addition will increase so rapidly, that belbre many j-ears haA'e jiast by, a person's means of improving will comparatiA'cly speaking, be almost u'ithout limit. We all re- member a sum in arithmetic, about a smith's un- dertaking to shoe a liorse, Ibr the first nail, a cer- tain price Avas to be given, and for every other nail the price Avas to be doubled, and the prodi- gious sum it amounted to. Apply this to a judi- cious method of im]iro\-ement, and I dare say, it Avill not be very deceptive; if the result Avould not be so great, it Avould at least be most astonishing. The great barrier, AAdiich prevents most persons from readily giving into this jjlan, is their not haA- ing matters so arranged, as to bfi able, AA'ith tole- rable convenience, to make a commencement. This it is true, will at first require some additional labor, anil a little extra expense — but is it not most Avise at this particular juncture, in the manage- ment of our aflairs, to take a. prospective view and conduct them accordingly, and lay aside for a sea- son our great eagerness for present profits — the more especially as it is very (luestionable whether 180 FARMERS' REGISTER— REFLECTIONS ON FARMING. our ideas about present profits are not based more in imagination, originatino- Irom the distorted me- dimn tlirough which we view the improving sys- tem, tlian upon the faets which some formers are illustrating, or the logical deductions of distin- guished agriculturists? Would not some of our farmers, who have many laborers, and a large quantity of poor land, do better to subtract a part of the Ibrmer from their usual plantation employ- ments, and have them engaged in improving their farms? That some capita;! at all times can be pro- fitably employed in improving, but few will dispute, and Ave all know that a^ great deal of labor is year- ly expended without any thing like an adequate profit, on account of our lands being poor — and it is equally well known, tliat labor is as cheap here, if not cheaper, than in most of the states — and it is also equally as plain, that if our lands were rich and productive, that this state would be the first choice of most persons, much less Virginians — and that our lands Vv^ould sell as high as any in the union. Now with all these facts before us, does it not appear as clear as midday, that this is the most suitable time to alter our operations — and that im- provements can be made here at as little cost, and with as much expectation of profit, as any where in the union? Is it not as praiseworthy and as profitable to convert barren wastes into verdant fields, as to fell the loity forest, and to expose its virgin soil to rude cultivation for a lew yeare^ then to neglect, and finally to ruin? That man is considered more deserving who makes a fortune. than he who squanders one — if this is true in money matters, it is much more so when applied to agriculture. A man who enriches sterile fields, and causes them to yield abundant crops, in doing so adds materially to the general stock of wealth, more, in my opinion, than one who hoards up money — but the one who ruins a piece of land, does a public injury, and is much more to be re- prehended, than the spendthritl; who spends his fortune — because in the latter case, the money only changes hands, whereas in the former, the soil passes away, and no one is benefited by the change. Agriculture can be made to flourish either by di- rectly aiding and patronizing it — (and as a conse- quence, manufactures, commerce, &c. would fol- low in its wake) or indirectly by making internal communications, building up cities and manufiic- turing establishments. But does it not appear most reasonable to have the matenals in posses- sion, or in other words to have produced the crops before we determine whether they shall be sent to market on such and such rail road or canal — or go to subsist this or that manufacturing community or commercial city? The other has the semblance at least of accomplishing the thing backwards, and this is plain, because agriculture is usually considered the great ])ivot upon which commerce and manufactures turn, and without it, they could not exist but to a very limited extent, inasmuch as their other resources are only secondary — there- fore it being the most important, ought to be the first subject to call our attention. But circum- stanced as we are, it may be best all things con- sidered, to eflect the object by combining the in- direct with the direct means — in that event, we could certainly calculate on accomplishing our viewp, and that too, in the shortest period. It can be aided directly, by getting uj) societies for that purpose, and this 1 think would be a very efficient mode, and the more particularly as it is the order of the day to do most things either by societies or conventions. It could be aided most powerfully by our intelligent and wealthy men — let them study the subject, as it is- practised to the north, and in Europe, and by skijflil men of this state — let them make experiments, introduce the diflerent improvements in utensils, cultivation, seed, stock, &c., and last, though not least, let tliem inforn> the public of the resuhs of experiments — of the various articles introduced into the state — and of all of the new lights which time, practice, and in- formation, under the guidance of strong heads and penetrating judgements may develope. A plaster inspection has been essaj"ed by our legislature, but unfortunately did not succeed. If the legislature could be convinced of the amount the fiirmers lose on that account, and of the great necessity of doing every thing in its power to ibs- ter a spint of improv^ement, as we\l as of availing itself of every opportunity of strengthening public confidence both m the means used ajid the end thereby to be obtained — it could hardly be doubted but that inspections would be provided. Any of our practical and intelligent gentlemen would con- fer a favor on no inconsiderable portion of the farming commimity, by taking up the subject, stating its efi'ect and importance, and urging the, legislature to give it a more mature consideration.*- In concluding these reflections, allow me to say, that I have not the vanity to believe, that they will have much, if any effect, upon the minds of others. Great would be my gratification, if any thing I have said should induce older and abler men, to attempt the reformation of those abuses in our system of agriculture, which talent, energy, and perseverance combined, will infallibly accom- plish. Let our intelligent and distinguished citi- zens light the torch and lead the way, and who will doubt the issue — who will doubt but that the substantial yeomanry of our state will follow? Let them by precept and example, give a tone to pub- lic opuiion, awaken the attention and call into ex- ercise the dormant powers of a people Avho pos- sess the elements requisite to constitute a prospe- rous and powerful commonwealth. .Let them en- deavor to rescue an agricultural lite from the odium which tavern politicians and "small-beer" lawyers have long been casting upon it, and convince young Virginians, that agricultural pursuits are conducive to health and virtue, and are not irre- concilable Avith expansion of mind, liberality of sentiment, or devoted patriotism. December lOiJi, 1834. *We differ with most persons as to the policy and ef- fects of legal inspections in general — and have addi- tional objections to the particular inspection recom- mended above. Unless the inspector possessed and exercised some chemical knowledge, (whicn could not be expected, from the usual manner of filling such ap- pointments, and the rate of payment for the service,) his decisions as to the purity of gypsum, would be of very htlle worth. — Ed. Farm. Erg. FARMERS REGISTER— COMiMERCIAL REPORT. 181 MONTHLY COMMERCIAL UKPORT. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. The month of July has been to the farmers a fortunate one — a favorable 'harvest was succeeded by peculiar circumstances, which enables those farmers wlio liave facilities in getting their wlieat to market early, to obtain higher ]3rices than they anticipated. The first contracts made were at ^1 15 per bushel, but a spirit of competition was excited among the millers, and particularly those whose new establishments are on a.n encrrmous scale, which withdut any circumstances to warrant it, caused the "price to be run up to $1 25 and even $1 30. Tile llirmers wisely availed themselves of this excitement wliich continued but lor a few days, and during that short jjeriod most of the crops on or near James River and its tributaiy streams Avere sold, or rather contracted ior, deliverable at early periods. It is estimated that the extent of these operations exceeded hull'a million of bushels. But so soon as the millers tired of playing this losing game on each other, the price declined to $1 10 tor red, and ^1 15 for white wheat, which rates are now current. It is to be desired that this enterprising spirit" may not result in loss to the millers, so that it may be cherished hereafter. Some cargoes of new wheat which arrived at New York, were sold there at §1 16 while §1 25 was paid in Richmond. The capacity of the mills in Richmond, and its immediate vicinity, is adequate to the m;uiufac- turing of about 500,000 ban-els of flour per annum, if it were practicable to keep them supplied with grain. The best markets for their tiour are in South America, but only a moderate portion of so large a quantity can be required in those markets. As the season advances the j^rice of Avlieat will probably declinej unle-ss some European demand shall arise. With the progress of the Inspections the impres- sion that the tobacco crop will prove deficient, con- tinues to gain ground, and the prices of such quali- ties as are suitable for shipment are well' sustained. The loAvest grade sells at ^3 7b to ^4 per 100 lbs. — good, fine and choice descriptions at .