THE FARMERS' REGISTER, A SVEONTHLY PUBLICATION, IPevotcd to the Improvement of the JPmctice •^WJP.^Bm,T OF TME IJ%^TEMESTS OF ^^^RICirijTfrRE, EDSrUJVD RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. And lie cave itfor liis opinion, " that vvliocver could make two cars of corn, or two blades of grass, to grow upon a spo'. of ground wln-re only one grow hefore, would deserve better of mankindj and do more essential service to his coun- try, than the whole race of politicians put together.'' Swift. iPh. ¥11. P]t!TIJIlSBITRG, VA. PUBLISHED BY THE PROPRIETOE 1839. ^■7 TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. VU A Agricultural Association, A'orth Anna, proceedings . of 686 Agricultural Society of Albemarle, petition of 616 Agricultural [Society of Fredericksburg, addresses to 3, 745 ; premiums awarded by 753 Agricultural Club of Chuckatuck, proceedings of 2S7 Agricultural Convention of South Carolina 511 Agricultural geology 494 Agricultural meeting in Massachusetts 200 Agricultural county reports 58 Agricultural periodicals, list of in the United States 283 Agricultural interest 362 Agriculture, importance of 5S ; legislation for 39; legislative aid to in South Carolina, recommended 733; in Pennsylvania, and compared with eastern Maryland 734 ; system of in Loudoun 333 ; neglect of in Guilford, N. C. 455 ; in Jamaica, condition of caused by emancipation 276 ; capital profitably in- vested in 665 Agriculture and rural economy in France 722 Agriculture and government in Massachusetts 437 Ancient laws and records of Virginia, extracts from ISl Animalcules, their remains forming earth 76 Animals, male, selection of lor breeding 408 Apple molasses 767 Apples, as food for hogs 150 Artesian well, the deepest 278 Artichoke, (Jerusalem,) 533' B Bacon, to make good 571 Bacon, Nathaniel 527 Bacon's rebellion 407 Banking, fraudulent, etfects of 276 Bee, natural history and economy of 474 Bees, management of 339, 559 ; wintering of 560, 628; treatise on practical trentment of 543 Beet, (sugar,) for milch cows 211 Beet culture 587, 686, 756 Berkeley, Governor, his account of Virginia 338 Birds on farms 394 ; usefulness of to agriculture and gardening 434 ; tameness of, if encouraged 589 Bohan ttpas of the west, a hoax 110 Boiler, an economical kind 459 Borrowers of the Farmers' llegister ISS Bots m hordes 755 Bread without yeast or leaven 28 Breeding of live-stock, essay on 118, 131; of race horses, cost of 286 Bricks and brick- making 396 Broom corn 3; culture of, in Salem, N. J. 509 ; pro- duct of a crop stated 229 Brooms, manufacture of 28 Brussels sprouts, cultivation of 240 Buckwheat, a safeguard of turnips from the fly 495 Buel. Judge, on deathpf 63S; notice of 695 Building log-houses and fences 340 Butter, rhaking and curing 218 ; on salting 469 ; Dutch 526 ; winter 767 Cabbages, to make head during winter 342 Calcareous soils, most advantageous lor mulberry treies aiid grape-vines 221 Calcareous soil of Southrrn Florida 683, 6S4; growth of morus multicaulis on 764 . Carrots 254 ; exjieriments on 277 Cask, leaky, to slop 419 Cattle, treatment of 153; raising and feeding of 513, taking care of 134; watering in winter 617; dis- eases ol 705; Hereford, extraordinary sale of 287; Durham, sales of 175, 333 Cattle market of London 706 Cattle, England Durham short-horns, general account of 343, 363 Cauliflower, culture of 555 Cedar quarries 555 Cheat 444 Cheese manufactured from potatoes 340 Chinch-bugs 411. 448, 444, 447: in Surry 415 Circular of the Commissioner of the Patent OfRce in regard to the tiansmission of seeds 490 Circulars directing aid to the introduction of tropical plants 637 Climate of Italy, its severity of cold 196 ; compared with that of the Valley and Piedmont of Virginia 350 Clover, early cut 483; gigantic 432 Clover seed, sowing of 495 ; Pennsylvania mode of getting out 390 Coal, Geary's patent 685 Coal trade of Virginia 79 Cocoonery, plan of 246 ; fixtures and management for silk-worms 288 Cocoons, comparative weights of 377; large 408 ; successive crops of in Tropical Florida 567 Coggins' Point farm, the former poor condition, and earliest subsequent improvements on, by marl- ing 112 Commerce, southern, decline of 373 Commercial (monthly,) reports 64, 128, 192,255,447, 512; 576, 637, 704, 763 Convention, Internal .Improvement, of North Carolina, memorial of 97 Copper mine in North Carolina 486 Corn, on cultivation of-1, 258 ; mode of cultivation pur- sued by J. H. Steger, esq. 180 ; experiment in planting 117; cultivated for its stalk and leaf, and not for grain 6*1 ; its maturing hastened by ceasing its cultivation early 588 ; mode of havesting in Ohio 473 ; deep planting of 616 Corn crops, statements of cultivation, expenses and products of 10, 17, IS ; greatest known yield of 7421 great product of in South Carolina 211 ; Maryland twin, experiment with 201 ; Chinese tree, defended by Grant Thorburn 693 ; Baden 598 Corn, cultivation of 157 Corn cribs ami granaries, measurement of 350 Correspondence, private, extracts from 511 Cotton, experiments on the porosity of 491 Cotton, sea-island, defects in management of 28' Cotton, twin or okra, 252. 598, 657, 744 FARMERS' REGISTER. Cotton lice 508 Cow, great yield from, in milk and butter 210 Cow, biirliiim, reiimrUable yield of milk from 395 Cows liokiiiig up their milk 488 Crops, alternation of 117 Crops, state of 382, 448, 511 Crows, how prevented from ]uillin<^up corn 276 Currency (ancient) of Virginia 703 D Daguerrotypc 258 Dairies near London 707 Dairy management 218 ; statements of in Massachu- setts 229 Dairy products 250 Dairy stock 249 " Debt-paying nation " 486 Deep culture SO " Distemper " of cattle 569, 605, 651, 743 Divining red 460 Dog, to cure from sucking eggs 339 Draining (under) 757 Dust-hole, alchemy of 261 E Earth, is the planet becoming colder? 175 Earth, depth of freezing, in liigh northern latitudes 487 Earths and soils of Virginia 667 Eastern Virginia 210 Edged, (fine) instruments improved in sharpness by magnetism, and by time 102 Editorial ai tides and remarks, on George Henry Wal- ker d'c'd. 21; calcareous soil of tbe Florida islets 41 ; -Randolpii's 'Treatise on Gardening' 41 ; progress of morns multicaulis trade and prospect of prices 60, 103, 190 ; Amans Cai rier's diary of feeding silk- worms 87 ; his estimates of expense and profit 91, 95 ; cause of blue color of marl 106 ; Geo. E. Har- rison 106 ; the hoax ot the " boluin vpas"' 110 ; the early and consistent advocating of silk-.cuiture by the editor 123 ; Com. Jones' farming 155 ; weeds as manure, and the origin of i lie use 161; ancient i laws, &c. of Virginia 181; borrowers of the Far- mers' Register 188; reprint of vol. 1. 190; hum- bugs, multicaulis seed and Chinese corn 190 ; Smith fund 190; answers to inquiring sub-scribers 191; Loudon's advertised prices for advice 199 ; highly calcareous soils for mulberry and grape culture 222; alleged elfects of slavery on the agriculture of Vir- ginia 235 ; Sir WiHiam Berkeley and his statistical account of Virginia 238 ; tables of silk-worm rear- ing 241 ; climbing of silk-worms 246; twin or okra cotton, and the hiiyh prices of new and valued seeds 2.52 ; morus multicaulis seed 254 ; account of Amans Carrier's white mulberry plantation, applied to the circumstances of this country 302; remarks on ob- jections to silk-culture 355 ; marl indicator 360; on dilferent kinds of silk-worm eggs, and the grounds of choice 377; progress of silk culture in Vir2;inia 380 ; mulberry crop and prices 381 ; Osage orange seeds 334 ; deficiency of communications' to Farm- ers' Register 413 ; " gigantic clover " humbug 432 ; feeding silk- worms on wet leaves 433 ; importance of proper selection of silk-worms' eggs 444 ; diffe- rence of healthiness of silk-worms from southern and northern eggs 445 ; Hussey's reaping machine 455; the puffing system 456; on the abuse of pa- tent-rights 505 ; early introduction (before Perrot- tel's) of morus multicaulis into France, and possi- bly into North Carolina also 507; cattle and milk in Alabama 508 ; morus multicaulis crop and priciir, 510; Agricultural Convention of South Caroliiia 511 ; season and crops 511 ; green crops for manure 556 ; on fraudulent discontinuances of subscriptions and failiu'es of obligation .")64 ; mulberry market and prices 570; the " Chinese tice corn "' humbug and deception 572; multicaulis market 636; to subscri- bers 638 : suspension of payment by the banks 639 ; James Wadsworth, a New York farmer 6.53 ; marl- iiig in Sussex, and Philips' marl raising machine 670 ; almost purely calcareous soils of Tropical Florida 684; marl near Newbern 687; Grant Thorburn's defence of his " Chinese tree corn " 693; Youatts' ' Treatise on Cattle ' 705 ; the calcareous soil of Tropical Florida, and the fitness of for mulberry trees 764; erasures of subscriptions for non-pay- ment 768 Eggs 371 Electro-magnetic power 133 Emancipation of slaves, eliects of in Jamaica 254 Emigration to the west 437 ' Essay on Vegetable Physiology,' by Professor George D. Armstrong, complete in 24 chapters. For the numerous particular subjects treated of see the heads of chapters, at pages 10, 14, 65, 67, 169, 172, 203, 206, 262, 263,268,^326, 329,332, 420, 423, 426, 462, 464, 467, 617, 621, 622, 641 Excavating by steam 134 F , Farm of E. Phinney, of Massachusetts 531 ; Mr. Ja- mieson's 67S ; of Ross-shire, Scotland 759 Fann, girass, in England 628 Farmer of Massachusetts 250 Farmer of New York, a distinguished one 653 Farmers' Register,deficiency of communications to 413 Fanners' Register, conditions of jniblication for vol. vii 255; conditions of for vol. viti 639; reprint of vol. 1. 190; erasures of subscriptions 768 Farming (improving) profit of 59 ; profits of in Mas- sachusetts 501 ; in Pennsylvania, and compared with eastern Maryland 734 Feeding milch cows 371 Fish ])onds in France 214 Flax, new mode oi' preparing described 22 Flea, garden 753 Florida Keys 565 Flowers, properties of 310 FluVanna, county of 218 Free-martins 472 Fruit trees 554, 756 G Gardening, Randolpirs Treatise on, republished 41 Gas, inflammable, discharge of 278 Geese, as barometers 340 Glanders and blind staggers in horses 302 Gloucester, improvements in by marling and marsh mud 575 Graduates of the University of Virginia, for 1839, 417 ; of William and Mary College 418 Graft, influence of the stock on 459 Grafting 151 Grass sown on wood-land 221 Grass husbandry, improvement of land by 162 Grass lands, management of 632, 649 Grasses, experiments on 156 ; observations on the character and quality of diff'erent kinds 390 Green crops for manure 556, 742 ' Green manuiing, its advantages for cleansing land of weeds and of insects 561 Grub-worm 370 Grubs in the heads of sheep, cure for 363 Gypsum 117; cause of its greater value on limed "land 489 H Harrison, George E., of Brandon 107 Hay and roots for feeding, compared 241 Hay making 162 Hay racks 212 Heu coops 3fil FARMERS' REGISTER Herbage plants, new 340 Hoarding system substituted for the borrowing system of governments 214 Hogs 696 ; of large size 743 ; breeding 604 ; and rear- ing 578; keeping, feeding and falleninc; 1S4, 117, 251 ; improved breeds of 176 ; in a fruit orchard 505 ; on fattening by cold soaked and fermented food 529; statement of cost and profit in feeding 237 ; value of their manure 743 ; considerations on ^ raising or buying 648 Holkham, the seat of the Earl of Leicester (formerly "the great farmer" Coke) 534 Holy laud, ancient and present agricultural condition of 647 Horse, treatment of 7 ; stubborn, how managed 703 Horses, slabbering 534 ; wild, formerly in Virginia 668 ; on breeding and rearing for agricultural pur- poses 719; diarrhoea of 756 Horticultural excursion in Greece 223 Humbugs, multicaulis seed, and Chinese corn 190 ; the newest and greatest yet announced, "gigantic clover" 432 ; Thorburn's " Chinese Tree corn" 572 Hunting in Virginia 668 Hydrangea, changing the color of flowers of 556 Husbandry in China 369 Ice houses 130 Improving worn-out lands 556 ; of poor land in Fair- fax, profit of 153 Incubation, artificial 614 Indian Key, description of 758 Inoculation 151 Insects, increase of by not grazing land 710 Insect depredators 493 Irrigation of Lombardy 185, 193 ; in Spain 215 Jalap plant, account of 435 Jamestown, reminiscences of 407 Kyanizing wood 233 Labor, the great want of in the tide-water country 393 Leaves, the use made of in Italy, for fodder 280 Letters from an agricultural apprentice to his father 535, 539, 590, 594; from a young farmer to Mr. Ja- mieson 671,674, 711,714 Lice on cattle, to destroy 510 Lime 131; as manure 63 ; effect in improving laud 209, 116 ; suggestions for extending the use of 79 ; statement of elfects in Scotland 334; for mountain lands 744 Lime, oyster-shell, alleged inefficacy of 166 Lime for hogs 108 Lime, imported, proposed for lower Virginia lOS Lime and peas as manure 576, 636 Lime-stone in Stokes, N. C- 455 Lime-stone (rotten) soils in Alabama 617 Lime-water, anti-septic property of 508 Liming 382; eti'ects of 440; in Norfolk county, 501 Liquid leather 488 Live-stock, prices of in Kentucky 590 Live-stock of improved blood, high prices of 9, 25 Loudon, i)is advertised prices for advice 199 M Mad itch of cattle G79 Madia saliva, an oil plant 213 Magnesia, influence of on the growth of vegetables 491 Malaria 2<>3 Mammoth silkworms' eggs 320 Manure, farm-yard, essay on management of 401 ; Jauti'ret's, artificial 82 ; from peat and lime 496 Manures, experiments on SOS ; (human excrements) town, 626, 627 ; of hogs 743 ; compost, effects of 759 Manuring with rotten logs and brush 110 Marl SO; of South Carolina (or calcareous rock,) analyses of 78 Marl, boring for, a cheap and convenient mode 78 Marl, blue, 105; color caused by organic matter 106 ; its supposed superiority 280 Marl beds near Nevvbern, N. C. 687 Marl indicator 80 ; supposed not to be a new species 279 ; a new species, 359 Marl-raising machine 668 . Marling in Sussex 668 ; Gloucester 575 ; improve- ment by on Coggins' Point farm 112; in Pri«.ce George county, first views which led to 659 Marsh mud 1U5 Meadows, reclaimed, reports and statements on 391 Memoranda of farming 530 Mignonette, cultivation of 558 Milk, city 692 Milk-sicicness 527 Millet 474 Morus multicaulis, see Mulberry, Chinese Mowing 406 Mud for manure 447 Mulberry, opinions of different species 6; compara- tive values of did^erent kinds 310 ; Canton 499 Mulberry, Chinese, value of for feeding silk-worms, alone 85 ; its value for feeding compared with other kinds 416 ; the several claims of the first introduc- tion of 54 ; introduced from Asia long before dis- covered by Perrottet 506 Mulberry, Chinese, crop, trade, speculation in, and prices 60, 62, 108, 109, 403, 510, 570, 636 ; seed 254, 381 Mulberry culture, counter estimates in regard to its profits 351 ; remarks thereon 335 Mulberry leaves, product of 439 Mulberry plantation, Amans Carrier's, expense and, net profits of 302 Mulberry trees on highly calcareous soils 221, 222. Murrain in cattle 755 Mushroom, culture of 436 Mutton 471 N Negroes, preservation of the health of 372 O Oak trees, large 184 Oat-pasture, for improvement of land 581 Oats, not an exhausting crop 631 Oats, skinless, 55 Olla podrida 226 Osage orange seeds wanted 384 Orchard grass 658 ; preparation of for sowing 134 Oxen, new mode of breaking to work 369 Patent rights, abuse of 505 Pattern farming township 605 Peach trees, heading down 261 Pear trees propagated from roots 95 Peas, green, how to save 343 Peat, review of 'Essays' on 37 Pennsylvania farmers, remarks on 19 Perfect agriculture adveise to fences 340 Perforating glass 278 Periodicals (agricultural,) affect those who do not read them 360 ■ Piedmontese reel, advantage of the general adoption of 86 FARMERS' REGISTER. Piggery, account ofSl; and feeding manugeineut 5()7; an extensive one 734 Piles, blind, certain cure for 102 Plants, cross fecundation of 27 Ploughii:g 5S5 Ploughs 585 Poll evil, cure for 535 Potato ^svveet,) plants started in hol-beds 554 Potato. Irisii, culture of 321, C02 Potato, Rohan 27 Potatoes, sweet, modes of keeping through winter 80, 211. 577,435 Potatoes, Irish, from slips 226 Potatoes, planting seed-ends of 360 PouJrette 503, 645 Poultry 212, 4S7, 488 Princeana, No. 2. 55 Private correspondence 564 Prolific corn 80 Promiscuous remai'ks on various matters in farming 414, 500, 601, 754 Pruning 368 Pumpkin seeds, effects of as food 656 Pumpkins, how to dry 75S Queries, on chinch bug and oat lay 45G Quince tree, propagation and cultivation of 503 R Railway, Raleigh & Gaston 3S8 Railways of Belgium compared with those of the Uni- ted States 449 Raspberries, to train 767 Reaping machine, Hussey's 45'5,. 534, 587 Review of 'Essays on the natural history of peat' 37 Rhubarb plant 533 Rijad-making 404 Root-crops, value of 165; culture of 116, 232 Roots, comparative value of 360 ; compared with hay for stock 241 Rose bushes 320 Rotation of crops, principles of applied 609 Ruta-baga 133, 261 Ruta-baga crop 753; expense and' profits of 9, ,637; culture of 723 ; yield of three acres 723 Salt, manufacture of by solar evaporation 457 Sand, sea, vegetable power of 587 Scotland, agricultural state of 629 Sea-weed 689 ; as manure 198 Season, 443, 448, 511 Seed 80 Shaker's establishments and husbandry 259 Sheep, feeding 220 ; browsing during snoWs 614 ; cau- tion as to their food 127 ; iine-woolled 613 Sheep ticks 363 " Short horn fever" 25, 132 /j - Silk, essay on the production of, and the peculiar ad- vantages of Virginia lor the culture 140 ; product of 85 Silk-culture, the editor's course in advocating main- tained 123; superior advantages for, of 'the old southern states 599 ; natui-al and artificial systems of 741 ; peculiar fitness of the United States for S3 ; practical, a statement of 54 ; first trials of 440 ; pro- gress of in the middle states 442 ; near Georgetown, D. C.'SO; in France, diary of a careful experiment 87 ; estimate of expen.^es and piofits of same 91 ; law of Georgia to encourage 202 ; bounties paid for in Massachusetts 211; in-ogress of near Philadelphia 379 ; progress of in Virginia 380 ; extravagant and sound estimates of 575; the case staled, as to its suitability to the circumstances of Virginia 6S3 ; causes of its failure in G^ird, in 1834, 251 ; actual statements and estimates of 654, 735, 740 ; notices ol an account of in France 135 ; in Italy 271 ; in Con- necticut 650 ; in Turkey 412 ; in Canada 431 Silk-culturists, young, memoranda for 213 Silk manufacturing 487, 638 Silk-worm feeding, tables of 24?, 243, 245 Silk-worms, directions for gearing 288 ; answer to strictures on G. B Smith's treatise on, 111 ; a first experiment in rearing 312 ; led on Avet leaves 433 ; on propagation of 26 ; two-crofi 341, 441 Silk-worms' eggs, long vitality of 192 ; carelessness in saving 485 ; difference of value according to care, in splection and prese'i-vation ; facts in regard to north- ern and southern stocks 4^4 ; remarks on 377 ; choice among different varieties 377; objections io " mam- moth" 377'; causes of their bad quality 601 Silk-worms' spinning, fixtures for 341 " Smith fund," and presentation of plate 574 Soap from myrtle wax 111 Soap-making 361 Soils entirely of lime 499 »' ^ • | ' Spaying heifers 412 ' ' ♦ ' Staples of old southern states, nev^ species and varie- ties for 680 . ■ ■ ■ . ■ Steamihg food for stock 157 Steam plough 407 " Strawberry, culture of 492 Subscribers, address to 638 Sugar, history of 515 Sugar from beets, patent for manufacturing 504 ; pro- gress of in Europe 70 Sugar-beet 13S, 471 Slavery, alleged effects ofon the agriculture of Virginia,, affirmed and denied 235 Suckers 80 Sulphur, new mode of applying to pknts 112 Sunshine, daily value of 510 Sun-flower seed oil 588 Swamp lands of North Carolina, general account of 698, 699, 702, 724, 726, 727 Swamps, " Jottings down" in the 698, 724- Swine, breeds of 158 Tar, mineral, for protection of walls 283 Tea-tree 558 Temperature of the United States 'and Great Britain compared 488 ; of Tropic&l Florida 679, compared to that of Mississippi 680 ^ "• Three-ahift rotation, advantages of S'42 Tide-marshes, ot Maryland, advantages of embank- ing 429 Tomato plant, a protection against chinch-bugs 495 Tomatoes, different methods ol preserving and cook- . ing 560 Tortoise, land, sagacity of 654 'Treatise on Gardening' by Rartdol])!) 41 Tropical Plant Company 565 ; act to incorporate 357 Tropical plants, progress of scheme for introducing 40; correspondence on the introduction of 472, 473 Turnips 360 U Urate 503, 645 Vegetable kingdom, retnaiks on 373,' 385' Vegetable Physiology, See ' Essay on Vegetable Phy- siology ' Vegetables, culinary, recently introduced 183 Vegetables, green and dry, -clifferent advantages of as rnanure 606 Vine, emasculation of 112 ; importance of its culture in France 196 ; reipires calcareous soil 222 FARMERS' REGISTER w Walker, Georaie Henry 21 ,- "Water, its effects on the agriculture of Italy 295 Water-melons, cultivation of 213 Weeds as manure 159 Weight of live cattle, how ascertained 21 Westmoreland county, agricultural improvement in 5J2 Wheat, varieties of 656 ;great crops of in New Hamp- shire 174 Wheat on clover 501 Wheat, bearded, advantage of sowing late, 432 Wheat crop of 1839, 320 Wine making 179 Witch, (couch, or wire) grass 456 Wool 554 Worms in children, cure for 302 Worms, earth, operaton of in fommg mould 430 'Worthies of England,' Fuller's, extracts from 65T,- Wounds of horses and cattle, to cure 589 Yellow hugs, to destroy 394, ^ ? Vol. VII. JANUARY 31, 1831). No. 1. EDMUND RUFFIIV, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. ON THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. Read before tlie Agricultural Society of Fredericksburg, and ordered to be published in the Farmers' Register. The corn crop is so important to the tide water portion of Virginia, that observaiions upon its cuhure, however trite or desuhory, run hardly fail preserve as much as possible, the natural surface- in the tide-waler district, the corn crop is so de- cidedly superior, that it cannot be sacrificed to any other crop. The five-feet beddinfr exposes the land more efiectually to the action of frost in win- ter, and of the sun and winds in spring. The crop can therefore be planted earlier, comes up to be productive of some benefit! The tbilowing find p:rows ofi" more rapidly, sooner matures, and are ofiered as the rusult of twenty years' experi- has a better chance to escape our frequent and se- ence, by one who has been a corn-firower l()r that ^ere drouirhts. Ailliough good crops are made by ' .11 ri __ . ^,- ... earlier and later planting, the proper time for that time, and probably as successlijl as most of the larmers who live in the same section of country, and own similar land. The field intended for corn should be ploughed up as early as possible. My usual practice is, to give the team a week's rest after the fall weeding is finished, then to start as many ploughs as I can, and to keep them at work whenever the wea- ther will permit. I am thus eiial)lo(l to get through with the wet and stiff land l)y Cliristmas, and to finish the residue of the field early in the spring. If wet land is postponed luiiil ilte spring, it is often so late m dryinrence between their crops and ours. He must have seen that the stalks diminish in size, while the crop, per acre, obviously increases; and yet ours is notoriously the soil and climate lor growing corn. I think the diflerence may be attributed to the kind of corn cultivated, a kind which enables them to plant much thicker than we do. Here, most of us plant a large gourd-seed corn, shooting up a tall large stalk, bearing generally one, occasionally two ears, and not admitting thick planting. There, the stalk is low, is planted very thick, and bears two, three, and fbur small flinty ears. Not farther north than Pennsylvania, I have seen corn planted fi^'e feet by four, with three and lour stalks to the hill. Counting three stalks at this distance, and allow- ing three ears to each, any given space, there, will yield seven or eight ears to our one; small ears certainly, but still, large enough to account for the great superiority in the product per acre. I com- menced with the old lull bred Virginia gourd-seedy and stuck to it ibr six or eight years; but finding that, on common land, many stalks were too late in curing, or did not ear at ail, determined to change my seed. My next variety was the "Tal- iaferro white fiint." This sort is touched with the gourd-seed, but is superior to it in having a small- er stalk, ripening earlier, bearing more ears, and a harder and heavier grain. I then tried what is called the '-Alsop corn," resembling the Taliafer- ro in other respects, but somewhat smaller in stalk, and superior in number of ears, olten pro- ducing two, three, and sometimes a greater num- ber of ears. This corn I still plant. I made one experiment with the Maryland twin corn, and thought it as prolific as the Alsop; but the grain being lighter, and the stalk taller, it was abandon- ed. Last winter I purchased in Washington a small quantity of "Baden" corn, and planted with it a rich lot of about two acres. It came up and grew off" well, was the tallest corn I ever saw, averaged five or six shoots to the stalk, and pro- mised at one time to make a great crop. But it suffered nearly twice as much as the rest of my corn, from the heat or the drought of the summer, and was broken ofi' by a wind in August, which did very little injury to the rest of the crop. It did not of course, fill or ripen well, and 1 fed it to hogs. But as it certainly had more shoots than any corn I ever saw, I have saved a small portion to plant again. Its great fault is, its extraordina- ry height. If it can be brought down to a proper standard, retaining its great number of shoots, it will probably turn out to be a very prolific variety. It will readily be seen that I consider thicker planting than common, essential in making heavy- crops of corn per acre. But think planting with a large kind is out of the question. At the same time, it must be borne in mind, that as we in- crease the number, we diminish the size of the ears, and add to the labor of gathering and husk- ing. Every judicious farmer will decide, from ex- perience, how far he can carry this process; and will stop as soon as he begins to doubt whetlier he is paid lor his additional labor. Dismissing all speculation on this point, I believe we may safely plant any small variety of corn at the rate of one stalk to every ten square (eet on tolerable land, 1839] FARMERS- REGISTER 3 which would give about 4360 stalks, and from six to ten barrels of grain to the acre. I will only add in conclusion, ihal although I have frequently been deterred by ihe influence which custom exer- cises over the mind oC every one, from planting corn as thick as I was inclined to, I have, in no one instance, exceeded the usual rate, without adding to the crop. Wjr. P. Taylor. Caroline county, Va. ON THE CULTIVATIOIV, PRODUCT, AND USES OF BROOJM-CORN. Read before ttie Agricultural Society of Frporhood, who speak very (iivorably of it. Its appearance, when cooked, is dark red, very similar to rye bread, and like it, it contains a considerable portion of mucilage and vegetable gluten, which I have no doubt renders it highly nutritious. Deprived of its husk, which gives it the dark color, by a process similar to that employed in cleaning rice and barley, it will pro- bably become an airreeable and healthy article of diet, and a valuable substitute for Indian corn, which i: very nearly approximates in taste. Wai. Srowae. From the Virginia Herald. EXTRACTS FR03I THE ADDRESS TO THE AGRI- CULTURAL SOCIETY OF FREDERICKSBURG. By James 31. Carnett, President. A young friend of mine, whose word cannot be doubted, has lately communicated to me a fact in regard to this most invaluable plant, which fact is certainly new to me, a corn planter of fifty years standing, and I suspect to most others of my breth- ren; although ive surely ought to know, by this time, every important particular relative to its na- ture, since Indian corn has been our chief staple in the largest portion of our state, ever since its first settlement by emigrants fi-om the old " father- land." This fact is, that the full grown stalks have, at least three or (bur roots, larger than the surlace roots, which penetrate info the earth, al- most perpendicularly, to the depth of a foot or more : my friend traced them fully twelve inches by actual measurement. Those roots, from the direction in which they grow, can rarely, if ever, be broken by any implement yet used in corn culture ; and this fact seems to afford a satisfactory solution of another fact, which heretofore has never been accounted for, satisfactorily. It ie, that corn should, most manilestly, be benefited by every workincj — during its growth, if the land be in a proper slate — that is, neither too wet, nor too dry ; although it is equally certain, that many 4 FARMERS' REGISTKR. [No. 1 of the lateral and surface roots — whose spongioles contribute to leed the eiaiUs and grain, must, ine- vitably, be cut by any implement ever yet used in ils cultivation. True it is, that some cut more roots than others J but to claim ibr any, that they cut no roots at all, is a pretension whicli none can be expected to believe who ever had any experience in the culture oC corn. Now, if the heulih and vigor of the corn plants depended solely, or even chiefly, on the spongioles at the extremities of the surface-roots, each working, after these roots have spread nearly or quite across the beds — which they do before any one ceases to work them — every working then given, would do much injury instead of good! Unless, indeed, (_as 1 iormerly suggest- ed,) the cuttmg process tended to multiply spongi- oles at the ends of the cut roots next the stalks, more than sufficient to compensate for the loss ol' the extreme feeders. II' this conjecture be insuf- ficient to explain the undeniable fact, that growing- corn is much benefited by every working, when the land is neither too wet nor too dry, may we not consider the ailficully solved by the discovery that the largest roots, which probably produce the most spongioles, grow in a direction which saves them fiom ever !)eing cut, iniless by accident? But the dew roois (as some call them,) which grow around the first joints of the stalks, and are very rarely cut, likewise act as feeders ; although this, I believe, is not the common opinion. Those persons, however, who doubt, may easily satisfy themselves by tracing the longest of these roots to their extremilies below the surfiice ; for they will there find small fibres wi'.ii their spongioles ; precisely similar to those surface roots which are generally supposed to be the only sources of food to their parent plan's. I cannot dismiss this highly important subject without earnestly endeavoring to impress upon the minds of all our brethren, the absolute neces- sity of continuing to make experiments, and many more than any of us have yet made, if we would become thoroughly acquainted with the nature and best management of tlie corn plant. That we are yet ignorant of many essentials to its most perfect culture and greatest production, is mani- fest to all but those obstinate, self conceited block- heads who have persuaded themselves that they have reached the highest point olattainahk^ Icnow- ledge on both points; and who are ready tn re|-.ly to all attempts at instructing them — especially it' in print — "Oh! tve know all about corn; don't tell its any thing, ice never read books! no, 710/ i^e.'" But, to prove their ignorance, as well as our own, I need onlj' ask the following questions. Who has ever made any experiments sufficient- ly numerous and accurate to asceriain t!ie best depth and distance Ibr planlini; corn in the differ- ent soils most common iimnnor us, with a view to obtain the greatest product that each soil can be made to yield? Yet, upon these two circum- stances, depth and distance, we are all certain, that the quantity of grain produced, must most materially depend? Again, who lias asceriained, or even attempted it, by any trials approaching to certainly of results, whether it is best to cullivaie high and dry corn land on ridges, or on a level surlace? Again, who among us can say, from ac- tual and accurate comparison, whether it is liest to cross-plough, or to plough but one way? All, probably, would give some answer to these inqui- ries— showing that each had formed some opinion — satisfactory perhaps to himself; but I may ven- ture 10 affirm, without fear of" conlradiciiun, that not a solitary man of the whole would be able to state any fiicis whatever upon which a corn- planter, conscious of liis own liinorance and anx- ious to remove it, could confidently and safely rely. lieie then are no less than three or four highly important matters relative to corn culture, of which all tlie corn-makers with whom I have ever conversed, are still so far ignorant, that no uniform and certain practice fur similar soils and situations, can be ado|)ted on their authority. As to depth, it is guess-work with all, and it will be found to vary several inches; while the distances in planting vary so much, even among the most experienced corn-planters, that 'tis manifest they act more from mere conjectural belief than any thing else. Much difference of practice yet ex- ists in regard to all the points I have stated, which could not possibly be the case, if a sulhcient num- ber of experiments had been fully and f;\irly made to settle which method was best in each case. This surely is well worth attempting — at least by all who cannot rest self-satisfied, that our present stock of knowledge is full and complete, which I sincerely hope is not the case with a single mem- ber ofour society — since the very basis — the great object of its formation — was mutual instruction. The scripture injunction ^^ seek and ye shall find,'^ is eminently true, not only of' spiritual knowledge, but of every species which human beiuffs are capable of attaining, and to no class of mankind is the fre(]uent repetition of this most momentous truth more necessarj^ than to ours ; fbr the worst ofour besetting sins is an overween- ing confidence in our knowledge of husbandry, and the consequent neglect of all the means es- sential to its improvement. Our secluded country lives, if long continued without interruption, serve only to cherish and confirm this self conceit, al- most beyond all hopes of cure. The s\'mptom which usually indicates this disease in its most in- veterate state is, when the infected person is found, whenever an opportunity offers, constant- ly and most complacently, talking about '■'■his me- thods,/ii's system." When the disorder appears in this aggravated form, a recovery very rarely occurs, f)r there are only two modes of cure, and both oi' douhiful efficacy. The first is, to persuade the sufferer, if practicable, to go a little from home and examine other men''s methods and systerns ; for he will then surely find either that his, upon which he has prided himself so much, as sole dis- covererand practitioner, have really nothing new in them, or that they are much inferior to the methods and systems of many other persons of his own prolijssion. 'J'he second remedy is, to tempt him to read (provided he can.) a few scraps or whole arlicles in print, about husbandry. If well se- lected, they may possibly coax him on to peruse a pamphlet or book or two on the same subject, when he will discover that the great bug-t>ear which he has always despised so much under the name o-' hook-liirminix, is, in reality, neither more nor less than a well authenticated record of the best practices in every branch of husbandry, from the earliest aires to the present day. It is true that he would find some mere speculations, — some useless trash ; but what books, except the bible, were everyet exempt fiom these defects? Yet even 1839] FARMERS REGISTER. Ihe most, ifliterate believe bookf? to be absolutely necessary to the perlcctioa of every honest trade, profession and calling, under the sun. Strange then, most strange would it be, iC thai calling, upon whose prosjicrity even human existence it- sell' depends, should be the only one which can prosper without books! The vainest Ibol that ever lived, if he were not an absolute uliot, would not fail to admit this, provided you could prevail on him to think long enough to form an opinion. How shameful — how disgraceful then is it, that any of our I'raternity who are certainly not fools, should ever be found among the idiotic declaimers against the study of books on agriculture ! This study would put him in possession of one fad, which of itself should suffice to animate his pro- fessional exertions lor the rest of his life. It is, that all the greatest beneliictors of mankind have been either practical agriculturists, or the devoted friends thereof— that they have deemed agricul- ture not only an art but a science, to the pertiection of which the study of books is indispensable; and moreover, that to the end of time, it will always fall so far short of perfection, as to leave ample room ibr constant improvement, even to the wisest and most experienced of our prolession. To strive therelbre with might and main after this improvement, and with a zeal and perseverance proportioned to its importance, should be deemed the indispensable duty of every man who pre- sumes to call himself a friend to the great, the vital cause, of agriculture. All who give it only lip service should be ranked amongst its worst enemies, since the tongue alone is worse than nothing, unless the heart, the hand, and the purse, unite in its promotion : nay more, unless tills union, in the case of us Virginians, should so work as to obtain legislative aid to our cause. But no man in his senses can hope it, as our legislatures are now constituted, if he judges by their undeviating neglect of agriculture, li-om the end of our revolutionary war to the present time; although strange to say, a large majority of them have always been agriculturists ! Ot' this there can be but one even probable ex()lanation ; it is, that they must believe ^oar^j/ politics to be much more deserving of their patronage than agriculture. To cure them of this hallucination there is only one remedy, and that, thank God, is still in our power, although there is some doubt whether we shall all be sufficiently alive to our own interest, to apply it. This remedy is, either to elect no more representatives without clear, un- equivocal pledges to do something for agriculture, or to instruct all who will not give such pledges, that they must do something, or never again ex- pect our suHrawes. Why this course has not been pursued, after so many fruitless and deeply mortilying applications to our legislatures, is to me utterly inexplicable, but upon the supposition that the majority of us are stone blind to the ob- vious means of reliel ; or that those wlio can see them and are fully aware of all their momentous bearings, want the courage and perseverance to combat that fearful and most formidable obstacle to improvements of every kind, which consists in a union of ignorance and asinine iiuliflerence rel- ative to our best interests. We agriculturists may and often do live so comfortably at home, by industry and frugality, almost in spite of govern- ment neglect, nay even of government hostility, that we remain ignorant of the vast extent to which legislative enactments have benetited ag- riculture in other countries, and might advance our own, if we would only exert over them that iiiHuence, that control, which our constitution has secured to us. Should we much longer neglect to do so. all argument, all persuasion, used lor any such purpose, will be as entirely thrown away, as an attempt to show how a dead man's hie might have been saved had a certain nostrum been administered while he was alive. Unless we mean "to give up the ship,'''' in other words, to abandon our good old mother, Virginia, to her aboriginal inhabitants, the bears and wolves of the lorest, and flee to " the far west," vve must insist upon the establishment at public expense of a board of agriculture, or an agricultural school, or an agricultural survey of the state, or all three together. One or all of these means are indis- pensably necessary, if we would maintain among our sister states that relative rank and importance to which our soil, climate, natural resources and population, so justly entitle us. * * * There is another of your improvements which deserves a special notice, on account of the high- ly important purpose, in a national view, to which it is designed to contribute; I mean the establish- ment of the silk-culture in the United States. This improvement is the handsome building late- ly erected io" a cocoonery. Like others destined tor a similar object, which are now preparing in various parts of our country, this house illustrates the existence of a irioral phenomenon, lor which no one, 1 believe, lias ever yet lieen able to ac- count. It is the liability of our minds as well as our bodies to certain untraceable diseases to which the common name of epidemics has been given. Such formerly in Holland, was the disease called '■'■the tulip mania,'''' which, when at its height,, caused single roots to sell from 2,000 lo 5,5()(> guilders; a sum, that in our currency, would ex- ceed iwo thousand dollars. And such, within our own times, was, ^'the merino mania'''' in these United States, with another of more recent date, that shall be nameless. From the sheep mania and its successor, I luckily escaped, by usino- great precaution lo keep out of the way. But I plead guilty to a voluntary exposure to what 1 will take the liberty to call the -^multicaulis fever'''' — a disease which threatens to spread vastly more than did the merino mania; because mulberry bushes being far more divisible than sheep, and of course much lower in price, manj' more persons can afford to buy: adtl to which a thousand or two per cent, profit, seems to be confidently expected li-om each mulberry investment, whereas the me- rino purchasers, I believe, rarely anticipated much more than one or two hundred per cent. « * * # « # * But to be serious: I verily believe that although this multicaulis business will certainly humbug a multitude of those ever sanguine people who calcu- late on amassing enormous fortunes by if, yet that it may prove highly profitable to all who will be prudent enouirh to sell at the market price, what- ever it may be, immediately they have any trees or cuttinsjs to dispose of. That this price will and inevitably must be much less 12 months hence, I think absolutely certain, notwithstanding all the prophecies you have been flattered with to the contrary. My reasons for this opinion are, that FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 some sellers among us are already asking less per thousand (or huds than they did only a \'e\v weeks ago, which indicates that the demand is nearly or quite supphed. and that it is notorious; nineiy-rune purchasers out of a hundred buy to sell, and not to feed silk-worms, which require a much cheaper diet tlian mulberry hushes at one or at two dollars each. This cheaper food will soon he raised lor them by the enormous specula- tions in that article now raging every where and aggravated to a most dagerous height by the lust o(" innrdinaie gain. Then but not until then, can we rationally expect that the making of silk will become a regular and general business. The tiict of iis perfect praciicablity is now established be- yond a doubt by the great profits which many of our northern brelhern have derived from it — al- though but lew, compared with our whole popula- tion, have yet carried it to much extent. That we should not now see multitudes engaged in it, seems entirely attributable to the multicaulis lever, which has excited the belief that vastly more money can be made by cultivating food for silk- worms, than by raising the worms themselves. Another reason lor believing that the manu- f icturing of silk will become, in a few years, a permanent source of great individual and na- tional wealth, is the enormous present consumption of this article, from foreign countries no better adapted than ours, if as well, to iis production. By the report of the Secretary of the Treasury, made to congress on the 8th of iVlay last, it ap- pears that there were imported into the United States during the fiscal year ending on the 30th of September, 1837, Of manufactures wholly silk $11,114,170 wnrtli Of do. silk and worsted mixed 1,810,947 do. Mal;ing the enormous total ;§ 12,92-5, 120 When we add to this the probable amount of our home manufactures of domestic silk, it will not be an extravigant estimate to say, that the value of silk goods annually consumed in our country is not much, if any short of one dollar per head lor eve^y man, woman and child, in the United States ! ! Some possibly may ascribe this chiefly to fashon ; but after making every reasonable al- lowance for this intiuence when we reflect that silk is much more lasting than cotton, and better adapted for most articles of wearing apparel, as well as several other thmgs, we cannot lor a mo- ment doubt that its consumption will increase in full proportion to the decrease in the cost of its production. This is the natural, the constant ef- fect, whenever the supply of any useful article whatever, either fully equals or a little exceeds the previous demand. More of it will certainly bi^, purchased, because the reduced price brinirs it within the means of a greater number of con- sumers; and thus it is, that demand and sap- ply will forever act and react upon each other, when trade is fi-ee. From the Cultivntor. THE MULIi!:;URY. Westnol alone, amonrr oar cotempnnu-i-^s of the press, lor a long time, m maintaininLr, that the moras niuliicanlis was too tender to witlistan 1 our northern winters. We see our opinion now con- firmed by some of the longest established grow- ers, who, if we remember right, once maintained a contrary opmion. And we notice in a late •Farmer and Gardener,' printed at Baltimore, Md., "directions for preserving the multicaulis through the winter," — which consists in taking them from the ground, and covering them with earth in the cellar. At a late farujers' meeting in Northamp- ton, Dr. Stebbins and Mr. Whitmarsh, who have both, we believe, for a number of years, been ac- tively engaged in propagating and vending the mulberry, pronounced the niulticaulis not suitable for our climate. We subjoin quotations from the remarks of each : "Experience has taught us," says Dr. Steb- bins, " that our climate is not congenial to the ha- bits of the morus multicaulis plant ; many thou- sands have been lost every year in consequence of not providing a shelter and protection for them against the frosts of autumn, and the severe cold of our winters. It has been demonstrated to us by expensive experiment, that the tree is not suit- ed to our borean seasons." " The principal objections to this tree is," re- marks Mr. Whitmarsh, "that the leaves contain a great proportion of watery matter, which causes the worms that are led upon them to be unhealthy, and hence injure their sill(. He thought this ob- jection would operate more seriously at the south, where the seasons are longer and warmer. The heat would cause them to grow more rapidly, the leaves would be larger, and he thought, imbibe more moisture. He regretted the universal adop- tion of this tree at the south, and fieared that a failure caused by this fact, would retard the pro- cress of the [silk] business ten years, by discou- raging so many who would become losers." We quote the above as sfTording hmts that may he useful to those who are about embarking in the silk business ; though we somewhat doubt if Mr. W. is correct in his objections to the leaves of the multicaulis, and we think he is decidedly in error in supposing that this objection, ifwell found- ed, will be greater at the south than in the north ; the greater heat at the south decreasing, instead of increasing, the succulence or watery properties of the foliage. These two gentlemen give a decided preference to what they term the j/lpine, which Mr. W. says is " the kind universally used in France and Italy." We do noi mean to charge these gentle- men with wanton deception, for we have a high opinion of their good standing; yet there is some- thing so mystical in these declarations, so con- trary to receive opinions, that we can not pass them as current truths, without asking for some farther explanation. We have examined all the botanical and other works in our possession which treat of the mulberry, and they are neither few nor of doubtful authority — and yet we can not find in any one the term j^lpine given to any spe- cies or variety of the mulberry. And as to the assertion that the Alpine is universally used in France and Italy, we have Gen. Tallmadffe's de- claration, that in Finizio's establishment, in Ifal\', which he visited, 3,000 lbs. of sewing silk are made a week, mostly from the black mulberry CM. nigra j) that Finizio stated to him, that thii worm fed on the black mulberry made the stronjx- est thread; that on the white mulberry finer and 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. better fabrics ; that on the Chinese {M. multicau- lis) still finer and more delicate fabrics. And we think, (for we have not the letter at hand,) that Gen. Talimadge says the white mulberry (31. alba) is almost exclusively employed in France. JLoudon says, "the M. alba is commonly cultiva- ted in F'rance and other countries, for its leaves, to feed silk-worms, though in some parts of Spain and Persia they are said to prefer the black mul- berry." Eiic. Plants, 782. The Alpine, 'we pre- sume is a variety of the M. alba, and is probably the one alluded to by Loudon, where he says — "the most valuable variety of the M. alba is one grown in Italy, and especially in Lombardy, with vigorous shoots, and much larger leaves than the other." This may also be the Dandolo of Loudon, and the Italian of Sweet, and possibly the Brussa ot Asia, from whence it may have been brought to Italy. Dr. Stebbins advertises the .public, that the un- dernamed (and many not named) descriptions of the mulberry, may be had of him in Northampton, viz. the Manilla multicaulis, the Canlon, the ^^ pine, the jisiatic, the Smyrna, the Brussa and Dandolo. Now we protest against this fabrica- tion of new names, for old things, whether it be from ignorance, for novelty, or to subserve the in- terests of the trade. Those printed in italics ap- pear to us to be absolutely of new coinage. This unnecessary multiplication of names tends to mys- tify the business, to deceive the public and to re- tard a useful branch of national industr}'. We believe that all which are named in the Doctor's advertisement are merely varieties of the white mulberry, differing somewhat in the size of their foliage, and in their hardihood, but very little in their properties for silk. We have no sort of objection that Doctor S. should puff his own wares, or his own kind of trees — but we do object to his doing it to the pre- judice of others, and of truth — wliich he indireclly does when he remarks — "The Brussa and Dan- dolo appear to be selected white mulberry — leaf not large — tree hardy, and there are some other varieties, zohich nmy be used for change of food!''' Now if the Doctor has seen the cocoons and silk produced exclusively i'tom the Brussa, he must know that the insinuation here made, that it is unfit lor the entire subsistence of the silk- worm, and the production of excellent silk, is neither ingenuous nor true ; and if he has not this personal know- ledge, he has no right, as an honerable man, to give the intimation imputed to him. The general impression is, that the M. multi- caulis will produce iew or no seeds. This is pro- bably owing to its rapid and continued growth of wood — and the tree will probably I'ruit freely when it has attained to maturity of growth. We have yet none but young trees among us, comparatively; and it is particularly remarked of the mulberry, that young trees are shy in bearing, and that the quantity and size of the fruit increases as the tree advances to maturity. In the East Indies, according to Loudon, the plants are raised fi-om cuttings, eight or ten ol which are planted together in one pit, and the pits are distributed over the field at the distance of two or three fijet every way. These cuttings being made firm at the lower ends, soon form stools about the size of a raspberry bush, and fi-om these the leaves are gathered. The stools are cut over once a year to encourage the production of vigorous shoots from the roots. From the Genesee Farmer. TREATMENT OF THE HORSE — FOOD. The horse is one of the most useful animalg that has been subjected to the dominion of man, but his treatment in the matter of food is fre- quently such that his powers are but imperfectly developed, and his value nearly destroyed. With too many his position is that of the slave ; devoted to all mannerof drudgery, and left to gather a pre- carious subsistence as best he may. To care for a horse seems, by many, to be considered beneath the dignity of the master, when the horse, per- haps, in every respect, is the worthier animal of the two. There is scarcely any thing that can be used as food upon which the horse will not subsist. Though not precisely carnivorous, and from his structure evidently intended not to subsist on flesh, there are numerous instances in which the horse has attained a relish for meat, and in the language of one of Walter Scott's heroes, "taken his meals like a christiain." Nearly every one has seen the horse lick blood, but this is owing most probably to a liking lor the salt it contains. In Bracy Clark's work on the horse, and in the 'V^eterinarian,' are several cases of horses eating flesh. One, a colt, was in the habbit ot putting his head into a pantry window, and stealing all the cooked beef, mutton, or veal that he could reach ; pork, however he re- jected. In India, horses are taught to subsist on meat by boiling it to rags and making it into balls with grain and butter, which at first, are forced down his throat. During the long marches of the Pindaree robbers, their horses will make a meal on the boiled sheep's heads, that have been slaugh- tered for the men. Mr. Melling, in England, had a horse that would eat beef or bacon, in pre- ference to oats or corn, when put into the manger at the same time; and a leg of roasted mutton was his liivorite dish. The author of that amusing work 'A trip to the Pictured Rocks of Lake Su- perior,' gives an account of a horse at the rap- ids of the St. Mary, which would at any time de- vour raw fish, and duiing the winter, subsisted on salted and barrelled while fish from the Superior ; and the practice of leeding horses on fish, accord- ing to 'Bullock's Travels,' is common in Nor- way. Hay and grain are however, the kinds of food on which those who keep horses must mainly rely lor their subsistance ; and the kinds of these best adapted to the horse, and the quantity required to keep him in good condition, and enable him to per- Ibrm labor, are inquiries of much interest. In this country, our hay is principally made from clover and timothy, with a mixture of June grass and red lop ; the quantity of the two last mainly depending on the soil of" the meadow, and the time it has been laid down to grass. Where the system of rotation in cropping is adopted, clo- ver forms a large proportion of the hay, as this grass cuts the largest weight in the shortest time, makes good hay, and is proved to be the best renovator of ftjrtility in soil. Stewart in his 'Stable Economy,' says: — "In England, clover hay stands in high repute 6 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. I for the hard working draught horse. In the mar- ket it brings 20 per cent, more than meadow or rye-grass. Hard upland meadow hay is prefer- red for hunters or racers, because, I suppose, they are apt tc eat too much of the clo- ver. In Scotland, rye-grass hay, or a mixture of rye-grass and clover, is considered the best for all horses. The greater part of the hay in Scotland is bad. Hay differs very much in its quahty, not only from the different plants of which it is composed, but from its method of curing, its age, and the manner of its preservation. New hay is not good (or the horse. If confined to it without any mixture of oats, he is apt to be purged and conse- quently debilitated. The horse is ibnd of it, and will eat a large quantity, but such hay is ditHcult of digestion, and much of it passes, little altered in iis appearance, and propably without having parted with its nutritive properties. On the other hand, hay which is too old, is dry, tasteless, brittle, and'has evidently lost much ol'its value as an article of food. According to Mr. Clark, "good hay is about a year old, long and large, hard, tough, its color inclining to green rather than to white: it lias a sweet taste and a pleasant smell; the seed is abundant, (proving it was not cut till nearly ripe;) inlljsed in hot water it produces a rich dark color- ed tea. The less dust hay has about it the better; but fi-om the soil, and the way in which hay is made here (England) it is seldom free from dust. In damp weather hayahsorbs much moisture, and of course weighs a good deal the heavier. The mar- ket weight of new hay till the 4th of September is 60 pounds the truss, of old hay 56 pounds. One of the worst kinds of hay lor the horse is that which has been over heated, or, as it is com- monly exfTcssed, moio-burnt. To cure hay well, it is necessary that it should pass through a sweat- ingor heating process; this developes the saccha- rine qualities of the grass, and confers upon it addtional nutritive power. This process is the more necessary in curing sreen hay, audit is usu- ally peribrmed in the cock ; (and in clover this cu- rative process can he performed so well in no other way ,)while that which standstill its juices are perfected by ripening. re(iuires, and is capable of but a very slight degree of sweating. If this ler- mentaiion is arrested at the proper time, and ex- posure to the air instantly does this, the hay is the better for it ; but il" carried loo far, or ifj as too fre- quently the case, the hay is put into the barn too early, iermentation or heatinjgoes on till the nutri- tive properties are mostly orentirely dissipaied, the hay becomes rotten, black and worhless, or is in the condition that is known as mow burnt. Wlirn this kind of hay is fed to horses, thev will select and eat small quanties of it; and if compelled by hunger to eat more, its bad eff'ects will soon be discovered. It is doubtless the worst (bod a horse can receive; and when purchased, it is probably the dearest. To some horses, such as are employ- ed in last work, its diuretic qualities render it de- structive; good straw is far better than such hay for any animal ; but cattle suffer less from mow-burnt hay than horses. Musty hay is different in some respects, li'om mow-burnt hay ; as it is more apt to eflect the wind, or producedisordersofthe lungs; wiiile It is not positively injurious or poisonous in others respects, like the first kind described, ft is known by its unpleasant smell, bad color^ and odor, and bitter taste. Examination shows such hay to be coated with fungi, or minute mushrooms. The smell of musty hay is most distinct when breathed upon; and a horse alter eating a few mouthfuls will sometimes turn from it with disgust. Old hay that has never been heated, if exposed to damp air, will sometimes become musty; and in that state ia wretched stuff' for any animal. Mr. Youatt, in the 'Veterinarian,' says very justly,— "It ought to be understood that food ought lo possess bulk in some degree proportioned to the capacity ot the digestive organs. Nutriment can be given in a very concentrated form, yet it is impro- per to condense it beyond a certain point. Corn (grain) alone will give all the nourishment which any horse can need, but he must also have some fodder to give bulk to the corn, though it need not of necessity yield much nutriment." Let a man who doubts the necessity of feeding his horse or any thing but grain, try living on pemmican, or the concentrated essence of heel] for a while, and he would be glad of a slice of' bread, though containing much less positive nour- ishment: even if the bread was of the coarsest kind ever compounded by Dr. Graham. 'JMie quantity of grain allowed a horse, the quality of the hay, and the labor to be performed, must all be taken into consideration in determining his daily allowance. Baron Bulow, the german ag- riculturist, estimates the 8 pouuds of good meadow hay, or 7 if made from clover or sainfoin, is equal in nourishment to 3 pounds of oats. Eight pounds of good hay and 15 to 18 pounds of oats, have been proved sufficient for fast work, that is for coach horses who work only one or two hours a day, but while in use go at a great pace. Heavy team horses will consume from twenty to thirty pounds, for the necessity for limiting these as to quantity does not exist. If the work is to be fast, the hay must be limited in the quantity, or he will have a large belly, which is incompatible with fast travel- ing. We know of some farmers who keep their horses on hay alone, unless some hard day's work is to be done, when perhaps lialf bushel of oats is al- lowed them in the morning. It is not disputed that a horse can live on hay; but if the farmer who treats his horse in this way would properly appreciate the advantage they derive li'om the oais for that day's labor, he should live on bread and water for a fortnight, and when compelled to perform a seven days labor, indulge his stomach with a slice of ham or steak. A horse kept ou hay alone always has a tendency to become fee- ble and pot-bellied. A little grain, a lew roots, or even a mash of bran, if given only once in two days will aid materially in keejiing him in good heart and flesh. There is a material difference between a horse that eats to live, and one that eats to work ; and it should be remembered that the stomach and bowels will hardly hold sufficient hay to keep even an idle horse alive. Straw has been of late somewhat extensively used as a substitute fiir hay; and when cut into chaff', as it always should be, and mixed with the ground or boiled grain it is found to answer every purpose; and the horse will perform his work as well as on hay. If as some have contended, a (juart more of oats daily is required where straw is substituted lor hay, there is still a saving, where. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 9 as in ihis country, straw is by the farmer consider- ed ofno value. In many parts of Europe, wheat, barley or rye straw, forms the whole, or greater part of the dried herbage used as fodder, hay being almost unknown. Here it is little used as food; the use to which it is put, is littering the sta- ble, and lor this it is too much neglected. If far- mers who keep a stable of horses (and they can- not be dispensed with where wheat is extensively grown) would adopt the mode of grinding their oats, and usmg straw made into chaff, for which purpose Green's straw-cutter is most admirable, they would effect a material saving, besides being enabled to keep an additional number of cattle or sheep on the hay now necessary lor their iiorses. In the United States, barley has never met with much favor as food for the horse. Whether this is owing to the fact that little has been used for that purpose, and consequently the best mode of feeding it is unknown, or whether the climate ren- ders the grain itself unsuitable, does not seem to have been clearly decided. We think the first is the cause; smce in Europe it is extensively used lor horse-feed, without the least injurious conse- quences; and the robbers of Arabia, and the Tur- coman of Bokkara, use no other grain, or very rarely any other, to feed their fleet and beautiful horses. Pounded and mixed with water, or when it can be had, with milk, the Arabian horse defies fi^tigue; and with a few pounds of barley meal daily, and the scanty herbage which in a few fa- vored places is found in the desert, he keeps in high condition through the year. VVhile, howev- er, oats can be grown so much more easily than barley in much of our country, the culture of bar- ley for horses will be little attended to by the far- mer. Next to oats, corn is the grain most used for feeding horses in this country; and in some parts, as in the soulhcin siatcs, ills ahuo&l the only grain they receive. The excellence of the southern horse generally, his spirit and capability of enduring fiitigue, are decided proofs that the unfavorable impressions entertained in England and some other parts of Europe of this grain as horse feed, are entirely without foundation. We have tried oats, corn-meal, and shorts, with cut straw, as food for the horse, and on none ot" them did he thrive better, have more per((3ct health, or perform severe labor better, than when fed with the corn-meal and straw. Some precaution is ne- cessary, when changing fi'om oats, or shorts, to corn ; as the latter contains lar more nutriment than the others, and is more siinnilating; and if given in equal quantities is apt to be injurious to the animal. And the same remark is true in re- gard to barley or wheat. Neither corn, barley, or wheat, should ever be given to horses without first being ground; and if oats are first submitted to this process, a very great saving is effected. Straw should never be fed to a horse without being cut, and when hay is dry and hard much will be gained by cutting this. Every one is acquainted with the fact that horses fed constantly on unground grain, or dry straw, or hay uncut, will soon have theirgrinders worn out, or so low as to become unserviceable, and of consequence much of the food swallowed will be unmasticated, and of very little use. The teeth of the horse prove, that by nature dried gram |ilanis were not intended fur his sole food, Vol. VII.-2 and if we wish to have this useful animal retain his full strength and usefulness, the laws of his construction cannot saldy be disregarded. From tlic Franlilin Farmer. HIGH PRICED LIVE STOCK. Henry Clay, Jr. Esq. of Fayette county, sold his cow. Princess, a lew days since, to Messrs. John and Richard Allen., of the same county, lor §2000. William P. Curd, Esq. of Fayette county pur- chased of Mr. John R. Bryant, of the society of Shakers, Pleasant Hill. Mercer county, Ky., a few days ago, a pair of Berkshire hogs, lor which he paid §500. Thomas H. Clay, Esq. purchased at the sale of Mr. Thos. Smith, last week, near Lexington, the improved short horned Durham callj Grosvcnor, two years old, for .§700. Kirkpatrick, fijrmerly the property of Messrs. Offutt & Washington, of Scott couiity, was pur- chased at the same time, by Messrs. Williams, Lewis & Viley, for §600. From llie Cultivator. GUEAT KUTA BAGA CHOP — MIXING SOILS. Schaghilcoke, (N. V.) Dec. 1838. Mr. Bud — Sir — I send you a statement of the produce and culture of a patch of rata bagas, which I have raised the present season, the profit of which, if not the greatest, I flatter myseli; is not the least which will be ollcred lor your pre- miums, as the summer has not been favorable to the produce of large crops of turnips. The soil i.i a sandy luam, (generally so called,) but con- tains by lar too great a proportion of sand to be termed good, and I think myself amply compen- sated for applying from 50 to 100 loads of clay per acre, in the increased products of the first two years. The manure was spread and ploughed in immediately belbre depositing the seed. 'J'hey were sown the first day of June, in drills about two feet apart one way, and owing to a partial lailure of the seed, which was old, a foot or 18 inches the other, v/hich ! am |)ersuaded was an ad- vantage to the crop, as they grew very large; one weighed over 24 lbs. after being trimmed. The alter-culture was one dressing of plaster, which I think is of very great advantage to them, espe- cially in a drought ; three hoeings or weedings, in which care was taken not to earth them up at all. Tlie harvesting is very much facilitated by using a hoe ground sharp to cut the tops as they stand in the ground, after which they are pulled with a hook ; in this way two men will gather seven or eitrht hundred bushels of them in ;i day. I had 970 bushels, calculating 70 lbs. f)er bushel, from 126 rods, at the rate of 1,231 bushels per acre. 1 had another piece I think equally as good, which were not measured. The profit of the 126 rods is ns follows: Dr. To 20 loads manure, at 25 els - §5 00 Carting and spreading tlie same - 3 00 Ploughing, rolling and harruvvmg 2 00 Seed - - - - 0 37| Sowing, l^ day - - - 0 25 10 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No.l 3 hoeings, 10 days, 6g Harvestinjr, 6 days, 5g Interest on land ai ^100 per acre 7 50 3 75 5 50 ^27 37^ Cr. By 970 bushels ruta baoras, at Is. 3d. - - - ^151 56 Tops for fodder, - - - 5 00 fds manure for succeeding crops, - 5 32 Deduct charges, 8161 88 27 37i 8134 60 Balance, - Profit 8134.50. or 8170.80 per acre. 1 am trying an experiment in ("ceding them, which if important, shall be communicated to you and the public. Yours, &c. John C. Mather. CORN CROP. Volneij, Oswego co. Nov. 27, 1838. Mr. Buel—Slr—l saw in your March number of the Cultivator, a premium oH'ered on several ar- ticles of agriculture ; I therefore send you a state- ment of one acre of corn raised by me this season, hoping that if I do not prove a successful compe- titor, the cause of agriculture may receive an ad- ditional witness in its behalf The soil is a warm gravel ; the corn was the twelve-rowed yel- low variety. About the 1st of May. I carried on and spread, all over the ground, seventeen loads of stable and barn-yard unfermented manure,- ploughed before the manure dried; bushed and harrowed the ground well, being careful not to disturb the sod, which had lain to pasture four years ; and on the 14th and 15th of May, planted the same, three feet and three inches apart each way. It was dressed with seven bushels of good unleached house-ashes, mixed with one and a half bushels of plaster, when it made its appear- ance above ground. On the 10th June, went through between the rows both ways with culti- vator° 18th June, cultivator both ways, then thinned to four stalks in each hill, and hoed out the weeds. On the 3d July, cultivator both ways, and commenced hoeing ; put no more earth about the hills than we took from them, but carehilly cleaned out all the weeds from the hills. The seed was prepared by rolling in tar water and plaster. The corn was cut up the 1st of Septem- ber, at the ground, and shocked in small shocks, and on the 25th it was husked and housed. The product is 110 bushels of first-rale corn, and 6 bushels of second-rate, making in all 116 bushels of corn, and four loads of stalks per acre. Thrashing corn 3 days 17 loads manure at 25 cents Carting and spreading Deduct f ds for succeeding crops Total charges Value of crop. 110 bushels sound corn, at 6s. 6d. 6 do. soft corn, at 3s. 4 loads stalks, at 8s. Deduct charges Net profit 2 25 84 25 4 25 88 50 5 66 Expense of crop. Ploughing 1 day and board BushTng and harrowing 1 day Planting 1-| days - - - Hoeing 4 days - - - Horse and hand with cultivator 2 days Cutting and shocking 2 days Husking and housing 8 days - Ashes and plaster, - - - Intereet on land at 850 per acre 82 00 2 00 1 13 3 00 2 00 1 50 6 00 1 25 3 50 2 84 827 47 889 37^ 2 25 4 00 895 62h 27 47 868 15^ William Ingall. I hereby certify that I am personally acquaint- ed with the above named William Ingall, and be- lieve him to be a person of veracity, and that the truth of his statement may be depended on. Aaron G. Fish, Justice. For the Farmers' Register. ESSAY ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. By George D. Armstrong, Prof, of Nat. Philosophy and Chemistry, in Washington College, Va. Chap. I. definition of vegetable physiology. its importance to the farmer. types and typical or normal forms. type of vegetables. departures from ty- pical form. Vegetable Physiology, is that department of natural history, which treats of the structure, and vital action of plants. Some botanists use the term physiology in a more confined sense; as em- bracing nothing more than a treatise on the vital action of plants, or the laws of vegetable life; as- signing an exposition of the structure of plants, to aleparate department, viz., vegetable anatomy. It must be confessed, that such a definition is in more strict accordance with the proper meaning of the word physiology, and also in more perfect conformity to the principles of scientific arrange- ment, than the one which I have adopted; yet, at the same time, it is true, that it is advisable to de- part from strict scientific arrangement, where the benefits arising from such a departure more than counterbalance the evils attendant on it. Such, I think is the case, in the present instance. It is impossible to impart information respecting the vi- tal action of plants, without giving at the same time, a more or less extensive exposition of their structure; and it is equally impossible, to give a full exposition of their structure, without sneaking, occasionally at least, of their vital action. Be- sides this, it is so much easier to understand, and remember anv peculiarity in the structure of a plant, when \ve know the end which is to be ac- complished by it— or any thing respecting the vi- tal action of a plant, when we know the peculiar mechanism by which it is accomplished — than when we are iell in ignorance respecting these 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER 11 matters, that we may doubt, whether a perfect separation of the two subjects, would be desirable, even ifit were possible. Indeed, they have never been kept entirely separate, even by those who have adopted the strictest definitions. Understand- ing the term as defined at the commencement of this article, it is the business of the vegetable physiologist to lay open for inspection, the ma- chinery of vegetable life, and to explain the man- ner in which that machinery operates; to deter- mine the structure of the different organs of plants, the functions which they severally perform, the manner in which they perform those llinctions, and all the changes which they undergo, under the influence of climate, seasons, accidents, or the art of man. "Plants whether regarded as individuals, or as grouped in the gardeli, the field, and the land- scape, are objects of universal interest. The beau- ty of their forms, the delicacy, harmony, and splendor of their colors, the fragrance which they exhale, the relr-eshing verdure and convenient shade which they afford, as well as their more im- portant uses, in ministering to our sustenance and comfort, connect our interest, and even our exis- tence with theirs." The opinion, "that whoso- ever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of grass, to grow upon a spot where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and would do more essential service to his country, than the whole race of mere politicians put to- gether," is a dictate of the soundest philosophy. Plants being of so much importance to man, an examination of their physiology may certainly lay claim to a share of his attention. The business of cultivating useful plants be- longs to the farmer; and I here use the term culti- vating in its widest sense, as meaning, causing them to spring from the earth, watching over and assisting their growth, guarding them against dis- ease and injury of every kind, and so far as such a thing is possible, perfecting them for their intend- ed use. The farmer who would perform well his part, has by no means an easy task. There are but few plants, which in their wild state, are suit- ed to answer a very valuable purpose in the econo- my of life; and there are fewer still, which may not be improved by a judicious system of cultiva- tion; and I may add, none which, afier they have been improved, will not degenerate, under an in- judicious system of cultivation. This improve- ment it is the interest of the farmer to effect; and having once effected, to preserve. There is no plant which is not subject to diseases, arising from the operation of external agencies upon tfie sys- tem of the plant itself From these it is the inter- est of the farmer to protect them. There is no plant, whose growth may not be assisted by the well-directed, and well applied labor of man. The stalk of corn which has sprung from a grain dropped by accident in the uncultivated field, and thus thrown upon its own resources, and left un- befriended to struggle for existence, with the grass and weeds which surround it, cannot compare, with the well cultivated stalk in the luxuriance of its growth, or in the richness and abundance of its fruit. It is evidently the interest of the farmer, to afford this necessary assistance. Plants have to be refined and civilized, (if 1 may be allowed to use such an expression,) in order to fit them for tlie use of refined and civilized man. To the farmer, the business of effecting this, belongs; and he can know but little of the difficulty of this task, who supposes that it can be well performed with- out the exercise of sound judgment, and the pos- session of an extensive acquaintance with the na- ture of those things, on which, and with which, he has to operate. Such being the case, we may assert, without fear of contradiction, that the prin- ciples of vegetable physiology, must enter into the very foundation of every correct and intelligi- ble system of agriculture. Vegetable physiology has never received from farmers, that degree of attention which it has de- served. It is true, that with many of the facts connected with this subject, farmers have long been familiar; but the general principles, and, in (iict, all that constitutes its claim to a rank among the sciences, have received but little attention. This is, no doubt, to be attributed principally, to the want of some work which would present the subject in an intelligible and concise manner, and divested as far as possible, of technical phraseolo- gy. Those who have hitherto written on this subject, have generally been natutalists, perfect- ly familiar with the extensive latin terminology of systematic botany, and who, forgetting that the majority of those who would be, or who ought to be their readers, were not equally familiar with this language, have introduced so much of it in their works, as to make them, to the common reader, 'sealed books." Besides this, most of the works which have been written on vegetable physiology, have been written professedly as in- troductions to systematic botany, and on this ac- count, an extended explanation of technical terms, as well as much other matter entirely irrelevant to the subject, has been introduced. The object of the present series of essays, is to remove this difficulty (as far as the author may be able), by presenting the principles of the science in popular language; or if in any instance it may seem advi- sable, either for the sake of brevity or exactness, to introduce a technical term, by adding a defini- tion at the time the term is used. There is one consideration recommending to the farmer the study of vegetable physiology, which is not true to the same extent, of any other depart- ment of natural science at all cennected with agri- culture. And that is, that no complicated appara- tus, or extensive acquaintance with the mathe- matics, is requisite, to enable a person successful- ly to pursue his investigations on this subject. Whatever we may learn respecting the physiolo- gy of plants, we must learn, by observing (heir operations as carried on around us, or by experi- ments so simple, that any person ofcommon inge- nuity can perform them; and any person of com- mon intelligence can understand them. For pur- suing investigations in chemistry, expensive appa- ratus and materials are necessary; in natural phi- losophy, an extensive acquaintance with the ma- thematics is indispensable; in geology an exami- nation of difi'erent countries, and different parts of those countries, or at least of extensive geological cabinets, such as are accessible to fevv, is essen- tial. But for investigations in vegetabte physiolo- gy, we have the subjects of examination, ?»nd the materials for experimenting, at all times, and eve- rywhere, at hand. All that is necessary to enable a person successfully to prosecute inquiries re- specting this subject, is, an acquaintance with 12 FARMERS' REGISTER [No 1 that which is already known; habits of closo anJ accurale observation of nature, uiizpnuily, and pa- tience. It he possess these, his labors cannot liul to be crowned with success. With these brief introductory remarks, we will now turn to ihe subject belbre us ; viz. vegetable physiology, or an examination into the nature, structure, and vital action of plants. It is dilHcuIt, if not impossible, to give a strictly scientific defi- nition of the term, plant. The division of nalur.d objects into the three great classes, of minerals, vegetables, and animals, is one, Ibunded upon an observation of those ot their properties, which produce the most lively impressions upon our senses; and not upon an intimate and accurate ac- quaintance with all that belongs to them. There are certain great and striking diferences, in the structure of the more common, and more perfectly formed objects, belonging to these several classes, which we all observe. A mineral remains fixed to the same spot, and undergoes little or no change, in the ordinary course of things. A plant is con- tinually undergoing changes ; it springs from the earth, puts Ibrth leaves, tiowers, and fruit, and finally disappears, and, in due time, is succeeded by others like itself. An animal, not only lives and grows, but breathes, moves, utters sounds, and, in a thousand ways, gives evidence of the possession of a kind of lile, different from that which belongs to vegetables. Upon an observa- tion ot" such ddl'erences as these, the general clas- sification of natural objects is founded. When we turn our attention to the less perlectly formed individuals belonging lo these several classes, this broad line of distinction entirely dis- appears ; and so impossible is it to run a dividing line between vegetables and animals on the one hand, or vegetables and minerals on the other, that some iialuralisis, among whom we must reckon the celebrated Eulibn, have contended that there is no exact boundary between them; but that at their exiremilies, the three great classes of natural bodies melt imperceptibly into each other. Naturalists have lieiiuently attempted to draw the line of separation; but, hitherto, have always failed. Litma-us, distinguislieil them as follows : " Minerals trrow — veixctables grow and live — ani- mals grow, live and perceive."' To say nothing of the unpliilosophical manner in which the terms grow, and live, are used in these definitions — meaning one thing in one place, and entirely dif lerent thing in another — the insulTiciency oi' this distinction will be apparent, if we inquire, how does an oyster manil(?st its perception? Only by closing its shell when touched. The sensitive plant might lay claim tn this power, on grounds almost equally good. Touch it, and immediately its leaves close, and, torfether with its branches, droop to the earth, as if in this way to avoid fur- ther injiny. Tlie mention of a single fact, will, perhaps, set this matter before us in a stronger light. The nalural order of beings, called zoo- philes, or animated plants, as their name imports, (of which order the coral may be mentioned, as a fiimiliar example,) were by Woodward and Beau- mont, arranged with minerals ; by Ray and Lis- ter, with vegetables ; and f^re now, by the com- mon consent of naturalists, admitted to a place among animals. So strongly do they, in sonic re- spects, resemble animals — so clearly do they pos- sess many of the traits of the vegetable race— and yet, at the same lime, so strange an admix- ture of the mineral character is discoverable in them, that those who are best acqainted with them, will be least disposed to wonder at these errors. This gradual melting into each other, which ia observable in the three great classes of natural objects, may be noticed in their sub-divisions also. Tlie leather-winged bat, is a connecting link be- tween beasts and birds; lizards, between beasts and reptiles; reptiles themselves, between beasts and fishes. So among vegetables. Ferns and mosses, whose seeds are evident, serve as a con- necting link between the more peritict plants, and the numerous classes of lichens and fungi, the most imperfect of vegetables. So also among mine- rals. The numerous specimens which assume a regular Ibrm by cleavage, serve to connect those which appear as rude and shapeless masses, with those which are presented to us possessed of th« high polish, and all the beautiful regularity of form which characterize the perfect crystal. In truth, we glide so smoothly, and by such imper- ceptible degrees, from the rock, or from the tree of the Ibrest, through all the intervening gradations, till at last we come to intellectual man, that we discover no interval between species of beings. An uninterrupted chain connects the two extremes. The same is true of the ditl'erent parts or organs of animals and plants. From the perfect hand, that " organ ol" organs," as it has been termed, in view of its wonderful mechanism "and admirable adaptation to the wants of men — we pass by such insensible degrees to the hard undivided hoof of the horse, that it is almost impossible to tell where one variety ends, or where the variety next below it begins. The same remarks will be Ibund to apply with equal truth to the organs of plants. For this reason, naturalists in treating of didierent classes and organs of bodies, do not attempt to draw lines of distinction between them ; but se- lecting some one individual from among the most perlect of the class to which it belongs, confine their descriptions entirely to it. The one thus selected, is called the type; and its ibrm the typi- cal or normal Ibrm of the class. After the des- cription of the type is fuiislied, any variations wliich other individuals may [iresent, are noticed if it be thought necessary. I>y adopting this me- thod, that endless controversy about terms, in which the earlier naturalists spent so much oi" their time, to no purpose, is avoided. As the terms type, and typical, or normal, will, of neces- sity, frequently occur in the Ibllowing essays, it will be well Ibr the reader to recollect their mean- ing. 'J'he common garden bean, (vicia faba,') inas- much as it presents every organ commonly met with in plants, may be assumed as the type of this class of things. W we examine it, we will find that it consists of the following parts: First, an irregularly divided part, in its natural situation buried in the ground, and called the root. Se- cond, a green stalk or axis, to which all the other parts are attached, called the stem. Third, cer- tain flat, green organs, situated at different dis- tances along the stem, called haves. These are termed organs of vegetation, because their office is, to minister to the nourishment and growth of the plant. From the point at which some of the iipper leaves are joined to the stem, spring slender 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 13 stalks, bearing the flowers. The flower consists, first, of a eliol-t, five-notched green bell; this is called the calyx. Second, tbnr while or pink leaves, ditferent in form, and tar more delicate in texture than the common leaves of the plant : these form, what is commonly called, the flower; in botany, they are termed petals, and taken col- lectively, form what is termed, the corolla. Third, ten slender thread-like organs, united throughout the greater part of their length, into two sets, one set containing nine, and the other but one ; these are termed sta7nens. Fourth, at the very centre of the flower, are several small green stem-like organs, growing from the end of the young pod ; these ar^ termed pistils. The calyx, corolla, stamens and pistils, are called organs of fructifica- tion, because they are principally concerned in the production of the fruit. Such is the common garden bean; and such are the organs of which all the most perfectly formed plants are composed. Lowly a species as it is, it comprehends every part employed by nature in \he formation of the loftiest tree of the forest. The vast superiority in size which a tree possesses over a bean, is caused by nothing more than an endless multiplication of similar parts, constructed always upon a similar plan, adjusted to each other in the same admirable manner, and all work- ing together in the same perfect harmony and or- der. The bean lives but ibr a summer; the oak, on the other hand, lives from year to year, and from age to age. This diflerence, however, is not owing to any material difference in the structure of ihe two species ; but to a specific power of i)ro- longing its life, inherent in trees, which plants, such as the bean, are destitute of To get a clearer idea of the manner in which this differ- ence in size is produced, let us suppose a bean during its summer's growth, to produce a stem with ten leaves ; and that this stem is hard and perennial, instead of soft and annual. As all pe- rennial plants form a bud at the base of each of their leaves, and as each bud is in fact a rudimen- tary branch, during the second year of its growth the bean may develope ten branches, and, in this way, multiply its dimensions ten times. During the third year, the same operation may take place, and the coiisequence of this will be, an augmenui- tion equal to one hundred times its original dimen- .sions ; and thus it may go on increasing in geo- metric ratio. At this rate, a bean would soon de- velope into an enormous tree ; and although that species never does thus change its nature, yet it is true, that every tree, during the first year of its growth, is formed upon a plan analogous to that of the bean, and never more complicated ; and that its subsequent growth into a giant of the fo- rest, takes place, upon the plan which has just been described, in a supposed case. When we assume the common garden bean as the type of vegetables, we ascribe all the differ- ences which exist between it and other plants. to the absence, alteration, or else multiplication, of its several parts. In assuming so important a type as that of the whole class of vegetables, it is proper that we should notice some of the more common variations in form, which other plants present. In the bean, the root is easily distin- guished from the stem; and is of nearly the same size with it. Such is the fict with respect to most plants; some, however, present great variations from this, thf. typical form. In the relative size of the root and stem, the liicern clover (medicago sativu) may be mentioned as an instance; with astern not more than six inches in length, it will sometimes have a root thirty feet long; /. c. sixty times as long as (he stem. On the other hand, the dodder or love-vine, as it is sometimes called, ( Cascuta yimericana) a bright yellow, leafless vine, to be found in meadows during the summer, tvvininff around other plants, has no roots at all, except in the early part of its growth. So inde- pendent is it of all nourishment derived immedi- ately from the ground, that if a handful of it be torn loose, and thrown upon a tree, it will almost always grow. Perhaps the most curious depar- ture from the typical form (so far as the root is concerned,) if! that presented by some species of lichens. These appear like irregular, leafy ex- pansions, laymg flat upon the ground, or more commonly upoa the surface of rocks. Instead of having any regular root, the whole lower sur- face of the leaf acts the part of a root, absorbing nourishment for the plant fi-om the ground. One of these species, common on the plains of South America, grows very rapidly durintr a rainy sea- son, and will sometimes spread itself over a space of a square toot. When the sun comes out, dry- ing the atmosphere as well as the plant itselfj it breaks into many pieces, each piece rolling up, with its lower side outwards. In this condition, having no roofs to attach it to the soil, ii is blown about, the sport of every blast. But, no sooner does it commence raining again, than these pieces unroll, and spreading themselves flat upon the ground, again commence growing; each separate piece giving rise to a new plant. The common garden bean has a strong, well- proportioned stem, standing erect, and sustaining^ by its own strength, its leaves and fruit. The pole bean, a species of the same plant, has a long, slender, twining stem, unable, withouf assistance, to support even its own weight; much less that of its leaves and fruit. In the bear., the stem is easily distinguishable from Ihe leaves; differing from them in form, texture, &c. In the pricklv pear-, (cactus opiintin,) on the ether hand, there is no distinct stem or leaves ; the whole plant hav- ing the appearance of a series of thick, succulent leaves, one growing out from the end of another. There is a South American species of cactus, fre- quently cultivated in green-houses, which rises into the air, like a naked green club, bearing nei- ther leaves, nor any thing like leaves. The dod- der, also, may be mentioned, as a plant entirely destitute of leaves. The leaves of the bean are green ; those of the Indian pipe, (monoiropa unijlora,) as well as all the other parts of the plant, are perfecily white ; and what is not a liille remarkable, turn black, wherever injured. Blush- rooms have a regular stem, but no distinct leaves, flowers, or fruit. The species of fungus, commonly called puff' ball, (hovista nigrcscc7is,^ is nolhing more than a ball of vegetable matter ; havinij nei- ther root, stem, leaves, flowers, nor iiuii distinct from each other, but all amalgamated in one com- mon rnass. Such are some of the deparliires from their typical form, which different plants pre- sent. A more full account of them will be given, when we come to examine the several organs of plants in detail. 14 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 Chap. II. KLKMKNTARY STRUCTURKS OF PLANTS. VE- GETAGLE MEMBRANE AND FJBRE. ELE- MENTARV ORGANS OF PLANTS. CELLULAR, AVOODYj AND VASCULAR TISSUES. If we examine a common plant, we find it made up of roots, stems, leaves and flowers, or fruit. These we term compound organs. If we examine one of these, the stem for instance, we tind that it is not a homogeneous mass, composed, like a rock, of similar particles cohering together; but that it consists oi" certain organized parts, in the form of cellules and tubes. These we term elementary organs, organic elements, or, taken collectively, elementary tissues. The sides of these cellules and tubes contain vegetable matter,^ in what is believed to be its simplest condition of organization. In this condition, it forms what are ter(ned the elementary structures of plants. Should we commence what might be called a mechanical analysis of a plant, we would first ar- rive at its compound organs; on analyzing these, at its elementary organs, or organic elements; and lastly, on analyzing these, at its elementary structures. It will be necessary that we preserve some order in our examination into the structure and vital action of plants; and I do not know that we can select any better than the one thus indi- cated; commencing with the elementary struc- tures, then taking the elementary organs, and, last of all, the compound organs of plants. The elementary structures are but two; viz. membrane and fibre. Vegetable membrane, when ■examined with powerful microscopes, presents the appearance of an exquisitely thin, transparent, co- lorless film. In the living plant, it resists the ac- rtion of water and watery solutions; but when lile ceases, it is quickly acted upon by them, and re- duced to a pulpy mass. Du Hamel, a botanist o( just celebrity, supposes that vegetable membrane is composed of small organic fibres, arranged par- .allel to each other, and united by a jzlulinous sub- stance. The Ihct that it tears with a ragged ^cdge, as has been shown by Prof. Lindley, seems 10 Tavor this supposition. Yet as a matter of fact, 110 such structure can be detected by the micro- scope; no traces of lines or nettings, or any thing of the kind. On the contrary, it appears perlect- iy homogeneous in its structure, resembling a simple pellicle, or the film of a soap-bubble. In jts simplest Ibriu, it composes the sides of the cel- lules of cellular tisfeue; a little more condensed, the sides of the sap-vessels; and still more condensed, ithe general covering or outer skin of the bark. Froiu the nature of vejretable membrane, perhaps some may conclude, that it is not permeable to duids; but such is not the fact. During the life ■of a plant, both liquids and gases are passed through it continually; as we shall see when we comelo examine into the circulation of vegetable fluids. Indeed, the film of a soap-bubble, to which vegetable membrane was compared, al- thouf'h in°ordinary circumstances, it resists the passage of a gas— yet nothing is more easy than to cau'se a gas to pass through it with great ra- pidity; and'^thiB too, without tearing it, or injuring il in the least. The second of the elementary structures of ve- getables, is fibre. Vegetable fibre presents the appearance of an exceedingly fine thread, resem- bling the thread of which a spider's web is formed. Any one who may have a curiosity to see it, can have that curiosity gratified, by taking a leal-stalk of a strawberry (Fragraria Virginiana) or what is still better, of a common plantain (plantago lan- ceolala^ and having broken it across, carefully separating the two parts. The vegetable fibres, which are coiled along the inside of the spiral ves- sels of those plants, will uncoil in great numbers, stretching like delicate threads, from one piece to the other. Vegetable fibre does not enter as large-^ ly into the structure of the elementary organs of plants, as membrane. The principal parts com- posed of it, are, what are termed spiral vessels. These are either formed of it twisted in a spiral manner, so as to form a tube, or else have it coil- ed along their inner surfaces. It is not impossi- ble, that both membrane and fibre, are composed of a still more elementary structure. If we adopt the notion of Du Hamel respecting the composi- tion of membrane, this would seem very probable. Nothing more would be necessary, than to give to these constituent fibres, an arrangement some- what different; placing them end to end, instead of side by side; and vegetable fibre would be more easily formed from them, than membrane itself. Still this must be looked upon as nothing more than a mere speculation; the microscope reveala to us distinctly, the existence of membrane and fi- bre; but beyond this it does not go. Pursuing our inquiry into the structure of plants, the parts which stand next in simplicity to the ele- mentary structures, are what are termed elemen- tary organs. These appear in three ditierent forms, viz., cellular, woody, and vascular tissues. To these we will attend in the order in which they have been mentioned. The cellular, or as some botanists term it, the vesicular tissue, is the most abundant of the three. If a transverse section of the elder (sambucus canadensis) be examined with a good microscope, it will present the appearance of a fine honey- comb, made up of little hexagonal cells. If a part of the same pith be boiled in water containing a small portion of potassa in solution, it may be separated into exceedingly minute bladders, by rubbing it between the fingers. It was these bladders, which, having been cut through, pre- sented the honey-comb appearance noticed in the first instance. In their natural state, they adhere firmly to each other; but being boiled in a weak solution of potassa, their adhesion is destroyed, and they are set free. The pulp of the strawberry consists of similar cellules; and in this instance they adhere so loosely, as to be separated by sim- ply rubbing the pulp under water. The cellules in the pith of the elder are empty, those in the pulp of a strawberry, are filled with a sweet red liquid. The cellular tissue is made up of these cellules, or little bladders, adhering together. In size they vary much in different plants, and even in different parts of the same plant. Their most common size is from 45.0 th to jij th of an inch in diameter. From this they vary, so as to measure in some instances 3V th, and in others not more than y^Vo th of an inch in diameter, la freneral, they are smallest in the leaves, larger m The stem, and largest in the roots of the same plant; and larger in succulent and annual plants, 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 15 ihan in trees and shrubs. It has been calculated, that a large gourd contains 47,000,000,000,000 of them; a number so great, that it is ditFicult lor the mind to form a distinct idea of it without some- thing to compare it with. Prof. Lindley illustrates in this way. It all the cellules of such a gourd were arranged in a line, and two hundred of them stretched an inch, which is about their size, they would extend about nine hundred miles. The cellules of the gourd are larger than those of most plants. In some plants, and in some parts of plants they are only y^iy th of an inch in diame- ter. Of these it would take a million to cover a square inch of surface; and of course a million mil- lion to form a mass measuring one cubic inch. The cellules of the cellular tissue present a great variety of ibrms. Of these, the sphere is assumed as the typical or normal form. The most common, modified, or secondary forms, are, the eliptic and oblate spheres, disk, and six and twelve-sided prisms. The typical form is that which the cellules most frequently present. The next most common, is that of a twelve-sided prism, produced by the moderate pressure of six surrounding cells upon one. When the pressure of the six surrounding cells is considerable, in consequence of each cell being distended to the utmost by the liquid which it contains, and at the same time, confined within narrow limits, the form of the prism is necessarily hexagonal. A very pretty illustration of the action of these same causes in producing a similar effect, is afforded by blowing a number of soap-bubbles within a limit- ed space; for instance, in the bottom of a tum- bler; each of these bubbles will be found to be a perfect hexagon. If whilst the latteral pressure is considerable, the upward and downward pres- sures are but slight; a compression of the sides of the cellules will take place, and at the same time, an extension of their ends. In this way, an elip- tic sphere, or even a cylinder, may be produced. This is, in fact, very frequently the case. Plants enlarge much more rapidly in a vertical, than in a lateral direction; and, as the consequence, it is found that the cellules very fi-equenily have more or less of the form last mentioned. If the pres- sure is very great on two opposite sides, whilst it is slight in every other direction, an oblate sphe- roid, or a disk, will be produced. If the pressure is great in every direction, but particularly great on two opposite sides, the cellules assume the form of their paralleilograms. Thus the form of the cellule is determined by the circumstances and situation in which it is produced. There is a common and very important modifi- cation of cellular tissue, to which the name of dot- ted ducts, or canals, has been given. These ducts are formed of series of short cylindric or prismatic cells, placed end to end, so as to form slender co- lumns, extending the whole length of the plant, in which they occur. During the early part ol the life of a plant, these cylinders are entire, and, consequently, each column is composed of a vast number of closed cavities ; but, after a time, the ends of the cylinders are torn open, and the cavi- ties communicate with each other, so as to form a tube. At the places where the cylinders join, ob- lique dotted lines are seen externally, and hence this class of organs have received the name of exceedingly fine and transparent character. The membrane which Ibrms the cellules of the pulp of a strawberry, is so transparent, that the red liquid which these cellules contain, appears of almost as bright a red as it would if nothing were interposed between it and the eye. The same remark, will apply to the cellules of a common green leaf; for in no instance does the coloring matter reside in the sides of the cellules, or in the membrane of which they are composed, but always in the liquid which they contain. This membrane, however, is not always of so thin and transparent a charac- ter. In the hard shell of the stones of fruit, it is so thick that the very cavities of the cells are a 1 filled up with it. Vegetable fibre, sometimes, though rarely, enters into the composition of cel- lules. When it does thus enter, the cellules are usually composed of one long fibre each, coiled up so as to form their sides ; and not of several, cross- ed or interlaced. Such is the cellular tissue. It enters into the composition of almost every part of the vegetable structure ; it constitutes exclusively the pith ; en- ters largely into the structure of the leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, pistils and seed ; and is altogether absent only from the plates of pu^e woody matter of the stem, and from what are commonly called the veins of the leaves, which are in reality parts of the woody system. Sea- weeds, lichens, mush- rooms, mosses and ferns, are entirely composed of it; and are therefore termed cellular plants. This tissue is supposed, to be capable, by itself, of performing all the more important functions of ve- getable life ; indeed, it must be, inasmuch as the class of plants just mentioned, live, grow, and multiply themselves, without possessing any other- When combined with the other tissues, it has certain objects in particular Cot which it is des- tined. One of the most important of its func- tions, is to absorb moisture, and gaseous matter from the earth and atmosphere ; and afier effect- ing a separation of such portions as are suitable to the nourishment of the plant, to give off those portions which are unsuitable. If a slice of elder pith, (which is, as I have already remarked, com- posed entirely of cellular tissue,) be placed upon the side of a watch-glass containing water, and be allowed to communicate, by ever so small a space, with that water, the whole mass will speedi- ly become saturated; and, on the other hand, it will as speedily part with its water, if exposed to a dry atmosphere. Possessing, in so high a de- gree as it does, the power of absorbing and giving out fluids, it is well adapted to the transmission of the fluids of plants, from place to place. When composed of cellules of a spheroidal shape, it can allow fluids to pass indifferently in whatever di- rection a higher propelling force may exert itself. When the cellules have any other figure, they will conduct the fluids most rapidly in the direction of their greatest diameter. In tl7e pith, the cel- lules are of a spheroidal shape, and conduct the sap to whatever part of the adjacent tissues most need it ; in the medullary rays, (those lines appa- rently of hard woody matter which may be no- ticed in a gross section of the trunk of a free, ex- tending from the bark to the centre,) on the other hand, the cellules of which are thin paralleilo- grams, with their principal axes directed from the dotted ducts. Cellular tissue is generally formed I bark to the pith, the sap is conveyed in a horizon of vegetable membrane ; and membrane of an I tal direction, only. Besides, absorbing, giving off 16 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1 and transmitting the fluids of plants, the cellular tissue is the principal instrument in their elabora- tion; that is, in the conversion of the crude sap into the sugary, resinous, oily, acid and saline ve- getable secretions. The next in order, of the elementary organs of plants, is the woody tissue. Tliis consists of slen- der, tough tubes, tapering lo sharp poinis at each extremiry. These little tubes are so placed, as that the end of one overlaps that of another ; and in this way they form long fibres, running length- wise through the plant."" The fibres of hemp, (ci)imabissativa,) or flax, (liiiumusiialisslmum,) may be selected as good specimens of woody tissue. If we examine, with a good microscope, the finest filament ol flax, we will find that it is not a simple fibre, but is made up of numerous fibres of difierent lengths, very closely joined to- gether, and overlapping each other by their slender extremities. By continued maceration in water, or by boiling in very dilute nitric acul, their cohe- sion may be destroyed, so that by careful man- agement, the simple vessels may be obtained m a separate state. In hem[), their diameter is about six times less than that of a common sized human hair ; in many plants, however, it is somewhat larger than this. These vessels, as has been mentioned, are hollow tubes. For a long time, they were believed to be solid ; but more carelul examination has shown that, in this particular, the early botanists were in error. Tlie great use ot the woody fibre, is, to protect the more delicate organs, and to give sirenglh to every part, of the vegetable structure. It may be considered the bony system of plants. It" it were not tor it, the main stationary in the veins. Harvey had become acqainted with the nature of pumps and the struc- ture of valves— when carefully dissecting a human body, he noticed that there were valves, placed at certain points along the principal arteries. The_ only use of valves, is to prevent the return of fluids alter they have been forced out of their most natural position; or in other words, valves are of use only in connexion with circulating fluids. From the existence of valves in the arteries, he infiirred that the fluid which those arteries contain- ed, must circulate through them; from the struc- ture of those vessels, he interred their oflice, and subsequent observation and experiment have fully established the correctness of his inference. On similar ground we infer, that the fluids of plants circulate through the woody tissue; although we have never been able, by direct observation or ex- periment, to prove that they do. In fact, all the elementary organs of plants are so simple in their nature, and so much resemble each other in their structure, that it is not at all improbable, that one organ sometimes performs the work which more properly belongs to another. The third and last of the elementary organs of plants, are the vessels of the vascular lissue. These are principally of two kinds : first, spiral vessels, and second, ducts. A spiral vessel la composed, either of vegetable fibre coiled in the form of a wiie-spring,"and with the edges of its contiguous coils adhering together, so as to form an ulibroken tube ; or else, partly of membrane and partly of fibre ; the tube itself being formed of membrane, and the fibre coiled along its inner surliice, so as to give it elasticity and strength. boiiv system 01 plants, ii u weie nui lui u, i..v. ^.^...>^., -- .=- .„q..„ .. _„ _, ^ stent of an oak would be as brittle as that of alt is easy to get a sight o! his fibre n t e way mushroom ; but lyin.- as it does across the cellu- mentioned when treating of vegetable fibie , but lar tissue, it binds it together, and renders all the parts tough, by its own elasticity and strength. It occurs in what is commonly c;illed the wood of the plants of which it forms the principal part; in the bark, in small quantities; in the veins of the leaves, and in the husk of most fruits, it ap- pears highly probable, that in addition to the uses just memioned, woody fibre has the office of con- veying fluids in certain directions. The fact that the extremities of its tubes are closed, instead of forbidding, favors such an idea, as we shall hereaf-_ ter see. It is true, that from the impossibility of observing the progress of fluids, in parts so minute and so easily injured as the vegetable tissues, no one has been able to demonstrate this by direct observation. Yet we can hardly doubt that such is the case, when we consider how rapidly the sap flows up the stem of a tree, which consists to a very large extent of woody fibre; and lurther, that when colored infusions are made to enter plants, they are uniformly found to pervade the parts composed almost entirely of woody fibre. We may draw an argument to support the same notion, from the structure of the woody lissue. Its structure is such as fits it for this oflice ; and so universally do we observe in nature an adapta- tion of means to their ends, of structures to their otTices, that we may, with very little danger ofer- ror, infer the one f>om the other. An instance of such an inlerence, which will, perhaps, show the value of such reasoninji as this, better than any o-eneral remarks, is allorded in the discovery of The circulation of the blood of animals. Cefure the lime of ilarvcy. the blood was believed lo re- in this way, we can obtain no correct idea of the structure of the spiral vessels. By carefully dis- sectinir a boiled stem of asparagus, we can exam- ine them, in their natural condition. Spiral ves- sels are found in plants during every period oi their growth; even in theplantule, orembno in the seed. They stretch through the whole length of a plant, from the root, to the extremity of the leaves. They are generally disposed in bundles, along with ducts and woody fibre; each bundle contain- ing from three, to one hundred. In succulent plants they are found in every part of the stemj in woody plants, they always surround the pith, and form a part of the mid-rib of the leaves; they are also found in the difierent parts of the flower and seed. In diameter, they vary fi-om three, to one-thousandth of an inch. In llowerless jjlants, such as mushrooms, lichens, &c., they are entire- ly wanting; from this it is interred, that they are connected in some unexplained way, with the pro- duction of flowers and regular seed. II a stem be cut across under water, air bub- bles immediately form at the months of the spi- ral vessels; hence it is inferred that their peculiar oflice is that of transmitlinn; gases through |)lants. Some botanists speak of them as the trachece, or wind-pipes of plants. When we call to mind how lai-ixe a portion of every vegetable structure is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, and also how lafiie a portion of the carbon of plants is ob- tained immediately from the atmosphere, we will not be surprised that a class of vessels is set apart Ibr the conveyance of gases. Their structure is admirably adapted to their ollicc. Had they bceu 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 17 formed of membrane, only, and placed in the midst of bundles of vessels always distended by the liquids which they contain, they must have been so pressed in on every side, as to have been unfitted for the performance of their appropriate duties. But having a tough and elastic fibre coiled along their inner surfaces, they are enabled to re- sist this pressure, and to furnish a free passage forirases throughout the whole plant. Ducts, are membranous tubes, very much re- sembling spiral vessels in their form, and dislin- guishabTe from them principally by their want o( elasticity, and the absence of a spiral fibre along their inner surface. The rounded cellules and cy- lindric tubes, of which the vegetable structure consists, cannot be applied to each other in masses, 80 as to fit exactly ; litde irregular spaces will ne- cessarily be left between them. These spaces are termed intercellular spaces. They are usually triangular ; but their form vvill of course be de- termmed by the number of vessels by which they are formed. It sometimes happens, that the pe- culiar secretions, or products of plants, are depo- sited in these spaces, and pressing upon the neigh- boring cellules, form cavities of very considerable size. ° Of this nature are the turpentine cells, in the bark of the pine. Such are the elementary organs of plants, and sucii, so liir as is known, their offices, 'rhe in- fluence of the vital principle, is beauiifiily dis- played in the action of tlie^e organs. The ves- sels of the living plant, swollen with fluids, re- tain during ilk, their figure — change the fluids which they contain into others of the most oppo- and twelve inches in the line; single stalks only left in the thinning, which operation was performed by a patent drill-machine, invented by Francis H. Smith, of Baltimore, which I have found use^ ful, in many years' experience. With one man and two horses, this machine will furrow, drop, cover, and roll down eight or ten acres per day, and, with nearly a mathematical precision, in point of line and distance. The corn, when up, was worked with ordinary " cultivators," suc- ceeded by one dressing with the "scari^er," about six inches deep. This latter implement, which I purchased several years ago, of Sinclair & Moore of Baltimore, has, in my opinion, no equivalent substitute, in the culture of our corn- crop; as by it, the earth may be penetrated and pulverized six or eight inches deep, with two horses, and without turning up the sward, and exposing it to the drying action of the sun and air. The cultivators, or any other harrows, (I prefer the cultivator,) are again used and continued, un- ceasingly, till the sward is rotten, which vvill ge- nerally be about the last of June, when the plough is. for the first time since the planting, in- troduced to turn up the sward, which, having been so long buried and undisturbed, except by the cutting of the " scarifier,''— and, under the cumuiaiive agency of heat and moisture, is now fully deconi|)osed, and thus incorporated with the soil; which is thereby improved, and adapted to the subsequent wheat or other small grain, which may delight in dainty and well cooked food, when the corn had flourished upon the vapors and gases of the preparatory process. After the sitequaliiies-and constitute, during life, a suffi- \plougIh I take up agmn, the " cultivator, or any '■ ■ ■ ' '- • -!•- - .--^ I Other harrow, under the classic precept, "mw/ru?7i cient barrier, to prevent them from nungiing tose- ther. But no sooner is life extinct, than the sides of these vessels yield, the secretions mingle, and in a short time, conliision and decay reiizn, where, for aires, the vital principle had mainlaiix'd every thini"" in the most perfect harmony and urd<_r. [To be continued.] For tlie Fanners' Register. STATEMENT OF THE CUr.TIVATION AND PRO- DUCT OF A FIELD OF COU.\. Cambridge, Dec. 29, 1S38. Dear Sir — You requested the result of a corn crop whicli I made this year, and my mode of cul- tivation, with its rationalia. Though noloiitfinal, because lUe principles on which it was made are Avell known and settled, yet it was unusual, and I have not, elsewhere, known their application in the same manner, in all respect--^. 1 have, for several years, tried a lew acres, un- der a similar culture; and findiiiix it considerably superior, in all seasons, to the ordinary meiiiods, I extended il this year, to forty acres ; and tlmugh the droujrhi has very much curtailed the product below the promise of the luxuriant stalks, yet, it is very respectable '.'or field- cnliuve. The field in question was cultivated the previ- ous year in corn, ill the ordinary mode, having been, the same year, manured — about thirty loads, and limed, one hundred bushels to the acre. The then ensuing winter and spring, as early as possible, it was ploughed, a moderate depth, about four inches, drag-harrowed and rolled, and drill-planted, in lines four and a half ffst apart, Vol. VII— 3 adeo, rastris ghbas qui ffangit ineries.'"' And the drier the season, the more I use it, to promote ihe absorption of atmospheric moisture, which, at nicht, and in the driest season, is more abundant than generally supposed; as well as to assist, by lightening the surface soil, the transpiration through it, of the waters of the sw6-soil, which being more forcibly acted upon by the greater perrneability of the earth, in this loose, porous, and lightened condition, to the rays of heat, afi'ord a considerable resource of humidity. You have then my mode of culture, and the principles on which it is founded. I never cross- plough, even in ordinary wide planting, until the sward is rotten. Because, by this process it is turned up, and exposed to the drying and evapo- rating influence of the sun and air, by which even animal substances, more putrescent than vege- table, may be, and are effectually preserved from putrefaction, as in the ordinary practice of curing, as it is termed, fish, beef, &c. &c. Because, I have a finer culture, and the soil is better pulverized without it; and though not a thorough- (Toing advocate of the doctrine of the well known Tull, " thai pulverization, is, in itself, sufficient," yet, I hold it an essential co-operative, and with- out which, the best crop cannot be produced. And, because, by the operation of early cross- ploughinir, unless under a deeper furrow than my experience will justify, the sward is exposed, before decomposition, to the antiseptic agencies which I have named, and becomes indurated ; and, if if can then be subdued at all, it will require much cost and labor; and will, when done, have lost much of il?|v.6;ju/- coriotituenis. 18 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 In consequence of a sweep-stake, which I have taken, upon the crop alluded to — though conced- ed, and paid over to me, wiihcjut measurement — yet, I lield it proper, unrequesled, to have a subse- quent measurement and ascertaiiimeni, as accu- rate as possible, ofthe product, which I will annex. The remarkable unitbrmity ol the crop, and the hazard, and inconvenience of shelling the whole, BO long before a future market, probably of next summer, led me to the following method, viz: "to measure one acre ; to have its product carelLilly as- certained ; and to obtain a certificaie from a disin- terested, judicious, and extensively known cha- racter," of {he uniformity ofthe growth. For the latter tact, I wrote to Adam Waldie, Esq., of Philadelphia, who had recently seen the field in its full growth ; and because his well mer- ited eminence, as an editor and publisher of litera- ry and scientific journals, of extensive circulation, would give additional currency and strength to the fact ; and he politely favored me with the fol- lowing reply. " I well remember the pleasant ride I had with you, through your corn-field. It really required ocular evidence to produce a conviction of the growth of such magnificent corn, in such an un- favorable season. I am really desirous to know the result; to know which, the correct measure- ment of one acre, I should think sufficient lor all practical purposes; for, the difference must have been too small to notice." The Ibllowing certificate of the measurement of one acre, was then made by myself with affidavit. "1 hereby certify, that 1 carefully measured and marked one acre of my corn-field of the present year, at my Appleby Farm, and requested the overseer to ascertain the product of said acre in corn. Sworn before Jno. Newton, Justice ofthe peace for Dorchester county.'''' November,*1838." The Ibllowing by the overseer, Mitchell Shore. "I hereby certify, that I did, at the request of Dr. Muse, carefully ascertain the product of corn on a space in his corn-field, at his Apple- by ("arm, the present year, measured and marked by him, for one acre, and that it contained seven- ty-one bushels, and three pecks of shelled corn, the growth of said space. Sworn before Jno. Newton, Justice of the peace for Dor. county. November, 1838." It will be seen that the productof my drill-field, viz: forty acres at seventy-one bushels and three pecks per acre, was two thousand eight hundred and seventy bushels of shelled corn, or, "suf- ficiently near for all practical purposes :" and to this may be fairly added, a part of the immense contribution levied upon all our crops by a fantas- tical morality; and self-willed infatuation, (I icill not use an epithet, possibly more appropriate,) which, in disregard of the laws of God and man, preferring idleness and thievery, to industry and honesty, have turned loose upon us, a Vandal Bvvarm of freed negroes, who work none, and eat much; and of necessity, and most notoriously, live exclusively upon the industry of others ; and this year, m evidence of the progressive boldness of accustomed villainy, they have taken, and be- fore removal, shelled my corn in the field to a large extent. In this field was contained, also, thirty-five acres more, which v/as planted in the usual man- ner, at four and a half Icet distance, each way; and leaving two stalks, upon thinning; when one only at a point, was left in the other ; in all other respects, the culture was like the former, except that it was cross-harrowed at the close of the cul- tivation. It will be observed that the drill had a little more than nine thousand stalks ; and the other, about four thousand to the acre. The growth of this was equally good; but the product, though not accurately ascertained, as intended, was un- questionably far short of the drill ; but not in the ratio of the respective number of stalks — the ears being larger — yet, 1 think the difference of pro- duct, per acre, at least one-third in fiivor ol' the drill. I have had, under a similar drill culture, on five acres, and in a less unfavorable season, one hun- dred bushels per acre; and my present report may not be interesting, as to quantity, yet. under the unfavorable circumstance of an unusual drought, and a ,/ieZc/ culture too, the result is flattering; and I have, at least, complied with my promise to make the report. Your politeness will excuse its length, and its blols, when I assure you, the quo anirno was ab- sent in both offi^nccs; and you are at liberty to use it at your discretion, absolute. 1 have omitted any notice of the geological and topographical character of the field, and will add it, concisel}', for a fairer judgment in the case. The field and the farm, with ftiw exceptions, is a level upland, and by the measurement of our state engineer, is twenty feet above mid-tide of the Great Choptank river, near which it lies: though poor, and unproductive, when I pur- chased it some years a pass for what they are worth, and make what use of them you please. "I am, with great respect, your friend, &c., "j. f. scherbierhorn. "Hon. H. L. Ellsworth. Washington, D. C" "We are aware that objections may be raised to the sum of fifty cents per pound for the "short staple;" though that price might be sustained by reference to the present cost of linens. "The short staple, however, can be prepared at about 8250 per ton, and afforded at twenty-five cents per pound, giving an immediate profit of one hundred per cent. Allowing it to be bought at this price, it could be manufactured into linen and sold at twenty-five cents per yard; yieldinir, in this shape, to the manufacturer, a further profit of one hundred per cent., as his reward." It is found by experiment, that one acre of good land will vield a bale (or four hundred pounds) of cotton, ready for the market; and it is believed a similar amount of the short staple may^be raised upon an acre of the western prairies. The calcu- lation is as follows: Seven tons of the flax in stem are required for one of the short staple. At the rate, therefore, of one and a half ton, or 3,000 pounds) of the stem per acre, it will be found that each acre will produce four hundred and twenty- eight pounds of the short staple; a fact, exhibit- ing conclusively the future value of the prairies, should the culture of flax be generally adopted. In many portions of our country, especially in New Jersey and New York, flax is raised wiih reference to the seed alone, and the lint is thrown away. Mowing flax has been resorted to f)y many farmers, in prelerence to the tedious and expensive modes of pulling, heretofore in use. This, howe- ver, is a process which always leaves, the stem en- tangled and difficult to break. In the new me- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. .