^8 to 12, 13 and 14. Foreign capitalists are believed to be larwly iitterested in purchases of this article, as well as of cotton during the present year. They may thus exercise a controlling influence on the {)rices abroad, so long as the suppl}' does not great- y exceed the demand — but when the article has passed out of their hands, their efibrts will be di- rected to reduce its value, that they may renew their speculations, which have thus lar this year been successful. The- cotton manufacturers in England and France have done a larger and more profitable bu- siness this year than heretofore, and while supplies from tliis country have increased, those from other sources are smaller than usual — prices have there- fore been well supjioried. peatedly called for many years, has at length been enacted. The pound sterling of Great Britain has been and is culled par at ^4 44. The gold sovereign of one |)ound sterling, was by our Ibrmer standard worth .^4 57; by the new regulation it is worth .^4 84.6. This chano^e wiU have the effect of in- creasing the value of oills on Englimd, because if a bill for £ 1000 sterling could be purchased here for .^4444, or even for i$4500, an importation of 1000 sovereigns nught be therewith made, which would be worth here ^4846, and leave a good pro- fit after paying interest, brokerage, and insurance. The importation of silver into this countrj^ will doubtless be diminished, and the exportation of gold will cease under existing circumstances. It is presumable that the pressure for money which has prevailed for some months, Avill soon be partially, and perhaps extensively relieved, as it ia announced that the United States Bank intends to increase its loans, and the State Banks will be en- abled to follow the example. The duration of thia rdief must however, be very doubtfiil, and pru- dence will dictate that it be not relied upon to any great or durable extent. The present current rate of exchange on Eng- i land is 103^ to 104. Virginia Bank stock 102^ to 103. Farmers' Bank stock 100 to 100^. The late loan to the state of S 100,000, was taken at 103^ for 5 per cent stock, by a foreign house. X. July 25,. 183i. COMPAUATIVE MORTALITY. A curious official paper has been circulated, by order of the House of Commons, showing the comparative mortality in many large towns, &c., of the kingdom, from 1813 up to the present year.. Among the towns included in this comparative calculation of mortality are, Leeds (town,) Brad- ford, Holbeck, Beeston, Wigan, Preston, Norwich, Bolton-le-jNloors, London, Bur}^, (Lancashire,) Essex, &c. The result of the investigation of mortality may be concisely stated as follows: — Of children born there die, in Leeds, 53 per cent, un- der 5 j^ears of age, and 62 per cent, under 20 years of age; in Bradford, 47 per cent, under 5, and 59 per cent, under 20 years of age; in Beeston, 39 per cent, imder 5, and 52 per cent under 20 years of age; in Holbeck, 50 per cent, under 5, and 62 per cent, under 20 years of age; in Norwich, 42 per cent, under 5, and 50 per cent, under 20 years of age; in Bolton, 49 per cent, under 5, and 61 per cent, under 20 years of age; in Wigan, 48 per cent, under 5, and 59 per cent under 20 years of age; in London, 38 per cent, under 5, and 46 per cent, under 20 years of age; in Rutland, 29 per cent, under 5, and 37^ per cent, under 20 years of age, &c. It iurtiier appears, that in Essex, Rutland, and the metropolis, persons live to an advanced age in a greater extent than others. — Morn. Herald. The manufacturing es- tablishmerits in Virginia have, on the contrary, been very unprofitable this year, and those in the preservation of fruit trees from hares. northern states have suffered under the same in- According to M. Bus, young fTuit-trees may be fluence. The business in cotton may be consider- preserved from the bites of hares, by rubbing them ed closed tor the season. The last "sales were at j with fat, and especitdly hog's lard. Apple and 12^ to 13| cents. The prospects for this and all pear trees thus protected, gave no signs of the at- other growing crops are reported to be favorable. A change in the relative value of gold and sil- tacks of these animals, though their footmarks were abundant on the snow around them.. — Bul- ver to which the attention of congress'had been re- i M- Univers 182 FARMERS' REGISTER— PRAIRIES OF ALABAMA. ON THE PRAIRIES OP ALABA3IA. By W. W. M'GuiRE. (In a letter to the Editor.) From Silliman's Jgurnal of Sciciices. From the period of the first settlement of this state to the present tiipe, the prairies have been objects of great curiosity and have attracted much attention; still, although the field lor scientific investigation is so rich and interestmg, no one has, to my knowledge, attempted a minute examination of it. The striking peculiarities of the soil, of ge- ological configuration, and organic productions, especially in shells and other marine substance, which are found scattered indiscriminately over the prairies, are well ada])ted to attract attention, and to excite investigation respecting the period and pauses of the Ibrmation of the prairies and their ibssiis. Slany who have never conceived ol" the possibility of any great change of the surliice of the earth, except that produced by the deluge re- corded in the pentateuch, attribute to that event, the present position of these shells. Others, taking a still narrov/er view, believe them to have been removed by the agency of men from their native beds to the place where they are now found. My own observations, ahhough hmited, have eatisfied me that the prairies once consituted the boundary of the Atlantic Ocean. In support of this opinion there are still existing many satis- factory proofs, although nges must have elapsed since those changes took place; strong evidence also exists that this great change has been afl'ected by the elevating power ot earthquakes, volca- noes and subterranean heat. The face of the country, from the mountains to the prairies, is rough and uneven, presenting an outline diifering from all other hilly or broken countries which 1 have ever seen. It abounds in iron pyrites and pebbi'.'s. Beds of good iron ore, of anthracite and bituminous coal, and of limestone and sand- stone, are found in several places. The country lying between the prairies and the sea coast is generally, if not altogether^ of the same character as that on the coast Irom the Potonjac to St. IMary's, viz: level sandy plains, some fertile, some sterile, either dry or swampy, and covered with pine, oak, cypress, cane, &c; but it generallyj perhaps universall}'', shows the dis- tinctive peculiarities of the above named coast. The changes in all places are sudden and abrupt, changing from the peculiar soil and character of the prairies, to that of the coast, which is sterile, jn some places almost pure silica; or of alluvial formation along the rivers, swamps and marshes, differing in fertility, according to the portions in which silica and vegetable matter are mixed in their composition. Tliio tract of country is from one hundred to one hundred and thuly miles wide, perhaps more. In speaking of the prairies, the rock formation claims particular attention. It is uniformly found below the prairie soil, at various depths, ranging from ten to fifteen feet, and it sometimes projects above the ground. This rock is generally kno^vn by the name of rotten limestone; when removed lor several feet on the top, and exposed to the ac- tion of the atmosphere for some time, it assumes a beautiful white color. In its soft state it is easi- ly quarried, and blocks of almost any dimensions can be procured. li has been dressed by planes pM other instruments, and used in building chim- nies, some of which have stood twelve or fifteen years without injury or decay. A sunnner's sea- soning is requisite to fit it for building. This rock has been penetrated by boring to depths varying fi'om one hundred to five hundred and fiflty leet; after the first six or seven feet, it is of a blueish or gray color, but still soft, except in a few instances, where flint strata of a foot thick or more have been met with. On perforating the rock, a fidl supply of good water is always obtained, which unilorndy flows over the top, I have heard of no constant running stream of water over this rock, except one in Pickens county, near the lower fine. The superincumbent earth is for a few i'eet composed principally of stiff clay, of whitish color; then comes the mould or soil, wliich is very black — in wet weather it is extremely miry and stiffj and in dry, very hard and compact, Shells, such as the oyster, muscle, periwinkle, and some other kinds, are found in great quanti- ties throughout almost all the prairies of Alabamj^ and Mississippi; the first named being the most numerous, mixed in every proportion with thr© others. The oyster shells are perfectly similar to those now obtained from the ojster banks on the shores of the Atlantic. The largest beds of shells in the open prairies seem to occupy rather elevated but not the highest places. They have probably been removed from the more elevated situations by torrents of rain. It may be that the lowest places never contained any shells; or if they did, as vegetable matter accumulates in greater quan- tities in low situations, they may have been thus covered. In some instances I believe they have been found in such places, several feet below the surface. They are not found in very large quanti- ties in the timbered prairies; and indeed, so far as I have observed, wherever the shells are numerous, vegetation is not so luxuriant as where there is a proper admixture of tiie decomposed or composing shells and vegetable matter. These shells and other decomposing materials appear to have given a peculiar character to the prairie soil, which causes it to adhere so strongly to the legs of horses and to the wheels of car- riages as to remain several daj's in travelling, un- less washed or beaten off'. Yet, when well broken uj), at the proper season, and regularly ])loughed, it remains quite mellow, producing corn and cotton equalto the best allu\"ial bottoms, with, so far as it has been tried, increased fertility; although from the compact nature of the rock beneath, and the tenacity with which it retains moisture, crops are injured sometimes by rains, but seldom by drought. There being no opening or fissures, except a- bo\'e the rock, by which to convey the water di- rectly to the channel of creeks and rivers, there are consequently no reservoirs to contain supplies lor fountains and springs. In the winter and sjjring seasons the streams overflow and the land is literal- ly submerged. In the summer and autumn neither springs or wells are to be found, except below tlie rock; yet notwithstanding this scarcity of water, there is seldom a lack of moisture for the purpose of vegetation. And at times when the drought is such as to produce fissures two or three inches wide and as many feet deep, the earth will be found quite moist at the depth of two or threp inches. As an evidence of the general moisture of the FARMERS' REGISTER— PRAIRIES OF ALABAMA. 183 prairie soil, below the surface, it may be remarked, that crawfishes are so very numerous in some sit- uations as to j)rove very destructive to young corn, cotton, and other tender [)lants. Alter nightfall they issue Irom their holes or dens and comnuMice their devastations. Their holes are of consider- able depth, supposed to reach to the rock Ibrma- tion, a distance of from ten to fifteen tl^et; and on the surface ofthe ground regular and well built mud walls, five or six inches high are erected. The crawfish is of the crustaceous class, perhaps dif- fering but slightly except in size, from the sea lob- ster. Their nocturnal perigrinations show that they difier at least in their habits, from the com- mon crawfish found in our brooks. Much of the soil is sterile, presenting low hills on which there is no timber; in other places, a small and stinted growth, such as black-jack and post oak. In some places there are considerable hills, having a thin stratum of excellent vegetable mould, covered Avith timber indicating a good soil; but from the close texture of" the substratum, it is liable to be washed away, which has been the case in Washington and Clarke counties. In those counties, I am inlbrraed the rock projects more than in any other part of the prairies, and there are clifls fitleen or twenty feet high. There are open prairies of everj^ size from one hundred to one thousand or twelve hundred acres mixed and interspersed in every form and mode with timbered land of all kinds; some producing only black-jack and post oak, not exceeding fifteen or twenty I'eet in height; others again covered with the most majestic oak, poplar, elm, hickory, wal- nut, pacaun, hackberry, grapevine and cane, equal in size and beauty, I understand to similar kinds in the Mississippi alluvions. The extent of this country may not be unimpor- tant. I am informed that traces of prairie soil may be seen in Georgia, perhaps as far east as JMil- ledgeville. It is indeed said to exist in North Car- olina; but of this I have not evidence such as to warrant the assertion. That it stretches nearly five hundred miles eastward from the vicinity of the Mississippi on the west almost to Milledgeville, there is no doubt; and if it extends, as is said to be the fact, to North Carolina, it reaches lour hundred or five hundred miles farther, being perhaps nine hundred or one thousand miles long, and from forty to sixty in breadth. That the prairies were once the boundary of the Atlantic is evident. 1. From the fact, that on both sides, they exhibit the indented and irregular appearance of a coast, vmifbrmly stretching up the large w^ater courses; and in general, theeandy low country stretches in a corresponding degree up the rivers into the prairies; but except it is more or less alluvial, is unlike the prairies. 2. They are near- ly or quite parallel to the present shore. 3. The great quantity of sea shells, found scattered on so large a tract of country, very little of which is within one hundred miles of the sea coast, support the opinion now advanced. The idea of their hav- ing been carried thither by action of winds or tides, is precluded by the fact, that in that case, they must have been raised three or four hundred feet, and I presume in no place less than one hundred above the level of the Gulf of Mexico. That the change was the effect of earthquakes, is evident from the appearance of the Mississippi. The "father of rivers" bears strong marks, that long before the earthquakes of 1811 '12, its course had been altered by some more powerful convul- sion of nature; for its mighty current runs strongly against the seven blufls below its junction withVhe Ohio, (except at St. Francisville,) seeming still to contend lor its ancient channel. The prairies them- seh-es aflbrd strong proof of this position; for, in numy places, they present the appearance of hav- ing been lifted up, and they are, in fact, consider- ably higher than the surrounding country. Much of the country of which I am speaking, besides the prairies, has that peculiar undulating appear- ance which corresi)onds with tlie expansive heav- ings' of eartlKjuakes. To this theory an objection, at least, may be raised. Why is it that aquatic remains are not found between the prairies and the ocean? It may be replied that the marine exu^via; in the low coun- try have long since been decomposed, while the shells in the prairies have remained in some in- stances, entire, for the want of suitable agents to act upon them; indeed, the prairies themselves illustrate this observation, for in all places where vegetable matter in considerable quantities has been brought to act, tlie shells are rapidly decom- posing or have nearly passed through this process, and the vegetables have in consequence obtained a luxuriant growth. While on the other hand, in situations where shells are found in nearly their original state, it is readily perceived that tlie mass of actually decomposing materials, (except a par- tial influence of air and water,) is in small propor- tion to the whole accumulation. The prairies present a more lovely and fascina- ting prospect in the spring and summer, than the liveliest imagination can [)icture. They are then clothed in the richest livery of those seasons — "Plains immense, and interminable meads. Lie stretch 'd before — where the wandering eye, Unfix'd IS in verdant ocean lost, Another flora there, of bolder hues, And richer sweets, beyond our gardens pride. Plays o'er the fields, and showers with sudden hand, Exuberant spring." Herds of cattle and flocks of sheep, are seen in the distance, cropping the fresh grass, or wander- ing at pleasure over the flowery region. Yet the absence of large trees, is amply repaid, by the rich garniture of grass, flowers and shrubbery. The odors of the wild rose, hawthorn, &c. load the summer's breeze with the most delicious perfumes. During the hottest and most sultry weather, when in other places, every thing is drooping and with- ering from excessive heat, a cool breeze is "ever on the wing." This is owing to the elevation of the prairies and the absence of timber. During my last visit to the prairies, I found a substance existing in considerable quantities, re- sembling the coral, or some of the zoophytic fami- lies. It is nearly as hard as flint rock. I collected several specimens, but have lost them. Some months back, I saw in the possession of a gentle- man, several very interesting prairie specimens. They were said to be Shark's teeth, from an inch to an inch and a half in length, slender and very sharp. Among them are also species of the ver- tebrie of fishes. They were procured in a section of the prairies which I have never visited; which abounding in specimens of the kind just mention- ed, is the most interesting portion of'^this singular country. 