^4 25 thod of reducing flax to a fibre resembling cotton, it is believed that less care in gathering will be re- quired; especially ifthe "brakes" are improved bj' the addition of transverse rollers, to crush the stem, in whatever position it may be presented. From the Franklin Farmer. THE SHORT-HORN FKVER. Mr. Editor: — In a recent number of the Gene- see Farmer, in an article headed "Kentucky Farm- ing," the editor expresses the beliefthat ^Hhe short- horn fever in the ivest. like the mulberry fever in the east, must be near reaching its crisis.'' Although I will cheerfully accord to the able editor of that excellent paper a general correct- ness of opinion, yet 1 can but express my entire dissent to the above sentiment, in which, I hum- bly think the editor, has for once been vastly mis- taken. He iniimaies iliat the demand and sales of the short-horns in the west is the effect of a ma- nia; and is out of proportion to their value. Does he not know that at all tlie numerous Fairs in the west (the extensive reports of which he has seen,) the merits of these animals have been the subject of most rigid scrutiny ; and that without a sin- gle exception they have carried ofT the palm? Does he not know, that for several years past, we have placed them beside our scrubs in the dairy, the slaughter house, and the feeding lot, and that their intrinsic merit and superior excellence have thus been proved beyond the possibility of a doubt? So obvious and decided is the superiority of the improved short-horn over the scrub cattle, all things being considered, that it seems to be the fixed deter- mination of every intelligent farmer in the west, to possess them, so soon as he can procure money to purchase, and grass to pasture them. In this they proceed upon an invaluable principle which should always be observed: Keep no stock hut the best of its kind. Hitherto these animals have been restricted to small districts in Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennesee, but more recently have been turning from these districts as common centres, with their heads and I t-'iis county, for ^2,000; the highest price ever been the progress of improvement in the west, that for several years past we have not been able to produce a sufficiency of through-bred bulls to cross the common stocks with. Hence, so far from declining, the price of blooded cattle in Kentucky has steadily advanced, even through the pecuni- ary crises of the two last years; and is still advan- cing, notwithstanding the unfortunate death of several of the principal breeders in Kentucky, and some other circumstances, have combined to throw an unusually large number into market du- ring the last summer and fall; and notwithstand- ing the general shortness of the crops. I have heard that a cow sold in this section last month for $2000. She is not bad property at that price, for her last calf, though a bull, and only a ftjw months old, sold for igjSOO; and her next will most probably be worth as much. Nor could the calf be dear, for even in a herd of 20 common cows he would pay for himself in four years, every half blood calf being worth ^10 more than a scrub calf (other things being equal) even for beef. If there is any propriety in the foregoing calcu- lations, the mania for the shoit-horns, so fiar from reaching ils crises, is yel far, very far,fiom its climax. So confident am I in this belielj that this year, I have sold only about i§ 1000 worth of stock, while I have bred nearly forty cows to a through-bred bull. The short-horns for years to come must spread through the country southward and west- ward, and the price for them will be still onward and upward. Let not these who wish to purchase, delay, under the vain expectation of a reduction in price, or they, like myself, may have to rue it, to the tune of many hundreds. Yours resjxjctfully, A Kentucky Farmer. From llie Lexington Intelligencer. SALES OF DURHAM CATTLE. Wfi learn that Henry Clay, Jr. Esq., has sold his imported improved short-horned Durham cow. Princess to John and Richard Allen, Esqre., of footsteps directed to every possible point of the compass. See the vast extent of territory which is rapidly preparing for and calling for these valuable animals. Illinois and iVlissouri are throwing enclosures around their vast natural pas- tures, (with a rapidity almost rivalling magic; it- seltj) soon to be grazed by the best cattJe which can be procured. Indiana, although inclined to a diversifted husbandry, is rapidly acquiring a taste for grazing and good cattle. Tennessee is open- ing her eyes to a soil exhaustiig by cotton and to- bacco, and sees in the growth »f the blue grass, and the pasturing of cattle, the -neans of restoration and riches, and is even ortbring the short-horns from England. Ohio andKentucky themselves are not half supplied with this valuable commo- dity; and to say nothing of North Alabama, x\r- kansas and Wisconsin, tue above states embrace a territory, (by relerence to the Gazetteer,) of more than two hundred and thirty thousand square miles yet to be supnlied with this excellent race. Allowing only one short-horn to the square mile, the stoclt v/e now have to breed from could scarce supply the demand in twenty years. So rapid has Vol. VII-4 given far a cow in the United States. At the sale of Thomas Smith, Esq., last week, the improved short-horned Durham call) Gros- venor, two years old, by Talleyrand, imported by the Ohio stock company, was purchased by Thos. H. Clay, Esq., for $700. As the vast improvement in the size and beauty of our stock, effected by the introduction of the Durham breed, has become more extensively known and appreciated, the pure blooded animals of this race have increased in value; and probably will continue to do so, until the supply is equal to the demand. Such has been the anxiety of stock raisers, not only of this county and state, but throughout the west, for a few years past, to pos- sess themselves of through-bred Durham breed- ers, that the multiplication of the race has borne but a small proportion to the number of purcha- sers in the market. This will doubtless continue to be the case for a number oi' years. Fayette county was, we believe, the first place in the west where the improved short-horns were introduced, and, although several of our farmers have, for a number of years, been investing their capital, in ^ FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 the business, their sales have been eo rapid, that lew if any of tliem, have more of through-bred animals on hand, than are necessary for tlieu- own immediate purposes. That the business has been a source of considerable profit to them, and will continue to be so, cannot be doubled; but they have not received more than a just reward lor their enterprise, and the care and attention they have given to ihe important subject ol improving our breeds of cattle. It is a mailer in which every farmer, and posterity, are deeply interested. As a mine of the richest ore is more valuble than one which contains nothing but the meanest metals, so is an agricultural country, stocked with the finest breeds of domestic animals, wealthy above that which possesses none but the unimproved scrub races. The cow above stated, purchased by Mr. Allen, is one of superior form and size; the calf, we have also been told by good judges of slock, has rarely, if ever, been exceeded in appearance by one ol his affe. ON THE PROPAGATION OF SILK-WORBIS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. « The moths which come out the first day are called grass-moths. The last of all, are called mo-gno, (that is to eay: the last butterflies.) Neither of them ought to be kept. Only those which come out after the second day should be taken. The sheets of paper must be spread upon the cases of a shelf, then the males and fe- males come close together and copulate. When the evening comes, the male butterflies must be ta- ken aivay, and the females placed on sheets ol pa- per, leaving an equal distance between them. The eggs vvliich are found in lumps ought to be thrown "out."— ( Chinese Treatise on the culture of silk, published by P. Force.) "After the cocoons have been taken down from the hedge, those which are intended ibr eggs, should be laid, but not crowded, on tables, that is to say, the males on one table and the females on another, that they may not copulate two soon, and before they have discharged a viseid humor, ot a yellow reddish color, ichich pi events their fecun- diiy. They discharge this humor in one hour alter they come out of the cocoons."— (i^ssai/s on American silk, by J. D. Homergue.} 1 have read with pleasure and profit, the essays of Mr. Gideon B. Smith, on the culture of silk, recently published in the Farmers' Register. But there is an objectionable passage in No. 2 which I hope Mr. Smith will consent to alter or sup- press, when the essays shall be published in pamphlet form. The lantruage used about the writers of a po- lite, hospitable and scientific people is uncourteous, and the theory maintained erroneous, and calcu- lated to do harm. I should not nse such poisi- tive language, if I had not investigated the sub- ject with unusual care. 1 will now contrast the passage from Mr. Smith's essay with quotations from^ the Chinese and French writers and the result of ray own ex- perience since the spring of 1836. Mr. S. says " the^ recommendation of the French to separate the moths alter they have been coupled six hours, is perfect nonsense, and is one of the ridiculous refinements that refined people have tried to apply to the silk-culture, with- out the shadow of utility to recommend them, and only remarkable for the great additional la- bour and perplexity with which they encumber the business. Like all the other fooleries of the French, I tried this, and got for my pains no other result, than a loss of about one-third of my eggs, which were not fecundated, as might have been expected. Let the moths remain together until they separate of themselves, and all your eggs will be good." Nothing it seems to me, short of infallible cer- tainty can justify the spirit and turn of ihis quo- tation ; and to arrive at such certainty it is obvious that more than one or even two experiments are requisite. The subject is too important to be des- patched in this hasty and peremptory style. It will appear from one of the following quotations, that Mr. S.'s failure to get good eggs may be accounted tor without pronouncing a practice sanctioned by the combined experience of France, Italy and China, to be "perfect nonscnce''' and a a ridiculous foolery. I have practiced the method described by the Chinese writer five times, and have uniformly had the eggs well fecundated. The eggs may fail to become fecundated, not only for the viscid humor mentioned above, but also by delaying the union until the eggs are formed, and the females are ready to deposit them. Copulation may take place after this, but it Avill avail nothing. The moths usually come out of the cocoons between sun-rise and 10 A. M. Those which copulate about that time, should be spread out in pairs, where they cannot be disturbed by males seeking union with the female, until 4 P. M. The males must then be taken away, and the females left quietly to deposit their eggs. The energy of the males is far from being^ ex- hausted when the females are satisfied, and if not taken away, such is their anxiety for re-union, that the females will be harassed, and confusion and disorder will be the consequence. Such at least, has been my experience; let others exa- mine the subject carefully, and report the result I of their observations. Your ob't servant, Layton Y. Atkins. Stafford County, Va., Dec. Slst, 1838. ' From the Farmer's Magazine. BEaiNNING OF MARLING AND LIMING III ROXBURGaSHIRE, SCOTLAND. Marl was first apjlied, as a manure, in Rox- burgh, by Lord Mi«o, as a proprietor, and by Mr. Davvson, as a famer, about the year 1753; the former using his own shell-marl, which was not then to be had for~.ale, and the latter clay- marl; the former at the late of 30 carts, the latter at the rate of 330 carts per acre. So soon as roads of communication vvere oper«d, lime immediately superseded the use of clay-ir.arl (of which such enormous quantities needed to oe applied;) though the county yields no lime, and .he distance to it extends from 16 to 30 miles. Since the year 1772, 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 27 shell-marl has been exposed to public sale; and since it was thus procurable by iiirmers at large, its application is becoming more general. From 20 to 25 carts, such as already specified, are given to the acre, of this shell-marl, in a dry state: it loses, in drying, a fifth of its bulk wet from the pit. The effects ot marl are observed to be not immediate, but lasting: crops from marl are a fortnight later in ripening than those from lime, and The grain of less weight by one-tenth, in equal measure. Lime is rather preferred even to shell-marl, its quicker operation suiting belter with the short tenure of a tenant's possession. It is applied at the rate of six carts lo the acre, in light soils; and •of eight, ten, or sometimes sixteen, in clay soils. From the Magazine of Horticulture. THE ROHAN POTATO. This celebrated potato will be very extensively cultivated the coming season. It is one of the most extraordinary varieties for productiveness ever known ; nor are its eating qualities inferior. Though not held up lo be equal to the forty-fold, the Mercers, and other well known kinds lor the table, they are, nevertheless, equal, if not superi- or, to ma:)y of the potatoes which are to be found in our markets. For stock there is probably no crop that can be raised more productive. Twelve hundred bushels to the acre can probably be grown, if the statements of Judge Buel and others can be relied on, who have raised them. During the past dry summer, side by side with other kinds of potatoes, the produce was as ten to one. The severe draught affected the crop in a great degree, yet the produce was immense. St. Helena pota- toes, a variety in considerable esteem, did not pro- duce a crop that would pay the expense of dig- ging, in the same ground where the Rohan af- forded thirteen pounds to one planted. In our notices of vegetables, which will appear in our next number, we shall add some additional facts, relative to their growth, produce, and importance to the farmer. From Loudon's Gardeners' Magazine. CROSS FECUNDATION OP PLANTS. The effect of the preceding winter on hybrid plants has led to some interesting results respect- ing cross fecundation. It is known to scientific gardeners, that, in the case of hybrids generally, the progeny takes the constitution of the female parent, while its characteristic features are those of the male. Hence, it might have been foreseen, that a cross between Hdsa semperflorens and the Ayr- shyre rose, the latter being the female parent, would produce a much hardier progeny, than ifthe crossing had been reversed. It might also have been anticipated, that a cross between the tree rhododen- drons of Nepal and the Rhododendron ponticum of the temperate parts of Asia, the latter species be- ing the female parent, would produce a much more tender progeny, than a cross between the Asiatic tree rhododendrons and those of North America, the latter being the female parent. Hence, we are able to account for the apparently anomalous cir- cumstance of some of the Bengal hybrid roses having been destroyed altogether by last winter's frost, while others have been only partially injured; and hence, also, we discover the reason why the progeny of Rhododendron cataicbiense, Rhod. max- imum, R. caucdsicum,&ic., fecundated hy Rhododen- dron arbdreum, have stood the last winter, scarcely, if at all, injured; while the progeny of i?. pdnit- cum, fecundated by R. arbor&um, has invariably been killed down to the ground, or totally destroy- ed. While the loss of some hybrid arbutuses is to be accounted for on this principle, the mode of producing, by cross fecundation, a number of others which shall be nearly as hardy as the common spe- cies, is clearly pointed out. In short, the confir- mation of the general principle, that, in cross fe- cundation, the constitution of the female parent prevails in the progeny, is, we think, the most im- portant gardening feature that has transpired dur- ing the past year. It has long been known, that, among plants rais- ed from seed, whether the parent has been cross fecundated, or otherwise, there is frequently con- siderable constitutional difference in the progeny; some being hardier than others, and some being earlier or later than the average of the species, of coming into leaf or flower. These differences in seedlings may be seen on an extensive scale, in ev^ry hawthorn hedge and oak wood; and, in a more limited way, they are exhibited in seed- lings of different sorts of evergreens, such as the arbutus, Qaercus JHcx, Portugal laurel, Magnolia grandifldra, ^'c. The causes of this difference never have, and, probably, never will be, disco- vered; but, nevertheless, any facts which bear on the subject are worthy of record. Thus, it has been found that the severe frost of last winter pro- duced a much more injurious effect on the nar- row-leaved varieties of Rhododendron ponticum, such as R.p. salicifolium than on the varieties with broad leaves. The same remark applies to the narrow-leaved varieties of Magnolia grandiflora, M. g. lanceolata having had the foliage more in- jured than any other variety. It is worthy of remark, that all deciduous trees and shrubs of the colder parts of North Ameri- ca, that had ripened their wood, have escaped wholly unhurt; while some natives of Siberia, such as Lonicera iatarica, though, when in a dor- mant state, they are capable of resisting the most severe cold of the British winter, were, from being in a growing state when the severe frost suddenly took place, severely injured. Even the evergreen magnolia of North America, M. gran- diflora, in places where it was exposed as a stan- dard tree, in the free air of the climate of London, only had its leaves injured, and that, in most , places, but partially; the buds having broken out in the course of the summer, in every case that we have seen or heard of On dry gravelly soil, in Hertfordshire, such as at Tofleridge and Ches- hunt, even the leaves of standard evergreen mag- nolias have escaped without the slightest injury; thus placing the hardiness of this fine tree beyond all doubt. Most of the beautiful species of Ma-i honia (evergreen berberries), from California, have also stood the winter, without their beautiful foliage having sustained the least injury. Garrya elliptica, an evergreen from California, proves to be of the same degree of hardiness ae the cora- mon laurtistinus. Aimiba japonica, like many 28 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 other japan plants, ligneous and herbaceous, proves to be quite hardy. fVistaria sinensis, Magnolia conspicua, and Illicium anisalum, from China, and Chimonanihusfragrans, from Japan, are also as hardy as any oi' our natives, and will, in consequence, in all future time, prove conspi- cuous ornaments iu British gardens. The lesson which the young gardener lias to learn from these liicts is, that it is not enough lor liim to know the general principles of plant culture, as taught in books, and practised in British gardens; but that it is nearly equally necessary for him to have a knowledge of the geographical range, and of the soil, and the elevation above the sea, as far as these can be obtained, of every foreign plant which is committed to his care. quisite, in order that affairs may be kept in toie- able order. From Loudon's Gardener's Magazine. BREAD WITHOUT YEAST. A baker in London has just taken out a patent for the manufacture of a light bread, the qualities of which depend neither upon leaven nor yeast. He substitutes for these materials bicarbonate of soda and hydrochloric acid, in such quantities as to enable the acid to combine with the soda, and thus form common salt; while the carbonic acid is disengaged, swells the ^bugh, and gives it that spongy appearance which characterizes light bread. The lollovving is the manner of operat- ing:— To 7 lbs, of wheaten flour mix from 350 to 500 grains of bicarbonate of soda, and nearly a bottle and a half of distilled water. In another vessel, the necessary quantity of acid (120 to 460 grains of muriatic acid of the shops are, in general, ne- cessary) is mixed in about half a botllelul of wa- ter. It is indispensable to dilute the dough well with the solution of soda; and, when all is well prepared, the acid is poured on it. Pastry may be treated in the same manner. The quantity of bicarbonate used varies with the degree of light- ness required lor the paste. From the Journal of Commerce. BROOMS. A cargo of corn brooms has been landed here during the last week, from George-town, D. C. Messrs. Geo. C. Mason & Co., have established a factory there, capable of turning out a thousand a day, and they have already obtained sufficient attention to the matter by the fiirmers in the neighborhood to furnish them with great quan- tities of corn of a fine and long fibre, surpassing, it seema to us, that which is grown under the most favorable circumstances at the north. The brooms are ver}'^ neatly manufactured, so that any young lady might well be proud to be seen every day with one of them in her hand. We are glad to see the rivalry of the south against the north in some of these Yankee notions. Besides, we do not know that there is a more appropriate place in the country for an establishment of this kind, than the District of Columbia; for there, more than slsewhere, a thorough sweeping out is often re- From the Southern Agriculturalist. CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORT ON THE DE- FECTS CALSED BY BAD MANAGEMENT OF FINE SEA-ISLAND {OR LONG STAPLE) COT- TON. Charleston, S. C. Sept. 21s/, 1838. Messrs Browns & Welsman, — Gentlemen: — We beg to direct your attention, and that of your friends, who are growers of fine sea-island cotton, to the subject of the annexed letter, addressed to our friends in Manchester, by a highly respectable house engaged in the fine spinning [trade. We are all aware of the objec- able feature in fine sea-island, of which not only the above house, but also all the other fine spinners have repeatedly complained; and we trust you will agree with us in deeming the sub- ject of sufficient importance to be submitted at once to the notice of our planters. Their known skill and perseverance may devise some means of abating, if not removing altogether, the evil point- ed out. Accompanying the annexed, we have samples of the ditierent styles of preparation, from ihe most faulty to that which is referred to as a specimen of the perfect; and we invite you to call and examine them. Requesting you will aid us in giving circulation to the annexed. We remain very respectfiilly, your obt. evt's, , GouRDiNj Matthiessen & Co. Manchester, (Eng.) August 2, 1838. We have often, in conversation with you, ex- pressed our regret, that the growers of fine sea- islands, in so many instances, injured their cotton, by stringing and matting it in the getting up; and in hope of^ drawing their attention to the sub- ject through the medium of your house, we beg to trouble you with the following observations. Fine cotton yarn is esteemed in proportion as the thread is uniform in substance, free from lumps, and strong. The latter has been decided- ly improved by the introduction of the select seed cotton, but the levelness of the thread has been impaired rather than otherwise, and this arises from ihe multitude of small white specks, or nit- ters, with which the staple of the finer and softer kinds of sea-islands, and the select cotton seed particularly abounds. In examining these nitters through a micro- scope, we find them in general composed of kinds of fibres, presenting an appearance much resem- bling the misletoe plant in this country, and lor some time, we feared they were excrescences pe- culiar to the fine fibre, and inseparable from it; but the two recent samples of beautifiilly fine se- lect seed cotton, sent us by you, are so free from this defect, that we have now a strong impression they are chiefly produced by an overhandling in the getting up; at least, we can multiply such nitters here, by mismanagement in the cleaning process; and, we have no doubt, the same effect is produced in America. We would, therefore, strongly urge the planter's attention to this point; for, in all cotton goods, such as gauze, muslins and laces, it takes immensely from their value 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 29 and beauty, and limits the use of the finer yarns, which are chiefly used lor these articles. As an instance of this, we may state, that one of our customers informs us, he frequently pays from 9d. to Is. per yard, upon his finest muslins, for picking- out the nitters, one by one with a needle, alter the goods were woven — an expense which is equal lo from 10s. a 30s. upon each pound weight of muslin. Our experience has proved that the softer and more silky the staple, the more easily it is nittered; and, as the spinners possess no means by which nitters can be removed Irom the cotton when once formed, the only means of remedying the evil, is to prevent their formation. To this point, therefore, the attention of the grower should be strongly directed, jill unne- cessary handling, whipping, tossing, or shaking of the cotton, ought io be avoided. It should be } as well cleaned as possible, but yet free from stringiness, and the fibres be lelt in the loose and disentangled state they appear in when just sepa- rated from the seed. If this were attended to, it would materially improve the appearance of fine yarn, and remove the never ceasing complaints of the fine muslin manufacturers, and we are per- suaded, tend to increase the consumption of fine cotton goods. Any reform you can bring about in this matter will be a benefit to trade, and oblige. Yours, &c. The committee, to whom was referred the let- ter of a respectable house in Manchester, Eng- land, engaged in the manufacture of fine sea-isl- and cotton, respectfully report, that the matter to which their notice has been directed, is one ol deep importance to the grower of that valuable staple production. If, in conse.(iuence of his ne- glect, or want of skill, a pound of muslin, which would otherwise command its full price, is depre- ciated from 10 to 30 shillings, duly and interest obviously impel him to the providing of a remedy at once prompt and efficient. Through the politeness of Messrs. Browns and Welsman, three samples of cotton, being speci- mens forwarded from Manchester, were received from Messrs. Gourdin, Matthiessen & Co. These samples are endorsed as follows: — "No. 1, illy got up and nittered," "No. 2, illy got up and par- tially open," "No. 3, well got up." In examin- ing the "nitters" in No. 1, through a microscope that magnified one thousand times, they were discovered to be, in general, of a globular form, and to consist of filaments of cotton, with inter- stices of various diameters, readily reducible in size, by pulling the long threads attached to the mass. This, however, could not always be done, as the knot of fibres, consUtuting the nitter, was, in many instances, too strongly formed. The com- mittee next proceeded to the examination of sam- ples of seed cotton. In about a pound, personally gathered by one of them, from fully matured pods, produced from healthy plants, no nitters were observed. In the same quantity, picked from diseased stalks, which bore defective fl-uit, several were seen. These were subjected to the test of the microscope, and precisely the appear- ance that characterized those taken from the ginned cotton in No. 1, was exhibited. Repeated inspections since, have produced no marked vari- ation in the general results. The committee, therefore, with confidence, deduce the inference, that preparation, except perhaps in the isolated instance heieafier to be noticed, is not the cause of the nitter. In confirmation of the opinion, putting aside the conclusive facts adduced, the different processes through which the cotton pass- es, whilst in the hands of the planter, need only to be briefly adverted to. Alter the stained is sepa- rated from the white, the latter is thrown, in small parcels, into a whipper, in order to extract the dirt and to throvv oti" the short and weak fibres, which, if allowed to remain, would detract very material- ly from the value of the crop. This machine, constructed of wood with round wooden teeth, is turned by the hand. Unless the door of the whip- per be closed, which is never done, the egress of the cotton is quickly effected. After this opera- tion, the cotton is ginned and then taken to the moting house, where, on a frame of wood work, it is gently shaken and partially opened by the hand. When clean, it is received by the packer, who, with a wooden instrument, compresses it into a bag, weighing, when finished, from 300 to 400 pounds. In these various, but necessary, modes of treatment, in not one of which any vio- lence is used, the committee feel persuaded, that the staple sustains no injury whatever. It is weli known that every description of cotton, except the finest qualities of sea-island, betbre it is con- verted into fabrics, is subjected to numerous opera- tions, all of which are performed by machinery. From the willow, which, by its revolving spikes, tears open the matted masses, succeeded by the scutching machine, in which the cotton is beaten by metallic blades, revolving on an axis at the speed of from 4000 to 7000 revolutions in a mi- nute, other machines with iron fingers, teeth and wheels, follow, so that it may almost be said that, without the aid of human hands, the vegetable wool "is opened, cleaned, spread, carded, drawn, roved, spun, wound, warped, dressed and woven." Now, although it is represented, that the supe- rior qualities of black-seed cotton are not thus wrongly treated, yet, as they are "opened and cleaned by being placed upon cords stretched on a wooden frame, and then beaten by women with smooth switches," the committee are at no loss to perceive how the complaints of the manufacturers by their own act may be increased. This last mode ol' cleansing the raw material was very generally pursued by the planter a few years ago. Were he now to resume that ready method of preparing his crop for market, he is satisfied, that whilst his time and labor would be saved, the fabrication of fine goods would be likely to incur an additional expense of no ordinary magnitude. By using switches, it is nearly certain, that the weak fibres are broken into minute parts and with the natu- rally short and rotten, intermix and become en- tangled. Although, therefore, the imperfection of staple, which is the special subject of this re- port, is undeniably common to the cotton plant under peculiar circumstances, the committee in- cline to the opinion, that that imperfection can be created by artificial means, and from experiments instituted by them, is engendered by the different processes through which the cotton goes in its conversion into cloth, as alread}' particularly de- scribed. That the nitter, however, is occasional- ly formed through the want of foresight on the part of the planter, when his crop, from adverse 1 seasons, or other causes, is defective in texture, is 30 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 highly probable. The filaments of unripe cot- ton, are transparent cylindrical tubes. When ripe, even before the capsule bursts, tiie tubes col- lapse in the middle, forming semi-iubes on each side, which give to the fibre, says Mr. Baines, in iiis able treatise on the cotton manulaclure Jof Great Britain, when viewed in certain lights, the appearance ol" a flat ribbon, with a hem or border at each edge.* Unripe coltonf is finer than that which has attained its full age, but is deficient in the other essential attributes of a perfect staple, strength and length. Some of the filaments, in- deed, are not the eighth of an inch long, and un- til several days after the opening of the capsule, are found doubled or curled, full of watery and oleagenous particles; the cotton is wet to the touch and IS of a brown hue. In this slate, unless dried in the sun, it becomes more or less mouldy; the superfluous oil from the seed, which ought to have escaped, is diffused through the mass; the color soon changes; heat is generated; and the staple, originally strong, is quickly perceived to be mate- rially aftected. Hence, it is not surprising, that in immature cotton, distinguished, as it is known to be, for its delicacy of texture, variableness in length, and want of pliability, when sub|ected to the mildest mode of treatment to free it it-om ex- traneous matter, the threads should cross and mix with each other; thus forming artificial nitters. Within a lew years, the action of the sun, with a view to the desiccation of the wool, has been sedu- lously avoided by, perhaps, a majority of our planters. The daily gatherings are spread in houses, or under scafibids erected for the purpose, and thus the drying process, if a i'cw exposures in that way is worthy of this appellation, is conduct- ed. That the practice is radically wrong, for the reasons already assigned, the committee firmly believe. Damp cotton, also, can neither be ginned nor cleaned but with difficulty: this of itself is a serious objeciion, to which may be added the in- dubitable fact that, from its too unctuous proper- ties, the floating dust of the atmosphere tends to Its discoloration. From these observations, it will appear, that nitters are either natural or artificial, and that both are primarily to be traced to a defective stai)Ie, arising from diseased plants; that the artificial nitter may be generated even by the common * " The twisted and corlc-screw form of the fila- ment of cotton, distinguishes it from all other vegeta- ble fibres, and is characteristic of the fully ripe and mature pod. This form and character the fibres re- tain ever after, and, in that respect, undergo no change through the operation of spinning, weaving, bleach- ing, printing, and dyeing, nor in all the subsequent domestic operations of washing, &c. &,c., till the stuff is worn to rags, and then even the violent process of reducing those rags to pulp for the purpose of making paper, effects no change in the structure of these fibres." — From the difference between the elementary fibres of cotton and flax, the latter being transparent tubes, cylindrical, and articulated or joined like a cane, it has been incontestibly proved, that the mum- my cloth of Egypt was linen. "f By immature or unripe cotton, is meant cotton, that, from unfavorable seasons, 8tc. &,c.. is made to open prematurely^ The pod, about half the size of the full grown boll, becomes black, and, as soon as it lias been hardened by the atmosphere, bursts and dis- closes the imperfection of its fruit. method of preparation, unless the cotton be judi- ciously dried; and that the means to which the manuliicturer is obliged to resort, are evidently calculated to bring about the same results. Of these samples, Nos. 1 and 2, which are "illy got up," are lumpy and stringy, of a deep yellow tinge, and weak and uneven in fibre. The cot- tons, from which these are taken, it is likely, were never dried: it is still more probable, that th«y were the product of a scanty harvest. No. 3 is of natural, color, open, and, in texture, strong and long. It is necessary here to remark, that the stringy ap- pearance of cotton is not always, or even mainly, the fault of the planter. It arises principally from the same cause to which the nitter is referable; the iraperfectness of the staple, or the immaturity of the fruit. This was especially true the last year. To two considerations, pertinent to the matter under review, it may be proper to advert. Ir> every field, no matter under what sinister circum- stances the crop has grown, there are small sec- tions in which the plants come to perfection and bear healthy fruit. From these, the cotton that is picked is marked perhaps by every characteris- tic of the best staple, yet, almost from necessity, it is thrown into ihe general bulk. Again, in har- vest season, the laborer cannot stop to examine, if he had the ability to know, the variant qualities of the cotton he is engaged in gathering, but pro- miscuously the bad, the fair and the good, are blended. This is unavoidable. Subsequently the stained is separated li'om the white, but the weak and strong continue together; a part only of the most deficient of the former, being afterwards de- tached by the whipper. On the immediate topic of inquiry, the commit- tee ask leave to conclude with the following sug- gestions: 1. The necessity of dying cotton in the sun, for three or four hours, as its dampness may seem to indicate. 2. Select seed for planting, not with a view to superiority of staple, but the production of sound cotton. For that purpose, choose from healthy stalks those pods that are fully blown. 3. The first pickings should be set apart, and not mixed with the general crop. The fibre is weak and short. The same course ought to be pursued with cottons gathered after a storm or much rain. 4. Cotton ought to be thoroughly cleansed be- fore it is carried to the gin. If it be well done, the after-labor will be trifling, and the fault of over-handling avoided. Too much pressure on the roller gives to the cotton a matted appearance; if the pressure is unequal, it will be stringy. Before closing their report, the committee would offer a few reflections, not irrelevant, they trust, to the occasion. For many years the sea-island crop has scarcely repaid the toil and perseverance incurred in its production. From highl)'- unpro- pitious seasons, the ravages of worms, and the cultivation of a plant, peculiarly delicate and un- fruitful, it may in verity be said, that it is annually a subject of congratulation with the planter, if his necessary expenditures do not exceed his profits. Except 1826, when the exportation was about six millions of pounds, from 1833 to 1835 inclusive, the production was less, by from one to seven mil- lions, than at any former ppriod sinee 1821.* 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 81 From these facts, added to the wonderful ma- chinery, which enable a workman now to perform the work required of two or three hundred men, sixty years ago; the increase of population in those countries, where the finest goods are used, and the decrease in the rates of duties in Great Britain, it was reasonable to infer, that an aug- mentation of price, in some measure, proportional to the diminished production, would have taken place. From 1821 to 1829, inclusive, when the average export was 11,016,418 lbs, the average price in Liverpool was 19d. From 1830 to 183-5 (excluding 1833, the export of which year is un- Known to the committee) when the average ex- port was reduced to 8,208,194 lbs., the average price was a low as IT^^d.f The committee have been unable to procure the official account of the exports for 1836 '37, '38. They believe, however, it would be safe to say, that the product of last year, and the year preceding, was over six mil- lions of pounds. Hence, if this be true, the two united was considerably less than the single crop of 1826, and but little more than either that of 1821 or of 1S22. The present crop, it is confi- dently believed, will not exceed, if it eqaul, the last.f Although the compromise on the tariff question, in 1833, gave an impetus in the cotton trade and manulacture, which, by a salutary re- action, raised the price of the great product of our industry very considerably; yet, it is nevertheless true, that from meagre liarvests, especially in 1836 and '37, over 4 per cent, has not been real- ized by the planter. The crop of 1821, which *Number of pounds of sea-island cotton exported in 1S21 11,344,066 1830 8,147,165 1822 11,250,634 1831 8,311,762 1823 12,136,688 1832 8,743,373 1824 9,525,722 1833 1825 9,655,278 1834 8,085,935 1826 5,972,852 1835 7,755,736 1827 15,140,798 1836 1828 11,288,419 1837 1829 12,83.'?,307 Average. Average. tl821, 12|to30d. 2U 18.30, 11^ to 20d. 16d. 1822, 10 28 19 1831, 9^ 18 13| 1823, 11 24 17i 1832, H 18 133 1824, Hi 27 19ji 18.33, 10^ 22 16| 1825, 15 42 28i 1834, 13J 26 192 1826, 10 30 20 1835, 14 33 24A 1827, 95 20 14J 1836, 14 36 25 1828, 10 22 16 1837, 12 40 26 1829, 9 21 15 2s. lid. per cwt. In 1821 the duty was six per cent. ad. val. The table from which the above (to 1833) is taken, was published in 1833, by Messrs. George Holt & Co., of Liverpool. It exhibits the extreme prices of cot- ton and wool in that place, from 1806 to 1835 inclu- sive. The statement of prices from 1834 to 1836 in- clusive, is extracted from a Liverpool circular, pub- lished in January last. The difference between the extreme prices has been assumed as the medium price. What the average price really was, cannot, with certainty, be stated. JAt a meeting of the Agricultural Society, held on the 12th Nov., it was unanimously resolved, that the members forthwith furnish a statement of the probable product of their cotton crop, which resulted in the average of 64 lbs. per acre. This was intended to be appended to the report of the committee and publish- ed. The reported average last year, was 76 lbs. per acre. was over 11 millions of pounds, brought 2l\d.; that of 1836 and of '37, united, amounling, it is presumed, to about 12 millions of pounds, com- manded only the average price of 25d. The committee are aware that, in consequence of the interest of money, and the profits of capi- tal having fallen almost universally in Great Bri- tain, every branch of industry in other countries, in any wise dependent on the skill, enterprise, or capital of that commercial and manuliacturing power, has also sufi'ered. Without adverting, however, to the numerous causes which are at hand, for the anomaly which the statistical infor- mation, presented in this report, so clearly esta- blishes, one only of the most prominent the com- mittee would name — the practice of nuxing the different sorts of cotton together. There is no kind, except the fincrdescriptions, says Mr.Baines, which is now confined to any exclusive purpose. The long staple is generally used for the twist or wrap, and the short staple for the wef>. In this way, the black seed is made to participate in the changes, which, no matter fiorn what cause, mark the market value of the green seed. This, perhaps, is the strongest reason why a more de- cided inequality in price, between the fine and su- perfine qualities of' long staple cotton, ought to exist; to which may be added, the variety ol' uses to which the Ibrmer, alone or mixed, are applica- ble. From these considerations, it is apparent, that, in relation to those two descriptions of vege- table wool, the one is really worth from two to three-fold more than the other, instead of from 30 to 50 per cent., which continues to be paid.* In our unremitted eflbrts to produce the finest cottons in the world, sad experience shows, that we are engaged in an unprofitable enterprise. It is annually proven, that the cultivator of the com- mon qualities, realizes a much larger interest on his capital, than he who can readily command 70 or 80 cents per pound for his crop. So general is this persuasion, that the raising of hardy and pro- ductive plants, without reference to the texture of the wool, is now the main object of our desire. All which is respectfully submitted by WlIlTKMARSH B. SeABROOK, ^ John Jknkins, > Com. Geore W. Seabrook, ) From tlie American Farmer, MR, I1VGERS0I.l's PIGGERY. [We have the satisfaction to publish the follow- ing account of the most perfect system of breed- ing swine, that has fallen under our observation. We have visited the establishment which it dc- * One pound of cotton usually makes 8 yards of coarse muslin, and is then increased in value from the raw cotton, eight-fold. Eut, if spun in the finest yarn, it is worth 5 guineas, and in 17S0, if woven into mus- lin and tamboured, was worth £ 15. It may now be converted into a ))iece of l;ice, worth 100 guineas. Report of the Secretary of the Treasury^ 1836. The finest quality of sea-island cotton, remarks Mr. Baines, in ordinary state of the market, is worth three times as much as the common quality of the same class, The varieties in qiiaiit_y, in most of the other denominations, is from 20 tu 25 per cent , and in none of them is more than 50 per cent. 32 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 scribes, and heard with pleasure the explanations of its intelligent owner, upon the different parts of his plan. And from our desire to profit by his ex- perience, we subsequently requested him to give us a written description of his piggery, and the management thereof, which he promptly furnish- ed, in a letter that invited us to pursue our inqui- ries; and these procured for us the more ample de- tails contained in his second letter. It was our wish to publish these communications soon after they were received, but we could not obtain his express permission to make that use of them; therelbre, we have withheld his letters from the press until the present moment when we are as- sured that the cause of his reluctance has ceased to exist; and that his plan may now be made public, without any prejudice to his interests, or vi- olation of his wishes. This system challenges our admiration, and we cheerfully render it to his head and heart. How iew of us take equal care of superior animals! And there are not many who carry equal method into their most important avocations — errors, which may justly bo ascribed 10 defective education. It is easy to perceive in every part of Mr. Ingersoll's proceeding, that con- fidence which merchants feel in the employment of capital at some risk, and heavy charses, for the production of a probable and fair, althouijh remote profit, through a definite channel. With such hopes and calculations, education had made him familiar, whilst it gave him habits of critical inves- tigation that must ever secure to their possessor eventual success in any occupation to which he may devote himself^ As a fjirmer, we perceive that he has derived a handsome livelihood from the cultivation of a few acres of land, and the em- ployment of a small capital, in connexion there- with ; whilst there are many proprietors of prince- ly estates, who can scarcely contrive to banish want from their domains. We have pointed to the chief cause of such painful deficiencies; it remains for parents to diminish their number in future times, by taking present and suitable means to qualify their children to pursue their respective occupa- tions with benefit to their families, and advantage to society. And whilst we are zealously laboring to amass property for our offspring, let us not be unmindful of 1 heir intellectual treasures, but re- member always that the improvementof these can alone teach them how to enjoy and augment the wealth that we may give.] — Ed. Am. Far. Brookline, Oct. SOth, 1821. Dear Sir, — (have, this evening, received your favor, dated 1st inst., inclosing some valuable seeds, and two numbers of your publication, for which I beg you to accept my acknowledgments. 1 should feel mortified that your interesting journal should have been published near three years, without my availing myself of its information. The fact is, I have been a subscriber through our mutual friends Messrs. Wells and Lilley, from the beginning. I am happy to hear of the safe arrival of the pigs, and more gratified that you are pleased with them. It will irive me great pleasure to send the boars you wish in the spring; and they shall, as you desire, be of different parentage from those you already have. I am fully satisfied, Irom re- peated trials, that a fine race of animals canno! be kept up by breeding in and inj and I have both in my sheep and swine, two distinct families, which are crossed with each other. And except to supply the number of each kind I want to breed from, the individuals of the same family are never allowed lo come together. By attention and strict adherence to this plan of crossing, where both kinds are good, I have a fine healthy stock. The animals are im- proved, both in size and symmetry, and their dis- position to get very fat, at an early age, has been increased. At twelve months old, the pigs you saw in my various pens, averaged 280 lbs.; and many of them exceeded 300 lbs. each. This weight as they were fed almost entirely upon vegetables, was very satisfactory. A larger race has been often recommended to me by my neighbors. But a large race would not only require more food, but it must also be of much richer, and of more expen- sive quality. Boiled cabbages, turnips, and other vegetables, whose acreable produce is large, and which constitute the principal sustenance of my own breed, would make but poor returns when given to a larger framed animal. My establishment con- sists of twelve breeding sows and two boars, that are kept as long as they bring fine litters of pigs; failing in this, they are fatted, and their places sup- plied by others of one year old, before they are put to the male. The sows are put with the boars the 1st of April, and the 1st of October, and farrow twice a year. Their inside pens are eight feet by five, and their outside pens are three by four feet. About the time they are expected to bring forth, the styes are littered with straw cut into chaff^ very fine, that the little pigs may be dry and warm, without being entangled with long straw, and thus destroyed. The litters are always regulated so as to leave not more than eight pigs to any one sow, either by changing their mothers, when necessary, soon after their birth, or by removing supernume- raries. I have always found a family of eight pigs at a month old, worth more than one of twelve ; their growth being so much greater. From each outside pen the pigs have access through a small hole, to a common yard, which is always kept well littered ; in which they play; and where dry corn is placed in shallow troughs to induce them to eat as early as possible. Each party knows their mother, and they find their respective pens without difficulty. These pigs are aZwaj/s wean- ed the 1st of October, at six or eight weeks old, that the sows may be again in the way of their duty, and my system progress. From these pigs 1 select seventy-twO; and dispose of the rest. They are put into twelve pens, containing six each, and are fed with the best food my swill trougli affords, six times per day, for the first month, and three times per day afterwards. The inside pens are six feet square, and the outside four feet by six, both planked, with a quick descent for the dirt, &c. to be carried ofi'. Much, indeed everything, de- pends upon their sleeping dry and warm, and being well littered, and kept perfectly clean. Fn these pens they remain six months, or until October and April, when they are all transferred to the fatting pens, and their places supplied by the newly weaned pigs. The fatting pens are planked — there is a cellar under them, and each pig is allowed an area of about twelve square feet to live in ; for these there are no outside pens. The fatting pens are cleaned out every morning, and tt-esh filter given. For three months the pigs in them are fed from the swill trough as store pigs; at the end of which time, say January and July, ISSSJ FARMERS' REGISTER. 89 their fatting commences, which consists in adding, for each of them three quarts of cracked corn to their daily allowance of vegetables, for three months, when they are killed as near the first of October and the first of April as may be. Thus yau will observe the 1st of October and the 1st of April are busy days in my piggery, and the little pigs are then weaned, the sows again put to the bo°ars, the fat hogs sold off, the store pigs removed to the fiittening pens, and my system completed. To feed this stock, consisting of 72 pigs from one to six months old, and 72 pigs from six to twelve months old, and 12 old sows, and 2 boars; in all 158 mouths— we boil a kettle of vegetables, con- taining six bushels, to which is added one bushel of cracked corn three times a day, and after put- ting this mass into the swill trough and mixing it intimately, we add as much water as will make 112 gallons, or for each bushel of vegetables and corn sixteen gallons. This swill is then distributed sweet and warm to the stock, morning, noon, and night, with great regularity, in the following pro- portions, VIZ : In October, November and December — to each of 72 pigs, from one to three months old, one gal- lon; and to each of 72 pigs from six to nine months old, three gallons. In July, February and March — to each of 72 pigs, from three to six months old, two gallons; and to each of 72 pigs from nine to twelve months old, 2 gallons, with 3 quarts of corn. In April, May and June — to each of 72 pigs, from six to nine months old, 3 gallons; and to each of 72 pigs, from one to three months old. one gal- Jon. ' In July, August and September — to each of 72 pigs, from nine to twelve months old, 2 o-allons; and to each of 72 pigs, from three to six nujuths old, 3 gallons with 3 quarts of corn. 8 oralis. 8 .rails. And these eight.gallons, divnled by their terms, or four, show that ol> an average, throughout the year, two gallons are required daily per head for the 144 pigs; or equal to 2S8 gallons; and to our twelve breeding sows, and two boars, we give per day, three gallons each, or equal to 42 fcrallons. making, altogetiier, an agirregate of 330 ir.illons; thus quite consuming our three messes of 112 gal- lons each. By the different ages of the |)igs, as above combined, we have a constant and dully call for the same quantity of swill throughout the year, so that our business proceeds with perfect regu- larity. — Baltimore, Nov. 21st. 1825. Dear Sir, — Your detailed account of the ma- nasrtJment of your piggery, has atl'orded me lireat pleasure and instruction. And your very obliging ofi'er to send me a list of the vegetables raised lor your monthly supply, tenipis me, not only to ask for It, but tor some other explanations which you likewise proffer. I am anxious to have a summary view of the total quantity of each and every kind of food used in your piggery per anniuii — the cost of raising or purchasing the food — the extent of and on which it is, or might be raised — the labor of feeding and attending at other times — the an- VoL. VII— 5 nual weight and value of the pork killed — the usual number and value of supernumerary pigs — the probable value of your farm, and the food consum- ed— and the quantity and quality of the manure saved or produced, as well as the cost of an equi- valent in manure, if otherwise obtainable. I have, you see, some curiosity; but I persuade myself, that it cannot give one so systematic as yourself) any trouble to answer me on each of these points, and in a way to show me at a glance of the eye, that it is belter for you to convert your vegetables and corn into pork and manure than sell vegetables;^ whilst I shall at the same time, be taught econo- my and method by your precept and example, which I will endeavor to observe, and imitate at my breeding establishment. I feel somewhat at a loss as to the manner of building my pens; and on the inclosed paper, you will see doubts exemplified in rouiih diagrams; your correction on these would particijlarly oblige me. It is my desire to build them in a long narrow shed, on one side of my barn yard; and to have at one end, cooking and vegetable apartments. At your request, I am induced to ask whether it would not be better, that is to say, cheaper, to steam than to boil your vegetables ? I have seen it stated in the explanations of Scotch implements, published by the Board of Agriculture, in the year 1814, that one person, by a simple apparatus, may steam in an hour, Ibod enough, say of pota- toes, to feed fifty horses a day, at 32 lbs. tor each horse. And I had quite concluded to procure a boiler and steaming box from Scotland, on the strength of that statement. I liiive been led to make some inquiries of you in this letter, from an attempt to push your pro- ceedings to their results; as you will see by the enclosed estimates, which will best define the most of my inquiries. Do you give the swill warm in summer as well as in winter? Do you spay your sow pigs, nr put fattening sows to the boar, shortly previous to kill- ing ? Have you used the mangel wurtzel and ob- served its comparative value or relish? I think highly of it, and wish that it may be fairly tried by every farmer in this country. In our climate it is more certain and productive than any other root. On this head I beg leave, however, to refer you, (or my opinions, to No. 5, vol. iii. of the American Farmer, in the notes on Mr. Cooper's account of his several crops. And I. remain, truly, sir, your obliged and obedient servant, John Skinner. Nathaniel Ingersoll, Esq. Estimate of Food, Fuel, Labor, 4*c. employed at Mr. IngersolVs Piggery, per annum. 6 bushels of veg-etahles, roots, &c. three , times per day=18 bushels per diem, for 365 days=to 6570 bushels per an- num, which at 25 cts. per bush.= $l,-542 50 1 bushel of corn 3 times a day added to the above for 365 . days, equals 1095 bu. 13| bushels or 3 quarts per day given to each of 144 fatten- inij hogs, for three months or 90 days, 1215 Corn per annum, 2310 bu. at 50 cents, 1155 00 S4 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1 Fuel 1^ cords per month, eawing, &c., 18 cords, 100 00 Labor one man and one boy, wages and board, 250 00 Yearly value bestowed on Piggery, Dr. ^3147 60 Or. by Pork and Pigs sold. 142 hogs at 280 lbs. 39, 760 lbs at Gets. $2385 60 24 pigs, one by each sow, at each farrow, over and above 9 suckled, $1, 24 00 2409 60 $737 90 Showing a difference lost by using the food in the piggery, instead of marketing it, provided the corn and vegetables are valued at a price at which Ihey could be marketed free of expense, aud also return manure enough to keep up the fertility of the soil, which I presume might be done near this city, if not near Boston. And if this is practicable near Boston would not the sale of vegetables and purchase of manure be attended with less care than the piggery, and be more eertain? And at what price is the manure of stables to be had at Boston, say per load, of given cubic feet, when unrotted 1 And do your owners of market farms, who have been successful and long established, buy manure, and at what rate ? An elucidation of my attempt to estimate your ope- rations, will give me the marketable value of your vegetables at home and in Boston, as well as an ideaof the expense of converting them into money by direct sale, all which will be very acceptable and useful to me personally, if you can find time eonveniently to lurnish it. Estimate of Land and Labor required for the Pig- gery, 8fc. 8rc. For 2,310 bushels corn for piggery, at 40 bushels per acre, 68 acres. For 6,000 bushels vegetables, 600 bush- els per acre, 14 acres. Acres for piggery, 72 For the farm purpose to support 2 horses and 2 oxen, say grain and grass, 16 acres. Pasturing, orchards, lota, &c. 12 acres. Acres, 100 Labor required to cultivate 100 acres as above, say 2 hands, 12 months wages and board, $300 00 For additional labor, spring, summer and fall, suppose to be equal to the expense of 6 hands for six months, or 3 for a year. Annual labor, say 450 00 $750 00 A farm of 100 acres of first rate cha- racter might be worth $100 per acre, $10,000 00 And the increase of value, attributable to aug- menting population, would be more than equiva- lent to the wear and tear of utensils and stock em- ployed. The interest might therefore be consider- ed as rent, $600 00 Add for taxes. And for labor as above, 25 00 750 00 $1375 00 Then the farmer for his lime may be considered as earning on a permanent scale, over and above interest, on hia capital, by his piggery, for his own support, provided the manure keeps up the fertility of his soil, about 1034 60 $2409 60 Brookline, Dec. 24ih, 1835. Dear Sir — I received your favor of the 21st ult., a long time after its date, and not until it was much worn and chafed with its travels ere it reached me. I will endeavor to answer your in- quiries in detail. The following is a "summary view of the total quantity of each kind of food used in my piggery per annum," and the months in which they are used; beginning with thelst of July, which is about the time 1 begin to depend upon summer vegetables, viz: bush. July and August — Mangel wurtzel, roots, and tops being the thinnings from two squares each, containing 32 rods, - 800 Summer squashes - - _ . 200 Early cabbages _ . . _ IQO September, October and November — Winter squashes or pumpkins - - 700 Large drum head cabbages - - 800 Trimmings of mangel wurtzel turnips, &c. &c. 150 December, January, /February, March, April — Mangel wurtzel,* (roots) - 200 Carrots 900 Ruta baga, ----- 200 Cabbages - - - - - 1500 3Iay — Parsnips which are left in the ground during the winter, and allowed to grow in the spring, until iheir tops are from 4 to 6 inches high, when they are daily dug as wanted, and all boiled - - 500 June — Potatoes, ----- 250 Early lettuce, peas, chopped up vines and pods when the peas are full grown, though still green - - - - 250 Bushels, 6550 We always mix the vegetables by boiling some of either kind in each kettle. My farming, or rather gardening, goes upon the principle of cultivating but little ground, and by great attention to get large crops, and in some instances two from the same land. The form of one piece constantly in cultivation is an oblong, thus divided with an alley or walk 4 feet wide in the centre. No. 1. Of the upper side was sowed this year with mangel wurtzel, thinned out several times as described in a former letter, and finally cabbage plants set out two feel apart, (for winter crop,) taken from square No. 3, of the lower side. No. 2. Has now a crop of parsnips left to grow the next spring, to furnish food for the month ♦ Cabbages and mangel wurtzel used first. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 86 of May. The frost, however severe, does not in- jure them, and they are very much liked by the "hogs. The advantage of preserving without trouble through the winter makes them valuable. No. 3. Upper side, produced parsnips that were dug in the month of May, and 4th of June was sowed with carrots. Produce 237 bushels of the short kind. No. 1. Of the lower side was cropped with carrots this yearj of the long orange kind. Pro- duce 248 bushels. No. 2. Bore the crop of mangel wurtzel I de- scribed to you in a former letter. No. 3. Cabbages. — The ground was laid out in 8 beds, 4 rods long, and 1 wide; the 12th June, it was sowed with Pomfret cabbage seed, in rows 2 feet asunder. They were thinned out, as plants were wanted to set other places, so as finally to stand 2 feet apart. Produce 500 bushels. This piece of land is constantly cropped in such routine that the same vegetable occupies the same square once in three years. Each square is annually manured with well-rotted hog dung, and always at the rate of 4 cart loads for 40 cubic feel. The cabbage square has in addition 20 bushels of unslacked wood ashes. The aggregate produce this year of the whole 6 squares, or Ijt acres was as Ibllows, viz: 8^ rods wide M IC o Of cro O C-' "<5 W • ^; o 1 M 1 0=1 g o >fl" 3 n. 1 ^ jLi? o f? ?:: tt) o = 2 O^ ^? « 2 o 6 • *-i ^^ N • Upper Side. No. 1. Mangel wurtzel tops and roots all boil- ed together 510 bush. Cabbages transplanted 500 do. 1010 bush No. 2 Now filled with parsnips- -no doubt 600 do. No. 3. Carrots Loioer Side. 237 do. No. 1. Carrots 248 do. No. 2. Mangel wurtzel 523 do. No. 3. Pomfret cabbages 500 do. Bushels 3028 Upon the borders of this garden ground, which is one rod wide, I have a row of fruit trees. Under them we have lettuce, early cabbages, ruta baga for transplanting, and such vegetables as our family require. But upon the plot above described nothing grows lo shade the crops devoted to the piggery. A second piece of ground, contains a square acre, and is divided into 4 equal parts and cropped in this manner, viz: One-fourth acre, early potatoes and peas for family use. Of the peas, those not wanted, are chopped up, vines and all, and boiled in June. This land is cleared soon enough for a crop of transplanted Swedish turnips, or ruta baga. One-fourth acre summer squash. Produce 200 bushels. One-fourth acre, carrots. Produce 310 bushels. One-lburth acre, cabbages. Produce 560 bush- els. These two pieces of land are my sheet anchor — they are highly cultivated and neatly dressed, without a weed allowed to seed upon them. I annually cultivate, besides, 3 acres of field land, by breaking up 1^ acres, and laying down the same quantity. These 3 acres are cropped as follows, viz: One acre potatoes, 250 to 300 bushels. One acre winter squash or pumpkins 700 to 900 bushels. One-half acre cabbages 1000 bushels. One-fourth acre mangel wurtzel 250 One-fourth acre carrots 250 Roots, topB,&c. given to sheep and cows. 2500 bushels. These crops are an average lor the last 3 years. My whole farm, (if it deserves that name,) is only 21 acres, within a ring fence. Of which one acre or more is occupied by building^', yards, and approaches to them. To carry on all my operations I keep two hired men through the year, one of whom however, does the duty of house servant at the same time; and I hire besides day laborers and cattle to plough, to amount of 150 dollars more. It occu- pies about the whole time of one man, to take care of my stock, consisting of 160 hogs, 60 sheep, 1 chaise horse, 1 cart horse, and 1 cow; though they are both together, and when the animals are fed, are employed in the gardens in summer, and in winter getting out manure for the next season. In answer to your question respecting the "pro- bable marketable value of the vegetables on my larm," I would observe that the kinds and quan- tities of many which I raise, could not be sold at all; as for instance, the mangel wurtzel, ruta baga and all the tops and trimmings of others. Mr. Quincy tells me, he this year sells carrots in Bos- ton, alter carrying them 8 miles, at 9 dollars per ton, or 18 cents per bushel. Cabbages are sold by the load at 2 cents each, or about 8 or 10 cents per bushel. Parsnips and winter squashes must be retailed, and pumpkins in any quantities would not sell for any thing. To answer your question about market garden- ers, I have endeavored to recolle^'t who amono- my nei^hhors have been snrrrsf-ful and lone es- tablipliod in that line, and F rnnnol select a sincrle individual who lins no! driven his own cart to market, nnlil ht? had sons old enough to take kis 38 FARMKRS' REGISTER. [No. 1 place, and thus, by attending totheminutia? of the business, prevented that (i-aud and deception, that a fTentleman farmer cannot easily avoid. When I first bought my estate, I set up a market cart, got a stout horse, and a man well recommended; but my daily receipts kept growing less and less ; my man and horse were out late every evening, and after a vexatious and mortifying experiment; 1 was convinced, that I must either find a market for my vegetables upon the place, and under my own eyes, or give it up as a losing concern; for I could not bring my mind to the constant and daily competition, for trifling sums, which a man habituated to it from infancy, rather takes pleasure in. Manure bought in Boston, costs them two dol- lars per buck load, of 62 or 63 cubic feet, trod hard and moderately heaped, in its unrotted state. The expense of carting, put at the lowest rate, cannot cost the farmer less than ^1 50 per load, and when they bring it on hire, they charge ^2 50. My whole stock annually furnishes three hundred such loads, which after using all I want, find a ready sale among the market gardeners in my neighborhood at 3 dollars per load, they takmg it away with their own teams. This manure is without any mixture of pond mud, sods, &c. which, had I access to such mate- rials, might be very profitably increased. As it respects steaming, instead of boiling ve- getables, the only expense saved is fuel, for the same labor is necessary in filling and discharging them. Our laboring people require to have their work simplified as much as possible, and their judgment not ollen railed into exercise. Were I to tell my man to steam 18 bushels of vegetables, and to give one-third of them Slimes a day to the stock, the consequence would be, that a much greater quantity would be given at one time than another, and though the whole would be consum- ed in the course of the day, still the inequality of feeding would be hurtful. 13esides in winter, par- ticularly the Ewill must be very warm, which could not be at night with vegetables steamed in the morning. Upon the whole therefore, I prefer to Bay to him, " fill the kettle witli vegetables, and afler they are boiled away sufficiently to make room, put in one bushel of cracked corn and oats, and give the whole for breakfast," thus making out the exact line of duty, and leaving nothing to his discretion. I give the swill warm in summer, and almost hot in winter, and always sweet and fresh. In conversation with Dr. Derby, he argued upon the fropriety of feeding with sour food, and that cold. have formerly tried it and satisfied myself it was wrong. Pigs may be habiiuaied to eat it; but place this cold stufli'in a trough, and a good snio- liing hot breakfast of mine in another bere, by the simple name of the Cantaleupe meluii, and agrees with all stomachs and palates. The Zatta melon is greatly esteemed in Florence, Italy, &c. It is small, deeply lurrowed, rough and warted, and compressed at the ends. Melons should never grow near one another, if of dilierent sorts, or by any means near gounls, cucumbers, &c. be- cause the liiiina of one will im|)regnate the other, spoil the relish of the liuit, and make ihcm de- generate. Melon seed should nut be sown belcjre three years old, and though they will grow at ten or twelve years, yet they should not be propagated after six years. The early melon is Oi little value; the middle of June is early enough, in lader to have a proper succession, the seed should be sown at least at, two dilierent seasons, about the middle of February il" seasonable weather, if not, the lat- ter end. The second sowing should be in March, and the third in May which last will yield a crop in August, and last till October. The early sow- ings should be covered with oil-paper in preicieuce to glasses. The culture of melons and plaining Ihem out is the same with cucumbers, to which we retiir. The conijiost used by the Dutch and German gardeners, lor melons, is ol hazel loam, one-third part, of the scouring of ditches, ponds, &c. the same, and a third part uf rotten dung all Vol. VII-7 mixed together, and mellowed by being frequently turned over and kept twelve months. But Miller prefers two- third of iresli gentle loam and one- third of rotten neat's dung, kept together a year, and olten turned. It will take about fitteen good wheel-barrows of dung to a light. Melons of all sorts, but particular the Cantaleupe, should be planted out as soon as the third or rough leaf ap- pears. These seeds do well to be sown on the upper side of a cucumber bed. One plant is enough lor a light. Watering is very requisite, but in much smaller quantities than for cucumbers, and the water should be laid on at a distance from the stems. WJien the plant has lour leaves, the top of the plant should be pinched oif. in order to force out the lateral branches. It must not be cut or bruised; that wounds the plant, and takes a con- siderable time to heal. The roots of melons ex- tend a great way, and often perish alter the li-uit is set, for want of room; wheretbre Miller advises that your beds be twelve feet, and when your frames are filled with vine, to raise it so as to let the vines run under them. When the lateral branches, or, as the gardeners call them, runners, have two or three joints, their tops should be also pinched off, and when your li-uit is set, examine the vines and pull all ottj except one to a runner, leaving at most about eight to a vine, and pinch ofi' the end of the runner about three joints from the ii^uit; notwithstanding these are jiinched olij there will new runners appear, and these should be also taken away. If the ground is not too wet and moist, the lower the plants are the better, and if you plant in a bed, let your trenches be extend- ed in length about three lt;et and u half wide, and your plants should not be less than five feet asun- iler, to prevent their vines intermixing. If there are several beds the}' should be eight It-et asun- der and ihe si'aces between filled up, for the bene- fit of the roots, with rotten dung. They ought to be covered m all hard rains, 'ihe liames should not be too Iicavy. Many use laths in imitation of covered waggons. Your fiuit should be turned twice a week, Jbr the advantage of tlie sun, and if lodged on a board or piece of tile, it will be better. Once a week watering will be sufficient. The sign of the fiuil's maturity is the cracking near the loot stalk, and smelling fragrantly. The Cantaleupe never changes color, till too ripe. Gather your fruit in a morning before the sun has warmed it, but if gatiiered after put it into cold water or ice, and keep those got in the morning in the coolest place. A few hours delay in gathering will s|)oil the iruit, wherefore they ought to be overlooked twice a day. Take your seeds from the richest flavor- ed li'uit with the pulp, in which it must lie three days before being washed out, and save only ihe heavy seed, that which will sink in water. Millet, from MtUe, alliotisand, from the mul- titude of seed it bears. There are four sorts, white, yellow, black, and the Sorgo or Guinea corn. It originally came from the eastern coun- tries, and is much esteemed in making puddings. The seed should be sown the middle of March, very thin, as the plants require room, in a warm dry soil. They should be kept clear of weeds, and in Atigust or latter end of July the seed will rijien, when they are to be beaten out. The seed is good lljr poultry. The black, surt so called from its black seed, is of liu use oj value. 60 FARMERS' REGISTER. [Nov 1 MuLLiw, Verbascum, quasi barbascum, from the leaves being rough and bearded, Ey olhers il is called Candelc regia Lychnitis, because ils leaves are used instead ol' cotton in a lamp. And it is also called P/domos gr. \romJiego gr. to burn lor the same reason. The .seed should be sown in August, in drills, each seed about six inches asun- der, and in the spring transplanted in a warm light situation. Mug WORT, jfrtemisia wife of Mausolus, king oi" Curia, who first brought it into use, or Parthe- nis as it was before called, because supposed that a virgin goddes, gave name to it; or Jirtcmis gr. Diana, because good for the disorders of women. This plant is propagated by parting the roots, either in spring or autumn, and will grow in any soil or situation. They spread very much, to pre- vent which their side shoots should be cut; I'rom one species of this the moxa is got, being the La- nugo or downy substance under the leaf Onion, Cepe. There are three sorts for winter use; cepe oblonga, or Strasburg, vulgo cepe vul- garis, Jloribus and tunicis purpurescenlibus or red Spanish onion, and \?ls,\\y cepe jloribus and iu- nicis candidis, or the white Spanish onion, by some the stomere. There are other sorts which suit the spring and summer seasons best, those are cepe ascalonica, from jlscaton, a city in India, or the scallion or escallion. The cives or cepula the young onion. The Welsh onion, and lastly the ciboule. The three first sorts should be sown in February, the first open weather, or beginning of March at farthest, and in about six weeks your onions will be up, and ought to be weeded. The rows should be about 12 or 18 inches asunder if sown in drills, which is the best method, and the plants should be drawn to be about 5 or 6 inches apart. This may be no loss, because they will serve with young salad in the spring. About the middle or latter end of July your plants will be ripe, which may be discovered by ihe dropping down orshrink- ing of the blades, then they should be drawn up, and the extreme |)art of the blades should be cropped off, and the plants laid on the ground to dry. They should be turned at least every other day, otherwise they will strike fresh root, espe- cially in moist weather. In about a fortnight they will be sufficiently dried, you are then to rub off all the earth and take care to remove all that are any ways decayed, and the sound ones laid as thin as possible, in some room orgarret as close from the air as possible, and at least once a month look over them, to see if any of them are decayed, for if any are so, they will affect the rest, or if too near one another, or in heaps, they will heat and probably ruin the whole crop. The white onion is the sweetest, though all ihe three sorts will de- generate into one another in the course of time. In March you should dig a trench, and put soaie of your most flourishing plants about six inches deep, and as far asunder, into if, which should be covered over with a rake, and in about a month's time the leaves will appear above ground, and when your plants begin to head, they should be supported by stakes and pack-thread or yarn, otherwise they will be very liable to be injured by the winds. These will produce your seed, about August, which may be known by the seeds chang- ing brown, and the bells where the seed is con- tained, opening. The heads should be critically cut, otherwise the seed will be dropped, and when cut, the heads should be exposed to the sun, and eheliered in the night and wet weather; and when sufficiently dry they should be rubbed out, and after being exposed one day more to the sun, may be put into bags and preserved for the following year. The scallion is a small onion, and is sown early in the spring, and never forms any bulb, and is used green in the spring with young salads. The ciboule and Welch onion are thought to be Ihe same by Mr. Miller. The Cives never grows into bulbs, but in bunch- es, and Miller takes it to be shalot. They don't grow above six inches high in the blade. They are to be propagated by parting the Foots or plant- ing the cloves. They don't effect the breath so much as the other sorts. The Welch onion at some seasons o( the year (viz: in the fall) diea away, but revives in January, and becomes very early in the spring fit for the table. Garlick, u^llium from Aleo gr. to shun from its scent, should be propagated by planting the bulbs in August or September, about 5 inches asunder. These die about July, and then should be taken up and hung in a dry room lor winter use. All these several sorts delight in a rich sandy soil, and eight pounds of seed will sow an acre. When sown, they should be trod; so should they be treated wlien they run too much into blade, in order to throw their substance into the bulb, and when trod they ought to be covered with fresh mould. The seed for sowing should never be wet, because it will shoot out its radicle, and never succeed afterwards. Parsley, vide celery. Parsnip, Pusiinaca fi-om Pastus, fed, be- cause its plant is edible. The seed should be sown about February or IMarch, in light ground dug pretty deep, and may be mixed with carrots; though Miller advises against mixing with any thing else, because, they spread very much in the latter end of summer. They should be kept very clear of weeds, and should be drawn to about 10 or 12 inches asunder. When the leaves be- gin to decay, which will be about February, after li-osts, they should be dug up and put into dry sand, which will preserve them till April. They are not sweet till bit by the frosts. In order to have seed, your strongest plants should be planted out in the spring, and in August or beginning of September your seed ivill be ripe. You must then cut off' the heads, and let them be exposed to the sun three days, in order to dry them, after which they should be beat out, and put up for use. Seed are not to be trusted after a year old. Peas, Pisum, from P(sa a city, where it an- ciently grew in great plenty, or fi^om Pcscn gr. he fell, formed from the verb Pipto gr. because this i)lant, if not supported, will fall to the ground. 'J'here are several sorts of pease, and which have diflerent properties, some being early, and others late. There are the Charlton-hotspur, Reading- hotspur, and master-hotspur, but are very little different from each other. These are the earliest, and are reckoned much preferable in flavor to any other kind. These should be sown in November, 183^] FARMERS' REGISTER. 61 and covered in the winter. There are likewise the rouncivals, the Spanish maratto, and the marrowllit or Dutch admiral, but these are oC a later sort, and are intended to come in succession, when the forward kind are gone. You should sow your peas every forlnight, and as the hot weather comes on, the latter sort should he in a shehered situation, otherwise they will burn up. 1 would recommend sowing in drills about 2 or 3 inches deep, levelling the ground very smoothly with light mould, in rows about four feet asunder, for the convenience of going between to gather the crop, and raising cabbages or other things at the same time. In the spring let your rows be east and west, in the suir.mer north and south, for a reason whicfi must be obvious, viz: the giving them as much sun as possible in the first inslance, and as little as possible in the last. When your peas are well up, they should be hilled once or twice before tliey are stuck. This not only strengthens them, but at the same time affords them li-esh nourishment. The maimer ofslicking them is known to every bod}^; I shall only, there- fore, mention a caution, to put your slicks firm in the ground, otherwise they are apt to fall when the vines grow rampant, and not to stick them in too near the roots, lest you do the plant irrepara- h\e injury. In the spring it has been fiiund that scattering some dry cow dtmg in the trenches be- fore you sow your peas, has been ver}' beneficial. The charlton and marrowfats may be sown at the same time. Some peoj)le soak tlieir peas be- fore sowing, but this often turns out unsuccessiul- ly, fijr in a wet season they are very apt to rot. There is a pea which came from Holland, with an esculent husk, 'i'he ormonds are the hotspur. In order to have peas in the fall, sow the hotspur and a latter sort the 121 h day of i\ iigust, these will yield you a crop from October till the infeupe weather comes on, in November or Decemb(>r. Your slicks should be pretty long, eight lijet is not too high, because the rampant sorts, particularly the crown pea and marrowfiifs, run to a great height, and keep bearing as they grow. Peas niiy be preserved as kidney beans are, by laying them in different layers of salt, in their pods, and keeping them quite close. PoTATOKs, Licopersicon, from Lupus, gr. a wolf, and porsica, a peach. Potatoes seems only a corruption of the Indian batatas, it coming ori- ginally from America, in 1623. Dr. Linnai-us classes it under the genus solanum. There are more raised near London than in any other part of Europe. As the seed is not only uncertain, but very difficult to be raised in England, they are generally propagated fi-om the roots; some take the small potatoes, or offsets entire, others cm the large ones into pieces, observing to plant what they call the eyes. But JMiller thinks the best method is to plant the fiiirest roots, allowing them a greater distance both in the rows, and from one another. The proper soil lor this plant is a light, sandy loam, not too dry or moist. The groimd should be well worked, and your potatoes planted as soon as the frosts are over, that is, about the be;^inning of March, in furrows about seven or eignt inches, and the rows three feet asunder, and the plants a ft)ot and a half! The ground should be kept clear of weeds, and stirred before the roots begin to stretch themselves out. The haulm of these plants are generally killed the first frost, at which time they should be taken up, and kept m sand quite dry, fi^r use, not too thick, and very dry, least they should heat and spoil. You mny dig them up sooner, if large enough, and no inju- ry will be done. This is the case an)ongst the farm- ers, for they generally take a crop of wheat from the land, and therefore, must have the ground cleared as soon as possible. The Irish method of raising these plants, is to lay them on the sward, and cover them six inches with mould, and so hill ihem up as they grow. Hilling is necessary, let them be planted in any manner you think proper. Pepper, Capsicum, from Capsula, or Kapto gr. to burn, should be sown in April, and should be gathered before the pods grow hard, for pickles. Radish, Raphanus, from Radios gr. easy, and saino gr. appareo, because they soon make their ap- pearance when sown. There are radishes known in this country by the name of scarlet or salmon, London short-topped, &c., but they are. Miller says, no more than little varieties of the common sort, arising fi-om culture. The gardeners about London sow their seeds in October, in a warm border, so as to have them, if they do not miscar- ry, in March; but I believe our winters aie too se- vere to admit of this here. The second sowing is about Christmas, which will produce a crop in April; but the best method is to sow every fort- night, fiom January till the beginning of April, al- ways observing to sow your latter crops in moist land, otherwise they are apt to run up; and indeed, with propershellers, these sowings may be repeat- ed all the summer and lidl. Where the ground is scarce, the gardeners sow carrots and spinach with their radishes, because the last are drawn soon, and give the others room to flourish. The best method ol'sowing radishes is in drills about a loot asunder, the seed to be put three inches deep in liglit rich land, though no dung; and if they grow too thick, that is, nearer than three mclics asunder, tliey should be pulled, so as to remain within that dis- tance. In May, you should, in order to have proper seed, draw some ofyour best plants, such as do not branch, but are straight, and prick them in rows three feet asunder, and two from one another, and when the seed grow brown, they should be taken off, dried, and the pods beaten out, and secured so that the mice cannot get at the seed. There is a turnip-radish, beingvery likeonecalled in England, the round-rooied radish. These should be sown in i\] arch, and allowed a greater distance than the CDinmon radish. The black ratlish will continue, if sown in August, till killed by. the frosts; and radishes may be preserved in sand, as carrots are, till the spring. Some people, to have long hand- some radishes, make holes in the ground at six inches deep, and put two seed into each, about three inches asunder, by which means your rad- ishes are the better. Raspberry, Rtibus, beir)g red. There are two sorts only that are propagated tbr the sake of iheir fiuit, the white and red, and those either by layers or suckers, though the former are preferable. They should be placed in some abject part of the garden, where they may have room to spread with- out incommoding anv other plant. They should not De less than two li^et asunder, and in their rows five, though six each way would do better, in a 52 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 light loamy soil, neither too moist or too dry. The old bearing branches should be cut down to t[ie ground in October, and the youngshoots siiortened to two feet, and some rotten dung should be thrown into the trenches. There ought to be a new plan- tation once in thi-ee or (bur years. Some think they should never be touched, but be sutlered to run and grow as they please; others pinch ofl' the dead parts only. If the blossom is pulled off" they will produce fruit in the lall. They are pestered with lice, but lime water kills them if sprinkled upon them. Rosemary, Rosmarinus, sea dew, delights in a poor gravelly soil, and has a more aromatic smell than in richer soil, and will stand the cold better. It is propagated by cutting or slips, which may be planted eillier in the fall (September,) or in the spring, and transplanted where they are to remain after they have taken root; or they may be suffer- ed to remain where the cuttings are first put. Rue, Ruta, i'rom Ruo, gr. to preserve, viz. health. It is propagated as rosemary, to which we refer, only it must be done in the sprinir. It is not good for edgings, to which use it was formerly applied, because it either grows too luxuriant, or if repressed, ragged, wherefore it is now discon- tinued, and made use of only l()r medical purposes. Spinach, Spinachia, should be sown about the latter end of July or middle of August, when there is an appearance of rain, and drawn, when up, to be about three or four inches asunder. It should be constantly cleared of weeds, in October the spinach will be fit tocut, when you should oniycrop the largest leaves; in the spring you shoiild sovv a fresh crop, which will come to maturity in April, when the winter sowing will run to seed, and the best plants should be reserved for seed. In En- gland they aim at a succession, and sow in Janu- ary, February and March; but in this country it is apt to run to seed in the spring, and if prevented, is milky and distasteful. The seed should be sown in drills about two feet distance, and if j'ou desire seed, the plants should be about twelve or fourteen inches asunder. Seed sown in the spring will pro- duce as good seed as any. There is a male and female plant, the former of which produces spires of stamineous ffowers, which contain the farina, and impregnate the embryos of the female plants, and produce the seed; and if the males are pulled up the seed will not be worth any thing. When the plants change color they should he cut and dried a few days in the sun, turning them every day, and when dried, beat out and preserved from mice. It delights in the best soil. Strawberry, Pragaria, fi-om its aromafic ecent. There are three sorts chielly protraL'ated, the wood, the scarlet or Virginian, and the. haut- bois; there is a green sort, which some call dray- ton, and others, the pine apple, from its participa- ting of the flavor of that delicious fruit, but none has ever been brought into this country, and it is but rarely to be met with even in England. Sep- tember is the best month for transplanting, though it is ollen done in February. But I have mysell transplanted with success when in full bloom. The soil this plant deligiils in ought to be a fresh loamy sort. If too rich, the vines i^row rampant, and do not produce the fruit so good as in ground less enriched. All strawberries should be at least a foot distance, but I recommend two feet, to have them in irreat perfection. They ought to be plant- ed in betls, with alleys two feet wide, fijr the con- venience of going between to cleanse them of weeds, very prejudicial to them. In the spring, when your vines are in Hower, if it is dry, water them, otherwise their blossom will drop off. In Sejitember you should pull off all the strings, or runners, and every weak plant; dig up between the beds, and strew some fine mould or wood-pile earth between the plants, observing not to cover them with it; this will greatly strengthen them, and your fi-uil will be much larger. They do not last above three years, so that to keep constantly supplied, you should make a new plantation a year before the old ones are destroyed. The scarlet strawberry will come a fortnight sooner than any other sort. The Chili strawberry will grow to the size of a hen's egg. The best dung (if any,) for strawberries, is that of cows, sheep, and pigeons. In order to have them Infer in the season, and to afford a s^uccession, cut off the tops of some before they blossom, which will retard their ripening till the forward ones are gone. Many people keep them constantly strung, but I should imagine that wounds them, but in the proper season. It is thought a clayey soil f^uits them best, because the best are Hmnd at Hammersmith, where the best and most bricks are made. Ashes, ifnot in too great a quantity, (lor they are then too hot,) suit thena very well. Sage, Salvice, sahis vita:, may be propagated in any of the summer months, if watered and shaded till they have taken root. It delights in a drv poor soil. There are fifteen difl'erent sorts, but the common or green, and the red are princi- pally cultivated. The broad leaved sage is pre- ferable fur tea. Salsify, or goats" beard, Tragopogon, sow in March or April, in rows a foot asunder, keep the plants six inches distance, and lake them up when the leaves decay. Taxsy, Tanac.eium, is propagated from the creeping roots which shoot out if undisturbed, and may be planted in spring or autumn, at about a loot distance. The paths round the bed should be ollen dug, in order to keep the roots within bounds. Thybie, Thymus from Thuos gr. odom or Thumos gr. animal spirit. This is to be propa- irated either from the seed, or parting the roots. If from the former, the seed should be sown in IMarch, if li'om the latter, the slips from the roots should be planted the latter end of the same month, about six inches distant. This plant im- poverishes the ground much, for nothing will suc- ceed in land where lh}nie has grown the pre- ceding year. Turnip, Rapa. The while and purple rooted turnip, are the two sorts chieffy cultivated in Eng- land lor the table. They delight in a light sandy soil, and not rich, for that makes them sticky and rank. Fresh land suits them better than land worn out, and will communicate to them a sweet- er flavor. The gardeners about jjondon, sow their seed successively from March to August, for the market, though such as are sown early are lia- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 63 ble to be eat by the fly in dry weather, wherefore it is advisable to water. But the farmers sow from June to tlic middle of August; after tliat time tliey will not i\p|)le kindly, and if you intend your crop lor the table, in the summer it would be proper if possible, to put your seed into a moist soil, and in some open place not near hedges, &c. It is said they are a great improvement to barren land. The ground intended lor this purpose should be well worked and made as fine as it can be, and if you sow a large quantity, it should be in drills very thin, the common allowance being one pound to the acre, though two are very sufficient, and should be harrowed in, and rolled in order to break the clods, and in ten days your seed will come up. When your plant has lour leaves, your ground should be hoed, and the turnips pulled, to be about six inches asunder, and about three weeks or a month after they should be hoed a second time, and left within eighteen inches, or two feet; for what they want in number will be sufficiently compensated in weight. Ten inches are a sullicient distance for roots intended for the table, because the largest are not generally esteemed the sweet- est. It is but of late years, that turnips have been sown in the fields lor cattle, and yet it was practised by the ancients, for Columella recom- mends the sowing the rape for cattle. In many parts of England, at this day they are ignorant of the method, lor they sow their seed with barley in the spring, and when the barley is cut, the tur- nips afibrd the sheep soimething green to pick up. The proper method of sowing turnips in the field is with the drill plough, in rows three, four, five, and six ieet asunder, the last is most recommend- ed. Lord Townsend sowed an acre in drills, and worked it with the plough, and another acre in broad cast and hoed by hand, and the turnips sown in drills; yielded a ton and a half in weight more than that vvliich was sown in the other hus- bandry. The great danger turnips are liable to, is from the fly, in dry weather, when the leaf is tender and smooth, wherefore you ought to sow a little soot along the drills, which will keep the fly off', till the rough leaf comes on, and then the fly wont touch it. Caterpillars sometimes attack these plants when they have surmounted the en- mity of the fly, but some hungry poultry turned into the turnip field or patch in a morning, will soon get it rid of these insects. Miller recom- mends feeding cattle or sheep on turnips, within hurdles which should be removed every day, otherwise they will destroy a great quantity more than they can eat. The best mutton in England is fed on turnips, and lis a vulgar mistake to say it makes it rank. In order to save seed, some of the fairest plants should be transplanted in February, about three feet asunder each way. A gardener's calender. January. Prepare hot-beds for cucumbers; as little can be done this month in a garden, I would advise the preparing of your dimg, and carrying it to your beds, that it may be ready to be spread on in February. February. Sow asparagus, make your beds, and Ibrk up the old ones, sow sugar loaf cabbages; latter end, transplant cauliflowers, sow carrots, and transplant for seed, prick out endive lor seed, sow lettuce, melons in hot beds, sow parsnips, take up the old roots and prick out for seed, sow peas, and prick them into your hot beds, sow radishes twice, plant strawberries, plant out turnips lor seed; spade deep, and make it fine, plant beans. March. Slip your artichokes, if fit; plant kid- ney beans, cabbages, celery, parsley, cucumbers, currants, chamomile, celandine, nasturtium, fea- therfew, fennel, ivy, horse-radish, hyssop, laven- der, lettuce, radishes twice, marjoram, marsh mallow, mint, melons, nnllet, mugwort, onions and for seed, peas twice, potatoes, raspberry, rosemary, rue, spinach, tansy, thyme, turnips. You may begin to mow your grass-walks, and continue so to do every morning, and roll them; turf this month, and plant box. April. If artichokes not slipped last month, do it this; plant bushel and garden beans, sow cabbages; 12th, sow cauliflowers; sow celery, cresses, nas- turtium, lettuce, peas, sow radishes twice; sage will grow in this or any other month; turnips, sow salsii'y early, pepper. Turf this month. May. Latter end, broccoli, celery, cucumbers for [)ii-klos, endive, tiiatherlew, hyssop, cuttings of marsh mallow, melons, [leas, sow radishes twice, kidney beans. Turf this month. June. Cabbages should be sown, sow radish- es twice, transplant cabbages, prick out cauliflow- ers, do. broccoli. Draw up by the roots all your weeds. July. Transplant broccoli, sow cabbages, cole- worts, transplant cauliflowers to stand, endive, gather millet seed, take up onions, sow radishes, twice, BOW turnips, plant kidney beans to preserve. y/ugust. Sow cabbages; latter end, carrots, get your cucumber seed, sow cresses, prick out endive, early sow lettuce, mullein, gather onion seed, plant garlick, get parsnip seed; 12th sow peas for the fall, sow radishes; middle, sow spinach, thouo"h some say not till after the 20th; sow turnips. September. Sow cabbages; 10th, sow cauliflow- ets; plant cuttings of currants, clary comfrey, plant cuttmgs of gooseberries, sow radishes, plant layera or suckers of raspberries, rosemary, plant out strawberries, string your strawberries, and dress your beds, plant tansy. October. Latter end, cut down your asparagus, and cover your beds with dung, plant beans for spring, sow cabbages; 20th, transplant cauliflow- ers, pliuit horse radish, prick lettuce into boxes, sow peas for the hot beil, radishes; turf this month. November. Take up your cabbages, sow cab- bages, take up your cauliflowers, such as are flowered, and house them, take up your carrots, trench all your vacant land, prune your trees and vines, plant out every thing of the tree or shrub kind, that has a root to it; if any thing is done to your artichokes, this is a good month; plant box; turf early. December. Cover your endive with brush, co- ver celery, and every thing else that needs shelter. 54 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1 i( the weather will admit, turn over your ground that is trenched, in order to mellow it, and pul- verize it. Whatever will prevent delay and en- able you to begin spading in February, should be done this month. From the Silk Grower. A STATEMKKT OF PRACTICAL, SILK BUSINESS. To the Committee on Silk, Jlmerican Institute: Gentlemen — The vast importance of the silk culture to our country, and the eagerness of the public to obtam information respecting it, make it the duty of every one engaged in producing a "silk crop," to lurnish his quota of knowledge, that thus a mass of practical information may be collected, from which we may go forward with confidence, and gather in the rich harvest which is before us. With these views, and in compliance with the solicitation of my fellow-citizens, I give you the result of my experience during the past summer. I would first premise, that in making a trial of the eilk culture, it was my desire to adopt a mode which could be followed by our agriculturisis at large, rather than to show the greale.-?t possible quantity of silk that could be produced from a giv- en portion of land. Such an experiment, made under peculiar advantages of soil and culture, yielding a large product, might be viewed with admiration; but the means being beyond the reach of the mass of our citizens, the same results could not be attained. The field from which the experiment was made, was situated in East Hartford — the soil, of a light, sandy nature, of a quality termed in that quarter, good corn-land. It was ploughed about the middle of May, and harrowed and furrowed in the usual manner. The roots and trees (moras mullicau- lis) were now laid down and covered from two lo four inches, the tops having a slight upward incli- nation; they were placed about twelve inches apart in the row, the rows three and a half feet apart, having been previously moderately manured. After the field was planted, a section compris- ing one eighth of an acre was marked oti', to be subjected to a more particular experiment. It was stocked with 780 roots and trees, all of one year's growth, having had their tops partially or wholly killed by the severity of the past season. One- third were two feet high, one-third one loot, stripped of their limbs, and the remainder were roots with- out tops. By the 1st of June the new shoots be- gan to show themselves, and by the 1st of July they numbered 4,800, and had attained the height of twelve to eighteen inches. A family of 4,000 worms were now started, which wound upon the 23d July, having con- sumed 131 lbs. leaves. Three other lots, amount- ing in all to 28,000, were now put out at inter- vals of several days, in order to favor the increas- ing growth of the leaves. 15y the 10th of Sept., the last had finished their labors. Weight of leaves consumed in Aug., 701 lbs. and in Sept. 332 lbs. Total weight of leaves gathered, . . l,164lbs. Total number of worms fed, . . . 32 000 Producing nine bushels cocoons. Yielding (so far as reeled) 1 lb. of silk perhushei. Weight of cocoons, 95 lbs Waste silk, and floss, lib. Twenty-seven thousand of the worms were of the two-crop kind, requiring 4,000 to make a pound of silk and consuming 144 lbs. of leaves. The remaining 5,000 were the long-crop eix-weeka worms, 2,500 of which produced a pound of silk, and consumed 90 lbs. leaves. It was my inten- tion to have fed the long-crop worms entirely, ag they are known, to be much the most productive of any other kind, but they could not be procured. Business now calling me away, the feeding was discontinued, and the trees were immediately removed from the ground, having attained an average height of 4^ feet, well-rooted, and with heavy limbs. The produce of the one-eighth of an acre, aa above, it appears is 9 bushels cocoons or 9 lbs. silk; being at the rate of 72 lbs. per acre, from the feed- ing between the 1st July and the tenth Sept. It is easy to see, that had the 1,164 lbs. leaves been led to worms of the six-weeks kind, the yield would have been 13 lbs. of silk, or nearly — and from the rapidity with which the new leaves were develop- ing when the trees were removed, it is presumed that had they remained during September, enough more might have been added, to have swelled the product, so as to have made the crop at the rate of 125 lbs. per acre. During the period of feeding, the safety and even advantage to the tree of frequent defoliation was fully proved. The trees from which this ex- periment was made, were stripped of their leaves lour different times, yet at no time were they in- ferior to others that were untouched ; on the con- trary, it was remarked, that where the leaves were removed, the limbs shot forth with greater vigor — care being taken to leave the tender leaves at the ends of the branches. The very great advantage of this species of mulberry over standard trees, was manifest; while such trees are dilficult of success, and from the small size of the leaves, requiring much labor to gather any quantity, it was easy for a child to take from the niorus multicaulis 15 to 20 lbs. in an hour. The plan of retarding the hatching of the eggs by keeping them in an ice-house, was found per- fectly successful; the worms which wound the finest cocoons were thus kept back until the 3d of August. It may be useful to new beginners to know, that the large six-weeks worm, either white or sulphur colored, is altogether preferable to the two-crop; for not only are they more productive of silk, but from their superior length of thread, thereeler is able to produce silk of better quality, and with less labor. The convenience of a shrub tree, where the farmer wishes to change his crop, may be seen li-om the fact, that with the use of a plough, the trees on this section of land, 4,800 in number, were turned out of the ground in 30 minutes. An hour more was sufficient to curt them fi'om the field. Every one who lakes up the culture of silk, is surprised at the ease and certainty with which it is produced, and of this experiment it may be ob- served, that none of the persons who took care of the trees, gathered the leaves, or ied the worms, had ever seen a tree or silk-worm before. I am not acquainted with the comparative me- rits of the moras multicaulis, and other kinds of the mulberry; but large as has been the estimate of some cultivators, of the produce and value of 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 55 the former, I believe its astonishing power oP re- producing foliage, its tenacify of life, and the great ease with which it is multiplied, have never been overrated. A (riend informs me that a field of roots, deprived of their tops last fall, remained in the ground during winter, and that from the new shoots, which started as early as any other vege- tation, he was able to feed from one to two months earlier than from others planted the follovving May. From these collected facts, we may form an idea of the quantity of leaves, and the conse- quent weight of silk that may be obtained from the morus multicaulis, when it shall liave attained greater age, even in this latitude. I am not able to name the cost of raising silk; but an intelligent culturist of my acquaintance, from a proof of three successive years, rates it at $2 per lb., exclusive of the cost of trees and the tillage; respecting the latter, I am of opinion the labor bestowed on a field of mulberry, need not be more than on a field of Indian corn. It appears, therefore, that nearly all the labor of raising silk, viz: plucking the leaves, feeding the worms, and reeling it into sewings, may be per- formed by the females of a family, and thus^ the product be considered a clear gain, like that of any other collateral branch of farming. The growing of silk needs but to be looked into, to be appre- ciated ; and if 100 pounds can be produced the first year of planting, worth $5 the pound in raw silk, or ^9, when in sewings, what other crop, it may be asked, can be named coming near it for profit? I will only add, gentlemen, that it is cheer- ing to see the interest the Americau Institute has taken in this all-important subject, and to express the hope, that the coming exhibition, from our silk-growers, and the increased patronage of the institute, may give to it a fresh interest. Yours, respectllilly, J. Danfortii. Hartford, Con., Sept. mh, 1838. To the Committee on Silk, American Institute : Gentlemen — The accompanying sewing silk, 3^- pounds, is offered (or exhibition at the coming fair; and you may consider me a competitor for the premium offered through the Institute in April. This silk was produced from y'^-th of an acre of land, being one half the section named in the statement annexed. It should be remarked, ihat the cocoons (4i^ bushels) from which it was pro- duced, were sent some 40 miles to be reeled, and consequently were much injured, so as to produce less silk; and from haste in reeling, (to prevent all the millers from eating out,) is inferior in quality to what it would otherwise have been. Weight of waste silk and floss, 1 lb. Yours respectfully, J. Danfortii. For the Fanners' Register. SKINLESS OATS. JVardsfurk, Charlotte, Jan^y 16, 1839 About three years ago, you enclosed me twen- ty grains of skinless oat seed; I drilled them care- fully, and made a half bushel in the shuck. 1 sowed them, and ihey turned out well; liom which 1 made a large stack last year, all of which I intend to sovv this spring. I am very much pleased with the oats, notwithstanding they have been repudiated by some writer in the Rrgister, some tin)e ago. If I succeed well with this crop, I will give you a particular account (or the Regis- ter. I am satisfied now, they are a valuable oat. But, as they have been condemned, I wish to make a full trial of them. R. J. Gaines. [The success of the trial, so far, is, of hself, a valuable report, and, therefore, is here given to encourage other experiments. The more full fu- ture account will be still more acceptable. — Ed. Far. Reg.] PRINCEANA. — No. II. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. I find that my strictures on Mr. Prince's bom- bastic advertisement, have drawn forth a pungent rejoinder from him; pungent in language, but tame and spiritless in argument. I wish to show that he does not, and cannot successfully contro- vert the position, that multicaulis trees of south- ern growth are superior to his own, even with the limitations and modifications with which he now attempts to prop up his vain boasting. In fact, Mr. Prince has almost shifted his ground. It will be recollected that his challenge was directed against the multicaulis trees of Maryland and Vir- ginia; for they were the plants that he said had re- ceived the encomiums which he thought so un- merited. Mr. Prince now tells us that he does not consider these as southern trees; it is only those "of South Carolina and Georgia, and the states south of them," that are of such inferior value. The climate of Maryland and Virginia, is now complimented as approximating so nearly to that of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and ^'lushing, as to enable us to raise trees almost as gjod as his own; as even being "amongst the besL of their kind." With this admission, I see no ur/*vent rea- son for Mr. Prince's acting on the "defensive." He should have known that discretion was the belter part of valor; he might have looked before he leaped. If I erred in supposing that Mr. Prince meant to include all New England a«- being adapted to produce raultica'-'Jis of "sufjerior growth," the error j/gs certairJy a ve y natural one; (or we aredistitvctk assurvJ t^ 'he advertisement as a "truth '" Hs^at in B'^iJ^e Island and Connecticut, "trees'of two and f i''ee years old are (bund to be as hardv as an (PP^^ ''"ee." Now if they are, under these K\i AJmstances, as hardy as an apple tree in those stufi^i it is ofit-ring no violence to Mr. Prince's arcument, to represent him as main- taining that aftp'" reaching the above age, they would flourish f^. extensively with the apple. In passing through .h^it, term of probation, however, they inight be reduced to the melancholy condi- tion of the animal, which died just as he was trained to live upon nothing. But Mr. Prince claims distinguished merit for having acclimated the multicaulis; and he deserves it, if he has succeeded as well as he pretends. In the short space of some six or eight years he has been able to accommodate the habits of this pro- duction of a tropical climate to the rigors of a high degree of latitude; to inliise strength into its con- M FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 Btitution; to educate it like a child; in short, to make it as hardy as an apple tree I Of all the empirical pretensions which Mr. Prince has set up, none is more vain and ridiculous than this. There is no instance on record, of a tender plant becoming acclimated in such a brief period. Here- tofore this process has been the work of aj^es; and whenever the removal has been so distant from its native clime as that of the multicaulis, the attain- ment of the object has been but imperlectly achieved at last. But in eight years, at most, the multicaulis, a native of the Phillippine Islands^ has been endowed with the constitution of the rtp- ple tree, by the potent spells of Mr. Prince. Tru- ly the discovery of the philosopher's stone would not have been more marvellous than this sudden metamorphosis. Even the peach, vvhieh has been two centuries in America, has not become accli- mated to every part of New England; and the Catalpa, the Pride of India, the fig, and the Eu- ropean vine, some of which are natives of extra- tropical regions, do not withstand, without protec- tion, the severity of milder winters than those of New England. On this subject of the acclima- tion of the multicaulis, I beg leave to refer the readers of Mr. Prince's letter, to an article in the last number of the 'Magazine of Horticulture,' published at Boston, which reached me by the same mail that brought me the Farmers' Regis- ter. That article comes from a most respectable source; not less respectable than Mr. Prince, and quite as disinterested; and expresses the convic- tion, sustained by facts, that the multicaulis will not answer the purposes of silk culture in the New England states. We are informed by the editor, that the aggregate number of trees has not been increased for some years; and that many thou- sands of them have been totally destroyed. But Mr. Prmce has not only over-rated the value of the multicaulis, as applicable to the climate of New England and New York, but he has been assiduously engaged in depreciating those varie- ties of the mulberry which can alone withstand the seventy of such a climate. Witness his let- ter to the 'Wisconsin Culturist' — his numerous ad- vertisemel»-ts, claiming for himself" the merit of vuv.''in£r nothing of the '^humbug kind'''' — and his attempts, covtrtas well as open, to put down the Alpine mulberry^ ^vhich has been gradually gain- ing in public estimai'.-^n in the northern states, not- withstanding the mill-rtone that has been hung around its neck. One might suppose that in the Alpme, Mr. Prince has behe'.a the ghost of Ban- quo, in a fair way of reclaitning (he rights of which it has been unjustly afid^insidiously de- prived. This variety, (the morus moretti or M. macrophylla of Europe) has wi hstO'..J, without being scathed, a degree of cold vvhich has been destructive to the multicaulis. I e growth is ra- pid; it is readily multiplied by cuttings; and in amount of foliage it is barely surpassed by the multicaulis itself. When all delusion shall have passed away, it will take a rank in the northern states, similar to that which is now hold by the multicaulis in the states south of New York. In making these remarks, I am actuated only by a regard for the interests and success of the silk culture. However desirable it might be, (and to none would it be more desirable than to my- self,) that the multicaulis should justify the charac- ter for hardiness which Mr. Prince has given of it, yet ;t carinot, and ought not to be recommended ae otieriivg a safe reliance for those who are at- tempting to introduce the culture into the interior of Nciv Ai]ngland, and New York. If it can ever be ea;'-!.r. In acH 20 acres Land, at $10 per acre. Cr. To interest on $200, To cost man and horse for 1 year. Wear and tear of tools. Additional labor. Seed-oats, corn and peas. To whole am't expenses, Balance Dr. n 12 00 j 250 001 20 00 5 001 5 00 $292 00 152 00 By 18 bbls. corn. By ofFal from corn. By 6000 lbs. oats, at $7 00 per m. By 12 bush, peas, at $1 00, By pasturage, 8 acres poor land, To whole amount profits, Balance, 72 00 7 50 42 00 12 00 6 50 140 00 152 00 292 00 In the annexed account No. 1, I have sup- posed the twenty acres laid off into three equal fields of six acres each, with a lot of two acres for trucking (if I may make a word.) It will be seen by reference to it, that landlord, number 1, atier paving a high price for his land, put manure of different sorts on it to the amount of §250 per an- num; and still the land pays this sum, current ex- penses, and pays him within a fraction of 12 per cent, on his investment; so, that it is apparent, un- der this system, he will be able to keep his capi- tal increasing in value, while he is at the same time, making 12 percent, on it. It is equally ap- parent, that landlord number 2, who wraps his one talent in a napkin, will be brought in debt every year, to an amount equal to more than tivelve times the amount of the inleresi on his in- vestment. What (oily then to work poor land without improving it; the'means for which every man possesses more or less, on or near his land. If the class I address could lift the veil which co- vers my name, they might say "ph3'sician heal thyself;" but I hope with less truth every day, for 1 am striving to benefit myself and posteritj^, while I am helping to brace up our dear old mother Virginia, who is fast sinking under the ruthless treatment of her children; who nourish her with nothing, while they are tugging at her empty dugs, and killing her, while they are starvincr themselves to death; all for the want of a little en- ergy and enterprise. As a general rule, let me advise my fellow-laborers, if you want productive seed-corn, manure your land, and carefully save the seed; if you want fine wheat, fallow and use lime, and your seed will be good; if you want im- proved cattle, first rear grass lor them to eat, and don't buy a Durham bull at ^1000 or 2000 to feed him on straw and shucks in winter, and buds and marsh grass, in spring and summer. It will not answer; his breed, in ten years, will be no better than the common cattle of the country; whereas if you had laid out this .^2000 in manure, lime, 60 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1 grass seed and plaster, besides the improvement of your land, you would have in the ten years, converted all your cattle into Durham, wiihout a bull of that breed. I do not mean to throw a damp on judicious importations of slocks, &c. I only mean to ridicule tliat class, who are guilty of the lolly of supposing they can make a week's old bantling, a man, by going lo a tailor's and buy- ing him a man's suit of clothes; instead of nour- ishing him well, and keeping him warm, and giv- ing him time to grow, and develope, with nature's aid, the resources hidden within him. Mr. Editor I see you yawn. I take the hint, and am, yours, &c. Anti-Humbug. PROGRESS OF THE MORUS MULTICAULIS TRADE, AND PROSPECT OF FUTURE PRICES. Inquiries have been frequently made, by letters as well as verbally, and proceeding from s:tran- gers as well as /i-om acquaintances, as to our opinions in regard to the probable continuance, or decline, of the high prices of morus multicaulis plants — and consequently, the expediency, thence to be inferred, of entering upon, or avoiding, the "mulberry speculation." These inquiries have been answered to the best of our judgment, not only by our published and general views, but also privately and specially. Still, we have felt re- luctant to express opinions, or give advice, not only because the progress of the speculation had out- stripped and belied all our previous calculations, but also because our private interest, of owner- ship, had become deeply involved in the market value of the plants. The views which we entertain on this subject are, perhaps, but of little worth; but such as they are, they v/ill be given here li-ankly, in answer to particular inquirers, as well as (or the information of readers, and the agricultural public in general. The prices of multicaulis plants have, in the gene- ral, been slowly advancing, from the time in Sep- tember when we pronounced them to be exorbi- tant, to this day. There was a decline in No- vember, which seemed to indicate the bursting of the bubble of speculation, or factitious prices. Eut the depression was but transient, and was caused by that being the time for paying for all the prior purchases ; and many persons who had bought ■without money, and expected lo pay by their profits on sales, were compelled to put the plants in mar- ket, and sell them at any price which could then be obtained, to meet the debts incurred by their purchase. Since,' the prices have not only return- ed to their previous mark, but iiave gone beyond. The regular and current prices now, in Richmond, are 3 cents the bud, lor cuttings, or entire plants exclusive of roots — 20 cents for roots of fdants of one year's growth from cuttings — and 20 cents the foot for trees of that age and kind, with or wiihout lateral branches, and taken as they come. There are not many plants now in market, as nearly all are now held to plant; and neither are there many persons seeking to buy at present. There are, however, enough both of buyers and sellers to show prices fairly. Several public auction sales have been recently made in New York, and reported in the newspa- pers as having brought much higher prices than the above mentioned — as high as 25 to 30 cents, the loot fur small plants; which would be equal to about 4 cents the bud, ripe and green — if any of the wood was immuture. But we have no faith in the reports of these auction sales; as it is very easy, by fraudulent combination, and nctitious bidding, to make prices appear to be as high as the parties may please, or may dare to venture on the public credulity. The occurrence of one or the other of the op- posite results, either of the stock of plants now in this country being of immense value to the own- ers and the public, or of no value whatever, will depend upon this — whether silk culture proper shall really be commenced and prosecuted to any con- siderable extent, or that no more is done towards that end than had been when this mulberry spec- lation was produced, and the prices were rising to their height. If the first-named and most desira- ble result should be produced, and the culture of silk should be established, so as to promise soon to become an important branch of industry in the United States, then there will be sufficient demand for every multicaulis plant that can be raised in 1839, and at prices yielding good profits to those who plant even at the present high prices of cut- tings. But if there should be no more solidify in the present increased and more extended movements towards silk-culture, than was in all those of the north, which had so much sought to attract public attention and gain notoriety, previous to the be- ginning of this speculation, then the value of plants will sink to nothing as soon as the bubble bursts; and the mulberry mania will compare in all re- spects with the famous tulip-mania of Holland, and serve to produce, and to leave, as little ol real value to the holders, or to the country at large. In an article of considerable length published in our last October number, we stated fully, and proved, that the previous pretended silk-culture of the northern and middle states had resulted in al- most nothing; and then supposing that the future was to be judged by the past operations, we pro- nounced the then rising demand and prices of mul- ticaulis plants as the work and effect of specula- lion. And we believe now, as much as when the opinion was first declared, that the sudden and ra- pid advance of the market price of multicaulis plants was almost entirely built upon trading spec- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 61 ulation; and if it had continued to be as baseless as it tlien was, tiie price would probably have fallen before this time. However little of the reasoning process there may be in deriving proper views oi' the profits of silk-culture from the existence of a baseless mulberry speculation and mania, there seems now to be good ground to believe that such has been the effect; and that very many persons have thus had their minds, for the first time, effect- ually directed to this valuable and (as we have long maintained as to Virginia,) profitable branch of industry. We may venture now to say that silk-culture will be commenced by many persons in Virginia and other southern states, and fairly tried ; however little creditable it may be to the judgment of the people that this good result will have been produced, not by the sufficient proper in- ducements which have long existed, and been to- tally disregarded, but by the stronger stimulus of the mulberry mania; which ought rather to de- press than to encourage silk-culture, by making the undertaking so nmch more costly. But correct reasoning is seldom the mode by wbich commu- nities arrive at results, or are induced to make changes of old habits ; and if such a beneficial change is now to be made, in the adoption of silk- culture, we may be content to welcome the benefit, without scrutinizing too closely the legitimacy of its origin. Before the commencement of the speculation in mulberry plants, all the establishments for silk- culture of this country, which had for some years been so conspicuous on paper, were in the north- ern and middle states; and to that time, nothing had been perlbrmed by any of the numerous silk- con)panies, to redeem their promises and make good their great pretensions. The facts in regard to these liberal promises and small performances were stated at sufficient length in the article above referred to, and also in another, subsequently, by T. S. Pleasants, commenced at page 449 of vol. VI. !n the south, almost nothing had then been done, either according to the northern fashion of conducting silk-culture, or truly and really by feed- ing silk-worms, and producing silk. The mania for buying mulberry plants spread from the north where it commenced, even more rapidly through Virginia and the adjacent states. But most of the purchasers were of different charac- ter, and so will be the effects of their operations, whether caused at first by delusion, or by correct views. At the north, after prices had been ad- vancing, and the mania growing, for several months, and when sales were making daily, and ihe contracts perhaps had covered an amount far exceeding that at which all the multicaulis plants in the world would have been estimated a few months previously — still the buyers were nearly all mere speculators, and of the most transient operation, who designed to sell again, and very speedily. Very lew purchases had been made by farmers, or persons who designed to plant ; and, very often, the same lot of plants had been sold several times over, and at continually advancing prices, while they were still growing in the ground of the original proprietor. So far as these went, and they were the principal operations, the trade was simply and purely a speculation, having no regard to the intrinsic value, or future uses of the commodity. As soon as the new and great demand was ge- nerally made known in Virginia, (though it was not soon enough to prevent many lots being bought up at half-price by speculators,) the fever spread and raged here more than even at the north. For instead of being confined there to mere traders in the then existing plants, there arose here a very extensive demand among far- mers and others who bought to plant. Thus, ex- cept a few large purchases made to supply the great and general demand for small parcels for plant- ing, and which served merely to supply that de- mand, every purchaser in Virginia bought to make profit by planting, and the future increase and ex- pected value of the product. It is true, that all of these persons also were speculators, though in a different sense. They differed from others in this only, that they speculated on the market va- lue of the future product, instead of the present stock purchased by them. But though the large majority of the numerous southern purchasers (unfortunately,) had no view to silk-culture, and many also deluded themselves by extravagant ex- pectations of high prices of future crops of plants — still there are enough of them who design to commence silk-culture proper, to insure fair and extensive trials, and the sure establishment of that branch of industry, should it be approved by the first adventurers. Should this be the result, or even a sufficient promise of it appear durinn^ this year, there will be hundreds of those who bought upon mere speculation, who will deem it profitable to retain part of their stock this year, and to increase it hereafter, for its legitimate use in feeding silkworms. To produce the beneficial and important result of establishing silk culture in Virginia, and there- by to insure a demand for all the growing trees, it is not at all necessary that every one, or that most, of those who have bought mulberry plants shall commence that business. If one only in twenty of the present buyers,oronein five hundred of the far- mers who are properly situated for it, should be- gin to raise silk, these will be -enough to spread the business, and to maintain a sufficient demand for plants through this year. 62 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1 But by a ^'sufficient demand,'''' and euflicient pro- fits for cultivation, we do not mean to affirm, what is believed by many persons, that the present high prices of plants will be sustained for the next growing crop. Such expectation is ridiculous; and il'it were possible that it could be realized, the result would do much harm to general interests — though they would be very favorable to the in- terests of individual cultivators, and to lew more than to our own. But if the prices next autumn should be not less than one-fifth part of what the cultivators pay for the stock to plant, they will, with a fair average product, make great profits on their investment and cultivation. Should the prices be one-third of the present rates, planters will make enormous profits; and still more those who bought their stock for planting at much lower than the present rates. And if there should be (what seems now not impossible,) a general awa- kening throughout the country to the advantages and profits of silk-culture, then the whole stock of plants in this country will not be sufficient to sup- ply the demand of those who will desire to obtain thera for jiropagation, even if without any view to the selling of trees. Should this be the case, each person will take many or ^aw, according as the price may be low or high — thus insuring high prices lor a very limited supply, or sutTicient de- mand and remunerating prices for the largest sup- ply. Tlie same money-price of these trees may be very high, or abundantly low, to purchasers, ac- cording to the object of purchase, or their in- tended future use. If the great demand were merely for speculation, as it was when first pro- duced, we should consider any pr 'ice as too high for planting, and that one-third of the present rates would be enormous. On the other hand, if de- signed to be put to proper and profitable use, prices higher than the highest yet known can well be afforded for small parcels, to put the pur- chasers in stock. For it should be borne in mind, that it is not the handfijl of little twigs for which the buyer pays, perhaps, more than its weight in silver — but lor the product which he expects to obtain from that stock. So great is the facility and certainty of extensive and rapid propagation of the multicaulis, that S^OO worth of stock to plant, at the highest prices, if taken the best care of, would, in the course of two years, produce from 60 to 100,000 trees; which, at proper dis- tance, would be as large a mulberry plantation as most cultivators would desire to have. Allow one j^ear more, and a commencing stock of only $5 worth will do as much. The only question, then, for the planter and the intended culturisi, will be, whether the lime or the money may be of the most value to him. But in either case, the com- bined cost, in time, labor, and money, will provide a capital for silk-raising more cheaply than the apple orchards were raised ibrmerly in lower Vir- ginia, for making brandy, and which were then considered as an indispensable appropriation of land and capital on every farm. If a kind of apple tree had then been introduced which was as easily propagated as the multicaulis, and would furnish a flill crop of apples in two years, then it would have been clieaper for the intended brandy-maker to buy a stock of those trees at 3 cents the bud, rather than the ordinary grafted trees at the usual low prices. It is the wonderful ease and rapidity of propagation of the multicaulis, which is bought, and which causes and justifies the high price to those who design to profit by its use, arid not merely by sales. For we repeat, that without using, and availing of its intrinsic value, and to sufficient extent, in the country generally, that, at any price, the purchase of plants will be too dear. But this frculty for reproduction, which causes and justifies high prices, must as certainly operate to reduce them speedily to almost nothing, as articles of sale. We therefore have little con- fidence in the not uncommon opinion that multi- caulis plants will maintain profitable prices, or in- deed be worth raising for sale at all, in general, after the present year. The speculation in this country has spread to France. Some American orders were supplied there, and sales of plants imported thence have re- cently been made in New York. But the ea- gerness of the American purchasers soon ad- vanced the prices in France 300 per cent, and then the holders refused to sell, choosing to re- serve all their slock for planting. But the whole stock in France, and all Europe, if not in Asia, is smaller than that in the U, States; and, therefore, can but little afiect the market here by furnishing supplies. But it is more likely that the fever of speculation will be as flilly spread there, and, con- sequently, not only very high prices be maintain- ed, but that there will also be produced a better knowledge and higher appreciation of the intrinsic value of the morus multicaulis than has heretofore existed in France. From the New England Farmer. MULBERRY FEVER. [The following article presents views somewhat differing from the foregoing. The writer's com- pliment to the inventive talent of his countrymen was not undeserved. We have not heard yet whether the fabrication of silk-worms eggs, which he anticipates, has been commenced; but, it ap- pears from the 'Northampton Courier' that there 1839] F A R JM E R S ' REGISTER 63 are in market multicaulis cuttings manufiictured from twigs of bass wood. — Ed. Far. Reg.] This new disease has become quite epidemic and continues to rage violenlly. We cannot lor our lives divine any especial reason, whj^ it should have burst out all at once among us and so wide- ly extend itself, excepting that all the diseases of this character, (we mean those brought on by ppeculation and avarice,) are highly contagious. We trust it would not'be deemed disrespectful to the faculty, if we suggested that possibly the mulberry doctors have themselves had some hand in creating and aggravating the disorder with a view to their *****. It i? not for us to give any ■words of caution. We have not the care of the public health; but wc think it advisable for those, who desire to keep well to keep out of the way of contagion. The disorder has in some parts of the country risen to a .«tate of raving madness, and men, like insects round a fire in the woods of a dark night, are seen dashing into the flames. We have no doubt that the silk business is to be one of the great interesis of the country, and one of the most productive and profitable of agricultural employments; but the mulberry tree business and the raising of silk are not precisely the same. One would think, however, irom present move- ments, that every thing is to be accomplished the next year; that the end of the world is to come then; and that the "wedding garment" is to be made of silk of man's own raising. When from a single multicaulis tree perhaps a thousand or more buds or cuttings can be taken in a single season, each of which will in one season, wTih good luck and good care, form a handsome tree, certainly there need be no difficulty apprehended in the projiagation ol" the plant. When a hun- dred and sixty or two hundred or ibur hundred dollars are demanded Ibr a pound of mulberry seed not at all sure to come up,* which can be im- ported for a twentieth part of that sum with equal confidence of success, we cannot help asking our- selves, where does the money come from, or where has the shrewdness of our merchants and sea-captains gone to? When half a dollar a piece is asked and paid for trees which were grown this season from seed sown last spring and represented to be of equal or superior value for feeding worms with any trees grown, and espe- cially because it is stated that they will "stand our climate," we are really very curious to know what is to be the price next year of cabbage plants; and whether we cannot aflTord to raise them upon a con- siderable scale atsomewhere about /briy-nine cents a plant. When silk-worm eggs, which were fbr- formerly thought high at eight cents per thousand | are now sold for twenty-five cents per hundred, and fifty cents per hundred are even contemplated, we are strongly inclined to believe, and we encourage those who are too anxious to begin at once, to wait patiently; that our Connecticut wooden-nut- meg gentlemen before spring will have an ample supply to meet any demand, dropped on the best hot-pressed letter paper, and made out of the pur- est yellow bees-wax. But the flame is kindled, and the furnace glows with a white heat. Let those, whose wings are not made of asbestos, try the intensity of the flames if so they choose. H. C. • And which cannot produce the niullicaulism\i]hei- ry, even if H should coia^ up,— Er. Far. Reg. To tlie Editor of the Farmers' Register. December, 1S3S. Dear Sir, — I enclose you my annual five dol- lars, and return you many thanks for the much and varied information which you have given me in the last year. I should send you some commu- nication for your valuable work ; but I forbear — lor my fiicnds and neighbors have given me to un- derstand that they think me possessed of a calca- rious devil. Poor souls ! Could J exorcise myself, and cause my devil to enter into them, as into the swine of old, how great would be their profit! I have purchased since June 1st twenty thou- sand bushels of oyster shells, and am now haul- ing, burning, and spreading : my wheat field shows that dear old Mother Earth endorses my work, and I am in grief that I know not how to make her gratelul acknowledgments in appropri- ate terms. But I Iiave a notion that by laws pe- culiar to herself she marks in characters not de- struclable by time the deeds of her children. As- sumint^ this, it is not easy to enter into my joys when I spread upon her lap fields of golden corn, or throw over her nakedness a rich green robe bor- dered with gold. I halt my hobby for a moment to ask if feelings like these can lead to destructive ambition ? Happiness is the great object of every being of mind ; and who is so happy as he who receives the applause of his mother for virtuous or benevolent deeds? And then, sir. are not the claims of mother earih paramount ? Who feeds the hun- gry? Who clothes the naked ? 'Tis she, dear old soul, and it is my duty to make her shine as the morning star. The selfish nature of man has blinded him and turned his thoughts from his first and greatest duty — his duty to the (buntain of all good, Mother Earth. 1 wish you great prosperity, Ibr in that, the whole human family will partici- pate. Respectfully, your friend, &c. EFFECTS OF LIME AS MANURE. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. January, 1839. Your call upon the subscribers to the Refisler is too just to be resisted or derided. Original communications only can keep up an excited in- terest in your valuable work; good as your selec- tions are, they belong to agriculture generally, as a science, and not to particular localities. You will however, agree, that it is a dull and irksome business to preach to unbelievers; as well mio-ht 1 go into my pasture and exhort my hotrs not to destroy the means ol" their own welfitre and sub- sistence, as to give you, for the culiivaiors of the land, in general, any thing about improving hus- bandry, if the course recommended involves any thing like immediate expense. Some of my neighbors have been induced to use clover and plaster, but were warned of the sure result, if they did not make their land dry. This did not suit them; and the result was absolute (iiilure. Now, sir, would you believe that this aave them occa- sion lor believing that plaster did not suit their land? >Vhy, sir, stable dung would fail under the same circumstances. In the last three years I have purchased fortv thousand bushels of oyster shells, and some lime- 64 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1 stone from the country above Harper's Ferry. I have passed over G50 acres of land, upon which I have used about 35,000 bushels; and i[" I allow much Cor my mania upon I Ids subject, my farm has returned me the money expended, and yet holds a surplus for Jiirther operation. I shall not go into detail, but I hold the record of my prede- cessors which enables me to show that my annual produce is not less than eight times as much as theirs; and this record is lor eight or ten years. I speak not of this in boast, for 1 blush to think that I have not done better. 1 began farming when young, and had none to counsel with. II 1 suggested to my neighbors what I expected, I could'^see that they pitied my lolly or my igno- rance. I offered my property again and again for sale; for my heart sickened with hope deferred. I remembered that that great man Moses had used up 40 years in etiecling his purpose; but that he finally saw the land of "milk and honey," and I tugged still at the "tough oar." The strife was fearful ; lor afier draining my land, it had been so loner drowned that it was not productive. About the"^time that I had settled this fearful inquiry, 1 met with your ' Essay on Calcareous Manures.' 1 had before made two experiments with lime some years apart; but I resolved upon a third; (or I saw that the land was wet upon which I had liuled. This burst upon me like the sun of Auslerlitz did upon that meteoric man Napoleon; and since that, more care in draining makes the hme work like a charm. If I run riot, sir, upon the subject ot lime, you must give me room. I would not wil- lingly harm any person; but to me, it is meat and bread. I sold this season past iB200 dollars worth of turnips, from one acre of land, and I assure you, sir, that until the equinoctial rain, I did not think I should make one bushel. It was passing strange to see how rapidly they grew. I made a good crop of corn li'om the rain we had upon 13th August; and one thing good lor philosophy to know attends it in a very curious degree. It is the flint-like character of the cob or husk. I do know that timber grown in lime-stone land is much heavier than that grown in other land; is it the same with corn? Lime. For Uie Farmers' Register. MONTHLY COMMERCIAL, REPORT. Speculation has been more active than usual, in the absence of recent intelligence from Europe. The ascertained short crop of tobacco in this country, causes prices still to advance, and they are now about ^2 per 100 lbs. higher than in De- cember. The lowest quality of new lugs $;9 to i§10, and new leaf ^13 to ^\7. Purchases are confined chiefly to manufacturers. Cotton has also advanced about 2 cents, and may now be quoted 13 to 14 els. The receipts and shipments from all ports, in the aggregate, are considerably short of last year's at the same period ._ There has been little'variation in the price of flour. A small advance has been realized in some markets, but the current rates are still about ^8^ for all but city mills— which is held at ^9. Wheat commands 165 to 175 cents. Feb. 1, 1839. X. Tiible of Contents of Warmers^ Ilegistcr, J%\k 1 , \%l, ^*II. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. On the cvdtivation of corn . . - - Cultivation, product, and uses of broom-corn - Essay on Vegetable Physiology, by Trof. Ann- strong, Chap. I. Do. Chap. II. Statement of the cultivation and product of a field of corn - - ... Remarks on Pennsylvania farmers - . - On the propagation of silk-worms - - - Legislation for agriculture - - - - Progress of Dr. Penine's scheme of introducing tropical plants. Letter irom Chief Justice Marshall Skinless oats Princeana, No. II. Estimates and remarks on the profit of im- proving land and farming - - - . Progress of the morus multicaulis trade, at>d prospect of future prices .... Liming, Effects of lime as manure, - . - . Monthly commercial report, . - . - SELECTIONS. Extracts from address to the agricultural socie- ty of Fredericksburg The mulberry tree, dilferent kinds - Treatment of the horse. Food High-priced live-stock Page Great ruta-baga crop. Mixing soils - - 9 Great corn crop ...-.- 10 Cultivation and prod>ict of a field of corn - 18 Growth of the multicaulis mulberry in New England 21 George Henry Walker 21 Method of ascertaining the weight of cattle while living 21 Account of the newly discovered preparation of short staple flax 22 The "short-horn fever'' 25 Sales of Durham cattle 25 The Rohan potato 27 Cross-fecundation of plants . - - - 27 Bread without yeast or leaven . - - - 28 Manufacture of brooms in Georgetown - - 28 On the defects in sea-island cotton, caused by bad management 28 Full account of the plan, expenses and profit of a piggery on a large scale - - - 31 Review of 'Essays on the natural history of peat' .......37 Randolph's ' Treatise on Gardening,' republish- ed entire - 41 A statement of practical silk business - - 54 On the several claims to tlie merit of having first inhoduced the morus multicaulis, - - 54 County agricultural reports - ,- - - 58 Importance of agriculture .... 58 Mulberry fever 62 THE FA ERS' REGISTER Vol. VII. FEBRUARY 28, 1839. No. 2. EDMUND RUPFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. For the Fanners' Register. ESSAY ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. (Continued from page 17, last No.) Chap. III. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ROOT AND STEM; 1st. IN THE DIRECTION OF THEIR GROWTH ; 2d. IN THE ABSENCE OR PRESKNCE OF BUDSJ 3d. IN THE MANNER OF THEIR GROWTH. Having completed our examination of the ele- mentary vegetable structures, and of' the organs formed immediately from them, viz : the cellular, woody, and vascular tissues ; we will now com- mence our investigation into the structure, and vital action, of the compound organs of plants. These, as has been already mentioned, are divi- ded into two classes; according as they are in- tended to minister to the growth of the plant, or to the production and perfection of the Iruit. The lirst class, including the root, stem and leaves, being termed organs of vegetation ; and the se- cond, including the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, being termed organs of fructification. The root and stem, we will examine in connex- ion. The central part, or axis of a plant, that part to which all the other parts are attached, consists oi' two distinct poriioiis; the ascending portion, or stem, and the ilescending portion, or root. The common deliuiiion of the term root, is "that part of the trunk which fixes the plant to the soil, and bur- rows beneath its surface." This definition will answer as a popular one ; but if we wish to get a more correct idea of the nature of the root, it will be necessary to attend to the difierences whu-h exist between it and the stem a little more in detail. One of the most striking peculiarities of the root is in the direction of its growth. If a seed be placed in the ground, in favorable circumstances, the embryo plant within it soon l)egins to grow in two opposite directions; one of its extremities manilesiing an invincible tendency to grow up- wards into the air and light, and the other an equally invincible determination to the earth, away from ihe light. If after a seed has sprouted its position in the ground be reversed, so that the stem shall point downwards and the root upwards, they will both twist entirely around, in order to develope themselves in their proper media. This fact is com- monly explained by saying, that the root is attract- ed by the moisture' of the earth, whilst the stem is attracted by the air and light. It is, to say the least, a very loose use oflani^uage, to talk about the at- traction of the root, ibr moisture, or of the stem, for air and light. Attractions are those forces which different portions of matter exert on eacli other, tending to bring those portions together. If a particle A, be attracted by another particle B, of equal size, the force exerted is as much exerted by A as it is by B ; and the tendency of A to move is no greater than that of B. If one of these bo- dies be in any way fixed, it is plain, that all the movement must be made by the other. Such are, in fiicl, the circumstances in which the yount^ root Vol. VII-9 of a plant and the moisture of the earth are placed. The young root is fixed, whilst the moisture is moveable. If then there is an attraction between the two, the moisture should move up towards the root, and not the root down towards the moisture. The same remark will apply with even greater force to the supposed attraction between the stem, and the air and light. One of the facts which is most frequently lirought forward in support of thi3 notion of attraction is, that when a plant is placed in a dry and barren spot, in the immediate neighborhood of a more moist and fertile one, iie rooTs are always found to increase more rapidly in the direction of that moist and fertile portion than in any other. This, as we shall hereafter see, is not owing to any attraction exerted by the mois- ture ujion the roots, but to an cntirel}' dillereut cause. This matter has been put to the test of direct experiment. Dutrochet filled a box wiih moist earth, and having jiierced the bottom with many holes, he placed within the box, and near to its lower surface, a number of beans, and then sus- pended it in the air about eighteen feet from the ground. The seed being thus situated, it should Ibllow, that i!" the young stem is attracted by the light, and the root by moisture, the Jbrmer should shoot downwards into the air, and the latter up- wards into the mois! earth. This, iiowever, did not take place; l)Ui, on the contiaiy, the nidicles de- scended into the amiospliere, where they soon dried up and pcrisiii'd; whilst ihe stems ascended vertically, lorciiig their way into the earth. He then placed some of the saiall plants so that their roots poinied directly up into the soil; but instead of fixiiiir ihemselvoa therein, their |!oin(s soon turned aiouiul, and grew in an opposiie direction. Supposing that possibly the quan'ity of earth might affect the direction of their growth, he afterwards made use of a much larger box, and accumulated a very considerable mass of earth above the seed, but the result was the same as before; thus prov- ing that the stem is not aitracted by air oriitjlit, neither is the root repelled by light or attracted by moisture. That the radicle is not attracted by moisture, the same naturalist afterwards proved more directly by another experiment. He susj)ended in a glass jar a piece of sponge, so placed as to present a flat verti- cle surface in one direction. One end of this piece of sponge was made to di[) into a cup of water, so that it might always be kept filled with water. He then suspended within the same jar, a germinating bean ; bringing its radicle as near to the vcrticle face of the sponge as was possible, without touch- ing it. In this case, if any attraction had been ex- erted upon the root, by the moisture of the sponge, a slight turn of the former would have brought them in contact. The radicle, however, grew perpendicularly, manifesting no tendency to turn towards the sponye. The true explanation of this matter appears to be this: that as roots lengthen, by the addition of new matter to their extremities, in a soft or semi-fluid state, liieygrow downwards, under the action oi' the attraction of gravitation. 65 FARMERS REGISTER, [No. 2 The young stem, on the contrary, growing by the increase of parts alreatly formed, has liom i(s first dcvelopement, a tendency to grow in the direction in wliich the bud points. If, in consequence ol the buds pointing obli(|uely, the young stem slioois in an oblique direction whilst yet beneath the surface of tlie soil, the juices accumulate on the lower side, and thus causing it to elongate more rapidly than the upper side, the erect position of the stem is restored. The bud (i'oni which the stem grows contains every part of that stem, and all its ap- pendages, in miniature. If the axis of this bud, i. e. the stem in miniature, points perpendicularly upwards, and its alier-growth is effected simply by the enlargement ol these points, it is [)lain, that the stem must have the same direction as the axis of the bud ; or, in other words, must tjrovv in the direction in which the bud points. The root does not grow from a bud, but increases in size by the addition of sepaiate portions of semi-fluid mat- ter to its extremity; it will, therefore, increase downwards, for just the same reason that an icicle does. If this explanation be the correct one, it will follow, that when, in a germinating seed, the root happens to point directly upwards, and the stem directly downwards, the two parts should grow in these directions; yet^ being in a slate of unstable equilibrium, the slightest variation li'om a vertical line would cause them in time to resume their proper directions. In confirmation of this view, DeCandolIe placed a hyacinth in water, and having fixed its bud so as to point directly down- wards, caused its stem to develope in that direction. Mr. Knight, to whom we are indebted for tliis explanation of' the downward tendency of the root, has tested its correctness by the following very ingenious experiment, lie constructed a wheel, and on its circumference fiastened a quanti- ty of moss. In this moss he placed a number of beans; and by means of a stream of water, which served at the same time, to moisten the seed, the wheel was made to revolve vertically, at the rate of 150 times in a minute. In this rapid revo- lution, the seeds were subjected to the action of a centrifugal force, acting in tlie same manner as gravity; but much more powerfully, and in a dif- ferent direction. After some days, the wheel was stopped, and on examining the growing seed, it was found that each young plant, had taken the direction of the radii of the wheel, the root being turned directly from, and the stem directly tovvards the centre of revuluiion. This experiment was varied, by causing the wheel to revolve horizon- tally; and the result was, that when the wheel revolved with a moderate velocity, the roots were directed obliquely downwards and outwards, and the stems obliquely upwards and inwards ; in obe- dience to the joint action of the centrifugal force and the attraction of gravitation. Tiie more ra- ])id the revolution of the wheel, the nearer did the axis of the plant approach to a horizontal direc- tion; but when the wheel revolved slowly, the at- traction of gravitation preponderatinir, the young plants frrew in a nearly vertical direction. The only objection which I have ever heard urtfed to this explanation, is this : if the root desL'cn(l>! l)y the action ol" gravity, liow is it that the lateral di- vis^ions of the root ulien grow in a direction nearly horizontal ? In answer to this, I would say, that the lateral divisions of the root grow horizontally, bt'cauae they meet with some obstruction to their perpendicular growth. The longest horizontal roots are generally to be found lying between the loose porous soil and the harder and more com- pact substratum of earth beneath that soil; and they grow in that direction, for just the same rea- son, that the water (which certainly descends un- der the action of gravity) collects to a greater or less extent, in a horizontal sheet, at the same place. Some parasitic plants, such as the common mis- letoe (iiincum veriicillalum) furnish the only real exceptions to this rule. These direct their roots, (if indeed they can be called roots) towards the stem of the plant on which they grow ; and al- ways grow nearly at right angles to the part of the stem to which they are attached. The na- ture of the body, does not affect the result. The seeds of the misletoe, if made to germinate upon the surlace of a common ball, will turn all their roots tovvards (he centre of that ball. The at- traction of the body to which the mistletoe fixes itselfj cannot be admitted even in this case, as the cause of the direction which the roots take, as Duirochet has shown by the Ibllowing experi- ment. " I glued" says that distinguished bota- nist ''a germinating seed of the mistletoe to one end of a delicate copper needle, mounted upon a pivot, a little ball of wax being placed as a coun- terpoise upon the other extremity. I then placed by the side ut" the needle thus prepared, a small block of wood, at the distance of about a mille- metre (nearly one-twentieth of an inch) from the radicle. The apparatus was next covered with a glass shade, so that no external cause could dis- Turb the needle. In five days, the young plant began to direct its radicle towards the piece of wood, the needle not changing its position, al- though it was extremely moveable. In two days more, the radicle was directed perpendicularly to the block, the point being in contact with it, and yet the needle had not moved in the slightest de- gree." On this experiment it is sufficient to re- mark, that had any attraction been exerted by the block, upon the root, instead of causing the end of that root to be turned up, and sustained in a hori- zontal direction, it should have caused the needle to move around, so as to touch the block. The reason why the roots of a parasitic plant turn to- vvards the stem of the plant on which it grows, we must at present look upon as one of the secrets of nature. Perhaps at some fliture day, when vegetable physiology has been more studied, and is better understood, we may be able to explain the mystery. Except in the case of parasitic plants, the root shows an invincible tendency, to grow downwanls into the soil, whilst the stem, shows an equally invincible tendency to grow up- wards into the air. A second peculiarity of the root is, that it forms no buds, whilst the stem always forms them. As roots (brm no buds, and of course develope no leaves, I hey present neither scales, which are the rudiments of leaves, nor scars, which are the ves- tiges of them. These remarks, however, are to be understood as applying to roots and stems in or- dinary circumstances onl}'. In extraordinary cir- cumstances, the roots of some plants have the power of forming buds, which are hence termed adventitious buds. So also the stem, which, in ordinary circumstances, has not the power of put- tin" Ibrth roots, in extraordinary circumstances, 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 66 does fumiili itself with adventilious roots. It is well known, that when the trunk of a Lombardy poplar (populus dilatata) is cut off near to the ground ; and even in some iiislunces, wlvere the trunk is not cut off, but parts of its roots project above tlie surface, (hose roots will produce buds and youn^ shoots, in abundance. It is also well known, that if a stalk of the weeping-willow (sa- lix babylonica) be cut oti, and stuck in moist ground, it will soon form adventitious roots, and become a tree as readily as if raised from the seed. Du Hamel perlbrmed a singular experiment upon a young willow. He bent the trunk, so as to bury the extremities of the branches in the ground; after these had taken root, and had es- tablished themselves in their new situation, he un- covered the true roots, and elevated them into the air ; thus turning the tree upside down. The roots, adapting themselves to their new situation, produced buds and leaves; whilst the Ibrmer branches took the place of roots. We must not, however, infer from this, that roots and branches are mutually convertible into each other. The branches in this ease were not changed into roots, by being buried in the earth, nor even the roots changed into branches, by being elevated into the air ; but the buried branches, gave rise to adven- titious roots, whilst the roots, in the new and ex- traordinary circumstances, in which they were placed, gave rise to adventitious buds. This pow- er o( forming adventitious buds, is peculiar to the roots of some plants, and not common to those of all. The roots of the silver fir of Switzerland, will sometimes live for half a century after the stem is destroyed, but will never sprout again ; whilst the roots of the Lombardy poplar, will put forth buds almost as readily as the stem itself A third distinction between the root and the steni is to be found in the manner of their growth ; the stem always maniiesting a tendency to grow with perfect regularity, vvhilsf the root never docs. In this particular, the stem and the root are admirably adapted to the different media in which they de- velope themselves. Burrowing beneath the soil as the root does, and having to niake its way in an unequally yielding medium, now having its pro- gress stopped on one side by a rock or some other hard substance, and then on the other side, it would have been impossible lor it to have grown with perfect regularity, even had provision been made for such a growth. But not so with the stem; shooting as it does up into the air, it can increase equally well in every direction. II we examine a young shoot of any plant, as the dog-wood (corftKS sanguineus') lor instance, at the close of its first year's growth, we will find its leaves dis- posed with perfect regularity. In the plant select- ed they are placed in pairs, and regularly alternat- ing with each other, as to the sides of the stem on which they grow. If the first pair point north and south, the second will point east and wesi, the third north and south again, and so on. The buds, which are in fact the ruilimentary branches of the next year, are formed only at the points at which the leaves are joined to the stem, and of course must be placed on that stem with the same perfect regularity wliich characterizes the disposition of the first year's leaves. The same remarks will apply to the branches ol'each succeeding year. If a plant could grow, entirely exempt from the ope- ration of all disturbing causes, it would be as per- fectly regular as if put together by the hand of art, with the square and compass. The only rea- son why plants never do present this appearance is, that they always are affected, more or less, by cer- tain external causes, which disturb their growth. I will mention some of these disturbing causes, and illustrate their operation. We will suppose that a plant, during the first year of its life, has formed eight buds, and that each of these is packed away under its shealh of scales, in order to stand the storms of winter. The sheaths are seldom so form- ed as to be a perfect protection against water. It is almost always the case, that if a drop of rain happens to strike them precisely upon the tip, it will penetrate into the bud. If after such an acci- dent has happened, a cold night occurs, this water will freeze, and thus, the bud, and all that in other circumstances would have sprung from it, will be destroyed. It frequently happens, that of the buds formed one season, not more than one-half live to open and grow the next spring. Now, it is very improbable, that if one-half of eight buds be tlius destroyed, they will be either the first, third, fifth, and seventh, or the second, fourth, sixth and eighth; and yet all these would be necessary in order that the plant may retain a perfect regularity of form. Again : there are many insects which by instinct are taught to pierce the stems of plants in order to deposite their eggs. Whenever this is the case, the part thus pierced swells up, and disorganiza- tion, to a greater or less extent, ensues. The nut- gall, the green balls which we often see on the leaves of the oak, and the excresences which we see on the stems of plants, are all produced in this way. If we suppose that the wound inflicted by the insect exerts no positively deleterious influence upon the growth of the plant wounded, yet, as an excrescence is formed, a part of the nutritious mat- ter, which, in ordinary circumstances, would have gone to increase the size of the limb, is necessarily employed in the formation of the excrescence; and of course the limb must suffer in size on this ac- count. Thus, an irregularity in the form of a plant may be produced. Again: we know that direct sun-light is neces- sary to the heaUhy growth of a plant. So soon as a tree has grown to some considerable height, its upper branches shade those beneath them, and thus induce in them a diseased growth, and even death itself. All are familhar with the fact, that what is commonly called the trunk of a tree, sel- dom presents any branches. This is not because it did not send out branches in the first instance, but because the branches which it did form have been overshadowed and destroyed by those growing higher up upon the stem. In the case of a spe- cies of pine common in lower Virginia, the branch- es of which are early filled with resin, and on that account do not easily decay, a scries of dead branches may be seen stretching from the root up to the living branches of the tree. Trees growing in the forest, where they ate shaded by the sur- rounding trees, seldom present many lateral branches, except towards the top ; whilst those growing in the open field, where the sun-light has free access to them on every side, generally spread their branches far and wide. Again : a young shoot may be bent by the wind; if bent but little, its elasticity will generally restore it ; but, if bent much, it receives a permanent crook, and thus an irregularity is produced. The 67 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No.- 12 same effect may by produced by snow and ice, which, in the winter, frequently accumulate upon young trees, aud the young limbs oi' trees, and bend ihem towards the earth. Thus it is, that though there is a tendency in trees towards a per- fect regularity in growth, so that if they could be freed from the operation of all disturbing causes, they would apoear as if morticed together by the hand of art, aiid would be in their outlines perfect cones, yet we never see them presenting this re- gularity of form. There are one or two facts respecting the opera- tion of these disturbing causes, which are worthy of a passing notice. One ol them is, that most of them operate more powerfully in the winter than in the summer. Totliis, as well as to the fact, that they are longer exposed to this operation, must be attributed the far greater irregularity whicii we observe in perennial than in annual plants. The catnip, (iiepeta cataria,') which has none of these disturbing causes to contend with, except those which operate in the summer, and these only for a short period, presents but slight devia- tions from its regular form ; whilst the oak, which lives from year to year, and from age to age, bear- ing the storms of a hundred winters, is well cha- racterized as the "gnarled oak," Another fact worthy of notice is, that although the operation of these causes seems to be in the strictest sense ac- cidental, so that we can assign no reason why one bud should be destroyed rather than another, or why an insect should sting one branch rather than another ; that yet their destroying effect is so ma- naged as to be consistent with a general regularity of growth. About as many buds are destroyed on one side of a tree as on another. Seldom, if ever, do we meet with a tree so lop-sided (to use an unauthorized but very expressive word,) as to endanger its stability. Although a tree is very irregular in the minutiae of its growth, yet it is re- gular in the midst of all its irregularity. Chap. IV. PRINCIPAL OFFICE OF THK ROOT. SPONGK- LETS. BIENNIAL ROOTS. COLLAR OF PLANTS. UNnER-GROUiVl) STEMS, TIIEIU NATURE AND STRUCTURE. Having attended to some of the more impor- tant characteristic features of the root, we will now examine that organ a little more in detail. The root of the garden bean (vicia faha) may be assumed as the type. The root of this plant con- sists of a main stem, irregularly divided, and sub- divided, into what are called the branches of the root, or rootlets. From tiiis, which is by far the most common form of the root, we meet with many departures. The root of the carrot, (dau- cus carota) consists of a mass of vegetable mat- ter, of a conical form, and having all its rootlets at its lower extremity. In the turnip (brassica rajxi) this mass is nearly globular in its form. Most grasses have no regular main-root, but a number of rootlets starting from one common point, the base of the stem. Lichens have no regular root ; but the whole of the lower surface of their leaves, lying in contact with the ground, or rock, or bark ou which they grow, absorb nourishment for them, and thus perform the office of roots. There are many modified forms mentioned by botanists ; but as they are very uncommon, it is not worth the while to mention them, when our object is an ex- amination into the physiology of plants. The principal office of the root, is to absorb nourishment from the soil. This absorption is not efl'ected by the mass of the root, and throughout its whole length, as is generally supposed, but by a peculiar class of organs, situated along the smaller sub-divisions, or rootlets only. It is some- what difficult to get a distinct view of these or- gans. So long as the root remains buried in the moist earth, they are distended by the liquids which they contain, and which they absorb rapid- ly from the soil. In order to fit them for the per- formance of their appropriate work, they have ne- cessarily been made permeable to liquids in the highest degree ; and hence, when taken out of the ground, and exposed to the dry atmosphere, suf- lering these liquids to pass out, with the same fki- cility with which they passed in, they soon shrivel up, and lie so close to the main root, as to be with dilTiculty distinguished fi'om it. The easiest way to get a sight of them, is to place the root of a growing plant in water, wiiich in this instance, may be considered a transparent kind of soil ; in such circumstances they (luickly become distend- ed, and stand out visibly from the side of the root- let. From a similarity in the structure of these organs, as exhibited under the microscope, as also in their manner of action, to little sponges, they have received the name of spongioles or sponge- lets ; and by this name we shall hereafter men- tion them. That roots absorb nourishment solely by means of their spongolets, Senebier has proved, by the following simple experiment. He took two young radishes (raphanus saiivus') from llie ground, with their stems and leaves ; one was so placed that its apex only fthe part on which the sponge- lets are situated) dipped in water; the whole root of the other was plunged beneath the surftice of the water, excepting the apex, which was exposed to the air. The leaves of the former, remained fresh for several days, whilst those of the latter soon began to wither, and only recovered their freshness, when the extremity of their root was immersed. This is an experiment which has been frequently repeated, and always with similar results. The form of the sponglets of plants, which de- rive their nourishment immediately li-om the soil, is always spherical or spheroidal. In that curious class of plants termed parasites, (of which the misletoe may be mentioned as an example.) which instead of searching in the earth lor their own food, fix themselves upon the stems of other plants, and live by robbing, the spongioles have the form of disks ; thus fitting them to (asten themselves to the stems of other plants, and also to absorb the greatest quantity of nourishment from those plants. Spongelets in this form, fasten themseh'es to the stems of plants, in just the same way in whicli children fiisten moist pieces of leather to stones, in order to lift those stones. Spongelets as I have already remarked, are situateci only along the smaller sub-divisions of the root. A knowledge of this ftict, will suggest several rules to be observed in the cultivation of plants. First, when manure is used to assist the I 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER. growth of a young tree, or of any plant which spreads its roots to some distance, the manure should not be placed at the point where the stem enters the ground, but at some distance Irom that point, and as nearly as possible over the extremi- ties of the roots ; because it is at these parts, and these alone, that the roots can absorb the nourish- ment llirnislied by the manure. Second, when a vine is to be set out near a tree, in order that it may be supported by that tree, it should be set close to the trunk, rather than at the distance of several feet from it, because if set at the distance of several leet from the tree, its spongelets will have to absorb nourishment from the same portion of earth as those of the tree, and thus the two will interlere with each other's growth ; but, if placed near to the tree, the spongelets of the two will operate upon diHerent portions of earth, and of course will not interfere with each other. Third, as what is commonly called the soil is the portion of earth which furnishes nourishment most abun- dantly, it is advisable to cause the roots of a plant to spread horizontally, rather than perpen- dicularly ; to keep them in the soil, rather than to eufler them to penetrate beneath it. This the German gardeners effect, in the case of fruit-trees, by placing a Hat stone in the bottom of ihe hole in which the trees are to be set, and then setting the young tree directly upon this stone. There is only one precaution to be observed in adopting this method, and that is, not to place the flat stone too near the surface, least the roots should not take sufficient hold upon the ground, to ena- ble the tree to resist the action of high winds. The best point at which the roots of a tree can spread, is along ihe lower surface of the soil. The reason lor this we shall see, when we come to examine into the nature of the sap. Fourth, in transplanting trees we should take great care of the rootlets, or smaller sub-divisions of the root, as these are the efficient parts of that organ. If the root have several branches, it is better to cut off all those branches excepting one, and to retain that one with all its sub-divisions perfect, than to cut off the ends of all the branches, as is the com- mon practice. I have heard of an excellent jilan, Bometimes pursued in transplanting the arbor-vita, or fiat cedar, (thuga occidentalis,') a tree which it is very difficult to move without killing. The plan is this. During the spring preceding the autumn or winter when the young trees are to be removed, the roots are all cut off at a convenient distance fi^om the stem, (a fool or eighteen inches will be sufficient if the tree is small) by striking a sharp spade in the ground, at the point where they are to be cut. The tree is then left standing for the summer ; during this time the branches of the root, being deprived of the greater part of their rootlets, will form others in great numbers, and of course all of these will be situated near the stem, and will be easily removed with it. When- ever a young tree is removed according to the method ordmarily pursued, it of course has to form almost an entire set of new rootlets, before it can be prepared to operate to advantage in its new situation. Besides this, it has to establish the rootlets which are left attached to its stem, in a new place. The effect of both of these opera- tions, is to check the growth of the plant. Sud- den and great checks, are always much more in- jurious to the growth of a plant; that slighter checks, though they operate for a much longer time. The advantage of the plan which I have mentioned, over the common plan lies in this; that a slight check continued for some time, is substituted for a sudden and great one. Fifth, as rootlets, and more especially spongelets, are deli- cate organs, and of course easily broken, it is much better to take up at least a portion of earth with the root, than violently to shake all the earth off. Where the earth is shaken off, or the plant pulled up, instead of dug up, a great many of the rootlets are always broken off, and of course the growth of the plant is checked. It is an excellent plan, to remove young trees whilst the ground is frozen hard around their roots. In such circum- stances, the earth which is attached to the root, seldom breaks off, and thus, all destruction of the rootlets is avoided. Both of these plans last suggested, have, to my own knowledge, been pursued with evident advantage. In the case of trees, such as the arbor-vitcB, which it is difficult to remove without killing, they should always be pursued ; in the case of many trees, trees of easy growth, it does not seem to make so much difference; yet, even in the case of these, there can be no doubt that it does make a difierence. There is always a best way of doing every thing; and if we would expend our labor to the greatest advantage, we should always endeavor to ascertain this best way, and if it be but a little more difEcult or la- borious than an inferior one, always pursue it. It is by attending to little things that great things are accomplished ; and more especially is this true with respect to improvements in agriculture. Be- sides this, it should always be borne in mind, that a difference which may he inconsiderable in the case of a single plant, may become one of great importance in the case of a crop, consisting, as ma- ny of our common crops do, of^ thousands and tens of thousands of plants. There is a fact, with respect to biennial plants, which is worthy of notice. Biennial plants are such as require two years to attain their full growth; or such as bear (heir seed the second season after they are planted. During the first year of their growth, their vital energy is expended in Ihe for- mation and enlargement of their root, and in fill- ling its cellules with nutricious matter. During the second year, their roots undergo no increase of size; but the whole of the nutritious matter collected in them during the previous year's growth, is expend- ed in perfecting the stem and seed. All are fa- milliar with the fact, that whilst the root of a com- mon beet {beta vulgaris,') aflbrds a great deal of nourishment if taken at the close of its first year's growth, it is good for nothing after the plant has gone to seed. The reason of this is, that when we delay until at the close of the second year, the plant anticipates us, and we get nothing but the dry empty cellules, or boxes, from which the nutritious matter has been already removed. The most important office of the root, is that which I liave already mentioned, viz : to absorb nourishment from the soil. When a plant first springs into independent being, it sends one single stem upwards, and a single root downwards. As the stem spreads, the root also spreads. As the twig of one year the next year becomes a branch, so the rootlet of one year Ihe next year becomes a root ; and thus the two go on increasing propor- m FARMERS' REGISTER. [xNo. 2 tionably in size. As these two parts of a plant are intended to operate together, the one furnish- ing the material and the other working it up ; in a healthy state of a plant, they will always preserve their relative size. It has sometimes been made a question, whether it was advisable to lop the branches of a tree when we transplant it. If the ends of the roots are cut off', as is commonly the case, I should decide the question in lavor of lop- ping the branches also ; and perhaps even where the roots are not cut off, as their action is checked to a certain extent by being placed in a new situa- tion, it maybe advisable to lop the branches to a small extent. The only other office of the root, which I shall mention at present, is that of fixing the plant in the ground, and thus enabling it to rear its stem in the atmosphere, and spread abroad its leaves, so that under the action of sun-light, they may be enabled to perform their appropriate functions. Between the root and the stem there is no defi- nite organic separation, but the two melt, as it were, together. Nevertheless, the imaginary line formed by their union, has received the name of collar or neck, and great importance hat^ some- times been attributed to it. A very common im- pression is, that the collar is the seat of vitality; and that if a tree be cut through at its collar it will never grow again. If such trees as the pine and the oak, be cut off' at the level of the ground, it is true, that they never will sprout up a second time ; but there are other trees, such as the Lombardy poplar and willow, which may be cut directly through the collar, or even below it, without pre- venting the part which remamsfrom shooting Ibrth young'stems, to take the place of those which have been removed. This proves that the opinion that the collar is the seat of vitality, is an erroneous one. The fact that many trees, when cut off' at the surface of the ground, are effectually killed, whilst others are not, is to be accounted for in a different way. As 1 have mentioned in a previous chapter, the roots of some plants have the power of Ibrming adventitious buds, and thus giving rise to stems, whilst others are entirely destitute of this power. If a plant of the first kind is cut off at the surface of the ground, and its root is suffered to remain in the soil, that root is placed in the most favorable circumstances for developing adventi- tious stems. If a plant of the second kind be treat- ed in the same way, as its roots are inca|)able of forming adventitious buds, it is of course effectual- ly killed. That the collar is not the seat of vital- ity, those farmers whose land are over-run with sassafras, (^laurus sassafras,) must have found out to their sorrow. In stating that the roots of plants do not, except in extraordinary circumstances, form buds, it is necessary that I should point out a distinction, which botanists make, between true roots and un- der-ground stems. Ofthese underground stems, the tuber of the potato, {solarium, tuberosum,) or what is commonly called the potatoe itself, may bemen- tioned as an example. These always form buds. They are distinguised from true roots by the for- mation of buds; and from true stems by the charac- ter of their buds ; for whilst the buds of true stems send forth branches only, the buds of underground stems always send forth both roots and branches. It is necessary, both for the sake of exactness of lan- guage, and for practical purposes, carefully to dis- tinguish between these two classes of organs. For whilst an under-ground stem is one of the means destined by nature for the multiplication of plants, true roots never perform this office except in cir- cumstances special and very unusual. Neither do such stems appear to perform the office of roots.^ They seem intended to act a part similar to that of seed, their buds taking the place of the embryo, and their mass the place of" the parenchyma of the seed. Like seeds, they are destined to give rise to new individuals of their species, and to furnish them with nourishment, until their roots are sufficiently developed to perform that office. Hence it is, that before sprouting, they are filled with nutritious matter, and form a very important article of food ; but after sprouting they are shri- velled and dry, consisting, like the roots of biennial plants after their second year's growth, of nothing more than empty cellules, which the growing plant has exhausted of all nutritious matter; and hence too it is, that a potato, although not buried in the earth, will sprout and grow very well, so long as the nutritious matter which it contains lasts, but 80 soon as that is exhausted, will die. Under-ground stems present a very considerab'e variety, both in form and in structure. The tuber of the potato is generally more or less globular in form, and always homogeneous in structure ; the cormus of the tulip is far more regular in its shape than the potato, but like that, is homogeneous in its structure ; the bulb of the onion has the same_ shape as the cormus of the tulip, but instead of being like that, homogeneous in its structure, it consists of a number of concentric bands, easily separable from one another. The botanist consid- ers these as modified leaves ; the scaly bulb of the lilly is more evidently made up of modified leaves. The root-stock of the sweet-flag, (acorus calamus) which presents us with still a diffierent form of un- der-ground stem, is a thick-jointed stalk, seriding forth shoots and roots from every separate joint. These are some of the common forms of under- ground stems; there are others which are more uncommon, and vvhich it is hardly worth our while to notice on the present occasion. The wild onion, or garlic, (allionia vincale,) forms its bulbs at the top of its stem, among its flowers and seed; the orange lilly, (lilimn bulbi- ferum,) a plant common in gardens, forms its bulbs at the points where its leaves are joined to the stem ; the common white lilly {liliiim candidum,) forms its bulbs at the base of the old bulbs, and not from the roots ; and the potato in like manner forms its tubers at the extremities of short under- ground branches, as is evident from inspection du- ring the forming state of tubers, and not upon the roots, as is commonly supposed. By particular management, De Candolle states, that he has caused potatoes to form on (he ordinary branches of the plant, and even at the axils ot'the leaves. That the tubes are formed upon the under-ground branches, and not upon the roots of potatoes is a fact vvhich should be borne in mind, in attempting to determine the best manner of cultivating that vegetable. The circumstances which seem most favorable to the developement of these under- ground branches on vvhich the tubers form, are, the exclusion of light and a proper degree of moisture. If the light be not excluded, the branches, if devel- oped at all. will be like the common branches of the plant ; if there be not sufficient moisture present, 1889] FARMERS' REGISTER. 70 Ihe branches will not form at all. The circutn- siances which seem most favorable to the produc- tion and perfection ol" the tuber, are, the exclusion of hffht, a proper degree ol" moisture, and protec- tion Irom the intense heat of tjie sun. The efiect of light upon the tubers, is to render them oreen and bitier, by converting their nutritious nTatter into matter similar to that of which the leaves of the plant are composed. The want of moisture prevents the full developement of the tuber. The cHect of the intense heat of Ihe sun is to harden the tissues of the tuber, so as to unfit them for the perfor.Tiance of their office. Besides this, it is im- portant that tine soil, or whatever it may be in which the tubes grow, should be so loose as not to oppose any obstacle to their increase in size. It should also be borne in mind, that the tubers derive nourishment ii-om the soil, not immediately, but through the true roots. With these remarks, I will venture to propose what I should consider the best plan for cultivating potatoes. Let the ground be prepared in the or- dinary way; lay the potatoes in the bottom of the lurrovv, and cover them to a depth of three or four inches with coarse manure, or leaves, and then with two or three inches of earth. After the stalks are six or eight inches above the ground cover ail except their ends under in the sanie man- ner ; and perhaps, this process may be advan- tageously repeated a third time ; after which thev should be surtered to go to seed. The first cover- ing should, unless the land be very rich, consist in part of manure, in order to furnish nourishment to the plant; the second and third, may consist of straw or leaves, as the principal object is to keep the earth loose, and to protect the tubers from the action of the sun. It is not, perhaps, generally known, that there is no more effectual protection tor ground, against the intense heat of the sun than a covering of dry leaves. Where they co- ver the ground to the depth of three or tour inches on removing (hem, even in the hottest weather you will find the ground moist under them. Hence It IS, that they assist a crop of potatoes, even where they are not covered with earth, so as to cause more tubers to form amongst them. I have never known potatoes to be raised in just the manner which I have proposed, but in rnany in- stances, I have known them to be raised, in me- thods somewhat similar ; and so far as my obser- vation has extended, the nearer the method adopt- ed has approached to the method which I have proposed, the better the crop has been. I have known an excellent crop of potatoes to be obtain- ed by simply laying the seed-pototoes in a furrow, and covering them to the depth of a foot or more with dry leaves and straw. Many larmers are in the habit of covering their potatoes with loose sod instead of simple earth, always turning the trrass side of the sod under, so as to prevent its sprout- ing ; and very good crops are raised in this way. But whatever plan we may adopt, a knowledc^e of the nature of the tuber, and of the manner of its growth, would suggest that it should be kept suf- hciently moist, should be protected from the licrht and intense heat of the sun, that the earth around It should be kept loose ; that the lower part of the etalk should be covered under after it has grown to some considerable height; and that the manure which is intended to assist the growth of the plant, should be placed around the true roots, and not the tubers, as these last, like the other parts of the plant, derive their nourishment through the true roots. ° (To be continued.) MEMOIR TO CONGRESS ON THE BEET CUL- TURE. To the honorable the Senate ai}d House of Repre- sentatives of the United States of uimerica in Congress assembled : The memorial of Charles Lewis Fi.eischmann, a natural- ized citizen of tlie United States, Respectfully represents : The existence of crystallizable sugar in the beet-root was discovered by the German chemist Markgraf, m the year 1747. He communicated the results ol his experiments to the Royal Aca- demy of Sciences at Berlin; pointed out the im- portance which his discovery would have on acr. riculture and industry, and endeavored to bringit into practice; but at that time, the price of su.rar being moderate, chemistry not advanced to mwli- fy the complicated operations, and the spirit of enterprise not sufficiently awakened to make it an object of speculation, the discovery remained i^'^5°"!.^^'"g P"t '"to practical use until the year 1796, (forty-nine years afterwards,) when Achard, another Prussian chemist, repealed the experi- ments of Markgraf, modified them, and erected the first manufactory at Kunnern, in Germany, The results of Achard's manipulation created great sensation all over Europe, particularly in t ranee, where the chemists re-examined the pro- cess of Achard, simplified it, and made it more practicable and profitable in its results. These simplified manipulations were adopted bv enthusiastic speculators, full of sanguine expecta- tions, peculiar to the French character; but the results were not satisfactory, as the immensely large and costly manufactories were partly esta- blished in places where the soil was not sufficiently productive, where fuel was scarce and hi^rh, the market distant, and the operations directed by men who had not the least idea of agriculture— a science necessarily connected with the manufac- ture of the beet-sugar— nor practical knowledge ol an entirely new process, and a most imperfect apparatus. The consequence of these obstacles was a complete failure, which induced the opinion over the whole world, that the extraction of sucrar Irom the beet, though correct in theory, was fm- practicahle on a large scale. This, however, was not the opinion of enhght- ened men; they saw the causes of failure in tlieir true light, and endeavored to overcome and to cor- rect them. The political events of 1812 accele- rated the developement of this new branch of in- dustry; the French government, in want of a substitute for the colonial sugar, encourat^ed the manufacture of the beet-sugar, by establishing tour large manufactories, and teaching the best method of extraction. In 1814, these manufactories were in full opera- tion and flourishing, when the peace of Europe allowed the importation of the colonial sugar into 1 1 ranee, causing a destructive shock to the manu- 71 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 2 facturers of indigenous sugar, which none but im- mense fortunes could endure, and created, again, llie belief that the manulacture of ihe jject-sugar could never come in competition with the colonial. This might have been the final catastrophe of the manufacture of the beet-sugar, had it not been lor the etibrls made to revive it again by some wealthy and enlightened manufacturers. These efforts, however, did not arise entirely from the patriotic desire to promote the welfare of France, (as now pretended,) but partly to prevent the loss of immense capitals invested in build- ings, apparatus, liirms, &c. Moreover, the man- ufiicturers knew there was yet five or six per cent, more to gain by an improved operation. This it was that gave a new start to this favo- rite branch of industry; and chemistry, particu- larly adapted to improve the art and manulacture, assisted in simplifying the process, and discovered the mode of reviving animal charcoal so as to ad- mit of its being repeatedly used, while the im- proved apparatus helped to economize labor and fuel; and all this, combined with a wonderful per- severance, reduced the expenses of the fabrica- tion, and enabled the old establishments to conti- nue in operation, even when the price of colonial sugar was very low. This created confidence ana a rapid increase of establishments. The cultivation of the beet has had the most beneficial influence on agriculture; as, in the last year, more than eighty thousand acres of land were planted in beet, producing about one million of tone of this root; and, as generally rotations of four crops are adopted, it brought at least three million two hundred thousand acres of land under the highest cultivation. The following table shows the rapid increase of the manufactories, and the quantity produced, in France. In 1828 there were 103 manufactories, which Beet-sugar. produced 100,000 cwt. 1831 200 220,000 1836 643 950,000 1837 600 1,000,000 Or 20,000 tons of beet-sugar. The manufacture of indigenous sugar did not affect the demand for colonial sugar, as the con- sumption continually increased until the year 1836, as appears by a table from (he Journal of Conmierce of 1836, viz: In Consump. of colon, sugar. Con. of beet-sugar. 18-5 61,255,232 fi-. 4,000,000 fi-. 1831 67,542,792 10,000,000 1832 62,069,638 15,000,000 1835 69,000,000 30,000,000 But, in the year 1336, France imported only 75,120 tons of colonial sugar — a diininulion ol 15,630 tons in one year; a quantum too large not to alarm the proprietors of the sugar plantations in the French colonies, and particularly in JMar- tiiiique, who looked, some years ago, with an ironical smile at the beet-sugar manuiiiciurer. They, who have ridiculed and caricatured every improvement in this branch of industry, felt them- selves forced to send, in 1835, Baron de Cools, with the following proposition of the French go- vernment, viz: demanding — 1. Diminution of (he duties upon French colo- nial sugar of 50 per cent., and a proportional re- luction of duties upon the foreign colonial sugar. 2. The permission (o export the colonial sugar direct to a foreign market. 3. A careflil examination and investigation how the French colonial and beet-sugar nianufjxctories can be equally taxed. The latest news from France states that the government came, finally, (o the conclusion of an equal taxation upon the indigenous and colonial sugar, as may be seen from the following extract from a New York paper, (Morning Courier and New York Enquirer of December 18, 1838,) dated [By tlie Ville de Lyons] Paris, October 30, 1838. "A branch of industry, (the offspring of neces- sity under the empire,) the production of sugar from beet-root, has engaged much attention in France, and has been carried on with success, and to a vast ex(ent. The natural consequence has been, that sugar, the produce of the French colo- nies, which is burdened with a very large duty on importation into France, loas beaten out of the market. Appeals were made by (he suffering colonists to the government, repeatedly, repre- senting (he dis(ress in(o which (hey had fallen from this circumstance ; the irremediable ruin (hat would necessarily fiill upon them if the present tariff were maintained, and soliciting relief. After a variety of expedients to evade a decision on the point, the government has just come to (he reso- lution of proposing to the chambers, (which are to meet on the 21th December,) to reduce the import duty on colonial sugar by 8^ francs per cwt., which, with a precisely similar excise duty levied on (he beet-root, or home-grown sugar, will, the}' say, sufTIce to re-open the market to the colonies." Such is the state and results of the indigenous sugar mnufacture in France. What is the progress of this branch of industry in the other parts of Europe ? England, (the mother of colonies,) which waa very much prejudiced against (he manufacture of indigenous sugar, seems to see, in the adoption of it, the only means of improving the physical and moral condition of man in her colonies ; and she has already overcome some of her prejudices, and has begun to establish manufactories. The following article, taken from the London Mechan- ics' Mugazine of 18.36, (No. 169,) wiU show its progress : " A refinery of sugar from the beet-root is be- ing erected at Thames Bank, Chelsea, which, it is expected, will be in operation in about six weeks. In the vicinity of the metropolis, during ihe past summer, a great many acres of land have been put into cultivation with the root, at Wands- worth and other places. The machinery will be principally on the plans of the vacuum-pans, and a pure refined sugar will be produced from the juice by the first process of evaporation, affer it has simply undergone the process of discoloriza- lion. Another part of the premises is appropria- ted to the manufacture of coarse brown paper from the refuse, for which it is extensively used in France. In case the govcrment do not interfere, and, by rendering the product excisable, retard or prohibit its manulacture, several individuals have it in contemplation to establish refineries in differ- ent partsofihe kingdom for purifying sugar, which may be produced in agricultural districts for do- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 72 mestic or foreign use. A refinery has lately been establised at Belfast, in the vicinity of which town upwards of two hundred acres of land iiave been put in cuhivation with the beet- root for tlie ■ manufacture of sugar." Russia, which adop{s every useful improve- ment in manufacture, has, in the southern depart- ments, large manufactories of beet-sugar, by which she expects to furnish some of the Asiatic mar- kets with this article. So have Eohemia, Hun- gary, Austria, and Switzerland large beet-sugar manufactories, in the most flourishing condition. The Germans, though the discoverers of thecr}'^- (allizable sugar in the beet-root, until 1S3G made very little progress in its manulacture. This is to be ascribed as well to the continual war with France, which checked every improvement, as to the uncertainty of the business itself The Ger- mans, well aware and well informed of every im- provement made abroad, never found it sufficiently lucrative to embark in it ; but it seems that this na- tion which has given the world so many great and important discoveries, was destined to bring ils own discovery of the extraction of the sugar lioin the beet to perfection. This was accomplished by Mr. Schuetzenbach, of the Grand Duchy of Ba- den. Schuetzenbach re-examined carefully Mark- graft's experiments, and found that the first expe- riment of this great chemist, made eighty-nine years ago, is the best method, when modified, to produce, with less labor and expense, eight pounds of white refined sugar out of 100 pounds of the raw beet-root. This improvement it is, which will, in a short space of time, exclude all the colonial sugar from the European market, as well as our own. This improvement, also, will change the condition of millions of men in the colonies. The opinion and judgment of a nation, jealous of every discovery or improvement made in other countries, and especially in this branch of industry, in which it has sacrificed millions of francs for its perfection, will serve as a proof of the importance of the new improvement. These new discoveries are detailed in an article which appeared in the Journal des Debats Politique^ et Literaries, in Paris, dated the 16th July, 1838; by Michel Che- valier, viz: "It would seem that the spirit which was mani- fested in the days of the revolution, has been transferred from the political arena, and is exert- ing itself in that of industry. At this time, the manufacture of sugar from beets is on the point of undergoing a metamorphosis which, as it appears, will change all the condition of its existence, and extend its influence, not only to the consumption, but also to the production of that article. "Until now, a series of operations has been ap- plied to the extracting of sugar li-om the beet, which, though simple enough in appearance, are in reality complicated and delicate; which de- mand not only a great number of intelligent and skilful workman, but also require considerable material to be operated upon ; and which, again, consume costly articles, such as milk, blood, ani- mal charcoal, &c. "In the former process the sugar-beet was scraped; the pulp pressed by means of an hy- draulic press. Thejuice so obtained, underwent defecation, or the separation of the albuminous and mucilaginous elements, and then the clarifica- tion and evaporation. Once concentrated, (he Vol. VII— 10 sirup underwent crystallization, which furnished the raw sugar ; and this then had to be refined before it could be admitted on our tables. "Since its origin, the process of extracting the sugar has always been the main point, but it has been modified and improved in the details; so much so, that our manufacturers, who were ruin- ing themselves when the sugar was at six francs the pound, are becoming rich at the low price of 20 sous per lb. At this time, the scraping, press- ing, delecation, clarifying, and evaporating were attended with difficulties, which it required a great length of time to subdue. The loss in man- ufacturing was enormous, as only from three to five parts of sugar were obtained from a hundred pounds of beets, instead of ten pounds, which are contained in the root. "With the assistence of chemical analysis, it was ascertained that this evil proceeded from the presence of a certain quantity of acid, of divers coloring, mucilaginous, and gelatinous matters, suspended in the juice. The presence of these mischievous substaiicc^a injures the sugar, prevents it fiom crystallizing, .sometimes destroys it, and causes it to yield uiily poor molasses. To pre- vent these injurious eflects, diflerent agents have been used, which were found more or less effica- cious. Apparatus was constructed, which accel- erated the manufacture, and diminished the time during which the sugar is in contact with these injurious substances; but the inquiry was never made whether it were possible to separate the su- gar fiom those foreign bodies, or at least to neu- tralize or paralyze their destructive power, before thejuice is extracted. "The new process, first alluded to, was discov- ered in the grand duchy of Baden, by Mr. Schuet- zenbach, of Carlsruhe. The experiments intro- duced a method of manufacturing the sugar, which was adopted by several manufacturers on the rio-ht bank of the lline, and which is already in vig- orous operation. "Like all ideas which are destined to accom- plish revolutions in manufactures, as well as in politics, that which serves as the basis to the new process is simple. The operation of drying the beets immediately after they are taken fram the field, is now the first step in the process. By this operation, the mucilaginous matter, which ia an integral part of the beet, losses the property of dissolving in water; this drying stops also the fermentation which takes place during the preser- vation of the beets in cellars or in the heap, and likewise prevents the formation of acids, which weje created at the expense of the sugar, and wlfich embarrassed the manufacture of beet-sugar. "When the beets are once dried, the suga'r ia easily obtained by mixing them with a small quan- tity of water, which produces a solution of sugar and a very small proportion of other bodies, and which, by the process of evaporation, gives at once a good product, which can be easily refined. "In a word, the elementary operation of the de- siccation acts with the power of exorcism; it drives from thejuice all injurious substances which were the former causes of evil in this manufacture. "This fact being once understood, and duly verified by experiments on a large scale, it was then important to bring it to perfi^ction by an easy practical manipulation. This ie what the 'Socieie (V JEncouragemenf is about to undertake, and 73 I'ARMERS' REGISTER [No. 2 that with every chance of complete success. This is already much more than mere expectation, because the problems which it has proposed are already more than half solved, and the entire so- lution of them is scarcely a matter of doubt : so that the manufacture of the sugar from beets is about to be built on a new basis. "The 'Societe d' EncouragemenV have offered the following prizes for the promotion of this man- ufacture : "1. One of 4000 francs for the best process for the desiccation of the beets. "2. One of 4,000 francs for the best treatment of the dried beet for the extraction of the raw su- gar. "3. One of 4.000 francs for the conversion of the raw into refined sugar, without taking it out of the mould. "4. One of 3,000 francs for an analysis of the beet root, &c. "5. One of 3,000 francs for the invention of a saccharometer, which should be constructed so as to be easily applied, and to have the property of showing immediately the quantity of crystalliza- ble sugar contained in the fluid under trial. A contrivance of this kind, which would be a sure guide for the farmer, and for the workmen in manufactories, indicating to the former the proper time to collect his crop of^ beets, and to the latter, how to manage his operations, would be of im- mense value. When these five prizes are gained, the theoret- ical and practical renovation of the manufacture of beet-sugar will be radically accomplished in all its forms. "To the question, xvill this be effected? it may be safely answered that existing facts scarcely al- low of the expression of a doubt that such will be the case. "The problem of the complete and rapid de- siccation by an economical process has presented very formidable difficulties. This drying may be denominated the corner stone of the new sys- tem; but this problem is far from being insolvable; on the contrary, it ought to be regarded as solved. "In one of the last sessions of the Societie d' Encouragement, Mr. Beyrand, of Marseilles, pre- sented beets cut in slices, which were dried in eight minutes by the combined action of pressure and heat, effected by two cylinders, heated to one hun- dred degrees by steam. This result will appear more prodigious when we consider that 100 parts of beets contain 84 parts of water. "The beets, prepared after Mr. Beyrand's me- thod, preserve all their sweetness. Mr. Schuet- zenbach, of Baden, dries the beets by a slow pro- cess, probably less perfect than Mr. Beyrand's me- thod; but the result is already excellent, and fa- vors the application on a large scale. In the man- ufacture of Mr. Schuetsenbach, the beets are cut m small thin slices, and as soon as they come in contact with the air, they bend and roll up, and lose the property of slicking together, which gives the hot air of a kiln, (to which they are brought immediately after they are cut,) a free circulation in all directions round them. The temperature of these kilns is from 30 to 40 degrees Reaumur, (from 99.5 to 122 degrees Fahrenheat.) "Mr. Schuetzenbach's apparatus of desiccation Is very economical. The machine lor cutting the beets costs only fi-om 400 to 600 finncs, and half a horse power is sufficient to put it in operation. Such a macliine, when at work every day for three months will cut one million killogrammes of beets, (about 1000 tons,) wliioh would be a sufficient sup- ply for a large manufactory. A kiln, about 10 feet by 9, and 9 feet high, dries, in 24 hours, 3000 pounds of beets, and consumes only 420 pounds of charcoal. Three such kilns would be sufficient to dry all the beets cut by one machine during twelve hours. " In the manufactory of Mr. Schuetzenbach, the dry beets are reduced to a coarse powder, sprinkled over with lime, and stored away in casks. When the sugar is to be extracted, this coarse powder is mixed with water, which produces a liquor mark- ing 21 degrees on the saccharometer; and when evaporated with Rolh's apparatus, this liquor yields, without any other preparation at the first chrystallization, a raw sugar, known in commerce by the name of bonne quatrieme, which, after a second chrystallization, becomes a bonne commune The advantage of this new method is such, that the beets raised at Esslingen, in Germany, in 1837, (less rich in sugar than the preceding year,) yield- ed more than eight per cent, of chrystallyzable su- gar, instead of five, which was the highest product by the old process; and, in the proportion as the gain on sugar increases, the expenses decrease; so much so, that eight pounds, now obtained, costs less than formerly four or five firora 100 pounds of beets. " Two important points are then attained : first, how to dry the beet; and second, how to extract the sugar from it. "To refine the raw sugar, without taking it out from the moulds in vvhich the syrup was placed to crystallize, and which always causes the loss of a considerable quantity of sugar, appears to be a question equally advanced. Recent experi- ments, on a large scale, show that raw sugar wash- ed in moulds, with pressure, gives, in the short space of three days, a perfect refined article, which formerly required from two to three weeks to ef- fect. "In regard to the analysis of the beet in its di- vers states of maturity, nothing has yet been at- tempted ; but this is a task which chemists can at any time accomplish, and the prize held out for it will induce many a chemist to undertake it; and it will not be long before we know to what ex- tent the constituent parts of the sugar-beet devel- op themselves simultaneously, and which is the most favorable moment for collecting them for the manufacture of sugar. "In regard to an exact saccharometer, of a sim- ple and practical construction, with the aid of which all manufacturers can accertain, to a fifti- eth part, the richness of the saccharine matter in beets, and of all other substances containing crys- tallizable sugar, the learned researches of a young chemist, M. Peligot, promise great success. Lime and barytes, have the property to combine with crystallizable sugar, and form together an insolu- ble composition, in which, nevertheless, the su- gar does not alter, and is easily separated from if. In bringing this fact to a simple mechanical ope- ration, no doubt is left that the quantity of sugar contained in beet sirup can be afecertained with the greatest nicety. "The proplems proposed by the Societe J' Un- covragement arc at tliis lime almost solved. It 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER, 7i does not any longer propose to discover a new method, but only to perfect the processes which are already verified by an application on a large scale. Among the advantages which are derived from the renovation of the manufacture of the beet-sugar, is the extension of the culture of the beet-root ; because it will be easy for every farmer to send his dry product to any market, far or near, as the weight of the raw beet is reduced, by the process of desiccation, to less than one-sixth part. The beet can now be raised any where, however distant from the manufactory ; and, reciprocally, it is possible to establish manufactories in all parts of France, to concentrate them in such places where fuel is plenty and at a low price ; whereas, at present, the manufacture is only possible close to a field, fertile enough to produce beets. Ano- ther important fact : 1,000 pounds of beets contain 100 pounds of sugar. The price of beets is about 12 francs ; the expense of drying and extracting the sugar would not exceed 10 fi-ancs, (this is suffi- ciently proved by experiments ;) making the total amount 22 francs. Suppose that one-tenth of the sugar is lost, the manufacturer would have 90 pounds of sugar lor 22 li-ancs, or 100 pounds for less than 25 francs. Allowing for small expen- ses, &c., 50 per cent., the sugar (the refined su- gar of this country) could be delivered to the con- sumer for 38 centimes, (or 7^ cts.) per pound. "This will create a revolution in the consump- tion of sugar, as well as in the division of the brances of industry, over the whole globe ; then instead of importing sugar from the southern re- gions it will be lell for us to furnish them. "Michel Chevalier." Another proof of the practicability and great advantage of this improvement, is the enthu- siasm with which it was adopted and put into ope- ration by the Germans themselves, who are gene- rally very careful and prudent in all their specula- tions. They have already established extensive manufactories on the Rhine. The importance of Mr, Schuetzenbach's discov- ery is best proved by chemical analysis and exam- ination of the physiology of plants. This analy formed, contain the sugar in its pure stale, sepa- rated from the mucilage "? These are questions as to the physiology of the beet, which Avere first suggested by Raspail, a French chemist, (in his work on the physiology of plants, Paris, 1837,) and he solved these im- portant problems by the following microscopic ex- periments. "When a thin slice of the red beet-root is brought under the locus of a microscope, it will be observed that the texture of the beet is formed of hexagonal cells, transparent, and of a purple color; these cells are crossed by white ones, four or five times longer than the purple cells; this tissue of white cells is crossed again by bundles of opaque cylinders, of a gray color, through which the spirals (elements generateurs) are ob- served. "When a drop of acid (^acide sulphurique al- bumineux, which has the property of coloring sac- charine substances purple) is put on this thin slice, the colors change; the part which was pur- ple turns yellowish, the long cells remain white, but the obaque cylinders become purple." From this it follows that the cells, naturally purple, enclose the coloring matter and the muci- lage, and the opaque cylinders the sugar in its pure state. Thus the mucilage in the beet-root is separated by nature from the sugar, and mixed during the manipulation, which caused all the dif- ficulties of the extraction in the old process, when the mucilage was combined with the sugar in gra- ting, pressing, and even in defecation. To separate this five-tenths parts of mucilage which the beet contains, occasioned not only the loss or considerable sugar, but also labor, fuel, and costly material, as, for instance, animal charcoal, blood, &c. The new process acts entirely in conformity with the results of scientific investigation, and the whole process is reduced to a simple operation, which gives a sure gain of eight per cent, of white refined sugar from one hundred pounds of the raw beet-root. The beets are now cut in thin slices, dried be- fore any fermentation can take place, ground to sis of the beet-root shows that 100 parts of the fi,,e jg g^ that all cells are bi^oken'a1)art, and root contain — 86.3 parts of wafer, 3.2 parts fibrous matter, 10.0 parts of crystalizable sugar, 0.5 parts of mucilage. By the new process, the water in the beet is evaporated, and there remain only 13.7 parts ol dry substance, which consists of the sugar, mucil- age, and fibrous matter. The sugar dissolves in cold or warm water al- most instantaneously. The mucilage is insoluble in water; when in a dry state, and mixed with water, it only swells to a slimy matter. The fibrous matter is insoluble, and has nei- ther in the old nor new process any injurious influ- ence. From this analysis, we learn that the mucilage is the only substance which causes all the difficul- ties of the extraction of sugar. The principal pro- cess consists, then, in the separation of the mu- cilage from the sugar. But is this mixture a work of nature, or the result of the manipulations? Or, does the cellular tissue, of which the beet-root is mixed with water, which dissolves the sugar be- fore the mucilage begins to swell. The pure un- colored liquor obtained is evaporated, and the si- rup brought into moulds to crystallize. These statements should be considered as a suf- ficient proof of the infallibility and practicability of the new improvement ; and the introduction and general adoption of it in this country would be of" the highest importance to the welfare of its population. Some enterprising citizens of the United States sent agents to France to investigate (he manipu- lations of this branch of industry; but the results have yet effected very little, and the sugar pro- duced from the beet in this country is of no great account, which, arises probably from the want of skilful and intelligent operators in the former com- plicated manipulations. But, at present, in Eu- rope, the manipulations are reduced to a process much simpler than brewing common table beer, which can be comprehended and performed by every person. The period is not distant, when farmers will produce their own sugar, or at least raise and dry the beet ready for the manufacturer. 75 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 2 The general argument against the introduction of this branch of industry, that labor is too high in the United Slates, is incorrect, when we consi- der the other great advantages which the United States have over every other country on the globe in almost every business, and especially in this branch of industry : 1st. The United States possess a climate which suits the beets better than any climate of Europe, because the summers are excessively warm, which increases the saccharine property of the beet-root. 2d. Plenty of cheap and rich land, subject to but a small tax. 3d. Inexhaustible stores of fuel, from which the great natural water-courses, rail-roads, and canals branch, over the whole union. 4th. Well-constructed labor-saving machines of all descriptions. 5th. An intelligent population, which, when once acquainted with this branch of industry', will soon bring it to great perfection — a population un- derstanding the use and management of machine- ry, and famous for improvements and inventions. Whereas, in Europe, the land is over-taxed, high in price, and therefore the interest upon it consi- derable ; subject to tHhes and other feudal bur- dens, while the fuel is scarce and valuable, and its transportation high and slow. The population are entirely unacquainted with labor-saving ma- chines, and possess very little mechanical inge- nuity, while their enterprise is prohibited by the excise laws of their petty governments. It is obvious that America overbalances with its advantages, the low prices of labor in Europe; and that she is able, not only to provide herself with all the sugar wanted for home consumption, but also to supply other countries. The sugar now produced in Louisiana, averages only about four and a half pounds per head for the population of the United States, or about 70,000,- 000 pounds annually, which is but a small part of our consumption, as enormous sums are yearly paid to foreign countries for sugar, as the follow- ing table shows, viz : 1832, imported into the U. States, ^2,933,688 1833, do. do. 4,752,343 1834, do. do. 5,537,829 1835, do. do. 6,806,184 1836, do. do. 12,514,551 This sum will annually increase in proportion as the population augments and their comforts and means improve. By the adoption of this ne\v branch of indus- try, the sums at present paid for imported sugar, would be in a short time a clear gain to the coun- try: its agriculture would be improved, and thou- sands of acres of exhausted and deteriorated land would be again taken up and improved. To procure the necessary manure for this purpose, the farmer would be obliged to increase his live-stock, which would find, during the winter season, plenty of food in the residuum of the manufacture. It would increase the consumption of sugar amon"- the less wealthy class, and would make their con- dition of life more comfortable, and, of conse- quence, greatly extend the population of the country. The manufacture of sugar is not confined to the beet and cane only. In Hungary, there arc at present, manufactories whirh make sugar from pumpkins. The lollowing article, translated Irom the ^Hanoverian Communicator,^ 1837, gives the particulars, as follows: "A manufacturer in Hungary, for three yeara past, has used pumpkins for the nianufacture of sugar. We have seen raw and refined sugar, also sirup from this manufactory, and found the refined sugar equal to the colonial in every re- spect. The raw sugar is crystalline, coarse-grain- ed, light-colored, and of more agreeable (melon- like) flavor than the common raw beet-sugar ; the sirup is of a blackish-green color, and has also a melon-like flavor, but is suitable for consumption. The juice, obtained by pressure, yields, on an ave- rage, six per cent, of sugar. But the water-melon of the south of Hungary is still more productive than the pumpkin of the north. The sugar ob- tained from the pumpkin is always considerable, whether the fruit has been raised on rich or poor land. The manipulation is said to be more sim- ple than the manufactory of beet-sugar, and re- quires less attention, as the pulp and the juice may stand for three weeks without getting sour or los- ing any quantity of sugar. The juice, during tha process of evaporation, does not rise in the boil- ers, and is not so liable to be burnt. The residu- um is very good food for cattle. One acre pro- duces 650 cwt. of pumpkins ; twenty pumpkins yield sufficient seed ibr one acre of ground. From the remaining seed a very good table oil of about 16 per cent, can be obtained. "Marquardt." Indian corn, at the period of tasselling, yields just half as much sugar as the sugar-cane; and it is astonishing that this well known fact did not induce persons to plant corn especially for that purpose. To make use of green corn and pumpkins pro- fitably, and to improve the crop of beet in quality and quantity, the following plan is, therefore sug- gested, which would keep a manufactory in ope- ration all the year round : We know that the beet requires a deep soil, sufliciently provided with decomposed manuic, as when planted in green manure they ^ield much less sugar, and the operation is rendered more difficult ; to prepare the field properly for the beet, it should be well manured, (no matter in what state the manure may be applied,) ploughed, and planted in corn and pumpkins, and worked regu- larly as long as the pumkins leave room for the horse-hoe. When the corn begins to form the tassel, it should be cut off, and the sugar extract- ed from it. The pumpkin has then all the influ- ence of the sun to come to full maturity, and should be used, when ripe, for sugar. The fol- lowing year the field would be in first-rate order for the beet, and the following rotation of crops, viz : Indian-corn and pumpkins, with j) manure, > for sugar, Beets, 3 Barley, Clover, Wheat. An acre of good cultivated land yields, on an average, twenty tons of the beet-root. Beets were sold this fall, near Boston, for $5 per ton. One ton of beets yields, when treated afier the new method, 180 lbs. of tvhite refined sugar. The cost of manufacturing a ton of beets into su- gar would be, at very high estimate, ^6. One 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER 76 hundred and eighty pounds of refined beet-sujrar would cost ^11, or 6 y'^ cents per pound, for which we now pay, at the lowest rate, 16 cents. Mr. Norbert Rilliex, of New Orleans, has re- cently invented an apparatus for reducing saccha- rine liquids, which has been patented in the Uni- ted States, and is already tested. This apparatus surpasses Howard's and Roth's, or any other invention of this description, not only in simplicity and cheapness, but also in the ar- rangement in the boiling of sugar, according with the laws of science and economy. The liquor is reduced by two vertical cylinders, heated by steam, over which the syrup is distri- buted in small quantities. One of the cylinders operates under a vacuum, and entirely evaporates the condensed liquor by a low degree of heat, to hinder the formation of molasses — an improve- ment of the highest importance, which, till now, has never been accomplished. The syrup can be reduced to any degree of the saccharometer de- sired, which is performed by the most ingenious and simple contrivance of a difti^rential thermome- ler. This apparatus will greatly facilitate the ma- nufacture of sugar, in regard to the economy of labor, fuel, and time, and the perfection of the product. This apparatus will rank among the most ingenious and important inventions. The production of indigenous sugar in France was one of the main pillars of NapoleoiVs conti- nental system; and the successful extraction of sugar from the beet was relied on as the surest guaranty of its stability. That branch of productive industry, therefore, which the first statesman and captain of the age, regarded alike as the means of conquest, and the source of wealth and independence, cannot be considered a matter of inditierence to the govern- ment of this great and growing republic, whose duty and privilege it is to watch over the interest and welfare of its citizens — a goverment aspiring to no conquest, yet whose enviable distinction it is to be regarded as the last hope of freedom — the last asylum of liberty. The information imparted in the preceding pages, collected as it is from the most authentic sources, it is hoped will be regarded as of the highest importance to any and every government, charged with the duty of promoting the great in- terests of a nation. Having traced the history and progress of the manufacture of the beet-sugar, from its first dis- covery in Europe to the present time, through all its varied experiments and decreasing expenses, until no longer requiring the bounty of govern- ment, but yielding a revenue, the only remaining inquiry is, how shall the American people avail themselves of the important advantages of this new source of national wealth and industry? To acquire a correct and minute knowledge of this new branch of industry, (now practically un- knovvn in this country,) it is necessary to visit Hungary, Germany, France, and England, in or- der to examine all the recent and important dis- coveries and improvements relating to the manu- facture of beet-sugar. To accomplTsh this object, it would require the following qualifications : 1. A thorough knowledge of the old method of extracting sugar from the beet, and every appara- tus hitherto used. 2. A thorough knowledge of agriculture, in or- der to ascertain the precise cost of the production of the raw material, the influence which it has on the different systems of agriculture, and the econo- my in regard ;o the feeding of cattle, &c. 3. A knowledge of chemistry and physics. 4. A knowledge of the languages of the differ- ent countries to be visited, and a thorough ac- quaintance with technical and vulgar terms in me- chanics and agriculture, as well as the patois of the countries. 5. A knowledge of mechanics and the art of drawing, in order to be able to delineate any ap- paratus at first sight, and at a glance, as manu- iacturers are not always willing to have their appa- ratus examined minutely. Chari.es Lewis Ft^etschmann, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural Institute ofJJavaria. Patent Office, Washington, December 27, 1838. Patent Office, December 28, 1838. Sir — At the request of the author of the accom- panying memorial, I have the honor to submit the same to your care, for such disposition as you shall deem best calculated to promote the wishes of jVlr. Fleischmann, and the interests of the country. Allow mc to state that Mr. Fleischmann is a gentleman of varied practical and scientific infor- mation, and has been for the last two years a re- sident of this city, and employed by me in the Pa- tent Office. He is a native of Bavaria, and was educated is the royal agricultural and polytechni- cal school at Schleissheim, near Munich, at which he graduated with distinguished honor, and was appointed Inspector of the Public Domain — an of- fice of great responsibility, and rarely conferred but on men of advanced age; he was also direc- tor of the estates of Count Seinsheim, comprising twenty-four villages. Emigrating to this country with much experimental knowledge, and we'll versed in the French and German languages, ho has, at my suggestion, draughted this memorial, which I believe cannot fail to be read with deep interest, comprising as it does, the most important and latest discoveries in the manufacture of beet- sugar, drawn from publications recently received at this office from Europe. Should the government desire the services of an agent to investigate this subject by visiting the manufactories of Europe, I would respectfully re- commend the author of this memorial. With the highest respect, 1 remain your obedient servant, Henry L. Ellsworth. Hon. Mr. Linn, U. S. Senate. Frciti thfi Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. DISCOVERY OF EARTH IN LARGE QUANTITY FORMED OF THE REMAINS OF ANIMAL- CULES. On the 8th January, 1838, Professor Hausmann communicated to the Royal Society of Sciences of Gotfingen, a preliminary notice, on a discovery con- nected with our own coimtry, which is undoubtedly 77 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 among the most remarkable facts lately added to the science of geognosy. In the month of November, this year, Colo- nel Von Hammerstein, president of the Provincial Agricultural Society of Uelzen, in the territory of Luneberg, the able author of several prize essays, and the zealous promoter of the agriculture of his native country, had the goodness to send to Pro- fessor Haussmann, two specimens of varieties of earth, which were dug out near Oberohe, during an excavation made by the above mentioned so- ciety, in the district of Ebstorf. The extreme lightness of these varieties of earth rendered it im- probable that they were of an argillaceous nature ; but their state of aggregation did not permit us to conclude that they consisted of pure silica, al- though, notwithstanding this, they really have such a composition, according to the chemical examination, kindly instituted by Dr. Wigners, in the accademical laboratory. The specimen No. 1, according to this investigation, is chemicallyj^wre silica. It has, at the same time, a fine, extremely loose, earthy, flaky consistence, and a chalk-white color. It has a soft and meager leeling, some- what like starch, and does not grate between the teeth. On water it swims for a moment, then sinks down, and gradually swells up. Mixed with a little water, it acquires a pasty consistence, with- out being adhesive. The specimen No. 2, is also silica, but contains likevi'ise a very insignificant quantity of a matter destructible by fire. lis Irac- ture is fine-earthy; the color brownish-grey, slight- ly inclining to green, becoming darker by the ad- dition of moisture. It is friable, meager, but soft to the touch, and adheres to the tongue. It swims on water for some minutes, but it afterwards sinks, absorbing water with a noise, giving out many air-bubbles, and then expands gradually by irre- gular splitting of the liminse, without being alto- gether separated. When exposed to heat, it ra- pidly assumed a while color. Here and there it is traversed by veins of pure, chalk-white, fine- earthy silica, filled with smaller or larger cavities. According to the information communicated by Col. Von Hammerstein to Professor Hausmann, this silica has been found in astonishing quantity in six different places of the above mentioned dis- trict, on the edge and first acclivity of the great plateau of the Luneberger Haide, covered to the depth of only one foot and a half by the soil. The pure white silica forms the upper bed, and has a thickness of 10 feet to 18 feet. The colored por- tion is beneath, and has been already penetrated to a depth of 10 ftjet, without the lower boundary having been reached. The peculiar state of aggregation of this silica, led Professor Hausmann to conjecture that it might be analogous to the Kieselgurh, found in the turf at Franzensbad in Bohemia, and that like that substance, it might be composed of the siliceous shields of infusory animals. A preliminary mi- croscopic examination seemed to confirm this no- tion. In order to attain certainf}- on this subject. Professor Hausmann sent specimens to the distin- guished investigator of the infusory world. Profes- sor Ehrenberg of Berlin, who, by his extraordina- ry discoveries, regarding the occurrence of fossil infusoria, has opened an entirely new field of the most interesting investigations. He requested that naturalist to examine these specimens of earth more minutely, with a special view to these ob- jects, and he received, through his kindness, the intelligence, that both earths are entirely composed of beautiful and perfectly preserved infusory cover- ings; that these are very various, but still belong only to known species, and to such as are found in a living state in fresh water at the present day. In the earth No. 1, they are free from foreign mix- ture; but in No. 2, they are mixed with organic slime, and with the pollen of pines. During even his first examination. Professor Ehrenberg suc- ceeded in determining several species of inflisora, whose coverings form this silica, and in ascertain- ing that there occurs, in the lower bed, a species of infusoria found in the polishing slate of Ha- bichtswald and Hungary ; and another peculiar to the Kieselguhr of Bohemia; both of which seem to be entirely wanting in the upper bed : but upon these points we shall defer further remarks, in or- der that we may not anticipate the publication of the completed investigation of Professor Ehren- berg. That a mass more than twenty feet in thickness should consist almost entirely of the coverings of animals which are invisible to the naked eye, and which can only be recognized with the assistance of a high magnifying power, is an extraordinary fact, and one which the mind cannot fully compre- hend without some difliculty. The farther we at- tempt to pursue the subject, the more we are as- tonished. That which occurs in an invisible con- dition in the fluid element, and which cannot be recognized by the human senses, without the as- sistance of art, becomes, by immense accumulation and solidification, one of the circle of phenomena, which are witnessed by us in the ordinary way ; a compact mass is formed, which can be weighed, felt, and seen; and this mass is presented to us in such quantity, that, when regarded only in 07Je di- rection, it surpasses by three times the height of the human figure. Who could venture to calcu- late the number of infusory animals, which would be required to produce even one cubic inch of this mass? And, who could venture to determine the number of centuries, during which the accumula- tion of a bed of twenty feet in thickness was tak- ing place? And yet, this mass is only the product of yesterday, compared with the other more com- pact siliceous masses for which the infijsoria of a destroyed creation afforded materials. But what would have become of that loose, light silica — which, by its great porosity, and its power of ab- sorbing water in quantity, in some measure indi- cates its origin — if, instead of being covered by soil one foot and a half in thickness, it had been covered by a great mass of earth or rock ; or, if another power, such as the action of fire, had caus- ed its solidification? In that case, we should have had no bed twenty feet in thickness, but should perhaps have found a compact stony mass, capa- ble of scratching glass, affording sparks with steel, and polifhable, — a substance, which, were it not for the abundant evidence furnished by the disco- veries of Ehrenberg, it would be still more difficult to suppose had resulted from the coverings of in- visible animals. Such a consolidation and hard- ening of this loose silica, might perhaps be partly accomplished in another way, by making the ex- periment of employing it for the manufacture of glass, or as one of the ingredients in porcelain; by which means a discovery so very remarkable, in a natural historical point of view, might at the 1839] FARMERS^ REGISTER. same time become of practical importance. Glass formed from the coverings of infasory animals ! Who would, a few years ago, have believed in the possibility of this substance, by whose assistance invisible life in water is revealed to us, being pre- pared from a material, derived from the same world of extremely minute animated beings ; or that we should be enabled, by means of a substance lur- nished by an invisible creature, to investigate the smallest and most obscure, as well as the largest and most remote, bodies in creation? [Communicated to us by Prolessor Hausmann, from the '^ Gnttingische gelehrte anzeige?i." 25th January, 1838.] — Ed. Philos. Jouk. An additional interest is given to the foregoing statement, by the fact, that a deposite of these in- fusorial coverings, analogous to that above describ- ed, has been discovered by Professor J. W. Bai- ley, of West Point, N. Y. ; and they doubtless will be found in no inconsiderable extent in other parts of this country. Professor Bailey says the deposite he discovered is "8 or 10 inches thick and probably several hundred yards in extent, which is wholly made up of the siliceous shells of the bacillaria, &c., in a fossil state;" v. his paper with figured descriptions in Silliman's Journal, October, 1838. We have examined a portion oi' this "clay-colored mass," from West Point, under the microscope, and witnessed the organic forms as described by the discoverer. G. Jour. Fianklin Institute. From the Mining Journal. SUGAR FROar THE PUMPKIN. A complete revolution is expected to take place in the manufacture of native sugar — a revolution which will probably compel the beet-root growers to "hide their diminished heads." In other words, the pumpkin is about to enter the field as a rival of the beet-root, and to force the Chamber of De- puties to revise its late enactment on the sugar question. We hear that an industrious specula- tor is on the point of establishing a manufactory for extracting sugar from this over-grown and hitherto despised production of the vegetable world, the first experiments on which, it is added, have been crowned with complete success. A CHEAP AND CONVENIENT MODE OF BOR- ING FOR MARL. To tlie Editor of the Farmers' Register. I inclose ^5 for Vol. 7, of your very useful Re- gister, and along with them, a lame account of (what I think,,) a most excellent implement lor boring for marl, or for searching into Mother Earth after many of her hidden treasures; and of which, if there was any merit in so simple a con- trivance, I should say I was the inventor. It consists of a f inch square bar of iron* of any required length, with a 1^ inch barrel-auger welded to one end, and a handle ol'iron, having a mortise to fit the rod very loosely, so that it can elide up and down at pleasure; and a ihumb-screw at the side of the mortise in the handle, to fix it at any required height. In forging out the rod, the smith should make whh his punch, indentations * I find this rod large enough. about a foot apart along the whole length, to re- ceive the end of the screw. So much for the borer. If more than 10 fiiet be required for the length of the borer, it will be necessary to support the upper end, otherwise it will waver in boring, and prevent the rod from going down perpendicu- larly. Now to comprehend my fixture, you have only to imagine a large over-grown four-legged stool, over-topping the operater's head about a foot or so, with a hole in the center of the seat through which the rod passes. The legs to be stout and far apart, and going quite loosely through the holes in the seat, with good shoul- ders for it to rest on. Two of the legs on one side to be fiilly two feet longer from the shoulders up than the others, so that on the side of a hill, you can preserve the level by lowering the long legs and driving a nail under the seat into each leg, and thereby forming a shoulder. If 20 feet ofiod be required, (which is the length of the auger I have in use,) you must put another four-legged stool of light materials and smaller dimensions^ about six feet high, upon the top of the first, se- curing firmly (by mortise) its legs at top and bot- tom. From the centre of the upper stool, a tube, (made of four strips of thin plank, tacked togeth- er,) descends to the seat of the lower stool, and is mortised into it, through which tube the rod pas- ses up and down, and is always kept in place. If more than 20 feet be required, you have only to continue this tube up as high as necessary, and brace it to the seat of the upper stoul. The ope- rator has but to turn the handle and he is surprised at the rapidity with which the rod descends, ow- ing to its weight ; and he should not bore more than two feet at a time before withdrawing, al- ways relaxing the thumb-screw, and letting the handle fall to the ground before pulling up the rod. The great improvement here suggested, consists in the moveable handle upon a continuous rod of any reasonable length, thereby dispensing with sere w-joints and other contrivances, which are cost- ly to make, and troublesome in their use. The fixtures to keep the rod plumb, may be varied ac- cording to size and great lengths required; but for 30 feet, you will find the above not a bad contrivance. If you think so poor an affair deserves a place in your Register, you can dispose of it that way; but if not, i shall be nothing daunted, and may bore you again another time. Yours, Nous Verrons. ANALYSES OP SUNDRY SPECIMENS OF CAL- CAREOUS ROCK, OR MARL, IN S. CAROLINA. To the Editor of the farmers' Register. Bristol, Pa., Jan. 28, 1839. In giving you a number of localities, where the earthy or other loose aggregated carbonates of lime are to be found to the south, I omitted to give the analysis of many of them ; and as this subject, through your writings, is now becoming of import- ance, they maybe acceptable to some of the read- ers of your Register. I observe that my good old friend, Dr. Cooper, is pleased to censure my use of the term "marl" — which is all right. In using it, 1 did but comply with the common idea, that marl is any earthy material whatever, which imparts or give fertility to soil, being used in contradistinction to manures, which are vegetable or animal, or mixtures of both 79 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 and also to salt, gypsum, &■"., which may be con- ■sidered in the light of stimuli, intended to increase Vii'e, as th-ey do galvanic action in our piles and bat- teries. When a student in France, and as a lecturer, I adopted the French idea of marl, which was this, that any rock, or earthy substance, vvhich by ex- posure to the air lost its cohesion, and crumbled into earth, which may be subdivided into calcare- ous and argillaceous, as either clay or lime predo- Among the important and interesting deposites of earthy lime-stone to the south, is Shell Bluff', on the Savannah river, about twenty five miles below Augusta. This bluff rises fifty or more feet above the river, consisting of alternations of carbonates of lime of various degrees of impurity, with beds of clay and of sand. The upper bed is about six feet thick, containing abundance of the gigantic os- trea, which were collected and burnt for lime. minated. The first bed below the oysters we shall call No. 2, this consists of carbonate of lime, And fine parts ferruginous clay. The next below, each being in the descending order, No. 3, of carbonate lime. Fine quartz sand and a little whitish clay, No, 4. 83.2 carb. lime, and 16.8 of coarse quartz sand, and very tenaceous yellow clay. 77.6 22.4- -100. 60. 40. —100. 5. 93.4 6. 64.4 7. 54.4 8. 85.2 9. 47.2 10. 37.2 11. 73.2 12. 62.4 13. 73.2 14. 47.2 15. 71.6 7.6 yellowish argil, no sand. 35.6 white glassy quartz sand, with whitish clay in small quantity. 45.6 yellowish glassy quartz sand, being stained with iron. 14.8 glassy sand and yellowish earth. 52.8 glassy sand and yellowish clay and ochre. 62.8 light olive colored clay, fine and coarse. 26.8 coarse glassy sand, with a little yellowish clay. 37.6 coarse glassy sand, with a little yellowish clay. 26.S sand and clay, the former coarse, the latter in small quantity. 52.8 sand and clay. 28.4 light yellow clay, very adhesive. The earthy lime-stone on Mr. Darby's planta- tion, in Saint Matthew's Parish, S. C, of which I then noticed two kinds, gave by analysis, the first, 92.2 carbonate of lime, and 5.8 clay and iron, the former not very tenaceous or adhesive, the second, 90.4 carbonate lime, 9.6 clay. The same kind, but at some distance in Orange- burg district, belonging to Dr. Jameson, presented by analysis, 91.6 carbonate of lime, and 8.4 clay, dark colored and plastic ; the color was owing to animal matter in great part. This earthy lime- stone was quarried and burnt for lime. The object in all these analysis was the quanti- ty of lime ; the other information, at the time, be- ing of no manner of use, nor will be, excepting for speculative geology, and at a remote day. Lardn£r Vanuxem. SUGGESTIONS FOR EXTENDING THE USE OF XIME AS MANURE IN VIRGINIA, THE COAL TRADE. To the Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. The ability vvith which the subject of using aime is treated by the various practical farmers, who contribute to your valuable periodical, pre- cludes the idea that I should be able to say any thing in its favor, which would induce those who do not use it now, in future to commence; but 1 do not despair of giving such information that if followed, will furnish lime to upper A'irginia, at •least on much better terms than Ibrmeriy, and in- crease the amount with those who now use it. Until our stores of lime-stone in the upper regions of the state are unlocked, we must look abroad for the present and future supply, as heretofore ; and it is to the reduction of rates Irom this quarter only, thai my plan is to operate upon. The usu- al or minimum price of lime, per cask, is about ^1 75, sometimes it reaches $2 50, and expenses to be added, which deters many li-omils use, while if at ^1 per cask, the same or more money might be laid out, and double results might be expected. Lime is usually brought out as ballast; and the reason isobvious, for a vessel coming to Richmond, can always find a load of coal lor some port, and thus, if only half freiglit for lime can certainly be obtained, it" would come most freely. Plan. — Let each farmer calculate how many tierces he intends consuming, and write to some one who is not too much burdened with business to attend to it, enclosing the money to buy, say 50 casks, when it can be bought, at 81 to $1^. Wc will suppose 1000 persons to join, and the or- der will reach 50,000 casks. Each to have a por- tion sent to him from every cargo. Let it once be understood that the farmer's price would be cer- tain to be $1 for every cask brought here, and, my word for it, we should be well and constant- ly supplied ; the advantage would be, that the storage and all second-hand charges would be thus avoided ; liar the summer, when little is doing in freights, would be the time to carry up and re- ceive the lime. Our rail-roads have most liberal- ly put down the rates of every improver of the soil to the bare cost of carriage ; and I do not hesitate to advance the opinion, that when our packet line of boats to Lynchburg, (the capital of which is $20,000, and mostly taken) gets ftilly into operation, arrangements of the same kind will be cheerfully entered into; for every cask of lime thus carried, would add at least four or more casks or barrels of produce to be returned in the same boats at a future period. While I have pen in hand, suffer me to digress from the service of lime, so far as to make a re- mark upon the value of cur coal trade to the state. Owners and shippers of produce in New Or- leans, very frequently ask the captains, or in other words, give them the choice of New York, Phila- delphia, Baltimore or Richmond ; and in many, very many cases, the latter is chosen for the rea- son, that much of the carriage is done by Egg- harbor and other northern vessels, and going south, they take out their various "notions," and wishing to go home, prefer Richmond ; for here they can always get a home fi-eight of coal, and in any other port, they most probably would have to go in ballast. It is to this cause, mainly, that Richmond can now compete succesefully with 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER SO those cities, in sugar, molasses, bacon, lard, &c. and give the purchasers their supphes as they want them ; requiring thereby, less capital to do the same business with, than if bought at the north, in anticipation of the trading seasons. J. H. D. LowNES. Richmond, Feb. S, 1839. PREPARATIONS FOR SILK-CULTURE IifEAR GEORGETOWN. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Georgetoivn, 1st Feb., 1839. I shall have, if my roots and cuttings succeed as well this year as the last, /rom 300,000 to 500- 000 Chinese mulberry trees next fall, from six to eight feet high, and abundantly supplied with branches, as 1 shall give them room enough. I am novv building a laboratory for the worms to do their work in, 50 feet by 20, 2 stories. This for a beginning, to feed one million of worms next summer. I shall enlarge it next year to the ex- tent required to feed all the leaves I can grow. 1 have taken measures to procure silk-worm's eggs from France, which I expect to arrive about the 1st April. I have ordered them of the best de- scription, and shall probably have some pounds to dispose of. Your obedient servant, J. Mason, Jr. For tlie Farmers' Register. FAILURE OF EXPERIMENTS. MODES OF KEEPING SWEET POTATOES. Ills as useful to the agricultural reader, to learn the failure of any experiment, produced by the suggestions of reported success, as it is to hear of its having liilly performed all that was ascribed to it. I am induced to make this observation, in con- sequence of seeing it stated, some short time back, in the Register, that if twigs from an apple tree be inserted in an Irish potato, and pieced in the ground, that the i wig would grow and flourish, and become a living tree. A friend of mine per- formed this experiment. He carefully, as direct- ed, inserted a number of fine twigs in an equal number of Irish potatoes, and watered them, whenever it was necessary. But, lo ! the twigs all died, whilst tiie potatoes grew and flourished^' I have met with another failure in a highly re- commended species of corn, the " Baden or twin- corn." I have cultivated this corn for 2 or 3 years, being induced to do so from the many panegyrics bestowed on it; but I am led to the conclusion" that it Avill not answer, except on very rich land, and in such land any species will produce well. The objection I have to the Baden corn, is, that it sends out a great number of shoots, or as our farmers term it, -'over-shoots itself," and conse- quently, not one of them attains perfection and makes a good ear, unless the land be uncommon- ly good ; and even then, not over two ears fill out, whilst the remainder amount to little or nolhinff. A correspondent in the Register desired To * Out correspondent might have seen in the same No., by our comments on the piece referred to, that it was not selected for republication, for its supposed truth, but to expose its worthlessness.— Ed. F. Reg. Vol. VII— 11 know how sweet potatoes can be kept through the winter months. This is a secret, I can assm-e him, well worth knowing. I can inform him of the method adopted in the lower section of Vir- ginia, most famous too for its sweet potatoes. This winter, many persons have already lost their potatoes, in consequence of having heavy rains about the time they were dug, which, by being saturated with water, brought on the rot after they were put up. There are two methods used for putting away sweet potatoes. One plan is to build a small house of brick, sunk one or two feet in the ground. The size of the house to be in proportion to the wants of the farmer ; they are generally 7 or 8 feet square, with a small door opening to the south, and a brick \e{\ out in the north end, to be stopped or opened as it may be necessary to give them air. When the potatoes are put into this house, some clean dry pine leaves are put over them, as well as under them. The other plan, which is much the most com- mon, is to put them up in hills out of doors, as follows. A bed of pine-leaves is laid down on the ground about a foot deep, the potatoes are then placed upon it in a pile of a conical form; a covering of dry pine leaves is then put all over them a foot thick, and then dry earth thrown over the whole about 6 or 8 inches thick and carefully patted down with a spade. Some leave an ajjer- ture at top, and insert an oblong box, 4 inches square, down to the potatoes, and lay a piece of plank over the outer orifice, which is to be re- moved in warm days to admit air, as it is consi- dered that much heat is injurious. If these hills be not made with much care, the frost will reach the potatoes and destroy them. To prevent this, I have, for several years, put up my potatoes in such a hill as I have described, made in my cellar instead of the open air; and so lar have never failed to keep them, as it is impossible for them to freeze. A heavy rain has lately fallen, and some water got into my cellar, and 1 fear it may injure them. Peter De Quir. For the Farmers' Register. MARL. MARL INDICATOR. PROLIFIC CORN. SUCKERS. SEKD. DEEP CULTURE THE SE- COND TI3IE, PARTICULARLY IN DRY SEA- SONS. NINi:-LOT SYSTEM. While I make a remittance to the editor, I will also take occasion to offer a few ideas to the read- ers of the Reirister. I think it highly probable, that they will not be considered very valuable ; and many will think that they had 'as well not have been published. But this opinion should be resisted in this, our day of small things, with due fortitude. It is a sort of " besetting sin" of the eastern Virginian, (and of the southerners general- ly,) that if he cannot exhibit, or do that which is "first rate," he will do nothing. And while the Register is waiting for its contents to be made up of all the necessary exhibitions of p^r/ed/on in the art and science of agriculture, its editor is put to his " wit's end," in writing, copying and extract- ing, for the edification and pleasure of its numer- ous readers, ail expectmg him to form, for their hungry appetites, a least of fliU variety. And 81 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 2 why will they not help? Because they cannot sur- pass every body else ; because some more igno- rant reader, or less willing contributor, may hap- pen to say, " this is not new, I knew it long ago." While then we aim at perfection, let us remember that the end is to be attained by gradual improve- ment. Let us not be ashamed of small things, great ones were never yet possessed without them. By the use of twenty-six letters, which were at first only sounded, without vanity, pride or shame, the most extraordinary developments of the human mind have been accomplished. Let us do likewise. We should all have cause to re- joice to see the Register filled monthly with what we have seen, heard and done ; particularly in our own state, and more especially in the eastern part of it, lor we need most. But as to what I have done, seen or heard. I did not commence the use of marl on the place where I live at this time, until 1837. Its ef- lects, consequently, have been observed but on the two succeeding crops ; they are good. I think that I may with confidence assert, that I have seen as much as one hundred per cent, produced in the product of poor land. All, however, are not yet convinced of the value of marl. Be- coming zeal on the part of its users will sooner or later bring it into general use. I think it proba- ble that many are prevented from using it on ac- count of the burden imposed by the example of those who are applying or have applied it. They are unwilling to begin so heavy a job, as it would be to put from three to five hundred bushels of marl to the acre. I find that no difi'erence in crops can be discovered from like land that has been marled at small and heavy rates. Some ten years ago, I marled a small farm with very strong marl, at the rates of seventy, and six hundred bushels. The result was, that the last was in- jured, while the first was equal to marling, at any rate, between those extremes. I now consider, that marl, which contains from sixty to seventy- five per cent, of lime, should seldom be applied in a quantity greater than one hundred and twenty bushels to the acre. When the land will bring now five barrels to the acre, one-fifly may be used. The marl 1 ase is from what is called the lower deposite. Some beds are highly calcareous, while others have but a small per cent.; and one kind into which I have dug, has no lime. This ap- pears to be of a dark "bottle-green" color, and is what we call about here, "green sand," though much finer, and considerably different in appear- ance from the Pamunky "green sand" marl. I am not yet able to report on the effects of this de- posite. Over my strongest marl, I olten find an over-layenof whatis called "blue-fuller." I think it what the English call "fat marl." I was, at first, at a loss what to do with it, but found, on tri- al, that it was highly serviceable when applied with the shelly part. It appeared to increase the corn-crop nearly fifty per cent, above the simply marled land. That mass of blue was once shells, I think, which were dissolved by the acids of our hills. Some minute shells are still undissolved in it; it abounds most, under oozing hill-sides. Besides the blue mass, I have tried the swamp over-layer, or mud. Its effi^cts are also very good with the marl. I tried this on some four or five acres alone, last year ; but the season was too dry to enable me to judge of it ; it must wait for ano- ther crop. I think that I have perceived a manifest differ- ence between the dry beds of marl, and the marl of the lower deposite, in their operation on the na- tanlly fiom 68 to 71 degrees. The third arre then has lasted nine days, and has been sufficiently remarkable lor the incon- stancy of the weather, and still more for the vari- ations of temperature of the laboratory. The moulting, however, has been very good, and the worms do not appear to have sustained any other damage than being one or two days retarded in their progress to maturity. Fourth Age. — June 10th. At 10, A. M., the worms have commenced their fourth age. They have had two meals, without counting in the leaves of the twigs by which they were lilted from the litter. The weather superb. The ther- mometer has risen in the day to 77 degrees, and has not been under 68, without fires. Never was lliere a better promise of success. llih. Wind from the south, very strong. Still 68 to 71 degrees of heat. The worms increase in size visibly, and still go on well. 12th. The thermometer had sunk in the night to 62 degrees. The wind is very cold. The fire in the chimney has been lighted. To-day too many leaves have been given ; the worms have not eaten all. Orders are given to clean it away, and to supply food less abundantl}^ 13th. The worms eat heartily, and are growing fiist. The temperature 64 degrees with fire, in the morning; and from noon, 66 to 68 degrees without fire. 14th. Rainy weather all the day. The leaves have been gathered part wet and part dry. There was need of fire to keep the temperature up to 64 degrees. 15th. In the morning 62 degrees, and at noon 66. Weather gloomy. The state of the worms shows that they aie about to make their last moul- ting. 16th. Almost all the worms assumed their dor- mant state in the course of this day. The warm and clear weather favors their sleep. At 11 at night, a violent storm arose, with loud thunder. 17th. The worms revive, all together. The sky is clear, the air hoi and heavy in the labora- tory. Notwithstanding the opening of the win- dows, and of a large ventilator, (soiipirail,') the heat could not be reduced below 75 degrees. Up to this time there has been no unpleasant scent ; persons unaccustomed to the air of a laboratory, have not been able to discover any other odor than ihat spread by the green leaves of the mulberry. The fourth age has been finished, and perfectly, in 8 days. The worms entered and revived from ttieir last moulting very equally. At this moult- ing, there were fewer wandering worms, by half, and these were taken out and thrown away imme- diately. To this time, the rearing of this year presents much less of loss than in any of the pre- cedingyears. The season has been very favorable. Fifth and i.ast agk.— June 18th. All the operations of changing the worms to fresh hur- dles have been completed with rapidity, in a fine day and with a natural temperature of 73 degrees. Tliey have seized on the young branches of mul- berry with the greatest eagerness. 19th. In the morning, the temperature was at 66 degrees, at noon 71, and at 3 P. M., 75 de- grees. The worms have had to-day four meals and have eaten 8 quintals* of leaves. 20lh. Cloudy ; 71 degrees. The appetite of the worms augments, and the consumption (of all of the three divisions; lias risen to 10 quintals. The rearing goes on well. 21st. Weather cold and gloomy. Tempera- ture 62 degrees. The fires have been lighted, and have increased the warmth to 66 c'egrees. The Paris quiatal is 100 lbs. 91 FAKMKRS' REGISTER. [No. 2 The worms have had, at four meals, nearly 15 quintals of leaves. No worms dead, nor dymg. 22d. The sky is still obscured, and the weather continues cold. At 5 A. M. the thermometer in- dicated only 62 degrees, notwithstanding the ni- creased fires. None ol' the worms which have made the fourth moulting have been found dead ; and there are some dead of the small number which did not then fall into the fourth sleep. All of this kind are thrown away, without mercy. The consumption of leaves becomes enormous; it has been, this day, about 20 quintals. The worms are in good appetite. 23d. The worms are in the most ravenous state, and could not be doing better. The sun re- appears, and the temperature rises, without fire, to 71 degrees. The consumption of leaves is fright- ful. The trees are stripped, and the fear of the leaves failing causes me m.uch uneasiness. The expenditure to-day is 23 quintals. The windows remained open through the day. Still no bad odor. We have not cleaned the hurdles since the last moulting, but it will be dune to-morrow, not so much for the purpose of removing the litter, which is but of little thickness, and not heated, but to give the worms more space, as they he very thick. 24th. After the morning meal, the worms were removed, and the litter cleared away. There were found on the hurdles very lew dead worms. The strongest appetite (freze,) continues still, but less violently, especially in the evening. How- ever, 18 quintals of leaves have been devoured. The number of mulberry trees yet to be stripped is greatly diminished, and the fear of a want of leaves increases every hour. The day has been very fine, and the interior temperature has been kept to 71 and 73 degrees, the windows being open from 10 in the morning to 5 o'clock in the evening. 