184 FARMERS' REGISTER— SPECULATIONS ON RAIL ROADS. It is a well established fact, that the earth and sea have undergone frequent and violent revolu- tions; and. that the cliange that lell the i)rairies dry is the most, recent, is-evTdent from the perfect state which shells, &c. are now found and from the fact that vegetation in many places, has made but slow progress. The nature of the soil indicates some ingredient adverse to many kinds of jjlants. But it is evidently fast changing, and it is not un- likely, that in the course of time, it will entirely lose its distinctive character and become perlectly amalgamated with vegetable matter. The pro- cess of decomposition and reproduction is raj)idly going on m most places, and at every successive cro]rof plants, more matter is added, for the final acconiplishmem of the great change. It would be an interesting subject oflnquiry whether the wood- lands are not gradually encroaching upon naked places; and if so, it would show at once that the prairies are by natural operations, slowly losing their pec4.iliai-Itie.s. Postscript. — A gentleman of Clarke County, Alabama, states, that on his plantation are parts of the back bone of some animal from eiglit to ten inches long, and proportionally large in circumfer- ence— some still held together by the cartilaginous ligatures. Many of the early settlers Used them instead of andirons. There is no canal for the spmal marrow.* An early settler informed him, that he had seen an entire skeleton, on the surface of the earth; it was of enormous dimensions, long- er as is reported, than the largest whale. SPECULATIONS ON RAIL ROADS. From the American Rail RoadJoumal. Has it never occurred to you that the capital vested in many rail roads and canals, is likely, if not exceedingly profitable at the commencement, to be eventually lost, li-om the roads and canals being superseded by others which may be made afterwards? The great and ultimate object of these improvements, is to facilitate exchanges — to cheapen and expedite transportation to and from market— as, between the great coal region, or be-, tween the great agricultural west and the best paarket, whether Philadelphia, . New York, or Boston. Now, if it be assumed, that transporta- tion by rail roads, or by some better roads, steam being the impeUing power, shall supersede, where practicable, ail other modes of locomotion, — and I do not suspect myself of being alone in the ^opinion that there is no extravagance in such an assump- tion, particularly when we notice the progress of thuigs in Europe — it is no iiiore than reasonable to begin to contemplate, and try to forsee and a.ct upon the natural and inevitable results which must follow, and to lay them before the public, that they may be fairly in view, and have proper considera- tion in the mind of every man, or company, when coming to a determination in regard to any pro- posed improvement, both as respects ita location and the manner in which it shall be comjjleted, or the amount of capital \vhich m;iy be safely in- vested in it. The climate and productions of Europe and North. America are so nearly ahke, that as tlie state of science and the arts in these quarters of the world continues to come nearer to an equality, it is fair to conclude that the exchanges of mer- chandize will hardly keep pace with the increasing, population of America. Still, as the condition of men is improving, and society and nations are becoming more mlimate and Iriendly in their rela- tions, and curious in their inquiries, we may sup-- pose that travel lor gratification will greatly in- crease between the two — this is proved by the number and constant increase of fine ships as packets; and it tiiirly indicates,. in connection with the extent. to which steamboats are coming into use, and tholong voyages which they occasionally make, that the time is not distant when tlie packet ships will be propelled by steam. No rail road can be laid across the Atlantic. It .will be an ob- ject to have each of the.two ports in Europe and America, ii'om whence most of these ships may be expected to depart for the other, situated con- veniently as it respects the interior parts of the country, and as near together as may be. The wearisomcness of a long sea voyage will render these considerations indispensable,, and may lead to some changes not now much thought ol. But to leave this part of the subject for a while, and dwell more particularly on our own United States. To attain the greatest rapidity of motiojn will always be an object of controlling importance, and therefore level regions will be greatly dcsyrable lor the location of the principal thoroughfares. The intercourse and exchanges between the north and the south, must increase vasdy beyond all pre- cedent, and probably beyond. all present anticipa- tion of the rnost enthusiastic, for as speed of trans- portation increases, and the cost is reduced, the productions of each of the various clima,tes will be vastly more, consumed in the other climates; and the assumption is, that transportation by land will gradually take the place of -water navigation, first, tor persons travelling, and tlien for merchandize, and particularly on account of its expedition, safety, and regularity. This consideration is made strong- er, fi-om the fact that much of the interior, and the finest portion of North America, and that which will soon be the most productive and most densely settled, and of course require the greatest exchanges of this quarter, is already as near by land to the most important productions of southern climates, as it is to our eastern commercial ports. It is not too early, . then, to begin the inquiry, where shall be our princij^al and leading roads ? tor it is plain that they. are not yet located, and that they cannot be determined on judiciously with- out the most grand and enlarged views, and the most extensive and accurate surveys. Without attempting to speak oi' details, which can of course be only determined by such surveys, it is pertinent, and may be profitable to notice, that the fonmation of the countiy, and- the condi- tion and wants of the citizens, present and future, clearly indicate that the road already commenced at Albany, must be continued without any regard to navigable Aviuers, on the best and most level ground westward, indefinitely. That another road from Nor!l)lk, or perhaps from Boston, inust pro- ceed soutliwardly over the level region, near the coast all tlie way, to some harbor where a town is yet to spring up near the south cape of East Florida, from whence there will be a busy steam- boat intercourse with Havana; that a branch of this road will proceed, say fi'om Savannah, to New Orleans, and thence into Texas, and onward. FARMERS^ REGISTER— BOAT BRIDGES FOR RML ROADS, &c. 185 onward. 'J'hat another priacipal road will be Jrom this new city on the Cape ot" Florida, into the great valley at" the Mississippi. This Strings me back to the thoughts which put me upon this essay, the errors likely to be made in the location of rail roads. I jjcrccive some are designed to communi- cate only between one inland water navigation and another. These may prosper long enough to refund their cost; but the day is not distant when they will have comparatively -little value. Finally, as jour journal is likely to be exten- sively jjreserved lor lliture reading and reference, and as I am an old man, and shall hardly trouble you many times more, I ask of you the I'urther tavor to record a lew prophecies. First, fresh water navigation,, including that of the Mississippi and all its tributaries, will be dis- continued, probaljly within twenty years. Secondly, New Orleans, and all cities in un- healthy situations, will greatly decline, and new cities and towns spring up in more healthlul and advantageous situations, and that the • queen of these will be somewhere at apohitnot yet thought of in the great valley. And thirdly, that either Boston or Halifax is destined to take the sceptre Irom the highly fiivor- ed city of theMsland.. And to conclude, again I would most respect- fially hint to the men of Boston (and for this I hope they will remember my children) two thhigs — first, to spare no pains, nor grudge any capital either in the location or construction of their west- ward and southward rail roads; and secondly, to turn their attention to European steam packets on a large scale.. I beg pardon: Boston folks need no hint from me on their own affairs. .' ' c. o. Deep Creek, Sept. 5, 1833. BOAT BRIDGES FOR RAIL ROAnS. From a Camden (S. C.) paper. Much apprehension is entertanied, as to the ditpculfy of passing the Santee or Waferee, for the want of a bridge. If the reader will refer to the Journal of the Franklin Institute for June, 1S32, he will see the matter scientifically discussed and illustrated. We add a letter from a traveller who speaks of it in a familiar manner. . Boat Bridges. Extract of a letter from a gentleman wlio has recentl}^ travelled in Gerniany . " The. boat bridges on the Rhine appeared to me, to be as capable of taking as gr€iat a load as the Columbia bridge.