25th. This, the eighth day of the fifth age, has been very fine. The temperature still 71 to 73 degrees. The appetite of the worms slackens progressively, and the lear of there being want of Ibod is much lessened. 'J'here still remain 37 large trees to strip. The consumption 13 quin- tals. It is already observed, with pleasure, that the worms are disposed to spin. They exhibit all the signs of their maturity being near. They will doubtless climb in two days. We must to-mor- row fix the faggots of broom, (or hedge lor them to spin in.) 26th. The brightness and heat of the day yes- terday have much hastened the maturity of the worms. These circumstances will advance, by a day, the term of their career. There were found many of them this morning which had already quitted their litter, and had climbed even to the ceiling. After the meal at 10 A. M. there is a general movement on all the hurdles; the worms run here and there, searching for support. There can be no mistake ; they arc ready to mount, and this is especially the moment of delighc to the amateur culturist. Four persons are engaged im- mediately in placing the branches of broom upon the highest shelf, in order that they may receive the most ibrward worms from all the hurdles be- low. This operation will not cease until all the shelves are thus prepared. As liist as the broom is placed, the worms climb to it with a degree ol haste which I have never before remarked. This labor is finished at 5 in the evening, and nearly half of the worms are already mounted. The weather changed towards noon. The sky was covered with clouds, and at G o'clock a storm oc- curred, accompanied by loud cla|)s of thunder, which operated to slacken the climbing of the worms, but caused not the slightest derangement to the labors of those already on the broom. The consumption of leaves still diminished ; and no fear remains of any scarcity. It should be observed that the quantities of leaves used, and which have been slated lor the latter days, were consumed by the whole mass of worms of all the three divisions. With all the de- sire to do so, it was impossible to estimate sepa- rately the quantity eaten by each division ; and the statement made, of their joint consumption, is only to establish a fact which should warn all persons, beforehand, of the enormous provision of leaves which must be made lor the last age. 27lh. On this, the forty-first day, and the last, of the rearing, the worms of the first division are all lodged in the cabins made by the placing of the broom, and ihey are actively cngnged in spinning their cocoons. The other two divisions are Ibl- Ibwing near, to the like successful end. I leave for a time, sir, my wonderful spinners to their labors, and in a continuation of my letter, which will not be long in coming, I shall pre- sent to you the product of this rearing, and the ob- servations which it has caused me to make; and 1 will speak to you of the progress of the planting of mulberries in our country, leaving the evidence of results to show the advantages which the peo- ple of Aveyron can draw irom this culture. Abiaks Cariiier. ESTIMATES OF THE EXPEKSE AND PROFIT OF AN ACTUAL KKARING OF SILK-WORMS. [The following article is not less interesting than the preceding, ol" which it is a continuation, and for similar reasons. It presents a statement, in detail, of the expense and profits of an actual rearing of a brood of silk-worms — and not merely, like such as has been so often published in this country, an estimate of what the writer either supposes in advance of facts, or wishes his readers to believe, would he the cost and profit of operations yet to be performed, and of which the value is yet to be tested. Such a mode of estimate may show any desired result, and therefore they may be had of any desired amount in American publications, and offering from .$100 to ^1000 of returns from the mulberry leaves of an acre, to be fed to silk- worms. The estimate of M. Carrier ma)' also be very in- correct in the general result shown. But even if so, he has exhibited the facts and stated the prices which furnish his premises; and if the valuations are wrong, the error may be corrected, or made such as the reader may admit as certain, and the product be then calculated according to the change of the grounds of calculation. And though we 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 9^2 confide fully in the correctness of M. Carrier's estimates for the country in which his labors were perlbrmed, they are necessarily unsuiled in several respects to the circumstances of the United States, in general, or Virginia in particular. This detracts nothing from i/ie value of his practice and opinions; but will require to be made by the American read- er some allowances in the data, which of course will affect the result. Thus, the prices stated lor labor are much too low for this country. Those for white mulberry plants are very low, in money- price, compared to those now given here lor the multicaulis mulberry. On the other hand, the loss of the use of the white mulberry, for the first five years of its growth, costs more than thrice the pur- chase-money; and the rent of land in France is ten- fold more costly than that of equal quality in Vir- ginia. But all these differences of circumstances, though they should be duly considered and allowed (or, are not in the least objectionable. It is sufficient for our purposes, and profits, if a certain amount of labor, of land, of food, &c., can produce a cer- tain amount of silk at Rodez; for our climate is better for silk-culture, and therefore, the employ- ment of the same means will produce equal, if not still more valuable results. — Ed. F. R.] FIFTH LETTER FKOM M. ABIANS CAURIER, TO M. BONAFOUS. Translated for the Farmers' Register. Jiodez, July 5th, 1833. I have presented to you, in my letter of the 30th of last month, the principal circumstances of my rearing of silk-worms of this year. I propose now to show you what profits 1 should already have re- alized therefrom, if I had been willmg to Ibrego that to be derived from the winding of my cocoons. By July 2d, the worms of all the three divisions [as stated in the preceding letter,] were fixed on the hedge. The backward worms were but very few ; and, with some care, cocoons were obtained from almost the whole of the worms. On the 8th, four persons were employed in gath- ering the cocoons Irom the broom which had re- ceived the worms of the advanced division. This labor occupied the whole day. On the lOtli and r2ih, respectively, the same persons performed the like operation for the two later divisions. There were (bund on the broom a very fijw dead worms, of the kind called capelans in the south, because of their black color. I shall give hereafter the reason of this rare fact. On each day of gathering, the cocoons were weighed with minute precision. The weights were as follows : July 8th, 1st division, 356 lbs. 10th, 2d do 292 12th, 3d do 280 Total, 928 lbs. The cocoons collected were placed upon the same hurdles which had served fbr the feeding, (but after having been cleaned and again covered with paper.) They occu|)ied six shelves of 27 Itict long, and 4 broad. The thickness of the cocoons was about three inches. It is, as 1 was told, the best mode of preserving them, by preventing their being heated, which happens when they are heap- ed. These cocoons have been examined, with the greatest attention, b}' experienced connoisseurs. It results from this verification, that they are of very equal sizes, almost all depressed around the centre, and well furnished with silk to the extre- mities, a circumstance very favorable to a good winding ; in pressing them between the fingers, there was some difficulty to indent them. Their color is of the whiteness of snow, and their texture extremely fine. Taken at hazard, and on many parts of the hurdles, it was found that it took 203 cocoons to weigh a pound.* I will observe to you, sir, and I shall do It with pride, that we have already arrived at equalling in products the model-rearings of Count Dandolo. We have obtained 123^- pounds of cocoons from the ounce of eggs; and, according to the tables which accompanied his excellent work, his crop, in each of these years, barely reached 121 pounds from the ounce of eggs. I do not pretend to believe that we shall be always equally favored ; for 1 think, and ought therefore to say, that many fortunate circumstances con- curred at this time, to cause such success. These were, the fine weather, and the abundance and excellence of the leaves fbr the one part, and for the other, the favorable position of the new labo- ratory, the increase of currents of air, a better ar- rangement of the hurdles, and perhaps, also, the management better understood than formerly. Elsewhere, however, still better products have been obtained; and it is gratitying to me to in- form you of a rearing made in this department, of which the result proves that we are very favora- bly situated to profit by silk-culture. Madame Loirette, of Millau, has raised this spring the silk- worms proceeding from 5 ounces of eggs; and has obtained 700 pounds of cocoons, or 140 pounds to the ounce. This lady, whose intelligence and zeal are already properly appreciated, has a claim to the gratitude of tlie country, fbr the good exam- ple she has offijreil, in making, every year, very careful and well conducted rearings of silk-worms. I now reach the essential part of my letter, to that which will fix, I doubt not, the attention of my countrymen. After being satisfied that mulberry trees can prosper in our country, and that the climate is fa- vorable to raising silk-worms, the capital object of the proprietor is to know whatexpense will be re- quisite for him to incur, in undertaking this cul- ture, and what are the profits which he may ex- pect to obtain. To fix this properly, it is only ne- cessary to make an estimate. Mine will be here presented. In 1829, the seventh year of my planung, I showed, (in a note addressed to you, Sept. 15th,) that the clear profit of my rearing silk-worms at that time, had been 33^ per cent, upon the capi- tal employed fbr the purchase and planting of the mulberry trees, the use of manure, rent and til- lase of the land. Now 1 shall make the account * This great weight, as well as the length of all the ages of the worms, prove tliat they were of a larger kind than the common; and, as we believe, less pro- fitable.—Ep. F. R, 93 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 2 for the eleventh year shice beginning ihe planta- tions. The piece of land where my mulberry trees are planted, is at the gates of Rodez, and devoted, these thirteen years, to the culture, as a nursery, of all kinds of trees, lor fruit and ornament, to the number of more than 80,000. The size is about three hectares. The part occupied by the mul- berry trees cannot be estimated at more than one- sixth of the whole surface.* For the sake of i)roper order and arrangement in the plantations, and to regulate things so that the mulberry trees intended to'produce leaves for feeding shall not in any man- ner injure the trees of the nursery,! I have enclosed this property by a road of three metres [10 feel,] in width, planted on both sides, with a row of dwarf mulberries,standing at three leet distance from each other. This road forms straight lines from one cor- ner to another. Ail the irregular parts lying outside of this great quadrangle [formed by the road,] are also set in mulberry trees. I have also planted upon a point exposed to the south, 125 standard mulberry lrees,J which are in five lines, and filteen feet apart. Some other trees, which also are stand- ards, separate the several compartments of the in- terior of the nursery. Estimate. Expenses of every kind. francs, c. francs, cen. 225 standard mulberry trees at 1 225 Planting and manuring the 225 trees at 0 75 168 75 450 dwarf-trees on the borders, or separate, 30 135 135 dwarf-trees disposed in a hedge, 30 40 50 Planting and manuring the 585 dwarfs at 60 333 2,500 plants in eeed-bed, the 1000 at 20 50 Their p!anting,without manure, 100 Culture, 40 days' work a year, and for 11 years, 440, at 1 50 660 Rent of a half-hectare of ground for 11 years, by the year, 100 1,100 francs, will be reduced to less than 2000. How- ever, it is this last sum which I have taken as the basis of my operation. If I do not count, in the general addition of expenses, the interest of the sums advanced each year, nor the rent of the lo- cality lor the feeding,'it is because I have been largely indemnified by the result of the preceding reariiigs, and by the crops of vegetables of every kind, cultivated between the 'rows of mulberry trees. Let us now see the product of the rearing, and compare the revenue of this year with the ex- penses already incurred. The 928 lbs. of cocoons, might have been sold, lor cash, according to usage, at 1 franc 50 cen- times . - - - 1,392.00 Deduct the expenses of rearing, viz. : 62days' work ofa man, at 1.50, 93.00 33 do. of a woman, at 75 24.75 16 do. of a child, at 50 8. 4 sacks of charcoal 1.50 6 Pit-coal - - - 8 Lights - - - 2 Loss of broom to form the cabins, and of which the rubbish served to feed the fires - - 20 Paper and other small charo;es - - 10 Total expenses, 2,812 25 Not an inconsiderable part of the plantations which are embraced in tliis esiiniale, are of trees of three, four, and five years old ; and one-third of the trees, at least, have not been stripped this year, particularly a young coppice of 1500 dwarf-mul- berry trees, grafied not long since. 1 think, after these considerations, that it is just, for fixing the exact income of 1833, to deduct from the above expense, that of the culture and rent of ground occupied by the trees of which the leaves have contributed nothing to the production of the co- coons. In this case, the sum total of 2,812 ^^^f^ * The hectare is not quite 2h English or American acres; therefore the whole piece of land was about 7S acres, and the part in mulberry trees, 1+ acres. — Ed". F. R. t It should be borne in mind, thr.t it is of the white mulberry that M. Carrier speaks; the leaves of which are not plucked for feeding, nor cannot be, with safety to the trees, until after the trees are five years old. — Ed. F. R. X -d haute tige, that is, intended to grow to full or na- tural size, instead of being confined and dwarfed by close planting, or other means.~ED. F. R. Total expenses 171.75 Net product fr.1220.25* This sum of 1,220 f„% francs, obtained, in the eleventh year of my planting, from the employ- ment of a capital of 2000 francs, is equal to an in- terest of 60 per cent. And even if the whole ex- pense of 2820 y-ii'ij francs be counted as the capi- tal, the interest will still be above 40 per cent. It should be observed moreover that this plan- tation gives product in the five years less consider- able, in truth, [than will be the average product,] but which wdl progressively increase with the growth of the trees, without the expenses being increased in the same proportion. Such results, (obtained at Rodez, a point of the department where the climate is severe enough, and the temperature very variable,) appear to me, as I have said before, of a kind to command the attention of all the proprietors of land proper for this culture. Indeed, I ask of you, sir, what other branch of agricultural industry offers to the cullivatois such great profits'? I will add some of the observations which I have been able to make upon my three last rear- ings of silk- worms. I. At each period of the life of the worms, there are to be observed some that are not dis- posed to moult. These are of two kinds ; the first are swollen, larger than the ordinary worms ; their color is livid and shining; they are almost always extended upon the litter, without making the least movement; however, when food is given, they climb upon it, and eat a little. The others, to the contrary, are meager, thin, and wrinkled in the forward part of the body; they remain at- tached to the point of the hurdle which they oc- cupy, keeping their heads raised, and moving them continually. Their muzzle is very pointed. These Or $227.65, the franc being 93 f'^ cents.— Ed. 1839} FARMERS' REGISTER 94 two kinds of worms seem lo be suflering under some disease which obstructs their moulting. There perisli a number at each time lor moulting. Three hundred of these, were separated this year, at the third moulting, and placed apart ibr obser- vation. It resulted Irom this trial, that more than half of them could not moult, and were dead in a few days. The large and shining ones died of the gras, or yellows; and the others became contract- ed and shortened in a remarkable manner. Their bulk diminished more than lialf, and they were soon in a stale of putrefaction. Among these sick worms"which got through the difficulties of this moulting, many sunk under the fourth; and none made any other than bad cocoons. From this fact, which, in my opinion, is at present incontesta- ble, I conclude confidently, that it is best to hatch at least one-fourth more worms than you intend to rear. By this means, you can rid yourself, at the different moulting?, of all the backward worms which consume uselessly much of the leaves and cause infinite trouble in attempting to equalize them Willi those more advanced. For several years. I have been using this method with success. To put it in practice, it oniy requires at each moulting a day's labor of an experienced hand, who picks them out and throws them away. This Httle expense is well paid for. II. It is best to keep an empty hurdle ready for the moment at witich the worms are ready to be- gin to spin their cocoons. This practice has two great advantages. At first, that of allowing the faggots of broom to be fixed at the first sign of the climbing of the worms, and of its being done with care, without the fear of seeing the worms crushed under ihe unskilful hands of the opera- tors; and of cleaning them more conveniently and thoroughly than when they are upon the shelf on which are formed the cabins: then, these boughs, which ought always to be put on the upper hur- dle, arc destined to receive the worms from the lower shelves, which anticipate by some hours, or even a whole day, the general climbing. This process also permits you, before placing the broom on the edges of all the hurdles, lo wait un- til the greater portion show a disposition to climb. When this moment comes, they are taken from the shelf next below, and are placed on the high- est which has been prepared for this purpose. This hurdle is cleansed, the broom is put on it, and the worms from the next one below are removed to it, and so on, whatever may be the number. In this manner, the lowest hurdle remains vacant, and ought to be furnished with boughs to receive from the upper hurdles the backward worms which do not climb lor 24 or 36 hours at the la- test. By this process, the worms are not put un- der the cabins until they are ready lo spin; the hedge is then covered with worms in a little time, and as soon as it is perceived that those which remain cannot find a place there, you must has- ten to remove them, to prevent their suffering from the filth of those which first climbed up. It is to this method of proceeding, sir, that I attribute the great advantage I have had, this year, of finding very ihw worms called capelans. This fact is ea- sily explained, by the vvorms which climbed first being healthy and vigorous, while among the backward are found a certain number which have scarcely strength to climb the hedge, wlicre they perish without ability to begin their work. III. In the twelve rearings I have made, I have not found a single worm dead of muscardin. Our climaie seems fitted to remove from us the danger of this terrible scourge, which, in warmer climates not unfrequently destroys whole laborato- ries. I ought to tell you, however, that having been in the liabit, for two or three years, of open- ing all the cocoons intended for propagation, whenever the butterfly failed to come out, I have found from ten lo twelve which enclosed a worm in the state of disease called muscardin, or dragee. IV. Wishing to examine, myself, if it was pos- sible to retard sufficiently the hatching of the eggs, so as also to retard the rearing, in years when foliage is backward, I made this year the following experiment : On the same day that the eggs were put in the chamber heated lo the tem- perature of 19 degrees, I had a small number pla- ced on a marble table, without any thing inter- vening but a thin sheet of paper. This lable was in a room the doors and windows of which re- mained open a large part of the day, the tempera- ture varying from 7 to 18 degrees. The eggs so placed, have fully answered Ihe object, and ihe worms were hatched four days after iliose which had been warmed artificially. They have been reared seperately, without much care, and have succeeded well. This experiment seems to me to prove two things : first, as I have already often said, that worms hatched spontaneously yield good products ; and secondly, that there are verv lew means to impede, for any length of time, the hatching when the proper season arrives, unless by a procedure extraordinary, and always uncer- tain ; for example, by means of ice-houses. Is it not to be feared that infecundity of the eggs wil! be produced by exposure in such a place Ibr a long lime? It is not the cold exact I}', that I would mosti}' fear, because in the winter of 1829 and 1830, the greater portion of my eggs for propaga- tion were placed in a chamber, where the ther- mometer descended more than once to 16 degrees below freezing; and another small quantity which was left attached to the borders of the shelves, where the moths had laid them, was exposed to a degree of cold as much as 2 degrees below 0, during the most rigorous days of that memorable winter; and, would you believe itsir! all ihese eggshatch- ed well and produced fine looking worms. I shall have still farther observations to present to you, but think it time to end my present letter. In my next, I will tell you of our perplexities in winding, and our efforts to overcome them. I will also keep you informed of the progress of our mulberry plantations, and you will be convinced, sir, by my communications, that if we have had to struggle for a long time against vexatious pre- judices, they are on Ihe eve of disappearing li-om our department. Private interests, besides, will be the most able advocate lor the adoption of a culture which produces so much for my country. Amans Carrier. For the purpose of making the statement com- plete, for the benefit of readers vvho have not the 2nd volume of llic Farmers' Register, an extract will be taken from M. Carrier's sixth letter, which was therein '^iven at length. 95 FARMEKS' REGISTER. [No. 2 1. " The proprietor who wishes to occupy a plan- tation of mulberry trees, supposing he had already at his disposal nquaniity equal to those which I stripped last spring and in the same condition, (that is) producing 160 quintals of leaves at 4 li". the quintal— well! this proprietor could have obtained fi-om half a hectare oC ground with no other expense than that of cultivating the tree?, a revenue of G40 fr. or 320 I'r. lor each seteree. composed oC 640 square fathoms. 2. The person who would have bought this quan- tity of leaves to devote himself only to the raising of silU-worms, would have had (as I did) 928 pounds of cocoons, and would have sold them at 1 li-. 50 c. a pound, according to the price of that time : this sale would have produ- ced, ----- l,392li-. 00c. Deduction ot expenses, purchase^ of about 8 ounces of eggs at 3 fr. - - - 24li-. OOc | Expense of all kind for the man- ! ggg ^^ agement, - - 171 75 j Price of 160 quintals of leaves at 4 fr. - - - 640 00 Rent of the room, - 60 00 J His part of the profits for 40 days at- tendance, - - - - 496 25 3. Thn filateiLr (or reeler) who buys the cocoons, obtains a quantity of silk equal to mine, and sells it in the same manner, - - l,868r'r. 55c. He draws Irom the remains, - 115 00 Total, - - - . - 1,983 55 It is necessary to deduct irom this"| sum as the cost of 928 pounds of | cocoons at 1 fr. 50 c. I -i /^ck ok l,392(i-. OOc. \ ^'^^^ ^^ Expenses of (he filature, | 263 85 J Clear gain of the reeler, 327 70 4. The laborer, with a family, takes for his share the remains of this filature, employs his wife and children to prepare and wind the low and different qualities of sUk, which are in much request and readily sold. These products can be valued, after having received all the suitable work, 165!r. OOc. Deduction (or the purchase of the"! first materials, - 50fr. OOc. ! gQ qq Hand work, although gained by the f family, - - - 30 00. J Profit, without including his work al- ready paid, - - - - 85 00 A simple recapitulation will make the result belter understood than this division of the labor, which division certainly agrees, in many cases, with the taste or situation of persons who neither wish, nor are able, to undertake all pails of ihe business. The land owner who sells 160 quin- tals of leaves at 4 fr. receives, 640rr. OOc. The person who buys them and man- ages the raising of worms, gains, 19G 25 The reeler who takes charge of the cocoons, winds ihem, and receives for his labor, . - - - 337 70 The laborer who works up (he re- mains does the labor /or .30 fr. and gains besides, - - - - 85 00 Sum equal (o the (otal profit which 1 have made by the union of all these operations, - _ - - 1,548 95 Equal (o ^288 The position of Rodez, in the south of France, (though fiirther north than silk has heretofore been generally or usually cultivated,) may induce the opinion that the climate agrees with its latitude, and that the culturist in Virginia would be less advanta- geously situated. We have no doubt but (hat our climate is better for silk than (hat of any part of France, and very far superior to that of Rodez. For more full evidence of the unfriendliness of the latter, we will add an extract translated from ano- ther French writter, M. Hazard, who cites this statement of M. Carrier's, and maintains (hat (he position of Rodez is as cold as that of even the northern parts of France, the fitness of which for silk-culture he was adducing facts and arguments to maintain. His words are these : "I will cite, on this head, a new culturist, under a climate which, comparatively, and because of the pfreat elevation of the land above the level of the sea, is much more rude than the climates of the north, [of France,] and which consequently ought to be more disadvantageous to silk-worms and to mulberry trees." The writer (hen copies (he s(atement of profits (riven just above, and adds. "I ask if this is not a great product, and well worth the trouble of at- tempting to obtain the like. I do not think (hat any one will object that M. Amans Carrier is in (he south of France, and in a climate more favorable than the central and northern parts. The climate of Rodez is a rude climate, and one much more disadvantageous, certainly, than that of Paris." From tlie New England F armor. PROrAGATING PEAU TREKS FROM ROOTS. Extract of a letter from Van Mons. I now propagr\te for myself and intimate friends, (he most choice variedes [of pears,] which I ob- tain by means of ihe roots. Not a single one (i^iils, in this new process. It is immaterial in what manner they are set out. This method was dis- covered accidently, in consequence of some roots, on which I intendVd to graft other kinds of pears, being thrown on the ground and covered with a little'earth, to preserve them until used lor that purpose, and which were lost sight of and forgot- ten until (he next spring, when all of them sent up slocks, which, in the' autumn, were as tall as those raised liom the seed, of two year's growth. They can be set out in the spring as well as au- tumn. If I had sooner known this method, I should not have lost a single one of my new 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 91 varieties of pears. — For roots could iiave been taken Crom all the kinds, in my large plantation, at the time of its desiruciion. Such roots should be selected as have one or more terminal fibres, and those that are often cut oft', or left in the earth, when a tree is transplant- ed, succeed well. They cannot be too small, but should not be larger than the finger. The wounds at the large ends of the roots should be covered %vith some composition, to protect them, as in grafting. They must be set out obliquely. MEMORIALi OF THE INTERNA!^ IMPROVE- MENT CONVENTION TO THE GENERAL. AS- SEMBLY OF NORTH CAROLINA. To the Honorable, The General jisserably of N. Carolina. The undersigned have been deputed a commit- tee to present to your honorable body a memorial, expressive of the views and wishes of a large and respectable portion of your fellow-citizens, recent- ly assembled in the city of Raleigh, in convention, upon the important subject of improving the in- ternal condition of the state. In the discharge of this duty, we feel well assured of receiving a fa- vorable hearing, as well in respect to the nume- rous and patriotic body whose views we are espe- pecially charged to present, as from the subject, which addresses itself so powerfully to the repre- sentatives of the people, to whom has been com- mitted the high trust of guarding the interest and advancing the prosperity of our common country. What is the present condition of the state? What its means for improvement ? And in what way are these means to be most effectually applied ? These are the interesting (luesiions to which we have been directed most respectfully to invite your attention ; and which, as your memorialists hum- bly conceive, are of such high public concernment. In examining into the condition of the state, whether we advert to the past, or »'iew the present, whilst much may be found to warm the breast of the patriot, there is but little to gratify the pride, or to stimulate the enterprise of The citizen. We may, indeed, proudly boast of the exalted cha- racter of the nation, and claim for our citizens ihe most devoted attachment to the union of the states; that there has been engrafted into our own consti- tution those principles of rational freedom, the soundness of which has been so tiilly proved in the success of that representative system which constitutes our pride and boast as a nation ; conferring a degree of freedom on the governed unknown in the old world, and se- curing to industry its rich reward, peace and plenty; that the increase of our population, agriculture, manufactures, and advancement in the arts and sciences ; and in civilization, have been rapid beyond all example ; that these national blessings inspire confidence as to the high desliny ofthe republic, and call forlhsendmentsof gratitude to the Supreme Disposer of all events. But whilst we may thus boast of our rapid advancement as a nation, we regret to say, our own state shares but little in this general prosperity. To prove this, facts must be submitted, however mortifying to our pride, or painful to our feelings. In the aftpor- tionment of representatives among the states, un- der the first census. North Carolina and N. York Vol. VII— 13 were equal, each having ten members. What is likely to be our rank in comparison to New York, under the census soon to be taken, embracing a period of fifty years? She will have exceeded her forty members, whilst our state will retain, or barely exceed, her original ten. What a startling contrast ! Yet. in point of territory, North Caroli- na has her fifty thousand five hundred square miles, whilst New York only exceeds it by two thousand one hundred and twenty-five. At the first period, our population was nearly equal ; whereas, at present, she will exceed two million, whilst ours will be but a fraction beyond seven hundred ihousand. Yet this immense difference is not to be ascribed to our climate or soil, but in part, at least, to the rapid tide of emigration^ There, every thing has been done to improve the condition of her people — here, our citizens have gone, with the bible, encyclopaedia, and the axe, those pioneers of civilization, to give population and character to the wilderness of the west. In this way, more than half a million of our people have left the place of their nativity, and carried with them wealth, talent, and enterprise. It may gratify our pride, to be told in one congress there were nine senators, native born citizens of N. Caro- lina ; yet the fact only proves how much we have lost by liiilmg to render our people prosperous and satisfied at home. We might pursue this inquiry still further, and examine into the rapid growth of our sister states ; but we flatter ourselves that you, as we feel as- sured every patriotic citizen, to the question, whe- ther the state shall remain in her present con- dition, are prepared to reply most emphatically, NO ! If so, this brings us to the second inquiry, an estimate of the means of the state. Stocks. In the Bank of the State, ^500,000 In the Bank of Cape Fear, 520,000 In the Buncombe Turnpike, 5,000 Roanoke & Cape Fear Navigation Com- panies, 82,500 Wilmington and Raleigh Rail-Road, 600,000 Bonds for the sale of Cherokee lands, in 1838, and of a prior date; 350,000 The cash balances in the public treasury are not included in the above estimates, as they may be required to meet current expenses, and other ne- cessary appropriations. The state, then, has a capital of more than two millions, vested in pro- ductive stocks, and in bonds on interest. It is true, a part of this sum is pledged as a literary fund ; but it is equally true, we presume, that no part of the principal of this fund is to be used, and that it will continue to increase, until the interest accru- ing on it may be called for, in purposes of educa- tion and of free schools. The state is free from debt, and has a credit supported by her natural resour- ces, and the habits and manners of her citizens. The taxable property of the state may, as the com- mittee think, be estimated at near two hundred millions of dollars. She comprises thirty-two mil- lions of acres of land, which may be estimated at two dollars the acre; she has three hundred thou- sand slaves, which may be valued at three hun- dred dollars each, besides the private stocks, mer- chandize, and other property, subject to taxation. But it is not proposed to resort to taxation, nor is it accessary to carry out the views and plan of 98 FARxViERS' REGISTER rNo.2 those, in whose name we have been authorized lo addreas you. These matlers are merely relerred to show the ability of the state, and the ample means she has to sustain that credit, which it is proposed to bring into n)arket. Having shown the condition oC the state, the necessity and demand for a change, and the means for effecting it, your memoriahsts are brought to the mteresting question, as to what is best to be done? In answer lo that question, we have to present to you that plan or system which was the result of the anxious deliberations of those in whose behalf this memorial is presented. No higher evidence could be given of the actual wants of our people, and of the demand and ne- cessity for something to be done, than in the vol- untary congregation of that assembly, whose wishes and opinions we have been directed to make known. A body comprising near 200 dele- gates, selected from forty counties, men of char- acter, of intelligence, and of wealth, voluntarily obeying the call of their country, argues a deep distress in the community, and a loud demand (or its remedy. The strifes and struggles of party have been silenced, and the voice of patriotism alone has been heard, invoking you to action. It is the first and dearest privilege we enjoy as a free people, that by the fundamental principles of our government, every plan for changing our condi- tion and promoting our happiness and prosperity, both in choice and execution, must originate with or be sanctioned by the people. The plan, then, which we have the honor to present, originated with a large portion of the people, and claims your most liberal and attentive examination. Your memorialists shew, that after a week of earnest and anxious consideration, the convention agreed upon a plan which is embodied in a series of resolutions herewith submitted, and annexed to this memorial. The convention came to the conclusion, with great unanimity, that all the works mentioned in said resolutions were of a great and useful character, and constitute a sys- tem of improvements which, if begun and suc- cessfully prosecuted, would eminently conduce to the prosperity of the state, both as increasing the commonwealth and in elevating and confirming its moral and political character. Of the merits of the general system recommen- ded, it is proper to say, whilst there existed a dif- ference of opinion as to the grade or class of the respective works, yet there was none as to their eminent utility and meritorious claim to the aid and patronage of the legislature. But the con- vention was admonished, as all must be, by past experience, that the works proposed must be brought within the available means of the state, or all would fail. Hence the necessity and expe- diency of a classification. In this, too, they were following the example of the national legislature, in their works of harbors and fortifications. What the nation could not accomplish with its ample resources, it was not to be expected a sin- gle state could effect, with its limited means, though confined to works within her own borders. Here then collision begins, here is the danger of failure, and here the demand for disinterested and enlarged patriotism. Hence it is deemed impor- tant that your honorable body should be fully and candidly informed of the reasons and views, which influenced the convention in recommending cer- tain works tor prompt and immediate execution. Let them not be charged with selfishness or with local preferences, but remember the difficulty of the subject and the necessity lor action. 1. A guarantee by the state of five hundred thousand dollars to the Ga.^ton and Raleigh rail- road. This is not a subscription or a loan, and does not call for any expenditure. It is a mere loan of the credit of the state, upon such surety as the legislature shall require to enable the com- pany to obtain a loan on better terms than they otherwise could do, and thus be enabled to com- plete their great work. This favor appeared so reasonable in itself, as lo meet with but little op- position. It is deemed due to the liberal spirit of those enterprising citizens who had been willing to risk their own fortunes in so great a work. It al- so recommended itself to the convention, as a work penetrating to the capital of the state, there to be connected with other works, and accommodating many of our citizens in the transportation of their produce to market. Having already received the favorable action of a committee of both branches of your honorable body, more is not necessary to be said. 2. A subscription by the state o^ four -fifths of the capital slock of the Fayetteville and Yadkin ra-l-road. This is one of the great works in the general systen;, and may be considered as stand- ing at the head of those recommended in the first class. In regard to this work, the convention had certain data, both as to its necessity, its impor- tance to a large portion of the state, its policy, as sanctioned by a vote of the legislature and of the people, and certainly as to the cost of its construc- tion. As to the work itself, it is to connect the east and west; to commence wiih a home market, from the banks of a river, rising and terminating within our own limits ; to be extended lor the pre- sent to the Yadkin, a stream which passes through a productive and populous section of the country, and whose product must be carried to a distant foreign market, unless this great work shall suc- ceed. As early as 1815, the idea of connecting the waters of the Yadkin with that of the Cape Fear, received the favorable action of the legisla- ture. But unfortunately the geological structure of the intervening country presented difficulties not then to be surmounted by a canal, with the limited means of the state. Those difficulties dis- appear, however, before the mighty engine of steam. The actual extent of internal communi- cation, by means of rivers and roads, which di- rectly or indirectly connect itself with this road, cannot be estimated at less than thirty counties, embracing at least 15 millions acres of land, and probably much exceeds that quantity. Thus will the occupants of moderate sized farms be enabled to make outfits for market in their own vehicles, and for which the power of a single horse v.'ill be quite sufficient to reach some depot on the main route. Also in securing, what every farmer in the country will know the value of, a much smaller portion of time in the accomplishment of the ob- ject. For it is to be remembered, the great ad- vantage of the rail- ways, over all othgr means of conveyance is the saving of time, the annihilation of space. Time is money, and the attainment of greater speed and certainty, amounts, in effect, to a reduction of expense. The advantages of a more speedy conveyance, are often of" greater va- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 09 !ue than the whole charges of tringportafion, and thoi3e advantages can never be so fully realized, at? by the use ol'rail-vvays. These are a few oftlie rich advantages, which are to be extended to so great a portion of the people of our stale, by means of the proposed route. This produce is first to be brought to Fayetteville, whose capital will increase, as calls may he had lor its employ- ment. Where prices may be now conpidered of the incorporation of the company and a eub- scription of two-fifths, under the authority of a law of your last session. Has a single naember been ousted of his place in consequence of the vote thus given? As far as we know, or have reason to believe, not one. But we are here met with the objection; the plan proposed changes the subscription bj' the state from two-fifths to that of lour-fifths. Why low, they will rise by demand and competition to 'this change? The answer is to be found in the the highest rates. It is then to descend to Wil- { liict, that unless it is made, the road cannot suc- mington by means of steamboats, whose number i ceed. A survey and estimate have been made, will also multiply as has been the case on the j under the direction of the most experienced engi- Ohio and Mississippi. From thence it finds its , rieer in the United States, a North Carolinian way lo foreign markets, through Cape Fear inlei, i lie.eling for his native state all the ardor and zeal which, if not the best, has its advantages. The | of a most devoted son, fi-om which it appears, tables annexed, show the tonnage employed in the I lo construct the work in the best possible mode foreign trade, entered and cleared at Wilmington , anil in the way which meets his sanction, would from October 1836 to October 1837 ; also the ton- j cost two millions of dollars. To raise two- nage employed in the foreign trade of the pons of j fitihs of this sum, by means of private subscrip- Noriblk, Petersburg and Richmond, for the same tion, has been lound impracticable. But should time, as taken from the report of the Secretary of; the subscription of the slate be changed, as pro- the Treasury. posed, we are well assured the amount will be From these tables it appears, that in the year | most certainly taken bj- individuals. This is re- 1837, the tonnage entered and cleared in the liir- [commended not ordy from the magnitude of the eign trade from Wilmington exceeded that ol' Norfolk 6,384 tons, and exceeded both the ports of Richmond and Petersburg together 17,694 tons. We are informed, on high authority, that the coasting trade of Wilmington employs a greater I Tiiese wiih the convention, were held as conclu- woiK, its accommodation for such a large portion of the state, but from the further fact, it is to con- stitute one of the connecting links, the great trunk, in which others are hereafter to share. tonnage than her foreign trade. We have not the means of ascertaining its actual amount, as it is not reported. If this be true, and we believe it to be so, not only on the high authority from which we received it, but because we know the maritime trade of N. Carolina is principally a coasting-trade — it would follow, Ihat the tonnage employiui in the trade of the port of Wilmington is greater than the three great ports of Virginia, Nor- folk, Richmond, and Petersburg. The port of Wilmington possesses two advan- tages over most of the other ports in the United States, which cannot fail to be highly estimated. 1. It is a fresh-water port, and vessels are exempt from the destruction to their bottoms (unless cop- pered) occasioned by the salt-water worms. 2. It furnishes the most miscellaneous cargo of domes- tic products of any port in the union. All kinds of bread-stufTs, rice included ; naval stores of eve- ry kind and of the best quality ; lumber, the very best in the world ; staves and heading ; cotton, whiskey, &c. &c. So that vessels can supply themselves with a cargo from that port, that can- not Jail to suit some market, and make a profitable voyage. Again, that steamboats have been ply- ing on the Cape Fear as high as Fayetteville, for the last 20 years; and we are assured that no seri- ous accident has ever occurred during the time. Like other rivers in the south, its navigation is suspended in the summer months, and so is the great Ohio. We learn that the navigation of the Ohio, from ice and drought, is suspended, on an average, six months in the year, whilst that of the Cape Fear is suspended not more than (bur and a half months, and that at a season when the crop is not ready for market. Such are the ad- vantages of the Cape Fear inlet, under circum- stances as they now exist. We have said the policy of building this rail- road has been sanctioned by the legislature and the people. We have only to advert lo the fact sive ficts and reasons to justify the change. 3. The incorporation of a company for the opening of an inlet at the foot of Albemarle sound, near Naushead, and a subscription by the state of ilirec-fifths of its capital stock. This work was deemed by the convention of the high- est importaiu-p, from the fact of so many of the rich counties in the north-east pari of the state being directly interested in its success ; from the quantity and quality of ihe produce which would find a market through it ; and from the fact that it has been long pressed upon the notice both of the national and state legislatures. Albemarle sound runs in a dirert east course from the conflux of its head-waters, the distance of some eighty miles, and at its eastern extremity is separated from the ocean by a narrow strip of sand-bank, some hun- dred yards in width. It is navigable within four or five miles of the ocean, where its waters sepa- rate into the Roanoke and Croatan sounds, and change its direction nearly south — Roanoke is- land between them. These two sounds unite again, and some twenty-five miles from the point where the current ofthe Albemarle changes from an east to nearly a south course, they enter the Pamlico sound. From the north-eastern extremi- ty of the Pamlico is, fifty miles distant, the Ocra- coke inlet, the only navigable one for vessels suit- ed to the coasting trade. It is proposed to throw a dam or other construction across the Croatan sound, and thus force the waters ofthe Albemarle to break their passage through the bank at ita foot into the Atlantic ocean. It is estimated by intelligent seamen accustomed to the navigation of this coast, that through the proposed inlet, double the number of voyages may be made as are now made through that at Ocracoke. It has been estimated by a member of the convention, that the 12 counties in North Carolina, nearly all the produce of which seeks its market through the Albemarle, export not less than from four to six 100 FA KM Ell S' HKGISTEll. [No. 2 millions of doilare annually. This profluce con- sists of corn, cotton, wheat, fish, peas, and an im- mense amount in naval stoies and lumber. These articles are nearly ail of such bulk- as lo forbid a deposiie l)ei\veen the place of production and sale. Hence the importance of its beintr received from the wharves and rivers of the producers and car- ried at once to the ocean for its final destination. To the fishing interest the success of the work is of peculiar importance, as the annual tribute from abroad for this article alone is estimated by ffentle- men from that section of the state at -9300,000. This work has also been examined and estimates made, under the authority of an enp-ineer of the state and of the United States. They difl^er greatly as to the cost, which may be owing to the material and the manner of constructing the work. But however, uncertain this may be, tile people in that section of the slate, it is said, are willing to risk their own capital in its success, and think a subscription not exceeding 500,000 dollars by the state, would render it certain. If so, the conven- tion was of opinion it should be granted. 4. The payment by the state of the balance, 150,000 dollars, of its subscription to the Wilming- ton and Raleigh rail-roads ought at once to be made. The convention came to this opinion as an act of justice to the very liberal and spirited exertions of the private subscribers, in having risked so much on their part for so great a public work, and Irom the certainty, as well as from the progress made, as the high profits expected, that the work must and will be finished. The prompt payment cannot injure the state, and will greatly aid a spirited portion of her citizens. 5. The survey of Neuse and Tar rivers, with the view to steaaihoat navigation, and if found practicable, that the board of internal improve- ments be authorized to contract for effecting it. Those rivers are the property of the state, the charters granted for their improven:ients having been long since forleiled. It is proper then, that the surveys should be had at the expense of the state, as due to her citizens, who will use them lor their produce, as well as from the fact that one of these rivers is so directly connected with the prosperity of one of its markets, Washington, which has heretofore been sustained with so much epiril, but which has recently suffered so severely by fire ; whilst the other leads to an old town, which has many claims on the liberality of the state, besides its direct connection with the great rail-road in which the state has so deep an in- terest. 6. A survey from Raleigh, via Hillsborough, to Greensborough, with the view to a McAdam- ized turnpike road, a conipany and a subscription of two-fifths by the state. This route is recom- mended from the fiict, that it is to take the main line of travel from the seat of government to the western counties in the state ; that it passes through two among the largest and most produc- tive counties in the state, whose people are far- mers, deal principally in the necessaries of life, own their own vehicles, accustomed to their use, and, without this road, can share but little in the direct advantages of internal improvements. Be- sides, it is for the present to terminate at one of the most flourishing inland towns in the state, Greensborouorh, which has its flourishing schools, its steam-mills, cotton factories, and in every way its population is both active and enterprising. A cheap and speedy mode of reaching a market, as we learn, would often enable the enterprising pro- prietor of tier cotton I'actory to send the product of his esinblishmcnt to the city of New York, and realize a profit of two or three cents on the pound. This profit would not operate to his advantage alone, but to that of the grower of the raw mate- rial. 7'he pro|,'osed survey would cost but little ; and the road, if McAdamized, would not likely exceed, according lo the estimate of the board of internal improvements, ^3,000 per mile, and a part of it, possible one-half, would be an ordinary turnpike, the cost of which would not exceed ^200 to 300 per mile. The road, in justice, ought to belong to the state, except that experience has shown, to construct and keep up such works, calls for intlividual interest and attention; otherwise they constitute a continual drain on the public treasury, and end in ruin. From this line, a blanch might hereafter be extended, with great propriety, to some eligible point on the Dan river ; and thus cive to the people in that fertile region, the means of reaching, i/^so inclined, the markets of their own state. Such are the works as placed in the first class of the plan proposed by the convention ; such are some of the views and reasons which influenced that body in recommending them. If any one should object, that his work ought to be placed on equally favorable ground with the most favored class, he should pause, consult the means of the sta;e, and then ask himself, "if such a plan had been adopted but five years ago, would not my wishes now be gratified?" Time marches rapid- ly ; and a few years, as we trust, will serve to bring into operation the whole scheme, and others, if their claims and advantages shall hereafter be disclosed and properly pressed. Second class. — These as will be seen, contem- plate a connection with the two great rail-roads now in progress, as well as with the proposed road from Fayelteville to the Yadkin. The Beau- fort road, leading from the fine harbor at that place, is the most important from that fact, as an-t other outlet will be thus opened to the ocean, and the produce of the upper country will then find additional means of being shipped to any portion of the commercial world. The inlet at Beaufort, is said to be not only the best in our own state, for its depth of water, having from 22 to 24 feet on its bar, but it is not to be surpassed by any other from the Chesapeake to Pensacola. Why then, it maybe asked, was not its rail-road placed in the first class? The answer to a majority of the convention, was plain and satisfactory. It has no produce, no capital ; these must be brought from a distance. One great trunk in connecting the east and west, was deeined sufficient. A road from Beaufort to Raleigh, and thence to the west, had been authorized, and it totally failed. The convention had no reasonable grounds to believe that it would prove more successful at present. Two connectins roads were too expensive to be undertaken at the same time by the state, and her true policy forbade it. Hence, the one Irom Fay- elteville was selected as most likely to succeed, as required by the pressing demands of our wes- tern citizens, as leading to markets in which ca- pital is already employed, and as having an outlet that might answer present demands. Again, 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 101 when the western road shall reacli Fayelteville, you are still on the descending line, and from thence may be carried to Beaufort. Such, it, is be- lieved, will be the quantity ofproducefl-onitlic upper country as will hereafter Ibrce itself to the best rr.arket. In this way, what the liiends of Beaufort cannot do for themselves, will be done by othe''s. The loan of three millions to be contracted hy the state. Il has been already shown, in estimat- infj the funds of the slate, she has upwards of two millions invested in a way, whilst they will prove productive, are not likely to be embarrassed or squandered. By the system proposed, this fund is not to be touched, but to be held as a guarantee to sustain the credit of the state in the negotiation of a loan, and a surety to her own citizens against any contingency vvhich may arise. The maxi- mum of the loan is three millions; and the money, when borrowed, wilf be mostly expended amongst ourselves; and for it the slate will hold certificates of stocks which will be productive, and will in themselves constitute an additional surety atrainst any future calls upon her own citizens. These stocks can at any time be brought into market, and thus relieve the state against any pressing embarrassment. The debt will be postponed to a future period; the works will progress; the bur- then will be divided betweeen posterity and our- selves; and in this way the estate which our chil- dren are to inherit will be improved, our own con- dition relieved, and means provided for them to meet the claim which has been entailed in order to its improvement. This accords with the most rigid principles of justice, prudence, foresight, and economy. The estate is fast going to decay; our people are not in a condition to make the necessa- ry repairs and to improve it. without a resort to loans. This state of things has not been brought about from any want of frugality in our expendi- tures; of forbearance in contracting debts, or fi-om any extravagance or want of system in the pro- per and judicious management of our domestic concerns. At no former period in the pecuniary affairs of the state, has there been less extrava- gance, and yet at no period has it been found more difficult to keep free from embarrassment. The evil is to be found not in any passing events, but in the want of a proper encouragement to the products of our soil, and in the fact that our most wealthy and enterprising citizens are driven to more genial climes. If we look to our sister states, most of them will he found in the march of improvement, and their citizens contented and happy. Yet, they have resorted to loans ; and experience proves, so far from ending in injury to the people, they have the more rapidly advanced to wealth and prosperity. And this too, without any resort to taxes; the profits from the works havintr-been quite sulilcient to meet the interest and proriile a fimd for the payment of the principal. South Carolina has but recently subscribed one million to her great rail-road, guarantied the loan of two millions more, and by way of relief to her favorite city from a heavy calamity, added two millions more to her debt. But we forbear to press this matter fur- ther, as it is idle to talk of embarrassing the state by contracting a debt of three millions of dollars. If our foreifiithers, with not half of our means, limited as they are, when dissension, faction, and treason lurked in every neighborhood ; when the property of the citizen was liable to seizure by the enemy, and to wanton destruction by the traitor, when the assassin beleaguered his path by day, and threatened his repose by night ; ii; at such a time, and under such circumstances, that band of patri- ots could bear up for a period of seven years, un- der a debt of seventy-five millions, let us not talk of embarrassment by the sum proposed, having, as the state has, the ability to raise it without a resort to taxation. The only question that can admit of discussion is, not the ability of the state to raise such a sum without prejudice to her citi- zens, but whether she, in her sovereign capacity, shall engage in a system of this kind at all. And can we, at such a period as this, with all the light of experience before us, be seriously called upon to discuss such a question? Will you leave these matters to individual enterprise, when every state in the union has undertaken the system with so much success? At the close of the memorable struggle to which we have just referred, North Carolina had her territory and her population. Her territory still remains ; Mecklenburg, Moor's creek. King's mountain, and Guilford, are land- marks which time cannot raze from the page of history. But where is her population? Where the monuments of her improvement? Her popu- lation is fast leaving her. and her monuments, we fear, are only to be found in the record of things past. Is this state of things to continue? Or are we ever to be roused to action? It is much to be fear- ed, if you shall separate without doing any thing, the cause of internal improvement will have sus- tained a shock from which it will be difficult to re- cover. The patriotic feeling which now warms and animates the citizen will become chilled by your apathy. It is our part, in the name of a re- spectable portion of the people, to advise ; it is for you to act. By rejecting the plan proposed, and doing nothing, you may seal the fate of internal improvements. By acting, you incur no risk that can, in any reasonable probability, embarrass the state. But you stay the tide of emigration, now draining the life-blood of the commonwealth ; you stimulate the farmer to new exertion and improve- inent ; you invite the capitalist to open the rich bowels of the earth and to bring forth its hidden treasures of iron, copper and coal; you every where encourage the mechanic and the man of enter- prise ; you open new streams of wealth, running in different directions, in different dimensions, and at different heiiihts; but watering, adorning, and fertilizing the fields and meadows through which their courses are led. Again, we ask, can you hesitate? We tell you the spirit for improvement is abroad in the land ; that it invites you to awa- ken to the true interest of the state; to burst the shackles of a jealous and short-sighted policy; to rise triumphant over physical obstacles, and the still stronger mounds of local prejudice; and by your action, to elevate our beloved state to her proper rank, as one of the political members of this great conlederacy, and let her shine with a new light amid the stars of our national galaxy. R. M. Saunders, Chairman. John H. Bryan, Louis D. Henry, L. H. Marsteller, Hugh McQueen, Jabies Allen, T. L. Clingman. December 20th, 1838. 109 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 Resolutions of the convention. 1. Resolved, That the convention concur in the report of the general committee, that the several vvori. Far. Reg. Edmund Ruffixt, Esq. Brandon, January I4th, 18.39. Dear sir — I received your message by mv brother, and subsequently, your favor of the 4ih ult. I very soon prepared a reply, but it was so meager and unsaiisli^ciory, that I permitted it to remain in my pocket, intendlnor, so soon as I poi opportunity, to put it in better form, and forward it to you. The engagements, however, of compa- ny and of business, have heretofore hindered me. I generally find Christmas a most harassing pe- riod, Irom the needful preparations for the coming year, as well as winding up the affairs of the past. These difficulties have been enhanced on the re- cent occasion, by my parting with a manager who had been eleven years in my service, and who had so thoroughly identified himself with my bu- siness, that I have found it hard to get along with- out him. Although the causes oi' delay I have detailed still exist in some degree, I cannot con- sent loniier, even to sce//i inattentive to your wishes. I should not like to enijaLiie in the publication of the Byrd manuscript, even if I felt entirely at liberty "to do so. i placed if some time ago, in the hands of some jrentlemen in Richmand, with au- thority to extract such portions as iliey thought proper, lor the use of the Historical Society of V^irijinia; and I have heard tliat i3!40 had been ex- fiended in copyiiiii the selected parts. AVere 1 eo inclined, it would be necessary to confer with them before 1 coulil uniieriMke the publication of the whole work in an iiidcpendent volume. I do not, however, consider myself precluded from al- lowiuiT you to [Miblii^h as much as you think pro- per, in the Re^isier, only stipulating before-hand, that the relique, which I irreatly prize, shall not leave your liniit?e ; that the parts chosen for publi- cation, shall he carel'ully examined by you, and such alteriiiiiiiis and corrections made as the form of the author may recjuire; and finally, that copies in manuscript iie'taki>n f!)r the press, instead of prinfinir from the work itself With these condi- tions, ii will lie entirely at your service, and I will Ibrwaril it to you by the first sale conveyance. I had riilicr post[)one lor a while, a report of my expcriiiiriit with the camel-lighters in the transporiaiinii ofmarl. I, for some time, suspend- ed that oixM-.iiiou, and have biit recently resumed it. I will endeavor to make some observations which shall enable me to enter more into detail than I now (;an. My business is so extensive, and ucnerailv, so prcssinjr, and my amusements, pruh pudnr ! so atirai-tivc, that I do not attend nmch lo ihe minutia- ol things. 1 do not consider camel-lighters at all adaplcil to distant, and not well to river transportation, owing to their being unmanageable, and too much at the mercy of the wind and the tide. Their ease of draught ren- ders them particularly suitable to shallow creek naviuation ; and for the purpose you mention, vizTthe removal of mar.-^h-mud, I, on the whole, esteem them preferable to any description oflighl- er, and beyond comparison .<;o, but lor two or three ohjections, which are so cogent as to bring the shallow open scow into powerful competition with them. The objections to the camels are the necessity of using pumjts, which are so apt to aet out of order i/i the hands of negroes, the difiiouliy of sloppintr leaks when they occur, and should one accidentally turn over, of uprighiing it. One would suppose, to look at the broad flat things, that the latter casualty never could occur; but it nevertheless, did to one of mine, and the trouble of resiorins it is hardly conceivable. My lighters are 40 feet by 12, and rather more than inches deep. The cost , comjjleie, I think, fully % One of ihree-fourths the siz** specified, and of thinner plank, would probably answer your pur- pose. I merely gueps at the cost, which may be very wide of ihe mark. A great deal ©f timber 108 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 2 is required, as every panicle of sap shouKl be re- jected except Ironi the iioliom phinkp. Fri regard to inarsh-iiiud I have had no expe- rience either iiy itself or in conipnsi ; peiliapp, having; been deterred from usiiijr it hy JMr. Lew- is' failure, whii'li I eoii^^idered decisive. !f 1 find it convenient, I will, with pleasure, try the expe- jiment» prescribed by you, arni report the results; Though we are generally so much pushed as to have but little linie \'or projects, however rational they may be. I am of opmion, tlial oystcr-shell- lirae unslacked, costs us at the kiln cents a bushel. The enclosed letter may, perhaps, enlight- en you as to the price of stone-lime. I send the Jetter with a short article by way of introduction, which you can use if ycu deem them ot' any value. All 1 recollect of C;ipt. B. is, that he once look off a cargo of corn here, and that he seemed to be a respectable person, between wiiom and ourselves some civilities were inierchariied, to whicli circumstance, I suppose I am indebted for the letter. Till the receipt of it, I had even forgotten his name. 1 cordially reciprocate your expressions of liiend- ship, and shall always be happy to meet vou at home or abroad, but more especially at this |)lace. With kind wishes, 1 am, dear sir, truly youis, Geo. E. IIarkison. THE USE OF miPORTKn STONE-LiaiE PRO- POSKl? IN LOWER YIRGIMA. J.1-11E FOR HOGS. To tlie Editor nf the farmers' Register. 1 herewith send a letter il'om Capt. Lewis Bos- worth, of Newark, N. J., whose object in addres- sing me will probably be promoted hy its publica- tion in the Register ; and as it may be of service to some of your readers, the benefit may be reci- procal. The information it imparls comes very opportunely. The supply of oyster-shells is pre- carious, and entirely inadequate to the demand. Marl, doubtless the most valuable calcareous dres- sing, is not every where to be had, and is a heavy and expensive alfair when both land and water- carriage have to be encountered. If filty bushels of stoiie-lim'>, in the state and at the price men- tioned by Capt. h.. will suffice for an acre, it will be cheaper than the customary quality of shell- lime; viz: 72 bushels. If a like quantity be re- quired, it will be rather more costly, but will pre- sent the great advantage of being attainable at anytime, and to any extent. I have ordered, (iir myself and one of my neighbors, a small cargo, by way of experiment, and you may again hear from me on the subject. Is it known that lime — shell-lime I mean — is much relished by fattening hoes, nnd is very beneficial to them? I think tfie fact may be relied on. I am, myseli; so well satisfied of it, that mine are kept regularly supplieii. The discovery was made here accidentally. The re- markable thriftiness of a large number of those animals confined in a barn-yard, into which was throvrn the refuse lime from the trough used for eoakinir seed wheat, first led to it. The lioizs were observed to eat it with avidity. Its useful- ness, like that of ashes, often ap[ilied to the same purpose, may consist in its being a corrective of acidity. I have frequently, on crossing the Blue Ridge, been struck with the superior condi- tion of the swine in tlie "Great Valley," and have ascribeil it to the ubundance of lootl in that fertile region. I\lay it fiot be owing, in some degree al- so, to the liealthfltl tendencies of lime-stone water? 11. James River, Jan. l-iih, 1S39. Xcvsark, N. J., Oct. 10, 183S. Dear Sir, I take the liberty to inliirm 3'ou a plan our fiarrners have discovered in improving their lands, l)y using stone-!:me slacked at the kilns. Ourlarmers have taken Irom the kilns here, from 2,000 to2,500 bush- els per day, in the. fall and spring, in the time of planting and sowing. The fiictory here is but a lew rods from my house, and is composed of 13 perpetual kilns, and employs 75 hands. I find lour oilier kilns liave started this season, in the adjoiiiinir towns, lor the same purposes, but not as laige. The thouglit struck me, that it would be very sood lor the land on the James River, and es|)ecially your neighborhood. It may be sent out 10 your liarms, and not exceed 12 cents per bushel, at your landing. Should this meet your approbation, you will liave the goodness to answer tiiis letter, and give your opinion on the subject. I am, dear sir. Your friend and humble serv't, Lewis Bosworth. VIEWS OF THE DEMAND, SUPPLY AND PRICES OF THE NEXT CROP OF MORUS BIULTICAULIS. In the last number, we submitted at length our own views upon this subject; and also gave, im- mediately after, (in the piece signed H. C.) the op- posite opinions of one of the most intelligent agri- cultural writers in New England, Henry Colman, esq., conmiissioner of the agricultural survey of Massachusetts. We have since seen, in the last number of llie 'Silk Culturist,' of Hartford, the following statement of the opinions and anticipa- tions of lis editor, .Tudge Comstock ; and it is here copied, that all (he light, and the most opposite opinions of those who have the best opportunities of being infiarmed on this subject, may be placed belbre our readers. No one has had these oppor- tunities more fully oflered than the editor of the 'Silk Culturist,' and no editor or writer could be quoted, who stands higher for integrity and sound judgment. But still we consider Jiim as much too sanguine in his expectations of high prices ; and as much above the most probable results, as Mr. Colman's calculations were below them. Our po- sition, in (his matt(;r, was between these two ex- tremes ; and we have had additional reasons, since the i)nblication of ifie article relerred to, to be the more confirmed in the opinions there expiessed. It is, however, for our readers to compare, ;ind de- cide upon, these several views. It is proper to add here, (hat what was then sta- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 10^ ted as our single postulate for the sure result of "sufFiL'ient prices" for mulberry plants of the next crop, that is, a bona fide commencement of silk- culture to sulTicient extent— as to Virginia, at least — is made more probable, by every later account received. No one, even six months ago, could have anti- cipated the recent occurrences in this strange bu- siness and speculation ; and we therefore dare not presume much upon the certainty of our present expectations of the future. But whatever may be their degree of correctness, our opinions were weighed carefully, and stated fairly. — Ed. Fak. Reg. Extract of a letter from the editor of the Silk Guitarist, dated Jan. 1st, 1839.- With these preliminary remarks, 1 now pro- ceed to give a definite answer to your several en- quiries ; and, taken together, they appear to in- volve the general and oft-repealed question, What niill the multicaulis be worth next autumn? Let us first look at the past. The sales of trees of last year's growth commenced with us in Au- gust. The market opened at about twenty cents, though thousands had been sold in JVlassachu- setls and elsewhere for ten cents, and even less. Soon speculation commenced, and they chantred hands at different prices, until they commanded $1, and in some cases more, under the hammer of the auctioneer. The last auction sales in New York, were a lot of very small trees, and the prices ranged from ST^ to 70 cents, equal to from 25 to 30 cents a foot, and this, 1 think, may be saiely assumed as their present value at auction. Willi this brief view of the past, let us now look into the future, and see if we can form any rational opinion of their market value next autunm. How- ever, before embarking upon the ocean of con- jecture, I will state one fact, and it is a very im- portant one in my estimation. While in Balti- more, and on ray return, I ascertaineil that pur- chasers were offering twenty cents for trees de- liverable next autumn. One gentleman told me he had contracied lor 100,000 at 12.\ cents, had been offered twenty cents lor a part of them, and had declined the offer. Another very intelligent gentleman, residing in Wilmington, Delaware, told me he had been offered 20 cents for his next year's crop, and had refused the ofl'er. He also mentioned several other instances within his knowledge, of like offers and refusals. From these fads and other corroborating circumstances, I am satisfied that contracts may l>e made with rules of philosophy, and say they unquestionably will, unless the causes which produce the advance the last year, have been removed. But have they? In order to answer this inquiry, we must first as- certain what they were. The causes which oc- casioned the demand, and the rapid advance, were two-told : 1st. The small number of trees in the country, compared with the great interest awa- kened in the culture of silk. The liberal boun- ties oflered by the states of New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, &c., for the culture ot' silk lor a limited peri- od, aroused a s[)irit of enterprise which could be gratified with nothing short of immediate ac- tion. Hence large invesiiments were made, for the purpose of permanent plantations, in the hope of rich returns arising from the profit on growing silk, as well as from the munificience of the go- vernment. This was one of the causes and as the laws giving ihe bouniies remain unrepealed, we may confidently conclude, it is not removed in this respect. But, it is said, the number will be so increased by another crop, and importations, that the coun- try will be fully supplied, the market overstocked, and the price reduced to their actual value for feeiling the worm. With respect to the number necessary to supply the country and make every farmer a silk-grower on a very limited scale, I can form no very rational conjecture ; but when I look over its vast extent, and take into considera- tion the number required to plant an acre, 1 can conceive it to be almost innumerable. Though I am not aware that any calculations have been made on this subject, yet estimates of the actual number now in this country have been made, by difl'erent persons, and on difierent data, but with substantially the same results. All unite in the opinion that the number does not materially vary from 3,000,000. With respect to importations, but little need be said, as it has been ascertained that not more than 100,000 could be procured in all Europe lor exportation to this or any other country. It is, however, believed that a lew will be imported, possibly enough to swell the number to 3,500,000. Admit this then to be the number on hand for planlinff the coming spring, and make ten the ratio of increase, whicii, after deduc- tions for ordinary losses, is certainly large enough, and we sliall have 35,000,000; a large number truly, but not enough to supply the little state of Connecticut, a small spot on the map of the United Stales. The market, therefore, cannot be over- stocked, or the price reduced by the increase of the next crop. 2d. Another cause of the last year's demand and price is of the same general character, but developing itself in a different form. Like the responsible men in Maryland and Delaware, lor other, it originates in the love of money, but is the delivery of trees next tall at twenty cents, and probably more. If I am correct in this opi- nion, it follows, as a matter of course, that the mar- ket value of trees of next year's growth, is about the same as it was of last year's growth in Au- gust. If this be so, the next inquiry is, will they advance, and if so, to what point? We have seen that they advanced several hundred per rent the last year, in two or three months, and the ques- tion is, will they advance in like manner, or at all, during the nine or ten months that must inter- vene between this time and the time of delivering the next year's crop? and here let me apply my less patient lor its gratification. I allude to spe- culation; for no one conversant with the subject denies the fact, that of all speculations in this country, the mulberry speculation is the greatest. This rage for speculation in mulberry trees is not content with the rich profits which may be re- alized fi'om their cultivation, but strives to en- hance them by buying and selling, like other ar- ticles of commerce. So common has this prac- tice already pbtained, that it is becoming a cus- tom with editors and publishers of newspapers to give the sales and prices of multicaulis ; and the ediior of one very respect ibie dfiily paper in the 110 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 cily of New York has honored it with a place un- der his head of " trade and commerce." The fiict that estates and even forlunes have been made the past year, not only by cultivaiing tlie tree, but by merely buyinj; and seliinjj it, has be- come too notorious to escape the observation of the eagled-eyeil money-maker, and it is not a trait of Jiis character to remain idle while his neigh- bor is making his thousands and tens of thousands of doilars, by simple stocking an acre of land with the multicaulis. This cause, then, it appears, re- mains, and consequently I cannot resist the con- viction that the etitjct will continue. But, in reply to this, it may be said, that the time vvill come when the country will be supplied, and prices must lall to the intrinsic value of the tree lijr making silk. True ; and so will the time come when this world vvill be burned up, but where is the farmer who will omit planting his corn and potatoes next spring because that event is certain. The very lact that the time will come when the tree will fall in price, is a sufficient stimulus to men of enterprise and industry to double their diligence in acquiring a competency before it ar- rives. That period, like all others in the future, is hidden from us, and let us be admonished by its uncertainty, that when it does come, it finds us in a pecuniary point of view, ready. With respect to this all-important time, about which so much has been said, I know but little, having never per- plexed myself about it. I consider my time bet- ter spent in cuhivating mulberry trees, at prices hkethe present, and thereby laying up something against a rainy day, and endeavoring to persuade my friends to do the same. It is, however, the opinion of the best-informed on the subject, that when that time arrives, I mean, when the coun- try will be fully supplied, you and I shall be at least ten years older than we now are. Thus much for an answer to the general inqui- ry, lohat rvill the multicaulis be worth next autumn? You will perceive, I have given no definite price, nor do I intend to. I have given you a lew facts and some arguments, and from them you must draw your own conclusion. 1 will, however, say, that I think you are within sale limits at the max- imum price on which your calculations are based. I somewhat doubt your being able to procure trees in the spring at the price you mention; but should they cost you 75 cents and multiply ten- fold, an investment of ,'§500 would give you 6,GG0 trees, which, at twenty-five cents, would amount to -91)666, and leave you a profit of over S'lOOO, besides being in the way of profiting by all that they may advance above that price. I cer- tainly am not disposed to hold out encouragement which will ultimately prove liillacious; but I do believe, if you adopt this course the coming sprinir, the autumn will find you in circumstances more favorable to a relinquishment of the labors of your profession, the purchase of a flirm where you can have the privileges of which you speak, and final- ly, in the enjoyment of that "oiu/m cum digni- tate,''^ which we all so ardently desire. Respect- fully and truly yours, F. G. Comstock. THE BOHAN UPAS OF THE WEST, A HOAX. We have been informed by a correspondent re- sidino-in the neighborhood of St. Charles, IV! o., lliiit the account published in the St. Louia ' Bulletin,' of the enormous bohamtpas of the west, and cause of the milk-sickness, was simply a specimen of that choice kind of wit called hoaxing. Notwith- standing the marvellous features which were so manifest in the article, we had supposed that its being first published in a respectable newspaper, so near the alleged locality of the tree, was a suf- ficient guaranty that there was something of truth on which to be found the exaggerations of magni- tude, &c. Therefore, like most other of our edi- torial brethren, we were so far deceived as to re- publish the article, without comment, Cpage 719 of vol. vi.) When any journal has thus, unwittingly, aided to give currency to a lie, it is the duty of its con- ductor, to state the detection. But more especial- ly is this incumbent on the first publisher — and if his exposure is not made (if in his power) of the deceiver, as well as of the deception, then he is equally guilty of the fraud on the public. — Ed. Far. Reg. manuring with rotten logs and brush. To the Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. Clarksville, February \2th. Upon the testimony of some of the most respec- table and veritable gentleman of Halifax county, Virginia, I shall proceed to give you an account of the remarkable effects of a new and rare manure, as exhibited by an experiment in that county, a lew years since. The manure above alluded to, is only rare as to the manner ol'its application, for in old Virginia it very much aboundeth. The experiment was as follows : A gentleman cut down the pine growth which had covered a piece of land, exhausted and turned out of cultivation by his fiilher or grand-father. As is usual, he suffered the logs and brush to lie upon the land the first summer. In the fall and winter succeed- ing, he commenced his preparations for a crop of corn, by running two strokes with a large two- horse plough in the same furrow, one turning to the right, and one to the left. This trench thus made, was filled with the logs and brush of the pine trees next convenient to it, which cleared a place for the second llirrow ; and so on, until this log and brush material was all consumed. With this preparation he passed over half the land. The balance was simply flushed with the same two-horse plough, and well manured from the stable and farm- pen. The crop grown on the beds, manured in the hill with pine logs and brush, was not only the best corn of the two, but was unusually rich in its growth, and heavy in its production. The owner of the corn was induced, from its remarkably luxuriant appearance, to pull up one of the loirs, durin. This may be removed at the end ol' three weeks. From the Horticultural Journal. NEW BIETIIOD OF APPYTNG SULPHUR TO- PLANTS, IN A LIQUID FORM. The "flowers," or the finely levigated stone brimstone, are with great difficulty mixed with water ; and yet it is sometimes highly desirable to throw a shower of sulphuretted water over the en- tire foliage of a vine or peach tree. This object can be readily effiscted by the aid of a little gum tragacanth [ijum-dragon, as it is vulgarly called.} Half an ounce of the powdered gum, which can be procured very chea()ly of any drugcisf, may perhaps sutBce for two or three years. To a table spoonful or two of flowers of sulphur, in a wedge- wood mortar, add three or four grains [or a quan- tity that would scarcely cover one hall" of a four penny piece,] of the tragacanth; rub them toge- ther, dropping in a very little water ; work these- materials with the pestle till an even pasty mass be produced ; then add water, to bring the sulphur to the consistency of cream ; and in this state it will nnite with any quantity of water; or, in other words, the particles of the sulphur will become dif- fused throufrhout the whole hulk, and can then bo taken up by a syringe. The sulphur, it is true,. will be deposited in time, but agitation will bring it again to that stale of diffusion in which the par- ticles may be thrown on the plant ; to which, also, they remain fixed in situations wherein they may exert their utmost energy, whether that be [ire- ventive or remedial. THE FORMER POOR AND EXHAUSTED CONDI- TION, AND EARLIEST SUBSEQUENT IM- PROVE?JENTS, BY JMARLING, OF COGGIn''s POINT FAR3I. (An omitted portion of the 'Essay on Calcareous Manures.') [The following article was, as it purports, for the greater part, written in 1S26, and was added to and completed in 1833. The object of it, at. both times, was to be inserted in the 'Essay oit Calcareous Manures,' to serve as appendix to the many particular experiments with marl, therein given. But the saine considerations, as stated be- low, which prevented it's beiog included in the first edition, also operated to exclude it from the second. In now giving it publication, no change has now been made, except a few merely verbal corrections.] Experiments on a small scale, made to test the value of manures, however numerous and varied they may be, or however carefully conducted and minutely reported, will never be so satisliiclory to the reader, as knowing the general effects of the same practice when applied to the whole of the experimenter's land, and affecting the whole of his capital and labor. In limiled experiments, the 1830] FARMERS' REGIS IE R, 113 operator may easily deceive olhers, If he chooses: and, even if actuated by the strictest regard lor (futb, the wish to obtain a particular result, will often cause him to deceive himselll But in the results of" any general practice, continued (or ten or twelve years on a well known farm, it is im- possible that the cultivator can deceive either him- self or his neighbors. For this reason, those who have read the statements of the experiments pre- sented in this essay, may require to know what proportion the success of my subsequent and ge- neral practice bore to their results. The personal objections which caused me to exclude theibllow- ing detailed answer to this requisition from the first publication of this essay, are not removed. But it has appeared that the omission has caused distant readers to place an estimate on the wri- ter's merit and general success as a farmer, fiir above the truth — and many others may err as much by measuring the value of the system of improvement recommended, by the known and acknowledged faults of the writer's general ma- nagement. Either of these inferences would be erroneous, and, in different ways, would operate to impair the value of the opinions and facts which have been presented to the reader. These considerations induce me now to submit the de- tails which will follow, of matters which, in any other aspect, are of no importance to any but my- self. The objectionable character of egotism is necessarily conspicuous in these details ; but that fault cannot be pos.-ibly avoided in a work which is, in fact, but a statement of the opinions, expe- rience, and personal labors of the writer. Having kept written memoranda of my farming operations as long as they engaged my personal attention, I am enabled to present a taljle of crops, which shows the griT,in crops of Coggin's Point, from 1813 to this time, 1S26,* with as much accu- racy as can be expected under such circumstances. This woulil be the best of all modes of fixing the genera! effects of any system of improvement, if the fields, and the rotation, had remained without alteration. But, like most others in our country, my tiirm has been in a state of continual change in these respects, which prevents as accurate con- clusions being drawn, as other circumstances would have allowed. From 1813 to 182G, the arable land (excluding all waste spaces, not culti- vated,) has been increased (i-om472 acres, to 602. by.clearing wood-land, and some draining. The rotation has been changed from 3 to 4 shifts, and still is not regular, as the poorest land is sometmies left out when it comes in turn lor corn, (so as to have three years of rest, and bear only one crop of grain) — and the richest land is sometimes made to bear three, and, in some rare cases, even four grain crops in succession. Si ill, however, some of the fleets are not atiectcd by any such sources of error, and will serve to show the miserably low product of what was called, (in conunon par- lance) "a good James River plantation;" and from which may be inferred something like the usual product, of the back lands generally , which were so much inferior to those on the river — and which still remain as poor as ever, where no nmrl has been used. * The time when this was written. I have thouglit it best not to change its form, but to add the observa- tions afterwards, that my experience has funiishod, from 1826 to tliis lime, 1S34. Vol. VII— 15 Of the 472 acres of arable land, about 100, on the river, consisted of neutral soil, including a much smaller proportion of what was calcareous. All this had been very much reduced below its great original fertility, by severe and careless til- lage, and still more by the washing of rains. The produce of this once fine soil was still equal to 20 bushels of corn, (and in some cases 25 or nriore,) on the richest places, which were too level for the soil to be washed away by rains; and as low as 15 bushels or less, on a larger proportion. This kind of land, (though generally a light loam, and none of it clay,) formed the only good wheat soil on the farm. It did not form one'body — but was cut up and separated into many pieces, by hill-sides, ra- vines, and strips of wood, marsh, or other waste or worthless land. The same objectionable surface and form belong to nearly all the old cleared land on the farnr ; a large proportion being hilly, and more or loss injured by washing — and many deep natural ravines with wet bottoms, which were covered with trees, serving to kill the land all along their margins, to shelter vermin, and greatly to increase the labors of every year. Nearly 300 acres, which lay next to the neutral and calca- reous soils, were of the land penetrated by these ravines; and all this was supj^osed to have been or'iginally of that kind of soil called free-light land, though not as light, except a small portion, as the soils described in experiment 14 [pp. 46, 47, of 2nd ed. 'Essay on Calcareous Manures.'] The remain-^ in(T 70 to 90 acres were outside of the heads of the ravines, and like the adjacent wood-land, must have been always unproductive, as well as acid soils. The greater part of the land added by clearing afterwards was of the same bad charac- ter; and not so much as 20 acres ol' new land was of durable fertility. Nearly all the inferior quali- ties of soil were acid sandy loam — though a snrall proportion was of acid clay. This general description of soils, and their situ- ation, if considered in connexion with my doc- trines as to the action of calcareous manures, are enough to prove that the farm was not favorably constituted to be highly benefited by those ma- nures. Their greatest efiects have always been on the most acid soil. The great body of the old clear- ed land, showed less benefit, even where level, and still less in proportion as its natural soil had been lost by washing. As to the spots so much washed as to be barren "galls," the worst of them still remain in that state, and never can be made productive, except at a cost exceeding their value alter being improved. The neutral soil has been still less improved by marling. Irr addition, the excessively heavy applications of marl on more tharr 150 acres, caused the benefit of that manure to be almost lost lor some years, and the v.'holc damage has not yet been overcome. The crops of corn have not been actually mea- sured by the barrel, except in those cases marked [thus •'] in the talale. In the other cases, esti- mates of quantity were made by the cubic con- tents of the houses filled with corn, or by the num- ber and average size of the cart-loads brought from the field. After the first five corn crops, nei- ther tlieir amount, nor average to tire acre, indi- cates the I'ate of improvement, for several reasons : the usual extent of cultivation was much lessened lor some years, to furnish labor lor marliirg, and at other liuies on account ul" liic low price of corn, 114 FARMERS REGISTER. [No. 2 (sometimes it being less than 40 cents the buslicl,) unci there being on hand a large supply. The pans thus left out were generally the poorest of the field, which had the efiect of raising the apparent ave- rage product. From 1818 to 1823, inclusive, the crops of corn were also considerably increased by the annual cultivation of part or all of 30 acres of embanked tide-marsh, which has since sunU so low as to be unfit (or grain, or even grass. But the average product of Wheat is a much better mea- sure of the rate of improvement of the liirm : for though the sandy nature of most of the soil was very unfavorable to the growth of wheat — yet hav- ing a ready market, and the delivery at my land- TABLE OF G ing, and being able to deliver it very early, it was deemed tlie most profitable crop, and as much was raised every year as I he system of cultivation and extent of land permitted. The whole crop was_ always delivercil to tlie buyer within the space of two or three day.s, which leaves very little ground lor error in quantities. My fields have been care- fully surveyed, and the only mis-statement, on that score, that tlie (o. lowing table can present, will arise from my having to guess at the sizes and amount of the pieces of waste land iuclud^ed in the fields, but deducted in the statement of acres cultivated. RAIN CROPS. < s c so II si Is < p. S 0 II d is 2250* > fe 18 a . 0 2 S 0 627 5| 163 1340* Sjli 520 6?i J ' 1 136 1955* 14tV, i8r& 104 896 8r^\1 144 2300* 16 1817 79 63 595 450 7^1 > 647 m 188 2050* lOfl? 1818 79? 160 2670 161^^ 15 First commencement of marling. 1819 132 1015 7 9 1 ' 13" J y 1028 137 2000 1 4-^-i 62 Very thin marling as yet. 1820 119 160 1020 8t?- n 164 2780 17 25 1821 1049 6,1? 77 1775* 23 80 1822 154 1627 lOrl^ J [.1651 [J 10] 114 2250 3000 19tV^ 93 1823 139 1475 10,-V 158 19 100 1824 194 1850 9K 156 3405 21| 80 Marling nearly extended over ail the cleared arable land requiring it. 1825 195 1452 1390 7rV 0 8^ 70 1254* 17f2 48 70 76^ 50 24 27 1826 170 8i^t ^1403 138 2275 1665 le/y^ 1827 151 1366 104 16 Imperfect as this table is, for the various rea- sons before stated, it furnishes information in some cases so exact, that they deserve to be considered as accurate experiments on a whole field, or the entire larm. The most important ol these cases will be referred to, and accompanied with such explanations as are necessary. The first three crops of corn covered all the land then cleared, except 48 acres, which could not have yielded more than 10 bushels per acre. That supposed product being added to the actual product of all the balance, (forming the crops of 1813, 14, and 15,) shows the average of the whole cultivated land (excluding all waste spaces,) to have been 12^1 bushels the acre. From such an average on land of very unequal qualities, there can be no doubt but that the poorer half of the farm did not yield on the average 8 bushels of corn. During the first 6 years, but little ofihis poor- er half was sown in wheat, as it would not have yielded more than 2 or 2^ bushels: Therefore, the first two general averages of 5g and 7,-| bushels of wheat, were obtained from the richesf parts (say ihree-fifths) of the land ; and if all had been in- cluded, a much lower general average would have been made — probably not 4 bushels. The in- crease of general average product of wheat, per acre, in the second of these two terms of three years, was not owing to any apjjreciable increase of lertility, but to the circumstance that much less land was sown, and the parts left out, of course, were the poorest. The wheat crops of 1819 and the next two years were increased in amount by a summer fallow of some of the poor lands be- Ibre left out — besides the improvement which had then been gained from the earliest marlings. Since then, all the poorest land has been marl- ed, and the lohole is regularly sown in wheat in its turn ; and yet the average of the years 1822, '23, '24, rose to lOJ bushels. After- wards the crops, as well as the average products were reduced — but it was owing to various disas- ters which greatlyinjured all the crops of our part of the country. In 1825 very i'ew persons made half a crop ; and still less of perfect grain. No grazing had been permitted on the poor land, and but little on the rich, since 1814 — and during the first 6 years, before marling was begun, I was more attentive to making and applying farm-yard and stable manures, than for the 6 or 7 years after. The table shows that these means jnoduced veiy little, if any, general increase of 1930] FARMERS' RJEGISTER 114 crops — fiini liint nearly all the improvement actu- ally gained was apparent as soon as marled land only was soitm in wheat. As each field came un- der Its second rotation, there was always more or less oC loss sustained from the disease caused by my improper heavy dressings. One circumstance should be stated, as it served to make the apparent average increase of crops greater than the truth — and another, that served to lessen it. In 1824, "25, and '26, a field of 70 acres of the best soil was one half in wheat on fallow every year — which gave a crop from 35 acres each year, instead oi' from only half that amount, which would have been ti-om the regular four-shift rotation. The other circumstance was the clearing and bringing into cultivation more than 100 acres of land, which, before marling, would certainly not have averaged 6 bushels ol" wheat to the acre; and of course this served to lessen apparently the general average, after it was raised to 10 bushels. The reclaimed marsh, be- fore referred to, never bore wheat, and therelbre has not afiected these estimates. The product of one poor field of 135 arable acres happened to be measured and set down separately, Ibr two crops of corn, before marling. In 1814, it brought 1125 bushels, or 8 J to the acre. In ISl?, with the advantage of a good season, it brought 1235 bushels, or 9 and a small fraction to the acre, in 1S25 my whole crop wason 70 acres of this field, (supposed to be a fair average of the whole-,) and the first cultivation after its being marled. The produce was 1254 bushels, \ery nearly 18 bushels the acre. Some farm-yard manure had been giv- en to this crop — and rather more to each of the two former. But no manure put on that land, be- fore marling, had shown any effect longer than a sinojle course of crops, il" so long. Since this table was prepared, and the forego- ing estin\ates and observations written, (to 1826,) 8 more crops have been made. Not having paid the same personal attention to my business lor the greater part of this time, nor continued to make written memoranda of the operations of the farm, I cannot extend the table of crops accu- rately to this time, and can only state general and important results. The wheat crops of 1827, 28, 29, as well as the two last preceding those years, were all very bad, and generally on account of rust, which seemed to have become so regular and destructive in its visitations, that I began to think that a change of climate had taken place, which requir- ed that wheat should be abandoned as a crop in lower Virginia. JVlost persons, on poor land, be- tween James River and Carolina, gave up the crop entirely. My own sowing was on this ac- count reduced in extent by 30 or 40 acres a year, of the richest land, which was given up to the then newly adopted crop of cotton. This crop was commenced on 48 acres in 1825, increased to 96 by 1829, was reduced greatly in extent in 1830, and then abandoned for ever. My crops of cot- ton were very good, and peculiar benefits were obtained from the powers of marl in warming the soil, and hastening the maturing of the crop. But my best land, wherever it might lie, was taken for cotton — and all my liirm-yard and stable manure was given to it. The land being kept year after year in that crop, and under the most perfect and incessant tillage, was caused to be washed most destructively by every heavy ram; so that, with washing and exhaustion together, all the manure did not prevent the best land being actually redu- ced in productiveness in these five years. This culture had also cut up and almost destroyed the best fields for other crops; and not only took their best portions for cotton, but also robbed the other and poorer parts of all share of the manure. It is therelbre not to be wondered at, that the wheat crops should have been much dimin'shed, even without the aid of so many successive bad sea- sons. In 1831, the crop of wheat generally was remarkably good ; and of mine, 2401 bushels were measured, and llilly one hundred more had been lost by sj)routing in the field during the long- est spell of wet weather, about the close of harvest, ever before known at that time of year. In 1835, the crop of corn, on one of the lourregu- lar shiiis, amounted to more than 4000 bushels. At this time, (1834) the arable land has been increased to about 770 acres, by new clearings of wood-land, all of whch was of acid poor soil, the first cultivation of which, even after marling, served to reduce the previous general average pro- duct of wheat. Clover, which the cotton-culture excluded from the best soil, has since been sown over nearly the whole farm, and grows on every field, with more or less vigor, according to the condition of the land. This has been partially grazed, and the best parts mowed for the last few years. Farm-yard and other putrescent manures, which were almost entirely neglected while the marling was most on hand, have since been col- lected and applied much more abundantly, than at any former time, though still less so than ought to be done. With the operation of all these cir- cumstances, there were others which served to have counteracting effects. The withdrawal of my personal attention from my fiirm, (owing, at first, to long-continued ill health,) the removal to another place of residence — and the change of pursuits, and of habits growing out of these and other circumstances — all concurred to change a general system of farm-management, which had been always imperfect, slovenly, and wasteful, to what was much worse in every respect. It is, therefore, not strange, that improvement has not kept on with the rapidity with whichit formerly ad- vanced, notwithstandmg the many causes which operated even then, to retard its progress. What- ever I have been enabled to perform by the only means for improvement, in which zeal and the deep interest felt, made me highly successful, may be done much better, and with much greater profit, by the many who are better economists and better operatives; or by many others, who, though perhaps exercising no more skill and economy, have greater facilities for applying calcareous ma- nures, and soils more favorable to receive such im- provement. It is believed that the present ave- rage product (1834) of the arable land of the Cog- gins' Point farm, (excluding all waste spots) in corn, would be fi-om 20 to 25 bushels to the acre, in average seasons, and with good cultivation — and in wheat after corn, 9 to 10 bushels. Wheat on clover, of course would be far more productive, but to what extent, 1 will not presume to offer an estimate, as this system is but now commencing as a part of the general rotation. 116 FARMERS' REGISTER, [So. 2 POSTSCniPT. Petersburg, February, 1839. tt woukl probably appear a strange omission if nothing were added to the foregoing state- ment, of the four years which liave since, passed. It is, therefore, that a lew general remarks will be oiibred. Long before the date of the last addiiions, (1834) the writer had not only changed his residence, but had un- dertaken other pursuits which have since become more and more engrossing in the dem;md on his time and labor, and have prevented all personal attention to his farming business. Adtlcd to this, the laboring force on tlie land was, at first, inade- quate to keep it ia proper slate, either of tillage or of continued improvement; and the armual in- crease of" lerlility since, has served to increase the need lor labor, and the losses incurred by the defi- cient labor and other farm capital not being sup- plied. Thus, while the progressive improve- ment of the soil and the increased ability to reward proper exertions, are abundantly mani- fest, the farm, in every other respect, was suffered to get wretchedly out of order ; and now requires much labor and expense to be put in good condition. The requisite labor has just now been furnished, and other remedies aflorded ; and it is hoped, that within a few years time, the great and valuable improvement mac'e here by marl, will no longer be partially obscured, or the full efllect of it be rendered the least doubtflil, by the mismanagement of the faim, or neglect of its owner. Ed. Rupfin. From Uie Cultivator. ROOT CULTURK. Persuaded that root culture is ultimately to ef- fect a great improvement in our husbandry, we propose to make it the subject of some remarks in this and subsequent numbers. The advantages which root crops offer to the farmer, are the fol- lowing, viz : they furnish the most food for ani- mals, and the most food for vegetables in the form ofdung; they are'least exhausting to the soil, which they serve to divide and pulverize ; they are ex- cellent to alternate with grass and grain in conver- tible husbandry; and for these reasons they are the most profitable to the cultivator, on all liirms which will admit of their culture. We intend to direct the attention of the reader to the different roots which are adapted to our field culture, to the best modes of managing the crops, the manner of preserving and feeding them properly, the expense of culture, the average product, and, so far as our data will justify, state their relative value as cattle food. The roots we intend to notice are, the potato, the turnip, the beet, the carrot, and the parsnip. But before we proceed to consider them individu- ally, we will offer some preliminary remarks. Five things are essential in the culture of the roots we have named: 1st. A dry soil ; 2d. a rich soil ; 3d. a deep worked soil ; 4th. a well pulverized soil, and 5lh. good after-culture. The crop will be abundant in proportion as these sever- al requisites are present, and defective in propor- tion as they fail. By a dry soil, we mean a soil that is not wet. Moisture is beneficial to all crops, but tvater is detrimental to all root-crops, though it repose upon the sub-soil, or but occiisionally saturate the sur- face. Hence where roots are grown upon soils that are tenacious and Hat, or ujion those which repos^e upon aninipervious sub-soil, the land should be thrown into ridges, and the fuirows kept open for the free passage of the water in heavy rains. A rich soil is as essential to good crops as rich and abundant food is to the fiuieningof fi^rm stock. We all know that short pasture and coarse fodder will keep cattle, though it will not fatten them. So wiih roots — they will live and grow upon a poor soil, but their product and profit will be great only on a ?'/c/j one. The advantage to the crop, as well as the animal, will be in proportion to the quantity of dead organic matter which it converts into living organic matter — into vegetable and in- to meat. Ordinarily speaking, a good dressing of manure will double the products of a root-crop. To illustrate this fact more fully, we abstract the Ibllowing tabular statement from Arthur Young's experiments in planting potatoes. The prepara- ration and culture were alike in all. The num- bers to which the asterisk [*] is affixed were ma- nured crops. •^ Preceding Expense Pi oduct, Profit. Loss. crops. £ s. d. bushels. £ s. d. s. d. 1 Fallow... 3 19 1 104 at Is. 6d 2 18 5 0 0 2 Barley,... 4 5 9 128 2 0 3 11 10 0 0 3 Wheat,.. 6 13 6 46 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 4* Do.... 7 16 10 101 0 20 2 5 6 0 0 5 Do.... 6 2 6 39 0 20 0 7 6 0 0 6 Do.... 7 19 4 63 0 20 0 16 11 0 0 7* Do... 4 14 5 170 0 20 9 2 0 0 0 8 Do.... 8 9 3 30 0 20 0 0 0 15 6 9* Do.... 4 12 1 201 0 20 11 2 9 0 0 The three manured crops, it will be seen, gave an acgregate product of 472 bushels, and an ag- gregate net profit of £22. 10.3, [.>B99 90, say i^lOO;] the three adjoining plants, treated like the others in all respects but manuring, gave an ag- gregate net product of but 132 bushels, and an aggregate net profit of but 8s. lid. [-^1 96, say ^2;] thus showing that the manure, in these ca- ses, caused an absolute gain of ^98, and that where it was not used, there was in fiict only a nominal profit of two dollars. These fiicts will serve to show the reader, first, the great value of manure in fiirming operations, and to stimulate him to save and economise it ; and, secondly, to show him the propriety of oZu'rtys manuring his potato crop, for which it is universally admitted the unfermented dung and litter of his cattle yard is best filled. A deep worked soil is necessary, that the tap roots of the beet, carrot and parsnip may not only penetrate freely, and enlarge their length and vo- lume, but that their radicles, which arc principally upon their lower extremities, may there find food for the plant. The fibrous roots of the potato and the turnip are equally benefitted by a deep tilth, from which they can draw nourishment, and find shelter fiom drought. The pulverization of the soil is essential to the germination of the seed, to the easy extension of the roots, and to the (ree circulation of air and moisture, and the admission of solar heat, all ne- cessary to prepare and transmit the food to Iho grov/ing plants. 1839] F A R M IC R S ' REGIS T E R 117 ThinniniT ilie pliuils and keeping them free from weed:^, and llio snrlai-e of the soil open lo aimos- plieric inHuence, is of great importance. If liie eoil is dry, and rich, and deep, and well pulveriz- ed, f lie labors; of the husbandman vvill yet not avail niu(di, in root crops, if" he sufl'ers his plants to he injudiciously crowded, or to he choked and robbed oftheir ibod by rank growing weeds. And as prevention is better than cure, the thinning and cleaninc processes should be comn.cnced early, and rigidly persevered in, not only that the weeds may n"ot exhaust the teriility of the eoil, hut that the latter growth may not mature their seed, and thus perpetuate the evil. In our next number, we shall treat of the cul- ture, &c. oi' the root crops named in the com- mencement of this article. From tlie Cultivator. EXPERIMENT IN PLANTING CORN ALTERNA- TION OF CROPS — niODE OF APPLYING GYP- SUM— OF FATTENING HOGS. Rockingham coiinly, Va. Dec. 25, 1S38. Sir — A friend of mine, last spring, planted a part of his corn at the depth that corn is usually planted in this part of the country, and in another part ol his tleld, he ran his planting furrows un- usually deep. The land was of unilbrm quality, and the corn in both parts covered with the com- mon quantity of earth, so that the only dilference in planting, consisted in the different depths of the planting llirrows. In the early part ol' the summer, the corn planted in the shallow furrows, grew the best, and promised to make the best crop, but in the latter part of the summer, the season be- came dry, [the drought was severe,] and then the shallow planted corn began to Avither, whilst the deep planted corn kept green, and continued to grow alter the other was almost killed by drought, and made in the end greatly more corn. These iLicls have brought to my attention the question, whether corn should be planted deep or shallow? And by the question, let it be understood, that it is not a question about the depth of earth with which corn shall be covered ; but a question about the depth of the furrow. And to this question, 1 would invite the attention of agriculturists, and request the communication of (acts from all who have had any experience in the two modes of planting ; as it is by a comparison of many liicts only, that we can come to any saltj conclusion in agricultural aflairs. I have understood, that it is settled, that in the sandy lands and warm climate of South Carolina, deep planting is best. And if it shall be found that in our more northern cli- mates and clayey soils, deep planting will yield the best crop, there is another advantage attend- ing it, that will recommend it to those who cul- tivate this valuable grain. Corn that is planted deep is not so easily blown down by winds, and will not be bent and tangled at cutting time, like that which is planted on the surface. As this is a question involving no depth of reasoning or sci- entific knowledge, it may perhaps be passed over, with less attention than it deserves. But if it be duly considered, it will be found to be a question of interest, and it is hoped that all who can com- municate facts vvill contribute their aid to a correct settlement ol the question. In the case mentioned above, the corn was planted in a sandy soil, of but moderate fertility, and it will occur to all that in experiments which may be detailed, the charac- ter of the soil sliould be given. Another ijucstion of interest to myself, is now liji'cing itself upon my attention; and I would be glad to hear the opinions of those, whose experi- ence may enable them to speak upon the subject. To state the question more clearly, 1 will premise that for near twenty years, I have been cultiva- ting a small farm upon the four-field system. wTien it first came to my hands, a part of it, though originally fertile, had been greatly exhaust- ed by bad°management, and all my efforts were directed to its improvement. My crops have been corn, wheat, clover; and by a fiee use of plaster and some degree of economy in saving manure, my flirm is now greatly im[)ioved and may be said to be in good heart. The soil is a tolerably stiff clay, based upon what we call blue slate, the rock lying at a good de|)th below the sur- face. I have preferred mowing lo grazing, and as the hoof is injurious to clay lands, the stock have been kept off the fields as much as possible, when the g'-ound was soli. But little has been sold off the'^farm except wheat, clover seed, cattle and hogs. Having but a small fiirm, and being desiroias of cultivating more land than my firm will allow, upon the four-field system, \ am inclined to divide my land into three shills, and this forces upon my attention the question, whether I can preserve the degree of fertility which my land has attained, by cultivating corn, vvheat, and clover, and letting the clover stand but one year, instead of two. By let-- ting the clover stand two years, the land has im^ prov-ed ; and now if it shall stand but one, will the land deteriorate, and will the crop be reduced? Let it be supposed that the corn shall be fed upon the farm ; that the clover shall be in part mown, and in part grazed by hogs ; and that a reasona- ble degree of economy shall be used in saving manure. As he who asks information from others, should be willing to communicate any which he may have, and thereby show his readiness to contri- bute to the common fund, I will mention, that my practice, has been to sow plaster broad-cast upon corn, instead of putting it on the hill, believing, that at earing time, which is the most important, the roots have spread over the whole surface, and tliai the plaster being sown broad-cast, will then be in a situation to contribute more to the growth of the corn, than it would be if placed immediately at the stocl<, as it is the ends of the roots that take up nourishment : and believing, too, that when sown in this way, the plaster will benefit the suc- ceeding wheat crop, and the young clover which shall be growing with the wheat. I have indeed thought, that sometimes the youngcloveris there- by saved fi'om being killed by drought. For some years past, my attention has been turned to hogs, and having been successful in my efi'orts, I will give you my opinions upon that sub- ject. The more common practice with us, is to let our hogs shift for themselves, or to feed them but sparingly the greater part of the year, and then during the fiatiening season to feed them to excess. We then attempt to do that by force, Tl8 FARMERS REGISTER. [No. 2 which n)ijih1 previoiiply have been accomplished by an easii-r and cheaper process. By feediiifj too sparingly during the winter, the hogs are kept alive only; they do not grow; become stinted, are worth no more in the spring than they were in the (all, Irequenlly not so much, and of course what has been Rxl has lieen wasted ; and then, durins laltening season, they are Ted to excess, and loss is sustained by undigested corn. JVly plan has been to feed well, to start my pigs fat, and to keep lliem in unilbrndy good condition. They are always growing and mcreasing in value ; are fed with a small quan ity ofgrain when rutming in clo- ver pasture, and by culling up corn lor them as soon as it is in good roasting "ears, they are ready for market, as soon as the weaiiier is cold enough for slaugliiering. They are, in this way, fatiened du- ring moderate weather, and all agree that hogs fatten faster in moderate than in cold weather. 1 prefer fattening in a field, to a close pen, and from my observation, I am satisfied the field is the best. The field is used that is intended tor the corn the following year. The grass and clover roots which they get, coniribute to their healih, and save corn, as any one may be convinced, by observing that they will feed a part of the day on the clover, however plentiliilly they may be fed with corn. If hogs be well (ed, and kept dry, and clean, and warm in winter, and be iurnished with shade and plenty of water in sunmier, they will, T think, be always profitable. A good breed should be se- lected, as some breeds are certainly more profita- ble than others. The feeding of hogs presents another question of interest, and we ought to in- quire, whether clover grazed by hogs, will im- prove the land as much as if it be grazed by cattle ; and whether the corn led to hogs upon a field will improve it as much as if it were fed to catile. These are questions which I would not undertake to decide from my ex|)erience, and upon which I would like to hear the opinions of others. Ifthese inquiries shall receive any attention from the cor- respondenls and readers of the Cultivator, I may be encouraged to trespass again upon your atten- tion. Georgk H. Chrisman. From tlie (I^ondon) Farmers' Magazine. ESSAY UPON THi: BKKEDING OF I.IVE STOCK, AND ON THE COMPARATIVE INFLUENCE OF THE MALE AND FEMALE PARENTS IN IMPRESSING THE OFFSPRING. By John Bosioell, I^sq. of Balmuto and King- causie, [In the year 1825, the Highland Societj'^ pro- posed as the subject of prize essays, the solution of the question, " Wliether the breed of livestock connected with agriculture be susceptible of the greatest improvement, li-om the qualities conspi- cuous in the male, or from those conspicuous in the female parent V Four essays were received, to which premiums were awarded. Those that were written by J. Boswell, esq. of Balmuto, and by the iate Rev. Mr. Berry, were considered the best. As many persons may not have seen these essays, which contain information valuable to all those who study the principles of breeding, we have given the essay by Mr. Boswell. which will be fomifl interesting to every one concerned in the breeding of stock.] Te quoque, magna Pales, et te memorande canemus Pastor ab Ampliryso. — Virgil. The very great utility of a clear knowledge as to the best method of improving the breed of live stock, connected with agriculture, must be appa- rent to all; and as one ficartily devoied to agricul- ture in all its branches, I cannot help congratulat- ing the farmer on the information he is likely lo receive on so important a subject through the en- deavors of the Highland Society. As this sub- ject has long [I may say from my earliest youth] been one in which I have taken the greatest de- light, and on which I have bestowed much thought, besides having had very great op|)ortu- nities of seeing experimentally the changes pro- duced on stock from crossing, and other circum- stances, I trust I may be justified from any charge of self-assurance, in ofitiring a lew facts in as short and succinct a manner as the nature of the subject and my own experience as an author, will permit, being well aware that facility of commu- nicating knowledge is almost as necessary as ex- perience in order to shine as an essayest. Hoping, then, for candor in weighing the vari- ous facts 1 shall bring forward, and deprecating criticism as to the manner in which they are brought together (being a mere farmer, and no author,) 1 shall lay belbre the society such as oc- cur to my recollection. The society has put the question, " Whether the breed of livestock, connected with agriculiure, be susceptible of the greatest improvement from the qualities conspicuous in the male, or (hose conspicuous in the lemale parent'?' The first thing to be done is to answer ihe que- ry put by the society, and, having done so, to prove by facts that the an^'wer given is the pro- per one. I have not the slightest doul>t in my own mind that the answer ought to be " the male."* But belbre proceeding to prove this, 1 would warn all who m;iy turn their thoughts to the subject, that it must bean enlarged view oF this or any other matter connected with nature, which alone can irive a true knowledge as to the point at issue. The fable of the fly on the build- ing ought never to be fijrgetten ; and the slock of a country or a district can only lead to the true re- sult as to any particular breed. I would also re- mark, that, belore the breed of a;country can be improved, much more must be looked to than the answer to the question put by the Highland Soci- ety, such as crossing, selection of both parents, attention to pedigree, and lastly, food and care of the oH'spring. I shall endeavor to explain my ideas on these heads ; and then, having given some prools as to the male being the parent having the greatest in- fluence on the progeny, I shall endeavor to prove, that, whether I be right or wrong, still the male is * Jt often happens that an author who has distinctly espoused one side in a question so difficult as this, feels disposed, after the lapse of two or three years, to mo- dify, or even alter, his opinions ; but it is consistent with our knowledge, that the accurate observations and farther experience of two years have only strengthened the author of this essay in the assertions which it contains. — Ed. Far. Mag. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 119 the parent which we must look to, as best calcu- lated to improve the breed of any country. TIte art o( improving the breeds of dilTerent animals was almost, if not altogether, unknown to the ancients. Virgil, who seems to have paid some attention to it, has stated things which ex- perience has since taught us are erroneous. In this i)art of the island it has yet to be introduced, and we are forced to go to England for authori- ties on the subject. A few oi' our countrymen have indeed, of late years, come fourth, as it were — and in this immber we must rank Mr. Stirling of Keir, Mr. Robinson of Ladykirk, and Mr. Rennie, jr. of Phantassie, who having seen the value of improved slock, and of attending to pedi- gree, or breeding from parents, " de bonne race,'''' as the French well express it: but with the ex- ception oi" these, and some lew others, we are yet miserably behind. The very term "a great breed- er," signifies two totally different things in Eng- land and Scotland : in the former, it means a judge, and one who delights in in)proved breeds ; in tlie latter, a person who has a great number oi' (commonly speaking) half-starved calves or mise- rable lambs, and in whose stock we may see every variety of shape and color. We have only to look to any drove of Scotch beasts on the road, to satisfy ourselves of the want of all care in our breeders. The cattle are of all ditl'erent shapes, some with horns, and some without ; and if you inquire of the owner, you will find that he pur- chased some of those dissimilar beasts, not li'om diti'erent breeders, not in different districts, but from the same farmer — and his own cattle in one fair. How and why is this? Because our Scotch farmer is ignorant of his own trade! They all know and adtnif, that " breeding-in-and-in," or " oure sib,"* as they call it, is bad; they know the value of crossing, and they wish to cross, and do so; but it is without judgment. A liirmer no sooner hears that his neighbor has got a good bull, most likely from a distance, than he says, "I must have a breed of him," as he calls the first offspring between his own cow and this bull ; and the cow is put to this animal, although the one slipuld be Galloway, and the other a short-horn : thus his calves are so unlike, that, when his stock is carried to market, they present that tag-rag ap- pearance which I have mentioned before, and which the best dealers are now rectifying to them- selves for their own profit, by carefully classiuf; them into horned or polled, &c. and thereby rais- ing the value of the self-same animal from 10s. to 20s. a-head in the markets of the south, by giving them that uniformity which the breeder ought to have done. When 1 would praise the advantage of cross- ''ing, 1 would have it then to be clearly understood, that it is only to bring together animals, not near- ly related, but always of the same breed, never attempting to breed from a race-horse and a cart- mare, or vice versa. Such a thing may do well enough for once to get an insulated animal, but will end in vexation, if attempted to be prolonged info a line We know that crossing, even however ill-done, is productive of good. It uniformly frees an ani- mal from many of the weaknesses and maladies to which tfiose bred in-and-in are subject, and al- * Nearly related. most invariably procures a much larger animal than either of the parenis. That enlightened gentlemen and accurate ol)server of everything connected with animals, Sir John Sebright, whom I shall ti-equenlly liave occasion to quote, says, " [ have tried many expeiiments by breeding in-and- in upon dogs, fowls, and pigeons; the dogs be- come, from strong spaniels, weak and diminutive lap-dogs ; the fowls become long in the legs, small in I he body, and bad breeders." Mr, Bake well, that illustrious breeder, denied this ; and was the first, I believe, who said that a cross was unnecessary, that animals would not degenerate by being bred in-and-in, &c. but let us look to the result. His admirable breed of sheep are fast going to decay ; they have even now become small, and are, to a great degree, what is termed soft sheep, i. e. liable to many com- plaints. The malady to which sheep are most subject, decay of the liver, attacks them very fre- (juently, ana altogether, they make good the old adage, of soon ripe soon rotten ; more quickly coming to maturity than any animul we know, and as speedily going to decay. I have seen the wonderful effects produced by crossing, in reno- vating this breed, having, for several years, been in the habit of buying in a couple of scores of Highland ewes, and putting them to a pure Bake- well ram. They were always poor small things, worth not tnore than from 3s. or 3s. 6d. to 6s. each ; yet these ewes produced lambs which as- tonished every one who saw them, and which sold to the butcher at 10s. 6d. a-head. As to the appearance of those lambs I shall have occasion to s|)eak in another place. Did the limits of an essay permit, 1 could bring many more instances to prove this, my first position, that it is absolutely neces- sary to shun breeding in-and-in; but, as i must hasten to the main question, I shall only remark, that the benefit of crossing extends even to the vegetable creation, a fact which is now pretty well known, and may easily be proved in the cul- tivation of various plants. In none is it more conspicuous than in the turnip. It is now some years since it occurred to Mr. Gordon, larmer, at Orrock, near Aberdeen, that, as tiie brassica tribe easily tireed together, as it were, it might be pos- sible to cross the rata baga with some of the other sorts. He did so, and found that the crosses which he had got were far superior in size to either of the sorts he put together, and also very hardy as to standing frost. I know another small farmer, who, after a very severe winter, tried puttinir red-top and Norfolk while turnips to- gether, which are both very easily destroyed by fi-osts. From these he jirocured a cross which stood the frost uncommonly well, and grew to a large size on poor soil. Bui to proceed to selec- tion. In this term I would include, not only the choice of two well-made parents, but the guarding care- fully that the same defects, however slight, did liot occur in both ; lor it is a fiict, stated by Sir John Sebright, and which has uiiilbrmly been proved by my own experience, that it is not al- ways by putting tlie best male to the best female that the best produce will be obtained ; for should ihey both have a tendency to the same defect, al- though, in ever so slight a degree, it will, in gene- ral, preponderate so much in tlie produce as to lender it of little value. m t'ARMERS' REGISTER [No. ^ I found the truth of this in a very striking in- stance about ten years ago. Having a cart- mare of a very superior description [;\nd which hns twice gained premiums at agricullural shows] I looked out. lor a first-rate stallion, iuteiidiiig to breed Irom her. At that time a horse, belonging to Mr. Buchan, near Crief, called Blaize, was car- rying all before him.* I thought I could not do better than breed from this horse, not taking into consideration that both sire and dam were of the same make, viz: rather long in the leg; the con- sequence was, that I had a very fine Ibal to be sure, but with longer legs than either of the pa- rents. The next time 1 iiad learned to correct my former error, and bred from a short-Iegtxed horse from Cheshire, which was a great cross to my Scotch mare, and also differed from her in shape. 'J'he efiect was immediately visible. I hnd a mare which it would be difficult to produce an equal to, the leg not being so short as the father's, although the whole appearance much resembled him, nor quite so long as thai of the dam. Ano- ther very striking instance of this came under my notice a few years ago. A friend of mine [Gene- ral Burnett] had a mare what is called three parts bred, certainly a very fine mare to breed l>om, but a very tall mare, with long legs, which was put to the longest letrged thorough-bred horse 1 ever saw. (Bethlem Gabor. the property of Lord Aboyne.) The produce quite resembled the sire, and, at two years old, had reached the height of seventeen hands; but he was a monster, all legs, and very soon proved this by knuckling over at the pastern joint, till at last he could not walk ; and at three years old was shot. The same mare was next covered by Hospitality, a horse as remarka- ble for being short in the leg, and what is termed short-jointed. The produce was now a low stur- dy animal, ij-reatly resembling the sire, and short in the leg ;t thus in both instances provini?", not only what I mention to be requisite, viz: judicious selection of the two parents in reference to the make of each, but also the great power of the male to change the whole shape and appearance of the produce. * This horse ^eneraly cleared £150 per annum to his owner, gaining every prize at all the aijricultural sliows for many years; IVequentlv b°inn; =r>I"cto(l as the best, when 25 to SO of the iinest stallions from Clydesdale and Fife were shown in the same field; and was, without all doubt, a most superb horse. f In the Philosophical Transactions for ISO!), in a paper by Mr. Knight, on the same subject as this es- say, the author, in contending for the impropriety of propagating from large in preference to small females, brings forward a very interesting remark upon length of leg in the offspring. " Nature," says he, " has given to the offspring of many animals (those of the sheep, the cow, and the mare, afford familiarexamples) the power, at an early age to accompany their parents in flight ; and legs of such animals are nearly of the same length at the birth as when they have attained their perfect growth." The natural result from which would be, that the offspring should resemble their mother in length of leg, and consequently, while there was an excess in this respect on her part, care ought to be taken to breed from a male, calculated by the comparative shortness of his legs, or the great depth of his chest and shoulders, either to correct the ten- dency or impart a body of proportional power. — Ed. Mag. I proceed next to mention the necessity of at- tending to pedigree. If we look, with an attentive eye, to nature and to her productions, we shall see that they are not only beautilul, but that all she docs is uniform. Thus every wilil animal is of the same color, and nearly of the same shape ; every flower resembles another; but man must alwa}^ be assisting na- ture, as he terms it. Then we see flowers grow many colored, or perhaps double; beasts and birds chance their sliape, color and nature, so thai we see such varieties as were altogether unlooked for. The only way v\^e can guard ajrainst this, is to know well what the ancestors of the animals we breed liom were. Wiihout this, our produce will every now and then be breaking through the ge- neral rules, and annoying us with odd-looking animals, deriving their shape from some of their ancestors, perhaps, two or three generations back. Few words will suflice as to Ibod, and care of the offspring. Noihiiiir can be more absurd thari to suppose that animals can improve if neglected in their youth. We have the strongest proof of this in the starved animals bronixht from the West High- lands, which crowd our liiirs, particularly those of Falkirk and Hallow Fair of Edinburgh. Let a firmer buy some of those when " year olds," and place them [ere they be at the age of maturity] in a more genial climate, and on good keep. See what beautilul cattle they become. Let him buy two-year olds, and the improvement will be Icss-^ at three, and ihey will oidy lay on fat, wiihout reaching larire size. On 'he other hand, let him purchase half a dozen starved looking small cows, from the same part of the country, in calf [pro- vided they shall be of the pure breed ;] let him take those cows home, and suffer the produce to suckle the dam while she li^eds in good pasture. In winter, let them be well fed, and lie in a shed or house tolerably warm. What sort of beast has he now ? I^et the reader call to mind the West Highlanders shown at Queensbury House for the two last years, every one of which weighed from 70 to 80 sione, and the question is answered. I was once 'al;en to see the cattle of the late General Simpson, who had the purest short-horn blood, a breed which, without all doubt, arc capable of be- ing made the fattest. These catdc were in such a state as I have never seen any other animals. They were all bone and skin, llicir eyes looked unhealthy ; and altogether, from starvation, and I rather think from want of crossing, they appear- ed like so many invalids in the last stage of con- sumption. To improve any breed, or keep it up when improved, slock must be well fed fi"om the time they are produced. "Sir," said a great breeder to me once, "to produce a fine animal, you must l(3ed him from the starting-post." Warmth, that is a temperate climate, appears to be perfect- ly necessary to the improvement of all animals, and particularly so in live stock connected with agriculture; for, if we look at these animals, or even the human species, whether in the frigid or in the torrid zone, we find them dwindling into Liliputian size. I come now to the grand point ; to prove which, [ conceive it will be necessary to fix upon some marks whereby a change, and that change an im- provement, may be traced. The one, which in 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 121 my mind is by far the strontrest, is color; next, I would place smallness of the head and ears; in the horse, ox. and sheep, prominence of the eye ; in all wideness of the chest, tendency to fatten, early maturity, tranquility, and love to man, or rather dependance on man. Let us now proceed regularly, and commence with the horse, as the most noble as well as the most useful animal. The influence that the male has on this class of animals is the most striking. Everyone must recollect how, in blood-horses, the color of the sire goes throughout the progeny, and, in a dealer's slable, every grey is a Delphini or a Sir Harry Dinsdale, every black a Sorcerer or a Thunderbolt, and so on. While you hear people constantly remark that such a horse can be nothing but a get of such a one — what is this but to say, the color and appearance of the male goes throughout the produce ? In work-horses it is the same. A very strong instance of this was visible some years ago in the county of Kincardine. Here Ihere was not, I suppose, one single mare to be found of a chesnut-color, when Mr. Barclaj', of Ury, brought down a Suffolk punch, of a bright red chesnut-color, and in a few years plenty of chesnuts were to be found. A few years after- wards, a dun or slate-colored stallion gained the prize from the Kincardine Agricultural Associa- tion ; when he came into the country, dun-horses were very rare, now they are to be found every- where. In the county of Fife, some years ago, a horse called Sportsman, found his way from York- shire, and covered a vast number of mares, parti- cularly those belonging to the farmers, which at that time were either black or grey. This horse was a rich dark brown, with a tanned muzzle, and he instantly made a very large proportion of horses of that favorite color; and what is still more re- markable, he was himself one of the best trotters ever seen, and his progeny were so also, so that the fanners talking of a good trotter, would say, " O yes, he is a Sportsman." Sir Robert Dick, a few years ago, purchased a work-mare, whirth I happened to know the breed of lor several genera- tions. She was black, very large, and coarse; eyes small, head and ears large, and very rough at the heels. This mare was put to Caleb Quo- tem, a beautiful bay horse, with much of what dealers call gaiety. I saw the produce; it was bright bay, with no hair at the heels, the eyes large, the head and ears small, and altogether the produce had put on the appearance of a blood- horse. Here the dam was of the cart breed. Let us look the other way : Mr, George Harley Drummond had two or three thorough-bred mares, which had thrown foals, small in size and deficient in bone to a blood-horse. He put them to a cart- horse, they instantly produced stout boned colts, with much hair at heel, and altogether like the sire. In the year 1821, I purchased a very neat small mare lor a relation of mine, which had a foal at her loot by a cart-horse ; this foal turned out to all intents a very good cart-horse. The mare was afterwards put for three seasons to Ku- tuzof, and the foals were in all appearance like blood-horses. The late General Ayton, of Inchdairnie, a great many years ago, sent down a horse fiom England to his property in File, which covered the country mares in his vicinity [at that time, I am informed, very poor beasts,] and produced such wonderful Vol.. VII— 16 effects on the breed in that neighborhood, as may be seen this very day; the horses in that quarter be- ing the best in the country, and particularly remark- able for width of chest, docility in work, and alto- gether fine animals. Last year [182-1] I chanced to see the tenantry of a gentleman, who has the district which lies along the banks of the river Avon, in Aberdeenshire, driving his winter store of coals. The horses struck me as being liir above the common run of those in the Highland glens, and in fact first rate, compared with what ten years before I had seen in the carts of the self-same farmers. I was at first somewhat at a loss to find out how so great a change had taken place, as I knew that tlie land in that part of the county waa all held by small farmers, who neither could nor would purchase large high priced mares to breed from, (ar less those horses then in my view. I soon found, on investigating the matter, that the whole change had been brought about by good, stallions ; and in this way : The different agricul- tural associations in the north have, for many years, been in the practice of offijring large pre- miums lor stallions, which brought troops of fine horses from the west of Scotland. After the best had been picked out for the prize, the rest were set adrift; and these horses, dispersed over the country, of late years, from the badness of the times and an overstock of them, covered at any price the farmer pleased to offer. Thus good horses wandered into their glen, to their very doors, and at such a price as these men could givej the result was what I have stated. In the horse, then, it seems clear that it is to the male we must look for improvement. Not that I would be supposed to assert that the whole improvement can be brought about a/ once by the male ; that, if a man were to put a Shetland pony to Eclipse — such a one, for example, as "The Great Unknown " has been pleased to mount Mr. Yellowlees on — were the little beast, from which the agriculturists' legs dangled, put, I say, to Eclipse, no one would hope to procure a racer ; nor can we think that a Lincolnshire black, and a Highland garron, taken out of a peat cart, will produce an animal fit for a London dray ; but by repetition the end will be produced. 1 once put the question of the Highland Society to a very able man who fills a chair in one of our univer- sities, and who is an observer of nature cf no or- dinary cast, and who also, li'om his profession, (a medical man) may be supposed to be a good judge. His answer instantly was, "The male, without all doubt, but (added he,) you must have a fijmale capable of developing the good properties of the male, otherwise a good male will be thrown away." I would next look a little at the influence the male has on the ox. Here, although I still see the male have by far the greatest influence, I would say that there was a shade of diflerence, perhaps five per cent, less than in the horse. The cow appears to be an animal whose progeny is often much afl^ected by her imaginaiion durimr the lime of conception, or rather during the period when she is in season. We have the most ancient, as well as the highest authority for this, in the peeled rods of Jacob ; and from what my own experience, as well as the information of trustworthy men, has taught me, I am inclined to think that the calf very often takes after the beast that has been jump- 123 FARMERS' R E G I S T E 11 , [No. 2 ing on the cow, (whether ox or cow,) previous to her being taken to the male. One of the most in- telligent breeders 1 have ever met with in Scot- land, Mr. Mustard,* an extensive farmer on Sir James Carnegie's estate in Angu?, told me a sin- gular Jact in regard to what I have now slated. One of his cows chanced to come into season while pasturing on a field which was bounded by that of his neighbors; out of which field an ox jumped, and went wish the cow until she was brought iiome to the bull. The ox was white with black spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession, nor one with any white on it. Nevertheless, the produce of the fol- lowing spring was a black and white calf with horns. 1 have tvvice had pure Ayrshire cows, which are uniformly what is called red and white, with horns. The first of those I put to a brown bull without horns ; the produce was very dark red, without any white, and polled. The next cow was put to a jet black bull with horns. The first produce was dark red, without any white, and the next was jet black, and also without any white ; and in both cases the make of the progeny took greatly after the sire. On settling in the north of Scotland as a farmer, I soon perceived that one of the greatest defects in the cattle was a tendency to be knock-kneed behind, and in mj' endeavors to get rid of this, I procured a bull li-om the south of Scotland, free li-om that defect, and with him crossed the best looking cows of the country. I instanll}' got rid of that narrowness behind observ- able in all cattle where no attention has been paid to the breed ; and, in a {"ew years, by drafting such queys as did not please me, and breeding only from good shaped ones, 1 made a breed for my- self, which I had done before I knew if, for, hav- ing one season lost almost all my own calves, I was, in consequence of this misfortune, forced to buy in calves. These were treated in the same way as to food, &c., as my own, yet those from my own cows soon shot far a-head of them, both in size and condition ; and on examination of the two sets of animals, an evident superiority of ibrm ex- isted in those of my own, especially in the small- ness and beauty of the head, with a prominent eye; and, a fad not hitherto mentioned, that of the tail being one-half less as to thickness than in the unimproved breed, while a wide chest, (that unerring sign of a good and quick feeder,) was very conspicuous.! It would seem that horns had been given to the cow by nature, and that the polled breed have been procured by selection of eome of those varieties we so often see, as 1 ob- serve that it more Irequenily occurs, when a poll- ed bull is put to a horned cow, that the produce resembles the mother in that particular, than when a horned bull is put to a polled cow, when horns * This gentleman's stock are all jet black and polled, and so remarkably alike, that they show much care in attending to the breed. t "An observation which Dr. Jenner made to me about ten years ago, (the truth of which has been since confirmed by my own experience,) that no animal whose chest was narrow could easily be made fat, applies particularly to the Merino sheep, which are in general contracted in that part, and is well worth the attention of those who wish to improve this breed." Sir J. Sebright. are almost always the consequence. f A great many years ago, the present Sir Alexander Ram- say, of Fasque, brought a lew of the Lancashire cattle to Scotland, a breed then much in lashion, and, as every one knows, remarkable lor having uncommonly wide spreading horns, and all with some white, especially on I he back. These cattle were intermixed with the cows of the country ; and when Sir Alexander came to his estate, the cattle were all horned. About that time the polled or dodded cattle came greatly into vogue in An- gus ; and Sir Alexander purchased, from time to time, jet black polled bulls, so that in a short time all his cows were of this sort. Nevertheless, every year, even to this day, one or two of the calves "cry back" to the Lancashire, having white, and homes ; and, what is singular, it is almost invari- ably in the male that this lakes place. An instance ol the influence of the male in the progeny of the cow is narrated by Bewick, the na- tural historian. He is treating of the original breed of wild cattle, which still exists in a lew- parks belonging to noblemen in the norih of Eng- land, and in one or two places in Scotland. They are unilbrmly pure white, with black, or sometimes red ears and noses, and always extremely wild and fierce. At Chillingham castle, in Northum- berland, says Bewick, cows used frequently to be turned into the park when in season, which were covered by the wild bull ; and what is strange, the produce from all those cows were uniformly white, with red ears and noses, and greatly partook of the character and qualities of the wild bull. Eere, then, is a very strong proof of the influence of the male parent, and others equally sirong could be quoted, did 1 not think it better to pass on to an- other animal, the sheep. Here the influence of the male parent is most striking. I have stated in a former part of this essay, thatl have been in the habit of purchasing a couple of scores of highland ewes every year, to put to the Bakewell ram. Let us look a little at the characlerisiics of every breed in a wild, or at least nearly wild state. We find them muscular, active, restless in quest of food, ever in motion, and refusing to lay on fnt.f Such I found the highland ewes; they were all small, with black legs and faces, and had horns. On being put to the Bakewell, they produce lambs of a totally dif- ferent breed from themselves, all having the great- est tendency to get fat, the wild, wiry appearance of the Highlanders being entirely gone ; and in its place we have a round fleshy animal, resting peace- ably in the fields, the desire to break over fences, having likewise disappeared ; and what is remark- able, not a single lamb is to be found with black legs, or a black face, and scarcely one with any sort of horn,§ while all are of a very large size. They thrive remarkably well, any that 1 have al- lowed to grow up as an experiment; and I have always found them much more free from disease than either the Bakewell or the black- fliced sheep, I An old French writer on agricultural subjects im- agines that polled cattle are. degenerated. He says, " Mene en Ecosse on trouve la race tres petite, et lort souvent sans cornes." I Look at the hare and the goat, however well fed, they will refuse to lay on fat. § Some few have a sort of shrivelled horn, which drops off, or more commonly they rub them off in the autumn. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 12S particularly (lie rot of the liver, which makes dread- ful havoc amongst the Bakewelh, nor does it spare the Highlander, especially when put on high keep. 1 cannot speak much of the appearance produced by a Highland ram with the Bakewell ewe. Be- ing fully convinced of the power of the male on the offspring, I have always accounted it as loss to put a bad male to a high-bred female, and have never done so. I have, however, observed, where the country people have purchased high-bred sheep at any sale of mine, and bred from them with the ordinary rams, that the breed very quickly got bad, whereas, when a Bakewell ram had been purcha- sed, I have seen a most remarkable chanae on the quality of the sheep ; and in several instances where the ewes had been tolerable from which they had bred, the cross was so nearly resembling a new Leicester, as to deceive any one who was not a thorough judge. As I wish to confine my- self to facts which have come under my own ob- servation, I shall forbear to mention circumstances which tend to prove the great power in the male as to influence in the progeny o( the ewe, as I have them from others ; and shall conclude with the sow. The influence of the male in this animal is as great as in the sheep. A few facts will show I his. A Iriend of mine, soon after I commenced (arm- ing, [thinking, no doubt, to do me a great kind- ness,] made me a present of a sow of the wild species, in pig to a boar of the same sort. She was sent to me by sea, and during the voyage she broke out of the crib into which she had been put, and when the crew attempted to replace her, she attacked them with open mouth, and forced them to take shelter in the rigging. I put her into a high walled field, where she showed every mark of a wild animal, starting off at the least noise, and running very swiftly to some concealment. When the time of littering came near, she set to work, and carried in her mouth great quantities of withered grass and rushes, till she had a heap the size of on ordinary hay-cock. Here she had ten young ones, so concealed that no trace of them could be seen. When the heap was approached, she made a noise something like the bark of a dog, ran furiously to attack the person who had the te- merity to invade lier abode. In a short time the young ones made their apperance, they were all perfectly alike, being of a red or dark yellow co- lor, with regular black stripes, like a tiger or zebra, down the sides. As they grew old they became darker, till they resembled the sow, which was of a port wine color. When it became necessary to take them, the mother was secured by a noose thrown over her, and the young ones were hunted down by a number of men. When escape was impossible, they gave battle, and offered to bite very furiously. I now put the old one into confinement, where she had a second litter to one of the pigs, which were in all points like the first. I next put her to a boar of the Duke of Bedford's improved breed. At once the litter had a totally different appear- ance; the pigs were all difit^rent from each other, some had a slight kmd of stripe, some none, some were light, some dark. Those which liad stripes when littered lost them, and grew lighter in the color as they grew up. The leg had become short- er, as had the snout. They soon inclined to come eut of the inside stye to the feeding trough, when the feeder put meat in it, and would feed wliile he stood by; and, lastly, they proved much better thrivers, getting very fat, which the old one and all the former pigs refused to do. I gave a neigh- bora boar of the first litter which he put to several of the Duke of Bedford's sows, where the change was equally manifest ; the zebra stripe, the long snout, and the length of the leg appearing in the whole of the young ones. I was now very sick of the sight of them, and sold them all off. My stock now consisted of a cross between the Duke of Bedford's and Squire Western's improv- ed Essex, and were as fine as any I ever saw, be- ing as remarkable for lameness and good nature as the sort I have been speaking of were for the contrary. After breeding flom these for some years, they at last got such a tendency to get fat that they were entirely lard, and almost useless from being too fat. Pork at this time had declined so much in the market, and the prices were so far fi-om remunerating ones, that i parted with my whole stock but one sow at what they would fetch, thinking the first loss the best. From this sow I had too litters [previous to reducing my stock,] by the full bred boar. They were like hersellj short in the snout, had very small ears, hardly any legs, and were so tame that they would eat a few oats out of the man's hand wlio fed ihem. Having now no boar of my own, I had to look out for one; and being informed that a gentleman and neigh- bor of mine had a pretty good one, I sent a man and a cart to beg the loan of him. I chanced to be in my yard when the man returned. My sur- prise was great when I found he had a beast muz- zled and tied down with aquantity of ropes; and on his being turned into the sty, he proved to be a beast raving and foaming at the mouth, with long legs, a long snout, ears twice the size of the sow, and a long shaggy coat covering lank sides. In short, it looked as if my man had got a hyena out of Mr. Polito's caravan, rather than a boar from my neigh- bor's farm-yard ; and, when put together, they by no means answered to the words of tlie old song : " Oh sure a pair was never seen So justly formed to meet by nature." The oflspring of this alliance was exactly what I expected ; the cross had greatly increased the size, the pigs being longer than either of the pa- rents, while much of the boar was to be discover- ed in them ; the snout had considerably lengthen- ed, as had the ears and legs. The whole of my breed were pure while, with hardly any hair on them. The pigs were some black, some spotted, and had a sufficient supply of bristles ; and above all, they were lively, active, wild things, refusing to come near their food while any one stood by, and had lost much of the tendency to get flit. (To be continued.) STRICTURK AND DEFENCE. HAS SILK-CUL- TURE BEEN STRONGLY AND UNEQUIVO- CALLY RECOBIM ENDED BY THE FARBIERs' REGISTER? We have just been shown by a friend a pas- sage of a private letter (dated Feb. 12th,) intend- ed lor reproof and correction of our editorial course; in the matter stated. The lines are as follows : 124 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 " I do not think the Farmers' Register is taking the right attitude in this matter. Why does not the editor give his subscribers at least one essay from his own pen, of no equivocal character, in favor of going directly into silk-culture7— of our giving up at least a portion of the cultivalion of tobacco, and eubstitutina the growing of the ?no- rus, anil the actual makino: of silk? I think that an article of tliis kind from his pen has been look- ed for by many, and would iiroduce efiect. But instead ul this he seems inclined to accord in sen- timent with that most excellent man ; ^ — . who, for some time past, has been making for him- self a hobby, out of the exposure of the hobby- riding of others. Now, my opinion is this : If the mulberry speculation be a mania, every man ought to do his utmost in giving to that mania the hap- piest direction. Urge it — urge it onward to the making of silk." The writer of this remonstrance is a gentleman for whose talents, virtues, and patriotism, we en- tertain great respect, and whose censure, there- fore, we are very unwilling to bear. And as the opinions of one so intelligent may also be enter- tained (and indeed vve have had sundry such intimations from other quarters,) by others of our readers, we shall beg leave to prove that the}' are mistaken, by quotations from the words, or reference to the substance of what vve have said, and in language ''of no equivocal character, " to iirge the adoption of silk-cuhure in Virginia ; and that not only recently, since the mulberry specu- lation has given a very general direction of our countrymen's views to silk-culture, but for years before, when no one else in V^irginia had rais- ed a voice in fiivor of its adoption, and when for years thereafter, there was no echo, or fivor- able response to our own expressions, which probably then passed unheeded by our friendly censor, because he then felt no interest in the sub- ject. We beg of liim now, and our readers in general, to read again the passages quoted or re- ferred to, which are liastily selected by glancing over the "editorial remarks" in tlie index of each volume. Every person who has the volumes in possession may resort to the same sources of infor- mation, and may read many later editorial opinions more fully stated, and more strong, than any we will here quote ; and may also see wliether we have omitted any thing ofopposite tendency. Rut we rea- dily admit this — that wecautiouslij.and but slowly at first, became convinced of the absolute and cer- tain and remarkable fitness of Virginia, and a large portion of the United States for silk-culture— and we have not on this, or any other proposed im- provement, expressed conviction, and certain as- surance, before being truly and entirely convinced and assured of its value. If that degree of cau- tion— which we deem due, both to truth and to the claims and mterests of our readers — has subjected our words to the charge of being "equivocal," then we must be content to bear it, as unpalatable as that word may be. But except that vve have not "run riot" in setting forth and exaggerating the benefits and supposed profits of silk-culture, and have not guarantied the truth of the very common estimates of enormous conjectural profits, (which course would perhaps have satisfied the most san- guine projectors — and would have displeased no one — ) a fair review of all that we have said on this subject, will show, at first, a reasonable and sufficient support of the introduction of silk-culture, gradually increasing to the conviction and certain assurance of its very great value for Virginia. Readers are apt to notice verj' slightly, if at all, opinions on subjects in which they feel no interest ; and also, opinions which are much more moderate than their own, on subjects in which they feel even great interest. We infer that to one of these two causes must be ascribed our friend's finding cur praise of silk-culture either too faint or "equi- vocal." But if he were as warmly enlisted in feel- ing on the other side, and deemed the business altogether unsuitable to this country, we suspect that he would have seen, in sufficiently bold relief, and would have strongly condemned, our long continued, frequent, and xmequivocal recommen- dations of a new culture, deemed by the censor as likely to injure, and in no way to benefit, the agri- cultural interests of this country. The first volume of this journal (commenced in 1833.) contains no editorial writings in recommen- dation of this business ; but sundry selected articles, eitherinstruclingasto the management, or showing the progress made in silk-culture in remote parts of the United States. In the second volume com- menced sundry translations made for this journal, fi'om recent French publications imported special- ly lor the purpose, and which constituted the only, and yet a very valuable source of supply of such information on silk-culture to this country. In presenting these translations, vve were in advance of the interest and demand of the public ; and hence they were then but little noticed or prized. In the publication of our third volume, (at which time the subject was attracting more general at- tention in the northern states, though still almost none in Virginia,) and more and more smce, our extracts and translations increased, with the sup- ply of materials, and with the increase of interest evinced by the public; and latterly we have feared that we had urged the importance of the subject of silk-culture on our readers to the degree of sati- ety, if not of disgust, to those who are not as zealous and as sanguine on the subject as our friend is, and as we claim to be. We proceed to present the extracts of editorial remarks. In vol. iii, Farmers' Register, (1835) page 433, 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 125 occurs the earliest editorial article on this subject, It follows an account ofthe principal silk companies which had then been started. The only omitted portion merely presented some well-established and striking facts in evidence of the fitness of the native mulberry (morus rubra) for feeding silk- worms. "The foretroing article shows at a glance that the people of New England are about to make silk-culture a large and important branch of their rural economy. It is there no new and untried speculation. The business has long been pur- sued in Connecticut, and with results so satisfac- tory as to induce these recent and far more expen- sive investments tor the same object. If good profits can be there made, in the cold and un- friendly climate of New England, (where it is yet a problem to be solved whether the best spe- cies of mulberry can stand the winter's cold,) how much more profitable would the business be in Virginia, and the more southern states'? Our cheaper slave-labor would also afford advantages; and many aged or infirm hands could be profita- bly employed in this business, who are now a useless expense to their owners. Much land that yields no net profit under usual crops, would serve well for mulberry trees. "The opinion expressed above ofthe worth- lessness o( the native (black or red) mulberry tree, \morus rubral for yielding silk, is as general as it is erroneous — and the error (though of use to nur- sery-men,) is very injurious to the community, in causing all efforts in silk-making to be postponed until mulberry trees can be reared. Now, though professing to know very little of silk-culture, we will venture to assert that those who can succeed well, by using leaves of the white mulberry, will not fail, nor do a much worse business, with the black. The black is doubtless somewhat inferior to the white mulberry, as this is to the Chinese: but the difference of products fi-om either two, would not be so great as would be made by the differ- ence of care and management of almost any two new silk-growers." " But while we advise those who wish to rear silk-worms to use the native mulberry trees, if they are ready and convenient, we also recommend to them the immediate planting of a better kind, and especially of the new Chinese, (or morus multi- culis,) for future use. If there is doubt whether this valuable tree will thrive farther north, there can be none here ; and as it furnishes undoubt- edly the most abundant and nutiiiious food, and as the silk business viust extend rapidly, every acre of land now, or soon, planted with cuttings of this tree, will be almost sure to yield a highly profitable crop, either for sale or for use." In the same volume, p. 674, the following re- marks introduced a long and elaborate estimate from the Albany 'Silk-worm,' ofthe expenses and profits of commencing and carrying on mulberry and silk-culture. " We are not competent to decide on the cor- rectness of the following estimates, which how- wer rest upon the respectable authority of the ^ditor of the journal from which they are copied. But this we are prepared to maintain — that if such profits can be obtained near Albany, much greater would reward similar efforts in Virginia, on ac- count of our greater cheapness of land, cheapness ofthe labor which young or infirm slaves, now an expense, might supply — and still more, on account of our longer summers and milder winters. "Most of our readers possibly — and certainly most of the southern people who are not our rea- ders— have no idea oi" the recent great and rapid extension of silk culture in the comparatively un- friendly northern states. Joint-stock companies have been formed in almost every northern state, and large capitals invested, to carry on the entire business, from raising the mulberry trees, to the manufacture ofthe products ofthe worms. Either these people are mad, or we in Virginia, (espe- cially of the middle region,) are in this respect, more than usually blind to our own interest, "Three new periodical journals are specially devoted to giving information on silk-culture — and three new treatises or manuals have been publish- ed, in addition to the several of somewhat older date. These facts, even more than the formation of joint-stock companies and the investment of large capitals, prove that the public mind and in- terest are awakened — that knowledge is every where sought — and that truth must speedily be found, and generally acted upon. VVould that such a spirit of inquiry existed in Virginia, either as to silk culture, or any thing else in which our true mterests are concerned 1 " At page 734 of vol. iii, in some remarks in sup- port of our previously expressed opinion that the seeds of the morus multicaulis would not produce the same kind, and in reply to Mr. Roberts, who maintained the contrary, occur the following pas- sage, which, as well as many others previous and subsequent, exhibits proofs of early interest felt for the propagation of this valuable tree, and of good service offered to the public, in information in regard to its propagation, which, if heeded, would have prevented many impositions, losses, ai.d disappointments, by purchasers relying on the seeds, or pretended seeds. "VVe were the first to make known this Euro- pean opinion, (in an article translated for the Farmers' Register;") and deeming it both true and important, we have frequently endeavored to im- press on tliose who were about to raise mulberry nurseries, not to trust to the seed of the morus multicaulis. In this we certainly had no private interest to serve, either direct or indirect ; to which influence Mr. Roberts attributes the objections of some persons to the use of" the seed. We have presented before, and shall again, in the following piece, opposing views, as freely as our own ; and we should be highly gratified if our brother editor and esteemed fellow-laborer in this cause, can maintain his position — which would be the means of introducing this valuable plant far more rapidly and widely, than merely by the use of cuttings." The next editorial article (vol. iv, p. 126) will be copied entire. In explanation of the failure of the scheme there announced, and in regard to which we were then so sanguine, it is proper to slate that the execution was not even commenced. 126 FARMERS' REGISTER No. 2 It. had been started by a single individual, who was expected to undertake the entire manage- ment, and on whose zeal, care, and judgment, all the other subscribers of stock entirely relied, and were willing to venture their money, though with- out intending to give any of their own time or at- tention. A change ofcircumstances prevented the gentleman, on whom ail operations depended, from undertaking the charge ; and, therefore, no action was taken as to the scheme. "A company has been very recently made up in this place to begin the business of mulberry and silk culture, as soon as the proper season arrives; and from our knowledge of the individuals who have commenced this exterprise, we can safely predict, that there will be nothing wanting to in- sure success, if zeal, energy, intelligence, and the investment of sufficient capital, can command it. We rejoice most heartily in this movement, and consider it as the germ of liiture results of incalculable value to this region. In all our many efforts, made through this publication, to urge the commencement and zealous prosecution of silk-culture in Virginia, we have not pretended to have any personal knowledge of the particulars of the business, or the grounds on which to esti- mate profits. But we have assumed this gene- ral position, which we think cannot be shaken — that if silk-culture is profitable in New England, (as it undoubtedly is,) much more profitable must it he in loioer and middle Virginia. We have su- perior advantages, (for this purpose,) to our nor- thern brethern, in our warmer climate and longer summers, the very low prices of lands, and also in ,a large amount of labor, altogether suitable, and Avhich yields nodiing for other purposes. Lands in the central region, exhausted and hilly, but well suited for the ffrowth of the mulberry, may be now bought at -92 or S3 the acre. For land of much less value for silk-culture, the silk com- panies of the north seldom pay less than ^100 the acre. So great is the difference in these res- pects, that we have long entertained the opin- ion, that by far the best course that a northern silk company could take, would be to establish its operations on a large scale on lands in Virginia. "There is an establishment already existing in Petersburg, which is admirably suited to be devoted in part to raising silk. This is the Poor House farm. This establishment is unusually well regulated, and has already every thing ne- cessary to carry on the silk business on a large scale, except the mulberrj' trees, and a cheap ad- ditional building for a cocoonery. There is enough and good land to plant — plenty of suitable labor, there being usually 30 or more young or infirm paupers, most of whom are fully competent to attend to this light work, and whom it is impos- sible now to employ, profitably, if at all; and moreover, there is already existing that constant and excellent supervision and strict attention, which are indespensable to the success of the silk business, and which it would be both costly and difficult to obtain for a new establishment. Nor would the adoption of this suggestion create a rival to the silk company just formed. On the contrary, every like experiment would serve to aid and increase the lights, and to lessen, by shar- ing the losses, caused by inexperience, of every other new establishment. There is no danger of overstocking the silk market, even if silk were cultivated on every farm in Virginia, between the fills of the rivers and the mountains. " In all the northern states, individuals and so- cieties are everywhere going into the silk-busi- ness. Many and large capitals are already in- vested— and every week there are annunciations of other new undertakings. No one there ex- presses even a doubt of the success and profit of the business : and it should be remembered that silk-culture has already been carried on profitably for more than half a century in Connecticut. Wherever the white mulberry tree grows, (no matter of what color the fruit maybe,) proprie- tors ought to save the seeds of the present crop, as largely as possible. There can be no crop planted that will yield more profi(, for sale, than the young trees, unless it be of the still more valu- able Chinese mulberry. The white mulberry grows abundantly along the shores and banks of James River, and probably on all our tide-waters." In the same volume, p. 251, the following is the first part of an editorial article on "j/nticipated changes in the agriculture of the United States^ " Some considerable time has now passed since we yielded, slowly and with difficulty, to the be- lief, that the introduction of silk-culture in this country would be extended widely and profitably: and since adopting that opinion, we have made continually repeated efibrts to impress on the peo- ple of Virginia, and the other southern states, the superiority of their facilities — in better climate, cheaper land, and the surplus and now expensive hands — for carrying on this new business, over those of our northern countrymen, who have al- ready proved the advantages to be derived, and are investing large capitals in numerous adven- tures for this object. In New England, where most of these efforts are making, there is no su- perfluity of labor. Fortunately, every poor fe- male, and all persons infirm from either tender or advanced age, may be, and usually are, employ- ed profitably, according to their measure of bodi- ly power. Yet si ill it is considered profitable to divert much of this labor to the silk-business: and that too, in a climate so rigorous that artificial heat must be used fi-equentlyin rearing the worms, and the best kinds of mulberries aie often greatly injured, if not killed to the ground, by such severe winters as the last. In Virginia, there is no dif- ficulty as to climate — thousands of now unem- ployed and expensive hands might be given to the work — and lands, now unprofitable or neglec- ted, and at very low prices, would serve as well for planting, as those selling ten or twenty limes as high in New England." At page 335, vol. iv, after giving the resolutions of a public meeting in Loudoun, which recom- mended the introduction of silk-culture at the poor- house of that county, we added the following comment: " We rejoice to see, in the above resolutions, a movement on the plan which we have before re- commended, and «till consider one of the safest grounds on which to commence silk-culture in Virginia. Each of our county and town poor- house establishments furnishes enough of land, labor, superintendence and capital, for this pur- 1839] F A R M E R S' REGISTER. 127 pose. Let lliis most siiiloble direction be given (and in proper manner,) to these now wasted means, and poor-houses might perhaps cease lo be nuisances — expensive, not only of public mo- ney, but of the labor and morals of the most des- titute class of society." All these strong expressions preceded public opinion or feeling in Virginia, and therefore were neither profited by, nor perhaps scarcely noticed, by our readers. But they certainly will suffice to show that our recommendations of silk-cullure were neither wanting nor "equivocal." Since the recent mulberry mania has been raging, and there has thence sprung up, (most fortunately, though by most illegitimate deduction,) a more general and a very strong disposition to enter upon silk-culture, our own previous favorable opinions have been more and more strengthened by the acquisition of new facts; and these opinions have been stated repeatedly, and at length, in sundry articles in the sixth volume, and in the preceding pages of the current volume. It is true that our zeal, and estimates of profits, are still much in the rear of the most sanguine — that we have insisted that the dealing in mulbeiry plants is not silk- cultare — and that, unless turned to silk-culture, the mulberry speculation would be but a bub- ble, not only worthless, but injurious to the coun- try. We have also presented, fairly, selected ar- ticles on both sides, as to the recent appreciation of the morus multicaulis ; and moreover, we have been backward in expressing our own increasing estimation of the market value of these plants, (as founded on the manifest growing movements to- wards silk-culture,) because we were fearfiil of being subjected to a charge directly the reverse of that of our friend — that is of aiding to increase the excitement for buying mulberry plants, because our own private interest would have been greatly benefited by increased demand. We know that our friend has had no such private interest to in- crease his fervor, or to impose a restraint upon his words of advice to the public. If he had, we are sure that he would have felt the weight of such trammels. But however restrained, we claim that our ex- pressions in recommending silk-culture proper, have been numerous, strong, and any thing but "equivocal ;" and we may claim as much in re- gard to the necessary branch and the foundation of silk-culture, the propagation of the morus multi- caulis, the best mulberry tree for feeding. We shall not quote, but merely refer to, these nume- rous passages, which form no inconsiderable por- tion of the editorial articles of the last and current volumes.* And we ara now enabled to add to * There are so many of such passages, and entire articles of great length, which have been published the full exposition of views given at page 60 of this volume, that every day's information since that publication, has served to show that silk-cul- ture proper is about to be commenced in very many parts of the country, and to such extent that we now have no doubt but that trials sufficiently numerous will be fairly made in this and in the other states, to establish the business, and to insure the increase of it to great extent by the next year. This is all that is wanting to establish also the certainty of the profits of rearing multicaulis plants this year. The recent granting of very liberal bounties by the legislature of Georgia, for all silk made in that state, lor the next ten years, will greatly forward this end, even if no similar measure should be adopted in any of the other southern or slave-holding states. A similar law has just passed the lower house of the Ohio legislature. Seven other, at least, of the middle and northern states had offered bounties previously. In making the foregoing quotations and re- ferences, in evidence of early and earnest support of the suitableness of silk-culture for Virginia, we have not gone beyond the pages of the Farmers' Register, because we have no right to suppose tlie opinions of its editor to be known elsewhere. But we will add here, that a much more full and elaborate argument, in support of this very object, has recently been addressed to this community from the same source, through a different form of publication. The material part of that argument will be presented in the next number of the Farm- ers' Register; and if it does not serve to convince the public of its soundness, it will, at least, leave no doubt of the earnestness of the writer in the maintenance of his proposition, that Virginia is not only well suited to profit by silk-culture, but better suited than any part of Europe. From the Farmers' Cabinet. rOOD FOR SHEEP. CAUTION. £)ear Sir, — I have sometimes observed pofafoeg recommended as food for sheep during winter. I have no doubt they are highly nutritious, but they should be used with caution, as I have found that they are injurious to ewes before they have drop- ped their lambs, as they cause such a flow of milk within a few months, that it would be superfluous to quote any. We may refer generally to all the Nos. issued since last July, and particularly to the following editorial articles : On Mr. Hicks' experiment, page 379 ; on the peculiar fitness of Virginia, for silk-cul- ture, 391, and 464, 5, intrinsic value of the morus mul- ticaulis, 391, 464, 467, 493, 497, 500, 504 of Vol. VI, and of Vol. VII, the full exposition of views presented at page 60; and several others in the previous pages of this number, which were printed before the message of reproof was received. 128 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 that the udder becomes so hard and the milk caked or thick, that the young lambs are unable to draw it out ; and without the precaution of milking it out, the lambs must perish. After the Iambs have come, potatoes may be fed to the ewes without danger, and will cause the lambs to grow rapidly. Turnips may be fed to sheep at any time without injury to the lambs. Yours, &c. S. Chesterfield, N. J. Jan. 8th, 1839. For tlie Farmers' Register. MONTHLY COMMERCIAL REPORT. A regular business has been done in most arti- cles during the month. Tobacco maintains the high prices quoted in our last — say $9 to 20. The quantity brought in for inspection has increased, but the quality does not improve much ; the principal receipts consisting of green unmerchant- able lugs and leaf, unfit for export. The export of the month is under 300 hhds — old. Cotton has advanced, not in consequence of the improvement in foreign markets, but from the di- minished supplies in our own; which strengthens the impression that the crop will prove considera- bly short of the last, and liarnish a supply not iul- ly adequate to the demand, on as extensive a scale of consumption as existed last year. The receipts are, 730,000 aixainst 910,000 bales, the exports about 300,000 against 550,000. Prices are nearly fifty per cent, higher than in February last, but manufactured articles have not advanced in proportion with the raw material. The last accounts from England disappointed the expectations of holders of grain and flour. Prices had declined a little, but the averages C78 or 79 shillings per quarter^ were considerably above the rate which admits these articles at the minimum rate of duty. Great exertions are making in England to abolish the corn laws, and there is considerable popular excitement there oa other subjects. The exportation of grain from the Atlantic ports of France, and from Sicily, haa been prohibited. It is stated that on the 20th December, one hundred and twenty-four vessels were taking in cargoes of wheat and barley at Odessa, and so at all the other ports of ihe Black Sea. The Emperor of Russia had loaned three-lburihs of the grain in the government reserves, to be divided among such merchants as had foreign orders ; to be paid in six months without any interest. The exportation of flour from this country to England has been checked by the recent advices, and the stocks in our markets will be greatly in- creased at the opening of spring. The price of fjour in our markets is $8 to 8J and of wheat 160 to 170 cents ; corn 90 cents. Bacon has declined to 10 to 11^ cents. Exchange on England 9 per cent premium. Feb. 25th. X. Table of Contents of mirmers^ Megislet', J\^o. 2, F*ol. T*II. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. Page. Essay on Vegetable Physiology, (continued,) Chap. 3, 65 Do do Chap. 4, 67 Cheap and convenient mode of boring for marl, 78 Analyses of sundry specimens of calcareous rock, or marl, in South Carolina, - - 78 Suggestions for extending the use of lime in Va. The coal trade, 79 Preparations for silk-culture near Georgetown, D. C. ^. . 80 Failure of experiments. Modes of keeping sweet potatoes through winter, - - . 80 Marl. Marl indicator. Prolific corn. Suck- ers. Seed. Deep culture, &c. ... 80 Diaiy of a careful experiment in rearing silk- worms, (in France,) 87 Estimates of the expenses and profit of an actu- al rearing of silk-worms, (in France,) - 91 Operation of magnetism and of time, in improv- ing the temper of fine edged instruments. Cer- tain cure for the jiiles, .... io2 Marsh-mud as manure. Blue marl, . . 103 The last communications of George E. Harri- son, dec'd, ...... 107 The use of imported stone-lime proposed for lower Virginia. Lime for hogs, - . . lOS Editorial remarks on Judge Comstock's letter, 108 The 6oAa/i Mpas of the west, a hoax, - . no Manuring with rotton logs and brush, - . no Answer to strictures in regard to the propagation of silk-worms, HI The former poor and exhausted condition, ear- liest subsequent improvements, by marline, of Coggin's Point farm, - - - °- 112 Page. Stricture and defence. Has silk-culture been strongly and unequivocally recommended by the Farmers' Register ? - - . . 123 Monthly commercial report, .... 128 SELECTIONS. Account of the progress of the making of sugar from beets, in Europe, and the late important improvements, 70 Discovery of earth in large quantit}', formed of the remains of animalcules, - - - 76 Sugar from the pumpkin, .... 73 On the peculiar fitness of the U. States for silk- culture, 83 Product of silk, ascertained by careful experi. ment, 35 Estimate of the value of morus multicaulis, for feeding silk-worms alone, - - - 85 Advantages of the general adoption of the Pied. montese silk-reel, 86 Propagating pear trees ftom roots, - - 95 Memorial of the Internal Improvement Conven- tion of North Carolina, .... 97 Views of the demand, supply, and prices, of the next crop of morus multicaulis, - - . 109 Soap from myrtle wax, . - - .111 Emasculation of the vine, .... 112 New method of applying sulphur to plants, . 112 Root culture. ...... hq Experment in planting corn. Alternation of crops. Gypsum. Fattening hogs, .... 117 Essay on the breeding of live-stock, and the comparative influence of the male and female parent in the offspring, .... jjs Food for sheep — caution, .... 127 Erratum.— In editorial introduction on page 112, for "1833," read "1834." IIIMIIWIIMI THE FARMERS' REGISTER. Vol. VII. MARCH 31, 1839. No. 3. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. ON THE BREEDING OF LIVE-STOCK, AND ON THE COMPARATIVE INFLUENCE OF THE aiALE AND FEMALE PARENTS IN IM- PRESSING THE OFFSPRING. C Concluded from page 123. J I have thus produced tacts of the influence of the male on the progeny in the horse, the cow, the sheep, and the sow, and in all J have endeavored to show to the society, that, whether that parent be the high bred one or not — whether to improve or to deteriorate — it is the inale which has by far the greatest influence over the offspring. I would Btill quote one fact more, which has come under my own eye; it is in the common fowl. In the year 1810, 1 procured a breed of the Malay or Chittagong fowls, and those I crossed once or twice with cocks of the same breed, got horn different quarters. In spring, 1824, they had been bred from cocks reared at home for three or four years, and were then all dark colored, without a white feather, having either black or yellow legs. Most o( them resembled a partridge. At this time I learned tlie,''e was in a farmer's possession a breed of fine Malays, which his brother (a. surgeon on board an Indiaman,) had brought home. I sent and purchased one. He was what cock-fighters termed " pied," or in other words, had numerous white feathers all over his body, with white legs. From this cock were bred, in summer 1824, about Beventy-eight chicks, of which number seventy- three were either pied or had a great deal of white on them ; and a great proportion of them had white legs. Nothing but the iiifluence of the male parents could have done this, for the hens were all gallant hens, not a white feather was to be found amongst them ; nor could it have been owing to their ancestors, for they had all pedigree as long as Sir VVatkin Williams Wynne. Thus far have I stated facts which are known to myself and friends only; I would now mention some which are within the reach of all. Let us call to mind the ofl'spring from the mare and the jackass. Is it not obvious to all the influence the male parent has on the mule? Color, shape of head, ears, and whole body, constitution, even temper, are all derived from the male parent. I had an opportunity of observing the very same effects in the colt from a quagga and a mare, in the possession of the Earl of Morion, at Dalmahoy. And his lordship, I believe, observed that the same mare, afterwards covered by a horse, retain- ed in the progeny a resemblance to the quasiia,* a fact of the most extraordinary nature. t I have been frequently told that a mule got by a horse, with the female ass, is a far superior animal, and retains the mane, with the ears much less, &c. ; but this is a fact 1 never could get to the bottom * The quagga is the species which Hnks the zebra and the ass. t An account of the circumstance alluded to by the author is given by the late Lord Morton, in the Phil. Trans, for 1821, p. 21.— (Edit.) Vol. VII— 17 of. I only know it is believed by the Spaniards.J Nothing can be more striking than the power of the male in birds. Jt is well known that bird fan- ciers, as they are called, put a cock goldfinch to a hen canary, and that way get a strong, beautiful male-bird, having the greater part in plumage, song, and total appearance of the goldfinch, and showing, to the most trivial observer, that the male had the greatest influence in the progeny. tC very one knows that the hen of any bird will lay eggs although no male be permitted to eome near her ; and that those eggs are only wanting in the vital principle which the impregnation of the male conveys to them. Here, then, we see the lemale able to make an egg, with yolk and white, shell and everj' part, just as it ought to be, so that we might, at the first glance, suppose that here, at all events, the female has the greatest influence. But see the change which the male producee. Put a bantam cock to a large -sized hen, and she will instantly lay a small egg ; the chick will be short in the leg, have feathers to the foot, and put on the appearance of the cock ; so that it is a fre- quent complaint where bantams are Itept, that they make the hens lay small eggs and spoil the breed. Reverse the case; put a large dung-hili cock to bantam hens, and instantly they will lay larger eggs, and the chicks will be good sized birds, and the bantam will have nearly disappear- ed. Here, then, are a number of facts known toeve- ry one, or at least open to be known by every one, clearly proving the influence of the male in some animals ; and as I hold it to be an axiom that na- ture never acts by contraries — never outrages the law clearly fixed in one species, by adopting the opposite course in another — therefore, as in the case of an equilateral triangle, on the length of one side being gi^'en, we can, with certainty, de» monstrate that of the remaining; bo, having, found these laws to exist in one race of animals, we are entitled to assume that every species ia subjected to the self-same rules — the whole beaf- ing, in fact, the same relation to each other as the radii of a circle. Now, then, to the point of expediency. Let ua suppose that I have formed an erroneous opimon, and that other essayists brincj forward counter- proof, to show the power of the female. What difficulties arise in changing the whole females on an extensive farm, while, with what ease a new male is procured! Sir John Sebright says, '-Many females throw progeny unlike themselves, and it would be wise to try them with a male whose stock is known previous to breeding from them." How should we manage if we found it necessary from this cause, to put away a set of females, which we had procured from a great distance, for the very purpose of improving our breed? If proof were retjuired in a thing so plan to common sense, the enormous prices given for males in com- J If a mule be remarked in Spain as particularly neat and handseme, the muleteer Wi i always say, "St, $ignor, caballo estavo , padrt ;** Yes, »ir, a horse was his father. 130 FARfllERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 parison ol females, would show the advantage of getting that sex which can give the breeder a hun- dred of his offspring in a season in place of one. Another advantage is the letting out the males to hire lor the season, a thing greatly to be wished the soceity would encourage, and give premiums for. The system is productive of the best conse- quences, a few of which it may be well to bring betbre the society ; and be it remembered that it is only by the male, for a thousand obvious rea- sons, that it can be done. When a person has bred or purchased a male, he not only does not like to put him away, although he perhaps has found out that he is not well calculated, either as to cross or selection, to suit the females he has to put him to; but from the partiality which we all have for our own, it is ten to one but we think an animal," which, in truth, is of no value, to be a very fine one; and thus the breeder patters on with an inferior animal, instead of year by year selecting such a male for hire as he sees would be best suited to correct the faults of his stock. Look to the good arising in our breed of hor- ses from this system, which in fact public stal- lions exemplify. Look how the districts in Eng- land, where the practice of letting bulls and rams of by the season exists, have far outstripped the rest the island in the excellence of the stock which ihey possess; and let any one say if the benefit result- ing from it is not self-evident. If such a thing were to be introduced in Scotland, and I shall hope one day to see it introduced under the patronage of the Highland Society, it ought decidedly to be in the shape of shows or competitions. Then a spirited farmer, or a few neighbors, could join and procure a fine animal at an easy rate : then the ignorant pretending judge would be told the truth by the verdict passed on his property by the pub- lic, who would not spare either his veracity or self- conceit ; comparison would teach all a better taste and judgment; fine animals would be brought from England, and all parts of the country; and rewards, not only of fame, but of emolument, would be conferred on the man who paid the greatest attention to his trade, and consequently brought foward the finest animals. I do not think I can better conclude than by quoting the words of Sir John Sebright, whose ideas on the subject alto- gether coincide with my own. "There is, per- haps," says he, "no means by which the breed of animals can be so rapidly and so effectually im- proved, as by its being the particular business of some breeders to provide male animals for the purpose of letting to hire. No trouble or expense will be spared by those who expect to derive pro- fit, not from the quantity but from the quality of the animals which they breed ; the competition which must always exist between breeders of this description will be a never-failing stimulus to ex- ertion. The common farmer, who seldom sees any stock but his own or that oi' his neiwhborf=, generally concludes that his have arrived\t the summit of perfection. But the breeder, who lets for hire, must frequently submit his own male ani- mals to the inspection of the public, and to the criticism of his rivals, who will certainly not en- courage any prejudices he may entenain of their superiority. Thus each, besides the improvement of his stock, will receive a fair remuneration ; and every breeder have the means of aelectino- the male he thinks best calculated for the females he may happen to possess." I have now, I humbly conceive, shown not only that it is the male parent which is capable of most speedily improving the breed of live stoik, con- nected with agriculture, but that the male is the parent, i'vom motives of sense and sound policy, which we can alone look to for the improvement of our breed of live-stock. From the Farmers' Cabinet. ICE-HOUSES. In your July No, the question is asked, " who will answer to the request of a subscriber to be in- formed of the best plan of building ice-houses, the most suitable situation, &c. &c. '?" As my expe- rience upon this subject has been considerable, and differs, in some respects, from that communicated for the Cabinet in some of the succeeding num- bers, I beg leave to trouble you with it, though at this late day : and ask the lavor of a publication, if you shall believe there is in the premises any information conveyed worth the expense of print- ing. The first great secret in constructing an ice- house, which will preserve the ice until the suc- ceeding winter, consists in making it of considera- ble capacity; to contain from 80 to 100 full ox-cart loads. The next is, that it should be underground, and in a porous soil. If this last cannot be obtam- ed, the inconvenience may be obviated, where the location will admit of it, by a tortuous drain fiom the bottom, so constructed as to permit the pas- sage of the water from the dissolving ice without admitting the introduction of the warm external air; or in a comparatively level situation, by sinkmg a well in the centre, deep enough to reach a porous soil; or, if this cannot be reached easily, of capa- city safficienl to contain eight or ten hogsheads of water, and in^both cases loalled and not filled up with stone. The bottom of the pit may be so con- structed as to have a fiill from the whole circum- ference to this centre. My ice-house is a pit eighteen feet square, and twelve feet deep, walled up with stone as an ordi- nary cellar — the wall eighteen inches thick, and continued one foot above the ground — the roof of shingles, and the ends boarded up with the space of an inch between each board, to admit a free ven- tilation. I fill it in the following manner. When there comes a good snow which drifts a good deal, I collect three or four ox-carts and half a do- zen hands, and chosing a drift which has blown from a grass-field, the snow is cut with a shovel or spade into blocks of a size to be handled with fa- cility, loaded into the carts, which are backed up to the door of the ice-hou.-^e anil tilted in. The bu- siness of one hand is to remain in the ice-house and tramp the snow ivell and evenly doivn. When the snow is in good condition, that is, when it is drifted info high l)anks, and thereby remltred so- lid, the filliiiiris executed with great iiiciiity, econo- my anil celerity. In the winter of 1837," my ice- house Wits filled to the condt of the root in one day and a quarter, by seven hands and two ox- carts, Thedrift was within 150 yards of the ice- house. In the winter of"lS38 T filled the same house in one dny and a half by five hands and ,j three ox-car's. This snow was not. drifted. It was I the last of March, and the prospect of getting drift 1 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 131 snow had failed. It was a wet snow. I had it roll- ed into large balls on one day, and on the next, when the water had pretty well drained out of it, it was |}ul into carls and emptied into the ice-house. In the latter mode when the snow is wet enough to be rolled into balls with lacility, the filling is ex- ecuted with more expedition, and packing very close in the house, it does not dissolve so much as the driven snow. I have filled my ice-house with driven snow so white and clean, as to be used with equal gust in all modes in which ice is used ; but when rolled into balls, even on grass-lands, it con- tracts impurities from the surface, from which it cannot be freed, which render it unfit lor some few of the purposes for which ice is used. For the pre- servation of fresh meat, &c., and for the making of ice-creams, snow is preferable to ice, for an obvious reason ; while for almost all other purposes it may be use(l with almost equal comfort and advantage. Snow is water converted into vapor, exhaled, free from all impurities ; and frozen in the clouds, de- scends to us, and is an appropriate and beautiful, as just emblem of the highest moral purity. Ice is water congealed, with all its impurities, and these are not a tew, and what is of more consequence, the moGt nauseous of them are invisible ; at least this is the character of the water from which the ice is obtained, from which most ice-houses are filled. The filling an ice-house with ice, is, to most persons in the country, even when there is a stream convenient, and a pond even without the expense of constructing one, a job so laborious, expensive, disagreeable, and unhealthy to those actively en- gaged in its operations, that 1 have no doubt many are kept from the enjoyment of this wholesome (when pure,) and grateful luxury by these consi- derations alone. And why should this be so, since an ice-house filled with drifted snow, or snow wet enough to be rolled into large balls, and left fur twelve hours to drain before being put into the ice- house, affords all the comforts, advantages and luxuries which can be derived from one filled with ice. Add to this, the cost of the former, it does not exceed $10, and may be executed in dry and mild weather, and exposes to no disease ; whereas, if filled with ice, the work must be done while the weather is very cold ; or if the ice be dissolving, it is not so good, and greatly exposes to disease those who are employed in the operation, and costs four limes as much. My ice-house is walled with stone. I fill it with- out placing any material betweens the wall and the snow. As soon as it is filled, and the ice sunken sufficiently for that purpose, which will be the first few days of thawing weather, I cover it well with wheat straw, say two or three feet thick, and as it begins to separate from the wall I push the srtaw dovvn as far as it can be got, and occasionally do this during the summer. My ice-house frequent- ly has snow in it when the season comes round tor filling it. Robert H. Akcher. Churchville, Harford, county, Md. From the Farmers' Cabiaet. LIME. Mr. Editor, — Your Cabinet, which is even now, I believe, the beet publication on farming in this country, might be rendered more generally useful, I am sure, if your correspondents (who are nu- merous and able,) would always state the grounds on which they form their opinions. Advice, un- supported by example, is seldom followed ; nor ia the fact that the persons who give it most fre- quently use fictitious names, any incentive to its adoption, especially as the statements and conclu- sions made by them, however true, often appear ridiculous and absurd. If your contributors would all substantiate their statements, (by a relation) as I have intimated before, of the facts and experi- ments on which 'they are founded, and give loo their names and residences, so that people may know on whom they depend, a very great stum- bling block to the usefulness of your paper would be removed. These reflections were produced by the singu- lar circumstance, that although the Farmers' Cab- inet abounds witii testimony in favor of using lime, yet in tliis vicinity there are very few indeed wlio have been prevailed upon by it to give this inval- uable manure a trial. Now, Mr. Editor, if you think the following ex- tract from my journal (free at least from the above objection) will have any tendency to arouse the people of this section of country to their own in- terest, you are requested to give it a place in your periodical. In the spring of 1835, 1 planted a field contain- ing twenty-five acres of land in corn ; this field was a light and sandy soil, and liad been in corn, oats, and pasture, ^vithout any admixture of clo- ver, or manure, successively for a number of years; four hundred and seventy-five bushels of corn was received frorh this field this season, which was considered an uncommon large crop ; the follow- ing spring this field was sown in oats, which at harvest was in some places scarcely worth cut- ting ; the following fall it was sown in wheat, and in the spring following I sowed it in clover; the result of the wheat crop was, that I did not receive as much as was sown, and thinkmg the clover not worth keeping for the scythe, it was pastured un- til fall. Profiting by former experience, I now deter- mined to apply lime to this field ; accordingly in the spring (1838,) I had it well ploughed, and 800 bushels ofstone-lime carefully spread upon twenty acres of the same. It was then harrowed well until in good order, afier which it was struck out lightly four feet square for planting corn, whicfi was done from the first to the fifth oi' May. (My reasons for adopting the above method, was that the land being poor, and having, the fall pre- vious to liming, been manured, I thought, by flush- ing it in the sprifig, and spreading the lime on top and harrowing well would be the best plan to pro- duce a good crop of corn, as well as to improve the land speedily ; and I would observe that the corn was not cultivated so much as I wished, owing to a storm which knocked it about so as to render it impossible to continue cultivating it.) I was careful in leaving but two stalks in each hill. The corn on the twenty acrs, which had been limed suffered but little if any, from the se- vere drought which took place this season, but the corn on the five acres having no lime on, suf- fered very much. The corn was cut^up and shocked in the month of September, and husked out and measured in November. The corn was very dry 1S2 F A £1 M b] R S ' REGISTER [No. 3 and good. The result of this crop was 743 bush- els from (he twenty acres which were Hmed, ma- nured, &c. and 80 bushels from the five acres hav- ing no lime on, making in the whole 823 bushels of corn. It is the conviction of many farmers, that the corn. crops this season would have been much larger, had not the drought taken place. Let us now contrast this last crop oi" corn with the former one, and show the difference as to the land which was limed, manured, &c., and the land which was not, as the soil of this field was alike in quality previous to the above improve- ment. bU3. 1835. Produce of twenty acres, 19 bushels per acre, 380 1838. Do. Qf 20 do. 37 do. do. 743 Or, produce of the whole 25 acres in 1835, 1838. Do. of 20 acres, and 16 buSiels per acre on 5 acres not limed, 80 bushels, 363 475 803 ^8 Showing a difference between the former and the last crop, from 20 acres, of three hundred and forty- three bushels ; and a difference between the for- mer crop from the whole field, and the last crop, of three hundred and twenty-eight bushel.'j. It will appt^ar then, Mr. Editor, that 1 have re- ceived this season 363 bushels of corn more Irom twenty acres of this field than the former crop, which was received from the same twenty acres. Or, taking in the five acres which had no lime on, I received an overplu.s this season of 328 bush- els, there being that number of bushels of corn from the field, more than at the former crop. We will now make some estimate as to the cost of the lime, and I think it costs nothing to those who use it judiciously upon their land. We will take into this estimate the overplus corn from the twenty acres of land which was limed, the over- plus of which is 363 bushels. Land (twenty acres) Dr. 1638. May 1. To am't paid for 800 bushels of lime delivered, $200 00 Tospreading lime, &c. 8 00 Not. Interest on thu money, 7 mo. 7 00 Supra, By 363 bushels of corn at 75 cli. 215 00 Cr. «272 25 By balance remaining on overplus corn, $57 25 Thus it will appear, that after paying for the lime, and for carting and spreading it, and allowing the interest on the money paid, there still remains a balance from tiie overplus corn the sum of $57 25, which will amply pay for all extra labor and expense that the raising of this overplus of corn may be charged with. If such then is the case, which is to me as clear as that two and two make four, how is it that lime ''costs too much,'''' which ap- f)ears to be the hobby-horse upon which too many and-holders in our neighborhood ride upon ; and for which reason it is not used upon their lands. There are few individuals here who have lately given it a trial, and they have been fully satis- fied as to the powerful effects of this invaluable mineral upon their land; and I hope that the time is not for distant when many of our land-holders in this neighboorhood will give it a trial. We shall not then fear but what our section of country will advance too in the march of improvement. R. M. Black. ffneader Hun., N. Cattlt Co., Del., Dec. 25, 1888. From the Silk Culturlst. EXHIBIT OF THE VALUE OF SILKS, IMPORT- ED INTO THE UNITED STATES, AND EX- PORTED, FROM 1821 TO 1837 INCLUSIVE. Silks. Year. Imported. Exported. 1821 $4,486,924 $ 1,057,243 1822 6,840,928 1,016,262 1823 6,718,444 1,512,449 1824 7,204,588 1,816,325 1825 10,299,743 2,590,381 1826 8,327,909 3,367,015 1827 6,712,015 1,871,276 1828 7,686,640 1,270,461 1829 7.192,698 956,925 1830 5,932.243 1,061,054 1831 11,117,946 1,186,129 1832 9,248,907 1,337,073 1833 9,498,366 1,332,872 1834 10,998,964 1,036,057 1835 16,677,547 758,900 1836 22,980,212 762,730 1637 14,352,823 1,207,802 T. L. Smith, Register. Treasury Department, Register's Office, jlug. 31, 1838. From the Franklin Farmer. the short-horn fever in KENTUCKY. The Cultivator and Genesee Farmer were pro- phecying a short time ago, that the cattle fever in the west would soon reach a crisis. Those who are gifted with the spirit of prophecy never fail to find the tacts which verily their predic- tions ; and accordingly, the last number of the Cultivator, in noticing the price of a cow which was lately sold lor !^2000 in Kentucky, announ- ces, that "this is the climax." The lever, hav- ing reached its crisis, according to the opinion of the Cultivator, we wonder that paper had not ad- vised its readers whether the patient would die or get well. Judge Buel is unquestionably an excellent farmer and writer, but clearly he is no doctor ; and if he were, he could not feel the pulse, of a patient, at his distance, fi-om Kentucky. But if our worthy cotemporary will honor our stale by a visit, we promise to accompany him to the farm of every prominent breeder, and he will then be able to study and learn the true pathology of this disease, which at a distance, appears so fright- ful. We will point him to the glorious blue-grass pastures, and the immense fields of "meal, mea- dow and manure," abounding in Kentucky ; we will show him estimates of the exports of live- stock from Kentucky to every quarter of the vast south ; vve will prove to him the great demand for improved animals of any discription, not only existing in Kentucky, but the whole valley of the Mississippi, and which cannot be met; vve will point him to the spirit which is exhibited here of substituting superior for infierior stock, and to the willingness of paying at present a comparatively 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 133 high price in view of the vast advantage which must ultimately result Irom rearing good animals, instead of bad ones ; and we think he will ackow- ledge that these are undoubtedly some ot the pre- disposing causes of this great malady. Will you come, Judge? — We promise you shall graduate before you return to the north. The " climax,^'' however, we think, is not yet attained in Kentucky. The gentlemen who paid $2000 for a cow, have refused an advance on that price for her. One half of the ^2000 cow and calf has been lately purchased by the owner of the other half, at an advance on cost. We do not pretend to say that higher prices than these will hereafter be given, for the animals to which we have alluded, are considered extra superior ; but we are confident that the present current rates will be sustained for some time to come. There is not the least symptom of that decline which inva- riably follows a ^'climax." In saying this, however, we do not wish to be understood as advocating the propriety of every farmer's giving these enormous prices. For the good of the breeding interest, and in view of the more rapid and general spread of the Durham cattle, we wish they could be sold at prices that would justify every farmer in sub- stituting thera for interior breeds of the country. Purchasers can in general, buy Durham cattle in Kentucy as low, if not lower, than they can get animals of equal quality in England, and hence the present current rates will not probably decline very shortly. But we should rejoice to announce such a decline as would enable all to purchase ; although we think those enterprising pioneers who have risked so much money in introducing them into the country, ought to be amply remun- erated. We learn that several individuals and companies in Kentucky, having heavy capital, have gone or sent agents to England to purchase more improved stock of every discription ; and this at a time too, when, it is understood, the price of superior cattle has advanced fill:}' per cent in that country. From tlie Genesee Farmer. ELECTRO-MAGNBTIC POWER. In a latenamberof the Genesee Farmer, an in- quiry was made as to the state of Davenport's electro-magnetic machines, and the probability of their affording a power capable of working thrashing machines of the kind noticed by the in- quirer, as well as affording power for other pur- poses. To this inquiry we can only say, that nothing morels known of the state of Mr. Daven- port's machines, than that he has for some months been at work upon one which it is hoped will jus- tify the anticipations he and his friends appear to entertain of it as a moving power. At the same time, it may be remarked, that the experiments of others, if not of Mr. D., would seem to lead to the supposition, that the increase of power is not in proportion to the increase of size in the ma- chines; and Dr. Page of Washington, who has tried various combinations of this power, and carefully watched the results, is of the opinion that it cannot be made applicable for the purpo- ses requiring great power, or such as now require Bteam, or at least that a single machine cannot be made to exert such a power. Dr. Page's con- clusion may be correct, so far as regards the working of a siniorle machine ; but we think he has himself furnished evidence, that any required degree of power may be obtained by a combi- nation of small machines. In Silliman's Journal for January, 1839, is a paper on this subject by Dr. Page, in the course of which there is a draw- ing and description of a machine made by Mr. Davis, of Boston, of whicli Dr. Page says — "As a proof that electro-magnetism is susceptible of useful application where only a small power is wanted, a sruall engine was made by Mr. Davis in the inonth of July last, by the aid of which an individual gains fifteen dollars per day, by the simpleoperation of drilling the steel-plates for gas burners. I think this may be considered the first instance in which the mechanical application of electro-magnetism has been turned to profitable account." It appears perfectly evident to us, that a combination of^the power of several such machines, like that of several boilers on a single steam-engine, may be nmde to exert almost any power wanted ; whether the expense would be justified in the re- sult, can only be determined when the nature and efficiency of this new agent is better under- stood. As it is, we must for a time be content with the old fashioned agents, horse, water or steam-power, and patiently wait for other devel- opments and improvements. From the Farmers' Cabinet. THE SUGAR BEET AND THE RUTA BAGA. Although the gentlemen who formed (he "Su- gar Beet Society," and introduced the seed among us, have not as yet seen their hopes realized by the establishment of sugar manufactories in Pennsyl- vania, yet they are entitled to the gratitude of our farmers for introducing to their notice an article which must, I think, ere long, be placed at the head of our list of root-crops, as cultivated expressly lor the winter food of our stock. I am aware of the preference given by difi'erent root-growers to the carrot, the ruta baga, and the beet, and that pre- conceived opinion often prevents a lair trial of the merits of other roots. I have the past season cultivated the beet and ruta baga, and were either one out of reach, I should rest satisfied with the other as one of the greatest luxuries for our cattle during the winter, and a rich mine from which to increase the quan- tity of manure, and consequently the crops to which manure is applied ; I cultivated both, in or- der to arrive, by experiment, at some conclusion as to their relative value ; the season has been un- propitious for all root crops, it is said ; as for me, I cannot complain; one sixteenth of an acre planted with beets without manure, (but in a deep rich soil,) twice ploughed, and four times harrowed, gave 65 bushels,; at the rate of 1,040 bushels per acre. One fourth of an acre of ruta baga on an inferior piece of ground on which was put three two-horse loads of manure, twice ploughed and three times harrowed, gave 120 bushels ; equal (o 480 bushels per acre. The beets had a fair chance ; it was nothing but straight-forward work with them from planting un- til gathering time ; but the poor ruta bagas had 134 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 3 up-hill work for six weeks at the beginning ; the drought, the grass-hopper and the turnip Hea, did their work so effectually that I abandoned the crop in despair J however, when the rains came on, ma- ny seeds which had lain in tbe earth vegetated and grew so luxuriantly as to give the above result, where every one who saw the ground predicted there would not be five bushels ; with a fair chance, I firmly believe, my quarter acre would have yield- ed 250 bushels. As to tbe relative value oi'lhe rival crops, I can- not say any thing with accuracy farther than that when our stock of beets was exhausted, and we commenced feeding the ruta bagas, although I have not been able to detect any difference in the quantity of milk in the pails, the quantity of but- ter on the second loeek of turnip feed loas reduced one-third, at which point it still continues ; the quality is about the same. I have no other facts in possession which will warrant me in giving the beet the prelerence. The cattle eat the turnips with the same eager- ness as the beets, and present the same healthy appearance. The horses and store-hogs I find give preference to the beet, the sheep to the tur- nip, and all the fault I have to find is with myself for not raising enough to let the above mentioned worthies comes in with ihe cattle for their daily rations of roots. Others have no doubt dipt into this subject more deeply than I have, and are con- sequently much better qualified from experience and longer observation to arrive at more positive conclusions ; will they let us hear from them? Mahlon S. Kirkbride. Morrisville, Jan. I5th, 1839. From tlie Farmers' Cabinet. ON THE PRKPARATION OF ORCHARD GRASS- SEED FOR SOWING Orchard grass-seed is always in the hull or chaff, and is very light, not weighing more than 12 or 14 lbs. per busliel, and if sown without being first welted, it is very liable to fail though the seed be ever so good. It is recommended to spread it out on the floor, and with a watering pot to sprinkle it, and then mix it well with a rake, and then let it lay till the next day, when if ne- cessary, it may be again sprinkled with water, and mixed up well ; and before sowing it, mix piaster- of-Paris with it to bring it to a proper state for sow^ing. The water and plaster will increase the weight, and cause it to settle close to the ground and enable it to take root. This is one of our most valuable and profitable grasses, and every care ought to be taken in sowing it properly, for on this depends the success of the crop. It is generally sown much too thin; two bushels to the acre is preferable to one by just one half. Re- member that whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. R. From tlie Hampshire Gazette. EXCAVATING BY STEAM- In excavating for the rail-road near Springfield, a machine is made use o(j which is operated by steam-power. Similar machines are also used in other places on the road. The machinery of this macliine, which we are not able to describe, is contained in a small building about the size of an Irish hut, which is placed on ulu'cls, aiul can be moved- as necessity requires. The, scoap, or scraper, (we are ignorant ol the proper name of it,) is something like a coal-hod, with one edge sharp, and containing three or lour large teeth. A huge bail is attached to the mouth of the scra- per, to which is connected a chain that passes over a pully at the extremity ofa projecting crane, and communicates with the machinery within the building; the other end of the scraper is united to a beam, or lever, which passes under the crane. The scraper is let down to the bottom of the ex- cavation, the mouth of it sustaining a downward inclination, and is thus drawn up through the gravel by the chain attached to the bail, and filled. it is then swung off by means of the crane, over a gravel car, the bottom removed by a jerk upon a cord, and the contents discharged. Each scra- per fills a car full, and every operation occupied about a minute. It is said to excavate as rapidly as 2-5 men — making a saving of about 20 men. It can be used to advantage, we presume, only in rather light soils. The Irish view it with a jealous eye, and it is necessary to guard it constantly to prevent their destroying it. They are not pleased with so pow- erful a competitor. From the Maine Farmer^ CARE OP COWS. Some farmers are particular to have their oxen and horses well tended and well fed, but pay no attention to their cows. This is one of the errors which ought to be corrected. Cows that give milk should have a warm barn, the best hay and a feeding of roots every day, and the extra milk will doubly remunerate the trouble and expense. iV.nd cows that are dry, and expected to calve in the spring, should certainly be carefully tended and warmly housed to keep them in Hesh and pre- vent them from contracting any disease which will be likely to affect them after they have calved. Cattle are as liable to take cold from exposure as men are, and by paying a little attention to their comfort you maysavefhem a great deal of suffering, and yourself much loss. A great portion of the accidents which happen to young cows with their first calf, are owing to poor keeping, exposure to cold or some accident during the Avinter, the ef- fect of which is not manilested until after they have dropped the calf A mess of raw potatoes and a little salt regularly given once or twice a week to cows that will calve early, is very beneficial. It will keep their hide loose and have a tendency to produce a healthy-action through- out the whole system. While on this subject, there is one practice more we will name which is followed by some farmers, that ought to be abandoned. This is the prac- tice of putting the hay over into the crib imme- diately under their cattle's noses. In this case they necessarily breath on it, and then will not eat it. A board from the bottom of the partition that separates the " tie-up" from the barn floor, should be removed, and the hay placed against the aperture within their reach. By feeding in this 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER. 185 way you can give them as much as they will eat, and they will make no oris. From Arthur Young's Travels in France, ("in 1787, '88, '89.) ON THE CULTURE OF SILK IN FRANCE. QuERCY. — Caussade. — In the avenue leading to this town, two rows of the trees are mulberries, and these are the first we have seen. Montauban. — Many mulberries here, in rows; and under some of them four rows of vines, and then six or seven times the breadth of corn. When the leaves are not in time lor the worms, or are destroyed by frosts, they are led with let- tuce leaves ; and if no lettuce, with cabbage; but the silk is so worthless, that the failure is reckoned nearly equal to having none at all. Toulouse to Noe. — Mulberry trees are here worth from 6 sows to 20 sous, and 30 sous each, per annum, according to their size. Noe. — Mulberries worth up to 3 livres per free, per annum. But silk worms have missed much for three years past. Norbonne. — Many mulberries; all with pruned flat heads. Pinjean. — Olives are a beneficial article of cul- ture, but ihey prefer mulberries, because ihey yield a crop every year. On four seterees of land they have sixty trees; and at the same time the land yields barley or oats, mown for forage, of which the four seterees gives 60 quintals, that sell at 33 sous the quintal. Single mulberries have paid as far as two louis each, and many one louis. If tour seterees equal two acres, there are thirty trees on an acre, and the acreable produce of forage will he 52 livres, or 2£, 5s, 6d. Nisiues to Sauve. — Seven mulberries on an En- glish rood. Qiesac. — Mulberry leaves sell commonly at 3 livres the quintal. A tree yields from one to ele- ven quintals: two, three, and fjur are common. Gathering the leaves cost 12 sous the quintal. Fifteen quintiils of leaves are necessary ibr one ounce of grain, [the seed or eifgs ol the vvorni] : 20 livres the mean price of silk per lb.: reckon that an olive tree pays as well as a mulberry. Many mulberries about Quesac, and sonift on very poor dry laud. In grass- fields the ground is kept dug arounii them, as far as the branches ex- tend. Remark some stones laid around many trees, for soaie distance from ihe stem. Eight trees in somethiriir less than an EnHish o o o rood. By infiirmation, ahuonds, in Rouverge, pay bet- ter than mulberries, and with much less expense and aitemioii ; 3, 4, 5, and 6 livres a tree. Gange. — iSlany fine mulberries about this place, whiidi yiehi fi"om 3 livres to 8 livres a tree in comnioi!, young ont-s exclude. I. They \ieid 'o twelve quintals of leaves ; in general, three, (bur, or five. The price varies fi-oin 3 livre-i to \Qlivres the i]iiiiital. They are much more valual)le than olives. Tins yciu* the great cold in Aj)ril destroy- ed tlie younsj buds and hurt the crop irrpailv. They never think olgivnitr any thing to worms b(.i the leaves ; have heard of iweu'y thiuijis, hut treat the idea with the irreatest contempt, knowinir as they do, by the fabric, the worthlessness of silk, if the worms au so led. Lndeve, — Mulberries are more profitable than olives; yield three, lour, and five quintals of leaves, which fell, in common, at 3 livres. Mirepoix. — Mulberries are here, but none after, in going from Carcassonne to St. Martory. Auck. — A lew mulberries near the town. It is here to be noted, that from Mirepoix to Bagnere de Luchoii, and from thence by Pau to Bayonne, and back by Dax to Auch, a line of much more than 300 miles, 1 savv no mulberry trees. GuiENNE. — Leyrac. — Some few mulberries. Aiguillon. — A Itiw trees for some miles before this place. Behind the chateau, in the town, is a large plantation, formed by the late duke; which, being in the fine vale of the Garonne, the land is cultivated as the rest, under hemp and wheat ; but both those crops are less than middling, the ex- pression of the person who gave us the informa- tion, on account of the roots and shade of the trees. The duke gives Ihe leaves to the people in the town, furnishing also the wood, boards, grain, and whatever else is necessary for (he busi- ness, and has in return the third part of the silk they make. Every one in the place, and all round the country, say that he loses considerably by it; asserting, that the land thus occupied is worth 500 louis a year ; that the crop of silk is so preca- rious that he has had eight quintals, and in other years only three, two, and even one; so that on an average, his third part gives only 150 louis, and the crops under the trees cannot make up one- half of the deficiency. They also maintain, that the land is too rich for mulberries ; and, to prove that they are right in their ideas, they quoted ma- ny srentlemen in the neighborhood, who have grubbed up their mulberries.* Tours. — They have in the neighborhood of this city many mulberries, insomuch, thai the value of the raw silk has amounted, as they as- sert, in a good year, to a million o\' livres. I walked several times into the country to view Ihe trees and make inquiries. Many of Ihe corn-fields are re- gularly planted all over ; the gardens are surround- ed with I hem ; and the roads and lanes have rowa ol them. The large good trees, in a favorable year, give to the value of 4 livres, but not in com- mon. I viewed several plantations; containing old, young, good, and bad, that gave on an aver- age, one with another, 30 sous, which seemed, from various accounts, to be a general medium; it, however, excludes very bad years ; such, for instance, as last spring, in which they had no crop at all, the frosts in April (note, this is certainly one of the finest climates in France,) having entirely destroyed.it. I saw several trees which gave to * All the places before named, are in the southern extremity of Fiance. Toulouse is as far south as the northern shore of the Mediterranean, near Montpel- lier. Tours, in Touraiiie, the next named place, is on the Loire, and about midw ly between the northern and southern extremities. Since Young's account was written, the mulberry plantations and silk-culture of Touraine have greatly diminished, as appears horn an inquiry into the causps, instituted by the Royal and Central Agricultural Society of France, as published in the .dnnales de l\/Igriculivrc Francaise, for 1834. — See page 257. — Ed. Fak. Kkg. 136 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 3 the amount of 10 to 15 sous at ten years old, and 30 sous at the age of fifieen years. Plants, at two years old, are sold at 3 /i«res the hundred : at three years old, 4livres : and good trees, proper to plant out in an arable field, 20 sows each. In regard to the distance, at which the trees are planted, they have no general rule. I measured many distan- ces, in a large corn [wheal] field, and found them at two rod squaije, at an average: in another, they were six yards by nine ; which trees gave 40 sous on a medium : round a garden they were at five yards from tree to tree: a field, entirely crop- ped with mulberries, had them in rows atone and a half rod ; and between the rows another ofsmall plants, in the manner ofa hedge, llsixty square yards are allowed per tree, there will be eighty on an acre, and if they give 30 sous each, it will amount to the vast produce of 5 livres per acre, besides what can be gained under them; it would, however be a question, whether this under-crop would make up tor bad years, that yield nothing? Around field, in roads, corners, &.c., the profit will be greater, it is remarkable, however, that with all this profit attending them, they do not increase about Tours; yet not one acre in a hundred adapt- ed to the culture, is so employed, vvhicli shows either a very uncommon want ol"capital, or doubts whether the cultivation is so profiiuble as it ap- pears to be from such information. In order to spread the cultivation, government established nurseries, and gave the trees gratis, until private nurseries were opened; and in wind- ing the silk much assistance was also given, to the loss to government, of 20 sows per lb.; but now the business is carried on without any premium of that sort. Probably such encouragements were of very little use; the abuses incident to all governments would direct such assistance to be given where it was not wanted ; and in that case it would, by raising disgust, do mischief. They plant no mulberry but the white ; the black they think very bad. NoRMANDiE.* — Bizy. — Haviug read, in the memoirs of some of the agricultural societies in France, that the marshal duke de JBelleisle made a very considerable and successful experiment on the introduction of the culture of silk in Norman- die, on his estate at Bizy, I had lono ago made a note of it, for examining; as the steps which pro- ved successful in such an attempt in Normandie, might probably have the same effiict. if applied in a climate so similar as that of England. ! went to Bizy with this view, and did what 1 could to find out the proper persons, concerned in this un- dertaking, to give me the information that was ne- cessary. Five-and-thirty years ago, the duke began by making some extensive plantations of mulberries, to the amount of many thousand trees : thev suc- ceeded well ; and, in order to draw all the advan- tage possible from them, as the people in the neighborhood were ignorant and awkward in the process, the duke, by .means of a friend in Pro- vence, procured a man, his wifij, and all his chil- dren, well skilled in the whole business of the silk- worm, and established them at Bizy, in order to instruct his own people in it. By these means, he made as much silk as the produce of leaves * Normandie— in the northern part of France, and on the southern coast of the Eiigliuh channel. — Ed, F. R. would admit. I wished to know to what announl, but could not ascertain it ; but the duke continued his plantations of mulberries during nine or ten years. 1 trie^ hard to find out some descendant or remains of this Provencal family, but in vain ; the man was dead, the woman gone, and the children dispersed; the estate, on the marshal's death, having been sold, and coming into the pos- session of the duke de Penthievre, made all these circumstances the more difficult. The great object was. the success of the experiment; this inquiry was uniformly answered by several persons : — it had no success at all. It was a lavorite project of the duke's, and supported, with perseverance, for many years, until his death ; but the silk did not pay charges: and though he very liberally offered leaves to the poor people, on easier terms than they are supplied with them in the south of France, and even gave trees ; yet nothing more was done than what his influence and authority forced : and the Provencal family, after ten years experience, pronounced that the climate would do to make silk, but not with profit. To his last hour the duke had silk made, but not an hour longer; the practice had taken no root: the country peo- ple, by whom alone such an undertaking could prosper, saw no inducement to go into the scheme, and the whole fell at once into utter ruin and ne- glect on the duke's death ; so that the trees them- selves were by degrees condemned, and the num- ber remaining at present are inconsiderable. Cer- tainly no positive physical proof that silk will not do in Normandy, but it is a presumptive one, pretty strongly featured. Go into Languedoc, Dauphine, and Provence, and the poor people do not want the exertions of marshals of France to induce them to breed silk-worms; they have a much more powerfijl inducement — the experience that it is their interest: had this inducement been present at Bizy, the culture would, in more than ten years, have taken root. BouRBONNois.* — Moulins. — Mons. Martin, gardener of the royal nursery here, who is from Languedoc, cultivates silk with great success ; he was so obliging as to be as communicative as I could wish. Trees of two or three years old yield a lew leaves, but to be stripped cautiously: at eight or ten years, they come very well into yield- ing. One ounce of grain, that is, of the eggs of the worms, requires twenty quintals [one hundred weight English] of leaves, and yields from 7 lb. to 9 lb. of silk. He has made as far as 300 lb. in a year, the produce of 3,000 lb. of cocoons ; and the worms that year eat 12,000 lb. of leaves every day, for four or five days together, and fifty per- sons were employed for eight days. The whole business of hatching and feeding employs a month; the winding is afterwards done at leisure. For care and attendance of the worms, gathering the leaves, and winding the eilk, he gives one-fourth o( the produce, or about 6 livres the pound of silk; for spinnings livres ; in all, 9 livres ; rest profit, 15 livres. I'he men earn 20 to 24 sous a day, and the women 8 to 10 sous. He prefers this climate for the business to that of Languedoc, thoufrh stoves are here necessary for keeping the room to the temperature of 18 degrees, Reaumur; whereas in Languedoc they do without fires. The season here varies from fifteen to twenty days ; the • Bourbonnois— east of the centra! part of France. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 137 earliest is the 2-k!i of April, and ihe latest Ihe 15th of May. If the leaves are not ready, he keeps the hatcliiniT baciv, by lodging the grains in a cool cellar. He has known one tree in Languedoc yield 80 livrcs a year in silk. Moulinsand its en- virons make to the value of 60 or 80,000 livres a year. Motis. Marlin sells trees, of two years old, at 20 livres the thousand. The distance of plant- ine operation de- mands wood to the amount of 24 livres to each ounce of grains. A common method of conduct- ing the business is, for the proprietor of the land * Vivarais — more south. About midway between the centre and the Mediterranean. t Dauphine — in the south-eastern part of France, and in the same latitude with, and adjoining Piedmont in Italy. Vol. VII— 18 to find trees and half the grains, the poor people the other half and all the labor; and the parties divide the produce between them. The imftedi- ments in the culture are, — 1. climate ; frosts in the spring destroy the leaves, and, if at a criti- cal time, there is no remedy. I demanded if they had no succedaneum, in such case, in feed- ing the worms with the leaves of some other plants? The answer was, that experimeiits had been made upon that point, without any success ; that the idea, however, was nonsense, for the quantity of food was so great, as to render it ab- surd to think of providing it, not for a certain want, but merely a contingent one ; the expense of such a conduct would absorb all the profit. Nor is it frosts only that are dreaded; great and sudden heats make the worms fail, and they labor very I)oorly. 2. The extreme labor of attending the worms, is a ijreat objection to the business ; it is, lor the last fifteen days, so severe as to kill many; and, for the last eight days, they are cleaned every day. Upon a comparison of the culture of the olive and the mulberry, it was remarked to me, that one great advantage of the olive, was the contracted space in which the roots feed, consisting chiefly of a tap-root and fibres, which made the crops sown under them good ; but a mulberry threw out a pro- lusion of roots, fifteen or twenty feet around in every direction. They have been known, at eleven years growth, to yield 200 lb. of leaves each tree. The mulberry is found not to like water; for there is in the watered meadows a mound of earth, 1» keep the water from the roots of these trees. When silk-worms are ready to spin the cocoon, if they are cut in halves and thrown into vinegar, each worm gives two transparent ligaments, very strong, for making fishing lines, &c. &o. Loriol. — Mons. L'Abbe Berenger, cure of ibis place, has given an uncommon attention to this culture ; he was so obliging as to give me the re- sult of many years' experience on this interesting subject. Time of sowing. — There are two seasons ; the first, with the fi'uit, fresh, at the end of June — the second in May, with the seed of last year, dry ; and this is better, because the June sowing suf- fers sometimes, if frosts are severe, or the weather is both cold and humid. When sown dry, if too early, and cold weather succeeds, they are apt to fail. They are often watered. Transplantation .—In April following, those that were sown in May arc transplanted, three leet eve- ry way, into the nursery ; only half the plants (the best) being drawn, the rest are left till the year af- ter. They are never transplanted a second time. Sort. — The Jeueille rose, with white or grey fruit, is the best ; black fruit not known here, but said to he good for leafing late, and escaping frosts in the spring. Grafting. — It is best to graft, in the nursery, in May, when they are three y^ears old, at the head, with grafts cut" in February preceding, and pre- served in sand in a cellar: these grafts are branch- es three fiiet long, which are buried in sand, except lour inches at the end, for three or four knots to shoot ; if all are buried in the sand, all the knots will shoot. At grafting cut off those knots that have shot out, and use the rest. The time is after gathering the leaves of tlie standard to be grafted, 138 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 when the plants are 5 feet, or 5| feet high. One year after grafting, transplant, that is, about April. Graft three or four branches. Soil. — Good and humid sands, and sandy loams are the best: warm, Ibrvvard, rich, and (riable : roclty and stoney soils do well ; but all clays are bad. On the lightest stoney lands, the trees come into bearing much sooner than in the rich vale, but these last vastly longer ; on the rich vale-land, two hundred years are a common age for them. Planting. — In bad land plant at eighteen feet square, in moderate at twenty-four, and in very good at thirty-six ; and, after seven or eight years, there can be no crops under them, if at these dis- tances. There are two sorts of trees, the one large standards; and the others dwarf ones, which they call niurier nain ; an arpent contains, of course, many more in number of these than of the others ; and they yield, (or the first ten or fifteen years, a larger produce, but afterwards the great- er trees are more productive. The dwarfs are best for being set in rows, for ploughing between ; they are grafted at 1| feet high ; are never water- ed. The price of trees 25 sous the hundred, at the age of one or two years ; the great trees, at four or five years, for grafting, 20 sovs each, at present 15 sous each, and grafted. The operation of planting is performed by digging a hole 6 (eet square, and 2| or 3 feet deep ; and they commonly lay dung upon the roots. Cultivation. — The attention with which they manage the trees after planting, merits the highest commendation — after they have been planted two years, a trench is dug around each tree, about two feet deep, which is left open all winter, and filled up again in the spring; the year following, another is dug, more removed from the tree, which is man- aged in the same manner ; and so on, every year a trench, till the whole land is stirred as far as the roots extend. This appears to be a most excel- lent system, and preferable to trenching the ground at first ; as in that way much of it is consolidated again, before the roots of ihe young trees reach it. No crops whatever to be sown on the land after the trees are of a size to have their leaves gath- ered ; as much is lost in leaves as is gained by such crops. The trees should never be pruned at any other season than March, and but once in two years ; the wood pays the expense : they receive one dig- ging per annum, at 6 livrcs, and a hoeing at 3 livres per arpent. There is anotheradmirable practice known here, and used by all skilful cultivators, which is, that of washing the stems of the treesevery year, in May, for four or five years afler planting. Mons. L'Ab- be Berenger always practises this with great suc- cess. Produce. — For the benefit of the young trees they ouglit not to be stripped for seven oT eio-ht years after planting into the field; they will pay well afterwards (or this forbearance ; but the prac- tice is not common. I viewed a young plantation of Mons. Blanchard, at present in the national as- sembly, who is famous for his attention to his mul- berries ; the trees were six, seven, and eight years old, and none of them had ever been stripped, and their appearance was very flourishing. Mons. L'Abbe Berenger approves the practice, but has not adhered to it ; his trees, however, are very fine, and do not complain ; one plantation, of eight or ten years growth, that have constantly been stripped, are, notwithstanding, very fine. There arc (brty on 400 toises of land, that this year pro- duced, each tree, 8 lb. of leaves. The beginning of February he planted the land under them with potatoes, which weredugin August, and produced forty quintals; among these potatoes maize was planted in April, in squares of five or six feet, and the produce of that will be five or six quintals, at 8 livres the quintal. He shewed me another plan- tation, of an arpent, of very fine and flourishing dwarf frees, which yielded this year 8 lb. of leaves each tree, and 300 lb. on the arpent. They are ten years old ; no crops have ever been sown un- der them. The produce of leaves may be estimated at 50 lb. from a tree of a toise square. The greatest produce known is 10 quintals, from a tree of fifty years old. At twenty years the medium is two quintals. They increase till sixty years old, but are in good perfection at twenty. TTie -Eggs. — A paper of nine inches by fifteen inches, covered with small leaves, stuck full of worms, gives one quintal of cocoons ; and this is what they call one ounce of groins. But propor- tions will not hold, for the produce is not increased proportionably lo an increase of quantity. Hatching. — Retarding the hatching of the worms with particular views, is, in many circum- stances, impossible. When once the heat of the atmosphere is come to a certain pitch, the hatch- ing cannot be retarded by cellars. Mons. Faujaa remarked, that in June, they would hatch in an ice-house ; which shews that at a certain age they will hatch in spite of cold. They never, however, trust to the natural heat for hatching them, which always does it too slowly; it is done with the as- sistance of fire, and in the month of May. They begin to hatch at 20 to 22 degrees (Reaumur) ; but artificially it is done at 24 degrees. When the eggs happen lo have been put in a cellar, at 10 degrees, their common temperature, they after- wards hatch with difficulty, and never well ; al- ways best when they have to undergo but a mo- derate change. Feeding. — In this business all sorts of food, ex- cept the mulberry-leali is rejected, at the first men- tion, as the most ridiculous, impracticable, and im- possible idea, that ever entered the head of a vi- sionary; and never could be conceived but by those only who amuse themselves with a lew worms, without taking the trouble of calculating quantity, expense, and quality of silk. For one ounce of grain, a room of 10 feet by 14 feet, and 12 feet high, is necessary ; but the larger the better, and with windows only to the north. There should be ten tables, or shelves, 6 feet long, and A\ feet broad, one 18 inches above another; the first expense of which 60 livres. Till the 18'.h of April, there is here no security against frosts. Two years ago there were many leaves before that day, and most people began their operations ; the leaves were all cut off", and (hey lost the year entirely, (or it is three weeks before the leaves come again. Mons. L'Abbe Berenger would not trust appearances ; did not begin till after that day, and had as good a year as at any other time. The expences are usually borne between the parties, and amount to half the produce, not in- cluding the keeping the utensils in repair. But if 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 133 they are paid by the owner nf the mulberries, some of them amount to as follow: — gathering the leaves, 12 lo 15 sous the quintal ; for gathering the dwarfs, only half the price of the others ; wood, 15 livres for 1, 2, or 3 oz. of eggs in one room ; 30 livres lor 6 oz. because in two rooms ; 22 livres 10 sous for labor in the house; spinning, 40 sous per lb. of silk. The waste is worth 20 sous, therefore the expense is 20 sows. For the last lour or five days, eight men are ne- cessary to gather leaves for 20 oz. of gain, their voracity being incredible the latter part of the time. The price of the leaves, if bought, is 4 to 5 livres the quintal, never at 3 livres, but has been at 10 livres. From 15 to 18 quintals of leaves give one quintal of cocoons, and one of cocoons gives 9 lb. of silk. Cocoons are sold at 26 sous the pound ; silk, on an average, at 19 livres. The leaves, dissected by the worms, are dried, and kept for hogs, sheep, &c., being worth four livres the quintal ; and an ounce of grain yields two quintals of such : and the dung of the worms, from an ounce, is worth 4 livres more, being excellent ; the best indeed of all others. Two brothers here, Messrs. Cartiers, have had as far as 80 quintals of cocoons, Mons. Beren- ger's three hundred trees on an arpent, at 8 lb. of leaves each, are 24 quintals ; and, at 4 livres the quintal, amount to 96 livres; and as 16 quintals of leaves gives 9 lb. of silk, at 19 livres, it is 171 livres; and for 24 quintals 256 Z/tjres, the half of which is 128 livres ; hence, therefore, to sell the leaves at 4 livres the quintal, does not answer equally with half the produce, (128 livres per ar- pent de Paris, is £6. 4s. Bd. per English acre.) Provence.* — jivignon. — At 10 years growth the mulberries yield a considerable produce ; at that age they give 100 lb. to 150 lb. of leaves, but not common. For one ounce of grain, five or six very large trees ate necessary ; or, if the leaves are bought, to the amount of 24 to 30 livres. The ounce will give from 40 lb. to 50 lb. of cocoons, or 5 lb. of silk , but more commonly 12 lb. of co- coons for 1 lb. of silk. Gathering the leaves 10 or 12 sous the quintal, one with another, dwar/s and standards. The waste pays the spinning. jiix. — Mulberries, beyond all comparison, more profitable than olives ; will give 3 or 4 livres per tree, more regularly than olives will 10 sous ; but the great plantations of olives are on barren rocks that will not do for mulberries. Tour d'^/gwes.— One ounce of grain requires 15 quintals of leaves, and gives 50 lb. of cocoons ; that is, 50 lb. in a small undertaking, like the house of a poor family ; but not more than 30 lb. in a larofe building. Mons. the President has, however, had 15 oz. of grain that gave 40 lb. one with another: 14 lb. of cocoons give 1 lb. of or- ganzine silk. On good land, twenty trees, of ten years old, will give 15 quintals of leaves. The waste, with the addition of 10 sous per lb. will pay the spin- ning. Wood is 12 sous the quintal, and 1^ quin- tal will wind and spin 1 lb. of silk : and one quin- tal of charcoal will make 3 lb. of silk. The com- mon calculation is 10 quintals of charcoal for 1 oz. of grain. * Provence — the south-eastern extremity of the kingdom, and bordered by the Mediterranean. Labor and fuel, 40 sous per lb. of silk, exclusive of gathering the leaves ; but the common method is to find the trees and the grain, and give half the produce for all the rest. The whole business, exclusive of winding and spinning, employs ex- actly a month. Hyeres. — This article is here but little regard- ed ; the number is not considerable, nor do they pay nearly the same attention to them as in Dau- phine. A tree of twenty years pays about 30 sous ; and some, of a very great size and age, 6 livres. Frejus. — Close without the town, on the banks of a small canal of irrigation, are five or six of the largest mulberries I have seen, growing close to the water's edge ; from which it should appear, that they have here none of that objection to wa- ter which was mentioned to me at Montelimart. Estrelles. — At the inn here there is a mulberry- tree which yields black fruit, and leaves of a re- markable size. I asked the master, if he used them for silk- worms? Never, he replied, they are no better for them than elm, oak, or pine leaves : it is the white mulberries that are for worms. So inaccurately understood is this point, even in the silk countries ; for in Languedoc they told me, all sorts were given indiscriminately. This tree would be worth 2 or 3 louis a year. To these notes, taken by myself, 1 shall add a k\v others, for the more general elucidation of the subject. Languedoc yields, in a common year, from 500 to 1,200 quintals of silk.* I have searched books in vain for information of the quantity of silk pro- duced in all France; but I find the number of looms which work it, by one account, 29,000,t of which 18,000 at Lyons ; but by a later and more authentic account, there were ai Lyons only 9,335 looms, which worked about 2,000,000 lb. J and in all France 17,500 looms ; which, in the same pro- portion, would work about 3,763,000 lb. In 1784, she imported raw silk to the value of 29,500,000 livres, and in 1787, to 28,220,000 livres; call it 29 millions, and 20 livres the mean price per lb. it is 1,450,000 lb. II ; which will leave about 2,310,000 lb. for the home produce, or 46,200,000 livres, which is so gross an impossibility, as to ascertain to a certainty, the exaggeration of the number of looms, and confirms, in a fresh instance, the many errors in the new Encyclopasdia. If Languedoc produces only 100,000 lb. all the rest of the king- dom cannot produce twenty times as much ; for the culture is confined to three or four provinces, except small quantities, that enter for little in a general account. I was informed, at Lyons, that the home growth was about a million of pounds weight, of two-thirds of the value of the imported per lb. or about 20 livres. This makes the growth to the value of 20,000,000 livres or £875,000. If so, Languedoc must produce more than 100,000 lb, for that province must be at least one-iburih, if not one-third of the whole, I must confess I * Considerations sur le Commerce de Bretagne, par Mons. Pinczon du Sel des Mons. 12 mo. p. 5. t Lettre sur les Muriers and Vers a sole, Journal Oe- conomique. 1756, vol. ii, p. 36. X Encyclop. Melhodique Manuf. torn, ii, pt. 2, p. 44. II A very late writer was strangely mistaken, in say ing;, that France imports 20,000,000 of pounds wei^^ht. Mr. Townshend's Journey through Spain vol. i, p. 52. 140 FARMERS REGISTER. [No. 3 have my doubts ui)on this point, ami think that even one million of pounds much exaggerated, for 1 crossed the sili< country in more than one direction, and the quanlity of trees appeared in- considerable for any such produce. But admitting the authority, and stating that tl\e kmgdom does produce to the amount of 8 or £900,000 sterling, I must remark-, that the quantity is strangely in- considerable, and seems to mark, that the ciiraale has something in it vastly inferior to that of Italy, lor the production oC this commodity; in which country there are little principalities that give more than the whole kingdom of France. Yet, to hu- man feelings, there is no comparison between the climate of France and that of Italy; the former is better, beyond all question. But the spring frosts (found in Italy also,) are what brin» the greatest destruction on this culture, and will for- ever retard its progress greatly in countries expos- ed to them. In 1788, there was a general failure in the south of France, yet across the Pyrenees, in Catalonia, the crop was abundant, merely be- cause the spring frosts did not pass those moun- tains. In the districts and spots of the southern pro- vinces, where the chmale has, from experience, been found favorable to silk, there is no want of exertion in following it; and about Loriol and Montelimarf, i't is cultivated with more energy than in any part of Lombardy ; yet at small dis- tances there are no mulberries, though the propri- etors are as rich and as industrious as where they are (bund. The sama observation is to be made every where, and seems to mark a great depen- dence even on the locality of climate, if I may hazard such an expression. Where the culture succeeds well, it appears, from the preceding mi- nutes, to be highly profitable, and to form one of the most beneficial objeci-s that can attract the at tention of the industrious. ESSAY ON THE PRODUCTION OF SILK, AND THE PECULIAR ADVANTAGES OF VIU- GINIA FOR THE CULTURE. (By the Editor.) I. Sketch of the natural history of the silk' loorm. The silk-worm, like all other insects which are winged in their most perlect state, passes through three diderent conditions of existence, three en tirelydiHerenl kinds not only of outward ibrm, but of instincts and of habits; and in each one oi' these tbrms and conditions, the animal is as diil'er- ent from either of the others, as a beast is differ- ent from a bird, or either from a fish. These transformations of insects are of such common oc- currence, and so general, as scarcely to be noticed ■by most persons ; and yet they are so wonderful, that if they were rare, or the knowledge of them depended upon the testimony of others, the facts would not receive belief^ Small and humble as these may be considered among the works of the great creator of all things, there are none which more strikingly display the wisdom of design, and the wonderc! and beauty of his workmanship. With variations of time, lijrm, and circumstance, as numerous as are the difierent kinds of winged insects,. all of them agree m being subjected lo these three successive changes : First, from (he egg is hatched a a worm or maggot, winch mere- ly devours voraciously its proper ibod, l()r its ap- pointed time. Secondly, it becomes a chrysalis, of contracted size, and of form and appearance altogether unlike, cased in a close envelope, in which it remains dormant, motionless, and appa- rently lifeless, and without food or respiration, for days, or months, or even lor years, according to ila kind. Next, it bursts this envelope, and comes forth a winged animal, which refuses its former chosen food, and is incapable of existing in the habits or condition of either of its previous forms. Many of these last forms are among ttie most beautiful and splendid of the animal kingdom; and nothing but the imperfection of iauitian vision prevents remarkable beauties being seen to deco- rate the most common, and the least noticed, of flying insects. With most classes, the llmctions of their winiied state are so much the most im- portant, that we scarcely notice their previous states of existence ; while in others, and the moth from the silk-worm is one, lilii in the winged state lasts but a few days, and its only purpose is the reproduction of the kind. The eggs of the silk-worm will hatch in the natural temperature which usually Ibllows soon after the putting forth of the leaves of the mulber- ry trees, which eerve for its peculiar Ibod. Un- less checked by too cold a temperature, or by other unliivorable circumstances, and when sup- plied plenlillilly with their proper Ibod, the worms- increase rapidly in size. But as the skin does not grow with the general developement of the ani- mal, the body, in a few days becomes too large for its covering. The worm then becomes slug- gish, and its appetite is suspended ; by a curious provision of nature, (comnr.on to many of the lower orders of animals,) the distended skin bursts open, and the before compressed worm comes forth, again to expand in growth, until the same pro- cess of release again becomes necessary. In this manner, four successive moullings, as they are called, are perlbrmed ; that is, four distinct skins are cast off', in succession, as the worm out grows them. The times of t>hese moultings are sur- prisingly regular, under regular treatment, and like circumstances. And even with the greatest irregidarity of treatment, not injurious to the health of the worms, these several moultings are are finished in from 25 lo 3.5 days. The worm has then increased to forty times lis first length, and to nine thousand times its first bulk and weight. It then ceases to eat ; and, lor the [jurpose of form- ing a protecting cover for is a|)proaching dormant state of existence, it begins to spin, from the reser- voirs in its own bowels, the beautillil and delicate yet strong silken thread, whicli is so highly prized by man, and for lliesake of which, this feeble ani- mal receives so much of his cure. After having thrown out fi-om its mouth enough scattered threads to fix its designed structure firmly to some support, in the chosen position, the worm begins and continues to spin, and to encircle itself with, one unbroken filament, carried around its body, and placed in successive layers, as regularly as spools are filled by the most perfect machinery, until the supply of material is exhausted, and the little oval dormitory is complete and secure. The work is then finished. In its close cell, the last 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 141 ekin and the outward i'ortn of llie worm are both cast ofl', and tlie juices exuiiinjr from the body Boon harden into a dark colored lliin and close shell. This is the chrysalis stale. The body is shortened, and contracted in size ; and the Ibrrn is as much changed, as the appearance in color and size. After a short time, the thin shell or skin of the chrysalis is also thrown off, and the insect opens a way through its silken dwelling, and comes Ibrih a winged moth. To many vulgar eyes and understandings, these several chanr at least twenty years. In the autumn of the same year, I applied the composi twoadcast on my wheat ground, and ploughed it in with the wheat. The result was exceedingly favorable, which I then attributed to the effects of the lime. I have since been convinced, it was partly the rich earth before mentioned, (as a large proportion of the compost,) and of deep ploughing. In the early part of the year 1834, I burnt about 4000 bushels, and spread it on a field of 24 acres, tiiat had been ploughed in the preceding autumn, la the spring it was harrowed with a heavy three- tiorse harrow, and cultivated twice previous to putting it in corn. The corn was carefully culti- vated, and in the month of August sown in timo- thy. There has been no benefit perceived from ihe application in either the crop of corn or timothy. In May, 1837, I gave the oyster-shell-lime a enore distmct trial. In part of the field I spread en a clover-lay 200 bushels barilla-ashes per acre ; on the otlier part oi^ the same field, and all the Jand equally good, was spread 100 bushels oys- ter-shell-lime per acre. The whole was ploughed in early in June, when the clover was in blossom. The field was ploughed three times previous to sowing the wheat. The result was, the wheat on the ground ashed, yielded an abundant crop, and that on the ground limed, scarcely paid the expense of cultivation. In several other p-arts of my farm, I have applied the oyster-shell-lime ex- tensively, and have in no instance experienced a«y beneficial result. One of our very intelligent Maryland farmers assuied me he always doubted its efhcacy, and had paid particular attention to its results for the last fifteen years, and in no case has he discover- ed any benefit from the application of the oyster- shell-lime. IMPROVING -LAND BY LIBIING. To tlie Editor of the Fanners' Register. The communication in the inclosed number ol the "Farmer and Gardener, [inserted above,] on the inefiicacy of shelL-lime, seems to require some notice. Su^'h an article, emanating, as it seems, tiom a pracvical farmer, and referring to numerous experiments to prove the utter worlhlessness of. what has heretofore been regarded as "the basis of good husbandry," is well calculated to encour- age the indolence and incredulity that have so long retarded theprogress of agricultural improve- ment in our country. Having read, reflected, and observed a good deal on the subject, we beg leave respectfullyto express our dissent from the views of the writer; and in the course of the following observations, theoretical and practical, shall ap- peal to science, authority, and experience, in sup- port of an opposite conclusion. The objections of the writer seem to be confined lo shell-lane ; and the first inquiry that suggests itself is, whether chemically considered, there be any difi'erence between this and stone-lime? And if not, whether there be any virtue as a fertilizing agent in the one which the other does not possess? "chemists inform us that pure or quick-lime is the oxide of calcium, and is obtained by exposing carbonate of lime to a heat, by which the carbo- nic acid is expelled, and the pure or quick-lime re- mains. The true calcareous element, carbonate of lime, is uniformly the same, in nature, proper- ties and efiects ; and chemically considered, lime is the same, but in a less or greater degree of pu- rity, whether obtained by burning common lime- stone, oyster-shells, or the pure carborate of lime, such as Iceland spar, or Carrara marble. Many lime-stones are exceedingly impure, some of them containing as much as 10 per cent, of magnesia and other impurities, either inert or hurtful to ve- getation. Oyster-shells, on the contrary, consist almost entirely of corbonate of lime and animal matter; which animal matter is expelled by cal- cination, and if it were not, could not be injurious to veo-etation. Upon principle, therefore, there can be no reason assigned why shell-lime should not be as beneficial in agriculture as that procured from the stone. We do not know how we can better enforce our theoretical views on this subject than by citing the 1839] FARMERS' R E G 1 S T E R . 