* The Diligences in that country, weigh, about 300.0 lbs. without a load, and carry Irom twenty to thirty passengers; and, on the top much merchandize, &C. . They could easily take all the cars I have ever seen on- the Charleston Rail Road, with all their loatl. " The Rhine at Cologne is very much such a river as the Santee. It overflovvs in the same way. At Cologne, high walls confine it. Just above Cologne, the mountains begin. At Mentz, the low grounds between the mountains on each side ot the river commence — and so it continues till you get to Basle in Switzerland. * For the information of strano-eis, it is well to ob- serve that this bridge is built on the shoals, and that it has a foundation of the very best kind. "These boat bridges are in various places, viz: Cologne, Bonne, Coblentz, Mentz, Worms, Spi- res, .Manlieim, Strasburg, &c. I have oiten thought such bridges, would ■ admirably suit our state. "Seven, eight or twelve boats are anchored in tlie stream, and the anchors are secured with piles of stone. The boat has a considerable (query chain) cable attached to the anchor, so as to rise and fall with the Mreshet. Uprights are framed upon these boats, and bridges thrown across them — each boat answering for a pier. A swinging platform is fixed on the shore — this is connected with the main bridge, by a lalling bridge, (a draw bridge,) lilted up by ropes fixed on the principle of the crane. In this ;way the crossing is made to accommodate the rises and falls of the river. Places are also made to lift up the draws or bridge, to let the vessels jjass up and down tlie "river." RO An MAKING. From tlin National Intclligpiieer. Replies to questions hy Mr. John Davis, dated 27th Nov. 1822, front. JIagerstown. Line of the road. — This branch belongs to the engineer, and no general directions can be given respecting it; ^. . ° ; Surface or bed of the road. — The bed of a road is the soil of the country, after being made smooth, and as level as circumstances, will admit. The great object of road making, is to preserve this bed Irom wet, which assails it both from be- low, and from above; the, under water is. to be kept off by sitle drains, that shall always keep the water of the soil some inches below the level of the bed, at every season of the year, and should the line be so level and low as that no sufficient fall can be got to bring I he water of the soil below the bed of tlie road, in such case, the bed must be raised above the. level of the water. This principle of preserving the bed or a road from lying in water, is founded on the reason that if a road be laid in water, the sub-soil is kept soft, and the road will surely be .pressed into it by heavy carriages — and in winter the frost affects that wet soil so as to lift up the whole mass — by which it is loosened, and on a thaw is broken to pieces.. These reasons have been ibund sufficient to induce the abandonment of the former practice of digging a trench, into 'which the road was placed, "^and which ensured the bed of the road being wet at al- most all seasons of the year. The wet from above is to be kept from the bed by the matei-'ials (or as we term it the metal) of the road, broken of stone, of angular form, skilfully and careiully.laid on, forming a body so compact as to be an eflectual cover or roof to prevent water from penetrating from above. Having secured the bed or natural soil of the country fi-om wet, it is of itself sufficiendy strong to cany any weight; there is, therefore, no ne- cessity tor the bottom or foundation, as it is called, of large stones, which, if they were not injurious, are objectionable, on account of the useless ex- pense; but this bottom is ])ositively injurious, inas- much as it is constantly shaken by heavy car- riages, which keeps the upper strafimi always loose and open to receive rain water. 186 FARMERS' REGISTER— BONE DUST AS MANURE. When the bed is duly, prepared and dry, the etonc (or as we call it the metal) is to be laid on, not all at once, but m layers of three inches thick, afler the first three inches are laid on, it is to be subjected to the tralBc, or if the road is not open to traffic, then to be rolled with the iron roller; when there is shower}^ weather: or it must be wetted by water thrown ujion it — for you will find that no stone will consolidate when perfectly dry. When the first coat of metal has in some de- gree settled and become consolidated, a second coat of three inches thick, is to be laid on and rolled as before, unless you have traffic — in which case great care must be taken to rake the road constantly with the iron rakes, filling the tracks made by every carriage so as not to be seen by that succeeding, until the road is quite consolidated, after which it will take no damage, nor fiiU into ruts from any shape or size of wheel, or weight of carriage. Much has been said and written upon the strength of roads — my experience leads me to the conclusion, that six inches thickness of well broken, well laid stone, is quite sufficient, provided the bed be 7nade and kept dry, I have of late years made no new road thicker; but have, on the second year, given it an addition of three inches, loosing a little the hard surface of the road, about an inch deep, to allow the new and old metals to join and unite in a compact body — going upon the principle that the natural soil is the real carrier, both of the road and the carriages, and that if it could be kept dry by any other means, the artificial road Avould be alto- gether unnecessary, and as six inches of metal is 0,s effectual a proof, or covering, as a larger quan- tity, there is no use in being at the expense of more. Materials for metal. — The graflations of quality jn this country, of stone for roads, are considered to be — -first, granite, — second, good flint, -^f/tirfZ, hard lime stone. In America, Avhere the summers are dry, and hot, I should prefer hard lime stone to flint— be- cause the latter is very apt to become loose in very dry weather; but whatever materials be used, it (should be broken very small; in recommending .six ounces as the proper size, I Avent as far as the then old prejudices would admit; but experience has convinced me, that half the size is more use- ful and more profitable to the country. When the stone is well broken and properly applied, there is no occasion for the covering of gravel or slate — and I object to it as prev^enting the consolidation of the stone by keeping the pieces apart, whereas they should unite by their own angles. The slope of a road should be as little as possible, to throw off the surface water; and I have found an inch in a yard, from the centre to the side, to be suffi- cient; if the surface be smooth and solid, no water can stand on such a slope — and the more you can allow carriages to stand upright, the easier they will run. The reason of recommending the laying on of ihe stone at diflerent times, and in layers, is, that if the whole quantity be laid on at once, the under- part never consolidates properly, but continues loose, and is apt to be shaken by heavy carriages, and thereby to loosen the upper part, so as to make the road receive rain water. Having resided fourteen years in America, I am aware of the severity of the frost, and of the | heavy and sudden summer shoAvers. These cir- cumstances make it more necessarj' to be very at- tentive to keeping diy the bed of your roads, as fi"ost will assuredly reach them eveiy winter; whereas, the frosts of this cliniate are not so vio- lent, and do not reach the bottom of our roads, perhaj's on an average of seven years. On hilly ground, great care should be taken to keep the side water ways clear and open, other- wise rain water will get in under the road, and seek its way between the metal and the bed down the slope, lor a great distance. In a country Uke America, where many new roads must necessarily be made, it is of the great- est consequence to fblloAv the most economical course, in order to make the funds appropriated to roads, produce the greatest sum of good to the public. The old system of digging trenches, and filling them again with stone, is to be avoided as a very useless waste of the funds, it being evident that the expense of this mischievous process is greater than making the same length of road on good principles. JOHN LOUDON MACADAM. BONE-DUST FOR CULTIVATION OF GRAIN. The exportation of bones from Germany to England constitutes a singular epoch in the annals of commerce. Myriads of tons have been already exported without glutting the market, or causing a cessation of the demand. In the vicinity of the North Sea, mills have been erected to pulverize them. This bone-powder, or bone-dust, waelong ago exclusively applied to the purposes of hot- houses by German horticulturists; but the English, emboldened by their riches, have extended its use to general objects of agriculture, and fertilize, by these expensive means, their cold, humid, and poorest land; and have thus brought the uplands of Nottinghamshire, the western parts of Holderness, &c., into the highest state of cultivation, both in point of extent and intenseness of fertility. There is, consequentl}'-, a proverb, "that one ton of Ger- man bone-dust saves the importationof ten tons of German corn." As Malta formerly covered her naked rocks with foreign soil, so does England now fertilize her clay and sandy heaths with Ger- man bones. Near the sea-coast even the church- yards are robbed of their venerable relics, which is only ironically excused by rendering the German bone trade pojiular. An agriculturist, being ren- dered attentive by this vast exportation, instituted privately some comparative experiments, the re- sults of Avhich prove that bone-dust acts in the cul» tivation of grain, as compared to the best stable manure, — 1. In respect to the quality of corn aa 7 to 5; — 2. In resjiect to quantity as 5 to 4; — 3. In respect to durability of the energy of soils as 3 to 2, It produces several collateral advantages; — 1, It destroys weeds; — 2. It diminishes the necessity of suffering the land to lie fallow; — 3, This con- centrated manure, or substitute for manure, is more easy of conveyance, less laborious to spread, and can with facility be ap])lied to the steepest vine- yards or other inaccessible lands, either in moun- tainous countries or in wet meadow land; — 4. It renders agriculture practicable without cattle- breeding, gi'azing, &c. — ReperUrry of Inventions, FARMERS' REGISTER— EELS— THE MOLE, &c. 187 From Mr. Jesse's Gleanings. Several pages are devoted to the economj' of these curious creatures, and as many points oi' their history are warmly contested, Mr. "Jesse's experi- ence is vakiable. That they do wander from one place to another is evident, as I am assured that they have been found in ponds in Richmond Park, which had been previously cleaned out and mudded, and into which no water could run except iiom the springs whicli supplied it.