167 authority ofprofessor Ducatel in the follovving ex- tract i'rom his geological report. After giving.the analyses oflO specimens o( lime-stone, from Balti- more, Harford, and Frederick counties, Maryland, he proceeds : "It will be perceived that three out of ten are magnesian lime-stones ; all of them contain more silica or sand than has been found in oyster-shells, and one, said to be most extensively used in Har- ford county, contains as much as 11 percent, of inert matter. It lollows, therelbre, that as oyster- shells are composed nearly of pure carbonate of lime, they will afford a lime contaming scarcely an appreciable quantity of impurities. If well burnt, (which is the case when no efl'erverescence is observed on treating them with a weak acid,) lime obtained from them may be deemed, with a fractional difference, equal, weight for weight, to the best stone-lime; and as theii' chemical compo- sition does not vary, there is nothing to be deduct- ed from the value of the product in consequence of the impurities that exist, as exhibited by the foregoing table, in most hme-stones, and that must necessarily form a part of the residue when these are burnt. "If the comparative value of the two products be estimated by measure, a greater difference is dis- covered; but there is at the same time a dispro- portionate difference in price. A bushel of the best alum-lime weighs from ninety to a hundred pounds; whereas, the same bulk of shell-lime, unground, weighs from sixty-five to seventy-five pounds, and perhaps when ground v/ould weigh eighty pounds — a difference of from twenty to twenty-five per cent. But the former costs li:om thirty to thirty-five cents at Baltimore, the most convenient spot for its delivery on tide-water, where the latter can be had for ten cents ; whilst farmers conveniently situated on the bay side, might themselves burn the shells at an expense not exceeding six cents a bushel. These remarks refer to the hme obtained from recent or fresh oys- ter-shells; but there is little or no difference be- tween it and that procured by the burning of those contained in the Indian shell banks, provided pro- per care be taken to separate them ti'om the black mould and dirt with which they are mixed. "It has been supposed, that because alum-lime has been found to admit of a greater mixture of sand than shell-lime, in the making of mortar, it was to be inferred that it is correspondingly better, "or, as it is termed, stronger for agricultural purpo- ses. But this is an unwarrantable conclusion ; lor, as this circumstance seems to depend upon the peculiar aggregation among the particles of the lime, which prevents it from setting too rapidly, (or, in other words, attracting water and carbonic acid from the atmosphere sooner than the wants of the mason require,) it would appear, on the con- trary, that if any inference is to be drawn from it, it is adverse to the conclusion; whilst, on the other hand, the lact that shell-lime sets very quickly is favorable to the opinion, entertained by some per- sons, of its superior efficacy in agriculture — it be- ing generally understood that lime acts in the soil in the condition of carbonate of lime. Admitting, however, that the peculiar arrangement of the particles in stone-lime which renders it in general coarser than the lime obtained from shells, may better fit it as a mechanical amendment to cerfain soils, the difference is at most as one to three, ac- cording to the datum upon which its superiority id predicated ; namely, that in the preparation of mortar, stone-lime will bear three times as much sand as shell-lime. But even in this respect the conclusion is not warranted, except perhaps in the case of a purely sandy soil, in which lime alone would, it is believed, prove of little service." Shell and sto?ie-Iitne iriay therefore be regarded as nearly equivalent substances, and may be ap- plied in agriculture with equal, if with any benefit. If the majority of our farmers were what they ought to be, reading men, it would be deemed unnecessary at this late day, to enter into an ar- gument to prove the beneficial effects of lime in agriculture. The works of Sir fl. Davy, M. Puvis, and other standard authors, and the con- tributions of many practical correspondents alrea- dy published in the Register, taken in connexion with the eminent success of its application in Pennsylvania, in many other parts of our own country, and over nearly the whole of Europe, are sufficient to satisfy any person whose prejudices are not unconquerable. But as these works are by no means generally read, it may not be amiss to cite in a few words one of the very highest au- thorities in practical agriculture, Robert Brown, of Markle, author of the article "Agriculture," in the Edinburgh Encyclopsdia. He says: "In fact, the majority of soils cannot be cultivated with advantage till they are dressed with;(?/ie; and whether this beneficial effect, shall be considered as an alterative, or as a stimulant, or as a manure, it will be found to be the basis of good husbandry, and of more use than all other manures put to- gether. VVheneverlime has been properly appli- ed, it has constantly been Ibund as much superior to dung, as dung is to the .scrapings of roads or the produce of a peat mire." That errors have been frequently committed in the use of lime, in consequence of which, injury rather than benefit has resulted in many cases from its application, cannot be denied. What may have been the cause of the failure of the ex- periments of the writer in the 'Farmer and Gar- dener,' it is difficult at this distance to say ; but doubtless, if all the circumstances were known the reason might be readily assigned. Perhaps the soil was already sufficiently calcareous; or was deficient in insoluble vegetable matter; or contain- ed a quantity of soluble vegetable manure, which was destroyed by the action of the quick-lime; or the writer may have expected a greater and more immediate return from the lime, than could be rea- sonably anticipated. Let us examine his commu- nication and see if one or the other of these rea- sons will not account for the failure of his experi- menis and iiis consequent disappointment. His first experiment was with lime used in com- post. The result was exceedingly favorable, al- though he is now unwilling to give the credit of the improvement to the lime. This experiment of the writer is the only one in which his practice seems to have conformed to the principles of science and the experience of the best practical farmers. This method of using lime is almost the exclusive practice of the best cultivated districts on the continent of Europe, and has been success- fully practised wiihin my own knowledge, by some of the best fi:irmers in Virginia. On this subject M. Puvis uses the following language: "Lime in compost is never injurious to the soil. 168 FAKMKRS' REGISTER- [No. 3 It carries with it the surplus of alimentary ma- nure, wliicli the surplus of product demands lor its sustenance. Light soils, sandy or gravelly, are not tired by a repetition of this compost. No country nor author charges lime used in this state with having been injurious to the soil. In short, this means,°seems to us the most sure, the most iife-ellil, and the least expensive mode of applying lime as manure." This experiment, as might have been anticijiatcd, was attended with success. The next experiment was the application of 4000 bushels oi' quick-lime on 24 acres of land that had been ploughed in the preceeding autumn. We have no inlbrmation as to the previous condition of the land ; whether. calcareous or not, whether rich or poor, whether abounding or deficient in vegetable matter, !t may be fairly inferred, how- ever, that the land was poor, (for regarding lime as a manure it would be naiural to ap|)ly it to the poorest land,) and that the scanty coat of inert vegetable matter that was ploughed down in the i'aU, had been in a great measure decomposed be- before the application of the lime in the spring. Now to say nothing of the excessive quantity ap- plied, any one at all acquainted with the properties oi' quick-lime, might have predicted with certainty, (hat this application of it upon a naked soil, con- taining little or no insoluble vegetable matter, woukfbe without effect, or positively injurious. The following extract from Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, a very high authority, is to the point. "The solution of the question, whelhcr quick-lime ought to be applied to a soil, depends upon the quantity of inert vegetable matter that it contains. The solution of the question, whether marl, rnild Ume, or powdered lime-stone ought to be applied, depends upon the quantity of calcareous matter already in the soil. All soils which do not effer- vesce with acids are improved by mild lime, and ultiiuately hy q\i'ick-\lme, and sands more than clays." The last and "most distinct experiment," was the application of 100 bushels of quick-linie per acre on a field of clover in the month of May, which was turned in early in June, when the clo- ver was in blossom. This application, Avliich the writer seems to consider perfectly conclusive of the question, signally failed ; the wheat crop on the limed land having been barely sufficient to deli-ay the expense of cultivation! Nor is this to be won- dered at. So utter a disregard of the principles of science, and the lessons of experience, could not have been attended with any other result. On^ this subject we again quote the hiijh authority of Sir H. Davy: "When a soil, deficient in calcare- ous matter, contains much soluble vegetable ma- nure, the application of quick-lime should always be avoided, as it either tends to decompose the soluble matters, by uniting to their carbon and oxygen, so as to become mild lime, or it combines with the soluble matters, and forms compounds, having less attraction for water than the pure vege- table substance." In the experiment under con- sideration, quick-lime is applied to a croj) of green clover, one of the most succulent and soluble plants in nature, and immediately turned in so as exclude the atmosphere. Now what is the neces- sary consequence? The quick-Ume, which natu- rally tends to absorb carbonic acid and become mild, being excluded li-oin the atmosphere, the usual source lor supplying that acid, naturally combines with the carbon and oxygen, the main constituents of the clover, and which imited, Ibrm^ carbonic acid, and becomes again the carbonate of lime, and by this process the rich soluble vegeta- ble manure of the clover, on which the princij)al reliance for the crop of wheal ought to have been placed, is destroyed ; and the inconsiderate expe- rimenter, instead of this abundant supply of ali- mentary manure, has on his land one hundred bushels of carbonate of lime, which might have been obtained at much less expense in the shape of marl, effete lime, ground-shells, or pounded, lime-sione. <'Quick-lime, (says Sir H. Davy,) whether in powder or dissolved in water, is injurious to plants." The only immediate beneficial effect arises from its power of decomposing inert vege- table matter, and it is not until it re-absorbs car- bonic acid and becomes mild that it seems to pos- sess the peculiar virtues attributed to calcareous manures, in the 'Essay' on that subject, of correct- ing the acidity, improving the texture, and in- creasing the productive powers of the soil, by corn- combining with and fixing putrescent manures. Whatever may be the cause, there can be no doubt of the fact that lime acts in a very limited degree on the first crop after it is applied. It is a prevailing; opinion in Pennsylvania, that a wmter must pass belbre its effects are fully developed. M. Puvis, who seems to have been thoroughly informed on this subject, thus expresses himself: "To secure the effect of lime on the first crop, it ought to be mixed with the soil sorxie time before the' sowing of the crop ; however, if it is used in compost, 'a is sufficient that the compost may have been made a long time previously." And many of the experiments detailed by the author of the article in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, already^ quoted, go to prove that the beneficial efl'ects of lime are^not experienced until the 2d or 3d year after its application, unless it is aided by a liberal dressing of manure. Lime should never be appli- ed under the delusive belief that it is an alimen- tary manure. It should be considered not as the food, but the physic oi" the earth. Our poor acid soils may be compared to a dyspeptic patient, with a voracious appeiite, but a disordered digestion. Neither too much food nor physic will be of ser- vice. But as a dose of magnesia administered to the dyspeptic will correct the acidity and restore the functions of the stomach and make "digestion wait on appeiite," so a proper quantity of lime or other calcareous matter,, administered to such soils, will correct their acidity, restore their digestive powers, and fit fhem for the assimilation of vegeta- ble food, which the judicious farmer will not fail lo supply in sufficient abundance. In the course of the foregoing observations, we think it has been established that for agricultural purposes, there is no material difference between shell and stone-lime; that the value of lime in agriculture is sustained by science and authority; tiTat its beneficial operation, when properly ap- plied, has been fully vindicated by the first expe- riment of the writer under consideration ; and the fiiilure of his other experiments been satisfactorily explained, upon rational and scientific principles, without in the least degree impugning the value of this, to us on tide-water, inestimable improver of trie soil. We had designed to close this communication 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 169 with some details of our own experience in the use of lime. But the length to which we have unconsciously extended itj admonishes us to be brief on this head. Suffice it to say, that we have used shell-lime to a considerable extent for a num- ber of years, and have never had our reasonable expectations disappointed. It is true, we never expected it to act like magic and make poor land rich at once. But it has never failed, to increase the crops, to improve the appearance and texture of the soil, and to insure the permanent improve- ment of the land by the subsequent application of putrescent manures. We have, however, always applied it, either in compost, (which we prefer,) or on land that has not been grazed the year pre- vious, and have generally followed it by the appli- cation of alimentary manures. We are now pre- paring to apply about 2000 bushels upon a poor high-land sod ; and as a preliminary step, are covering the thinnest parts of the land with leaves and vegetable mould from the woods. This land has not been grazed for two years, and has a considerable cover of inert vegetable mat- ter. Mr. Robert Bailey, one of your subscribers, in this neighborhood, has used lime in compost very extensively for a number of years, and with the most signal success. Having so improved the larm on which he resides, as to increase his ave- rage crop of corn fi'om one and a half, the former product, to six barrels per acre, and to cause it to produce fine crops of wheat and clover where none grew before. He is now applying it on a larger farm, on a much more extensive scale, and during the last summer had on hand, as we were informed, about 10,000 bushels of shells. We have urged him repeatedly to communicate the result of his experience to the Register ; and have threatened if he does not do it very soon, to have his premises surveyed, and a report made by another hand, of the great improve- ments effected by his well-directed energy and zeal. We trust that the importance of the subject, and the injurious tendency of the erroneous doc- trines we have been combating, will be deemed a sufficient apology (or this long, and we lear te- dious communication. WiLLOuGiiBY Newton. Westmoreland co., Va,, March 8th, 1839. [The article which Mr. Newton has answered above, had not escaped our notice, and it would have been republished before, and commented on, if it had not been without the responsible signature of a real name. We join in the request to Mr. Bailey to com- municate his experience in improving his farm, for publication in the Farmers' Register. He and ■undry others of the residents of the tide-water region can present flicts in support of the value of shell-lime, as well as of marl and of calcareous manures in general, which would out- weigh the opposing testimony of the writer in the 'Farmer and Gardener,' even if its importance were in- creased an hundred fold.] Vol. VIl-22 For the Farmers' RBgister. ESSAY ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. [Continued from page 70.] Chap. V. STEMS. THEIR EXTERNAL FORMS. THEIR IN- TERNAL STRUCTURE. EXOGENOUS STEMS. MEDULLARY RAYS. WOOD. METHODS OF DETERMINING THE AGE OF TREES. SEA- SONING TIMBER. Of true stems, that of the white-oak (^quercus alba) may be assumed as the type. The stem of the white-oak, or the trunk, as it is more commonly called, rises like a column Irom the earth ; largest near the surface of the ground, then gradually contracting in size, until near the point at which the first branches are inserted, where it again en- larges ; thus forming a column, the curvature of whose surface is inwards. That this form is the best which the trunk could have, to enable it to re- sist the action of storms and high winds, is easily demonstrable on strict mathematical principles. Of this same fact, a remarkable experimental proof is afforded in the celebrated Eddystone light- house. Before the building of the present struc- ture, several unsuccessful attempts had been made to erect a permanent light-house on the Eddystone rock. A little more than eighty years ago, Smea- ton undertook the work, and as he states in his 'History of the Eddystone light-house,' took the trunk of an oak as his model. Since the building was completed, it has been exposed to the most violent storms — storms which have dashed the ocean waves over the very top of the building — and yet it has withstood them all uninjured. From the form which the stem presents in the oak, we meet with many departures. In palms and similar trees of tropical countries, it does not divide into branches, but has the form of a simple cylin- der, bearing a tufl of enormous leaves at its top. In other plants it lies like a cord on the ground, as in the cucumber, (^cucumis satitnis.') In others it takes a twining direction, often enfolding the largest trees in its coils. " In the Royal Museum at Paris, there is a specimen of a palm, so sur- rounded by an enormous twiner, as to be perfectly enclosed in it, as in a vegetable sheath; nothing but its extremities being visible." In most plants, the stem is solid ; but in grasses and umbelliferous plants, it is hollow. In the tortoise plant of the Cape of Good Hope, it is a rounded knob, the bark of which is rent by deep fissures, causing it to present to the eye an appearance resembling that of a tortoise. In etapelias and some other south African plants, the stem is gnuty, distorted and succulent, bearing soft projections instead of leaves. In the cactuses, it is sometimes flat, and divided into a number of leaf-like limbs; at other times, globular, and marked with soft projecting ribs, at others, angular and erect, rising into the air, a naked green club. Stems, which have too little strength to stand erect, and sustain their own weight, together with that of their leaves and fruit, generally support themselves by fastening to some neighboring bo- dy. This they do either by coiling spirally around their support, as the pole bean, (phaseolus vulga- ris,') or by means of thread-like organs called tendrils, as the common passion-flower, (jpasaijio- ra incarnata,) or by what are termed aerial roots, 170 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. S as the trumpet-creeper, (bignonia radicansS) It is a iiict, worthy of remark, with respect to twining stems, that whilst stems of different species twine in different directions, the stems of the same spe- cies always twine in the same direction. The stem of the pole-bean always twines to the left ; the same is true of the stem of the hop, (hximulus lupuhts.) It may be well to recollect this, as it is olten necessary in gardeninfj to start the young stem around its support. If either of the plants just mentioned, be started to the right, it will soon throw itself down ; or, if confined in any way, eo as to be forced to make a turn or two in that direction, it becomes puny and of little account. This is a wise provison of nature ; as most twin- ing plants send forth several stems to twine around the same support ; if they did not all twine in the same direction, they must, of necessity, frequently cross each other. Whilst all were young, they would lie close to the body of the support ; but as they increased in size, the inner ones, in conse- quence of their growth, would tend to force the outer ones further out ; whilst the outer ones, for the same reason, would tend to bind the inner ones closer to the support. In this way they would either cut each other off, or at least, impair the freedom with which their sap could circulate. The grape, passion-flower, &c., fasten them- selves to their support by means of a class of or- gans, termed tendrils. These are slender thread- like organs, capable of coiling spirally, and thus fixing themselves to neighboring bodies. Ten- drils sometimes proceed from the extremity of the leaf, and appear to be mere prolongations of the mid-rib, as in the sweet-pea, (/a/Aynis ndoratus,) but more commonly from the stem itselfj as in the gourd, (^cucurbita lagcnaria.') When these ten- drils first appear, they are straight, and not coiled aa we generally see them ; but beinrr possessed of a contractile power, the moment they touch any euitable support, their end hooks around it, and thus fastened, they go on coiling themselves until they are firmly fixed'their places. If the tendrils of the gourd-vine be left to develope itself fully, without being suffered to touch any other support, it will be perfectly straight. If it be then brought in contract with a rod, or any suitable support, the moment its end touches the rod it will hook around it ; if the rod be now moved towards the vine, the tendril will not unhook, as might be supposed, but will coil itself further around. In this way a Btraight tendril may be made to coil itself through- out almost the whole of its length, in the course of a few minutes. Notwithstanding the great diversity of form, and external appearance, which stems present, their internal structure is remarkably uniform. Those of flowering plants, are all made up of tubes, woody-fibre and cellules, arranged in one or the other' of the two following ways. First, the tubes and woody fibre are arrangedin concen- tric bands, having the cellular tissue, in part, pack- ed in between them, and in part forming lines cutting them at right angles, and radiating fl-om the axis of the stem. Such stems increaseby the regular addition of new layers on the outside of the old wood ; and are thence termed exogenous stems, or growers outwardly, as the name im- ports. This is the structure of all of the trees, and most of the smaller plants of this country. Second, the tubes and woody fibre are disposed in bundles throughout the stem ; the intersticea be- ing filled up with cellular tissue. The stems hav- ing this structure do not increase in diameter, after they are once fairly formed, but only in solidity. This they do by the addition of new bundles of tubes and woody fibre internally. Hence they have received the name of endogens, or growers inwardly. An example of a stem of this kind is furnished by the Indian corn (zea mays). Many of the large trees of tropical countries are con- structed on this plan. These two classes of stems will have to be considered separately. As the former is by far the most common in this country, as well as the best understood, we will commence with that. In a transverse section of an exogenous stem of one year's growth, the three following paria are easily distinguishable from each other. U't, the pith, occupying the centre of the stem ; 2d, a band of wood surrounding the pith ; and 3d, the bark or external covering of (he stem. The pith, or medulla, as it is termed by botan- ists, isacylindric column of spongy cellular tissue, commencing at the collar or neck of the plant, ex- tending throughout the whole length of the stem, and terminating in the buds. Its size, as com- pared with that of the whole stem is variable. In the white-heart hickory (carya tomentosa^ of one year's growth, the diameter of the pith, is about one-sixth of that of the stem ; in the elder ( sam- hiicus jviger^ of the same age, it is two-thirds. Herbs and young shoots, in proportion to their bulk, have much more pith than trees ; indeed this must necessarily be the case, as the column of pith when once formed, never increases in size. In neivly formed parts, the pith is juicy, being fill- ed with the ascending sap ; in the same stem, when old, it is dry, colorless, and very light. At first, it \s an unbroken column, and in most plants it continues to be so ; in some instances, however, it is torn into separate pieces by the ra|)id elonga- tion of the stem ; as may be seen in the stem of the walnut (juglanf: nigra, ) and still more dis- tinctly in that of the poke-weed (phytolacca de- candra.) Respecting the office of the pith, many singular opinions have been entertained. Amongst others, which it would be useless lor me to men- tion at lensth, some of the earlier botanists ima- gined its oflice to be similar to that of the nervous system in animals. This opinion was based upon a fancied resemblance, in structure and position, to the spiral marrow of animals. If the pith does indeed possess the properties of a nervous sys- tem, some plants are much more highly favored in this particular, than even the higher orders of animals. So far as we know, the principal use of the pith, is to transmit nourishment to the buds during the earlier periods of theirgrowth. When no longer filled whh the juices of the plant, it is apparently useless. It seems to be a temporary provision, to enable the young plant in the first instance, and the young bud afterwards, to grow until their own systems of vessels are fully formed ; after that is accomplished, it is thrown aside. Such temporary provisions are by no means uncommon in nature. If we examine the band of wood, which sur- rounds the pith, we will notice that it is cut at right angles, by a number of their vertical plates, sent out in every direction, from the pith to tha circumference of the stem. These are called mc- 18S9] FARMERS' REGISTER, 171 dullarv rays, and are considered a part of the pitli. Like the pith they are composed ol cellulnr tissue ; their more solid appearance arisinjr Iron) the strong lateral pressure to which the cellules have been suhjecied, hy being interposed between pistes of wood; thus givmg to those cellules the form of thin parallelograms. These rays are channels of coiniiiunicalion between the bark and the inter- nal portioiis of the stem. Through them, certain of the claliorated juices which descend m the bark arc carried iu and deposited in ihe wood. The wood, which exists more or less abundant- ly, even in herbaceous stems, and which forms so large a portion of those of trees and shrubs, in the stem which we have selected for examination, consists of a single zone or layer, composed of tubes and woody fibre, disposed without any re- gular order, except that the latter is the most abundant on the outside, next the bark. The se- cond yearof a plant's growth, a new layer is form- ed outside of the first, and similar to it in every respect. The third year this process is repeated ; and thus the stem increases in size, a new layer being lormed annually, as long as the plant lives. The wood of an exogen of one year's growth, may be viewed as an elongated hollow cone, extending from the base to the summit of the stem, and en- closing the pith. This cone does not extend fijr- (her, nor does it enlarge in anj' way ; but is sur- rounded, the next year, by another cone, which, like the first, alter being formed, undergoes no change in dimensions. Hence as the necessary result of this mode of growth, the stem of an ex- ogen is more or less conical. As each layer, or to speak more accurately, each hollow cone of wood, is the result of a single years growth ; it is evident that the age of an ex- ogen may be ascertained by counting the number, or rings presented on a transverse section of the stem, made near its base. This may be done with great accuracy, in most trees of temperate and cold climates, in which, in consequence of the periodi- cal suspension of vegetation, the annual layers are distinctly marked ; but in the case of trees of the torrid zone, where vegetation goes on ihoughont the year, this cannot be so readily done. In old trees, the rate of increase being very uniform, their age may be determined with considerable accuracy, by the inspection of a mere fragment of the stem, the diameter of the whole stem from which it was taken bemg known. A rough esti- mate of the age of a tree, is sometimes made, by dividing the semi-diameter of its base by the ave- rage increase of the species to which it belongs, that average being determined by previous obser- vation. In these several ways, the ages of nume- rous very old trees have been determined. It should be remarked, however, that the determi- nations, except where they are based upon an ac- tual countmg of the rings presented by a trans- verse section of the trunk, cannot be regarded as any thing more than approximations to true age. A tree growing in peculiarly fertile ground, will enlarge much more rapidly than most other trees of the same species; and of course, with a given diameter, will have a less number of zones than the average. In the case of a tree growing in peculiarly barren ground, just the opposite effect would ensue. An estimate of the age of the first, made by dividing its eenii-diameter by the ave- rage ihicknese of the zones of that particular spe- cies, would give too great an age. An estimate of the age of the last, made by the same method, would give an age less than the true one. Another, and far more important source of error in the case of m.any very large trees, is to be found in the fact, that several stems, starting from the same root, sometimes become so thoroughly uni- ted, as to present to the eye the appearance of a single stem. Such, according to the testimony of most travellers, is the fact with respect to the cel- ebrated sweet chestnut of Mount Etna ; measur- ing 180 feet in circumference, or about 60 feet in diameter. Whilst speaking of the union of dif- lerent stems, 1 cannot forbear mentioning a curi- ous insiance of it, which I had pointed out to me some time since. It was in the case of two trees srowiniT two or three leet from each other. At a height of 14 or 15 feet from the ground, one of them had sent out a branch, which had become thoroughly incorporated with the trunk of the other. After this had taken place, the second tree had gradually decayed, between the point where this limb was inserted and the ground, until near the root, it was entirely dead. Yet at the time I saw it, several of its upper limbs continued to thrive, deriving all their nourishment from the roots of the second tree, through this branch. This may perhaps be considered an instance of natural grafting. There is almost always a marked difl^erence in color and density, between old and recent wood. The outer and more recent portions of the stem, iiave been called, in allusion to their color, albur- num ; and in allusion to their office, sap-wood ; the inner and older portions are termed the heart- wood. After a fi^w years, the color of a layer of wood is changed, its density is increased, and it takes thereafter little part in the transmission of the sap. During the winter, it is true, it generally contains sap, but then this sap is rather deposited in it, than circulating through it. The change in color and density, by which sap-wood is converted into heart-wood, is caused by the deposition of a solid matter, peculiar to each species, in the tissues of that part. This matter is in most cases soluble in nitric acid, and hence ii is, that if a piece of heart-wood be immersed in that acid, the color is discharged, and the piece again assumes the ap- pearance of sap-wood. Where the matter de- posited is a resinous character, as in the pines, it adds very nmch to the durability, and consequent- ly to the value of the heart-wood. On this ac- count, as well as on account of its greater solidity and strength, the heart-wood is universally pre- f(3rred to the sap-wood, lor use in the arts. As the layers of wood, in the course of a few years aller their formation, cea>e to take any active part in the circulation of the sap, and, in time, become to all intents and purposes dead matter, it would naturally follow that the central part of the stem would be first to decay. Where the matter de- posited in those parts is not of such a character as to protect them from decay, this is frequently found to be the case. The resinous matter, deposited in the heart-wood of the pine, is of such a nature as ef- lectually to resist the disorganizing agencies which operate upon it; and hence it is that pines, even those of the greatest age, are never found hollow. But such is not the fijct with respect to the matter deposited in the heart-wood of" the sycamore, Cplantanus occidentalis,J and hence all the oldest 172 FARMERS' K E G I S T E 11 , [No.g tress of that kind, are little more than mere ehellB. This Ia6t remark is not a» all inconsistent vviih the one which immediately preceided it. Place sap-wood and sound heart-wood in the same cir- cumstances, and the latter will tar outlast the Ibr- nier. Such is the situation of the two when used as timber; but let the sap-wood retain its vitality, whilst the heart-wood is dead, (and such is their situation n the living tree,) and the former will far outlast the latter. The power of the vital prin- ciple to preserve organized matter from decay, is eomething which we cannot explain ; but of which we see evidence every where around us. Let a leaf be severed from the parent-stem, and fall to the ground, whilst another just by its side, retains its connexion with that stem. The former, under the combined agency of heat and moisture, soon undergoes complete disorganization ; a part of it rising into the atmosphere in the form of an invisi- ble gas, whilst another part remains as earthy mould, to mark the spot where it lell. The lat- ter, under the action of the same agencies, goes on unlblding itsel'j perfecting its structure, per- forming its vital functions, and "dreams not of de- cay," until the frosts of autumn bring it notice that its work is done. In the possession of vitality, living matter has a complete release, under the hand and seal of the creator himself, Irom the ac- tion of those agencies, which in ordinary circum- stances would operate upon it. It is for the time being, absolved from all obedience to the chemical laws which govern common matter. This differ- ence between living and dead matter is one which should be borne in mind in all our reasoning re- specting organized matter, as well vegetable as animal ; the neglect of it has been a firuitflil source of error in times past. Besides the peculiar secretions which are de- posited in the heart-wood of most trees, there is always more or less crude sap present, and often other substances, which seem to hasten the decay of the wood. The removal of these is the object of the process called seasoning. There are three ways of seasoning timber in common use. The first is by exposing it the action of the sun and at- mosphere. In this way the deleterious substances are removed by evaporation. As these substan- ces, when present, must of course occupy some space in the wood, their removal diminishes its size, If they be removed more rapidly from one side of a plank, or stick of timber, than fi-om the other, the contraction of the two sides must pro- ceed at unequal rates. The effect of this is to curl or warp the piece. On this account, it is advisa- ble to season planks by the action of the at- mosphere alone, without exposing them to the direct action of the sun, as it is next to impossible to have the sun act equally on both sides. Our most experienced engineers and builders advise that, in seasoning timber, it should be loosely piled up, 80 that the atmosphere may have free access to it on every side, and that it be kept under cover thoughout the whole process. A second way of seasoning is to expose the timber to artificial heat in kilns. This process is in theory the same as the first, ^^he only things to be atlended to in adopting this method are, to place the timber in such a way that all the parte of the same piece ahall be exposed to about the same temperature ; And to so regulate that temperature ae not to char the wood, A third way is to immerse the timber in water. By this method we wash the injurious substances out of the wood, instead of drying them out. The vessels of wood, will of course, by this process, become filled with water; but water evaporates so much more easily than the sub- stances with which the vessels of the wood are naturally filled, that after the latter have been washed out, the former will evaporate in the course of a tew days. From the manner in which water operates in seasoning timber, the reason why a running stream is preferable to stagnant water for this purpose, will be at once evident. Fresh water is also better than salt, because al- thouyh the latter will wash the wood as clean as the former, yet when it is itself removed by eva- poration, its water only evaporates, whilst the salt which it contained is left behind. Salt being a diliquescent substance, attracts moisture from the atmosphere, and in this way the wood is kept con- tinually more or less wet, to its great detriment as. timber. Chap. VI. BARK OF EXOGEIVS. LIBER. CORTICAI, IN- TEGUMENT, ENDOGENS, AGE AND SIZH OF TREES. ACROGENS, The third and uttermost portion of the stem is the bark. This consists of two distinct portions; an inner fibrous portion, termed the liber, and an outer cel- lular portion, termed the corticle integument. The liber of some plants is remarkable for its suscepti- bility of being split into very thin layers, which are tough enouiih to be employed in the manufacture of twine and cordage. It is from the liber of a species of lime tree, (^tilia,) that Russian matting is made. In the Sandwich Islands, a species of cloth is manufactured from the liber of a tree com- mon in those islands. In ancient times, the liber of some trees was stripped into layers, flattened, cemented into leaves, and used as a material to write upon, instead of paper or parchment. At the present day, a very good species of paper is made from the same material as the Sandwich Island cloth, and is used in those islands, both for writing and printing upon. The liber of very ma- ny of our common trees can be made into paper. Some years since, a German paper-maker, pre- sented to one of the scientific associations of Eu- rope, a treatise on his art, written upon upwards of thirty difiierent kinds of paper, made from the li- ber of as many different kinds of trees, all of which were indigenous of Germany. The woody fibre of the hemp (cannabis sativa,) and flax, (Jinum, asitatisswmm,^ so extensively used in the arts, belongs to the liber, and not to the woody portion of the stems of those plants. The bark increases in thickness, by the deposi- tion of a new layer every year, between the origi- ginal bark and the wood ; each new layer being formed in a manner precisely similar to the first, with this exception, that the cellular or spongy part, being excluded from the air and light, does not, become green, as in the first instance. That a new layer is added to the bark internally, each year, Da Hamel has proved by a very simple ex- periment. He passed a metallic thread under the innermost layer of the liber of a young free, and left 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. iry it undisturbed for several years. On cutting across the bark afterwards, the thread was found To have been pushed outwards by the deposition, between itself and the wood, of new layers, corresponding in number to the years which had elapsed since its introduction. As the bark increases by the addition of a new layer annually, it would seem, that the age of a tree might be determined by counting these layers, as well as those of the wood. This can be done in the case of young trees, whose bark remains entire, but not in the case of an old tree; for as a tree increases in age, the outermost and oldest layers are torn by the Continual distention of the growing stem, and be- coming dead matter, finally fall away. The duration of the bark varies in different trees. In the white-oak, (quercus alba,) and many other trees, it breaks into deep longitudinal fissures, as the stem increases in size. The separate portions into which it is thus divided often attain the thick- ness of half an inch or more. On the other hand, a great part of the bark of the sycamore (plmita- nus occidentalis,') falls off every year, in the form of brittle plants, fn the vfh\te-hivch,(^beiula popuU- Jblia,) it separates into their membranous layers, which tear into separate pieces, and gradually curl up, until they curl off. The diHerence observ- able in the manner in which the bark of different trees is rent, arises from a difference in the man- ner in which the woody fibre is disposed in it. In some plants these fibres are disposed perfectly pa- rallel to each other; in others, they cross each other at certain angles. In the celebrated lace- bark tree of Jamaica, they "are numerous, quite white, extremely fine, and when stretched out, open into a kind of delicate net-work resembling lace." The bark is obviously intended for the protec- tion of the young wood which is formed beneath it. It IS also the medium through which the juices of a plant, after their elaboration in the leaves, descend, and are transmitted to the wood. Hence, the bark is absolutely essential to the life of exo- genous plants; and there is no more efliectual way of killing them than by removing a section of it all the way around the stem : or girdling them, as it is commonly called. In trees where the fibres lie parallel to each other, or nearly so, the bark may be cut perpendicularly, not only without injuring the tree, but often with decided advantage ; inasmuch as the vessels of the new wood, or alburnum, are in this way enabled to circulate the sap more free- ly. In herbs, and in the young branches of trees where the bark is green and succulent, it performs the same functions as the leaves, and supplies their place, whenever, as in the cactuses, true leaves are wanting. Endogenous stems differ very much fi-om exo- genous ones in their structure. The characteris- tic difierences, as I have already mentioned when ■defining these terms, are ihe arrangement of the tissues, and the manner of their growth. Besides this, endogens differ from exogens, in having nei- ther pith, medullary rays, bark, or wood, proper- ly so called, but consisting of a confused mass of woody bundles, imbeded in cellulai- tissue. In the stalk of the corn, (zeamays,) which alibrds a good specimen of a stem constructed on the endogenous plan, we find an external cortical integument, without liber, and bundles of woody matter, soar- fi-anged throughout the cellular tissue, ae to be much more numerous and compact at the circum- ference, than towards the centre. In the stem of the garden-asparagus, {asparug^is officinalis,') ihe woody bundles are distribuied unilurmly, through- out the stem, and so soft as scarcely to be recog- nized as woody matter. The same arrangement of the woody bundles exists in the green-brier, (smilax rotudifolia,') the only endoijenous shrub common in Virginia. In the stems of grasses, which have been said to be "the least endoge- nous of all endogenous stems,'" the structure is so modified as not to be at once evident. The pe- culiarity of these stems is, that they are hollow, except at their nodes or joints, which are very compact discs, closing the stem entirely. They are, however, in every instance, at first solid, and become hollow in the course of their growth. In other respects, the stems of grasses present no variation from the typical structure of endogens. The slender fibres which appear in endogenous stems, consist of ducts, spiral vessels, and woody fibre, and may be traced as unbroken threads from the base of the leaves throughout the whole lengtli of the stem to the extremities of the roots. Stems of this structure increase in solidity by the annual addition of new woody bundles, within and among those already formed. From this peculiarity in the mode of their growth, they have received the name of endogens, or growers mwardly. In these stems, the older portions of wood are found next the circumference, whilst the newer and softer por- tions lie next the centre. This fiirnishes a good characteristic for distinguishing them from exo- gens, m which the newly formed and soller por- tions are necessarily next the circumference. There is no provision made for the growth of the rind of endogens, like that for the bark of exogens; it is, however, capable of distention to a certain extent whilst green ; but when it once hardens, the stem can increase in diameter no longer. The horizontal growth of endogenous plants is therefore limited, except in those rare instances in which the rind remains soA and ca- pable of indefinite distention. Endogenous stems having grown in a horizontal direction lor a cer- tain time with great rapidity, do not afterwards increase in diameter at all. The trunks of palms, and the stems of herbaceous endogens also, suck as that of the asparagus, are almost as large when they first appear, as at any subsequent period of their growth. Ligatures, or the firm embrace of twining plants, by preventing ILirther increase in diameter, soon destroy the life of exogens, whilst they do not affect the growth of endogens at all. The external structure of endogens furnishes no means by which their age can be ascertained. It has been said, that in palms, the external rings, indicating the situation of the leaves, coincide in number vvith the years which the individual has lived. Little dependence, iiowever, can be placed upon this circumstance ; for in many palms these rings have been noticed to disappear alter a term of years ; and besides, it is far from being certain that only a single ring results from eacli year's growth in these plants. The life of endogens, as well as their increase in diameter, is limited by the nature of their rind. When the lateral growth of the stem has proceed- ed to a certain extent, the rind hardens, and the stem being in this way prevented from increasing, in diamctiir, can only grow in length ; and as the 174 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. S consequence, stems of this character are general- ly slender. Tlie continual disposiiion ofnew bun- dles of woody matter, within the unyiel(iin<: rind, finally produces a tola! eolitlification of the stem, and death fbliovvs as a necessary consequence. Thus the lile of an endogenous stem is Hunted ; ibr, unless destroyed by some external agency, it must die of old age. The individual, however, is eeldom destroyed; for whilst thetrunli is thus slow- ly perishing, the great accumulaiion of sap in the roots, causes the developemcnt ofnew shoois li-om the base ol the stem, and these contiime tiie lilii of the individual when the original trunk dies down to the ground. In this view, the lifii of en- dogenous trees is unlimited. In the structure ol exogenous stems, on the other hand, there is nothing to limit either their increase or duration ; they never die purely of old age, but when destroyed, are destroyed by some external agency. The central wocd" of exogens it is irue, dies in the course of time, but the death of the stem does not lullow as a consequence of this ; for nothing is more common than to see a tree hollow, destroyed at its centre, whilst it, is growing vigorously at its circumli?rence. The sycamore ( planianus occidentalis ) furnishes a remarkable and well known illustration of this. The oldest truid?as that, in ancient times, the rein-deer were in- habitants of the Black Forest in Germany ; but the climate becoming too warm for them they retreat- ed to the northern parts of Germany ; but that country becoming too warm they retreated to Lap- land, and spreading themselves around the north- ern end of Europe, (bund a country whose cli- mate, as yet, is sufficiently cold for their com- fort. How far those alledged facts can be sup- ported by history I do not undertake to say ; but _ I do say that I know of no historical facts which m lead me to believe, or even suspect, that the tem- " perature of our earth is colder now than it was as far back as history extends. For a few years past, we have had, in the United States, winters very unfavorable to the growth of vvheat. But this did not arise so much from the coldness of the winters as from their peculiar character — little snow, and a succession of freezings and thawings. If we had had snow as in former times, our wheat would not have frozen out, Sekex. I From tlic Genesee Farmer. IMPROVED BREEDS OF SWINE. The production of pork is one of the most valu- able and important staples of the farmers of the United States: and the swine of our country are scarcely second in value, as farm-stock, to the en- tire amount of its neat cattle. Besides converting the offal and coarser and less valuable of the farm products into a marketable commodity in the feed- ing ol' swine, the richest and most Juxuriant grain of the country is usually devoted to their prepara- tion (or market ; and throughout the whole interior, in the pork-crop of the (iirmer is combined the sur- plus of his root cultivation, and the net proceeds of his coarser grains : the gross result of all de- pending on the final proceeds of his pork account. This is a very important matter for the farmer. The entire modus operandi of rural economy ia more or less concerned in a subject so interesting in its results of profit or of loss ; and is entitled, 1 fancy, to infinitely more consideration than is usu- ally bestowed upon it. With most of our farmers, even at the present day, particularly in the western country, among that numerous and wide-spread class whose prin- cipal dependence is on their pork crop for reward, a hog is simply a hog — the name comprising all of excellence in the animal necessary to produce the article of pork required. The biute in ques gradually extending farther and farther t tion, (or it deserves no 6of^er name, is indigenous north, hie well known that, within the last half century, the cultivation of wheat has been rapidly extending northward in England and Si;otland. i to the country. It exists in the streets of our cities, in the highways of our ordinary firming districts, and in the forests of the west and soutli — and in, 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 177 every corn-field and potato ground too, of the re- gions which they inhabit at all, provided the fen- ces enclosing them to be not remarkably close and of an extraordinary height. Their cheif excellen- cies are, the possefrsion of a surpassingly active and vigorous lever power in the poll and snout, acting by an ingenious co-operation of the spinal and nasal muscles ; a celerity of speed, equalled only by the fox, or the hound, in a chase; and an indomitable propensity to all evil, conclusively il- lustrative of their lineage from a conspicious race of scripture date. And this is the material from which is produced, in more than three-fourths of the United States, and indeed in almost the entire continent of America, the vast supplies of pork which are annually sold, purchased and consumed in the land! Important improvemenls, and wonderful chan- ges, have been introduced in most of our breeds of domestic animals and farming stock ; but less in our swine than in any other. Why this uni- versal neglect in the improvement of an animal furnishing us with our richest meats, and adapted to consume, in the most profitable manner, not only to thelarmer, butto the common house-keep- er the ofTal of both the harvest and the kitchen, is, not easy of answer, unless it be that its remarka- ble propensities of shifting for itself in its semi- savage condition, render it more acceptable to those who consider that every thing pillaged from their neighbors, or from the public, is so much di- rect benefit to themselves. Thiis perhaps, is an uncharitable solution of the problem ; but 1 feel- ingly appeal to those who. having a due regard to neighborhood comfort, and to individual right, if any other reason will account for the legions of miserable, starved, and mischievious brutes running at large, disgracing the name of even a — hog, and infesting almost the entire land. Nor are the characteristics above named, the only objections to the common swine of our coun- try. They are huge and gross feeders ; equally gluttonous in offensive animal offal, even to car- rion, as in vegetable food and grains. iVleasured by well chosen and approved physiological rules, and none other will or can be admitted by true economy, utility, or common sense, the animal in question will be found utterly inadequate in com- parison, to the main purposes of the farmer or house-keeper for profit. From fifty to one hundred per cent, more food, as the case may be, is re- quired to make a given quantity of pork of inle- rior quality, both in taste, and marketable varieties, from the common hog, than is required in the improved breeds of our swine. This fact has been so often demonstrated, that it needs no fur- ther confirmation, as all those who are conversant with the subject will readily testify. iMy own experience for many years, is satisfactory on this point, and with all intelligent men, and practical farmers, no doubt exists upon the subject. Within the last three or four years, the public attention has become much awakened to (he ne- cessity of a reform in this important branch of agriculture, and following the rapid spirit of im- provement in our neat stock by the importation of many valuable breeds of short-horn cattle from abroad, and their dissemination throughout our country, the better and more approved breeds of ewine have been eagerly sought after, and to a considerable extent introduced into many sections Vol. VII-23 of the union. Among our truly intelligent and thrillly farmers, the spirit of acquisition in all im- proved breeds of animals was never so active, and 1 imagine that it only needs the dissemination of lact and information among them, to draw their attention yet more closely to it. So important does the question of a thorough improvement in the swine of the United States ap- pear, as connected with notonly the quality of our pork, but as a means of the absolute saving of hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of dollars annually to our farmers, that, since I have com- menced the subject, [ feel disposed, even at the ex- pense of prolixity, to speak of some of our most approved breeds of swine ; yet I shall discourse of' nothing but such as I know and have tried by actual demonstrations, and such as [ can with en- tire confidence declare to be worthy of attention. As first among the most desirable breeds, I name the improved Chinese. These animals in their purity, arc exceedingly scarce in the coun- try. They may exist in several parts of the Uni- ted States, but I know of them now at only one farm in this region. I first purchased a pair of Caleb N. Bement, Es(i. at Albany, in the fall of 1S33, he having obtained them of Mr. Dunn of that city, who many years before, procured the breed ft-om New Jersey. At the time I pur- chased these of Mr. Bemant, he had many others of the kind, and I then thought, as the lact haa since proved, that he placed altogether too low an estimate on their value as an onghial stock for the improvement of other breeds. That gentle- man has lor some years past, I believe, been entirely out of the breed, having turned his at- tention almost exclusively to the breeding of Berk- shires. The principal and most important characteris- tics of this breed are, their exceeding quietness of disposition and habit ; round and perfi^ct pro- portions ; tolerable length of body ; delicacy of bone and limb; smallness of head, legs and feet ; lighter in the offal parts than any other breed whatsoever ; and a propensity to take on fat to a greater extent with less food than |)robably any other animal in existence. They are in lact the beau ideal of hogs! [n sii^e ihe'y are only mid- dling, weiiihingat nine month? old from 180to200; and at fifteen to eighteen months, 250 to 400 pounds; dependinir much upon their previous keep and flittening. Of the original pair wliich I pur- chased, the sow still survives, a fftiod breeder, weighing in fair condition about 200 pounds. The boar at the age of four years, w;i>^ overfrrown with fat, and useless, alihouiili kept unly on grass in summer and with low (bod in winltr. He^died when five years old, and his usual weight was about 400 lbs. One of their decemlanls is now four years old past, and has arrived at the same condition, being useless for breedmjr purposes. Numbers of their progeny have Iuhmj scattered far and wide ovrr the country. \ bred many of them on my own farm, but the calU were loo in- cessant for me to part with them, and not being conveniently located for their distiibulion, I parted with nearly my entire stock a year or two since, to Mr. A. B. Allen, who has bred them exten- sively for sale on his farm on the Niagara River, two miles below Black Rock. 1 have farted many of this breed, mostly mixed vviili En(rli.^h blood, and a few full blood, and I never made pork with 178 rARMIiJRS' REGISTER. [No. 3 equal economy, and of such perlect qualilitj' as (roin these. It is the breeil slightly mixed with some other, that I would always select Tor the purposes of my own farm, and I feel warranted m sayiniT, without fear ot" contradiction, that a cross of the China is the most valuable of any other in the country for economical pork-making. With all their perlections they arc objected lo by some ; and entire frankness in the matter de- mands that their ol'iections should be noticed. The first of these is, their want of size. That has been already stated. It is not an objection in my view. If they had louirer legs, which would spoil them, this objection would not be so apparent. Others object to their lack of hardihood and want of constitution. If an entire absence of hog-like ferocity, and the greatest amenity of disposition of which the animal is susceptible, together with the love of a warm and snug shelter in the incle- ment season, instead ol" a wild burrow in a fallen tree tob, or an ability to burglar itself into luxury at any sacrifice to its owner or his neighbor, be faults, then truly have the Chitia jiiirs most grie- vous ones; lor they love a shelter and a home in winter ; and it is dangerous to life for their young to come into this breathing world in very cold weather — the first of April to the first of INlay being early enough for a litter of flill bred China pigs to see the light. I know of no 'other vices with which they may be charged, unless it be ihc lack of bristles, and a total aversion to run, or to jump a li;nce. even two feet high, or to be ra- pidly driven. The sovvs are universally good and careful nui^es, having from six to nine pigs, rare- ly ten at a birth ; which, if decently fed, they raise with abundant ease. Indeed, I know of no favU with the pure improved Cliina /tog: and still I consider ihc.m with all their good qualities, in their purity, not exactly the animal lor the pork- makiuir farmer. Were I to direct him what to do to raise his breed ol" hogs to the greatest pitch of excellence, I would say — no matter what his breed may now be, if not of the approved vari- eties— in the northern states, where his stock is fed in pens, with ground or cooked food — " Cross your stock with China, and keep crossing it, no matter how high, until they fail in size or vigor, and then go to the Berkshire or something else ; but still let the main ingredient, of the animal be China blood." The continual tendency of hogs, as of most other animals is, without great care, to deteriorate ; to grow coarse and wasty ; and I know of no cross which so readily brings tliem back into snug and correct proportions as the China. I have had various crosses of these upon other breeds of switie, and I have never known an in- stance where they were not improved by the China blood. The size of the crossed China is large : frequently double that of the pure blood, varying from three to four hundred pounds at eighteen months old, and always excellent. Kven in the first cross upon the wild-woods hog, the produce is astonishingly altered, and the second makes an admirable animal, with great constitution and hardihood, accompanied by the quiet disposition and fattening propensities of the parent China. More need not be said in praise of the China hog. Since I first obtained them, by judicious selections, they have been continually improving in their ap- pearance and good qualities; and I learle^ily chal- lenge the country for finer specimens of Chinese swine than can be shown from my iijrmer stock, now at jMr. A.'s farm. If I have placed the China pig/irsf in estima- tion, it is because I think him better fitted than any other to impron\ as a first cross, the condi- tion of our country swine generally ; but for some purposes and in the o|)inion of many of our lar- mers, particularly the large grazing and pork feeders of the west, the Berkshire hog possesses properties of far greater attraction. In the de- scription of this animal, I shall claim li)r him no refinement ot character, or particular placidity of temper; lor, so ihv as I have been acquainted, he is as much of a hog as any other variety within my knowledge. These have been so oiten and so well described and figured in the agricultural papers by my friend Bemiokt, of Albany, Avho has a large herd ot them, that my account will be a short one. Their main properties are, larger size, weighing from three to five hundred pounds at eighteen months and two years old ; and at a nmcii earlier age I should not think they would so profitably liitteu ; great vigor, constitution, and muscular action ; but withal, an apitude and quick- ness to latien rarely equalled in most other large breeds; extraordinary length of body; breadth of carcass ; light ofi'al ; large, well shaped ham ; and in fine an excellent pork-hog. They are a dark- er spotted than the China, being in most cases nearl}' black, hut whhout bristles, or with very slight ones. The sows are prolific breeders, hav- ing from eight to fifteen pigs at a birth. They have the usually ravenous disposition and cha- racter of" the couHuon hog, sometimes devouring not only their own young, but whatever other lt?eble and inolfensive small animals may come within their reach. They are good nurses, and a sucking Berkshire pig can rarely be excelled in beauty by any creature of the kind. They are strong, and coarse feeders; exceedinglj^ hardy; good travellers (a desirable quality tor the wes- tern country, where the farmer drives his fat hogs to market instead of butchering them at home;) are remarkably well calculated to Ibllow fiittening cattle through the corn-fields, and to thrive on roots and coarse grains. They have obtained extensive celebrity on account of their great size, and other good qualities, and are, beyond ques- tion, with those who desire extraordinary large, as well as fine animals, the best pure blooded swhie in the country. They have an increasing popularity ; are soKI in many instances at enormous prices, and will probably be multiplied, as they ought to be, throughout "the Cnited States. Yet good as are these animals, they can be much improved by a cross of the China. They are antipodes in character and disposition; but each possessing excellencies of a peculiar and de- sirable kind, and when mingled with a cross of the Berkshire boar and China sow, the produce is the most perfect that the swine famil)', numerous as it is, can boast. I have had them, and have seen them elsewhere extensively crossed, and al- ways with entire success. To the China is ad- ded, sise, vigor, hardihood, and length of carcass; and to the Berkshire, docility, quietude of habit and disposition, delicacy of bone, limb and muscle, and a remarkable propensity to flitten — in fine, the best hog in the world ! I never have yet wit- nessed such beautiful specimens uf the swine 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER VHd family, as those of the Berkshire and China cross. When once made it may be followed upon cither side, according to the fancy of the breeder; but Jet the cross be made either way, it cannot be amies. I would therefore say to the farmer, if you would have the finest of hogs and the best quality of pork, procure both the China ;.nd the Berkshire, and you can never be at fault in pos- pessing a perfect breed. There is still another variety of swine which exists in this neighborhood, and which ! deem too valuable to omit a passing notice of, while discussing this important matter. The origin is partly owing to accident, and partly lo my own love of innovating;, as they were first produced upon my own farm, and have since been so suc- cessfully bred and substantiated asto claim llie mer- it of a distinct variety. They originated from a cross with a most valuable large white English breed, and the improved China. They were bred several years on my own farm, where some of ihem now remain, but they are principally kept as breedin;; stock, together with the China and Berk- sliire varieties, by Mr. A. B. Allen. He has given them the appropriate name of'theTuscarnrars, and by a careful and judicious systein of selections and breeding, he has brouixht them to great per- fection. They combine in all their parliculais, except in delicay and firmness of bone, the good qualities of the China. They are longer bodied, nearly double their size, yet smaller considerably than the Berkshire, and will weigh 300 to 500 lbs. at eighteen months old. They liitten equally as well when six or nine months old as the China, are liLMiter colored, being usually light s|iotted, the white predominating. They have the tran- quil pleasant habits of the Chinese, without the uneasy, predatory propensities of the Berkshircs, and are in all particulars just what the liirmer of our northern and middle states would desire lor a good stock and pork-hog. In fine, I do not know that I can better conclude this long story, than by saying, that in small and delicate breeds the China is the most perfect ; in the large and grosser sorts, tlie Beikshire is deci- dedly preferable ; but, for a good, honest, quid, every -day hog, the Tuscarora is, after all, ecjual, if not superior to either. At any rate, if you pos- .sess nothing but the conmion breed, try one or all of these, and you cannot but be essentially ben- efited. A notice of other varieties must be left for a future paper. Vs^m is. nEMARKS ON WINK-MAKING. To tlio Editor of the Farmers' Register. Ficksburg, AIL, Feb. 11, 183?). I perceive, in your last number, a notice of a secret method of making wine from the grape in the short space of six days. The subject of wine- making has occupied a good deal of my attention for several years past, and the article you have copied struck me with a great deal of liirce ; not merely from the magnitude of its importance, great as it is, but Trom having had my own thoughts turned to that particular object for some time past. There are tv/o principal operations which wine must undergo in order to perfect it- self: firstly, Itjrmentatiort, which is not generally completed under a year ; and secondly, the depo- sition of the tartaric acid which it holds in solu- tion, and which requires, in most wines, several years to accomplish iLill}'. Corn and rye are made to develope the alcoholic principle perlijctly in three days ; and I think there is no doubt but that the juice of the grape may, by the addition of yeast, be forced to perform the operation in the same time. But it was a doublfLil (|uestion with me, whether so rapid a fc;rmentalion would not cause a greater loss of alcohol, as a consequence of the greater degree of heat which would be ex- cited. This question, however, is settled by Mr. Da Cosla, ibr most unquestionably, this is a part of his secret; as the; fermentation must be perfect- ed before the wine is perfect. To dispose of the tartaric acid, however, was with me the greatest difficulty. I know of no means to hasten the de- position; and the only mode lel't was to neutralize it with an alkali ; but whether this cuuld be done without injury to the wine, was another doubtful question, and a quest ion which I conceive Mr. Da Costa has settled. Here then, I presume, lies the secret of making wine in six days. If this be the process of making new wine, then the renovation ot' inferior wine is simple and easy. Such wine has lost its alcoholic principle, or the greatest fioriion of it. All that would be necessa- ry would be to add, say half a pound of sugar to the gallon, give it a gentle heat, and with yeast renew the Itirmentation; then treat it as new wine. None of the treatises which 1 have seen on the subject of wine-making, attempt to give an esti- mate of the amount of alcohol dissolved in, and carried ofl' liy, the carbonic acid gas ; but the statements of various writers show that it is con- siderable ; and it is evident that the quantity lost must be in proportion to the heat generated, and the heat will be in proportion to the rapidity of the fermentation. My object in writing this, is neither to come into competition vvitli Mr. Da Costa, nor to worm out his secret ; but it is to call your attention, not to ■ this point particularly, but to the subject of wine- making generally. You have hereiolbre satis- fied your conscience by giving publicity to such comnmnications as were sent to you, and the ex- traction of a few articles from other periodicals.* If you look through the world, you will find that wherever the viue is capable of being cultivated, wine is one of the great staples of every country except our own, and it is certainly worthy of very serious inquiry why thi.^ conntry sii;Ed, F. R. 180 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 8 if they get one good crop in five years they are satisfied. Great as are the complaints respecting the rot in this country, I doubt not that our crops will average as much ae those of Europe. Much labor and time have been devoted by yourself and others to the subject of sillc and beet-root-culture; but I am certain that a few hours of research and reflection will convince you of the greater impor- tance of vine-culture in the amount of profitable employment it will give to the country. Among the cultivators of the vine in South Carolina, can you not find a successor to Mr. Her- bemont, of equal learning, equal urbanity, and equal veracity 1 A Subscriber, A PROFITABLE MODE OT CULTIVATING CORN. BADEN CORN. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Wigwam, jimelia, March 8, 18.39. Permit me through the columns of your journal, to recommend a mode of cultivating corn, which has been successfully pursued by a friend of mine, for the last 20 years, and which seems to me to be founded on reason. The gentleman to whom I allude is, Major Jno. H. Stegar, of this county, who is as remarkable for the large crops of corn which he yearly makes, as for the little labor he bestows upon them. His method is, to break the land well with a two-horse plough early in the year, taking care, however, not to turn up the clay, eince he has found by experience, that the clay of Amelia, when turned up, never becomes produc- tive. A coulter follows immediately after the plough, in the same furrow, so that the substratum is deeply broken, and a reservoir secured for the re- tention of moisture. By this means, and laying off his land horizontally, though with a level sur- face, his corn-field is but little liable to wash. In preparing to plant, a rake drawn by two horses is passed over the land in the direction of the rows for planting, and when the surface is sufficiently smooth, the rows are opened with a suitable plough, and the planting follows immediately. His rows are 5J feet apart on ordinary corn-land, and the corn dropped from 24 to SO inches apart. The experience of the first year, however, satis- fied me, that a less distance may, with advantage be given ; pay 5 feet by 2. The corn is covered by a common cultivator, adapted to the purpose by taking out the front tooth. He prefers this mode of covering to any other, as it is much the most Bpeedy, fills up the entire furrow, and pulverizes the adjacent earth. He has found that, corn plant- ed in this way comes up better than in any other, and very rarely needs re-planting. After planting, nothing more is done until the corn is large enough to be thinned. The earth is now thrown Irom the corn, a single furrow on each side being run with a one-horse turning plough, the bar next the corn. The corn is then thinned to one stalk in a hill, and may then be weeded if there be hand-labor to spare. This, however, may generally be postponed until the furrow turned away is thrown back; which is done by the same ploughs immediately after they get through the field in the first operation. By postponing the weeding to this period of the cul- tivation, much hoe-labor will be saved, as the fur- rows when properiy turned, will lap and cover most of the grass about and between the stalks. The grass not covered by the plough is covered by the lioe-hands ; and where the earth is piled up too high against the stalks it is pulled down and levelled. This is a very rapid operation, as it of- ten happens that no use of the hoe will be needed for 50 or 100 successive hills. When the ploughs have got through the field they commence again and turn a second furrow to the corn on each side as before, and a third furrow turned in the same manner, and at a proper time, finishes the row, and the culture of the crop. Thus the entire culture of the crop after planting requires only eight f', from the principal ones, for conducting the water, which I did not notice before; but very few drains. The new canal crosses a gravelly waste, but none of it watered. Trouchan. — A very ricli country much watered; and many mulberries. St. Germano. — Mowing the third crop of grass, and very poor ; not more than 15 cwt. an acre, and yet watered. The glory of Piedmont is from Co- ni to Turin. Those who pass Mont Cenia to Turin, and Turin to Milan, see, on comparison, nothing. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 187 Vercelli. — The new canal, now making, for tak- ing water from the Dora Bahia, and conducting it to the rice grounds of V^erceili, is done by tiie king, and will cost three millions ; the water is sold to communities. The other I crossed near the Dora, at the same time, was made long ago, and belongs 10 the Marquis de Bour^. Milanese. — Buffalora. — After crossing the Tesino, in several branches, and entering the Mi- lanese, we find a great system of waienng mea- dows to BuH'alora, where that magnificent canal, the Navil io Grande is 20 yards broad, and though navigable, was originally made for irrigation alone. St. Pietro Olmo. — Hence, lor sonie distance, there is no watering ; but then there is something in our Berkshire method ; the lands are archeil up, and just in the centre, on their crown, are the car- rier trenches for conducting the water, and on each side a row of low sallows ; some of these lands are two rods broad, and two teet higher in the ridge than in the furrow ; the land firm and the herbage good : wherever the meadows seem good, there is abundance ol' chicorium intybus, plaiitago lanceo- lata, and trifuliiim pratense. Milan. — As the irrigation of Milanese is per- haps the greatest exertion of the kind that ever was in the world, and certainly the first that was undertaken in Europe, after the decline of the Ro- man empire, it merits every attention that a lurin- ing traveller can give ; for it will be Ibund, by ve- ry briefly recurring to records, which have been searched, that great exertions (perhaps as great as ever known) were made in this country, at a period when all the north of Europe was in a state of barbarism. In the year 1037, mention is made of the canal Vecchiabbia. In 1067, watered mea- dows were common, called pratoroco by Landol- fo.* In 1077, there are notes of many streams used. In 1138, the monks ol' Chiarevalle bought of Giovanni Villano some commons, woods, and meadows for 81 liv. under the contract, (a parch- ment yet remaining,) "«f 7nonasterium possit ex Vectabia trahere lectinnubi ipsum monasterium vol- uerit el sifaerit opus liceatfacere eidem monasterio Jbssata super terrain ipsius Johannis ab una parte vi(z et ab alia**** ^'c. possit firmare et habere clu- sam in prato ipsius Johannis, .^'c." There is a similar contract of the following year, ami various others, until the beginningofthe 13ih century; from which, and others, it appears, that the Vecchiab- bia was the entire property of the monastery, and confirmed in 1276 by the diploma of the Emperor Frederick II. The merit of these monks appears to have been great, lor they gamed such a repu- tation for their skill and industry, that they had many applications lor assistance in directing works similar to their own upon uncultivated lands; and the imperial Chancellor Rinaldo, in the time ot the Emperor Frederick I. being appointed arch-bishop of Colone, found the possessions of his fee in su(-h a deplorable state, that he applied for, and lound the same assistance, as reported by Cesarior Eis- terbacense. Their greatest exertions were in irri- gation, which was so well known, that they sold their superfluous water, transferring the use and property of same by the hour, day, and week. In two eenturies they came to be possessed of 60,000 pertiche, mostly watered : there is reason to believe that the practice, in the 13th century, did not ma- * Giulini, tom.iv. p. 122, 224, 225. terially differ from the present modes ; because, in the papers of the archives of the abbey of thai pe- riod, mention is made ot chiuse, incastri, hochilli, soratio,* and other works, to distribute the water, and regulate the irrigation.! In 1164, the Empe- ror Frederick gave various rights, in certain rivers, to the people of Pavia, lor the purposes of irriga- tion.! In 1177, the people of Milan enlarged and continued the Navillio Grande, from Abbiate Grasso to Milan, being 14 miles ; it was brought li-om the Tesino, near the Lago Maggiore, to Ab- biate Grasso, 20 miles, by the peo'ple of Pavia, long belbre the date of any records now known to remain. § In 1271, it was made navigable. It is thirty-two Italian miles long, and twenty-five brac- chi wide, or forty-nine English feet.|| The second great work, was the canal called Muzza, which takes the waters of the Adda, at Cassano, and carries them to Marignano, there dividing and watering much ol the Lodizan. It was executed in 1220, IT and done in so admirable a style, that Padre Frisi, in the preface to Modo di regolare ifiumi, ^'c. says, — "i7 meccamsmo d^ir- rigar le campagne e stato ridotto alVultimo grado di maestria e di persezione nel canale di Muz- zay** And Padre Antonio Lecchi, another great engineer and mathematician, remarks, — '■'■De'nos-^ tri tre celebri canali di Muzza, e dc'dm navigli qual altra memoria ci rimane ora, se non se quella del tempo della lore costruzione, e d^altrepoche no- tizie, niente concernenti ai maraviglioso artijizio della loro condotta'^'''\'\ In 1305, tlie canal of Treviglio was made, which takes the water from the Bieinbo, and carries it, Ibr several miles, about twenty-five feet wide, and about three deep ; it irrigates the territory of Tri- viglio and the Ghiara d'Adda. And, within four or five miles, there are five canals, taken from the Adda and Brembo, all ol'great antitjuity. In 1460, the canal de Martesano was begun, under Duke Francis Sibrza I. ; it was twenty-four miles long, and eighteen braccia (thirty-five English i'eet,) wide ; since lengtheneil seven or eight miles more. It takes the waters of the Adda, "a little before Trezzo, by means of a powerlLil wear, (chiuse) (bunded upon the livins rock ; it is then supported for five miles by a solid wall of stone, Ibriy brac- cia (eighty feet,) above the bottom of the Adda, and parallel with it. At Gorgonzola, it passes over the torrent Molgora, by a bridge ol three stone arches. At Carsenzogo, it is crossed by the river Lanibro, which enters and quits the canal with all its floods. And, in order to prevent the surplus of water, vvhii-h this circumstance occa- sions, from breaking the hanks of the canal, or overflowing them, there are nineteen scaricatori in the canal, above, below, and facing the junc- * Chiuse, are sluices ; incastri, are water gates, that are moved perpendicularly ; bochilli, openings in the banks to distribute water; soratot, discharges •lor car- rying otf superfluous water; the same as scaricatari. t Memorie Stonca ed Kconomica full' Inigazone de Praii. Don. .Mng. Fumugalh Jltiidi Milano, torn. ii. p. 215. X Giulini, torn. vi. p. 330. § Nuova Raccolta d'Autoriche trattano de tmoio dell* Acque. Parma. 1768. 4to. Tom. vii. P. Prisi. p. 97. II Ibid, p. 98. H Verri, Storia di M. t. i. p. 240. ** Nuova Raccolta, torn. vii. tt Jb. Piano, ^c. de trctanenii, p. 141. 188 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 tion, which are so calculated, that they have not only powers sufficient to take off tlie waters of that river, but also half o!" those o(" the canal itself. These ecaricatori are canals which take the water when sluice-gales are opened for that purpose, and convey it, at various distances, to the Lambro again ; the fall in its course being considerable enough to free the canal from all superfluity of water. Near Milan, this Navillio receives the torrent Seveso ; and, after surrounding the city, unites with the Navillio Grande and the Olona. The sluices which Bellidor supposed to be invent- ed by the Dutch, were used, lor the first time, near Padua, in 1481, by two engineers of Viterbo, Dionysius and Peter Domenico, brothers.* Leo- nardo da Vinci profited immediately of this great invention, for the union of ihe two canals of Mi- Jan ; and finding between them the difi'erence of the levels to be eighteen braccia, he, with six sluices, in they ear 1497, under Ludovico il Moro, opened ana facilitated the navigation from one to the other. The greatest scaricaiori] of the wa- ters united at Milan, is the canal of Vecchiabbia, which, after having served some mills and irriga- tion, falls into the Lambro near Marignano; and if this canal were made straight, and supported by some fluices, the navigation might be continued to the Lambro, and thence to the Po and the sea. Both these canals, the Grande and the Martesano, are so contrived as to be completely emptied once a year, for cleaning and repairing whatever acci- dents may have happened to any of Ihe works. 1 Iiave entered into this digression upon a very curious subject, little known in Enirlish literaturej, in order to shew how well irrigation was under- stood,and how admirably it was practised, when the countries on this side of the Alps were barbarous. At the same time, however, that jusliceis thus done to these great exertions, we must bear in mind, that few districts in Europe are better, or so well situated for irrigation. The lakes of Mag- giore and Comn, nearly upon the same level, are three hundred \hei (one hundred and fifty braccia) higher than Milan, — and that of Lugano two hun- dred feet higher than those, with a nearly regular declivity to the Po. (To be continued.) • Moto delVJlcque, vol. v. Parma, 1766, p. iJSD. Mentioned by Zendrini in the tentli chapter, Sopra VAcqua Corrente. This is the common supposition in Lombardy, and is thns recorded ; but it ajipears to be an error, by a passage in Giulini, torn. xii. p. S32, where, anno 1420, mention is expressly made of them, machinarum qiias conchas appellant, ^c. \ The scaricatori are wh.^t I believe we call wears in England; they are discharges of superlliions wa- ters. Mr. Brindley made them, in the Uiike of Bridge- water's canal, circular, and in the centre of the river, to convey the water, as into a well; but in Italy they are cuts or openings in the banks of the canal, at places that allow a quick eonveyaiice of the water ; for in- stance, where a canal crosses the bed of a river : their powers are calculated with such a mathematical exact- ness, proportioned to the quantify of water brought into the canals, by the rivers joining them, that no floods ever effect the surface, wliich is of an equal height. I One would naturaljy look for some knowledge of these facts in Jlnderson's Dediiction of f/yinmerce ; but we sfc^Jl look in vain. BORROWERS OF THE FARMERS REGISTER. We have often been told, by subscribers to the Farmers' Register, of the great demand for their numbers, by some persons who found it cheaper thus to borrow, than to pay for the work, and who were willing thus to profit at the expense of those who do pay. and still more at the expense of the publisher. It has, indeed, often been reported to ua fi-om neighborhoods which perhaps had furnish- ed but two or three subscribers, that their num- bers were so popular, that the owners could not keep them at home, nor prevent their loss or de- struction in the hands of borrowers ; and some- times in places where no new name had been ad- ded to our list for years together, this practice of ha- bitual lending of the numbers by some one of the few subscribers has been mentioned as a friendly service rendered, to promote the circulation of the work, and as a plea of merit, in asking for duplicate numbers in place of the copies lost or spoiled by the borrowers. By such reports, we were even flattered, and gratified that our publication should thus be sought for and read, though by those who chose to avoid paying for it. But there is a limit to every thing; and the limit of our gratification, and toleranceof this wide-spread and growing practice has long since been exceeded. Whether many, or even any, of these borrow- ing readers would become subscribers to and pay- ers for the Farmers' Register, if they could no longer borrow, is more than we can tell ; but even if no more gain is derived than is expected from such sources, still the cessation of the practice of lending will prevent the loss and destruction ot thousands of numbers, which are caused by the borrowers from the owners, {or takers without leave of the owners, from the post-offices,) and which losses we have then to supply, and without remuneration. It is not unlikely that we ha^e, in the course of this publication, furnished, and with- out charge, as many duplicate numbers as would, at subscription price, have cost $1000, to replace those lost or damaged by being borrowed. Yet sundry of these borrowers, within our knowledge, are very wealthy men, and who would be utterly amazed to be supposed guilty of an illiberal, much lees an unjust or mean act, for the sake of saving the few dollars, the outlay of which would make the property their own, and pay what is due to the producer. By the published conditions, we have always engaged to furnish duplicates for co- pies not received by mail, under certain restrictions as to time and manner of notification, &c. This obligation has not only been readily and willingly discharged in every case, but we have never ad- hered to our limits, the proper and seasonable safe- guards against too great carelessness of eubscri- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. IBf? bers, and of too great loss to ourselves — but have supplied all duplicalee asked for, no matter when and how lost, and have never charged ibr any, ex- cept in a very few cases, when the losses amount- ed to nearly a volume, or more; and when, more- over, they were admitted by the subscriber to have been caused by his own fault. There has been no refusal to supply to any subscriber duplicates of one, two, or even three lost numbers, and without any charge, and even when he had no claim un- der the rules, if they could be furnished without destroying an entire volume; and in many cases even that loss, of $5, has been suffered, by giving away a single duplicate number. But this excessive and most onerous indulgence cannot be longer permitted to grow, or to exist ; and the conditions forsupplying duplicates of num- bers hereafter lost, will be required to be complied with by all subscribers who may claim its benefit. The article stating these conditions was omitted in the last change of form, by accident, and not by design. It is now replaced, (Art. XI of Condi- lions.) and is as follows. We beg our subscribers to observe that three things are there required to make their claim valid — and that all these will be required, in regard to losses which may occur after this notice. "For all copies not received by mail at the pro- per post offices, duplicates will be furnished to those subscribers who have complied with their own obligations ; provided that the failure shall be no- tified through the postmaster, and within two months after the date of the miscarried copy."^ The requisition of the evidence of the post-mas- ter (or his assistant) is not made because it is deem- ed better than that of the subscriber, but because none other can know the fact of the missing num- ber not having been brought by mail. It is de- cidedly for the benefit of the subscriber that the statement of the post-master should be required, if the officer is (as is too often the case,) very ne- glectful of his official duties. For, if knowing that he will be expected to testify as to the non-arrival of lost numbers, he will be more careful to prevent their being borrowed, or taken away from his office. We earnestly hope, that our subscribers and friends will see the propriety of these remarks, and will take no offence at our now requiring, what in fact, our conditions and justice and propriety required always. To enforce the long established rule is all that we can do to restrain the depredations and heavy losses caused by the practice of borrowing. But we earnestly beg of all our subscribers who desire the prosperity of this publication, that, for the sake of promoting that end, as well aa to check a most shameful abuse and injury of our right of proper- ty, they will hereafter refuse to lend the Farm- ers' Register, habitually, to any one who is able to pay for it. And to the borrowers, the poor as well as the rich, if we should still have ac- cess to them as heretofore, we will say, that at the very low price at which the Register can now be obtained, they can more cheaply pay for it and own it, than to pay the cost of the mere labor of borrowing and returning the numbers. We also ask another favor of our subscribers, in aid of the object proposed; which is to forbid their numbers being taken out of the post-offi- ces by any person without their special authori- ty and order. If we can be guarded against the actual and direct losses caused by both classes of borrowers, (those without, as well as those with leave,) our guaranty of safe mail-transmission will add but a mere trifle to the general cost of pub- lication. The loss of copies, first to subscribers, and next to the publisher, by having to supply duplicates, is not the only manner in which the latter suffers. Sundry subscribers who are subjected to many of these losses by borrowers, or by a very negligent or a very accommodating post-master, cease to ask that their losses may be repaired ; but to get rid of the vexation, discontinue their subscription. Thus, in various ways, we are made to suffer so much from this system, that we could more cheap- ly issue, for the benefit and use of the borrowers, and as a supply for the negligence of unfaithful post-masters, an extra impression of 300 volumes annually, provided, that by paying so much, all other losses and injuries, from these sources, could be avoided. But, though requiring, henceforward, the condi- tions of re-supply to be complied with, we can, without adding to the great losses alreadysustain- ed, and will with pleasure, and gratuitously, fur- nish duplicates of all except the deficient Nos. of Vols. 2 to 6 inclusive. Therefore, all old subscri- bers, who have lost any of the numbers which are surplus, may be supplied with any reasonable number, by writing for ihem, (post paid) within a few weeks after this notice. The surplus numbers which can be thus given, are, at present, the following : Vol. 2— All the Nos. except No. 3, and Index, which are deficient. Vol. 3— All except Nos. 5 and 12, and Index. Vol. 4 — All except Nos. 1 and 2. Vol. 5— All except No. 8. Vol. 6— All except Nos. 4 and 8. Any persons who may have to spare any of the numbers slated above to be deficient, will confer a favor by giving every such one. Our previous of- fers to buy such, at high prices, have been almost fruitless. 190 l<*ARx\lERS' REGlSTii:K [No. 3 HUMBUGS. MULTICAULIS SEED AND CHINESE CORN. Jt would seem that the inforniation which we have aimed to furnish to our readers and the pub- lic is very little prized; nor i? availed ofeven when it would prevent the most barefaced and shallow yet successful and gainiiil deceptions, which are continually imposed upon the agricultural public. It has been about five years since we first publish- ed the fact that the seeds of the multicaulis would not re-produce their kind, and that, of course, they were worthless for propagating ihe parent slock ; and from time to time this warning has been often repeated, accompanied with the most positive proofs of its truth. Yet, notwithstanding, thou- eands of persons, and many even of our subscribers, have bought at enormous prices what has been sold for multicaulis or Chinese mulberry seed, and have failed, of course, to obtain a single genuine plant. Seed so named and recommended ia stil! frequently advertised for sale; and at this time there is offered lor sale 20 lbs. of it, by a salesman in Baltimore, every grain of which will probably be bought, (provided the price is high enough,) and be allowed to perpetrate a fraud, unless the planter should be so lucky as to find that it will not vegetate. It will add but little force to our charge, to say that not one pound or even ounce of seed truly produced from the morus multicalis has ever been offered for sale. All believe this who are well informed on the subject. But even if all the parcels of seeds so advertised were in truth so produced, they would be no better, and their progeny no more like the multicaulis than the seeds really sold, or those of any other kind of mulberry. Another among the greatest of humbugs was the "Chinese tree-corn," advertised by Grant Thorburn, and puOed by so many papers who aided his "benevolent and charitable" design. We presented so full an exposure of this very shallow, and yet very successful imposition upon the public credulity in a former number, (p. 490, vol. vi.) that it was considered useless to pay any further respect to a matter so small and contempt- ible, by republishing the more detailed charges and exposures which afterwards appeared in the 'Journal of Commerce.' Well ! the result has been that the "Chinese corn," which had been advertised by Thorburn at 25 cents a ear has since been selling under our nose here, as well as elsewhere, at^l the ear — and bought by hun- dreds who have had ample opportunity to profit by the notice which we had taken of the humbug. If our attempted exposures of humbug seeds, &c. actually serve to advertise and give them greater currency with purchasers, we wish at least that that fact could be understood by the salesmen of such articles. In that case, perhaps, they might be willing to par/ for our denunciations, such bribes (direct or indirect) as we have refused to receive as the price of pufls and recommenda- tions. REPRINT OF VOL. I. OP FARMERS REGISTER. The printing of another edition of vol. I. of Far- mers'Register has been commenced and will pro- bably be completed within a few months. To those persons who may hereafter send orders and pay- ment in advance tor full sets of seven volumes, the new edition of vol. I. will be supplied, as soon as ready, at the same price as the others are ofi'ered in the conditions, when three or more are bought and paid for at once; that is, at the rate of $10 lor every 3 vols. Those persons who have recently bought and paid lor full sets, and who could not then be supplied with vol. I, shall have the benefit of this allowance. No copy of vol. I will be furnish- ed at the above price, except as a part of a full set sold, or to complete the set of a subscriber. By the single copy, vol. I will still be at ^6, the price at which old and used copies have been bought back by the publisher for the last two years, and which was offered by advertisement^ and paid as long as one could be thus obtained. Of the new edition there will be but a small impression, (as it will be wanting only to complete full sets,) and therefore the cxpenseof printing will necessarily be great compared to the returns ; and most probably, the sales will not cover the cost. Those who de- sire to be certainly and speedily supplied with copies, are requested to send their orders and pay- ments as early as may be convenient. SMITH FUND. The subscribers to the "Smith Fund" are re- quested to make payment, forthwith, by checks payable to the order of the undersigned, or in any other manner. The committee will not wait more than a few weeks longer to dispose of the portion already received, even if the much larger balance subscribed should still remain unpaid. For the Committee, Edmund Ruffin. Petersburg, Fa., March 30, 1839. STATE OF THE MULBERRY TRADE. Since our last remarks on this subject, there has not only been no decline of prices, but they 1839] FARMERS- REGISTER 191 have been maintained and even increased, while the commodity bought was in many cases every day getting much worse by keeping, and by the ad- vance of the season. It is astonishing that there should be so little regard paid to the preservation of the healthy condition, and even of the vitality, of the trees and cuttings which are held and sold at such high prices. It would seem as if most of both the holders for sale, and the purchasers for planting, believed that ihe cuttings would pre- serve both lile and health under any kind of treat- ment, or degree of exposure. Many will find themselves egregiously mistaken; and many thou- sands of trees, whether with or without roots, which have been kept for sale, drying through all winter, will either not vegetate at all, or a puny and sickly progeny of plants will be produced from the dried and almost sapless stems and cuttings. Ma- ny tliousands of other plants will have perished by too much care improperly bestowed for protec- tion ; which losses, however, will fall on the hold- ers, as such plants will be too obviouly damaged, or spoiled, to be used. Those holders who have refused to sell until the planting cannot be longer safely delayed, and still more those whose stocks are the worse for keeping, must then sell,or lose all; and under such circumstances, it seems not unlikely that there will be a sudden fall in price, in such places as the too great anxiety for higher prices has caused plants to be kept back too long, or where neglect and bad management have caused them to be in- jured. The holder who cannot use a stock that would perish in a kw days, will of course sell at any price rather than lose all. And yet, those xvho may wait and buy under such circumstances, may find the lowest prices much the dearest in the end. There remain, however, very few for sale in Virginia, and almost none, except such as have been recently sent on from the north. The planting is already nearly over in lower Virginia, and all farther south ; and indeed the buds have so much started that still earlier plant- ing would have been safer. When the planting season is quite over, and no more cuttings can be set out, then will begin the sales of the growing «rop. And in regard to these, the public may be prepared for much unintentional deception, as well as gross and designed frauds. The enhancement of price was so sudden last year, that none had prepared to deceive ; and no counterfeit article has been yet heard of, except some bass-wood cuttings sold' in Massachusetts. But it is so easy to sub- stitute other kinds of mulberry trees and cuttings ibr the multicaulis, that it will be done to great ex- tent, if the prices should be high enough to invite such frauds. There will be no safety lor buyers except in their either seeing the plants when in leaf, or receiving them immediately of the planter, and having in his character, or in other proof^ a suffi- cient guaranty of the absence of fraud. In the manner in which numerous and large sales have been made, the same stock passing through the hands of four or five successive holders betweeo the raiser and the final owner, all responsibility is lost ; and if a fraud had been committed, it would be impossible to fix it on the real perpetrator, nor would it have been suspected by the other and honest holders of the stock so adulterated or sub- stituted. We mentioned unintentional deception — which, may seem a contradiction in terms. There was^. however, much of this during the past season, (and even unavoidably so,) in the circumstances of the same stocks being advertised by several successive holders, and the advertisements being all before the public at once, making it appear that each particular stock or quantity was three or four times as great as it really was. A system much more deceplioue, we are sorry to see, has already been commenced, and which may be extended ad infinitum. By an advertisement in a Georgia pa- per, a dealer in Virginia offers to sell five millions of trees next November, when the offerer certainly does not own, nor probably has the control of a tenth, if even a hundredth part of the number of- fered. All that is meant by any such offer as this, when the advertiser has not the trees actual- ly planted and belonging to himself, is, that if he can make an advantageous engagement to sell a number of trees, that he will engage to procure enough to furnish the supply — and thus contrive to make one engagement meet another. But if the very erroneous inference were drawn, that each adventurer actually held the trees he may of- fer to sell, it may appear that there are for sale by our planters a hundred times as many as are actu- ally growing in all Virginia, or even in all the world. ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIOKS TO SUBSCRI- BERS. In answer to numerous inquiries, or remarks, showing mistaken and erroneous impressions of subscribers and correspondents, (some case of which is continually presented,) it is deemed pro- per to give here the following general answers or explanations] though the same in purport have been repeatedly stated in the conditionsj or in oth- er notices to the public. Inhere are no general agents for the Farmers^ Register, nor will any such agency be established, vvithotit previous notice, nor is any such measure now designed. Neither is there any special or limited agency, except to this extent, that the 192 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2P accounts for arrears of subscriptions are, when it is deemed necessary, put into the hands of col- lectors specially authorized to act. If a subscri- ber requests any person to give an order of dis- continuance, or to pay subscription money, or to do any thing else in regard to the Farmers' Regis- ter, that intermediate person is the agent of the subscriber, and not ours' ; and we are in no respect to suffer by the failure of the person to render the service so requested. No credit will be hereafter given, or account opened, for sums for which a deduction is allow- ed for cash advanced. The least reflection will show the necessity for this rule. The prices and deductions for joint and advanced payments are plainly stated in the Conditions ; and should any advanced payment miscarry by mail, we are bound 10 bear the loss, and will furnish the volumes so or- dered, upon exhibition ot the fact of the lost remit- tance. Therefore, there is no necessity for, or con- venience gained by, not sending payments with the first orders. If any charge for joint subscrip- tions, or large purchases of volumes, has to be made, it will hereafter always be entered at the regular and full price of $5 the volume. For the Farmers' Register. MONTHLY COMMERCIAL REPORT. The present month has not been one of im- provement in the prices of produce. Most arti- cles have declined from the high rates which they had previously attained. Money is less abundant. Tidings from Europe have been leas frequent, rather unsatisfactory, and the latest are now six weeks old. The disturbances in Canada have been succeeded by those in Maine, creating apprehensions in the minds of some that our friendly intercourse with Great Britain may be interrupted. Vessels are scarce, and freights high. Speculation, which some weeks ago was active in every article of domestic produce, has been arrested by those causes, fortunately perhaps, for those vvho were sanguine. Tobacco has declined about $2 per 100 lbs.;, and may now be quoted at $7 to 15, although the belief in a very short crop remains unchanged. The price of flour is full a dollar per barrel lower, and country brands cannot be readily sold at ^7. Wheat is down to il 35 to SI 45 ets. Cotton i» dull at about i cent decline, and now sells at 13^ to 14| cts. The receipts in all porta are about 200,000 bales less than in March last. Stocks generally have felt the unfavorable in- fluence ; and in the northern cities, where it has been most prevalent, the decline is very conside- rable. The next news from Europe is anxiously looked for, but the political aspect, it is apprehended will be unfavorable. Exchange on London 9^ percent, premium. March 26, 1839. X. From the American Silk Grower. long preservation of the vitality of silk-worms' eggs. I have ascertained here that silk-worm eggs have been preserved in ice-houses for twenty-two months, and that they hatched as well as new eggs, by being hatched in a moist air; a too dry afr was probably the cause of failure at Burling- ton last year. S. W. C. Table of Contents of Farmers^ Register , JVo» 3, Vol. t*II, ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. Essay on the production of silk, and the pecu- liar advantages of Virginia for the culture On the causes of failure of the crop of co- coons, in 1834, in the department of Gard Profit of improving poor land - - - The advantage of steaming food for stock Improvement of land by grass husbandry. Hay making Improving land by liming - . . - Essay on Vegetable Physiology, by Prof. Armstrong, Chap. V. - - - - Do. Chap. VI. - - - - Sale of Durham short-horn cows - Is the planet which we inhabit becoming colder? Remarks on wine-making - - - - A profitable mode of cultivating corn - Extracts from the ancient laws and records of Virginia ------- Borrowers of the Farmers' Register, - Humbugs. Multicaulis seed and Chinese corn. Reprint of Vol. I. of Farmers' Register, Smith fund, State of mulberry trade, . - - . Answers and explanations to subscribers, SELECTIONS. Essay on the breeding of live-stock, and tlie Page 140 150 153 157 162 166 169 172 175 175 179 180 181 188 190 190 190 190 191 comparative influence of the male and fe- male parent in the offspring, (concluded,) Ice-houses, Lime — its profits and cost, - - - - Exhibit of the value of silks imported in the United States, and exported from 1821 to 1S37, inclusive, The short-horn fever in Kentucky, Electro-magnetic power, .... Sugar beet and ruta baga, . . - - On the preparation of orchard grass-seed for sowing, - - - , - Excavating by steam, - - , - Care of cows, - - - On the culture of silk in France, . - - Grafting and inoculating, . . . - Treatment of cattle, . - - - - Experiments with various grass-seeds, - Breed of swine - Weeds as manure, and various remarks. Value of root crops, Ineflicacy of oyster-shell lime. Improved breeds of swine, - - - - Large oak trees, More about hogs, Irrigation of Lorabardy, . . - - Monthly commercial report, - - - - Long preservation cf the vitality of silk-worms Page 129 1.30 131 132 132 13» 133 134 134 134 135 151 153 156 158 159 165 166 176 184 184 185 192 192 THE FA RS' REGISTER. Vol. VII. APRIL 30, 1839. No. 4. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. IRRIGATION OF LOMBARDY. From Arthur Young's Notes on the Agriculture of Lombardy. C Concluded from page 188.^ The same law that has been so efl'ectual in wa- tering Piedmont, operates here also, and has done even greater things. He who discovers a spring, conducts it where he pleases, paying a fixed com- pensation* lor cutting through the properties of others. All rivers belong, as in Piedmont, to the sovereign, who sells tixe waters to speculators for this most beneficial purpose of irrigation. In tjie distribution of it, by sale, they do not measure by the hour, as in Piedmont, but by the ounce ; 12 oz. are a braccio, or 22 inches: an ounce ol water is a stream that runs one braccio long and one ounce deep ; and the farther the water has run, the higher is the price, as being more charged with manure. As an example of the beneficial influence of this law, I was shown, between Milan and Pavia, a spring that was discovered two miles irom the lands of the discoverer, the properties of many persons lying between him and the spring. He first bought the property of the person in whose land it was situated, which was easily done, as it was too low to be there of any use ; then he con- ducted it by a trench at pleasure the two miles, paying the fixed price lor cutting through his neighbors' lands; and, having gained it upon his own, presently changed poor hungry arable grav- el into a very fine watered meadow. Near Milan, a watered meadow sells at 800 llv. the pertica, (£32. 15s. the English acre;) and the rent of such is about 30 liv. (£1. 5s. the Eng- lish acre.) Thismustnot,however,be classed high; for there are lands that rise to 4000 liv. ( £ 163 the English acre.) In landatSOOZitJ. orlOOO/Zu. water often makes half of the value ; that is, the rent to the owner of the land will be 15 liv. to 20 liv.; and as much to some other person tor the water. In viewing a great farm, six or seven miles from Milan, in the road to Pavia, I found that all the watered meadow was mown four times ; and that what was watered in winter, prati di mercila, five times. Such is the value of water here, that this farm, which, watered, is rented at 20 liv. the perti- ca, would not let at more than 6 liv. without wa- ter, the soil being gravel. The irrigation of the mercita begins in October, and lasts till March, when it is regulated like all other meadows. All in general begin in April, and last till Septem- ber ; and if there be no rain, once in seven to fi!- teen days. An ounce of water, running continu- ally from the 24lh of March to the 8th of Septem- ber, is worth, and will sell for 1000 liv. When * These laws, relative to the conduct of irrigation, are as old as the republic of Milan; first compiled into a collection of statutes and customs in 1216, (Verri, p. 239.) They were revised and collected, by order of Charles V, and are in full force to this day. Consti- tutiones Dondnii Mediolanensis Decretis et Senalus Consultis. Gab. Verri. Folio, 1717. De aquis et fluminibus, p. 16S. Vol. VII-2.5 arable crops want water, it is always given. Milan to Mozzata. — Every considerable spring that is found, becomes the origin of a new canal. They clear out the head for a basin, and sink casks, by way of tunnels, for the water to rise freely, and without impediment Irom mud or weeds. There are usually three, four, or five of these tunnels, at the bottom of a basin of twenty or thirty yards. Milan to Lodi. — Of all the exertions that I have any where seen in irrigation, they are here by far the greatest. The canals are not only more nu- merous, more incessant, and without interruption, but are conducted with the most attention, skill, and expense. There is, for most ol the way, one canal on each side of the road, and sometimes two. Cross on^s are thrown over these, on arches, and pass in trunks of brick or stone under the road. A very considerable one, after passing for several miles by the side of the highway, sinks under it, and also under two other canals, carried in stone troughs eight feet wide ; and at the same place under a smaller, that is conducted in wood. The variety of directions in which the water is carried, the ease with which it flows in contrary directions, the obstacles which are overcome, are objects of admiration. The expense thus employed, in the twenty miles from Milan to Lodi, is immense. There is but little rice, and some arable, which does not seem under the best management; but the grass and clover rich and luxuriant : and there are some great herds of cows, to which all this country ought to be applied, i cannot but esteem the twenty miles as afibrding one of the most cu- rious and valuable prospects in the power of a far- mer to view ; we have some undertakings in Eng- land that are meritorious ; but they sink to nothing in comparison with these great and truly noble works. It is one of the rides which I wish those to take, who think that every thing is to be seen in England. jLodi. — Examining some watered meadows in high estimation, I found the following plants most predominant, and in the order in which I note them : — 1, Ranunculus repens j 2, 7'rifolium pra- tense j 3, Chicorium intybus j 4, Plantago lance- olata J 5, JlchilUa millefolium ;* and about one fifth of the whole herbage at bottom seems what are properly called grasses. These rich meadows about Lodi are all intersected by ditches, without hedges, but a double row of pollard poplars ; all on a dead level, and no drains to be seen. They are now (October,) cutting the grass and weeds in the ditches, to cart home for making dung. The mea dows are commonly cut thrice ; but the best lour * There appeared but few signs of ray-grass, yet it certainly abounds in some of their fields ; opinions in Lombardy dilFer concerning it; Sig. Scannagatta prai- ses it highly, (Atti di Milano, torn, ii p. 114;) but one of the best writers in their language, Sig. Lavezari, (torn. i. p. 82.) wonders rather at the commendations given of it in other countries : he mistakes the French name, it is not sainfoin ; the lojexsa of Lombardy, and the ray-grass of England, is the lolinm perenne ; the French sainfoin is the hedysamm onobrachis. 194 FARMIi^RS' REGISTER, [No. 4 times. The produce of hay per pertica, 6 f ass I, o/'lOO lb. of 28 oz. at the three cuts. Price ol'the first, 8 liv. per Pass ; of the second, 5 liv. ; of the third, ^liv. They water immediately alter clear- ing, if there be no rain. Without irrigation, the rent of the country in general would be only one- third of what it is at present. In (brming these watered meadows, they have very singular cus- toms— all are broken up in rotation ; flax sown for the first crop, and their way of laying down is to leave a wheat stubble to clothe itself; clover is pro- hibited by lease, from an absui-d notion that it ex- hausts the land ; and that it is not so good as what the nature of the ground gives ; but on worse land, the other side of the Adda, they sow clover. Ziodi to C'oddgno. — All this country the same as about Lodi ; a dead level, cut into bits of from three to ten acres, by ditches, without hedges, and planted with double rows of poplars and willows, all young, for they are cut as soon as the size is that of a thin man : here and there one is lelt to run up to timber. I remarked, in the meadows fed, that the ranunculus is avoided by the cows as much as possible. I expected, in one meadow, to find it the acris, but much of it was the repens. All this country is alternately in tillage; ridge and furrow every where: no permanent meadow. After seven miles, the road being natural, shows the soil to be a loamy sand, binding with rains.* Codogno. — Thirteen pertiche of watered land necessary for a cow ; the hay of which is cut thrice and it is fed once ; such land sells at 300 liv. free from tax. The whole country is plough- ed by turns, being down to clover for the cows four years-. 1. Flax, and then millet; 2, maize; 3, wheat and clover; and rests then for feeding cows; white clover comes, but it is bad for cheese. The reader will note, that this opinion differs from that near Milan. Codogno to Crema. — Crossing the Adda, from the Lodizan, there is more arable, and much few- er cows. 31ilan to Vaprio. — In this line there are some dairies, but not many. Near I he city there is much grass, all cut into patch-work of divisions, and planted so as to seem a wood of willows ; after that much tillage: though all is flat, and there are no great exertions in watering. But the road passes by that fine navigable canal de JVlartesano from Milan, which, at Vaprio is sus- pended as it were against the hill, twenty feet above the Adda : a noble spectacle. Before we quit the Milanese, it will be proper to make a general remark on the conduct of their * As well watered as this country is, yet in the spring 1779 the season was so dry, that, "where the Lamfero enters the Po, men and women crossed the Po itself on foot, as if merely a rivulet ; the rector of Al- beroni himself passed it, and the water reached only to his middle. The damage was great every where, but fatal in the Lodizan, where herds of cows were obliged to be sent out of the country to be pastured : the mis- chief the greater, as from 1774 to 1779 they had aug- mented their cows 5000, (Opuscoli Scelti, tom, vi, p. 56.) The climate has, however, in all ages, been sub- ject to great droughts. From May 1158 to May 1159. there fell no rain in Lombardy ; wells and springs all dried up. The Emperor passed the Adige, witli his army, near Verona, without boats ; and the Count Pa- latine of Bavaria passed thus' the Poj below Ferrara. GiuUna, toiii, vi. p. 175. irrigation, that some evils are observed to attend the practice, for want of a better foresight and more attention ; particularly from the gradual en- largement of the carrier canals and ditches ; they clean them with so much care, for the sake of ob- taining the mud, as a manure, that these are every where become too wide for the quantity of water they convey. Sig. Bignami has written upon this point very rationally, in his dissertation iS'w//' abu- so dl scavarc i canali delle roggie ed ifossi nel Lo- digiano ; where he asserts, that one-tenth part of their lands is occupied by canals and ditches. The evils are numerous; it is not only a considerable loss of land, but it is an equal loss of water, for when an oncia of a given run of water is purchased, there is a great difference between its first filling a great or a small channel, as in proportion to the size will be the quantity of useless fluid. The at- mosphere is also proportionably contaminated ; for this great breadth, either of stagnant water, when irrigation is not actually going on, or, what is worse, of mud, in so hot a climate, must be pes- tiferous; and to this have been attributed the dis- tempers which have frequently m.ade such havoc among their cattle. Another inconvenience is the greater expense of all erections, bridges, sluices, &c. which are in proportion to the breadth of the channels. The remedy is obvious ; it is to forbear all cleansing lor the sake of mud ; to let all aqua, tic weeds, and other plants, grow freely on the banks, edges, and sides of the canals, and to clear them in the middle only. Such a conduct would, in time, quite choak them up, and enable the far- mer to keep hi.s canals exactly to iheir right width. All these plants covering the spaces which, in canals often cleaned, are bare earth or mud, would be very beneficial towards preventing and decom- posing that noxious, and mephitic, and inflamma- ble gas, always issuing from such mud, which is so pestilential to animals, yet so salutifijrous to plants; for mud, covered with plants that are ready to feed on its exhalations, is much less mischiev- ous than that which is exposed to the rays of a burning sun. Count Carlo Bettoni, of Brescia, has practised a method which acts on similar pnnci- ples; namely, that of burying or fixing willows or poplars to the sides of the rivers whose banks he wanted to preserve, with the precaution oidy of keeping the. ends of the branches out of water; he finds that they grow vigorously in this situation, and, by stopping the mud of the current, form a solid bank; this, on a small scale, might certainly be executed : also in the canals of irrigation, as it has been remarked, by the author already quoted, in the j^tti di JMilano. Venetian State. — Vaprio to Bergamo. — There is a mixture of watered meadow in this line, but the quantity is not considerable. In some which are old, I found a good sprinkling of trifo- lium repens, chicorium intybus, and plantago Ian- ccolata ; but also much ranunculus nni\ rubbish. In the plain close to Bergamo, they clean the irri- gation-ditches at the end of November, and har- rowing them with a faggot, to thicken the water, let it immediately on to their meadows, which is said to enrich them much. To Brescia. — The Venetian state, thus far, is a considerable falling off" from the Milanese, in re- spect to irrigation ; the country is not without ca- nals, but nefther the number, nor the importance 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 195 of ihem is to be compared to those of Milan. From Coquillo to Brescia, there are many chan- nels, yet the lands are not half watered. Brescia to Verona. — The road passes, for some distance, by a very fine canal, yet the quantity of watered lan:i in this route is but inconsiderable. Belbre we arrive at the Lago di Guarda, there are a few meadows never ploughed, that have a good appearance: but none from the lake to Ve- rona. On the whole, these forty nsiles, lor want of more irrigation, are not con)parable to the Mi- | lanese or to Piedmont. This route, so much to stern and tyrannical government. Venice. — The same admirable law, that takes place in the Milanese, lor enabling every man to conduct water where he pleases, is found in the Venetian state also, contrary to my information at Padua; but so many forms are necessary, and the person who attempts it must fight his way through so much expensive litigation, that it is a dead let- ter, and nothing done in consequence. 1 was (ar- iher told, that it is a principle of the Venetian code, that not only all rivers, but even springs, and rain itself, belongs to the prince : an idea worthy of this the north, gives the traveller an opportunity of seeing a chain of considerable cities, and of ob- serving the effects of one of the most celebrated governments that has existed; but, a better direc- tion for tne, would have been by Cremona and Mantua. Verona. — The meadows here are cut thrice, and fed once; r.re never ploughed, if good and well watered. Water for irrigation here, as in all Lombardy, is measured with great care and atten- tion, by what is called the quadrata, which is a square foot, (the Veronese foot is to the English about as twenty are to twelve.) Twelve quadrate are sufficient to water five hundred canf^i of rice- grounds, (about three hundred and eighty English acres,) and the price of such a quantity of water, is commonly about three thousand zecchini (1425Z sterling.) The wheels in this city, for raising wa- ter for irrigating the gardens, are very complete ; they receive the water, as in Spain, into hollow fellies. There is one in the garden of theDaniele monastery, for watering about fourcampi, which are said to yield a revenue of three hundred zec- chini; which is one hundred zecchini, of 93. 6d. per English acre. The wheel raises the water about twenty-five feet, receiving its motion by the stream ; a low wall crossing the garden, conveys the water in a trench of masonry on its tops; and a walk passing along the centre of the garden, the wall there is open to admit the path; the water sinking in a syphon, and rising on the other side, to the same height, passes again along the wall, in the same manner as canals are carried under roads in Piedmont, &c. The wheel has double fellies, for giving water on both sides into troughs, which unite in the same receiver, and the washers for giving the motion are placed between the i'e\- lies. The whole apparatus, complete, cost three hundred zecchini. To Vlcenza. — There are in this tract of country, some perennial meadows watered, quite upon a level, which have a very good aspect ; the exis- tence of such should make us question the pro- priety of the Lodizan system of ploughing, where water is so regularly at command. Padua. — The country, from Vicenza to this city, is not watered, like many other districts of Lom- bardy. The practice is very well known ; and there are rice-grounds about Padua, but not nearly the use made of water which is found in the Mi- lanese; yet the rivers in the Venetian state belong to the prince, as well as in other parts of Italy, and water is consequently to be bought: but there is not the same right to conduct it at will, and con- sequently the water itself might almost as well not exist. To Venice. — In this tract 1 saw no irrigation, though the whole is very low, and quite level. Ecclesiastical state. — Bologna. — I saw no watered lands. TuscAKY. — I saw no irrigation in Tuscany ; and, from the intelligence I received, have reason to believe, that the quantity is not considerable ; some meadows, however, are watered after mow- ing. The best meadows I heard of, are about Poggio, Caiana, Villa Sovrana, ten miles from Florence. DuTCHY OF MoDENA.— The quantity of irri- gated land in the Modenese, is but small ; it does not amount to more than six biolche in eighty, nor have they more than fifteen perpetual water-mills in the whole territor}'. From Modenato Reggio, there is a sprinkling of these meadows, the canals for which, taken from the Lecchia, are not large ; all, whether watered or not, are manuring, vvith black well rotted compost, and have a very neat countenance. DuTCHY OF Parma.— The country from Reg- gio to Parma, is not without watering, but the quantity is inconsiderable ; there is, in this line of country, a great inferiority to that from Modena to Reggio; not the same neatness nor attention, in any respect; there are mole-casts in the mea- dows, a thing unseen belbre ; and though there are much cattle and sheep, yet the features of the hus- bandry are worse. From Parma to Firenzuola, not an hundredth part of the country irrigated, yet there is a good deal of grass, and in some places in large pieces. Piedmont.— /^avese, 4-c.— For some miles in the Sardinian territories, there are a good many meadows, but very Cew watered. I passed two small channels of irrigation, but the quantity was inconsiderable. If a map of these countries be ex- amined, there is the appearance of many rivers descending from the Appenines, and falling into the Po, but the use made of them is small. ° It is remarkable, that all the way by Tortona, Alexan- dria, &c. to Turin, the quantity of irrigation, till almost close to the last mentioned city, fs quite in- considerable, not one acre, perhaps, in a thousand. What an idea can be framed of Piedmont, by those who pass through it from Mont Cenis, and quit it for Milan or Tortona, without seeing it from Tu- rin to Coni? Savoy. — In the mountains of the Alps, by Lanesburg, &c. they mow their watered meadows once only, but in the plain twice. From this detail of the irrigation of Lombardy, it must be apparent, that, for want of laws similar to those which take place fully in Piedmont, and the Milanese, and partially in the republic of Ve- nice, no such exertions are ever likely to be made in a free country. We can in England form no navigation, or road, or make any trespass or pri- vate property, without the horribly expensive form 196 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 of an act of parliament ; we cannot even inclose our own property, witliout tlie same ceremony. Nor is it only tlie expense of sucii applications, but the necessity of them generates opposition at every step, and a man must fight his way through county-meetings, through attorneys, agents, coun- cil, witnesses, and litigation, — in a manner odious to every liberal feeling, and at a ruinous expense, before he is at liberty to improve his own estate, without any detriment to others ; every idea ol" such works, therefore, in England, as we have eeen common in Lombardy, is visionary and im- practicable ; and we must continue to view, with eyes of envy and admiration, the noble exer- tions which have been made and perfected in that country, and which, in truth, very much exceed any thing we have to exhibit in any walk of agri- culture in this island: — an example to hold up ibr imitation, and an ample field of practical study. OMISSIOS. The following extracts from Arthur Young's ^Notes on the Agriculture, of Lombardy,'' had been marked to be included or cited in the "Essay on Silk Culture,'' in the preceding number, (p. 140.) They show the great extremes afheat of summer and cold of winter in this, the most productive silk country of Europe ; and they furnish strong tes- timony in addition to that which was presented, that the similar extremes, which belong to the cli- mate of Virginia, instead of being opposed to silk- culture, constitute the strongest assurance of its success and profitable returns. "The great complaint in Piedmont, Is the exces- sive heat in summer ; equal, I was assured, to al- most any that is felt on the globe, and of a suffo- cating quality ; while the frosts in winter are as severe, in the contrary extreme. The pestiferous climate of Sardinia is known to every body; though between 39 and 41 degrees latitude ; in the south- ern part of the island, they are not forwarder than in the Milanese : they cut their corn in the north part in July : in the Milanese belbre the end of June." "The most remarkable circumstance in the cli- mate of Milanese, is the mildness and warmth ol northern and mountainous tracts, and the severity felt in the plain. This iiict is found particularly around the lakeof Como; upon all the western coast of that lake, which is about forty miles long, the agrumi, as the Italians call oranges, lemons, &c. are found, exposed to the open air, in good perli^c- lion; yet the whole of the lake is bounded by the high Alps, which, immediatly to the north, are covered with eternal snows. On the rich plain of Milan, and thence to the Appenines, no such plant can be left exposed ; olives are not seen, and oranges, lemons, and bergamots, must be covered in winter." "In an experiment made at Vicenza, in the Ve- netian state, by the Accademia Agraria of this city, they sowed wheat October 18, 1787 ; came up the 2Sth ; the ears appeared May 2, 1788 ; the flowers May 13; reaped June 19." "I was at Florence the beginning of November, and the ice was four inches thick ; a severity never yet known in England. The English were, at the same time, skating at Rome." "One-filth of all the productions of the earth are calculated to be destroyed by hail and other acci- dents." "In the management of the vines in the Parma- zan, there is a practice, which shews the constant dread of severe frosts. All the vines are now (in November,) turned down, and the end shoots bu- ried* in the earth to preserve them ; yet in a wet season they suflijr by this treatment, as well as in all seasons, by bemg stript from the trees, in order to undergo this operation." "JNlr. Professor Symonds, in the excellent paper quoted above, removed the common erroneous idea of the fine climate of Italy. I made many inquiries concerning the leading facts, and have every rea- son to believe that it is, in point of health and agreeableness, one of the worst climates in the world : with the views of a farmer, however, it must be confessed, that the productions which the whole peninsula owes to its climate are very val- uable. To omit speaking of Sicily or Naples, I may remark, that planting the poor brashy hills of Tus- cany with olives is an advantage unequalled by any thing to be met with in the north of Europe ; that the produce of silk throughout Lombardy is an object of the first importance — that rice is found to be an article of almost unrivalled profit : that the productive state of the meadows is indebt- ed almost as much to the heat of the summers, as to the plenty of water; and. for any thing I know to the contrary, the admirable quality of the cheese also. These are all objects of great magnitude, and entirely derived from climate." From the Penny Magazine. IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTIVATION OF TUK VINE IN FRANCE. Whenever the commercial intercourse between France and England shall be regulated by better principles of economy thun those under which it is at present conducted, wine will be the great sta- ple with which the French will make their ex- changes for English products. A lew statements exhibiting the extent of production in this article in France will not therefore be devoid of interest. In presenting the ibilowing facts, it is necessary to state that we have borrowed largely from J)r. Bowring's 'Report on the Commercial Intercourse between France and Great Britain :' — According to the estimates of M. Cavoleau, who obtained a prize given by the institute Ibr an elaborate work on the vineyards and vines of France, the quantity of vineyard-land in 1806 was about 4,142,600 English acres, and in 1827 about 4,265,000 acres. The calculations of the French Statistical Society show that in 1788 the number of acres in cultivation was 3,988,800 acres, and in 1829 about 5,104,000 acres. The vine-growers estimate the increase of vineyards since 1788 at 28 per cent. France is divided, ibr fiscal purposes, into 76 wine-districts, in the same way that England is sub-divided by the board of excise into districts termed "collections." The total superfices of * The same practice was known among the ancients. See Slrabo, Ub. vii. and Quint. Curt. lib. vii. c. 3. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 197 France is not quite 53,000,000 hectares, the un- cultivated lands amounting to nearl}' one-eighth of the whole. More than one-thiriieth part of France, including the waste lands, is cultivated in vineyards : this is equivalent to about a seventh part of England. If the counties of Bedlbrd, Buckingham, Berks, Hertford, Huntingdon, Mid- dlesex, Oxford, Rutland, Surrey, Westmoreland, and Worcester, were entirel}^ covered with vine- yards, the vineyards of France would exceed them in extent by 375 square miles. The distance from London to York is 196 miles ; and if the land on each side of the road produced vines, instead of grain and food for cattle, each side of the road to the extent of above sixteen miles must be appro- priated to this purpose in order to equal the breadth of land in France which is devoted to the vine ; or, in other word?, a tract of country near- ly 200 miles long and 33 broad. M. Cavoleau estimated the value of the annual produce of the vineyards at 21,615,572/.; the Statistical Society at 28,040,000/, and in 17SS at only 14,260,000/. M. Cavoleau is of opinion that the quantity of wine produced in a year is 812,808,040 gallons, or about 200 gallons an acre. The estimate of the Statistical Society is 998,932.900 gallons, worth on an average 6^f/. per gallon ; and the production of 1788 is estimated at about 610,750,000 gallons. The wine-growers are supposed to be 1,800,000 in number. A commission which was instituted a few years ago to examine into the operation of the tax on wine, which amounts to about 2,900,000/. per annum, assumed the total produce to be 924,020,- 000 gallons, and calculated by approximation the manner in which it was disposed of They esti- mated that there was — Gallons. Consumed by the proprietors, not being subject to the duty - - 198,000,000 Employed in the manufacture of brandy 141,680,000 Loss and waste among the growers 91,344,000 Loss in conveyance, and in the hands of dealers - - - 44,000,000 Exported 24,530,000 For the manufacture of vinegar - 11,000,000 Duty recovered on consumption is 308,000,000 And the fraudulent consumption is 105,466,000 The loss by evaporation was calculated at 12 per cent, per annum on the small, and 5 per cent, on the large casks. The total average export of wine is about 22,- 000,000 gallons, ol" an average value of nearly 2,000,000/. The district in which the production of wine is carried on to the largest extent, and where the cultivation of the vine is the most advanced, and the qualities of the wine of the highest order, is the department of the Gironde. The superficies of the Gironde is 2,500,000 acres, and the extent of vineyards is equal to 350,000 English acres. The average produce is between 50,000,000 and 60,000,000 gallons, five-eighths of which are red, and three-eighths white wine, the whole, or nearly so, being suited to foreign demand. In very fa- vorable years the production will amount to 75,- 000,000 gallons. The value of vineyard property varies very much. The Monton estate, congisting of 135 acres, was sold in 1830 at the rate of 356/. per acre : this i^: the highest price ever paid. The es- tate of Lafilte, consisting of 262 acres, was sold in 1803 at the rate of 183/. 4s. per acre. Both these estates are situate in the Medoc district. About 5154 acres of Medoc wine estates have been sold in the present century ; the average amount obtained was 64/. per acre. The de- mand fi'om England lor the fine Medoc wii'es haa raised the value of the land which produces them. The difi'erence in the value of wine of the same vineyard varies exceedingly Irom one year to ano- ther, according to the season being favorable or unfavorable. The produce of Lafitte, Latour, and Chateau JMargaux, which are the most esteemed vineyards, has been as low as 41. a hogshead in a bad year. On the other hand, it has, under difier- enr circumstances, been as hish as 30/. The condition of the population employed in vineyards is an interesting subject of inquiry. A communication addressed to Dr. Bowring by the members of the chamber of commerce at Rheims afibrds some information on this point, which we subjoin : — In the arrondissement of Rheims the number of vine-proprietors is 11,903. This large number of owners is owing to the division of pro- perty; divisions so much the more multiplied, as there is not a single vine-dresser working at piece- work who does not rent some plot of vineyard, and thus the number of separate holders of vine- yards is from 22,000 lo 23,000. The small labor- ing proprietors are generally burdened with fami- lies, and not well ofi'. They ibrm in society an interesting and very laborious class, making the best appearance they can by severe economy. As soon as there is a promise of a good harvest, they purchase some vineyard-ground, often with- out prudence, and beyond their means. After- wards, if bad years come on, they borrow to free themselves. If, in order that they may not mort- gage their little property, they have recourse to usurers, they sign and renew bills on very disad- vantageous terms. If they borrow on mortgage, the rate ol' interest is nominally 5 per cent, to the profit of the lender, but in reality from 6 to 7 per cent, at the cost of the borrower, on account of the expenses of the transaction. In the district where the Macon and Beaujolais wines are produced, the receiver-general of the department of the Rhone gave Dr. Bowring the following account of the condition o!" the popula- tion whose interests are connected with the vine- yards:— "Each hectare of vines (nearly 2^ acres) represents a capital of from 5000 to 6000 francs (200/. to 240/.) on an average. The expense of cultivation may be estimated, every thing in- cluded, at about 200 francs (8/.) the hectare. The labor of each vigneron (vine-dresser) com- prises nearly two hectares, and occupies a whole family. The cultivation of the vine is carried on by an equal division of the produce between the proprietors and the cultivators; the latter are, in- deed, a species ol' participating colonists termed vignerons. This method, by establishing a com- munity of interest between the proprietor and the laborer, tends to render their relations intimate and paternal. It attaches the cultivator to the ground, equally with the proprietor himsellj and in some respects removes him from the class of dependent workmen. This class, in general, is not unpros- perous : all those who have habits of labor and 198 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 economy live at their ease. They begin to live rather better than they formerly cIIlI ; tlieir wants are altribmecl to the liearness ol' articles of con- sumption, of which they are deprived, such as meat, which they very rarely eat, and iron, of which they use large quantities lor their Tarming. Tliey sometimes sutier li'om the want ol" sale lor their produclions." M. Joanno!, the intelligent librarian of the Bor- deaux public library, has atlbrded ample inlbrma- tion respecting the moral and eocial condilion ol the population engaged in vineyards in the de- partment of the Giront'e. He stales that the pro- prietors ol' vineyards producing wines of the first quality are rich, but the others are not in prosper- ous circumstances, and if they were not also en- gaged in liirming it would be impossible to sup- port themselves. M. Joannot says that, owing to the ambition of the small land-owners to increase their possessions, they often purchase land at a price very much above its real value. The ave- rage daily pay of a vine-dresser is Is. 4d. ; a wo- man and cihld together gain about 7.>c/. ; and the most skilful laborer, who provides himself with board and lodging, obtams liom Is. 8d. to Is. l\d. per day. The vintager who is led and lodged by his employer receives hom 7d. io Is. and some- times Is. 3d. per day. Women and children em- ployed in the vineyards receive half the pay of the men. The workmen attached to the vine-press receive 4i^(/. per day more than the others. In the Medoc district, the vineyard is cultivated on the following terms : — A certain portion of land, ge- nerally about seven acres, is divided according to agreement, and it is then managed by the vine- dresser. It; is his duly to cut the vines — prune the shoots — to tie them up in bundles and carry ihem out of the vineyard ; and he also attends to all the necessary processes wliich the successful culture of the vine demands, such as loosening the ground about the roots of the plants, and breaking up the ground in places which the plough could not reach: all the other e.xpenses are at the proprietor's cost. The vine-dresser receives a salary lor himself and liimily of 6/. in money, be- sides half the cuttings, four barrels of a liquor call- ed "piquette," made from the wastage ol the wine- barrels, the remnants of the grapes, &c., a lodg- ing, and a small garden. It is usual amongst the extensive growers of the Sauterne and Earsac grapes to employ whole families of vine-dressers to cultivate the crops at fixed wages. Each fami- ly is boarded and lodged on the estate, and has a email house, garden, liemp-field, and half the cut- lings of the vines collected on the portion of ground they cultivate; and they have, moreover, permission to grow vegetables on several of the lurrows in the vineyard. They receive besides, ' for each man and woman, fifty kilogrammes (110 lbs.) of rye, and half that quantity Tor each child. The head of the litmily receives an annual addi- tion of from 21. to 21. 8s. ; and a child, as soon as it commences working, is paid at the rate of 24s. a year. The manager of a large wine property in Me- doc gives nearly a similar account of the condition of the vine-dressers on the estate under his super- intendence. A vine-dresser who is the head of a family, and whose wilii works, receives from 18/. to 20/. a year in money, and is provided with four barrels of piquette, lodging, a garden, and land .suited for the growth of hemp to supply the fami- ly with linen, and he has one- half of the relijee wood oithat portion of the vineyard which he cul- tivates, besides medical attendance and medicines at the cost of the proprietor. This account adds that the ignorance of domestic economy amongst the vine-dressers is usually very great in the de- partment of the Gironde. Another account says ihal insiruclion is but little ditiused among them. Tliose who have learned to read when young, no longer think of reading at a more advanced age, although this is exactly the period when the greatest possible advantage would be derived from the perusal of useful books. Wlien young, it is stated that liiey read nothing but the catechism and prayer-bouk, and a complaint is made that books of a more attractive kind are not circulated. As a consequence of this state of things, they are extremely liinatic, and having lew sources of ra- tional amusement and instruction, they either "go to bed early," lor want of occupation, or spend their lime at the public houses. M. Joannot says they are in general endowed with great penetra- tion, but they are ignorant, superstitious, devoid of religion, proud, setting at defiance ihe educated and the rich, selfish, little Ibiid ol work; yet he states that they are kind and hospitable, adding, however, that llimily ties have litlle weight amongst them — the sickness of one of their cat- tle distressing them more than that of their wile or child. Almost all of them live without care lt)r the future, and die unregretted. This is a disas- trous picture of the moral stale of so numerous a class, and it will require many efibrts to lift them out of that degradation in which they are placed by reason of their ignorance of their own nature, and the duties which are imposed on them. France will soon be covered with parish schools, and the instruction which may be obtained there will, it is to be hoped, do something towards im- proving their character. We must add, that though thus spoken of, M. Joannot says "their sobriety is worthy of imitation." In some parts of the department of the Gironde, where the elevation of the country renders the air extremely pure, the men are finely Ibrmed, have blue eyes and light hair, and pretty women are common among them. The population of these parts is much devoted to pleasure and dress, and they are of a gay temperament. in the district where the Macon and Beaujolais wines are produced, M. Uelahante, a public func- tionary, affirms that ''it is certain that within the last twenty years civilization has made great pro- gress among the population employed in the cul- tivation of the vine. There are lew of the old people who know how to read, and lew of the young who cannot do so." M. de Brimcnt, of Kheims, says of the vine- dressers of the Champagne district, that as to education they are on an average with the popu- lation of France generally, "but they are more sober and orderly than the manulacturing classes in General." From tlic Edinburgli Eiicyclopxdia. ON SEA-WEED, OR ALGA MARINA. Sea-weed, a plant that grows upon rocke with- in the sea, is driven ashore after storms, and is 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 199 found 10 be an excellent article for manuring light and dry eoils, though ot little advantage to those of a clayey description. This article may be ap- plied on the proper soil with advantage to any crop, and its eflects are immediate, though rarely of long continuance. As the coast-side lands ot' the island are, in every case, of superior fertility to those thrtt are inland, we may attribute this su- perior fertility to the great quantity of manure found upon their shores after every storm or high tide, whereby the resources of the ocean are in a manner brought forward ibrthe enrichment of the lands locally situated for participating in such benefits. The utmost attention has long been paid to the gathering and laying on of this valua- ble manure ; and, from the extensive line of British shores, both of the main sea and of the numerous estuaries which indent, and as it were divide the main land, an immense quantity of sea-weed must annually be collected from them. Sea-weed is applied at all seasons 1o the sur- face, and sometimes, though not so profitably, it is mixed with unrotten dung, that the process of putrefaction may be hastened. Generally speak- ing, it is at once applied to the soil, which saves labor, and prevents that degree of waste, which otherwise would necessarily happen. Sea-weed is, in one respect, preferable to the richest dung ; because it does not produce such a quantity of weeds. Some have thought, that the weeds upon land, which has received dung, are produced by seeds mixed with the dung; but it is reasonable to presume, that the salts contained in sea-weed, and applied with it, may be the real cause of the after-cleanliness. This may be inferred from the general slate of coast-side lands, where sea-weed is used. These lands are almost constantly kept in tillage, and yet are cleaner and freer from weeds, than those m inland situations, where corn- crops are not so often taken. Clay-soils are not so much benefited by sea- weed, as those of a light nature; but whether this is owing to the properties of clay being un- friendly to the admission of the salts contained in sea-weed, or to soils of that description being ge- nerally in a state, when this substance is thrown ashore, which physically unfits them for partici- pating of benefit from the application, is not com- pletely ascertained. The fact, however, is cer- tain, that clay-soils are little benefited by sea- weed, though perhaps the poaching of carts and horses upon them, in wet stormy weather, may in some measure, be assigned as the true cause why the same benefit is not gained. When dung is carted out on clay-soils, in a wet state, we know, that the advantage fiom it is not so great, as when the surface is in condition to bear the pressure of the carriages; though, from that result, no person would be justified, in main- taining, that these soils were constitutionally dis- qualified to receive benefit from dung. When a coast-side liirm contains mixed soils, the best man- agement is exercised, by applying sea-weed to dry, and dung to clay-land. In this way, the full advantage of manure may be obtained, and a farm so circumstanced is of infinitely greater va- lue, with respect to manuring and laboring, than one which contains so much variety. It has lately been suggested by Sir John Sin- clair, Bart, and other eminent agriculturists, that sea-weed poesesees a virtue not formerly assigned to it; namely, that it is eminently beneficial in preserving wheat from being mildewed, which, were the fact sufficiently ascertained, would be an addition to our stock of agricultural knowledge, of great importance. Where sea-weed is applied, there can be no doubt that the soil is thereby greatly strengthened, becoming firmer, and, of course, better adapted for preserving the roots of the plant from injury, and for furnishing a regular supply of food. This length we can salely go, as we believe that such an opinion accords entirely with the general sentiments of agriculturists. Think- ing, however, that mildew proceeds entirely from a diseased atmosphere, we are at a ioss to find out how sea-weed, at the root of the plant, can act as a preventive against that disease, in any other way than what is already mentioned ; that is, by consolidating the surface, and giving great- er strength to the plants, in consequence of which, they are enabled to resist the unheallhiness of the atmosphere. Comparing the operation of sea- weed with that of dung, it will be Ibund that the effect of the latter is to loosen the soil, and to make it more friable ; consequently, as always happens, fields, which have received the greatest quantity of dung, are always most susceptible of mildew. THE EDITOR OF THE GARDENER S MAGAZINE, The two last numbers of Loudon's Magazine contained nothing of interest, unless it may be the Ibllowing advertisement, which exhibits a very different condition of agricultural editorship in England from that of our country. Mr. Loudon is evidently "in clover," compared to his over- worked and under-paid editorial brethren in this country. We could, (and perhaps may,) present some strong and amusing contrasts to the state of things indicated by this advertisement, in some of the heavy demands made upon our time, and la- bor of body and mind, by persons who are not even known, and whose names are sometimes not even given, and who seem to think that we are not only competent, but that it is our province and duty, and our pleasure, to fiirnish information and advice, at any expense of labor, not only on mat- ters of general interest to agriculture, or of special interest to friends, acquaintances, or subscribers, but also to those who have no claim on any one of these grounds. — Ed. Far. Reg. jidvertiseinent. Since Mr. Loudon commenced the ^Gardener's Magazinc\ he has had numerous applications made to him (many of them anonymously), by the readers of his works, lor opinions on plans and elevations, or other designs ; and for lists of trees and shrubs, ornamental or fruit-bearing, for parti- cular purposes, &c. &c. These applications have considerably increased since the publication of the 'Suburban Gardener,^ and as they begin to occu- py more of his time than he can afford to spare gratuitously, he has thought it right to state that, in conformity with the practice of other authors 200 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 on scientific subjects fsee ' Gardener's Magazine' vol. xiv. p. 526,") he intends to charjie lor this ad- vice in luture, whether given verbally to persons callinsT, or tiy letter. For professional visits he has, lor the last thirty years, been in the habit of charginiT at the rate of five guineas a day ; and the following scale of terms is founded on this da- tum : — A visit to any place not exceeding twelve miles from London, and not occupying more time, including go- ing and returning, than from 9 in the morning to 5 in the aflernoon — in- cluding ail expenses £5 5 0 Above i2 miles, and not exceeding 20 — including all expenses 6 6 0 Above 20 miles, five guineas a day, from the time of leaving Baysvva- ter to that of returning to it, and travelling expenses, by post. Consultation by letter, or by the party calling at Bayswater 110 When plans are sent for correction, subjects for an opinion, or lists of trees, shrubs, &c. are want- ed, which it will require a considerable time to prepare, the charfje for consultation will be in- creased in proportion to the time occupied, at the rate of five guineas, lor a day of eight hours. As some persons may not be aware when a personal examination of their premises will be re- quisite, and when it will be sufficient merely to send a plan and description, with queries, &c. a few examples of both cases are given below. 1. — Cases in which an opinion may be given from documents, without Mr. Loudon visiting the premises : Pointing out errors or defects in the plans of flower gardens, kitchen gardens, pleasure grounds, or entire residences, whether large or small; and in the plans of hot-houses, pits, and garden structures of every descrip- tion, whether useful or ornamental. Stating the defects or advantages of particular modes of heating or lighting hot-houses, and other buildings for plants. Examining lists of trees and shrubs, ornamen- tal or fruit-bearing ; or supplying lists suita- ble for particular purposes and situations. Examining plans, elevations, and sections of cottages, farm buildings, and villas of every description. H. — Cases in which it will be necessary for Mr. Loudon to see the premises before giving an opinion : — Where the general scenery of a place is to be examined, with the viewof ascertaining what improvements it is susceptible of". Where an entirely new place is to be formed; unless the ground should be perfectly flat, and without any distant view. Where it is desired to ascertain the causes of the defects of an old place : such as the cause of the barren stale of the fruit-trees, or of the defective crops of the kitchen garden or orchard ; or of the inefficacy of the mode of heating, lighting, or ventilating the hot- house, &c. ; of sterility of the pasture land, unthriving state of the timber, &c. Where it is desired to ascertain whether a pi ce is well kept, or whether it could be altered so as to be kept at less expense ; or to point out delects in the mode of keeping and manag- ing the walks and their edgings, and the lawn, flowers, shrubs, &c. Whether the addition of a piece of water to a park or pleasure ground would be an im- provement ; how far it is practical to form such a piece of water ; and what character it ought to assume. Where the agricultural surface requires im- provement, or the plantations are to be ex- amined. No opinion will ever be given by Mr. Loudon, whether verbally or by letter, without assigning his reasons for forming it. When any plan given by Mr. Loudon is ap- proved of, he can, if re.quired, send a competent assistant to stake it out on the ground, and to de- scribe the' manner in which it is to be executed ; for which the charge will be a guinea a day, with travelling expenses. J. C. L. Bayswater, October 16, 1838. From the New England Farmer. EXTRACT FROM PROCKEDINGS OF EIGTH AG- RICULTURAL MEETING IN MASSACHUSETTS. The report above named placed the value of ruta baga for fattening cattle, for milch-cows, for swine and for horses at a very high rate. Mr. Brigham of Westboro expressed himself as strong- ly differing from the opinions expressed in the re- port in respect to their value. He was disposed to value roots at a high rate ; but there was dan- ger that farmers might expect too much from them ; and he wished to guard them against disap- pointment. He had in the course of his farming raised from 1000 to 1100 bushels to an acre of ruta baga ; and of carrots from 700 to 1200 bush. He had used his ruta baga from cows in milk. They will not double the quantity of milk as the report slated ; but they will increase it considera- bly. He thinks, however, that the quality of the milk is injured by their use ; and that the milk of cows fed upon them will produce but little cream. He had found them of use in fiittening beef. On the whole, however, he deemed them greatly inferior to carrots. Carrots he estimated very highly. They were difficult or rather expensive in culti- vation ; but if successful, they amply repaid any expense or labor bestowed on them. They were an excellent crop lor horses. He did not coin- side in the opinion, stated by the commissioner, of Mr. Merrill of Lee, who said that for feeding^ horses he should prelijr one hundred bushels of carrots and one hundred bushels of oats to two hundred bushels of oats ; yet he deemed them ex- cellent, and much the best root-crop raised amonjj us. He had found it likewise much easier to keep carrots than to keep ruta baga. Of their value for fattening beef or swine he had no knowledge. Mr. Danforth of Pittsfield, stated a case wiihin his own knowledge in which the raising of car- rots cost at the rate of eight cents per bushel. Other gentleman slated that they had been pro- duced in the slate in large quantities at the rate of 6,j cents per bushel. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 201 Mr. Abbot of Westford, was disposed to value ruta baga much higher for milch-cows than Mr. Brighain. In his own experience for the increase ot" butter, where he had tried cows in successive weeks upon pumpkins and ruta baga, the in- crease of butter in the use of the latter root was as 14 to 10. A gentleman of Portsmouth, N. H., within his knowledge had compared the value ol" carrots with potatoes in fattening beef; and in this experiment, thirt}' bushels of potatoes proved equal to sixty of carrots. It would have been very instructive if Mr. Abbot could have given the particulars of both of these experiments more i'ully ; this we hope he will do, and we shall be happy to make the *N. E. Farmer' the vehicle of such communications. Mr. Perry of Bradford, spoke next of the value of roots. In relation to the keeping of vegetables he thought a good deal depended on the nature of the soil in which the cellar, where they were stored, was dug. It often happens, he says, that ruta baga will not keep in the same cellar in which potatoes and carrots may be kept. Of the value of ruta baga he gave an illustrution by an anec- dote in which he was a party. He had been ac- customed to supply a neighbor of his with milk. His neighbor inquired one time why the milk was not as good and as rich as it had been. Now this inquiry was made at a time when he had ceased to give his cows ruta baga, with which before they had been liberally supplied. Mr. Buckminster spoke highly of the value of roots ; but seems to be as hostile to potatoes as the late William Cobbett; from which it is but natu- ral to infer that he has no Irish blood in him. He deems grain crops an exhausting crop, and pota- toes particularly so. He thinks the evil com- plained of, by which the milk was injured in its taste, was occasioned by giving the animals too much. The chairman stated that within his experience it would be safe to feed a bushel per day to an animal, provided they were kept at the same time on salt-hay. Mr. Buckminster pronounced potatoes a very exhausting crop, and the cultivation not to be en- couraged. To an inquiry as to the amount of po- tatoes usually raised per acre, he replied from one hundred to one hundred and fifty bushels, and gave it as his belief that the crop in Framingham did not exceed one hundred bushels. Mr. Bruce of Grafton was disposed to defend the potato-crop ; and pleasantly remarked that if he obtained not more than one hundred bushels per acre, he should be quite disposed to give them up. In his own cultivation he considered 200 bushels a light crop — 350 bushels a good crop. He had raised 564 bushels to the acre, and was accustomed to use 40 bushels of whole potatoes for seed. He is accustomed to plant them in hills. He said the crop of one of his neighbors had exceeded 700 bushels to the acre. These were certainly cogent arguments in reply to the Framingham farmers. Potatoes are without question an exhausting crop, and return little to the land, the tops amount- ing to a small matter. In our practice they are far from being an ameliorating crop, because they are cultivated in the most slovenly manner ; they are in many cases not hoed more than once, and the weeds afterward usually abound, and cov- , Vol. VII— 26 er the ground with their seeds. This however is altogether the fault of the cultivator, and not the crop. In neat and clean husbandry and at a yield of four hundred bushels to the acre, (and with less than this even the Framingham fiirmers ought not to be satisfied) they are a valuable crop ; and an acre of potatoes will furnish a great amount of most nutritious food for man and beast ; though Cobbett insists upon it they are nothing but so much dirt and water. Mr. Denney of Weslboro, stated that he had fed his cows with carrots and ruta baga ; and that in changing from carrots to ruta baga the quality of the milk immediately became deteriorated. EXPERIMENT WITH THE MARYLAND TWIN- CORN. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Chericoke, King William County, ? March 23d, 1839. S As I believe the merits and de.meriis of the Ma- ryland twin-corn, is still a mooted point, among my brethren of the corn planting and raising cralt of lower Virginia, it may not be entirely uninte-" resting to some of the vocation, that I should state the result of an experiment made by me last year. 1 have now been planting the twin-corn four years, procured from Col. Mercer, of West River, Ma- ryland, and doubtless the same corn as recently advertised by Mr. Sinclair, of Baltimore, as the " true tree prolific corn." But with entire de- ference to Mr. Sinclair's better judgment in the matter, I think he has given the corn a misnomer, and misrepresented some of its characteristics ; it is undoubtedly a very prolific variety of corn, and it is very white, but I have as yet disco- vered nothing of a tree character about it ; and it certainly matures fi-oin a fortnight to three weeks earlier in the tide- water country of Virginia, than the common corn grown with us. Like all other corn that I have heretofore met with, it is true, that it flourishes better, and produces more, in rich land than poor; but still my experience leads me to believe it as well adapted to the one as to the other, and that it will bi; found to produce on any land under similar circumstances, more than the usual varieties. Its advantages, as I think, con- sists in its being more productive, more forward, less liable to rot in the field, heavier than any kind we grow except the hominy corn, and consequent- ly yieding more meal ; and certainly one great ad- vantage it has over most other kinds, it yields from five to ten per cent, more in shelling from the cob. It will resist the weevil too, longer than most corn grown with us, and the meal and hominy made from it, is generally allowed to be very superior. The stalk being smaller, it of course resists the drought better than the larger corn, as I had full proof the tvvo last summers. As before stated, I have been growing the twin-corn for four years, and for two years previous to the last, (1838,) I had planted no other kind, and was well satisfied with the results, but some friends, in whose judg- .ment and experience I had great confidence, as farmers, insisted upon it that I was deceiving my- selfj that it would not produce as much as the common corn of our country, determined me that I would make a fair experiment with it, and one of 202 FAUMERS' REGISTER, [No. 4 the best varieties of the common corn grown in my neighborhooti, high!)' esteemed by ihe liiend lioni whom [ obtained it, as well as others, they being confident it would produce more tlian the twin. When pjjanting, I directed my manager, (an in- telligent, observing, and attentive young man,) after laying otl a piece of land ready for dropping the corn, the rows being all of equal length, to count the number of rows, and plant one half of the common, and the other of twin-corn. There proved to be 103 rows in the piece; he planted 52 rows in the common, and 51 in the twin, the dis- tance both ways the same, 5| feet by 2, all plant- ed on the same day, ill the same manner, and the culture throughout the year the same. The land was all pretty good lor this section, but that on which the common corn was planted, I think rath- er the best. 1 have recenily measured the piece of ground, and find it to contain 19 and a fraction acres. We were at every pains in gathering and measuring the corn, to avoid any mistake, and the result was, that the common corn made 58-^- bar- rels, and the twin 99, from the 9| acres each, I also tried on another farm a similar experiment, and the result was fully as conclusive. Some now object that the season did not suit the common corn ; but I presume it was equally " fair (or the goose as the gander," if the season had been more propitious, each, doubtless, would have made more. In consequence of the stalk being smaller, many think that the twin corn should be planted thicker than the common, but that I think a mis- take, as 1 have always Ibund there was double as many shoots on a stalk, as it could mature, and that it always bears in proportion to any reasona- ble distance you may give it, and the strength of land and seasons; I therelore, plant mine general- ly, as 1 would any other kind of corn, by giving distance sufficient ; the ears are larger, and it is the better enabled to stand a drought, there being always more shoots ihan the stalk can mature, they will fill out, as the land and season may al- low. As the twin-corn has become more acclimated, the ears have become larger, and perhaps it may not be quite as forward as it was when I first got it; but in all other respects it appears to retain its original character — certainly its fecundity. COUBIN BnAXTON. THE LAW OF GEOHGIA FOR ENCOURAGING SILK-CULTURE. (Passed December '29, 1838.) Whereas it is desirable tliat the culture of Silk should be encouraged within the limits of the state : Be it therefore enacted, That from and after the passage of this act, whenever any person or per- eons, either individually or collectively, shall raise any silk within the limits of this state, he, she, or they shall be entitled to draw from the state treasury, a premium of fifty cents, (or each and every pound of cocoons, so by him, her, or them raised, and ten cents per pound on each pound of good silk by him, her or them reeled from co- coons so raised, and the person or persons, so claiming the premium albresaid, shall first exhibit tlie cocoons raised, and the silk reeled as afore- said to one of the justices of the peace, within the county where the same shall have been raised, and the said justices shall thereupon ex- amine ihe person or persons claiming the premi- um, as aforesaid, upon his, her, or their oath or legal affirmation, and shall require the party so claiming the pren)iums to swear or affirm, that the cocoons were raised in the state of Georgia, afier the passage of this act, that the premium has not before been claimed by or paid to, any other person, for said cocoons or silk ; and in relation to all other filets and circumstances, as may, in the opinion of said justice be connected with the rais- ing or reeling of the same: and upon such evi- dence proving satisfactory to his mind, he shall thereupon make out and a sign a certificate with his seal thereunto annexed, which certificate shall be sufiicient authority to his excellency the Gov- ernor, and he is hereby required to receive in his department the same, to whom said certificate is granted for the amount of said premium, as per said certificate to be paid out of any money not otherwise appropriated. This act shall be and continue in full force and efl'ect, for and during the term of ten years, from and after its passage. For the Farmers' Register. ESSAY ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. [Continued from page 174.] Chap. VII. GROWTH OF THE STEM IN LENGTH AND DI- AMETER. GROWTH OF THE CELLULAR SYS- TEM. GROWTH OF THE FIBRO-VASCULAR SYSTEai. THEORY OF DU-PETIT-THOUARS. Having examined the internal structure of the stem, at some length, in the last two chapters, we will now direct our attention to the manner of its growth, A stem attains its full size by a double growth ; first, in length, and second, in diameter. A young shoot elongates, not by its extremity only, but throughout its whole length. We may satisfy ourselves of this in several ways. If we mark a young shoot, early in the season, at equal and known distances, and then examine it at in- tervals of a week or two, we will find, that as the shoot increases in length, the distance between these marks will increase proportionably. Or we may learn the same thing, by simply observing Ihe distances between the leaves of a shoot at dif- (iirent times during its summer's growth. At first, the nodes, or points at which the leaves are insert- ed into the stem, are very near each other, and the leaves almost touch. As the shoot increases in length the leaves will be found further and further apart, though still maintaining the same relative distance from each other which they had at first. The growth of the young shoot proceeds in the way thus indicated, until it has attained its full length for the season. It afierwards undei'goes no change in length ; but its future growth depends upon the production of a bud upon its summit. This bud developes in the same way as the first year's shoot, and in its turn produces a bud, and in this way the stem goes on increasing in length from year to year. That the upward growth of the stem tak^s place 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 203 altogether in the screen shoot of each year, wliilst the older portions of the stem undergo no change in dimensions, is proved by the Ibllovving liict, known, I presume, to all. VVhen a name is cut upon the bark of the beech tree (^fagus sylvatica,') the tree may continue to grow until it has doubled its original height, but the name will never be raised Tlirther from the ground than the point at which it was originally cut. This process is tlie fsame both in exogens and endogens. It general- ly happens, that some oC the buds with which a stem is i'nrnished at the axil of every leaf, grow, and originate branches. Wiien this is the case, the growth of these branches is precisely similar to that of the stem from which they sprung. The only thing which seems at variance with this ac- count of the growth of a stem, is the absence of all branches from the lower part of it, that part commonly called tlie trunk. From this, some have inferred, that the portion of the stem which was originally included between the root and the low- est branch formed, which is generally not more than a foot or IS.inches in lenirlh, has subsequent- ly expanded into the trunk. The true reason why there are no branches on the trunk, is, not that branches were never formed there, but that alter they were formed, they have died and disappear- ed, from the operation of causes, which have been already explained, when treating of the tendency manifested by stems to a perltjct reguiariry ol' growth. The increase of a stem in diameter is owing, first to the developement of the cellular tissue, which grows in every direction ; and second, to the pro- duction of the vascular and woody tissues. The horizontal expansion of the cellular system, is si- multaneous with its growth in an upward direction, so that a young stem increases in diameter to a certain extent, at the same time that it grows in height. To this cause, the horizontal increase of the stem, during the early part of the season, is due. When the elongation of the stem has pro- ceeded for a month or two, the jbrmation of Avood commences, and its deposition, either in bundles or layers, continues during the remainder of the growing season. All must have noticed the in- creased toughness of a shoot afier it is a month or six weeds old. This arises from the formation of woody fibre, which commences about that tiiue. As this fibre is deposited under the bark, it must of necessity increase the diameter of the stem; and to its formation, no inconsiderable portion ol' the increase in that direction, is owing. Such is a general account of the growth of the stem. We will now examine the subject a little more particu- larly. As the cellular and vascular systems of plants grow in ways entirely different irorn each other, we will have to consider them separately. And first, we will attend to the growth of the cellular system. The best observations on this subject are those of Mirbel, contained in two highly interest- ing papers communicated to the French Academy of Science, during the years 1831-2. The plant on which he nriade his obijervations, was the mar- chnntia polymorpha; a plant which is frequently to be met within Virginia, growingin the immediate neighborhood of springs. It has no regularstem, and is in fiict, nothing but a green leather-like lealj irregularly lobed, and springing up in wet places only. His reasons for selecting this plant were, first, it is a cellular plant, containing no vascular or woody tissue, and on this account the better fitted ibr observation, when the manner of growth pecu- liar to the cellular tissue was to be ascertained. Second, it grows easily, requiring nothing but common water, and the access of common atmos- pheric air, to ensure its rapid increase ; and third, its seed, or spores, as they are termed by botanists, consist of a single cellule each. The common pufi'-ball or snuff-box, as it is perhaps more com- monly called, {bovista oiigrescens,) is a cellular [jlanl. If one of these, when ripe, be pressed t)y the loot, an exceedingly fine slate-colored powder flies out from the opening at its summit; the grains of this powder are the seeds, or spores, of that [)lant; and the seeds of the marchantia, are ex- actly like them, except in color. Had the botan- ist the power of creating a jjlant, lor the especial purpose of making observations on the growth ol the cellular system, he could not have made one better adapted to the purposes than the marchan- tia poh/murpha. Some of these seeds were laid upon moistened plates of glass, and placed in a warm damp room. When examined, after an interval of Ibur or five days, a projecting point was noticed on each of ihern, which soon elongated into a slender tube. This lube then swelled out at its extremity, and l)ecame a second cellule, in every respect like the first. Tiie newly Ibrmed cellule soon emitted a lube, and this grew into a cellule ; and so the work went on. The plant, at first, appeared like a knot- ted cord; next, it seemed a shapeless mass of green matter; and finally, became leaf-like, and assumed the ap|)earance of a perlect plant. Ac- cording to the observations of Mirbel, there does not appear to be any fixeil point at which a cellule shall give rise to another; and of course, a mass of cellular tissue may increase in every direction equally well. I'his is in accordance with the iact already mentioned, that the cellular system of a plant grows in all directions at the same Ume. Cellules, in some instances, produce others at a very rapid rate. Some species of mushrooms, plants composed entirely of cellular tissue, have been known to grow in a singlr night, from a mere point, to the size of alarge irourd. In such a case, if the cellules are of the medium size, they must have been produceti at the average rate of 4,000,000,000 per hour; a rate of increase so rapid, thai we could hardly believe it, did not calculation show us that it must indeed be true. Concerning the growth of the fibro-vascular system, i. e. the vascular tissue and woody fibre, there has been great diversity of opinion among botanists. By far the greater part of the observa" lions wliich have been made, Ibr the purpose of examining into this matter, have been made on exogenous plants; to these, therefore, our atten- tion must be principally tlirected. But yet it should be remarked, we can admit no explanation which does not apply to endogens, as well as to exogens. The origin of the fibro-vascular sys- tem, is presumed to be same in both cases ; and so also Its developement, except in the single par- ticular of its arrangement. There are certain facts respecting the produc- tion of the wood, which have been established by careful and oft-repeated experiments. To these we will first attend. The first of these is, that the wood, or at least the material of which the 204 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 4 wood is formed, is elaborated in the upper part of the plant, and sent downward ; and not in the root, and sent upward. This has been establish- ed by such experiments as the following : "Early in the spring, a tight ligature was lied around a young branch ; and in this condition the branch was sufi'ered to remain for the season. On ex- amming it towards autumn, the part above the ligature, was found to have increased in size, whilst that below had remained unaltered. A ring of bark was removed from a growing stem of a young tree. When the wound commenced healing, the new woody matter was formed on the upper lip o(" the wound, and not on the lower." Second, the new wood is produced, either from the bark, or between the bark and the wood of the last year, and not by that vvoud. This was proved by Da Hamel in the following manner: Having carefully introduced plates of lin-lbil, between the bark and wood of a growing tree, he suffered it to remain undisturbed ibr several years. On cutting across the stem, at the end of this lime, he found that the nev/ layers of wood had been deposited on the outside of the tin-lbil, without in the least disturbing it. Third, the origin of the wood is in some way intimately connected with the action of the leaves. It has long been known that the di- ameter of a stem depends very much upon the number of leaves which it bears ; that the larger the number of leaves developed upon a stem, the greater will be its diameter, and the more rapid its growth. And also, that the largest quantity of wood is always Ibund on that side of a stem which developes most leaves. But had we only these facts, on which to base a judgment, we might hesitate which to consider the cause, and which the eil'eci; whether to believe that the luxu- riance of the stem arose from the increased nuni- tier of leaves, or the increased number of leaves from the luxuriance of the stem. This (jues- tion, however, has been determined by direct ex- periment. Mr. Knight stripped otF the leaves irom the upper portion of a young shoot; as the consequence, the shoot died as I'ar down as the leaves were removed, whilst below that point, it flourished. He alterwards, insulated a single leaf, by removing a rindore Jones. This gave 1 judicious nursing. My experience in llie Mary- me the more pleasure, as it was an example in RUM AUKS ON THE 1 31 PUOVKM CNT OF X.AM), BY MME, &C. Cl'LTIVATION OF CORN. To tlio Editor of tlie Farmers' RegisttT, Fredericksburg, jJpril 2nd, 18.39. proof of a llict which I had stated m an account current in the first No. of this volume of your woik. In (he name of Siaffard, ami the environs of Fre- dericksburg, I ihaiik Com. .Jones ; audi sincerely liope liis example may be profitably lljllowed ; nut only by (hose fioldeis of poor laial 1 lake ihe li- berty of rejueseniing in Slaflbrd, liom my pre-emi y experience in iiie ivjary- land corn, agrees with the staiement of Mr. H. It will make more on rich land ; on thin land it ia very iiilerior to the more common produclhe sorts of corn in gener.il use. This hasty scrawl is really so unconnected and desuliory, that I am at a loss to know what to do wiih it — whether to pul il in ihe tire or trouble you with it ; "ill for a penny in lor a pound," however. nence as the owner of the poorest ; but by all in i I will give you some further staiemenis, and then ihe poor old state of Virginia. I have been lor some lime gathering leaves, turf, and mould, li-oni the woods and fence rows, on a piece of land des- tined lor a truck patch. This vegetable mailer, atier being scattered, I intend to lime with aboui 70 bushels to the acre, and plaster wiiii at leasi one, before turning in. I hope to make someihing from it this year, hut shall calculate on a fine re- turn next year, when all will have decomposed and become mixed with the soil. The result ol this application I will actjuaint your readers wiih in December, if I am then in the land of ihe living. In corroboration of the article of Mr. Newton, and in direct contradition of the statement he re- futes, I can s^y, tliat in 1830, I limed 16| acres of land with 100 hogsheads of shells, well burned, and applied according to the directions of F. Ijcw- is, es(j. of Weyoke — scatieriiig the lime on the land alier it was ploughed, and harrowing it both ways, the belter to mix if. The crop of corn im- mediately liillowing the applica.ion, was much bel- ter than on the adjoining lands, and all cro|)s iiave continued to improve on it from ihat day to this. Tile land is of a darker and richer color, and is in every respect improved by the application of ihe lime. What will become of our marl if shell-lime is not valuable? 1 may stale here, however, lhat I have invariably seen much greater effects, fiom the application of eocene marl, than Irom the ex- periment with lime spoken of above. Indeed, I have witnessed eH'ects from this invaluable sub- stance truly magical ; and I hope to see the whole tide-water district of Virginia blossom as a rose, under ils application, and your auspices. This substance rests in a great quantity, entirely Vol. VII— 27 et ils fiiie be decided l>y yourself; hoping that you will not occupy valuable room in your paper witfi suchsiuf]', unless you really deem ii of some value. J^et me recommend rooi-cullure to all my broth- er fiirmers. 1 have never had to regret any labor besiowed in this branch of liusbandry, but have ahvays reaped a (lill reward for it. More especi- ally, let me recommend the Jerusalem artichoke, as a very valuable root for the Iceding of hogs and cows, especially if well steamed or boiled with a lilile mixture of grain or meal of some sort. It ia valuable becf.use very productive; because very easy to cultivate; because sure to yield a crop in all seasons ; becaufje easily harvested, and because eaten greedily by swine and neatcatlle, very much to the advai:l;ige of bolh. In coniieciion wiih asteamer, let me recommend I wo implements, by no means in general use. Green's straw-culler, the very best machine I ever saw lor culling hay, straw or Ibilder; and an Eng- lish malt-mill. 1 got one some ycais ago from Thomas A. Rust, uf Richmond, and find it inval- uable liir chnjjpiiig corn, pea?.', rye, &c. into a fine small hoininv Ibrlieeding. 1 1 will make good meal, but then the labor is considerable; but one good hand will grind a quantity of fine hominy, or chop, in a sliort time and wiih ease, it is valuable any where, but on a large fiirm where there is a great deal of trash corn, wheat, peas, rye, &c. and at a place inconvenient to a mill, it is particularly so. The cost of each is about $1.30, and I think it is money well laid out, if they are carefully and ju- diciously used after they are procured. VViih earnest wishes for the continued success of your Register, I am your CoASTAxT Reader. 210 FARxMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 For the Farmers' Register. KASTEUN VIRGINIA. "We often see in our public prints, long specula- tions in the sliape of Jeremiads, reciting all ima- ginable causes Ibr the decline of our state, and bewailing, in most piteous terms, this sad catastro- phe, as if the besom of destruction had literally swep* the land. It may be true that the state is declining, but the evil is greatly magnified by desponding; idle croakers who seem to take pleasure in vilifying and abusing the country, which ought to be as dear to them as life. With one voice, we will cry out, "is there no balm in Gilead !"' but, when it is within our reach, we will not put forth a hand (0 receive it. Our country is acknowledged, by all who have seen it, to be peculiarly rich in natural resources ; yet what feeble eflorts have been made to deve- lope them ! How must the proud son of Virginia blush when he visits the north, east and west of our vast confederation, and sees how our brethren have every where outstripped us in enterprise and improvement ! He returns to his home ; the high spirit wliich is yet born with every gentle son of our state, has been roused and excited by all he has seen ; nothing goes on fast enough for him now ; lie is no longer satisfied to live in com- parative idleness; he has not patience, or perhaps cannot afibrd, to follow the tardy course of a "libe- ral profession" in Virginia: the result is, that he goes ofi to a new country," where, if he can es- cape the perils of "flood and field," and the horrors of noisome pestilence, he may hope to acquire wealth enough to enable him to return and spend the evening of his days at the home of his youth, and rest his bones in his native soil. This hope is never realized; he becomes identified with his adopted land ; soon learns the law of "hardest fend off," and is as thoroughly dishumanizcd as the veriest "hoosier" or "salt river roarer," about him. It is thus that our finest young men are lost to the state. We must work a cure of this evil, and then, and not until then, will our '■'■jilma Mater'' recover her former glory. It must be a gradual process ; we must teach our youth to give up the notion that law, medicine, and politics are the only "liberal" pursuits; and qualify them to enter the various channels for industry and enterprise which present themselves on all sides, and are left va- cant because not thought sufficiently respectable for gentlemen. Above all, we must teach them by precept and example, that we can be sufTicient- ly respectable as cultivators of the soil, even on a small scale, and that our soil is susceptible of great improvement. A large portion of eastern Virginia is eminent- ly adapted to agriculture. The lands, though very fertile when cleared, are generally very much ex- hausted by injudicious culture ; they "may, how- ever, be readily restored by proper management, and rendered even more productive than they were when new. It was to be expected that the style of living and the waslelul system (or want of system) of farming practised throughout this country, would break down the overgrown estates which covered it: these estates have been cut up and divided for the most part, and the holders are beginning to discover by slow degrees, that their foref ilhers were not infallible adepts in the art of liArming; they are now yielding reluctant assent, and some show of obedience to the excellent pre- cepts of the Farmers' Register. The liirmers are more generally out of debt than they have been for many years, as many of those who were involved have sold negroes at the late enormous prices, and lieed themselves from iheir embarrassments. Such is the present condition of a country whose inha- bitants have attained a highdegree of moral culti- vation, and have been distinguished for talent, kindness, and hospitality. The present distressed condition of the whole union makes each state show out in her true co- lors, and IS calculated to have a happy efi'ect on our people, healing the blindness and infatuation with which they regarded the new states, check- ing emigration, making them betier satisfied with home, and teaching them the difference between extravagance and generosity ; so that there never has been, and never will be a belter time for re- forming our system of agriculture. Let us set to work to improve our lands, and let every thinking man inculcate upon all the yoimg farmers whom he can influence, the homely virtues of" industry and frugality. Let us stop the drain of cniieIons will be made than from lour times the aiivjunt as usually cultivated. From tlie Journal of tlie American Silli Society. aiKMOHAXDA FOR YOUNG SILK CULTUIUSTS. Let silk cultivators bear in mind, that the care- ful and attentive manager of silk-worms, will make his worms spin cocoons in four weeks ; eight pounds of his cocoons will make a pound of raw silk, and a pound and a (piartcr of his raw silk will make a [iound of finished sewiiifr or other silk. The careless manager will require at least six weeks before his wormsspin theircocoons, ten pounds at least of his cocoons will be required to make a pound of raw silk ; and at least a pound and six ounces of his raw silk will be reijuired to make a pound oi' finished sewing silk. Let the rules ol ariibmetic Ite applied to find how well the silk business will pav for care and attention 1 G. R. S. From Loudon's Gardener's Magazine. ON THE CULTIVATION OF BIADIA SATIVA, AS AN OIL PLANT. By IV. Hertz, Nurseryman and Seedsman, StuU- gard. M. Bof^ch, superintendent of the gardens of the kmg of Wirlemburg, has made numerous experi- ments for many years on acclimatising exotic [)lants, during the course of which one plant, iMa- dia satica, attracted peculiar attention, as he iound from the reports of travellers in Chile, that it is cultivated in that country as an oleilerous plant, and an excellent oil is extracted from it. During the last lew years, M. Bosch has given this plant a fair trial on a large scale, at considerable ex- pense ; and the results of this trial have surpassed his most sanguine expectations. The plant is an annual belonging to the natural order compositce, attaining the heigth of fi^om 1^ ft. to 2 Ii. ; it agrees with every rotation of crops, and succeeds in all soils, provided ihey are neiiher too humid nor loo stitl'and binding ; but, in a rich soil, if the necessary space be given to the plant to spread out its branches, it attains Ihe highest perfection. The properseason fijr sowing is either in October, or the spring, and the necessary quan- liiy of seeds required for an acre depends upon the condition of the soil, and varies from 4 lb. to 6 lb. ; but it is, of course, advisable to sow a little more than is actually wanted, to provide against any unforeseen accidents which may happen to the seeds before germination. Tlie young plants are not damaged by spring frosts; nor are they liable to be attacked by animals or insects. If spring sowing be preferred, the ground must be well prepared in the autumn, in order to sow the seeds as early in the spring as possible; after which they must be pressed down by rolling, and will need no other culture than to be kept Iree from weeds. When the seeds begin to ripen, wliich may be easily known by the change of their color from green to black, the j)lants are either cut oti'near the ground, or pulled up by the routs, and laid on the ground Ibr drying; after wliu-h they are treated like rape. The seeds how- ever, nmst not remain long belbre they are thrashed out; because the glutinous stalks, when heaped up, soon begin to It'rment, and will do the greatest damage to the seeds. The f)roduce of one Wirleml)urg acre, contain- ing 38,400 square leet. amounts, according to the nature of the soil and the condition of the plants, to from 4 to 6^ schefiel (bushels) of seed. One schelfel weighs liom 194 lb. to 208 lb.; and li-om that quantity Irom 681b. to 701b. of oil have been obtained, according to the trials that were made in several mills of difi'ercnt constructions. 214 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 4 Accordinf;; to Ji clieiiiica! analy?!.--, 100 parts of (he Madia oil loiisisl ol -15 parts ol' oicine (or fluid part ol' the oil), ^Ool strariiic (the mucihige, or laity part), and 15 ol' gl}rerine (or sweet soHd part, a houey-hke and gluiiiioussubsiaiice). This oil does Motcongeal at below 10° Reaumur, but only becomes a little less fluid, which makes it an incomparable substance Tor kee|)ing all sorts of machines in order; and there can likewise be a solid and well lathering soap made of it. That it may be advantageously used in cloth manufac- tories has been proved by experiments already made, by which it was lound prelerable to the olive oil, which had been previously used. The produce of this annual oil-plant, if compared with that of the rape and the pojipy, leads to the fol- lowing conclusions: The rape, which attains its perfection only in the second year, produces from 4 to 5 schefliil ol seed per acre, and but seldom succeeds well. One scheli'el of rape-seed gives 96 lb. of oil j therefore, one acre, in the space ol two years, produces 480 lb. of oil, which makes for one year 240 lb. One acre sown wiih poppies gives from 2^ to 3 scheft'el of seed ; from one of which are obtain- ed 88 lb. of oil, which gives a produce of 264 lb. per acre yearly. One acre cullivated with Madia sat'iva, which ripens generally towards the end of Jt>Iy, pro- jduces from 4 to 6| w.heffol of seed. One scheflel gives 68 lb. of oil, therefore 6^ scheflel make a broduce of 442 lb. of oil. For all these reasons, it is to be hoped that •the Madia sativa will soon take that place in our agriculture, to which, by its usefulness, it is justly .entitled ; and which, also, our sovereign (the king of VVitemburg) has already acknowledged, by rewarding with a gold medal the merit ol' M. Bosch, in introducing a plant into field-culture which promises to become uncommonly useful, not only to our agriculture, but to our manufac- tures and trades. To make this important article as general as p-asible, I have a quantity of its peed lor sale ; and, for the convenience of llie En- glish agriculturist, I have made an ofler to Mr. Charlwood to undertake the sale of it in England. Stattgard, Dec. 30, 1838. From Young's Agricultural Travels in rraiice. FISII-l'OXDS I.\ FUANCE. Sologne. — This province abounds very much with ponds of all sizes, which let at Horn 5 liv. to 12 liv. the arpent. Bourbonnois. — Moulins. — 'I'hrough every part of this province, which 1 saw in crossing' it in two directions, the number of fish-ponds 1s very considerable, 'j'he country, though in exieusive views flat to the eye, is, on a nearer examination, found to swell into a variety ofgentle inequaliiies, which form valleys, with small brooks, springs, or streams, in them, as eligible for a residenctT, and agreeable to the eye. as it would be beneficial .to cultivation, if they knew how lo apply I hem. Mounds are made across ihcse little vales, to f()rm ponds ; and there are mills at their heads, when the streams are considerable enough. I'hese ponds are from two or three to ten, twenty, and thirty acres, and some a great deal more. They are ail fished regularly every second or third year, and ihe fish sold, at so much a thousand, lo the merchants, who send them, by the Allier, Loire, canal of llriare, and Seine, to Paris. On one es- tate, 1 saw eight ponds, that paid 800 liv. ; on an- other, fijur paid 800 liv. ; and, on a farm of about 400 acres, four ponds paid 1000 liv. Water de- ceives one so much in guessing the superficies, that I may be erroneous (for notliing is neasured in this province) ; but 1 should guess, that land under water paid 20 liv. an acre at least, instead of 3 liv, which is the more common net produce of the country; and, at the same time tliat ihe proprietor receives ihis superior benefit, his table is, by the terms of the contract with the merchant, who stocks the ponds himsellj allowed to be am- ply supplied. Bresse. — The ponds of this little province and Dombes, cover 66 leagues square of country, and are found terrible to population, from the efl'ect they have on the climate.* In 1764, ponds in France generally let at 5 liv. to 7 Ziu. per arpent.f The management of ponds is vastly belter un- derstood in France than it is in England, both as to stocking, adapting the sort of fish to ihe soil, clearing the ponds, emptying, fishing, &c. &i-. In all catholic countries, fish is of more impor- tance than in protestant ones, and this occasions more attention being paid to them. From Notes ou tlie Agriculture of Lombardy. EXAMPLE OF TUB IIGARDING SYSTEM, SUB- STITUTED FOR THE BORROWIKG SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENTS. In an age in which the sovereigns of Europe are incumbered, and some of them ruined, by debts, a contrary conduct deserves considerable attention. The Duke of Modena, for ten years past, has practised a very wise economy : he is supposed, on good authoriiy, lo have saved about a million oi' zecchins, (475,0001.) and he continues to save in the same proportion. I'his is a very singular circumstance, and the eflect of it is ob- servable ; lor 1 was assured at Modena, that this treasure was much greater than the whcle circu- laiing currency of ihe duchy; and they spoke of it as a very mischievous thing, to withdraw from circulation and use, so considerable a suni, occa- sioning jirices generally to rise, and every thing to be dear. By repeated inquiries, 1 found this dear- ness was nothing more than what is found in the states around, which have all experienced, more or less, a considerable rise ol prices in ten years, iiut how could withdrawing m one}' from circula- tion raise prices] It ought, on the contrary, in a country that has no paper-money, to lower them. That this efl'ect did not follow, we may easily con- clude, from these complaints. Biit the very per- sons who complained of this treasure could not as- sert that money was more wanted in the ducliy than before it was begun to be saved. They even gave a proof to the contrary, by affirming the rate of interest to be ai present 4| per cent, only. Upon the whole, the eflfect is evidently harmless; and it is a most curious /iict in politics, * Observ. siir L'Jgricult. par Mons. Varenne de Fe- nille, p. 270. t Chanvalon Manuel des Champs. 12ino. P. 363. 1839] FARMERS- REGISTER 215 that a iiovemment can gradually draw Crom cir- culation a Slim tliaf in ton years exceeded the cur- rent coin of the state, wiliiout causing an appa- rent deficiency in ihe currency; or any inconve- niency whatever. Conclusions of infinite impor- tance are to be drawn from such a i'aci ; it seems to prove, that the general modern policj' of con- tracting public debts, is absurd and ruinous in ihe extreme ; as saving, in the time of peace, is clear- ly wilhout any of those inconveniences which were once supposed to attend it ; and by means of forming a treasure, a nation doubles her nominal wealth, that sort of wealth, which is real or ima- ginary, according to the use that is made of it. The reputation, preventing attacks, is perhaps ihe greatest of all. How contrary to the landing sys- tem, which carries in its nature, such a probability of present weakness, and such a certainty of fu- ture ruin ! From Young's Agricultural Tour in Spain. IRRIGATION IN SPAIN. The prospects down the vale of Aran beautiful ; it is without fallows, fine iiem|) instead of them. Look down on ihe town of Esteredano, around which, culture rises pretty high up the mountains. All the corn cut, is reaped, and bound in sheaves — walnuts. Descend into the vale — figs. Wa- tered meadows. Ray-grass predominates ; much common clover, white clover, trefoil, vetches, &c. A causeway for irrigation across the vale ; the meadows are uncut, and have two and a half tons per acre, on an average; the corn all through, three-quarters an acre. Pass a rich flat common ; part of this vale fed by horses, mules, hogj, asses, and a lew oxen. Advancing — what meadows there are, are well watered ; as are French beans, hemp, and a small quantity of lucerne. Leave Poeblar; they have lucerne, but not good; the gardens are all watered ; mulberries ; prices of silk this year, 18 liv. the pound. Culiivalion all around, among the olive trees ; but it is corn one year, and fallow another, ('ross the river, which is here sixty yards wide. Wheels for rais- ing Ihe water of ii into the gardens, ten or twelve feel high ; they are of a very simple construction ; something fdie ihe common water-wheels of a mill, but made very light ; the fellies of the wheel are hollow in divisions, taking the waterin through holes at equal distances, and as the stream turns the wheel, it delivers the water out of the same holes at the top of its revolution, into a trough, which conducts it where wanted -. it is cheap, sim- ple, and efl'ectual. Many peach-trees scaitered about the gardens, &c. Mount liie hills ; pass two large tracts, of above one hundred acres, de- stroyed by the torrents. Great quantity of pud- ding-stones. The mountains around are of inte- resting and bold features. The country in general here has a great mixture of cultivation and waste; it is for some space pleasing enough to the eye, but the produce is, I believe, very low ; we saw many oats, and scarcely any that will produce more than a quarter an acre. They ha-'e no meadows; and (should observe, lliat our mules have not found such a thing as hay ; straw and barley are their food ; in all those spots which would give grass, corn and legumes are sown, as more necessary and more valuable; and this, I am told, is the case over all Spain, lucerne ex- cepted. Near Monte Scliia — they have Iiere poor crops of flat barley : of water, they know well the va- lue, a spring of any account being carefully con- ducted into a reservoir, and let out at seven in the morning and at night to water. Advancing — there is some good hemp, water- ed ; and I see enough of the country to find that water is all in all ; where that is to be eonducted, they get crops that pay well ; but where no water, they have not the power or ihe knowledge to turn the soil, however good it may be, to a profitable account ; Itdlow the only effort, and the success every where miserable. Cross a fine stream wi'h many acres under it, yet no waterinir ; the reason I cannot tell, unless Ihe land is common ; if so, it is easily explained. The soil stoney ; the large, of the pudding class ; bur, in tfie midst of this arid wretched de- sert, come to a spring, which rises out of ihe earth into a small reservoir, and is immediately used for irrigation; maize, hemp, cabbages, beans, and all fine ; the contrast shows the astonishing effect of water, and that in this climate, ihe soil is the least object — the sun and water do the whole. Passing Paous ; everything changes the fea- tures; the vale, on comparison with those we have seen, is wide, and also flat, and water plen- tifully conducted in canals, which pass every quar- ter, so as to let into the field of every proprietor ; having passed above one hundred miles of dreary mountain, this vale, so great was the contrast, had the api)earance of enchantment ; the care and attention given to irrigation, cannot be ex- ceeded. The land is prepared lor it, by levelling with a nicety as curious as for making a bowling- green, and this (conducting the water excepted, Vvhich is common to every one), is the only ex- pense: this general level is divided into oblong beds, from six to eight feet wide, by little ridges of fine mould, drawn up nicely with a rake every time the ground is sown, in order that the water may not spread over too much at once, in which case, the irrigation v^^ould be unequal; there would be too much of a current at the part where the water enters, a circumstance of no great im- portance in watering grass-land, but which would be mischievous in arable ; small trenches take the water from the carrier canals, and passing by the ends of those beds, the farmer opens them at plea- sure, to distribute the water where wanted. As soon as the land is sown, it is watered, and peri- odically, till the plants are up ; moderately while they are young: but every day, and sometimes twice a day, when full grown: the effect is sur- prising, and infinitely exceeds that of the very richest manures that can bespread upon any land. The rajjidity of vegetal ion is so great, that there are but lew crops, which demand all the summer for coming to perfection; I believe hemp is the only one ;'^ihat plant is now five to seven feet in height, and of so thick a luxuriance, that nothing can be imagined finer. The rye stubbles are ploughed and sown with French beans, which are up and watered. After hemp, wheat is the crop. Watered maize here, seven to nine feet high. Every lime we see any irrigation, we are struck more and more with the importance of water, even on soils which are apparently mere rock, and on S16 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 the most arid deserts, it gives at once the utmo?l luxuriance of vegetation. Vines and olives, how- ever, stand in no need of if, but thrive admirably on the driest soils without it: not one acre, however, in twenty, is planted with them that niijrht be. Come to more watered grounds ; gardening and husbandry mixed ; peaches ; apples ; ripe pears; pomegranates in the hedges, as large now as wal- nuts HI the shell ; onions and lettuces in great plenty. Some watered lands have been sold at 1300 liv. the journal. Near Martorelle is a fine irrigate.) valley; French beans, seven leet high. Good lucerne, cut three or (bur times a year; onions, cabbages, and lettuces; but the hemp, every vviiere a prin- cipal crop, not great. The land all Ibrmed into beds for watering, which I have already de- scribed. Exceeding fine hemp, watered. Maize thick, and in ear. Many fine and tall poplars by the river. They are now CJuly) ploughing their stubbles for French beans. Their course is, 1. Hemp. 2. Wheat ; and after wheat, French beans. Three crops are therefore gained in two years. The products good. Very fine mulberries. A journal, which is here also about an English acre, of rich land in the vale, not watered, sells lor 500 liv. : watered, for 1000 liv. Leaving Barcelona, enter immediately an ex- traordinary scene of watered cultivation, and which must have given the general reputation to the province. Nothing can well be finer. The crops in perpetual succession — and the attention given to their culture great. Not the idea of a fallow ; but the moment one crop is off, some other im- mediately sown. A great deal of lucerne, which is cut four, five, six, and even seven times in a year ; all broadcast, and exceedingly thick and line, from two and a half to three feel high, when cut. It is all watered every eight days. NVe meet many mule-loaus of it going into the town, each 450 lb. or 4| quintals, which sells lor 4 pcfet- tos, or near 4s. English ; suppose it 4s. for 500 lb. it will not be difficult to calculate the produce of an acre. All I saw would yield 10 tons, green, per acre, at each cutting, and much of it a great deal more ; let us suppose five cuttings, or 50 tons per acre, at 16s. a ton, this is 401. sterling per acre. It is to be remembered, that the growth we saw, was the third, perhaps the fourth, and that the first and second are in all probability more consi- derable, it will not. therefore, be thought any ex- aggeration to calculate on five such. I by no means assert that lucerne yields always, or gene- rally so, as I speak only of what I see. 1 have very little doubt, however, but this is the amount of that portion, which is thus cut and sold to Barcelona; possibly one-third, certainly one-fourth, is to be deducted for the expense of carriage ; this is the most difficult part of the calculation, lor it depends on how many times the mule goes in a day, which must also depend on the readiness of sale, and other circumstances. The profit is, however, amazinglj' great. All the other lucerne 1 have any where seen sinks, in my idea, to no- thing, on comparison with the vast and luxuriant burthens given by these watered grounds. The finest crops I have known in England, are drilledj but there is a fallacy to the eye in the drilled crops, in proportion to the distance of the rows ; they appear thick while they are really thin, but in broadcast ones, which satisfy the eye, there is no deception; and these immense burthens, through which the scythe is with difficulty moved, produce more at one culling, than two-tiiel drills would at three, with the advantage of the herbage being finer and softer. But weeds in England ami Ca- talonia are two very difierent things; it well de- serves, however, with us, a better trial than it has yet generally received ; I liave viewed broad- cast crops ; particularly Rocque's, on a very rich garden soil ; and Dr. Tanner's, on a common tur- ni|) loam, which, though not to be named with the Spanish, were certainly encouraging. Hemp, through all these watered lands, is the predominant crop ; it is seven leet high, and per- fectly fine ; some of it is already harvested. 1 am sorry to see that the watered part of the vale is not more than a mile broad. Indian fig, cal'ed here, figua de maura, grows six or seven leet high, very branching and crooked, the arms at boTtom as thick as the thigh of a common man ; those and many aloes in the hedges. Every gar- den or farm has a small house, with a reservoir ibr water, which is filled in most by a water wheel, with jars around ihe circumference. The gardens between Barcelona and the fort, and also within the walls, are watered in the same manner; the water is let into every little bed, in the same way as I have already described. They are crowded with crops, and kept in most beautitui order; those in and close to the town, scattered with mulberry trees. But in the district of which I am speaking at present, among the hemp and lucerne, neiiher vine, olive, nor mulberry. These watered lands belong generally to proprietors who live in Barce- lona, and are let at 30 to 40 Sjianish livres the journal. The valley, in its widest par!,, is three miles broad. Here it lets at 34 Spanish livres a year the journal, and sells from 600 //t'. to 1000 //u. ; each of these livres being about 54s.: (1000 Spanish livres makes 2700 French ones). Taking the medium, or 800 liv. and the French livre at \Q\d., this makes the price of a journal 90/. 2s. Qd.; and the rent of it 4/. The gross rent of the land, therefore, pays nearly 4| per cent. ; but whether this is clear rent, the tenant paying all v.\y.(ie, and doing the small repairs of his house, &c., or whe- ther'there are deductions on these accounts, are questions which were neither forgotten nor re- solved. To show the quick succession of their crops, they have corn in stooks on the borders of some of the fields, and the land ploughed and sown with millet, which is already nine inches high. 31any bleaching grounds. A(lvani;ing — the irrigated land lets fron; 24 to 40 Spanish livres: that not irrigated, at 15 liv. Water, therefore, here more than doubles the rent of the land ; and in other places, we have found the difierence yet gr-eater. The soil all the way a red and brown deep friable loam, with a suffi- cient adhesion Ibr any crops. They sow French beans after hemp, and then sow wheat. AtBallalo. two hours from Barcelona, we meet with the first vineyards, but the hills here come down to the sea ; and where they do not, the vale is not more than half a mile wide. Lycium in the hedges J some lew mulbsrry trees. Oranges 1839] FARMERS' REGSITER, 217 in the gardens; a few palm-lrees, with vines around tliem. A journal of watered hemp, proc'iiccs Horn 10 \o 12 (|uiiila!s : if not watered, ihe product much inferior; the prii-.e, 14 fo 17 .Spanisli Hvres the quintal, nr 35s. Euirlish, which makes 19/. 5s. an acre. This is, iiovvever, lo he uiidcrslood oi" a very fine acre. The mountains are at haICa mile distant, and partly cultivated to the t0[). All the way inclosed, and the men mending yaps in their heJo-es. Every scrap of fiat land well watered, fron) wells and reservoirs; the hill covered with vines. Land, near Canet, well watered, sells lor 500 Spanish livres the journal ; vineyards tor 300 lie. They o either have not the money, or not Ihe will lo employ it, is to perpetu- ate wastes. It is ihe king only who can make those efforts; a monarch, who should be deter- mined to improve his kingdom, would presently find the means of doing it. The importance of water is so u'ell known, that if a canal is made to con. fuel it, the proprietors, or farmers of the lands below, would readily and speedily make use of it, paying i)roportionab!y fc)r llie quantity they took ; this is the system in Lombardy, and the eflect is great. It would be tlie same in Catalonia, but the capital, for the great work of the canal, must probably be sujiplied by the king, if not the whole, at least a C(M".siderahle portion. Such money should be lent to undertakers, at a mode- rate interest. Exertions ol such a natm'e, with a prop(;r general altcntion given lo these objects, would make them fiishionablc among the great lords of the kingtloni, and lintile pro\ inces would soon be created out of barren and desolate wastes. Arbitrary power ha.g been exerted for ages, in ef- forts of barbarity, ignorance, and tyranny; it is time to see it enq)loyed in works that have the good of mankind lor their aim. A beginning, and a very good one, is made in the construction of some great roads, on a scale of true magnificence, which is never exhibited with such eliect as m works of public utility ; and whenever the impor- tance of cultivation is well understood in Spain, and ll)e rie«r Sir: — The silk in- terest, which absorbs so much public attention in the older and more enlightened portions ol" the union, has not yet elicited much attention among us. The Chinese mulberry, so far as I can learn, is not yet to be found in this state, except in ray little nursery. There it thrives admirably. The young buds, in sheltered situations, are at this time expanding sufficiently to feed young worms; and last fall. ihrAigh we had an early frost, fresh leaves were to be found as late as the 10th of" No- vember— thus giving more than eight months vegetation for the precious insect. The three ori- ginal trees that I have, of three seasons growth, are twelve feet high, and eight mches in circumfe- rence at the root; those of two years are nearly equal, and the sprouts of last year's growth, from two year old roots, are from six to ten feet high, and f"rom six to twelve sprouts from each root. I find, also, from trial, that a highly calcareous soil, like our prairie, is best adapted to the culture of this tree. Observing that the native moras rubra delighted in the skirts of the prairie, where the soil contains 50 per cent, of carbonate ol" lime, I plant- ed last spring a few of the morus multicaulis in this kind of soil : they far surpassed in every re- spect those planted in the adjacent sandy loam, though well manured. The wood is more firm, shorter jointed, more branches, and the leaves thicker and darker colored; resembling in this respect, the diflference between the cotton plant growing in the sandy land and that in the prairie — the former growing taller, but the latter a thick- er slalk, and producing a greater number of limbs and bolls. With my present planting, which I have finished, I shall have this year something like 20,000 of these precious trees growing. Hav- ing the fullest confidence in the final success of the enterprise, I am encouraged to go on, though alone, in preparing for the introduction of the silk- culture, nor shall I be detained by scofls or sneers. The grape-vine, also succeeds well with me, though for the three first years, the first was most- ly lost by the mildew, yet last year, those vines when 1 had made the soil artificially calcareous in a high degree, perfected their fruit, without this disaster. Those vines, when marl was not used, mildewed, and cast four-fifths of their fruit as usual. This experiment, which I was induced to make from a hint once thrown out by Mr. Hebermont, appears to have fully succeeded. The soil was originally a stitt red clay, and had been an old cow-pen ; I gave it a dressinfj of an inch thick of marl f"rom the prairie, containing 75 per cent, of carbonate of lime (rotten lime-stone.) These, however, were European vines, of four different varieties, all alike subject to mildew. The native vines of our own forests which I had ^9 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 transferred to my garden, and cultivated, are sure and abundant bearers, not subject to any disease. I have planted this season a quantity of seeds of the European grape, in the hope that the vines, being actually native, may be better adapted to our climate. Should the experiment succeed, it will be a "consummation devoutly to be wished." I cannot help considering the introduction of the silk-culture as forming a new era in agricul- tural enterprise, and calculated to be attended by the most important benefits to all classes of society. Could it be introduced here, in the elevated and healthy portion of our stale, with the energy and intelligent enterprise with which it is impelled by New England ingenuity, with our many and great advantages of soil and climate, it would be the means of bringing vast tracts of land into cultiva- tion that are now considered unfit for corn or col- ton, from being broken and hilly, and subject to wash. This circumstance would be no objection to the cultivation of the mulberiy, but rather an ad- vantage; and besides, such lands are generally watered by the finf si springs, which is seldom the case with the extensive alluvial plains that are usually selected for large cotton plantalions. Un- fortunately, our best cotton lands lie bordering on the rivers, that are skirted by extensive swamps, the first reclaiming of which is attended by an enormous sacrifice of human life, and none bulthe Ali-ican race can endure the labor of cultivating them. But our elevated lands, produce the mul- berry equally as well as the river lands, and are extremely healthy. And the silk-culture, not be- ing adapted to slave labor, might occupy the hills, while cotton should be confined to the low-lands. They need not interfere with each other, but be a mutual support, for each should employ a dis- tinct class of the population, and occupy different locations. The alluvial plains of the rivers will be laid off in large cotton plantations, with but few white families, while the hills will be cover- ed with a dense free population, of small farms, and family manufiictures of silk. The grape, also, that now luxuriates in native wildness. will be subjected to cultivation, and made to vary, beautify and enrich the scene. Respectfully, yours. KKMARKS BY THE EDITOR, In sundry parts of the former volumes of this journal, we have urged the advantage and ne- cessity of using calcareous soils for grape-culture; and, more recently, have expressed the opinion that the same kind of soil was peculiarly adapted to improve the growth of mulberry trees. But as to both, our views were more theoretical than practical, and were deduced from indirect testimo- ny, rather than positive facts. In the foregoing highly interesting article (to us at least, and on this account,) are presented the first positive proofs, in the greatly superior growth, or product, of both the morus multicaulis and of grape- vines, on soils which would be excessively calca- reous for most other plants. The facts are high- ly important ; and the truths which they sustain, if properly appreciated and applied, would be worth millions of dollars annually to this country, even if confined to vine and mulberry culture alone. The foundation and origin of our opinions as to these particular adaptations of calcareous (and highly calcareous) soils, will be here concisely stated. Vine-culture, both for the production of grapes and of wine, so far, has been in this coun- try, generally as unsuccessful, as it is generally successful in the wine regions of Europe. In ex- amining for a difference of circumstances, suffi- ciently marked and general to be the cause of this difference in effects, nothing satisfactory was ofiTered to our mind, except the remarkable difference in the constitution of soil, which we had before learned from prior investigations, directed to more general and more important objects. The well cultivated and most productive soils of Europe, are generally calcareous ; and the particular vine- yards which are celebrated for producing the most valuable wines, are known to be on calcareous soils. On the other hand, we had fully establish- ed, to our own satisfaction, ihe novel and astonish- ing fact, that in all the Atlantic slope of these states there was no calcareous soil, proper — and that there was but a very small proportion even of soil altered by shell -beds coming to the sur- face, broken lime-slone, or other such rare and accidental admixtures. Hundreds of miles might be passed over, in travelling through the country, without the traveller coming in sight of an acre, or even a square-yard, of natural calcareous soil, or any containing even so email a proportion as one-thousandlh part of carbonate of lime. And yet, so sure are the marks of calcareous earth in soil, that the traveller who had properly investi- gated the subject, could pronounce as safely and correctly as to ils deficiency, on the most transient obeei'valion, as upon thorough chemical analysis. Upon subsequent investigation and information, we further learned the very different and scarcely less important fact, that most of the great prai- ries of the west were as remarkably constituted, in their great abundance of calcareous parts, as the eastern regions are for the entire deficiency. Indeed, the prairie regions of this country present the only considerable soils known in North Ame- rica, wliich contain any great proportion of car- bonate of lime, or where that ingredient is in hurtful excess, oris so often the case in some parts of Europe. But all the trials of grape and wine culture which had been made in this country had been confined to the non-calcareous region ; and so far as we knew and believed, not an acre of vines grew on highly calcareous soil, if even made mo- derately calcareous by compound manures, applied 1539] FARMERS' REGISTER. 223 without such design. It is not that calcareous soil is necessary to make the vines grow luxuri- antly; nor always to make them yield a heavy crop of fruit. But we deemed it essentia! to make the vines as regularly and certainly produc- tive in well ripened fruit, as in other regions, and still more, to render it fit for wine of sufficient strength, and best quality. Climate may have much agency in preventing equal success in this country; but the defect of the soils hereto/ore used is not the less certain, and alone, as we think, a sufficient cause of general failure. It was on these grounds that we urged on vine-culturists, through Ihis journal, to use calcareous manures; and by private correspondence also, on Mr. Her- bemont particularly, vvho had done so much for this branch of industry, we endeavored to impress the propriety of making highly calcareous at least as much of a vineyard as would serve for a sepa- rate making of wine. Butthough he was satisfied with the correctness of the views, his location, remote from calcareous manures, prevented his putting them to practical use; and until reading the foregoing article, we had not heard of any such designed experiment, or even of any compa- rison of results, between the products of vines on calcareous and non-calcareous soils. Our own position, removed from our land and cultivation, and therefore being incapacitated from superin- tending either, forbade any such trial of a new and costly culture, merely for experiment with a view to the promotion of public interests. In regard to the peculiar fitness of calcareous soils ibr mulberry trees, our opinions were more lately formed, but not the less decided ; and in this also, the first positive and unquestionable evi- dence is furnished in lacts stated in the foregoing letter. The facts which had induced our forming this opinion, (and which was stated in the last, and in previous numbers of the Farmer's Regis- ter,) were the following, which seemed full and sufficient. On our own farm, and elsewhere on the borders of James River, where the great diversity of na- tural soils afforded excellent grounds for such ob- seivations, both the white mulberry and the na- tive mulberry trees are a common growth on the hill-sides, and the few other places where the marl reaches the surface, or affects, by admixiure, the character of the soil. And on the hundred- fold more extensive table lands, of poor and acid quality, mulberry trees are rarely found. The remarkable and seemingly peculiar fitness of the river hill-sides for this growth is generally known to the residents ; but it is not known, what is cer- tainly true, that the presence of calcareous earth in these soils is the sole cause of this peculiar fitness. So strongly has the fact been impressed on some cultivators, though without inferring the cause, that the white mulberry is considered as a troublesome cumberer of the ground on some ara- ble lands, the growth of which it is difficult to keep down and impossible to eradicate, by the pe- riodical cultivation of grain crops. Very recently, ive heard an excellent farmer object to planting the moras multicaulis on his land, because he feared that it would so spread as to become as trouble- some an intruder in his fields, as he had already found the white mulberry to be. It ma}' be re- membered by some of our readers, that the native mulberry leaves which were of such extraordina- ry large size, as staled at page 417, vol, VI. Far. Reg. were from a young tree which grew in a bed of poor sandy marl. What has been already stated on this head, however defective and incomplete as proof| will be enough to induce those who will think and rea- son to pursue the investigation of the subject, and supply the unquestionable and direct evidences which we have not to offer. Sooner or later, it will be a truth of universal acceptation, that, in addition to all the other advantages offered in the use of calcareous manures to agriculture, that both vine and mulberry culture, in a peculiar and remarkable degree are improved by their libera! application. From Loudon's Gardener's Magazine. NOTES TAKEN FROM THE NARRATIVE OF A HORTICULTURAL JOURNEY IN GREECE, DU- RING THE SUMMER OF 1S37. By Eugene Jlchille Baumann, of the BoUwyller Nursery. I know not whether a short account of the pre- sent state of horticulture and agriculture in Greece might not interest some of your readers. It is true that this country is daily visited by travellers, your countrymen in particular, vvho, in their nar- ratives, infinitely more interesting than mine, in- troduce every thing worthy of notice ; but this cel- ebrated country presents so many curiosities of all sorts, that horticulture, the subject which parti- cularly interests me, and which is at the very low- est ebb, could never have particularly attracted the attention of any one having a different mis- sion fi'om mine. Alter having visited almost every part of Italy, where I found many tilings to interest me, I arriv- ed at Trieste in the spring of 183S, regretting much to be obliged to leave that fine country. At Tri- este, however, I received the necessary instruc- tions from my friends lor undertaking a still lon- gerjourney. I was to proceed to Athens in Greece. The object of my journey was to open some com- mercial negotiations with the amateurs of the country, as well as with those persons at the head of the government vvho miijrhl be liivorable to aa &24 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 4 enterprise ot this sort. A new country, or, rather, one rising out of total ruin, like Greece, presents many fair chances : ibr, the want of vegetables and fruits, as well as of forest trees, is very soon telt in a country so situated. What particularly in- duced my family to thisslep, was, that lor several years past we liad been sending ornamental and fruic trees to a considerable amount to the Greek government, as well as for the plantations of King Otho. I embarked about the middle ot May, 1837. Finding a liivorable opportunity lor extending my journey to Smyrna and Constantinople, I w^ent di- rect to Smyrna * ; thence I went by land to Brussa and Scutari, and arrived in Greece, a.ter a stay of some weeks in Constantinople, and a quaran- tine of twenty-four days in the Isle of Syra. I arrived in Greece about the end of July. What a difference between the coasts of Attica, or of the Peloponnesus, and those which I had just passed ! The shores of Asia Minor, of the Bos- phorus, and of the Dardanelles, are filled with gar- dens, which present to the eye of the traveller a vigorous vegetation, as varied as the nations which inhabit them. Those of modern Greece were naked under the burning July sun ; the little ambassador particularly has a large establish- ment ; and there is there a magnificent group of plane trees, (platanus orienlalis,) planted, no doubt, by some Turk. There are also a conside- rable number of mulberry trees, some fruit trees, pear, apple, and plum trees. Close by is a very old plantation of olive trees; and in the neighbor- hood flows a small rivulet, the banks of which are adorned by a very vigorous vegetation of laurus nobilis, myrtus communis, vitex agnus castus, ce- ratonia sUiqua, melia azcdcrach, several rham- nuses, ^c. These trees, both large and small, are every where alternately intertwined with vines and vitex agnus caslus; and, where the inoislure does not reach, an immense number of myrtles grow. Pistacia lentiscus also grows there pro- fusely ; in short, one is agreeably surprised at the great variety of brilliant foliage which abounds There. The nerium oleander is particularly beau- tifiil; it towers above the other shrubs which surround it, and presents a flourishing bouquet throughout the year. These villages were formerly places of rural re- treat for the"^Turks, as tiiey are now for the Greeks. I found every where the remains of Turkish houses ; which have been quite destroy- vegetation which had flourished there had been ed, except the fountains, which are always shaded completely withered up; and before I perceived by some fine planes, or horse-chestnut trees Ctcscu- sorae signs of habitation, I thought I was landing Zus hippocastanum). I have never seen these on a rock abandoned at once by man and nature. I saw nothing above the surface but some remains of the gigantic monuments of the ancient Greeks. I landed at the Piraeus, and proceeded, soon af- ter landing, to Athens. The road which led to the city was new ; on the right and left were planted, at a considerable distance fi"oni each other, plane trees, poplars, alders, and some wal- nut trees. It was rather diflicult to distinguish these trees at first, as they were generally in bad condition, and the greater part of their imperfect heads were without foliage. The road also passes through a forest of olive trees ; it is the only thing in the neighborhood of Athens, useful to the inhabitants, that has not been entirely destroyed by the stolid ferocity of the Turks and Egyptians. This forest made no better impression on my imagination than the first aspect of the country. Those who have seen forests of" olive trees know that their livid hue en- tirely changes the character of the' landscape. I arrived at Athens; and the first thing that struck my sight, that delighted me, was not so much the imposing aspect of the Acropolis, and of the Temple of Theseus, as the finding of a date tree, nearly 50 ft. high, orowinix in the mid- dle of the Via d'llernies. 'J'his date tree had continued to grow,, and had not been injured by any one ; besides this specunen, 1 saw five or six others in the diflerent districts of' the city, also several cypresses, but these were all. It must be confessed that Athens, for a cele- brated city, presents but a denuded aspect; this cannot be said, however, of some places, situated at a little distance from the city, such as the vil- lage of Marupi, that ofKephyssin, Angello-Kibi, &c. In these places we meet with a tolerably vi- gorous vegetation. At Kephyssia several foreign ambassadors have country houses ; the Russian * I proceed to Smyrna, toucliiiii; at Aiicoiia, Corfu, Patras, and Athens, and leacli yinyrna by Syra and Scio. trees so well grown, or so perfect, as in the neigh- borhood of these fountains; it appears as if nature herself chose to protect and shade those fountains which the Turks erect wherever they can find a spring; and near each is inscribed a passage from the Koran, which invites the toil-worn traveller to come and quench his thirst. This is all that can recall an idea of what hor- ticulture was in Attica, before the war against the Turks; and while it continued, nothing could be done. During my stay, however, I htid an op- portunity of seeing that, under Bavarian influ- ence, the Greek government will bring the horti- culture of this country to a high degree of perfec- tion. Before the death of Capo d'Istrias, a nur- sery had been formed near JNauplia, which was then the capital ; but this nursery is now neglect- ed. I saw the greater part of the fruit trees which were sent to it from our nurseries at Bollwyller, either dying or already dead, although but recent- ly neglected. At Athens, a new nursery liad been made, and, while the greatest care was be- stowed on it, the former was abandoned to ne- glect, and finally given up. The Athenian nursery is under the direction of Dr. Fraas of Wurzburg, a young man who de- votes himself with ardor lo'the tabors and cares which his charge naturally brings along with it. The place which it occupies was formerly the gar- den of a Turkish proprietor, but the king bought one part of it, and the government tiie other. Hitherto only such trees and shrubs as were most wanted in the country have been planted in the government ptirt of this garden. In the part belonging to the king, such culinary vegetables are cultivated as the country does not produce na- turally ; such as cabbages, asparagus, salads, |)eas, kidney-beans, &c. A oreat number ol fruit trees have also been planted, which grow well ; some plujn and i)ear trees were lliere previously, as well as some vine stocks, and auilberry arm pomegranate trees. Fig trees were plentiful. 1839J FARfvlEliS' kl^GISTEK ^25 or ornamental pifints, Dr. Fraas had planteil a certain nunibor of dahlias, which I brou«:ht from Trieste ami Icll at Athen?, on my first journey there. On my return, after a very short period of time (two monlh?,) I Ibnnd all these plant?; opown and in lieaulii'ul hior.ni ; besides this, I saw a fine collectiorl of annual plants, which grow there with Unexatripied rapidity and viijor. We may rationally conclude that the country lias not always been so hare of vegetation as it is at present; the soil is very CfuilCu! and good in the plains; ihounh less so on the elevations of the rtiountainsj which are generally calcareous. 'Die best proof of the leriility of the soil is, that Dr. Fraas having had a number of mulberry trees transplanted, the .«tems of which were generally more than a loot in diameter, they all, wiihoul a single exception, continued to grow. Tlie year after their Iransplaniation the heads were a little (iut, and in a llwv months afterwards, they lonned new ones, which exceeded the old ones in strength, size, and thickness. The Atlieiililtl nursery is situated in the forest of olive trees nieniioned at the beginning of this paper, at about half a league from Athens, on the road which leads from that city to Eleusis. On the other side of the road, the military com- mander has had the sod prepared, where the olives are planted regularly, and cultivated lor the advantage of the Bavarian aarrison ; pea-j, kid- ney-beans, cabbages, turnips, &c., are raised here very successfully; This place, as vveli as the king's garden, can be easily watered by a conduit, which proceeds li-om the ciiy. Watering is very necessary, and it isi not surprising to see an almost, total want of vegetation in so warm a climate; at Athens particularly, since this rivulet, if I may so call it, is the only one which supplies water du- ring thd whole year. We read in ancient history, and see in many modern maps, several rivers marked near Athens. In the time of Alexander the Great, as we are told in history, a small part of his cavalry was sullicient to exhaust the water of the Cephisus; at present its bed is very percep- tible, but 1 never saw a drop of water in it. fn the neighborhood of tlie cily several other dried up beds of rivers are also pointed out. The resident plenipotentiary of Austria, J\I. le Chevalier Prokesh von Osien, his also lornicd a garden in the Knglish style. He planted chest- nut trees, catalpa syring(ef>lia, acacias of dillt;r- ent sorts, some of which have grown, but many have perished. Prince Puckler JMuskau, who ar- ranged the plan of this garden, advised him to plant at first en 77iassc, all the trees ttiat would grow rapidly during the rainy season, to procure, at least, some shelter lor trees of a belter (piality. He did so, and, as far as I could observe, he will de- rive advantage lioni it. The poplargrows with as- tonishing rapidity, notwithstanding the great drought. Pinus pinca and P. maritima, which grow every where on these shores, would also be ornauienle to these gardens, as their forms are agreeable ; and the other species of cnnifera, cul- tivated in our plantations, do not thrive so well here as these two species. An Italian landed proprietor has also formed a garden in the neighborhood of Athens. I ob- served with pleasure the rapid growth of a great number of liuit trees, chiefly apple and pear trees, which he had planted ; many of them were loud- VoL. VH— 29 ed with fruit. It is also worthy of remark, that dale stones, sown in the open air, have come up and grown admirably, in this gentleman's garden, as well as in the king's garden. Before my departure, M. J^ang of Darmstadt, a very able architect, was commissioned to make a plan of a private garden, which was to be form- ed near the new royal palace, the building of which was proceeding rapidly. A public garden, in the Eiigli-^h taste, was to be joined to the former, to' surround it, and be a place of resort lor the popu- lation of Athens. The hew palace will be magnificent and very large. The beautiful marble of Pentelicus is al- most the only nuilerial used in its construction. M. Lang decided immediately on the Italiari style for the king's private flower-garden, marking on the plan the place funica(e to you, at the same time, some particulars . C. take fileasure in laying before their agricultural friends, an accurate statement of the product of this new grown crop. The estimate is made on the measurement of seven acres of land 'he hist year, although the season was un- liivuriihle (or corn. From the seven acres ihey secured 24,488 lbs. of broom brush, cut with six and seven inches stalk, with seed on. Alter taking the seed off, the net brush weigh- ed, - - - - 5,549 lbs. The seed measured from I he same, 473| bush, and weighed 40 lbs. per hush, making 18,939 do. Jiecapitulation. Net weight of the brush from 7 acres, 5,549 lb?. Net weight of seed from the 7 acres, 18,939 do. Making the gross weight grown, 24,4S8 do. Value of crop as fallows : 5.549 lbs. of net brush, at 5 cents per lb. or .^100 per ton, - - - $277 45 473i^ bushels clean seed, at 50 cents per bushel, - - - 236 75 $514 20 Amount of crop grown per acre on seven acres, - - - $7^ 45^ It would be well here to state, in Ihe year 1835, with a more favorable season, the same seven acres of land was planted in Indian corn, and pro- duced 57| bbls. and sold at $4 50 per bhl. ,$231 75 Making the difference in favor of broom-corn, on seven acres. - $272 45 * The drag;-log was fully described, and its peculiar advantai^es stated at page 7.51, vol. ii, and 616, iii. Far. Rec:.— Ed. 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER 220 The Indian corn-crop per acre, was ahoiit $33 lOf. Makint; 'he difference in (hvor ol broom-corn i^'-lO 35. For plantinnf, our own experience has tautrhi us lo lay the land oH three Jeet each way, so as to avoid hoe-labor. This dislance will £rive 4800 hills per acre. On ihe above described land we wouM leave from 10 to 15 stalks in the hill. The preference is given to the finest brush. Half a gallon of seed will plant an acre carelulij- dropped. Any funher information can be had, by appli- cation at the factory. The propretors of the Georgetown broom factory have, with great care, selected their earliest and best seed lor planting, and offer it to the farmers at a moderate price. For securing the harvest, wdl be hereafter noticed. George T. Mason & Co. From tlje Second Report of tlie Agriculture of Massachusetts. DAIRY HUSBANDRY. I proceed to speak now of another of the great interests of the agriculture of Berkshire — the dairy. The dairy business has always been a great bu- siness. For a time it gave way to the raising of fjne wool, when the prices of that staple were high. Since the abatement of the demand for wool, with that caprice for which mankind always have been, and there is reason to think always will be remarkable, many farmers have sacrificed their flocks; and are now givinff their exclusive attention to the dairy husbandry. These chanjies, in matters so imi)ortant as the dairy or the sheep husbandry involving, as they do, a considerable investment of capital, and many expensive fix- tures, cannot be suddenly or frequently made with- out risk of serious loss and disadvantarre. The county of Berkshire is admirably adapted to the dairy husbandry. Grass is every where abundant. The soil is suited to the cultivation of esculent vegetables in the highest perfection. Se- veral increasing manufacturing villages, with their swarming population, require supplies from the farms in the vicinity. Besides this, the great mart of the country, the city of New York, is easily accessible. Most of the farmers in Berkshire can reach Hudson with their produce, by a journey of four to eight hours, and put on board the boats at four o'clock P. M., it is in New York by an early hour the next morning. The ftirmer usually al- lows two cents a pound commission lor the freight and sale of his butter; and, upon other produce, it is equally reasonable. He does not return from the river empty ; but carries home a load of plas- ter, or of articles of necessity lor his family. The great roads to the river, alter the hills are sur- mounted, are among the best in the whole coun- try. The rail-road, already open from Hudson to WeslStockbridge, will afford to manv of the farm- ers all the ficililies they can desire Ibr reaching the Hudson river. Produce and expenses. 1. Egrevinnt.—\ will, in this place, state, as an example, the operation of a farmer who resided about twenty-five miles from Hudson. The great objector his attention was the making of butter, which was sold every week in the New York market. From 18 cows he sold 2400 lbs. butter, at 23 els. net. With these cows he fed 17 spring pigs until October, whose average weight Avas 177 lbs. each; half of this pork, say 88 lbs., was to be credited to the cow. He is of opinion, that when pork is 810 per 100 lbs., a cow will give at least ^8 worth of pork per year. Cow, Cr. 133 lbs. butter, at 23 cts., (comm. paid,) 830 59 Pork, - - S 00 838 59 Cow, Dr. Wintering, .... 812 00 Pasturing, - - - - 5 00 Salt, 25 Interest on 825, 10 per cent, risks included, - - - - 2 50 819 75 Profits of a cow, - - - 818 84 It is understood, that no extra ^ee<\ is, in this case, given to the cow ; and the butter and milk used in the family, it is supposed, will fully pay for the attendance. This is a fair profit : but it is, as I think, we shall presently see, much less than it should be. No animal is better entitled to good keeping than a cow ; because none makes a more liberal return for all the extra kindness and feed and attention bestowed on her. In another dairy, nine cows made 1550 lbs, of butter, and 300 lbs. of cheese. Another dairy of twenty cows produced, of butter, 500 lbs. ; of new milk cheese, 4000 lbs. In this town, two acres ol land are deemed suf- ficient for pasturinir a cow or fatting a steer. Twenty head of cattle, made up of cows and three year old steers, were fatted upon thirty acres of land. The subject of dairy-produce is of such impor- tance, that I shall give various returns and calcu- lations. I omit names ; I should be glad to give them, and in a majority of cases it might nof be disapproved ; but a fear of giving ofience, or of being thought to take an improper liberty, or of interrupting that freedom of communication, which I wish should subsist between myself and the fjrmers, and which seems indispensable to the success of the survey, induces me to withhold them, save where permission has been explicitly granted, or the nature of the case renders it ob- viously proper. The statements, which 1 give, rest upon undoubted authority. 2. In Otii,. — Twenty cows gave 5000 lbs, new milk cheese, for sale ; each averaging also 25 lbs, of butler ; 600 lbs. of cheese were also used in the family. Cow, Cr, 280 lbs. cheese, at 8 cts., - - - 822 40 25 lbs. butter, at 20 els., - - - 5 00 Calf. 4 00 Pork, 26 lbs. atO cts., - - - - I 56 832 96 Cow, Dr. Wintering, - . - - 812 00 Pasturing, . - - - 5 00 Interest on cost of cow 81-5- -10 per cent., - - - - 81 50 Labor and attendance. - 2 16 Balance in favor of cow, 820 6& 812 24 230 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 4 3. Lanesboro\ — Sales from 12 cows: cheese at 12 cts. ; butter at 25 cts. ; gi-o?s amount, igGOO. No account in this case is made ol' supplies in the fiiimily. 4. Sandisfield. — The averafje yield of a cow in ordinary seasons is rated at 250 lbs. with common keeping. By extra keepinjr, the quantity is in- creased to 350 or 400 lbs. The quantity of butter in addition, to each cow is supposed to be from 40 to 50 lbs., where new milk cheese is made. The amount of cheese made in Sandisfield, in 1837, was estimated by a most competent authori- ty, at 300,000 lbs. Another farmer, with a dairy of 15 cows, stales the averajje product of a cow, if she raises her calf, at 250 lbs. ; if otherwise, 300 lbs. ; and 25 lbs. butter also, from each cow. Four hogs may be kept to 20 cows. In this way, weighing 100 lbs. in the spring, they will weigh 300 lbs. in the fall. 140 lbs. of pork is to be credited to 5 cows. The cost of vvintering a cow here, is rated at ^10 ; pasturage, .^4. A good dairy woman will take charge ol'thirty cows, with assistance in milk- ing and in handling cheese, iler wages will be ^1 50 per week, with board. 5. In Tyringham, the average yield of a cow is reckoned at new milk cheese, 283 lbs., and but- ter at the same time, 57 lbs. A dairy of 28 cows gave 7912 lbs. new milk cheese, and 1600 lbs. butter. A large amount of pork was fatted on this farm ; but it is difficult to say what portion of it is to be credited to the dairy. 6. In Sheffield, the average product of 28 cows was 394 lbs. new milk cheese, and 50 lbs. of but- ter each. The product of a cow is thus stated by this ex- cellent manager : Cow, Cr. 400 lbs. new milk cheese, at 8 cts., - ^32 00 Calf, (killed at three days old,) - - 1 00 50 lbs. butter, at 16|., - - - - 8 33 Whey and butler-milk, make one hun- dred lbs. pork, ----- 8 00 $49 33 Supra, Dr. Winter keeping, - - - - - 12 00 One acre of land costing .^50 will pasture the cow, - - - - - - 3 50 Salt 25 cts., 3 bs. bran 83, - - - 3 25 Int. on the value of cow at $25, 10 per ct. 2 50 Labor of milking, making butter, chee.«e, &c., - 4 00 $25 25 Balance in favor of the cow, - - $24 08 The quantity of land estimated lur | '.isturage in this case seems small. It must he small for a ge- neral rule; another fiirmer in the same town as- sured me that he ki'jit one yoke of oxen all the season, and one horse half the season, on two and a half acres of land, which he showed me. The land had been greatly benefited by plaster. 7. In New Marlboro', the yield of a cow is es- timated at 300 lbs. new milk cheese; 4 hogs are kept to 20 cows ; 2 tons of hay are deemed requi- site for a cow; value of hay sold $10 ; but if the fiirmer can realize $6 per ton for it used on the place, he deems it better than to sell it. Eicrht to ten acres of land here, with the use of plaster, ia deemed sulficient for the pasturage of lour cows. 8. In Great Barringlon. 9 cows produced 1900 lbs. new milk cheese and 800 lbs. butter. In another case from 8 cows were sold of butter 200 lbs., of new milk cheese 1225 lbs. In anothercase 5 cows through the sear^on, and an additional cow half the season, from 1st. June to 10th Nov., pro- duced 651 lbs. butter; and 200 lbs. new milk cheese. In this case the weekly returns were given. The same farmer says, that his cows will average one pound of butter per day through the season. He states his cow account thus : Cow, Cr. 200 lbs. butter at 20 cts., - $40 00 Calf raised, . - . 2 00 Butter-milk, and skim milk for pork, equal to all the care, $42 00 Supra, Dr. Wintering, 2 tons of hay, - $16 00 Pasturing, 25 cts. per week, 26 weeks, - - . - 6 50 Inf. on cost of cow $20 at 10 per cent. - - - - 2 00 $24 50 Profits of a cow, - - - $17 00 9. In j^lford, the actual yield of a cow was as follows : Butter, 240 lbs. sold. Cheese 100 lbs. do., besides using what milk and butter were required by two persons. She had her own skimmed milk, but no meal or grain. She consumed, as ascertained, two tons of hay; and her pasturage was 25 cts. per week. 10. In TVest Stockbridge the report given is 300 lbs. new milk cheese to a cow; $40 are often ob- tained from a cow ; $30 are deemed an average yield. 11. In Stockbridge, the proceeds of a dairy of twenty cows are thus given : 20 cows. 4000 lbs. new milk cheese sold at 9.^ cts., - - - $380 00 1000 lbs. skim milk cheese sold at 6 cts., - - - - 60 00 600 lbs. butter, sold at 9^ cts., 150 00 $590 00 This gives $29 50 ct3. to a cow. No account is made in this case of the supplies of the family, nor of the amount of pork latted, both which items would greatly have increased the result. 12. In Lenox, the return of a dairy of 15 cows, was of new milk cheese 1200 lbs. ; of butler 1800 lbs. The return of another dairy is as Ibllows: 10 cows produced of butter 1120 lbs. 8 oz., sold at IS cts., - - - $201 69 " " cheese, 800 lbs. sold at 9 els., - - - - 72 00 $273 69 13. Tolland. —From a highly inlelliixent liir- mer in a town adjoininir the county, Tolland in Hampshire co., I received so par'icular an ac- count of a dairy, that I shall here insert it though it might be thought to come more properly under the report of another county. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 231 15 cows produced 4500 lbs. cheese, sold ar 9 cts. per !b and at 19i els. 509 lbs, butter sold 8405 00 99 25 S504 25 Fifteen cows will nearly fatten 4 hogs, weigh- ing in the spring 20 lbs. each; in the fall, 240 fbs. each. In this case it is deemed proper to credit the milk wiih 140 lbs. weight of each of those swine ; 140 lbs. + 4 are equal to 560 lbs. pork at 8 cts. = 844 80— this divided by 15 gives to each cow a credit of $2 98| els.— Butter and cheese 504 25, add pork 44 80—549 05. The proceeds of each cow is S36 60.i— add^calf and rennet gl 00, 837 60^, 837 60^ Expenses. Wintering a cow, usual charge, Pasturing do, 86 50, salt 50 cts., Interest on the value of a cow 823 at 10 per ct. - One woman will manage the milk of 30 cows. Her wages 81 50 per week, 28 weeks, her board 81 F>er week Wages and board for a dairy of 30 cows would be 870, or 82 33 each. Additional help in milking and turning cheese 67 cts., - - - . ° 89 00 7 00 2 30 33 67 821 30 Profils of a cow, - - - 815 30^ No account in this case was taken of the butter and milk used in the family ; but supposed to be not less than 150 lbs. of butter. 14. Cheshire is devoted almost exclusively lo the dairy husbandry; and has been celebrated for the excellence and abundance of its produce. For the goodness of their cheese, however, I must rely upon authority. Its appearance in some of the dairies, which I examined, bespoke careful, neat, and skilful management. A farmer with 25 cows, states their averao-e yield at 300 lbs. cheese, and 20 lbs. butter to^a cow. He says likewise that 1500 lbs. pork are to be credited to his cows. The average cost or value of his cows is 830 each; wintering 814; pasturing 26 weeks, 86 25; he raises some calves upon whey. It requires the whey of two or three cows to raise a calf. His hogs at 18 mos. average 350 lbs. ; they run in a pasture and have the refuse of the dairy until about six weeks before it is intended to kill them, when they are shut up and fed with corn and meal. A shrewed farmer observes, that, where svvine in this way run in a pasture, it should be laid down as a rule, to have their trouffh always wet or always dry. This means that tliey should have as much whey as they are disposed to eat; or, by being kept wholly without any, they should irom necessity get their living in the pasture. ■Ihey require quietness of mind and freedom from restless desires in order to thrift; and they are like other epicureans whom variety and abun- dance render fastidious. The dairy of another farmer consists of 20 cows. The year before last ihey yielded 400 lbs. new milk cheese ; the last year 400 lbs. each, be- sides an ample supply of butter lor the family. He calculates upon the proportion of one hog to lour cows; with the above cows he made 1200 lbs. of pork, 600 lbs, of which he credits to the cows ; he deems three acres necessary for the pas- turage of a cow. His cows during the spring, have an allowance of rye meal and whey. In another case the produce of 23 cows was 12,000 lbs. new milk cheese, and 500 lbs. butten Another case from 11 cows including 4 three- year-old heifers, there were sold and used 3475 lbs. new milk cheese, and 403 lbs. butter. Three hogs were likewise fatted; and it was considered that 400 lbs. pork were to be credited to the cows. Two tons of hay were required for the wintering of a cow, valued at 88 per ton ; or she might be kept for hire at 50 cts. per week. In another case 30 cows mads 14,000 lbs. new milk cheese; and 500 lbs. butter. In this case some calves were raised ; but most of them were killed at four days old. Throughout the county of Berkshire this mode of dealing with the calves is termed "deaconing" them. What is the par- ticular propriety of this provincialism, 1 am una- ble to determine ; and whether it had its origin in any superstition among the aborigines or the first sellers of the county, I shall leave to the anti- quarians to accertain. It is a peculiarity, and pre- vails no where else. The practice, with this farmer, is to give boiled corn in the ear to his cows ; perhaps a dozen ears to a cow per day. When it is conveniently had, he gives a mess of rye meal to each cow, at the rate of two quarts per day, lor three weeks in the spring. He is anxious to let his cows go to the grass as soon as the ground is bare. He thinks cows are liable to sufJer from excessive feeding in the barn. The wintering of a cow requires 1^ ton of hay, 814 Oa Pasturing, 20 cents per week for 26 weeks,'" 5 20 In 40 days of the best of the season on this farm 30 cows produced 4000 lbs. butter. The land required for the pasturage of a cow is con- sidered to be three acres. From thirty cows, an average of 425 lbs. of cheese has been produced to each cow, and ten lbs. of butter; or 300 the whole. On one farm, where 18 cows were kept, 11,385 lbs. new milk cheese were made in a season, which gives the extraordinary average of 632^ lbs. to a cow. 200 lbs. of butter were made the same season from the same cows. One of these cows produced 1000 lbs. new milk cheese. During the first part of the season, for two months, two quarts of rye-meal were given to each cow. Half of this quantity of meal was given them for one month during the last of the season ; and the greater part of the time they had their whey. 100 lbs. pork were made on the farm ; and half of this was credited to the cows. The same individual, when on another farm in South Adams, with twenty-one cows, made 626 lbs. new milk cheese lo a cow, in a season. 