* An annual migration of young eels takes i)Iace in the River Thames in the month of May, and they have generally made their appear- ance at Kingston, in their way upwards, about the second week in that month, and accident has so determined it, that, Icjr several years together it was remarked that the 10th of May was the day of what the fishermen call eel-fair; but they have been more irregular m their proceedings since the interruption oi' the lock at Teddington. These young eels are about two inches in length, and they inake their approach in one regular and undeviating column of about five inches in breadth, and as thick together as it is possible for them to be. As the procession generally laists two or three days, and as they appear to move at the rate of nearly two miles and a hall an hour, some idea may be Jbrrped of their enormous number. Eels Iced on almost all animal substances, whether dead or li\'ing. It is well known that they devour the ycung of all water-fowl that are not too large tor them. Mr. Bingley states, that he saw exposed for sale at Retlbrd, in Notting- hamshire, a quantity of eels that would have filled a couple of wlieel-barrows, the whole of which had been taken out of the body of e. dead horse, thrown into a ditch near one of the adjacent til- lages; and a friend of mine saw the body of a man taken out of the Serpentine River, in Hyde Park, where it had been some time, and from which a large eel crawled out. The winter retreat of eels is very curious. They not only get deep into the mud, but in Bushy Park, where the mud in the ponds is not very deep, and what there is, is of a sandy nature, the eels make their way vuider the banks of the ponds, and have been Ibund knotted together in a large mass. Eels vary much in size in ditliirent waters. The largest I ever caught was in Richmond Park, and it weighed five pounds, but seme are stated to have been caught in Ireland which weighed from fifteen to twenty pounds. Seven pomids is, I believe, no unusual size. The large ones are extremely strong and muscular. TO FREE FRUIT-TREES FROM MOSS AND IN- SECTS, Mr. James Thomas, of Derveruden Green, near Chepstow, has tbund the following mixture an excellent application for the purpose. The * I have been informed, upon the authority of a no- bleman well known for his attachment to field sports, that, if an eel is found on land, its head is invariably turned towards the sea, for which it is always observed to make in the most direct line possible. If this in- formation is correct (and there seems to be no reason to doubt it,) it shows that the eel, like the swallow, is possessed of a strono; migratory instinct. May we not suppose that the swallow, like the eel, performs its mi- grations in the same undeviating course? mixture is made by taking five bushels of well- burnt lime fresh from the kiln, and slacking it with hot water, in whichsalt has been dissolved. When the lime has fallen to a fine dry ])ovvder, add, by snudl quantities at a time, a bushel of soot, stirring it in till the two ingredients are completely incor- porated. Advantage is to be taken of the first foggy day, when the trees are damp, but not drip- ping, to clust them over with this powder. One man may treat fifty trees in a day, and the opera- tion in Mr. Thomas's opinion, should be repeated twice a year; the first time in March, and the second time in "October or November. Mr. Thomas has likewise found, that the grass beneath his trees, which used to be full of moss, has now become a fine sward, quite free from moss, no doubt in con- sequence of those particles of the composition which fell to the ground dunng the dusting of the trees. — Transactions of ike Society of jlrts. THE MOLE. It is remarkable that this animal sometimes rrives notice of a change of Aveather. The tem- perature or dry'ness of the air governs its motions as to the depth at which it lives or works. This is partly from hs inability to bear coldor thirst, but chiefly from the necessity it is under of following its natural food, the earth worm, (Lumbricus ter- restris,) which always decends as the cold or drouo-ht increases. In frosty weather, both worms and moles are deeper in the ground than at other times, and both seem to be sensible of an approach- ing change to warmer weather before there are an'y perceptible signs of it in the atmosphere. When it is observed, therefore, that moles are casting hills through openings in the frozen turf, or through a thin covering of snow, a change to open weather may be shortly expected. The cause of this appears to be as follows: — The natural heat of the earth being for a time pent in by the fi-ozen surface, accumulates below it; first incites to action the animals, thaws the frozen sur- face, and at length escapes into the air, which it warms and softens; and if not counter-balanced by a oreater degree of cold in the atmosphere, brings about a change. Changes from frosty to mild weather, caused by the ascent of heat from the earth, are oilen so evident, that the circumstance needs no confirmation. Stronger proof; if proof were necessary, cannot be given than the common appearance of frost or snow remaining longer upon o-round having a stratum of rock beneath, than upon that where there is none. Old foundations of buildings, which have not been dug out, are easily tracked by the same appearance; and any subterraneous solid body, as large stones, drains, planks, or pieces of timlser, may be discovered m the same way; and even a plank laid across a ditch at such times will remain covered with snovy for many hours after the snow on the ground is all melted and cone. This sufficiently accounts for the activity of the mole before a change of wea- ther, and deserves to be noted by the meteorologist amono- his other prognostics of the weather. The mole, though generally a despised and per- secuted animal, is nevertheless useful in some de- oree to the husbandman, in being the natural drainer of his land, and destroyer of worms. To other inferior animals he is a sapper and nnner, forming for them their safe retreats and well se- cured don-nitories.— 3/fl^a5;i?ie of Natural History. 183 FARMERS' REGISTER— DIARY OF THE WEATHER. aaHXVSAV fit-. 13 tH -a S3:; •sa.MiM i^; cc CO CO ^ CO fe l2i c» !2; c» ^15 H3HXVaAY CT3 » >>. CJ5 CO >0 CO -< M >0 OO CO OO 135 CC O'OC IM » n 31 ?C -f CO CI -*" o oi -f m S CO CO CO CO CO !0 J> l^ i^ «> « CO ® 'O i^ to l^ CO t^ to l> l^ l^ 1-- t>. I> «> l^ 1^ i-(CCD050-^«Cf)550-H(NCO-flOCOl^CCC50— I •; i-li-lr-li-lrtr-l.i-(i-lrti-H<>r^ 13 a '" '^ •SQATIAV CB OQ CC t» !^ 02 Wcc 02 CC CQ HaHxvaAi e4 H W O Pi X' &( ^«^<0"fOCOt»OOS3C;--<'MrO-fiO-«Or-'("/D«iOi- liNC0-^»O-COt-C0Ol©i-l r-lr-lr-(r^^-(^-^l-lI-HrH!-Hl^^(^^'^^<^l^<^^cl^M ;s 2 1=3 2 " - .S 'CJ - •- "C3--S •scmiAV jzi;^ • w |2; 021/30; col2;S .en FARMERS' REGISTER— SEASON AND CROPS, &c. 189 Pi •Sui[IT3AaJJ'. 1 cloudy, fair, fair. •AVOUO >-, ! 1 Q 1 1 a 1 O M pH t Q 1 O OD CO \ P 1 o => cc rl M rt t/3 Q •Su!ireA3J(i •Ai i^ 1-1 cq CO .•AV'S ^ loco Q.I •s ! ^- 1 Q l-H ^ C-. •a's N O CO •a Q -t t CI •a-M 1 Q -f iM -r ■AVN >> Q ^ CO 'N Q •Xbq ;s9pioo j '-'* 2 '^ •iBG[;sa^;oH ■M iM OO CM (M iM - W H o W s Eh 2 0) Oh S c in X •J5 -f -t- lO » t~ ^ ■-1 Ol Ci « -j; t- > CO o •— o to t^ ■ be Ol -a o 1— ( -^ © i^ ^ -f 'M .-^ -r o t>. > O -t< CO Tf TJ. tC be Qi -o be ■ K d CO iM CO t' !> X/ a ■ o eg — 00 CO «! > O — ''n in grass and in good condition, is well prepared in the early part of the season by repeated ploughing, as the nature or condition of the soil may require, until proper- ly pulverized: the ground generally receives a par- tial manuring. Bone manure is generally used for that crop, and is sown in the drills with the machine at the same time the turnips are. In the absence of^a supply of bone manure,stable-yard ma- nure is used. The turnips are regularly ploughed, hoed, and thinned out to a given space, plant: from plant, as the kind of root may require.- Early in winter a moveable fence is used to inclose a space of the field proportioned to the number of sheep. In addition to the turnips, the sheep have oat straw or hay given to them in severe weather, which is placed for them in a moveable and covered rack, and this moveable fence is extended or removed from time to time as the whole are eaten off. The ground is then ploughed up for the recejition of the grain meant to be sown in it. This mode of Improving worn out or poor soils in Scotland, has been attended with the most beneficial results. Land which to my own Icnowledge a few years asco was scarce worth the fencing in^ is iloW, from this mode of manuring, producing from thirty to forty bushels of wheat an acre. It is to be observed, that it does not generally succeed well in wet or low lands. From the difference of climate I am not fi-om experience prepared to say that the .same mode would be attended in this country with the same amount of beneficial result; but as so much is wanted here to improve worn out land, I should think the matter worthy a patient trial; if it failed, it could be no great loss — and if it suc- ceeded it would be of incalculable benefit. The spirit of agricultural improvement in this country is now evidently beginning to expand itself It is doubtless the duty and interest of every one to aid the good work so far as in their power. The number of emigrations from this part of the county is a source of general remark and regret; and it is doubtless a matter of deep regret, that so many of the industrious citizens of the Atlantic States should be compelled to remove to the far-ofi' western country. And the general reason as- signed for such emigration is, that the land here will not now, as formerly, repay the labors be- stowed on it, or, in many instances, aff^ord even a scanty subsistence to its owners. This failure, ture of the soil, is the unavoidable result of an injudicious, improvident, and ruinous S3'stcm (if it can be so called) of agriculture; but the fact that they carry with them the same injudicious system, is a matter of deeper and more serious regret, than the bare fact of their emigration. For, al'ter they have labored hard for a i'ew years to clear a few acres of land of its timber, they, by following their old system, must unavoidably after a few years have the same difficulties to encounter, and another removal fiirther into the interior be the result, until the whole face of the countr}--, natu- rally rich and productive, become a comparative barren waste These emigiants are termed the pioneers of the forests, and have to encounter many a hardship, and sacrifice many an endearing tie. But those men who become the owners of the lands which they have left, have a task no less difficult and arduous, and certainly much more deli- cate to perform than clearing land from Avood* They, in order to obtain a subsistence, must re- claim land which has been exhausted by an im- poverishing mode of fiuming, an object Avhich can only be obtained after a lapse of time and much perseverance. Let the citizens of this common- wealth think on the numbers of their forefath- ers who died under the tomahawk and scalping- knifc of the savage and unreclaimed Indian, in ob- taining for them their noio peaceful possessions, and on the thousands of patriots who died in the defence of their dearest rights, and in securing for their descendants a glorious liberty and inde- pendence. And was all this blood spilt to obtain a country so unproductive as not to supply her chil- dren with bread? Certainly not. Citizens of this happy and free country, providence has cast your lot in a land capable, under judicious management, producing every comfort, necessary, and luxury of life even to overflowing, and will you not avail yourselves of these important blessings? If meanf3 are amply in your own hands, it only wants ex- ample, energy and enterprise to secure to you and your children their full enjoyment. Your patri- otic forefathers nobly withstood the efforts of a proud ambitious and invading foe, and victory and independence was their rich reward. You have now a foe within yourselves in the in- ternal management of your dearly purchased pos- sessions, which strikes as deeply (and much more insiduously) at the root of your dearest interests, and which, if not speedily met and combatted with, must ere long present you with the appalling spec- tacle of your lands reduced to barrenness, and 3"our children without bread.^ Come forward then, and let every energy be aroused, and every preju- dice manfully combatted with, and you will have the pleasing reward of seeing yourselves and j-our children enjoying those blessings s(5 hardly pur- chased, not only in peace, but in comfort, plenty, and happiness. This great, and rapidly increas-^ ing republic, already stands second to none in com- mercial importance and in the trading enterprise of her citizens. Why should she not also rank high amongst the first of nations for her agricul- tural enterprise and prosperity? Her ships, or rather her floating palaces are held up as models of naval architecture to the world: why should not her agricultural implements rank on the same scale? Surely they are of as much importance. Her mariners and machinists are considered equal which is unjustly attributed to the ungratefijl na- 1 if not superior to any hi the civilized world: why FARMERS' REGISTER— PLANARIiE. 191 should not her agricuUurists rank equally high? These delects in the general agricultural manage- ment of this countrj'^can only be ascribed to the not duly considering the paramount importance of a good system of agriculture to any country; and to this country in particular, with its raj)idly in- creasing po|)ulati()ii, it is of vital importance. The good work requiros only to be begun: Let but a lew of its wealthy, enterprizing, and influential farmers, adopt the proper measures lor renovating their wasted lands, and the prools of their una- voidable success will soon induce one and all of the cultivators of the soil to adopt similar mea- sures. Then will there be fewer painful emigra- tions, greater comfort, and more contentment amongst the citizens of this highly favored land. P. S. The hint given by your coiTospondeni S. B, aR to the propriety and necessity "of your agricultural friends in different parts of the coun- try, to give you a monthly report of the growing crops" is, 1 think, of essential importance to every larmer. My own observations are extremely limited, scarcely extending beyond the bounds of the farm I immediately superintend, and on which, I have only resided for a short time back. I will however, give you them as they occcurred to me. The wheat on this farm (Brookfield Henrico,) may be considered a deficient crop. It appears in the low lands to have suffered much during the winter, and it has also suffered much from a dis- ease called in this neighborhood stunt; the term is new to me, as are also the general features of the disease, the most prominent of which, are, that fi-om one-fourth to one-half of a great part of the ears from the top of the ears doAvnwards are destitute of grain. From the partial examination which I was enabled to give to tlie matter, I found generally the tap-root of each diseased liead to be in a decayed state, and embedded in the chaff; when the grain was wanting, I could easily detect the presence of a very minute worm, or fly in that stage of existence — I think, deposited there before the flowering of the wheat. On this farm I think the high lands have suffered more from this dis- ease than the low. The generality of farmers in this neighborhood complain much of the ravages of this disease; some of them calculating that their crops are deficient by one-third. Our corn on this farm suffered much from the frosts of the 15th 16th and 17th of May— having almost the appearance of being entirely cut down. It however, on the return of mild weather, speedi- ly recovered; and those parts of our crops which appeared to suffer most at that time, are now the most vigorous, and from eight to ten days in ad- vance of those parts which suffered to appearance comparatively little mjur}% A. N. TO RESTORE FROSTED POTATOES. A most effectual method has been discovered by a Cumberiand gentleman. It is simply to allow the potatoes to remain in the pits, after a severe frost, till the mild weather is set in for some weeks, and allowing them to recover gradually. If once exposed to the atmospheric air, no art will recover frosted potatoes. — Repertory of Inventions. PLANARI^, On January the 27th, at the Royal Institution, Mr. Faraday proceeded to lay before the literati assembled, an account of Dr. R. Johnson's inves- tigations into tlic restorative, productive, and repro- ductive powers of the Planariff, a genus of small animals allied to the Icechj and of which there are several known species, viz. P. toiva, lactea, lias- tata, arethusa, felina, &c., the three first of which are to be found abundantly in a pond near the Red-House, Battersea-fields, From Dr. Johnson's experiments it appears, that if an incision be made longitudinally into the head of the aninud, so as to separate its eyes from each other, if the cut has not been carried veiy far down, it will heal in the ordinary manner; but if the head be absolutely cieft in twain, then accord- ing to the extent of the fissui-e, there will be a mass of new matter formed by each Iialf of the head, which will either join tlie two lialve« toge- ther, fbrmmg a head of extraordinary size, and bearing in it one or two additional eyes; or each old halt] thus clell, will form tlie new matter into another half j with an eye, and so the animal have two complete and entire heads. If the fissure be carried farther down through the body of the ani- mal, then not only will there be two heads, but two bodies also formed, joined together only by the tail; and when this is the case, so little unanimity does there exist between these siamoid twin-planariae, that they never pull or swim the same way; and so violent are their efforts, that they frequently, in the course of two or three days, tear the only remaining bond of union, their tail, in sunder, and then two distinct and peifect animals result. If in a common plana ria^ the head be cut en- tirely off, a new head will be formed; and if its lower extremity be removed, it will produce a new tail. In a planarice, which, by the operation above' described, had been invesied with two heads, these' "nova capita" were successively severed for three several generations, and were immediately and' perfectly renewed, and subsequently the animal was cut through just below the artificial bifurca- tion, and then only a single head was produced, so that in this more simple "capital" operation, a sin- gle headed animal became a biceps, and, alter having had the use of six heads in succession, was subsequently reduced to the possession of a single one. When one of these animals is cut in half, the head, or anterior extremity, swims away as if no- thing had happened, and speedily re-tails itself; but the tail swims to the bottom, and remains tor- pid for two or three days, by which time it has formed for itself a head. If a planariae be cut into three pieces, the head will form a new body and tail, the tail a new body and head, and the middle section, or body, will produce both head and tail. If a quarter be removed by making a longitudinal incision through the head, and half down the body, and then a semi-transverse cut to remove the up- per quarter, not only will the three remaining quar- ters speedily reproduce a new fourth, but also the separated fourth will form to itself three new quar- ters. Indeed, a planarice has been cut into as many as ten pieces, and each piece has become an entire and perfect animal. In fact, this mode of propa- gation, Avhich physiologists artificially institute, seems to be frequently resorted to by the animal 192 FARMERS' REGISTER— DISCONTINUANCES. itself- The planaria felina has been seen to throw off" pieces of its body, to form new animals, and these are not diseased but healthy parts, and not only parts of its tail, but ollen offsets irom its sides, &c. Indeed, the planavia lelina, aiid E. arethusa, ha\"e been never known to lay eggs, whilst the torva, lactea, &c. lay tliem in abundance, both the' original animals, and those arlificially produced. It would seem that those species Avliich , inhabit springs and I'unning waters, propagate only by di- vision; but those which dwell in ponds and ditches, Avhere the water is occasionally exhausted, are oviparous, as well as viviparous. . ■ . ■ The above facts are physiologically curious, as they show a still closer atfmity than had been pre- viously supposed to exist between the propagation of plants and animals by cuttings, as well as seeds; for they have shown that this mode of propaga- tion can be carried to an almost equ-al extent in the one as in the other — an extent to which the expe^ riments of Trembley, and others, on polypi, star fish, &c. did not reach. — Medical and Surgical Journal. DISCONTINUANCES OF SUBSCRIPTIONS. The close of the volume of a periodical published like this, is the time when all the discontinuances of subscribers are (or "ought to be) sent in. The notices of this kind which we have received are fewer than were expected, and have been more than equalled by new subscriptions sent in during the same time. But though we have no reason to complain of the number of discontinuances, there is much ground for objection to the time and manner of a large portion of tliem. It is not probable that any reader of the Register could fail to know when the first volume closed — and then (according to usage and equity, and also according to our terms particularly stated in the May No.) was the time for all to discontinue who wished it, and who had not given earlier notice to that end. Instead of tliis, more than half the orders for discontinuances were sent in after the 1st No. of Vol. Il, was mailed — some- after the 2nd No. — and some from persons who had not, and have not yet, paid any thing, and therefore had no right to discontinue, even at a proper time. Still however, nearly all these requests have been promptly complied with, as we do not wish to retain any sub- scriber against his will. But, in our own defence, there must be some limit to such exactions, and a few of the latest and most inexcusable of these requests have been refused. The following. letter relates to one of them, and may serve as an example of the hardship to which we are subjected in this respect. Post Office, July nth, 1834. Sir — Enclosed is $o, which , a sub- scriber to the Farmers' Register at this office requests you to place to -his credit, and discontinue his subscrip- tion.' He has received two numbers of the Register for the present year, which he says, he will return if you wish it. Yours, very respectfully, P.M. All scruples as to a failure in good faith, we suppose, are quieted by sending back the copies of Vol. II. and when this has been done, they generally are nearly ru- ined for Avant of careful wrapping, and always burden- ed with postage for the editor to pay. ;The receiving and paying for our publication is a mere business transaction between the subscriber and editor — and no one should hesitate to stop his subscrip- tion, who does not receive for it compensation in the value of the work. We consider that no apology is re - quired for any discontinuance, and certainly shall never complain of them. But on the other hand, it is due to our interest and our just rights, and indeed to the very existence of our publication, that our terms, and the demands of common justice should be attended to in this respect: and therefore no request for discontinu- ance will be now allowed to those few who received one sixth part of our present volume, before sending the notice — nor to those vv'lio have not paid for the first volume. After this time, our terms as to discontinuances will be strictly enforced Orders to discontinue the next volume may be made', and will be properly entered on the list as soon as subscribers may please to send them — ^but hot after the commencement of the volume de- sired to be discontinued. Extract from the terms published in the \2th (or May) No. of Vol. I. "No subscription will be permitted for less time than a year — nor hereafter, to commence otherwise than at the beginning of a volume. If a subscription is not directed to be discontinued before the first num- ber of the next year has been published, it will be taken as a continuance of the subscription for the en- suing yeai" and no subscription will be discontinued while anything remains due thereon, except at the op- tion of the editor." TO CORRESPONBENTS AND SUBSCRIBERS. The following commiinications have been= received — Review of the Life of Oberlin, and remarks on his agricultural and economical improvements — On the cli- mate of Virginia — Gas or Coal Tar — Suggeslimis, Sfc. by a correspondent from Granville, N. C. — On Tobac- co Culture, continued. No. 3 — Use of Lime as manure, in Pennsylvania — On the preservation of Tobacco plant beds. The next No. will contain an article on the various breeds of cattle, extracted from the latest edition of the most approved English work on this subject. The value of such descriptions greatly depend on the cor- rectness and fidelity with which the plates or figures of the animals are copied — and we have taken. much pains, and incurred a heavy expense, to attain that end. The wood engravings which we have procured for this pur- pose, will well bear comparison with the beautiful originals in the English work, and will do credit to the American artist (Horton of Baltimore,) whose talent is thus exercised for the Farmers' Register. ERRATUM. For Robert Baits, page 162, read Robert Batte. I'RIXTKD BY UOBERT RICKETTS. Shelibanks, Va. THE FA IMERS' REGISTER. Vol. II. SEPTEMBER, 1834. No. 4. EDMUND RTJFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, FATTENING, AND GENERAL BIANAGEMENT OF NEAT CAT- TLE. Extracts from the last edition (1833) of the ''Complete Grazier." Introductory view of the different breeds of neat cattle in Great Britain. Of" the various sources ■which compof=e the wealth of nations, there are few, perhaps, ol' greater moment, or which have a superior claim to attention, than that branch of rural economy which is the subject of the following pages. In fact, when it is considered, that not only the ser- vants of a farmer, but also his cattle, are produc- tive laborers; when we recollect the siimuhis to in- dustry, as well as the rapid circulation of capital which the farmer occasions, by furnishing constant employment to the numerous artificers who are occupied in manufacturing implements which are indispensabl}^ necessary to him; when we call to mind the immense mass of materials Avhich his productive labor supplies for the purposes of com- mercial intercourse, and especially the influence produced by that labor on the comfort and appear- ance of towns, whose inhabitants must otherwise be destitute of the necessaries of life; when all these diversified circumstances are ta!