1700 lbs. of pork were raised in connexion with the dairy. Half the pork was considered due to the cows. S32 FARxMERS' kEGJlSTER [No. 4 The process of making cheese began the 25lh April, and ended the 1st December. As soon ^s the cows calved, tlie cows received three quarts of meal per day each — |)rincipally rye, with some Indian; and each iiad some wliey, though not haWwhat was yielded was given to them. Three or four of the cows received meal all ihe summer. He commenced feeding again with meal on the 25th July, and continued to give them two quarts of meal until the 25ih of August. On the 25\h of August, lie began leeding the cows with corn- stalks until lOlh September. Then the cows had the alter feed of the fields; and Irom the 1st Oc- tober, these cows had half a load of pumpkins per day. In November, fed every cow fully with meal ; two and three quarts per day until 1st De- cember. After that, the cows had nothing but hay until spring. From the same cows^ at the same time, butter enougli was made, and milk enough used, for a liimily of six persons. The cheese sold in New York for $!lO per 100 lbs. These products are certainly remarkable, and show what may be done by attention, skill, and good treatment of the animals under our care. The pasturage in Cheshire is of an excellent de- scription. The soil is generally of a rich gravel- ly loam resting upon lime-slone, and abounding in vegetable mould. It is likewise sensitive to the application of plaster, which is very commonly used. From the Genesee Fanner. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE NEW VORK AGRICULTURAL SOSCIETV ON ROOT CULTURE. The committee appointed at the last meeting of the Society, to "report on the best vegetable or root crops lor feeding cattle, and the best means of cul- tivating the same," report as follows: — The culture of roots, as farm-crops, for feeding and lattening domestic animals, is of such recent introduction, and so limited, among us, and the lew experiments that have been made, to ascertain the relative value of these roots, have been so loosely managed, that the committee do not pos- sess the data that they could desire, to make a sa- tisfactory report, adapted exactly to our practice. But they are nevertheless satisfied, from the nu- merous experiments vvhicli have been made in Europe, in a climate very similar to our own, and from the partial ones which have been made among us, that the culture of roots is destined to effect here, what it has ellected elsewhere, a great and salutary change in husbandry, not only as furnishing the easiest and cheapest means of feed- ing and fattening domestic anima's, but as an im- portant source of lertility to Ihe firm, and of se- curing the main point — ultimate profir, to the own- er or cultivator. Under these strong impressions of the advan- tages of encouraging and extending root-culture, your committee proceed, with the limited means at their command, to fullil the duties assigned to them by the society. The Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland, have recently awarded liberal premiums Ibr ex- periments ill fattening neat cattle ; JirsI, upon different kinds of roots, as the potato, turnip, and mangel wurizel; second, upon raw and cooked food ; and third, upon roots entirely, and a mix- ture of roots, grain, pulse and oil-cake. These ex- |)eriments have been made with a view of accu- rately ascertaining the comparative value of each kind of root and other food, and the economy of each mode of leeding it. 'J'he experiments have been numerous. They have been upon ten to thirty head of cattle at a time ; and they have been Continued i'tom three to six months. The animals were weighed or measured at the time of starting the experiment, at the close of i., and generally at intermediate periods, particularly when the food was varied; and the quantity of roots and other food given was accurately noted — so that the result has indicated the relative value of each kind of food in the fattening process, and the best mode of feeding it. The com'mitfefe pro- ceed to state, in a summery way, the results of some of these experiments. 1. 77(e relative value of different roots. Mr. Howden, with a view to ihe experiment^ set apart the product of two acres of mangel wurizel, amounting tofit^y tons; five acres of Swe- dish turnips, being 140 tons ; and two acres of po- tatoes, weighing 29 tons 4 cwt. Tiie experiment was made with 21 head of cattle, which received, in addition to the roots, a few distillers' grains and a little straw. The following table shows the roots appropriated to each lot, and the monthly in- crease of the animals in girth. 'I'he abstract is made from the prize essays of the society, which cannot now be referred to; but the impression is, that in all the experiments which we quote, the roots led to each lot were precisely the same in weight. Lot No. 1 was fed from the product of one acre of potatoes, one acre of mangel wurt- zel, and one acre of Swedish turnips ; No. 2 frnm one acre of potatoes and two acres of Swedish turnips ; and No. 3 from one acre of mangel wurtzel and two acres of" Swedish turnips. Date. Lot No. 1. Lot No. 2. 35 It. 9 hiclics Lot No. 3. 1831, Ni)V. 30, 35 ft. 8 inches 35 11. 8 inches Dec. 30, 36 " 6 " 36 " 7 " 36 " 6 " 1832, Jan. 30, 38 " 2 " 38 " 4 " 38 " -2 « Murcli 1, 39 " 7 " 39 " 8 » .39 "6 « " 30, 40 " 8 « 40 « 10 " 40 " 6 " April 30. 41 " 4 « 41 " 7 " 41 " 3 " Twenty-eight tons of mangel wurizel and Swedish turnips were withdrawn to feed othef stock. On the 30ih January I\Ir. Howden look a pair of cattle out of each lot, and led No. 1 with po- tatoes and water, No. 2 with Swedish turnips, and No. 3 with mangel wurtzel. The following shows their relative increase in three months. 1832, Jail. 30, April 30, Lot 1. Potatoes. 10 ft. Siiichei 11 '^ 6 " Lot a. .Swed. turnips. 10 It. 5 inclici 11 " 3 " Lot 3. Man. wurtzel. to It. 4 iiiclics U " 2 " When the cattle were sold, the purchasers agreed that the lot fed on Swedish turnips were from 7.-!. to 10s. (_S 1.54 to ^2.22) a head better than the other lots. The average advance upon the original value of each, was £6.12, and the cost of the grains being deducted, there remamed £120 (!tr!532.80) in return Ibr the eight acres af produce consumed, or .f 66.60 for each acre. From the above statement it would seem there i.s no great difference in the fattening piopcriies ol' the three kinds of roots ; and thai solar as 1839] FARMERS' REGSITER. 233 measure or weight is concerned, it matters little which were employed in feeding. We will note here for future reference, the product per acre, ot each kind of roots, upon Mr. Howden's ground, adding the product in bushels of 56 lbs. The potatoes gave 12 tons 4 cwt. equal to 288 bushels. The mangel wurtzel 25 tons equal to 1000 bushels. The ruta baga 28 tons, equal to 1,120 bushels. 2. The comparative economy of feeding raw or prepared food. In 1833 the society offered a premium of 30 sovereigns for the best report, founded on actual experiment made for that purpose, on a number of oxen or heifers, not fewer than six, the animals to be of the same breed, age and sex, and the term of feeding not less than three months. Several reports were received and published in 1834. From these we abstract the following : Mr. Walker made his experiment with six two year heifers, and four two year old steers. Each parcel was divided into two lots, and fed on like food, except that one half received their food raw, and the other half in a steamed or cooked state. The food consisted of Swedish turnips, potatoes and crushed beans, with a little salt and straw. At the end of three months, it was found that the three heifers fed on steamed food had gained 48| stone, or 679 lbs., and the three heifers fed upon raw food had gained 45^ stone ; but the quantity consumed by the first lot exceeded that of the lat- ter. Cost of feeding on steamed food, £ 14 1 3 " on raw food, - - 10 8 7^ The first coet more than the last, 3 14 8^ Deducting ihe first cost, and the price of fatten- ing from the price paid by the butcher, there re- mained a profit on the three heifers led with steamed food, of 9s ; while the profit on the three fattened with raw Ibod, amounted to £3 10s Qd. By a like estimate, the loss on the steers fed with steamed food was 3s 8d. and the profit on those fed with raw food 10s. Qd, Andrew Howden made a like experiment with 18 cattle in six lots. Their increase and expense of keeping for three months, from the 20lh March to the 20th of June, were as follows : lacr. in lbs. Expense. Three heifers on raw turnips, 392 £6 16 0 " on steamed turnips, 532 8 18 0 " on raw potatoes, 600 10 7 0 " on steamed potatoes, 572 10 7 0 Three steers on raw potatoes and corn, - - 722 9 4 0 " on boiled potatoes and corn, - - 689 9 5 0 John Baswell fed ten horned cattle. The ex- pense of keeping the five cattle on raw food was £32 2 1, wliile that of the cattle on prepared food was £34 5 10. On being slaughtered Ihe two lots appeared to be very similar, but the par- ticular weight is not mentioned- 3. Relative economy of feeding With turnips alone, or with turnips and other more expensive food. Robert Stevenson was the successful compe- titor for the society's premium. He took IS ox- Vol. VII-30 en ; their live weight was ascertained at the be- ginning, at the end, and at intermediate peri- ods of the experiment, which continued 119 days. The cattle were divided into three lots of six beasts each, and a correct account was kept of the weight of food consumed by each lot. Lot 1, was allowed linseed cake, bruised beans, and bruised oats, in addition to turnips, and during the last 24 days of the experiment, 20 lbs. of potatoes were given per day to each. Lot 2, received the same allowance except the linseed cake and half the potatoes. And lot 3, was fed upon turnips alone. The cost of the keep of each animal, during the 119 days, was as below : Total cost of feeding one beastoflotl, £5 2 7 do do do of lot 2, 3 17 0 do do do of lot 3, 1 18 7^ The improvement in live weight was as follows First lot increased in weight 108 stone. Second do do 101 " Third do do 49 " Abstracting the cost of feeding from the valut of the increased weight, (he loss and profit wouk stand as follows : Loss on feeding lot 1, - - £3 15 8^ Profit on feeding lot 2, - - 1 19 3^ Profit on feeding lot 3, - - 2 111 "Thus, when turnips alone were used, a pro- fit of twenty-two per cent was realized ; where beans and oats were used along with the turnip, the profit was diminished to eight and a half per cent ; but when still more expensive food was tried, that is, grain and linseed cake, along with turnips and potatoes, a loss was sustained of no less than 12 3— 16 per cent." Lot 1, were the largest oxen. They were fed each with 132 lbs. per day of Swedish turnips; lot 2, were fed each with 120 lbs. of the same per day ; and lot 3, being the smallest, received but 115 lbs. per day, and for twenty-four days, but ninety-two pounds. Lot 1, cost 4,484 pence for every lb. of increased live weight. Lot 2, '• 3.92 " «' « Lot 3, " 3.39 '< « « The turnips were estimated at four pence per cwt ; the potatoes at Is. 6d. per cwt. ; oats and beans at 3s. 6d. per bushel, and linseed cake at three-fourths of a [)enny per pound. "In conclusion "saj's Mr. Stevenson, "on this part of the subject, "we give it as our opinion, that whoever feeds cattle on turnips alone, will have no reason on the score of profit, to regret their not having employed more expensive aux- iliaries to hasten the Irittening process." It would seem pretty evident, from the forgo- ing experiments, that ruta baga and mangel wurtzel are the best root crops lor feeding cattle. The profit of cultivating and feeding these roots will be more manifest, if we compare their acre- able product with that of hay, potatoes, and the coarse grains which we feed lor fatteningaiiimals. To enable the comtuittee to make this comparison, they assume tiie following as the average products of crops, and aitai-h to each of these an estimate of their marketable value. Both the product and the prices will irreatly vary ; but those assumed are deemed sufllciciitly correct lor compariEOn. 2a4 F A il iVl E R S ' R E G I S T E H . [No. 4 An acre of grass, 2 tons at SIO ^20 00 do corn, 40 bush, at 75 els. 30 00 do oats, 30 do at 37| " 11 20 do buckwheat, 30 do at 50 " 15 00 do potatoes, 150 do at 25 " 37 50 do rutabaga, 600 do at 25 " 150 00 do man. wurt. GOO do at 25 '•' 150 00 Estimating the cost of the roots in labor, at twenty dollars an acre more than thai of the hay, oats and buckwheat, it still leaves a great disparity in the profits ; and considering the cost of culture equal to that of Indian corn, there is a manifest ad- vantage in the turnips and mangel wurtzel over the corn-crop, as a material for cattle food. Good beef cannot be made on hay alone, in winter; and those who do not feed roots, must resort to some more expensive ibod, as the meal of Indian corn, oats, buckwheat, &c. The turnips and man- gel wurtzel, on the contrary, with the aid of per- haps a little straw, will serve themselves to feed and fatten animals. In this matter the chairman can speak from ex- perience. He purchased lour oxen a little before Christmas, and kept till some time in April ; aller a short time, they ate each two bushels a day of ruta baga — they would eat very little else, though laid belbre them, not even linseed cake. They made good beef, and afiorded a handsome profit on the turnips consumed. If we now assume that an ox will require a quarter of a hundred of hay per diem to keep him in good condition, and tJial it will require an addition of fourquarts of corn-meal, or eight quarts of chrushed oats of buckwheat, per diem, to fat- ten him; and if we consider 112 pounds or two bushels of roots equivalent to a ration of hay and grain, ihen the several crops will leed an an- imal as below. One acre of grass, and half an acre ofcorn will feed _ - - - 160 days. One and a half acres of mangel wurtzel, or Swedish turnips, will feed - 450 days. One acre of grass, and one acre of oats or buckwheat, will feed - - 160 days. Two acres of Swedish turnips or man- gel wurtzel will feed - - 600 days. One acre of potatoes will feed - 75 days. One acre of Swedish turnips or mangel wurtzel will feed . . . 300 days. Making very liberal allowance for the difier- ence in the expense of raising these crops, and for any error the committee may have made in fixing the daily rations, or in the acreable pro- duce of each, they think that no doubt can lur a moment be entertained that the Swedish turnip and the mangel wurtzel are decidedly the best crops that can be raised for ftjeding and fattening cattle. The committee have no doubt that the sugar beet and the carrot ofltjr advantages nearly or quite equal to the roots above recommended. Their product and nutriment properties are very similar,, and the expense of culture is not very dis- similar. The sugar beet is probably richer in nutri- ment than the mangel wurtzel. though its product is ordinarily less. The carrot may require more labor in the culture ; but it is superior as Ibod, par- ticularly for horses. Arthur Young highly extols the carrot. Upon the product of three acres of this root, he assures us, he kept for more than five months, twenty Work horses, four bullocks, and six milch cows; nor did the animals, during that period, he adds, taste any other food, except a little hay. Our enter- prising lellow-citizcn, Col.Meacham, of Oswego, has gone largely into the culture of carrots, as cat- tle feed, as well as many of his neighbors; and Ihey speak highly of the profits of the culture. Some highly satislidctory experiments have al- so been made among us, on a limited scale, in cultivating and feeding the sugar beet. There seems to be little doubt, from the high state of perfection and of profit, which the business has arrived at in France and Germany, that the cul- ture of this beet will soon be extensively gone into in this country, for the purpose of making su- gar ; and if so, the residuum of the beet will form an important item in the material tor fattening cattle. There are other advantages resulting from root^ culture which should not be overlooked. It tends greatly to increase the quantity of manure on the farm, to meliorate the texture of the soil, and to furnish excellent alternating crops in convertable husbandry. In selecting for culture, the farmer should chose the roots that are best adapted to his soil. The turnips prefer a dry sandy soil ; the beet a clay loam. As to the best means of cultivating these crops, the committee summarily remark, that the pro- duct and profit will materially depend upon the following contingencies, viz: that the soil be dry ; that it be rich; that it be deeply worked ; that it be well pulverized ; and that the after-culture be well managed. The implements necessary to cultivate them advantageously, in addition to the plough and harrow, are the drill-barrow and culti- vator. The season for sowing the beet is li'ojn the lOlh to the 20!h JVlay ; of sowing the Swedish turnip, from the 10th to the 25th June. The drill or row-culture is decidedly the best. A detail of the whole process of culture would occupy too much space for this report, and is unnecessary, as these processes are already understood by many, and have been minutely described in the agricul- tural periodicals of the day. The cornniiltee will merely recommend in conclusion, that the roots bs always cut, previously to being led to cattle, for which machines may be procured, at a moderate charge, which will cut a bushel in one to three minutes. W cut, the roots are eaten entirely : if not cut, a portion is apt to be rejected and wasted. The chairman has received a communication from Col. Meacham, stating his mode of cultivat- ing carrots, the product, and manner of using the crop. He cultivates them in drills, from 20 to 24 inchesapart— he gets one thousand bushels an acre, at an expense of ^25 to §30 ; he kept six work horses on them from Nov. 1836 to June 1837, without grain, and they remained in good plight, and performed as well as he ever had horses to perform — and he thinks they are worth double as much for stock as ruta baga. Upon the subject of the carrot-culture, which is perhaps less understood among us than that of the beet and turnip, the commiitee will add, that this root thrives best in a sandy loam, light, moist, but not wet, and of great depth ; in which the plough, going to the beam, brings to the surface no- thing that is not fit for vegetation. The ground should be ploughed immediately preceding the sowing. In Sullblk, Eng., they sow 8 lbs. seed, r839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 235 broadcast, to the acre ; and the crop is from 400 to 500 busliels. To horses they are considered supe- rior to any other food. Two bushels ofcarrots and one of chafT is the per diem allowance to a horse ; or 7 bushels of carrots and one bushel of oats is the allowance for a week. They are also profita- bly led to all other farm-stock. They are raised in Suffolk without duno^, at an expense of 9(7. (16 cents) per bushel. The yield of the carrot is often 700 to iOOO bushels the acre. The crop is gathered by making a deep furrow near to the drill, when a man seizes, draws the top to the fur- row, and pulls them up with great lacilily. Another root, the parsnip, is deserving of no- lice, though its partial culture hitherto, will hardly entitle it to be classed among field crops, it is believed to be the most nutritious root of any that have been named j is as easy cultivated as the carrot or the beet ; and has this advantage over all the others, that its value is not irnpared by frost. From the preceding views, the committee do not hesitate to recommend the extention of root- C4ilture, as the most ready means of keeping up the fiirtili*^y of our farms, and of increasing the profits of their cultivation. J. Bvel, (Ji'ti. ALLKGED EFFECT OF SLAVERY OX THE AG- RICULTURE OF VIRGINIA. To the Editor of the Farmers' Resistor. Portsmouth, Va., ^pril 1, 1839. You have indeed, from all accounts, a vast and fine tract of country, from 60 to 80 miles broad along the whole Atlantic coast. This vast coun- try is now, in a good measure, a desert, or covered with forests — the land ruined by continual crop- ping, and now deserted. Good lands, as 1 am told, may now be obtained in this vicinity for ii-ora ^5 to ^8 an acre, in part covered with a young and luxuriant growth. We know the causes of tiiis destruction; and these same causes continuing, it seems not very probable that these lands will ever again be recovered, or rise in value until those causes are removed. It appears to me that the soil answers well to the description of the soil of Flanders, which is said to be, now, the garden of the world, though formerly it was very poor; and I am fully satisfied that the whole of eastern Virginia, with suitable management, by clearing and draining, may be- come, one day. not only the most healthy country, but the garden of all the Atlantic states. The lands in this vicinity, as fir as I have seen, ap- pear to be at least as fertile as any of those lands of JNlassachusetts, which now faring SlOO an acre. Larger crops by far, as [ am fiilly convinced, may be obtained from these lands, at fiir less ex- pense than are obtained on many of the best lands in JVlassachusetts. Your state contains, as I believe, 44,000,000 acres of land, and, I am satisfied, capable of sus- taining a population of fi-om 8 to 10,000,000. Your treasures of calcareous manures, for the renovation of these lands, are inexhaustible, and are profusely scattered over the whole country, far and wide. This is not the case in a very considerable portion of New England. But one great objection with many of our northern men to a permanent resi- dence in this country, is the state of slavery that here exista. For siavery in Virginia not only has a tendency to lower and degrade the wages of the free laborer, but to degrade also the profession. It is not thus in New England, but the reverse — idle- ness being deemed in that country a vice, and use- fiil labor honorable in all. This state contains about 500,000 slaves, which are probably valued by their owners, one with another, at S400 each, or ^200,000,000, for the whole. Now, can any one doubt but that if all these slaves were eman- cipated, that the lands of Virginia would rise •SS an acre, and this rise of ^5 an acre would be equivalent to the estimated value of all the slaves. 1 am persuaded, however, that the rise of lands would be far greater ; and that, were all the slaves emancipated at this day, the state of Virginia would experience a clear gain of more than !5;500,000,000 in the rise of their lands alone. Em- igration would then take place to a great extent fi'om the noxihem free states. The Yankees would then fiock hither, and hire up at advanced wages the freed slaves, and the whole of eastern Virginia would then become a perfect garden. The advan- tages of this part of V^irginia for the production, especially of all early vegetables and fruits lor the supply of the markets of the great cities of the northern and middle states, is ver}^ great, and un- rivalled; as these cities, by the aid of rail-roads, and steam navigation, will soon be brought within 24 hours of Norfolk ; yet the seasons are at Ports- mouth full a month in advance of some of these northern cities. The wheat of lower Virginia al- most alwa3's commands a higher price than that of the north, new flour being preferred by all. The fields of Virginia may be reaped and the pro- duce converted into flour, and this flour for sale at New York and Boston, even before the wheat fields of the north are read}- to harvest. Although the prices of provisions are generally at least as low in this part of Viginia, and the price of labor much lower than in New England, yet I am inclined to believe that this difference in regard to wages is rather nominal than real ; since the expenses of fare and of entertainment to the tra- veller are far greater on the main travelling routes of the south, so far I have seen, than they are in New England. I am persuaded that the people of Virginia will never be able to compete with their brethren of the less highly favored land of New England, either in agriculture, or manufac- tures, or commerce, until some great change, un- der providence, can be brought about in the politi- cal condition of their people, I have written to some of my northern friends, and aver that an experienced northern farmer might here make a great fortune suddenly in tlie cultivation of early productions for northern mar- kets, which there command a most extravagant price. Your horses and cattle are generally lean and poor; but this, I am confident, is owing not to < climate, but to want of shelter and bad keeping, want of attention and care. My horses, from Bal- timore, owing to good care of ray Yankees, are in the finest possible condition; so those of the Navy- yard here, although I am told some of those horses are now old. Very respectfully, William Kenrick. editorial re3iark.s. Ail of our northern readers, as well as some of those in the southern states, may be surprised that 236 FAHMEHS' REGISTER. [No. 4 *he foregoing condemnation of slavery should have been admitted to our pages. The former, proba- bly, suppose that southern men and slave-holders fear, and therefore object to, the expression of opin- ions contrary to their own on this subject ; and many in the south, in their violence against north- ern anti-slavery fanaticism, show themselves to be as bigoted and fanatical in opposition, and are dis- posed to regard any expression of such opinions as both insulting and designing injury to them- selves. But we are not of this class. Maintain- ing as we do, and as staunchly as any can do, the rights of slave-holders, both private and political — maintaining too, that the institution of personal slavery, under certain circumstances, (and which are in full operation in the greater part of the south- ern states,) is politic, and proper in itself— main- taining too, that the institution, in general, has been highly beneficial to the world, in increasing labor, wealth, civilization, and refinement, and even in spreading good morals and religion — still, we neither object to others considering these opin- ons as altogether erroneous, nor to their endeavor- ing, by argument and evidence, to sustain their op- posite opinions. Domestic or personal slavery, even upon our own view, like every other wide- spread and widely operating institution, has its evil as well as its good effects ; and in regarding it, perhaps we may allow too little weight to the for- mer, and too much to the latter— just as we deem that our northern correspondent errs in the oppo- site manner. But no matter how erroneous may be his views, and those of his countrymen in gen- eral, on this subject, it is always well for us to learn and know the opinions of intelligent and ob- serving strangers concerning what they may sup- pose to be both the good and the evil of our agri- cultural condition. Their correct views will do us good — the incorrect will certainly do us no harm. Mr. Kenrick is is a nursery- man of extensive business near Boston, and the author of several agricultural and horticultural works, (the 'Ameri- can Orchardist,' 'American Silk-Grower's Guide,' &c.) Until receiving the foregoing letter, the last correspondence which we had had with him oc- curred more than three years ago, when he wrote to ask our advice as to a then novel scheme of his, for establishing his nursery for the morus multicau- lis in lower Virginia, instead of on his own land, and under his own personal direction, in Massa- chusetts. His inducement, stated in his letter, was that he knew that the growth of the multi- caulis of one season in our climate, was equal to that of three, or perhaps more seasons in Massa- chusetts. We concurred in his views, urged his carrying them through, and gave such information as could be offered in aid of his plan. But we further urged on him to extend it to the establish- ment of silk-culture in Virginia, and gave such views for it, as have been often stated in the Far- mers' Register, as sufficient inducements to invite northern silk-culturists to settle here. As a strong- er inducement for an establishment, which we even then thought so desirable, both for public and pri- vate interests, in Virginia, we offered, in the same letter, to sell to him, or to a company formed for the purpose of making silk, a marled farm of 600 acres of land, and to vest the purchase money in the joint stock ol'the adventurers. We quote from memory, but believe with no material variation from the substance of the letters ; and the opin- ions then 80 expressed, and the investment which we were then (in advance of all other ad- venturers in Virginia) ready to make in silk-cul- ture, if some practical and experienced culturists loould undertake the management, may serve as strong proof, in addition to others of another kind recently adduced, that we have long and earnestly advocated the advantages of silk-culture in this region, and would have risked much of our pro- perty on the soundness of that opinion. It should be observed, that at that time no one anticipated the multicaulis speculation, and the enormous prices which have since been obtained — or counted on profits from so strange a circumstance. For our own part, we had not then theslighest expectation of ever selling a plant from the silk-farm then pro- posed to be established ; and Mr. Kenrick, in his scheme, probably counted on merely making the usual sales and profits of that branch of his gene- ral nursery business, to be increased in product and amount, however, by his availing of our more genial climate. To that operation he limited his following of our advice ; and though at the end of two years, he sold plants (as we have heard from other authority,) from a few acres of land near Richmond, for S 30,000, that enormous profit was a result beyond all previous calculations, and for which we claim no credit in having encouraged the scheme by our advice. As we failed in in- ducing the commencement of silk-culture as the main object, we cared nothing about the mulber- ry culture alone ; and did not then set out a single plant, nor until a year afterwards, when it was caused by accident, and not by design, or by cal- culations of profit. It was under these circumstances that Mr. Ken- rick became a cultivator to some extent in Vir- ginia, though still continuing a resident of Massa- chusetts; and we have thought that the statement, though a digression, might be interesting and useful, as exhibiting, in a strong light, the practi- cal proof of the superiority of our climate. For the adventurer has not only labored under all the 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 237 disadvantages of remote residence, but also under those caused by his prejudices against the facili- ties offered by our cheapest and best labor. Mr. Kenrick is altogether mistaken as to slave- ry being the cause of the admitted agricultural de- gradation of the fine region near Portsmouth and Norfolk, and, in a less degree, that of lower Vir- ginia generally. The holding of slaves doubtless in some manure helps to produce the general re- sult, just as the facilities ibr comfort, ease, and rich products of land and labor, so abundantly ofiered to our countrymen by other circumstances, all tend to lessen exertion, and to make us indolent and careless. This is but according to the nature of man ; and if there were not a slave in Virginia, there would still be so much more ease in acquir- ing the bare necessaries of life (and, on the sea- board, many of its luxuries also,) that our people would, in labor and frugality, still be fiir behind the crowded people of Massachusetts, who, on a rocky and barren soil, and under a rigorous climate, must both toil and save incessantly — or starve. It is be- cause necessity does not drive, that perhaps on no one farm in Virginiais there so much economy of means, and of expenditure, as is general in the north. But in other respects, there is as well plan- ned, and as skilfully executed agricultural practice, and ahoge\her far better farming, in Virginia, than in Massachusetts. It is true that good farming is rare here ; and so it is elsewhere. But it will surprise Mr. Kenrick to be informed that our best farming in lower and middle Virginia is always to be found in connection with, and absolutely de- pendent on, the most complete establishment and entire use of slave labor. We could name many farms in Virginia, of which the skilful and excel- lent cultivation, the system of improvement, and the general management, could not be deemed otherwise than admirable, even to a New Eng- lander the most intolerant of and prejudiced against slavery; and we may add, though not bearing on our proposition, that these are generally the places where the comforts of the slaves are best cared for, and their condition is better than that of ninety- nine-hundredths of the free laborers throughout all other parts of the world. It may be true, on each one of these our very best cultivated and best managed farms, that a Yankee might pick up a comfortable income, and means for maintenance, in the matters regularly and continually wasted, and totally lost. But it may also be said, that without the cultivation and returns being very good, and there being much profit actually made, so much waste and loss could not be afforded. Even with all our admitted fiiults of system, and of execution, we feel assured, fi'om such informa- tion as we have, that there are many farmers in Virginia who deserve to rank in their profession at least as high, if not higher, than the best in New England. Still, v;e yield the palm, and freely award the praise, to these our northern brethren, of greater economy in every thing, com- prehending better habits of labor, and of frugali- ty. But this latter difference, and superiority on their part, are owing to the difference ofother cir- cumstances— the greater pressure of necessity in the one case than the other, and not to the exis- tence or absence of slavery. Nor do we mean to under-rate these highly valuable elements of agri- cultural success. On the contrary, we have con- tinually admitted and applauded the superior me- rits of our northern countrymen in these respects, and recommended their example to be better fol- lowed liere. There are m.any circumstances which have con- curred to depress the agriculture of Virginia, which we will not here stop to rehearse; and there is no part of the state where agricultural skill and products are lower, compared to the great natural advantages of the lands, than in the region in which Mr. Kenrick is now cultivating, and to which lie more especially refers, in these respects. And if a number of his more industrious and fru- gal countrymen will come among us, and avail of the advantages which ours' so much neglect, we are confident that, eitlier with the benefit, (or in- cumbrance, if so considered,) of slaves, or with- out, that they can even now make far greater ag- ricultural profits than any where in New England. If the capabilities of an agricultural region are to be estimated by its loorst instead of its best practices, we might, perhaps, find even in Mas- sachusetts, subjects for condemnation as great as any in Virginia; and grounds on which to pro- nounce the northern people as deficient as any elsewhere, in system, m judgment, and even in their peculiar and acknowledged merits of provi- dent foresight and economy. We will quote, Ibr example, a passage copied fi'om the Survey of Berkshire by the Agricultural Commissioner of Massachusetts, which has just been published, and from which excellent report we shall copy sundry items of good husbandry, with much more gratification than we thus present defects for com- parison and illustration. "Yet with all this it must be admitted that the agriculture of the county in extent and productive- ness is far below what it should be. As well as I could learn, E 5- ^ '^V. t: ^ ca S ■| ?3 ft O r I o CO 55 o Si? B O4^C0UlOC00tt0 ife4.iO©0»000© O t-i OS h-" O : to 4^ 1^ CO o >;^ ODODOOCCtC ife.CCtOCO "^ ffi t^ 'T3 S! f-i ^S" fS^? Si. S! 1 '^ ^ ^2 3 =^J a- t-l«. ns p C7^ o^ < !" 13 "^ T) ^ o -^ &-5 O 17" p =; - - - ». 3 s; o o ai — „ „Cfq 5 S-. Si. s! 1= Et "^l ^^ B „ P CO n in 2 3-: to — cr cr _ H ^'^ rr. in"* ' ~" " g o _ P r„ p p — -• -. fo o- -* ^ — p _. p r^Zt^ >-'-..'♦—• "" r^ " 3-0 O i:J 3--■ s- 05 g cr CO g p ?■ "^ 3 S"® _to T> a 3 ^ i^l- P 3" K.1 S n> 5. -.--^-a Bf 3 n> fD •n P p CO ^T ,_^ Q o ^-> 3" CO ■ •3 ^. . fO '^ — CO 3^ ^ >-» 3 ^^ & "■3-0 n O 3- to _. N '-= 5 -S. ■^ .— p •< _^ (t> — o to_ rt, '" (D ro _2. S - O o o r: 5^S o-? ^ IE? ^ " "-t p ^ ?, ^''^ r> C 3- B f' jg a-crq P rt- p m CO fO J5. r^ CO •ut among the great advantages which is to result from the introduction of this improved and beautiful stock, is this : to give our farmers a knowledge of what can be done by skill, intelligence, care, selection, and perseverance in the art of breeding animals for any purpose ; in obviating defects of form, con- stitution, and habit; and in perpetuating and transmitting excellent and desirable properties. In the Ayrshire stock, and in the improved short- horns, the most shrewd and persevering efforts have been exerted, and the highest practical skill and philosophy have been taxed to carry this race to as great a degree of perfection as any thing of the kind can be ; and the success has been deci- sive and wonderful. Excepting in one instance, to which I shall hereafter reier at large, perhaps there cannot be Ibund in the whole of New Eng- land, a single instance of any enhghtened, de- termined, and systematic attempt to form a race of animals oi' particular and desirable properties. It is most important that this should be attempted in different parts of our country, with what are called our native stock, who have become, in va- rious ways, so crosse^-and mixed up, that there is in truth no particular race among them. A large portion of them are as ungainly, unthrifty, and unproductive as can well be represented or ima- gined. Yet there are among them so many ex- traordinary animals— extraordinary for their pro- duce in milk, butter and chetese — that a lew years of careful and intelligent selection from the ma- terials already to our hand, and a strict obser- vance of those philosophical principles of breedinsj which are well ascertained and understood, would undoubtedly give us a breed of animals, a stock or race of animals, greatly superior to that which now exists among us. This has been attempted in one instance by a highly intelligent breeder among us ; and he is now able to show three generations of animals of as extraordinary charac- ter for the creamy or butyraceous quality of their milk, as has ever been known ; two quarts ol what is called the strippings, the last part drawn off" of the milk of one of these cows, having re- peatedly produced one pound of butter ; and the cream, as it came from the pans, as 1 have seen myselfj becoming by churning converted into but- ter of the finest description in less than one mi- nute by the watch ; and this process repeated at pleasure. Let us now compare the amonnt of cheese made by the English dairies, with some in this county of which I have here siveii an account. An Ayrshire cow, it is said by the English au- thorities, will yield 257 lbs. butter per annum, or about 5 lb,?, per week, all the year round, besides raifeing the calf; or of new milk cheese, about 514 lbs. There returns are certainly large ; but they rest upon a calculation of the quantity of milk, which the cow is supposed to yield, rather than upon any account of an actual yield. None at least is given. This, therefore, is not so satisfac- tory as it would be, if it were a precisely ascer- tained result. One of the best authorities says, that in England, "a well-fed cow of a good breed will produce, upon an average, 180 lbs. of butter in the season. The common calculation is, in- deed, 150 lbs. ; but this is made upon mixed stock, which affords no certain data. In the Ep- ping district, whore there is an indiscriminate mix- ture of Devon, Suffolk, Leicester, Holderness, and Scotch, the calculation, in a well-managed dairy, amounts to 212 lbs. ; that is, 6 lbs. per week du- ring 26 weeks, and 4 lbs. per week, during 14 weeks. The average product of cheese in the best dairies, where the whole milk and cream are used, cannot be estimated at more than 4 cwt. — that is, 448 lbs. On deep grazing soils, that carry a heavy slock, a well-managed cow is reckoned to make from three hundred and sixty pounds to six hundred pounds. In Somersetshire, the average is 4^ cwt., or 540 lbs. ; in Essex not so hiirh, and in the midland counties something more than 3 cwt." It will be seen, in looking back upon the dairy returns in some parts of this county, that they are inferior to these, not frequently passing beyond 250 or 300 lbs. of new milk cheese. On the other hand, the returns of some of the dairies in Cheshire show an actual amount of annual pro- duce of more than 500 lbs. to a cow, and in some cases 627 and 632 lbs. It may be said, that this is owing to the fine pasturage which is to be (bund in Cheshire and its vicinity ; to the particular care which is taken of the cows; and the system of high leeding adopted. But it shows conclusively that the cows are capable of being brought to this productive yield ; and the feed and management are matters which can be adopted any where. REMARKABLE DAIRY PRODUCTS. A MASSA- CHUSETTS FARfllER. From the same. This farmer has now a dairy of 24 cows ; and they produce a cheese per day, weighing about 100 lbs. Supposing that it requires a gallon of milk to produce one pound of cheese, this would give 400 quarts of milk per day, or at the rale of 16| of a quart to a cow. These cows are all of native stock ; most of them raised by himself. JBis average product of new milk cheese to a cow in a season, is between 500 and 600 lbs. Last year the actual yield was 598 lbs. to a cow. Of his 24 cows last year, two were heilers of two years old, just come in. Four years since he was the owner of a cow, whose milk in the best season amounted by actual weight to 70 lbs. per day. During the time of her greatest yield, she was fed with four pails of cheese whey, and some rye meal. She was of native stock. This farmer has a heifer from her, which gives, as he supposes, 60 lbs. of milk per day. He gives an opinion, which, from his successful experience, certainly deserves attention ; that heilers which "come in" with their first calf at two years old, do better than when their coming in is delayed until three years old. Their milking properties are in this way im- proved. Probably he is right in this matter; but the general experience of the best farmers recom- mends that, if a heifer comes in at two years old, she should not be allowed to have another calf) under at least eighteen months from this time. The establishment of this farmer is substantial and independent. As far as the common comforts of lile are concerned, little more seems to be de- sired. Good air, good water, plenty of bread, plenty of fuel, plain and substantial clothing made 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 251 by the hands of his own famil)'-, and the product in a great measure of their own flocks and fields ; an estate which he can call his own with truth, because it has been purchased not by fraudulent speculation upon other people's earnings, but by the healthful toil of his own muscles and the sweat of his own brow ; luxuriant pastures filled with those beneficent animals, who are nourished by his kindness, and settle their bills in the most honorable manner every night and morning ; and a clean dairy room of ample dimensions and ex- emplary neatness, with its numerous shelves, load- ed with the richest produce, and speaking as well for the in-door as the out-door management ; these features combined in this picture, present one of those beautiful examples of rural independence, and the bountillil rewards, with which a kind pro- vidence is pleased to crown industry, frugality, and good management, with which I am happy to say the county of Berkshire is every where sprinkled over, even on its high mountain sum- mits, as well as on its fertile alluvions, and in its peaceful and secluded valleys. The independent proprietor of this establishment is now sixty-six years old. At the a. 4, l^oh J^II. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. Experiment with Maryland twin-corn - Essay on Vegetable Physiology, Chap. VII Ctiap. VIII On the improvement of land by lime. Culti- vation of corn Eastern Virginia Successful mode of keeping sweet potatoes - The countv of Fluvanna - - - - On the importance of calcareous soil for grape and mulberry culture - - - - OUa Podrida Alleged etfects of slavery on the agriculture of Virginia Comparison of the agricultural management and economy of Virginia and of New England Remarks on the character of Sir William Berkeley _ - Plan of a cocoonery and fixtures for the spin- ning of silk-worms The twin or okra cotton . - - - Loin distemper in hogs - - Conditions of the Farmers' Register JMonthly commercial report - - - - SELECTIONS. Irrigation of Lombardy . . . - Temperature of Italy ---.-- Importance of vine-culture in France - Sea-weed, (alga marina,) as manure - Editor of the 'Gardener's Magazine' - Proceedings of agricultural meeting in Massa- chusetts Law of Georgia for encouragement of silk- culture Page 201 202 206 209 210 211 218 222 226 235 235 238 246 252 253 255 255 193 196 196 198 199 200 202 A good cow and good butter Amount of bounty paid for silk in Massachu- setts Sugar-beet for milch cows . - - - Produce of a prize acre of corn in South Caro- lina Hay-racks ------- Poultry Cultivation of water-melons Memoranda for young silk-culturists Cultivation of madia saliva, as an oil-plant - Fish ponds in France - - - - ' Example of the hoarding system, subsfituted for the borrowing system of governments - Irrigation in Spain Management of the dairy' - - - - Feeding sheep Preparing wood-land for sowing grass-seeds - Advantages of highly calcareous soils for mul- berry trees and grape vines ... Horticulture in Greece Irish potatoes from slips .... Broom-corn crop Dairy husbandry Report on root-culture Gov. Berkeley's account of Virginia in 1671 - Cultivation of Brussels sprouts - - - Comparative cost of hay, roots, &c. for feed- ing stock ------- Tables of silk-worm rearing Dairy stock Remarkable dairy products. A Massachu- setts farmer Feeding and fatting swine. Apples as food - Price of morus multicauhs seed - - - Etfects of emancipation of slaves in Jamaica Carrots 2ia 211 211 211 212 212 213 213 213 214 214 215 218 22a 221 221 223 226 229 229 232 238 240 241 241 249 250 251 254 254 254 ERRATUM I— Page 237, line 9, for " manure " read " measure." THE FARMERS' REGISTE Vol. Vll. MAY 31, 1839. No. 6. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. STATEMENT OP THE COST AND PROFITS OF AN EXPERIMENT IN FEEDING HOGS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Philadelphia, Jpril 20th, 1839. When agricultural experiments are fairly and carefully made, and their results recorded, I think they have great value, (let the results be what they may,) Ibr which reason, I send you the fol- lowing account of the cost of buying, raising, and feeding a lot of hogs, and the value produced. I ■am encouraged so to do because I have every con- fidence that implicit reliance may be placed in the statements of my friend who furnished me with the account. It was not prepared Ibr publication, but was sent to me in the course of a familiar corres- pondence. 1 have lately mentioned to my friend my wish to send it to yon. He did not object, but as he did not specifically authorize me to attach his name to it, I must send it without. I will mention, however, that he is one of the most suc- cessful pupils of the late George H. Walker, and that he is doing much to improve his farm, which is in New Jersey. Peter Hulme. I herewith send you an account of expense and profits arising from ftjeding hogs, as taken from memoranda strictly kept. These porkers were ied with my own hands from beginning to end, and all their feed was measured and charged by m5'self; so that you may rest assured, upon my responsibility, that every thing is as correct as pos- sible. I am convinced that had T had a good breed, instead of one of the worst, I should have been the gainer by at least one-third. But as it has turned out, it is decidedly preferable for a farmer (removed from market,) to feed away all his grain than to sell it. As I fed my hogs a great deal on boiled food I went to the expense of purchasing wood, although I had sufficient on my farm, that no expense might be incurred without being justly charged. As I killed my hogs very earl}-, their weights are not heavy — another loss; as I now consider the longer a hog is fed, (if he is a good feeder,) the more profit. That is, when a hog becomes lazy whh fat and is inclined to spend all his time, ex- cept while eating, in lying about and sleeping, he puts on more tat than in the early sfase of feed- ing, when he uses a good deal of exercise. How- ever, as I mtend next year to feed my porkers till they become something worth looking at, and as I shall still keep an account with them, I shall be more fully prepared to speak positively on this question. The fact is, every fiirmer who wishes to try experiments in feeding, should have some means of weighing his cattle weekly, so that he might tell to a certainty whether he was makin' although deprived bles the finest dew ; it is of a sweet and pleasan taste, resemblinir much the taste of li-esh dates, but much more refined antl aromatic; this was hkewise confirmed by my interpreter, who had lived thirty-two years in Ei^ypt, and therelore, had opportunities enouirh. of tasting both the nec- tar of the blossoms and the fresh dates." This letter was written at a time when the sex- uality of the organs of plants was a matter of controversy among botanis's. Since then it has been settled by experiments of the most satis- factory nature, whic'i have been often repeated. Among these experiments there are none which are more satisfactory, oralibrd a better exam pie of what experiments on such a subject should be, than those ofLinnasus; and lor these reasons I shall give them in full, from Smith's translation o( 'Linna?us' Dissertation on the sexes of plants,' published as early as 1769. "In the month of January 1760, the autholyza cunonia flowered in a pot in my parlor, but pro- duced no fruit, the air of the room not being suffi- ciently agitated to waft the pollen to the stigma. One day about noon, seeing the stigma very moist, 1 plucked oil' one of the anthera^, by means of a small pair of forceps, and gently rubbed it on one of the expanded stigmata. The spike of flowers remained eight or ten days longer ; when I ob- served, on gathering the branch for my herbarium, that the fruit of that flower only on which the ex- periment had been made had swelled to the size of a bean. 1 then dissected this fruit, and disco- vered that one of the three cells contained seeds in considerable numbers, the other two being en- tirely withered. "In the month of April I sowed the seed of hemp (cannabis) in two different pots. The young plants came up so plentifully that each pot con- tained 30 or 40. I placed each by the light of a window, but in different and remote apartments. The hemp grew extremely well in both pots. In one of them, I permitted the male and female plants to remain together, to flower and bear fruit, which ripened in July; and being maceratcid in water, and committed to the earth, sprung up in twelve days. From the other, however, I re- moved all the male plant's as soon as they were old enough for me to distinguish them from the fe- males. The remaining females grew very well. and presented their long pistilla in great altun- dance, these flowers continuing a very long time, as if in expectation of their mates; while the plants in the other pot had already ripened their fruit, their pistilla having, quite in a different man- ner, faded as soon as the males had discharged all their pollen. It was certainly a beautiful and tru- Jy admirable spectacle, to see the unimpregnated females preserve their pistilla so long green and flourishing, not permitting them to begin to fade till they liad been lor a considerable time exposed in vain, to the male pollen. Afterwards, when these virgin plants beiran to decay through age, I examined all their calyces in the presence o{ seve- ral botanists, and found them large and flourish- ing, although every one of the seed-buds was brown, compressed, membranaceous, and dry; not , exhibiting any appearance of cotyledon or pulp. Hence i am perfectly convinced, that the circum- VoL. VII-34 f pollen brought by the v/iiid ll'om some distant place. No experiment can be m,ore ea.sily per- formed than the above ; none more satisliACtory in deninnslrating the sexuality of plants. "The clulia ienella was in like manner ke;)t growing in my window, through the months ot June and July. The male plant was in one pot, and the female in another. The latter abounded in fruit, not one of its flowers proving abortive. I removed the two pots into difl'erent windows ofthe same apartment; still all the female flowers con- tinued to become fruitful. At length I look away the male entirely, leaving the female alone, and cutting off all the flowers which it had already borne. Everyday new ones appeared from the axils of the leaves ; each remaining eight or ten days; after which, their li)ot-stalks turning yello^r, they liill barren to the ground. A botanical friend, who had amused himself with observing this phe- nomenon with me, persuaded me to bring from the stove" (or hot-house, as it is more commonly termed in this country) "in the garden, a single male flower, which he placed over one of the female ones, then in perfection, tying a piece of red silk round its pislillum, to mark it. The next day, the male gower was taken away, and this sin- gle seed-bud remained, and bore li'uit. Afterwards, I took another male flower out of the same stove, and with a pair of slender liirceps pinched off one of its ambers, which I alierwards gently scratched with a feather, so that a very small portion of its pollen was discharged upon one of the three stig- mata of a fe-male flower, the two oilier stiiimata being covered with paper. This fruit likewise at- tained its due size ; and on being cut transversely, exhibited one cell filled with large seed, and the other two empty. The rest of the flowers, being unimpregnated, fiided and fell off. This experi- ment may be performed with as little trouble as the former. "The datiscn cannabina (or false hemp) came upin my garden from seed, ten years ago, and has every year been plentifully increased by means of its perennial roots. Flowers in great numbers have been produced by it ; but being all li^males, they proved abortive. Being c'esirous of obtain- ing nuile plants, I procured more seed from Paris. Some more plants Avere raised; but these like- wise, to my great mortification, all proved Itjmales, and bore flowers, but no fruit. In the year 1757, I received another^ parcel of seed. Fro.n these I obtained a lew male plants, which flowered in 1758. These were planted at a great distance li'om the females : and when their flowers were just ready to emit their pollen, holding a paper un- der them, I gently shook the spike, or panicle, with my finger, till the paper was almost covered with the yellow powder. I carried tlii.s- to the fe- males, which were flowering ia another part of the garden, and placed it over them. A cold night soon afier destroyed these datiscus, with many other plants much earlier than usual. Neverthe- less, when I examined the flowers of those plants which I had sprinkled with the fcirtilizing powder, I found the seeds of their due magnitude, whilst in more remote datiscus, which had not been im- pregnated with pollen, no trace,*} of seeds were vi- sible. 266 F A R M E R S ' Jt E G I S T E R . ONo. 5 "Several species of momordica cultivated with j " I removed an urn, in which the asphodelus us, like other Indian vecretables, in close stoves, Ifisliilosus was grovvintr, to one corner oC the gar have frequently borne female flowers ; which, a though at first very vigorous, after a short time have constantly faded, and turned yellow, without perfecting any seed, till 1 instructed the gardener as soon as he observed a female flower, to gather a male one, and place it above the female. By this contrivance we are so certain of obtaining fruit, that we dare pledge ourselves to make any i'emale flower fertile that shall be fixed upon. " The jatroplui urens has flowered every year in my hot-house ; but the female flowers coming before the males, in a week's time dropped iheir petals, and fiided before the latter were opened; from this cause no fruit had been produced, but the gerraina themselves had fallen off. We have therefore never had any fruit of the jatropha till the year 1752, when the male flowers were in full vicor on a tall tree at the same time the female^ den, and from one of the flowers, v/liich had late- ly opened, I extracted its anthers ; this caused the impregnation to fail. Another day I treated ano- ther flower iri the same manner; but bringing a flower from a plant in a different |)art of the gar- den, with which I sprinkled the pistil of the muti- lated one, its germen became by this means fruit- ful. " Ixia chinensis, flowering in my stove, the windows of which were all shut, all its flowers proved abortive. 1 therefore, took some of its an- thers in a pair of pincers, and with them sprinkled the pistils of two flowers, and the next day one stigma only of a third flower ; the seed-buds of these flowers remained, grew to a large size, and bore seed; the fruit of the third however, contain- ed perfect seed in only one of its three cells. To relate more experiments would only be to iiatigue be'o-an to appear on a small jatropha which was the reader unnecessarily. Every flower bears growing in a garden pot. I placed this pot under the other tree, by which means the female flow- ers bore seed, which grew on being sown. I have frequently since, amused myself with taking the male flowers from one plant, and scattering them over the female flowers of another, and have al- ways found the seed of the latter impregnated in this way. " Two years ago, I placed a piece of paper un- der some of these male flowers, and afterwards folded up the pollen which had fallen upon it, pre- serving it so folded up, if 1 remember aright, four or six weeks, at the end of which time another branch of the same jatropha was in blossom. I then took the pollen which I had so long preserved in paper, and strewed it over three female flow- ers, the only ones at that lime expanded. These three females proved fruitful, while all the rest which grew in the same bunch fell oflT abortive. " The interior petals of the ornithos;alam can- odejtse," (commonly called Star of Bethlehem) "cohere so closely together, that they only just admit the air to the germen, and will scarcely per- mit the pollen of another flower to pass ; this flower produced every day new flowers and fruit, the fructification never failing, in any instance; 1 therefore, with the utmost care, extracted the anthers from one of these flowers with a hooked needle ; and as I expected, this single flower proved barren. This experiment was repeated about a week afterwards, with the same eflect. "I removed all the anthers out of a flower of the scarlet-horneti poppy, {chelidonium cornicula- tuin,j which was growing in a remote part of the garden, upon the first opening of its petals, and stripped ofl' all the rest of the flowers; another day I treated another flower of the same plant in a similar manner, but sprinkled the pistil of this with the pollen borrowed from another plant of the same species ; the result was, that whilst, the first flower produced no fruit, tlie second afforded very perfect seed. My design in this experiment was to prove, that the mere removal of the an- thers from a flower, is not of itself sufiicient to render the germ abortive. " Having tiie nicotiana frutlcaia growing in a garden pot and producing plenty of flowers and seed, I extracted the anthers fiom a newly ex- panded flower before they had burst, at the same time cutting away all the other flowers; this germ produced no fruit, nor did it even swell. witness to the truth of the doctrine i have endea- voured to inculcate." Adopting as true the doctrine of the sexuality of the stamens and pistils of plants, and of the production of the seed by their joint action — a doctrine which Linnasus has established by expe- riments as ingenious and satisfactery as those just detailed — we may notice in the habits of plants, and also in their structure and the position of their several parts, a remarkable adaptation to this end. In perfect flowers, the stamens or fertilizing or- gans are always situated immediately around the pistils, or fructifying organs; and arc generally of such a length as is most suitable for scattering the pollen on the stigma. In flowers which naturally stand in an erect position, the stamens are then longer, or at least of the same length as the pis- tils ; whilst in nodding flowers, as in those of spot- ted lily, {lilium canad^cnse,) the stamens are short- er than the pistils. As the pollen naturally de- scends by its own gravity, the relative length of these organs is evidently that which is best fitted lor throwing it upon the pistil. The anthers, or pollen cases, are possessed of a very considerable elastic spring, which, when they burst, serves to throw the pollen upon the stigma. Sometimes, in erect flowers, we find the stamens much shorter tiian the pistil. In such cases, we will generally notice some especial contrivance for throwing the- pollen upon the pistil, A very curious contri- vance of this kind is presented in the flowers of the laurel, or ivy as it is cemmonly called, (ral- mia.) In the sides of the cup-shaped corolla of that flower, there are a number of folds, which sur- round the anther in the unexpanded state of the flower, and retain it for some time afler the corolla has opened. In this position the filament is ne- cessarily bent, with its convex side turned out- wards, and thus is it retained until the action of the sun has sufliciently increased its elasticity to enable it to break loose, and snap its pollen upon the stigma. The stigma itself is covered with a gummy liquid, which enables it to retain the pol- len cast upon it. Where the stamens and pistils are in diflferent flowers upon the same plant, the staminate flow- ers are generally situated higher upon the stem, than the pistillate, as in the Indian corn (s^ect- viays) in which (as has been already remarked) the staminate flowers form the tassel, and (he pis- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 267 filiate onee the young ear. Where this is not the case, and also in dicBceous plants, the pollen is ge- nerally conveyed by the wind, or by insects, from one flower to the other. The pollen ol" the pines, moved by winds, may often be seen, rising like a cloud above the forests; the particles thus dis- seminated, fall upon the pistillate flowers, and fer- tilize the germ. A curious fact is stated by an Italian writer, viz: that in places about 40 miles distant, grew two palm trees, the one bearing staminate flowers, the other pistillate ones, and that neither ol' them bore fruit for many years; but in process of time they grew so tall as to tow- er above all the objects near them. The wind thus meeting with no obstruction, wafted the pol- !ent to the pistillate flowers, which to the aston- ishment of all, began to produce fruit. In such monoeceous vines as the cucumber (cucumis sa- tivus,) the pollen is conveyed from flower to flow- er by insects, especially honey-bees. The ob- ject of the bee is in the discovery of honey; and whilst searching for it, it unintentionally covers its body with pollen, which it conveys to the next flower it visits, and brushes ofl' as it acquired it, byrummaijing for honey; so that a part is almost unavoidably deposited upon the stiiima, and i'e- cundation is thus efl^ected. "Nor is this altogether so much a work of random, as it at first appears ; for it has been observed that even insects, which do not upon the whole confine themselves to one species of flower, will yet very often remain du- ring the whole day upon the species they hap- pened first to alight upon in the morning." The The agency of insects in transferring the pollen from one flower to another, should be borne in mind, in cultivating such plants as the cucumber. Where thej"- are raised in a hot-house or in any other position, where insects have not free access to them, the staminate flowers should always be taken ofl', and shaken over the pistillate ones. Many aquatic plants, which vegetate for the most part \vholly immersed in water, and often at a considerable depth, gradually begin to elevate theirstems as theseason of flowering advances. At length, they rear their heads above the surface of the water, open their flowers, and so continue un- til fecundation is effected ; after which they again sink down to the bottom, to ripen and sow their seed. The most remarkable example of tliis kind, is that of the valisneria spiralis, a plant which grows in the ponds and ditches of Italy. Loudon gives the following description of this curious plant. "The plant is af the class dicccia, produ- cing its fertile or pistillate flowers upon the extre- mity of a long and slender stalk twisted spirally like a cork-screw; which, uncoiling of its own ac- cord about the time of the opening of the blos- som, elevates the flowers to the surface of the wa- ter, and leav^es them to expand in the open air. The staminate flowers are produced in great abundance, upon short upright stalks, issuing from a different root, from which they detach themselves about the time of the expansion ol the pistillate blossoms, mounting up like air-bub- bles, and suddenly expanding when they reach 'he surface, where they float about in great nuai- bers among the pistillate flowers, and often cling to them in clusters, so as to cover them entirely ; thus bringing the stamens and pistils in immedi- ate.contact, and giving the anthers an opportunity of discharging their pollen immediately over the stigma. When this operation has been perform- ed, the now uncoiled stalk of the pistillate plant begins again to assume its original spiral form, and gradually sinks down, as it gradually rose, to ripen its fruit at the bottom of the water. In 1819, I gathered these stalks, in the canals near Padua, upwards of ten feet long." A knowledge of the true nature of the stamenis and pistils, and also of the parts which they act, in the production and pertection of the seed, will enable us to explain a curious fact, which every farmer must have observed, viz: the crossing of different varieties of a plant when growing nea/ each other. When white corn is planted by the side of yellofv corn, the ear produced will be of a character intermediate between the two. This eff'ect is more remarkable in the case of white- corn and the small blue species, termed chicken corn, when raised side by side. The ear pro- duced in such a situation, will very often have the size of the first, and the color of the second spec'es. This eff'ect arises entirely, from the fall- ing of the pollen of the first upon the pistils of the second. Such an effect as this, we would na- turally expect to occur most frequently in the case of those plants which have their stamens and pis- tils in difl'erent flowers; and such is the fact, aa de- termined by observation. Hence the necessi- ty of planting the different varieties of such plants at some distance from each other, if we wish to keep those varieties separate. This eflfect however, is not confined to such plants, nor is it necessarily the result of accident. It can be produced in any plant, by artificially k.- cundating the pistil of one variety with the pollen of another. The following experiment of Mr. Knight maybe mentioned in proof this statement. '' In 1787, a degenerate sort of pea was growing in my garden, which had not recovered its former vigor, even when removed to a better soil. Being thus a good subject of experiment, the stamens of a dozen ol' its flowers were destroyed, whilst the pistils were left uninjured. When the blossoms had attained their mature size, the pollen of a very larire and luxuriant gray pea was introduced into one-half of them, but not in the other. The pods of both grew equally, but the seeds of the half which were unimpregnated, withered away without having augmented beyond the size to which they had attained befi)re the blossom ex- panded. The seeds of the other half were aug- mented and matured jis in ordinary cases; and exhibited no difference- from those of other plants of the same variety ; perhaps because the exter- na! coat of the seed was furnished by the pistillate plant. But when they were made to vegetate in the succeeding sprino", the effect of the experi- ment was obvious. The plants rose with great luxuriance, indica'inir in their stem, leaves, and fruit, the influence of this artificial impregnation; the seeds produced, were of a dark gray-color. By impregnating the flowers of this variety with the pollen of others, the color was again changed, and new varieties obtained, superior in every res- pect to the original, on which the experiment was first made, and attaining, in some cases, to a heisrht of more than twelve leei." These are cases ol' hybrid plants, produced from different species of the same genus ; whether hy- brids can be produced from species belonging to different genera, is a matter about which bota- 208 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 5 nists are not arjreeil. The more common opinion at present is, that they can, in the case of dilier- ent genera belon c. 7 r Hieracium (hawk-weed) ^ o to / Laciucasativa (garden lettuce) 7 to 8 A. M. Anagallis arvensis (field chick- weed) - - - - 8 to 9 " Arenaria (sand-wort) - - 9 to 10 " Portulacca sativa (purslane) - 10 to 11 " Mirabilis jalapa (yellow four o'clock) - - - - 6 to 7 P. M. Pelargonium triste (mourning ge- ranium) - - - - 7 to 8 " Anothera suaveola (night flower- ing primrose) - - - 8 to 9 '' (To be continued.) CULTURE OF SILK IN ITALY. From Young's Notes on the Agriculture of Lombardy. Nice. — Eight roups of cocoons, or 84 lb. make 24 lb. of silk (Hi oz.), which sells at 10 Uv. 5s. the lb, ; a roup of leaves sells at 20s. and 250 roup are necessary for 8 oz. of grain (eggs). Coni. — The whole country, after ascending the Alps, is planted with mulberries, around every field, and if large, in lines across. I remarked great numbers from ten to fifteen years old. To Chentale, 1 oz. of grain requires 360 roup of leaves ; each roup 25 lb. and yields 4 or 5 roups of bozzoli or cacata (cocoons), and 1 roup of cocoons makes 3 lb. of silk. The price of organzine 20 Uv. to 24 Uv. per lb. ; the offal pays the spinning. Gathering the leaves costs 2s. to 3s. the roup. Cheniale. — The seed of the mulberry is sown in nurseries, and the trees commonly planted out at four years old. The first, second and third year, they are pruned, for giving the branch- es the right form; the fourth, they begin to gather the leaves. Some which were shown me by the Count de Bonaventa, of eighteen years old, give 6, 7, and to 8 rubbii of leaves each. One old tree, a very extraordinary one, has given 53 roups. A large tree, of fifty or sixty years, com- , monly yields 25 rubbii. They never dig around them, nor wash the stems as inDauphine; but they have a practice, not of equal merit, which is to twist straw-bands around the stems, to de- fend them against the sun. For one ounce of grain 65 to 30 rubbii of leaves are necessary, which gives 2| riiftiii of cocoons and sometimes so fiir as four. One rubbio of cocoons yields 20 to 21 oz. of silk organize, of the price of 18 Uv. per lb. For gathering the leaves, fron Is 8'dcn. to 2s, the rubbio is given. The offal (moresca and clioc- ata) pays the winding and spinning. They nev- er hatched the worms by artificial heat ; using only that of the sun, or of the human body. The common method of carrying on the business is^ to provide as in France, grain and mulberries, and to receive half the cocoons. The cultivation is so profitable, that there are many lands to which mulberries add a value of 200 Viv. or 300 Uv. more than they would sell for if they contained none ; and it is farther thought, that they are but little in- jurious tQ corn, the shade not being so prejudicial n= that of the walnut and of some other trees. T'iie common estimation of profit is, that trees of all ages yield from the time of beginning to bear, from^ 30s. to 4 Uv, each nett to the landlord for his half produce. Turin. — One ounce of grain gives 2 to 4 rub- bii of cocoons, and dem.ands 120 rubbii of leaves ; 1 rubbio of cocoons will give 22 oz. of comnionlv 272 FARxMERS' REGISTER [No. 5 well spun silk. The price of prrain 12 liv. the oz. when very scarce, but. in common 30.s. ; that of leaves 7 or 8s. per ruhbio. Cocoons 21 llv. per rubbio. When I asked the price of thesill-;, tlie an- swer was, Oh ! f()r that ! it is the price the En- glish choose to pay ibr it. The common price of organzine, 16 to 20 I'w. first, quality ; raw, \2liv. For gatherintj the leaves, %;. per rabbio is given. Of the different sorts ot mulberry, the wild is the best, in point of quality of silk. A tree of twenty years, will fjive 24 or 25 riihbii of leaves ; some to Sbrubbii. The trees are grafted in the nursery, and planted out at four years, at the beginning of April ; price, 20s. to choose out of many; and in four years alter, begin to gather. When planted in watered meadows, the gathering damages the hay almost to the value of the leaves, yet many are so planted; and many peasants think they lose in corn by the shade of the trees, as much as they get by them. From the 22d to the 26th of April, is the season for hatching ; never by fire ; nor have they any method of retarding the hatch ing, in ease of a want of leaves. Endive, let- tuce, and elm leaves, have been often tried as a succedaneum, but always killed the worms; such things must never be depended on. The peasants generally sell the cocoons, not one a in hundred spinning. A chamber of twenty feet by twelve feet is necessary for 3 oz. of grain ; and six tables, one trebucco long and two-thirds wide. Novara. — Passed this place towards Milan, which is a great tract of mulberries for several miles. Milanese. — Buffalora to Manunia. — Many mulberry hedges, but they are bad and ragged ; some new planted in the quincunx position. For several miles, the county is all planted in rows of vines, at tweleve, sixteen, and twenty feet, and fruit trees among them, Ibr their support ; among which, are many mulberries, and the vmes run- ning up them. This must be a most profitable husbandry indeed, to have silk and wine not only from the same ground but in a manner from the same tree. Between the rows, the ground is cul- tivated ; millet, maiz (cut'), holcus sorguni, the great millet, lupines, with dung amongst them, to be ploughed in Ibr wheat, with young maiz, sown thick, as if lor Ibdder. Cltricho. — A beautiful mulberry hedge, and in good order ; six to eight inches from plant to plant, and cropt at sixteen or eighteen from the ground. It is clear therefore, that the plant will do, with care, Ibr a good hedge. Towards Milan, mulber- ries decline, oak and other pollards being found in their stead. Mozzala. — The cultuie of mulberries and ma- king silk, being here much attended to were prin- cipal objects in my inquiries. The li'uit is well washed, the end of June, to make the seed sink; it is then sown in rows, in a bed of earth well ma- nured, and finely laboured, in the rich nurseries near Milan ; covered very lightly and the surface lightly flattened ; straw is spread to delend it from the sun, and, much water given. When the young plants appear they are weeded by hand. The se- cond year, they grow to two or three feet high, and hoed and thinned. The third year, they are cut to the ground above the buds that are to push, and transplanted from those nurseries, in the vicinity of the city, to others that are scattered all over the country, in ground well dug and manured, and at two feet square; here they are kept clean by hoeing. The fifth year, in the spring, they are cut again to the ground; they then shoot very powerlijlly, and attention must be given to keep but one good shoot, and the ground is dug or hoed deeper than com- mon, and also dunged. The sixth yenr, those that are high enough, are grafted; and the rest, the year Ibllowing. Those that took the sixth year, ought to rest in the nursery three years, in- cluding the year of gral'ting that is, the seventh and eighth year. They do not like to plant large trees, and have a proverb, Se vuoi far torto al tuo vicinto, Pianta il more groffo e il fico piccolino, As to plant small fig trees is as bad as large mul- berries. The holes are made in winter for receiving them where they are to remain; these are nine ieet square and two feet deep, and have at the botioin a bed of broom, bark of trees, or other rubbish ; then the best earth that can be had. and on that dung, one load of sixteen feet to fbur trees; this is covered with more good earth, and this levels the hole with the rest of the field ; then prune the roots and plant, setting a pole by the young tree to the north, and a spur post on the other side, to guard it from the plough. Twine no straw the first year, because of the insect forficula auricu- laria,L.; but in November bind straw around them against the cold, or, as straw is dear, the poa rubra, which abounds. Never, or very rarely, water. JNluch atiention to remove all budo not tending in the right direction. The fourth spring after planting, their heads are pollarded, in March, leaving the shoots nine in- ches long of new wood, and seeking to give them the hollow form of a cup, and that the new buds may afterwards divide iryto two or three branches, but not more. The next year, they begin to pluck the leaves. They are attentive in pruning, which is done every second year, to preserve as much as they can the cup form, as the leaves are gathered more easily. Thusit is about fourteen years from the seed before the return begins. After gathering the leaves, a man examines and cuts away all wounded shoots: and if hail damage them, they are cut, let it be at what time of the year it may. Old trees are pruned after gathering, but young ones in March, In autumn, the leaves are never taken lor cattle before the llth of No- vember, as the trees after that time do not suffer. The third year after planting young trees, they sow about a hat-ful of lupines around the stem, and when about ten inches high, dig them in for manure. The opinion here is, that the mulberry does very little harm to rye or wheat, except that when cut the falling of branches and trampling are somewhat injurious. Maiz, millet, and pan- ic are much more hurt. A tree, five years after transplanting, gives 10 lb. of leaves, each 28 oz. At ten years, IS lb. At fifteen years, 25 lb. At twenty years, 30 lb. At thirty years, 50 lb. At fifty to seventy years, 70 lb. There are trees that give 80 lb. and even 100 lb. The price of leaves is commonly 4 liv. per 100 lb. (28 oz.). P'or one ounce of grain 500 lb. of leaves are necessary, and yield 17 lb, of cocoons : but among the raisings in the mountain of Brianza, 25 lb. To make a pound of silk, of 12 oz. 5 lb. or 6 lb. of cocoons, ol 28 oz. are required. Pr.ce in the low watered 18393 FARMKUS' REGISTER. 873 country, 2 I'w. per lb. (28 oz.). At Mozzata, 2\ liv. At Brianza, 3 liv. The grain is hatclieii in a chamber, heated by a chimney, and not a etove, to 17deg. of Reaumur (70|Fahr.); but be- fore being placed in this chamber, they are kept eight days under a bed, with a coverlet upon them, in boxes covered willj paper pierced : and when hatched, lay the young leaflets of the mulberries on the paper, to entice them out. The method oi conducting the business here is the same as in France ; the landlord furnishes half the grain, and the peasants liaKJ and they divide the cocoons. Price of grain, 2 liv. the ounce. Mulberries, of all ages, are pollarded every second year; a mis- chievous custom, which makes the trees decay, and lessens their produce; ills never done in Dau- phine, where the culture is so well understood. Milan. — iSig. Felice Soavo made some inter- esting trials on silk-worms. At Lambrale, near, i\'lilan, 2 oz. of seed in rooms, kept to the heat of 23 and 24 deg. Reau- mur, hatched well, and kept healthy : the 28th of April, the seed was placed in the rooms, and hatched in the third, fourth, and fifth day : the 21st of May, the first cocoon seen, and at the end of the month all were at work. The product gathered the 3d of June; the product 92^ lb. co- coons (28 oz.); eighiy-four of them having been spun from four and five cocoons, gave 20.^ lb. (12 oz.) of silk, stronger and more shining than com- mon; the consumption of leaves, 1420 lb. of 28 oz. Wood used for fire, 2800 lb. ; but the two rooms would have served for 4 oz. of seed. In the common method, without stoves, the consuni- tion of leaves is 500 lb. tor an ounce of seed, and the medium product is not above 15 lb. of cocoons; and by this new method, the counsumption ol leaves has been 710 lb. each ounce, and the pro- duce 46^ lb. cocoons. Sixteen or seventeen co- coons weigh an ounce in the common method, but in this only thirteen or fourteen. The silk cannot commonly be spun from five or six cocoons; thes^e were spun easily from four or five, and might have been done from three or four. To gain a pound of silk, in common, 5 lb. of cocoons are necessary ; but here the same quantity has been gained from 4 lb. Lodi to Codogno. — In this dead level and wa- tered district, there are very few mulberries ; none except near the villages ; many of them, not all, appear unhealthy ; ])erhaps by reason of their not exerting the same attention as in Dauphine, where there is, in irrigated meadows, mounds made to keep the water from these trees. Codogno to Crema. — Mulberry trees here have large heads, as in Dauphine, instead of being pol- larded incessantly, as to the north of Milan. There is an idea in the Milanese, that silk was introduced by Ludovico il Moro. France-co Mur- alto reports, "Praviia inculta infinita duobus flu- minibus ad novalia (Ludovicus), reduxit infinitas plantas Moronum sad conficiendas etas, seu sericas plantari feccrat et illius artis in ducal u, primus fuit auctor." [t is said lo have been introiluced into Europe 1)0 some I3asiliun monks, from Sirinda, a city of Iiidoston, to Conslanlinople, under the Emperor Justinian, in the year 550, by one ac- count; and by another, in 525. In 1315, tlie man- ufactory of silk was brought ia Florence to great perlection, by the refugees ol Lucca ; but during the filteenth century, no silk was taadc in Tus- Vol, VII— oo cany ; for all used in that period was foreign, silk- worms being then unknown. In 1474, they had eighty-four shops that wrought gold and silver bro- caded silks, which were exported to Lyons, Gen- eva, Spain, England, Germany, Turkey, J3ar- bary, Asia, &c. Roger I. King of Sicily, about the year 1146, having conquered some Grecian cities, brought the pilk weavers from thence into Palermo ; and the manufacture was soon imita- ted by the people of Lucca, who took a bale of silk for their arms, with the inscription — Dei mu- nus diligenter curandum pro vita multorum. In 1525, the silk manufacture at Milan employed twenty-five thousand people; and it seems to have augmented till 1558. In 1423, the republic of Florence took off the duty of entree upon mul- berry leaves, and prohibited the exportation ; and some communities of Tuscany have records con- cerning silk anterior to that period. In almost all the districts of the Milanese, mulberry trees are met with, very old, with tow- ering branches ; among which are those of Sfor- zesca, planted under Ludovico il Moro, who lived at the end of the fifteenth century. Venetian State. — Vaprio to Sergamo. — There are many mulberries, mixed with the culti- vation of corn and vines, in this tract of country. Jiergamo. — Four ounces ofseed are here given to each poor family, which yield lour pest of cocoons. Brescia. — One hundred pcsi of leaves are ne- cessary to 1 oz. of seed ; and ['ouv pcsi of hozzcli, or cocoons, are the produce of 1 oz. ; and the peso of cocoons gives 28 to 30 oz. of silk. Cocoons sell at 45 liv. per peso. Leaves at 1 liv. ; and silk at 22 liv. per lb. The trees are lopped every three years; yet some are known that give 20 pes i of leaves. Small ones half a peso, and one peso. Verona. — One ounce ofseed denmnds seventeen or eighteen sacchi of leaves, each one hundred Veronese pounds (or 74 lb. English). Twelve ounces of seed are given to each family; and each ounce returns GO lb. of cocoons, at 12 oz. the lb. ; the price 24 sous the lb. To each ounce of seed sixteen to eighteen sacchi of leaves, each 100 lb. of 12 oz., are necessary. The GO lb. cocoons, at 24s. are 72 liv. or 36 shillings; which is tho j)roduce of eight trees, or 4s. Cd. a tree, the half of which is 23. 3d. It must however be remarked, that these prices of cocoons vary so much, that no rule can be drawn from them ; this price of 24s. the pound is very low, and must arise from some local circumstance. One ounce of silk to one poimd of cocoons. They are here, as in the pre- ceding districts, in the custom of finding the trees, and half the seed, and the peasants the rest ; and Ihey divide the cocoons. A tree of forty years old will give four sacchi ; and if a planlation con- sist of one thousand trees, they will, one with an- other, give two sacchi. They make silk in the Veronese to the amount of a million of pounds of 12 oz. There arc, near the city, some trees in u rich arable field seventy years old, that > icid from lour to six sacks of leaves each ; this is about 10s. a tree at the lowest price of cocoons. 'To-Vicenza. — There are many rows ol mul- berries in the meadows, that arc neverduii; aroiaid, and yet tiuite healthy, which proves that they might be scattered successfully about grass-lands, if any proof were wanting of so undoubted a fact. In the arable landy, the' sui! all gravel, they are planted twelve ridges apart- Some of the tree;; 274 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. S are old, that spread seven or eight yards across. Vicenza. — The produce oC silk amounts here to about 6 liv. the campo, over a whole farm ; this is about 3a. an acre. The sacco of leaves weigh 75 lb. and forty sacdii are necessary for one ounce of seed ; which gives 100 lb. of cocoons, and 10 lb. of silk. One hundred ireen, of twenty years old, J^ield forty sacchi j price 3 liv. to 11 liv. : conimon- y 3 liv. Price of cocoons SOs. to 50s. the pound. I was glad here to meet with some intelligence concerning the new silk worm, said to have come .from Persia, which they have had here eight years, but is in the hands of so lew persona, that I could get none of the seed ; and I suspect that it is lost ; lor, on repeated inquiries, I was referred to other parte of Italy. While they had this worm, they had four crops of cocoons a year: — 1. In tlie be- ginning of June. 2, The end of the same month. 3. The middle of August. 4. In October. This worm is essentially different flora the common ones in the circumstance of hatching; no art will hatch the eggs of the common sort the first year, that is, the year of the flies dropping them; they can be hatched the year following only ; but of this new sort, the eggs will hatch in fifleen days the same year, if they be in the proper heat. But it is to be observed, that they use this sort of worm not re- ally to command several crops in the same year, for mulberry trees will not bear it without destruction; but merely as a succedaneura to the common sort of worms, if by frosts in the spring they be lost for want of food ; this new sort is in reserve, to apply the leaves to profit once in the year. Theoretically the plan is good ; but there must have been some- thing in practice against it, or we may conjecture that afler many years the use of them would have been generally introduced. This will not be an improper place to introduce eorae remarks on this subject, by an author much esteemed, but quite unknown" in England. It appears from the work of Count Carlo Bettoni, of iirescia, that the discovery of the new silk worm arose from experiments made with a view of find- ing out a cure for the sickness of mulberry trees, called moria ; this was supposed to arise from strip- ping the leaves in the spring annually ; it was thought, that if some means could be discovered of postponing the gathering much later in the year, it would greatly fiivor the vegetation and health of the trees ; an effect that could only take place by means of a worm that would hatch much later than the common one. In 17G5, a second hatch- ing of the eggs of the common worm is said, by the same author, to have been made ; part of which were ted with the second growth of leaves, and part with the leaves of trees that had not been gathered in the spring. Those fed with the old leaves gave a greater number of cocoons, and of a better quality than the others. Those experiments were repeated by many persons ; and it was found, that in the heats of July and Au- gust the worms vvoulil not do well; but in Septem- ber much better, and that the trees did not suffer from having their leaves gathered in September. The same author says, that the new worms (which he caUsforestieri) will hatch three times a year, and that no art will prevent it ; no cellars," no cold, will keep them from if, though it may re- tard them some time,as he tried in an ice-housij, by which means he kept them inert till August. But, on the contrary, the common sort cannot in general be hatched a second time the same year, even with any heat that can be given; yet he admits, that they were hatched by certain persons in 1765, The nevv ones sleep four times, like the common ones, but begin to spin their cocoons five or six days sooner : they eat less in quantity, but gives lels silk ; and as this defect is balanced by the ad- vantage in food, they ought not, says the Count, to be proscribed. Their cocoons are small, but the consistency is good and fine ; and their silk ia fine, and softer than the common : he sold it lor 4 liv. or 5 liv. a pound more than common silk. There is however, an evil attends them, which ia the uncertainty of their hatching the second and third time ; sometimes all the seed will hatch, but at others only a part ; even only the seventh and tenth of the quantity : but the first hatching is re- gular, like that of the common worms. A cir- cumstance in the courae of his trials deserves noting, that he found the worms of both the old and new sorts would drink water when offered to them, and that the cocoons were the larger lor their having had the water. They have had a sort in Tuscany that hatches twice a year; and the Count writing thither for information concerning them, found that their silk was coarser than the common, and of lefs value; and he judges them to be a difierent kind from hia own, which hatches three times. The Count concludes nothing determinate concerning them ; but resolves to continue his numerous experiments and observations. As there may be persons who think, as 1 did at first, when I heard of this sort of worm, that if any succeed in England it would probably^bc this. It is proper to observe, that Count Bettoni had nothing in view but the diseases of the mulberry trees, and does not seem to have had at all in contemplation the evils attending late frosts depriving the worms of their usual food ; and if the common sort may be retarded in hatch- ing (which, he shows) till August, equally with the new sort, there docs not seem to be any ex- traordinary advantage in this sort, for a northerly climate, more than in the others. The Count's book was printed at Venice in 1778. Sig. Pieropan has made an observation, which deserves noting ; mulberries, and likewise other trees are generally found to succeed much better when grafted a little before sun-set than at any other time : the reason he attributes to the heat of the earth after sunset ; he kept ajournal some years, of the comparative heat of the atmosphere and the earth, at the depths of four, twelve, and tvventy-ibur inches ; and has found, that immedia- tely after the setting of the sun the mercury in those thermometers under ground had always risen some degress gradually till the rising of the sun, when it as regularly falls. The following is Iha Jlccount of the Profit and Loss of Six Ounces of Seed, for Three Years, at Vicenza, by Sig, Carlo Mudena. 1778. Expenses. liv. s. den. Semenza — seed, 6 oz. - - 36 0 0 /^ogZt'a— leaves, 26,475 lb. - - 1545 4 0 Spesa — gathering leaves and at- tendance, - . - - 866 16 0 Filnrc — ^spinning 992 lb. cocoons. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 275 which give 159 lb. 5 oz. silk, ~ 557 18 0 Produce. 159 lb. 5 oz. of silk, Refuse ditto, 41 lb. Seed, 55 oz. Expense, Profit, 3007 18 0 4144 15 0 102 10 0 330 0 0 4577 5 0 3007 18 0 1569 7 0 1779. Expenses. Seed, six ounces, half given to the peasants, three ounces, - - 18 0 0 Leaves, 15,607 lb. - - - 753 9 0 Spinning — the produce 446 lb. co- - coons, half of which, 223 lb. to the proprietor, 29 lb. of silk, - 101 10 0 Produce. 872 19 0 29 lb. of silk, Refuse ditto, liOSS, 754 0 0 21 2 0 775 2 0 97 17 0 1780. — Upon his own account. Expenses. liv. f. dtn. Seed, 6 oz. - - - - 36 0 0 Leaves, 370 sacks, - - - 957 13 0 Gathering and attendance, - 1303 12 0 Spinning 910 lb. of cocoons, - 265 0 0 Reducing 118 lb. 6 oz, of" silk into oriranzine, - _ . . 451 10 0 Produce. Refuse silk, - - . 118 lb. 6 oz. of organzine. Leaves sold, . - - Silk kept ibr own use, 2 lb. 3 oz. Expenses, Profit, - 3013 15 0 116 4 0 4325 5 0 28 0 0 49 10 0 4518 19 0 3013 15 0 1505 4 0 This year the profit would have been much great- er; but through the negligence of the women in the night, not attending to the degrees of heat (fi'om 25 to 27 deg. Reaumur), many were suffocated. To Paduu. — One ounce of seed gives 60 lb. of galeita (cocoons), and 8 lb. to 10 lb. of galetta 1 lb. of silk : the ounce of seed requires sixteen sacks of leaves, of four pesi, each 25 lb.; and twelve small trees yield one sack, but one gt'eat tree has been known to yield six sacks. Price of gathering, 20s. the sack. Expense of Uiaking 60 lb. of silk, 250 liv. Spinning, 30s. the pound. Cocoons sell at 30s, to 36s. Silk this year, 25 liv. the pound, sotile. Padua. — One ounce of seed gives in common 30 lb. of cocoons, and 8 lb. of cocoons 1 lb. of silk : twenty sacks, of 80 lb. of leaves, are neces- sary to feed the worms of an ounce of seed. Price of gathering, 20s. the sack. The greatest trees give ten sacks of leaves each ; a tree of twenty years, four or five sacks. It is not the gen- eral custom to divide this business with the pea- sants. The common sort of silk worm is hatched about the 5th of April ; the others the middle of June; but silk demands a more expensive opera- tion in the latter season. Venice. — There are three sorts of silk worms : — 1. The common one, which casts ils epiderm, or sleeps as it is called, four times. 2. A sort known at Verona, that casts only three times; the cocoons smaller than those of the other sort. 3. The new sort mentioned by Count Carlo Bettoni, the seed of which hatch two or three times a year, but the others only once. The seed of the two first sorts cannot be hatched the same year it ia dropped ; but that of the third will hatch of itself) if it be not carefully kept in a cool place, Bologna. — One hundred pounds of cocoons are made from 1 oz. of seed, and yield 1\ lb. to 85 lb. of silk, of 12 oz. Price of cocoons, 20 to 25 baioc- ca. Silk. 34/)aMis, at 6d. the pound. Tuscany. — Florence. — Making inquiries here concerning the new sort of silk worm, I found that they were not, as I had been before told, a new discovery in Italy, but known long ago ; and, what is remarkable, is prohibited by law, in order to preserve the mulberry trees from being strip- ped more than once. The silk made from them is not more than half as good as the common, and very inferior in (juantily also. They assert here, that by means of heat they can hatch the the eggs of the common sort when they please, but not for any use, as they die directly ; which is not the case with the new spicecis, or that as it is called (/i trt volte. Their contrivance for winding silk is very con- venient, and well adapted to save labor ; one man turns, for a whole row of coppers, the fires for those which are without the wall ; and the clo- sets with small boilers of water, for kdling the an- imal in its cocoon by steam, are equally well adapted. At Martelli, near Florence, on a farm of 190 Htiori (34 acres) there are forty or fifty mulber- ries, enough for 1 oz of grain, which gives 50 lb. or 60 lb. of cocoons, and 6 lb. or 7 lb. of silk. Price of cocoons this year, 2 pauls the pound ; last year 2^- ; and in 1787 it was 3 pauls. In the cul- ture of the trees they do noi practice such atten- tions as the French in Dauphine ; they never dig about them, except when young ; never wash the the stems; they prune the trees when necessary, but not by any rule of years. The best sort is the wild mulberry, but it yields the least quantity; next, the white fruit. In 1682, Siff. L>on Gio. Agemi di Giun, pre- late of the Greek Catholic church, on Mount Li- banus, exhibited tu the academicians Georgofili of Florence, the 4ih of December, some silk worms, in number, thirty eight, part of which had already made their cocoona, and part ready to make them, as accustomed to do 011 his own coua try. with the leaves of the wild mulberry. The seed was hatched in October ; the worm fed with leaves, procured from warm gardens ; cocoons 27ar of starvation. Such is not the ease in England ; provision must be made ibr a long and severe winter, clothing, fuel, shelter and wherewithal to keep soul and body together; this it is which brings the laborer in such absolute subservience to the farmer. The planters of Ja- maica must be considered peculiarly unfortunate, induced to purchase land and populate it with negroes under the particular patronage of the go- vernment, and finally abandoned by that govern- ment to the tender mercies of a puritanical tribe, who under the cloak of religion are carrying dis- order and confusion in the very bosom of society. The state of the country is already such as to in- duce the governor to abolish the militia, he deem- ing it unsalc that a part of the population should be entrusted with arms, where so much excitement exists. I learned that it was in contemplation to man the forts on the sea coast with black soldiers, regu- larly enlisted, and remove the English to the moun- tain barracks, by which their health and comfort would be promoted. This may be but the beginning of a more general use of the blacks Ibr soldiers, and in a particular emergency they might avail the English something, as their sacrifice would be an object of but small consideration with those who have taken them under their fostering care. Is. 5d. a man. Carrots generally come to the hoe in seven weeks from sowing. The reason of mine being longer, I apprehend to be partly from a cold backward spring, and partly from the seed being old. New seed is a very material article in order to succeed in a carrot crop. It will come up a week sooner than the old seed, and consequently the crop will get a week's advantage of the weeds, much to the benefit of hoeing, upon which opera- tion the whole difficulty of succeeding is placed. N. J3. it is better to sow five pounds instead of four ol" seed per acre, in order to guard against a bad season or bad seed ; and the hoers, from the smallness of the plants, are more apt to leave too ihw than too many. As it is very diflicult to be sure of getting new seed from gardeners, it would answer very well to any one who intends cultivat- ing carrots rn grow his own seed; this I attempted alterwards, but the hares eating the roots up, I got it from Wethersfield in Essex, where I have al- ways been supplied with good seed, the price va- rying from 6(1. to 2s. 6d. a pound. Hoeing two acres and a half by workmen at Is. 4d. a day,|cost me 3^. 14s. or 1/. 12s. per acre. Run them over a third time by my harvest-men, worth about 2s. an acre. October 10th, began to take up the crop which I let out to the workmen at three far- things a bushel, topping, tailing, and measuring included. 3/em. One half-penny is good pay for it, and has always been taken at that price since by the workmen. Product of the two acres and a half, 851 bushels, sold at 8d. per bushel. All ex- penses paid I cleared 20/. 1772. — Sowed one acre and a quarter, March 24th, six pounds seed per acre; April lOth, three acres more 4^- pounds per acre; began to hoe June 1st, at 30s. per acre, twice hoeing. Mem. Hoed about 10 rod per man per day. June 11th, har- rowed one acre after being hoed a week, but tore up many young carrots, and did considerable dam- age. August 1st, began to hand- weed by women at Is. per acre. October 27th, began to take them up at one half-penny a bushel, topping, &c. in- cluded; finished November 14th. Total produce 1040 bushels, or 250 per acre. Expenses. EXPERIMENTS OIS CAUROTS. By the Rci\ Mr. Carter, of Flcmpton, Suffolk. From Young's Annals of AgricnltUR'. The soil on which the following trials were made is sand, about 18 inches deep, upon an im- perlect clay bottom. 1771. — March 18tli, sowed one acre with carrot- seed; April 5th another; and the end of ihe month a third: fijiir pound oi" seed per acre. Began to hoe May 27lh; put out an acre at 1/'. Is. but the workmen found the plants so very small and fiill of weeds, that they could not trn on by the acre, which obliged me to get them hoed by the day at Hoeing as above, - Weeding, Taking up, 24 pounds of socd at 2s. 1000 Bushels sold at M. Reserved 40 bushels, - £6 7 6 0 4 8 2 3 4 2 8 0 11 3 1 37 10 0 1 10 0 39 0 0 11 3 1 27 16 11 6 11 5 Expenses, - Profit, - Or, per acre. Mem. My man thinks that six bushels of car- rots do not more than equal one of oats for horses; in which case the value of carrots is Ad. a bushel oats being 2s. 1773.— Februrary 2nd, sowed one acre and 20 rod with 10 pounds of seed ; began to hoe May 278 FARMERS' REGISTER. No. 6 14lh, the weather turned out very rainy, so th.at they could not finish till the 29th. Part of it let out at 2d. per rod the fir-sl iioeing; the rest by the day, at Is. 4d. a man, cost rather more than l^d. per rod. June 7(h, began to hoe a second time at Is. 4d. a day; cost 18s. or not quite l^d. per rod, or per acre 16s. 8d. First lioeing 1/. Began to take up October 25th, at ^d. per bushel. Produce 455 bushels, sold at 6d. a bashel. 1779. — Began to sow one acre April 22nd. Be- gan to hoe June 1st, and continued it occasionally till August. Produce, besides many stolen, 368 bushels : sold to Lord Grosvenor at Newmarket, for 8d. a bushel, paid 2d. for carriage, 6d. therefore nett. The carrots were given to hogs more than once; some seemed to thrive tolerably for a time ; with others they were prejudicial. Upon the whole, I can value carrots for hogs at not more than 3d. and not to be depended on at any price. They are better for horses than lor hogs, especially for such as are broken-winded ; but not to be relied on as a food instead of oats, being chiefly to be considered as a luxury or physic. [n respect to their efTect for succeeding crops, the soil is light and sandy, and consequently very subject to spear grass (JriticiLm repens) which iioe- ing rather increases than destroys; and 1 could ne- ver find that tlie laud was in order for barley to lay down with clover, so that I have generally sowed them after wheat, in order for the turnips to fol- low ; and have found much labor necessary to free the land from the spear grass. In a word, they can never be introduced in courses, as turnips are; to sell, they are highly advantageous, but the demand is nothing: the culture should, therefore, be confined to a small space of land for the parti- cular uses I have just mentioned.* Observations. By the Editor. iVIy own experience in the culture of this root is rather different from my friend's, in several particulars ; but this by no means impeaches ei- ther his practice or mine, for our soils are equally different. 1 have found carrots to clean the land better, I think, than any other crop I cultivate, and had the pleasure, two years ago, of showing a crop of barley to JVlr. Carter after them, that was absolutely clean. But I am very litile trou- bled with spear-grass, which certainly multiplies in sand vastly more than in other soils, and ac- counts for the different results of our trials. The great object is the value of the root consumed at home. Mr. Carter's expenses may be thus cal- culated. Seed, five pounds at Is. and sowing, £0 5 6 Hoeing, 1771, £1 14 0 per acre, 1 1772, 1 11 0 I 1773, 1 16 8 1 14 0 1 19 6 Average of the three. J — Taking up, at |J. per bush, crop of 1771, per acre 283 1772, 250 1773, 404 1779, 368 * I should observe, that Mr. Carter did not draw lip tliis account with any intention of printing it, but merely for his own private use; I persuaded him to let me copy it for this work; it is accordingly transcribed verbatim from the journal- book of his farm. Average 326 bush, which at \d. are, 0 13 7 Suppose rent, &c. &c. to be 0 10 0 £3 8 1 The crop at 326 bushels, the prime cost of the carrots is something better than 2\d. per bushel. Suppose them consumed at home, to pay Ad. per bushel, the profit would be l^d., or per acre (at 326 bushels) 21. Is. Qd. which would answer per- fectly well, jlra they worth Ad. ? Fiat experi- mentum. If ever Mr. Carter makes any trials to ascertain this point, I have no doubt of their being very valuable, since no man is more accurate or more attentive. A. Y. METHOD OF PERFORATING GLASS. By Mr. ^Ibrecht. Put a drop of spirits of turpentine on the place where the hole is to be made, and in the middle of this drop a small piece of camphor. The hole can then be made without diificuhy by means of a well tempered borer or a triangular fde. Solid tur- pentine answers as well as a mixture of the oil or spirit and camphor. — Annates des Mines. THE DEEPEST ARTESIAN WELL. From the Mining Journal. The bore which has been going on for so long a period near Paris, has now reached the depth of 410 metres (or about 1345 feet) and the funds being exhausted, M. Elie de Beaumont has been requested to examine the matters lately brought up by the auger, and to say whether they afiord any indication by which the thickness of the bed to be pierced, before arriving at the sand, may be gathered. M.de Beaumont has accordingly given his opinion, that the bore has reached the lower beds of the chalk formation, and that the marls and gault which still intervene between the bore and the stratum where the water will be found, will, probably, be less than 100 metres thick, (328 feel.) If M. de Beaumont's anticipa- tion should prove correct, the well should have a depth of 1600 fijet, at which depth, according to recent calculations, the water should have a tem- perature sulKciently high to furnish Paris with an abundant supply of hot water for baths and for many other purposes. NATURAL DISCHARGE OF INFLAMMABLE GAS. From the American Journal of Science. Inflammable Gas — Carburetted Hydrogen. Disengaged in many places — at Albany, from a boring in the slate, where a saline carbonated water is discharged — at the Oneida springs in Vernnn— in the Ontario gas springs, on both sides of the Canandaigua lake — in Bristol, nine miles from the village, and within three miles of it — in the Niagara gas springs near Lockport, and so abundantly in a particular place, that it has been called Gasport. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 1X79 Most remarkable in Fredonia, Chautauque county, three milea south of lake Erie, from the bituminous slate under Canadanea Creek. Bub- bles of gas every where rise though the water, and most abundantij' at and below llie bridge. The gas burns with a white flame, tinged with yellow above and with blue below the burner. "The illuminating power of this gas and its abundant supply, suggested the idea of its em- ployment in lighting the village. A copious dis- charge of the gas was observed issuing from a fissure in the rock which forms the bed of the creek, which it was thought could be diverted to a bo- ring on the bank. A shaft was accordingly sunk through the slate about twenty-two feel in depth, which occasionally passed through layers of the bituminous substance already described, and the result was, that the gas left the creek and issued through the shaft. By means of a tube, the gas was now conducted to a gasometer, and from Ihence to different parts of the village. The gas- ometer had a capacity of about two hundred and twenty cubic feet, and was usually filled in about fifteen hours, afibrding a sufficient supply of gas for seventy or eighty lights.'" Besides the bituminous slate, burning with' a flame like that of the gas, there is an alternating Band-stone, containing every where small cavities filled with petroleum, and giving out a bituminous odor. This liquid substance appears to have been every where originally diflused through both the Blate and sand-stone, and thus to have imparted the peculiar characters. Gas appears to be generated and imprisoned below, it rises in the banks when they are bored to the depth of twenty to thirty feet, and it bub- bles up through the water when it is low, but is repressed when its height produces increased hy- drostatic pressure. Many of the wells in Fredo- nia are strongly charged with this gas, and fre- quent disruptions of the strata evince the exertion of an expansive force from below. The strata ofslate and sand-stone are one thousand feet thick. This gas issues at long distances, whose extremes are four hundred miles apart, and from strata from fifteen hundred to 2000 feet thick. It is the opi- nion of Dr. Beck, that this gas does not rise from coal beds, which by the views now entertained of the geological struclure of New York, are exclu ded from its territory. THE MARL INDICATOR, NOT A NEW SPECIES. To the Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. To a person who has any skill in the science of botany, or even a taste for it, the introduction of a new plant to his notice is a very welcome treat. A few years ago, when I was leisurely strolling along the banks of the Niagara river, (r-om Lew- iston to the falls, I perceived a beautiful plant in full bloom on the very bank of the precipice. It was entirely new to me, as well as to a gentle- man who was with me, who was a far more ex- perienced botanist than myself Of course, we made no attempt to obtain it ; but its image has revisited me a hundred times since. I offer this preface, by way of apology, for adding another notice to the several which have already been presented, of the ''marl indicator." Your correspondent who flirnishcd the description at page 456, of the last volume of the Farmers' Register — which is very creditably drawn up, and deficient in only one particular — appears to consi- der it an entirely new species. From its habitat, I had no reason to suppose it would come under my observation ; but as it was intimated, on the authority of Loudon, that there is only one Ame- rican species of veronica, and our books enume- rate as many as ten or twelve, 1 was induced to pursue the subject by sending the description and engraving to some persons who might probably be acquainted with the plant. The result of the inquiry is now given ; and it is interesting to find that though the species extends to other portions of the country, its existence appears to be confined to the lime-stone region. That, the "marl indicator" is a veronica, is ob- vious enough ; but there are two species which bear such a strong resemblance to each other, in habits as well as appearance, that there is some difficulty in determinmg between them. An ac- complished lady in Pennsylvania, pronounces it to be veronica anagallis, which Dr. Darlington in his ' Flora Cestrica ' describes as follows: " Stem erect ; leaves amplexicaul, lanceolate, acute, den- ticulate; racemes opposite. Vulgar — water speed- well, long-leaved brooklime. " Jioot perennial, with verticals of numerous long capillary radicals at the lower nodes of the stem. Stem 12 to 18 inches high, rather coarse and fleshy, sometimes with a roughish pubescence. Leaves smooth, closely sessde and embracing the stem, narrow lanceolate, 2 to 3 inches long and tapering gradually to a point, sparingly denticu- late, often nearly entire. Racemes mostly oppo- site on stout succulent peduncles; bracts linear lanceolate, as long as the pedicels. Corolla pale blue, with purple stripes. Capsule tumid. Habitat, muddy margins of rivulets. Great Valley, Chester county, Pa., lime-stone region; rare; flowers June to August." Theother species is V. beccabunga; and in sup- port of the opinion that the marl mdicator is iden- tical with this plant, 1 quote the words of one of the first botanists in the country. "I have looked at the marl indicator , and am rather.inclining to the opinion that it is no other than the American variety o^ veronica beccabunga. This plant is decidedly indigenous, ^rowing in our runs (in the lime-stone region of New York) "wherever the supply of water is constant. * * * pronounced it to be this plant at the first glance. I have, however, compared the drawing with Dr. Darlington's description in his 'Flora Cestrica' (a work remarkable for its accuracy) ; and by copy- ing a part, you will be enabled to judge as well as myself. 'Whole plant glabrous. Root perennial. Leaves often piil>-cordate at base, decurrent on the peiiole, generally acute, lowest ones obtuse. Ra- cemes opposite, erect, long :iri(l slender. Hab. Muddy springs and rivulets. Obs. This plant is somewhat va^riant from the European species of the same name ; the leaves being generally acute, more lanceolate, and more distinctly serrate. The late Mr. Schvveiniiz considered it a distinct species, and named it V. intermedia in 'Silliman's Jour- nal,' though in his herbarium, at the Philadelphia aca(lcmy,"it is labelled V. Americana. It is, how- ever, closely allied to the V. beccabunga of Europe.' "Allow me to remark that the specific characters in Loudon are, in very many cases, entirely insuf- FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 ficient to enable us to determine the itlenlity o( a nlant I have no doubt of Ihcir havinj:; been pre- pared with f.'reat labor ; but Ironi the circumslance that most of them were drawn from garden speci- mens subject to variation, 1 do not value them very hio'lily." Had The correspondent of the Farmers' Regis- ter stated in his dcscri|)tion, to what extent the plant was smooth or pubescent, the identica spe- cies mi"ht perhaps have been accurately deter- mined. ° Clavton. SUPERIORITY OF BLUE MARL. To the Editor of the farmers' Register. Lowndes, Alabama. I see in your last No. a suggestion that blue marl contains an enriching substance, beyond the lime which is lound in it. Of this, I have lor years been convinced. I have known it to give more support to crops for four successive years, than even stable manure. The best row of cot- ton I ever saw, was on a ridge ol blue marl dug out of a ditch lour feet deep, and when thrown out of the ditch looked like poor blue clay nuxed with lime. By exposure to the sun and air, it became black, and richer in appearance, and is now the most productive spot in a body of as rich land as there is in the state. Its superiority is probably increased by its elevation over the adjoining land, particularly for cotton. I should certainly like to see an analysis of blue marl by Prof. Rogers or Ducatel. With great respect, I am, My dear sir, your Iriend, And obedient servant, Dixon H. Lewis. OBSERVATIONS MADE IN ITALY ON THE USE OF LEAVES IN FEEDING CATTLE. By John Symonds, L. L. D. Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambrdge. From the Annals of Agriculture. Among the various kinds of winler-food provi- ded for cattle in Italy, the use oi' leaves is not the least considerable. This branch of husbandry was introduced a few years ago in the Fcrrarese; and is adopted universally in Italy, except in the dutchy of Mantua, which of all countries seems to stand most in need of it; for, as the landlords have suffered most of the pastures to be broken up, and as the culture of artificial grasses is liiile under- stood, the cattle subsist more precariously duri^ng the winter, than in any other part of luily. The city of Rome is furnished chieliy wiih oxen from the territory of Perugia ; and the Roman markets are known to be plentifully supplied with beef of a very good quality ; yet, so scarce is hay in the ter- ritory'above-mentioned, that the oxen have no other sustenance in the winier than turnips and leaves; but the turnip husbandry is so ill execuleAl, that I did not wonder lite peasants assured me, that they placed no small dependence u|)on leaves. Indeed it is esteemed so important an object in Italian agriculture, that substantial advantages are often sacrificed to it ; for, instead of supporting their vines by stakes, and keeping them very low, in order that the grapes might receive more heat, and attain to lull perlection, they supi)ort them for the most part with trees, not more with a view of providio''- themselves with ILiel, than of reeer- vin"- the leaves fbr their cattle. Kims and pop- lars''are most commonly planted for this purpose in Lombardy; but the latter are more frequent in the kingdom of Naples, where they are sutlered to grovv to an astonishing height. The common ash is sometimes used as a stay fbr vines ; though the flowering ash* is generally preferred to it : the manna-treet, as it is vulgarly called, is never applied to this use, being confined lor the most part to lofty hills, or rocky precipices]: ; but the leaves of it are as carefully preserved, as those of the other sorts of ash. They hold in great es- teem the m.aple,§ which is well adapted to prop the vines; and is not more remarkable for the quickness ol its growth, and rapid increase of its bulk, than for the uncommon size of its leaves. In short, there are very liiw deciduous trees, which do not administer Ibod to cattle, and evergreens are not neom; and at that time I assign to them a very low product, in sup- posing it to be 40 lbs. for each tree. The whole number, 833 trees, will furnish 333 quintals and 20 lbs. of leaves. Drop the excess, and sup- pose only 300 quintals, which at 4 francs would be worth 1200 francs; and this, on the twelvth year, would be a revenue approaching 50 per cent, upon the capital expended. "Let us come by supposition, to 1845, and va- lue the property after IS years of existence. We shall find, without question, if the trees continue to receive proper attention, that the crop will be 80 lbs. per tree, and lor the 833 trees, 666 quin- tals. Dropping the 66 quintals, the remaining 600, at 4 Irancs, will bring 2400 f. or 100 per cent, on ihe capital. "1 will push no further the calculation of pro- babilities; I give it up, with confidence, to the in- vestigation of the best informed men of all coun- tries; and I pronounce that they will find my statements of profit below the truth. In this ex- hibit may be seen the secret of the riches of the countries which have known how to appro- priate to themselves this valuable culture. "The advantages of these plantations do not stop here ; then follow the profits both of rearing the silk-worms, and of reeling the silk, which in many cases may double the sum of the products. But these are separate and distinct branches of industry, and of which I have already presented the estimates in one of my last letters."* The writer adds, that in estimating products, he had stated them at only three-fourths of the supposed amount in common years, that the omit- ted fourth might serve as an abundant offset against losses from bad seasons. He presumes that the allowance thus made is most ample; as indeed it would permit a total loss of the crop, from late spring frosts, or other causes, once in every four years. There is however one apparent, and another real omission, in the above charges. The first is, that Hothingis charged for cultivation. No doubt there was good reason for this omission, though none is mentioned. Perhaps some other crops were raised in the intervals between the trees, which fully paid for the cost of the cultivation. The cultivation of other crops in mulberry grounds is general in France, even after the trees reach * Translated for, and published in the Farmers' Re- gister ; See pp. 94 to 96, of vol. vii. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 307 their full growth; and for that purpose, they are planted very wide apart. M. Carrier planted closer, that his trees might occupy the whole ground, after being well advanced in growth. But still, at 15 feet distance, they would not forbid other tillage before the trees were 8 years old. The other omission is of the interest properly chargeable upon the outlay. However, let this charge be added, and the balance of profit would still be large. We have now presented M. Carrier's estimates of the cost and profit of white mulberry (morus alba) culture in France, the trees being of the kind then deemed the best, and which are still the kind in general use there. It would be a very in- teresting and valuable addition to this article, it there could be presented a comparative arithmeti- cal and correct estimate of the cost and profit of cultivating the morus multicauUs in this country, not for sale, but for use. We know not as yet the amount of product of this tree, and therefore will not presume to attempt such an estimate, or to seek aid fnr our argument in exact calculation. Still, e^'en if using unknown quantities, there will be left no (jiiestion or doubt of the immense supe riority of advantage which the American silk- grower would have in possessing this variety of mulberry, even supposing him to have purchased his first and a sufficient stock at the highest prices, or that he had paid SI -50 for trees of such sizes as M. Carrier bought at 75 centimes, or 14 cents. The recent unheard of appreciation of" the Jiwrus multicauUs being necessarily temporary and tran- sient, it ought not to be brought to bear on such an estimate ; but yet it will be allowed its utmost ef- fect, to obviate any possible objection to the results on that score, and also that no ground ma}? be left for an argument in favor of delaying a commence- ment of planting, because of the high price of the trees. The choice between paying the highest price, for trees to plant in the spring of 1839, or to wait two years, and then buying them as cheap as white mulberry trees are in France, is altogether a matter of calculation; and the diflijrence may be estimated on very sure grounds. He who waits two years may perhaps buy his trees at ten cents each ; but if he had laid out the same money last winter in plants, and were to cultivate and increase the stock for the two years, the increase would be so great as to reduce the average cost to still less than ten cents, besides the furnishing of a crop of leaves the second year. To establish, then, what was asserted above, the greater cheapness and profit of mulberry cul- ture in this country, we require but the three fol- lowing postulates ; 1st, the correctness of M. Car- rier's estimates, even to extent of half the net profit which he makes out; 2n(l, that the niorws multicauUs, at 8 years alter the planting, and set seven-fold more thickly on ihe land, will yield as many pounds of leaves ^jer acre as the white mul- berry of the same age ; 3rd, that the profit of 100 lbs. of the former, in feeding silk-worms here, will not be less than that of an equal quantity cf the leaves of the white mulberry fed, or sold for feed- ing, in France. Then, taking JM, Carrier's rates of charges for French culture, the comparison at the end of eight years will stand thus : The European cullu- The American cultu- rist of morus alba — rist of morus multicau- Us— Will have paid as much Will have paid so little for rent of land, for 8 for land, that, if the years, as would pur- different mode of pro- chase twice over the cedure should require fee-simple of as good even twice the quan- land in America — lity, (to have abun- dant products, and to keep up the stock by new and successive plantings,) such addi- dition of expense will be of but small ac- count— Paid only three-fourths Paid Sl-50 for 316 trees, of a franc (14 cents) making same amount per tree which, set at of purchase money, 15 French feet square, ^474 ; which by roots make 169 to the Am. and cuttings, would acre ; and for 20 acres give 9796 trees the would be 3380 trees, first year — and an a- costing .^474— mount exceeding, by an enormouf3 surplus, all his demand' on the second year for com- pleting the 20 acres. Will have gathered one Will have gathered se- crop of leaves only — ven crops of leaves — Employs high priced la- Employs high-priced la- bor to gather leaves of bor (in general, but small size from tall not in Virginia) toga- trees, and which must ther large leaves, from be plucked carefully shrubs requiring not to guard against de- one-fourth as much la- stroying the trees — bor as m the other case — Feeds silk-worms, with Feeds sUk-worms with cheap labor, in a bad high-priced labor (in climate for silk culture. general, but low e- nough in Virginia,) in one of the best cli- mates in the world for the product. Let the reader judge deliberately and fairly of the comparison made either in this or in any other 368 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 mode that may be preferred— and let it be ex- tended to any other particulars, and prices be af- fixed, if the precision of arithmetic and ol known qantities be desired— and we have no question but that the results will always show less outlay, and more profit in the United States, and more espe- cially in Virginia, than any where in the silk re- gion of western Europe.* EXPKRIMENTS ON MANURES, &C. From the rransaction3 of tlie Essex (Mass.) Agricultural Society. The Committee Report: That they consider the subject of the making and application oi ma- nures, one of the greatest importance to the agri- cullur'al interests. Manure and labor are to the lirirmer, what capital and credit are to the mer- chant. With them well applied, the one will add barn to barn, the other store house to store house, till there shall be no room to contain their several wealth; without them, they must soon suspend operations, and their larms and their ships pass into the hands of more skiliiil and industrious owners. r.Iany farmers think they cannot afiord to pur- chase manure, and the price docs seem dispropor- tioned to the immediate profits; but no flirmer will say that he cannot afford to make the most of what he has. and lo apply it to the best advan- tage. Many take an honest pride in being able to'say, I have raised so many hundred bushels of corn, or so many tons of hay ; now to be able to say I have made five hundred loads of manure, is just as much a matter of boasting, for manure will make corn, and hay, and other valuable pro- ducts, if it be only juiiiciously applied. Put in the seed and the manure, and the grateful soil will make you a liberal return, ll is held to be true by experienced liirmers, that he who doubles the expense of labor and manure, will increase his profits and products in nearly a Ibur-lold propor- tion. In other words, the man who spends half his time upon his farm, and skims over one hun- dred acres of land and gleans from it fifty bushels of corn and twenty tons of hay, if he should de- vote Ws whole energies to his farm, and improve his means of making manure, might raise nearly * The above estimate rests on the supposition that the 163 trees average 50 sirifrle-bud cuttings, of which 30 live and produce trees of like average size. Then 316 X 30=9480-f316 (from roots)=9796 trees grown the first year. If planted at 6 feet distance both ways, or 1210 to the acre, ihere would be stilt wanting 15404 trees to fill the 20 acres. These would be supplied the second spring by the productive buds of only 514 of the youngest trees of first year's growth ; leaving the tops of the remaining 14S90 trees, as well asthoseof all the after and rapidly increasing crops, to be put to any use desired; whether it be merely to stand, for the pur- pose of furnishing the most abundant and earliest pos- sible supply of food for silk-worms from the 20 acres — or to make additional plantings, for feeding worms, or for feeding cattle, to any extent whatever, The chance for selling trees is put aside, and no regard paid to it in this calculation of profit. two hundred bushels of corn and eighty tons of hav. Some have, in their natural situation and prox- imity to the sea-board, greater ficilities for ma- king and obtaining manure; but every substance of animal and vegetable matter can be mixed with the soil in such a manner as to increase the fertility of the earth ; and even the different soils may be mingled so as to produce the same efiect. The quantity of manure a farmer uses, is a pretty liiir criterion by which to judge his charac- ter. In Plymouth county, where a premium is rewarded to the man who makes the greatest number of loads, a most worthy and truly respec- table farmer, the last year, reached the very envi- able eminence of seven hundred and ninety-eight loads; the lowest competitor claimed for three hundred and fifty loads, and his must be allowed to be an improving character. William Clark, jr. of Norihamption, in his statement to the Hamp- shire, Franklin and Hampden Agricultural Socie- ty, represents that he keeps an average stock of eight swine, three horses, and eight oxen and cows ; from this stock, with the skilful use of all his advantages, which are not superior to those of many of ou'r farmers, he made from June 1837 to June 1838. nine hundred and twenty loads, an honorable monument to his intelligence and indus- try, which compensates in utility and solid value (or what it may want in taste and splendor. Mr. Clark used for compost, three hundred loads of sods and soil and two hundred and forty-seven loads of swamp muck. His yards were supp'ied with corn-stalks and refuse hay during the winter, and brakes and weeds in the summer, and cleared out twice during the year. It might be supposed that manure so made could possess but little of the quickening and strengthening principles; but those who have visited his farm and seen his fields burdened with their heavy crops, are satis- fied that Mr. Clark knows how to make manure and to apply it, and that his fields acknowledge their obligation and pay their due return. Mr. Clark, from such manure, has raised more than one thousand bushels of corn in a j'ear. The committee award to Daniel Putnam, of Danvers, for the satisfactory experiment and the full and explicit statement made by him, a pre- mium of twenty dollars. They recommend that Mr. Putnam's statement and the letter addressed by Joseph How, Esq. of Methuen, to the committee, be published. For the Committee, Daniel P. King. Topsfield, Dec. 25, 1838. Daniel Putnam''s Statement. To the Committee of the Essex Agricultural So- ) ciety, on Experiments on Manures: ) Gentlcmeii— The following account of experi- ments in the use of unleached toood-ashas as ma- nure, is submitted, that you may make any use ol it which in your judgment will render it servicea- ble to the farmers of the country. In the letter part of August, 1837, I broke up about one acre of low land (Too low and wet to till with ease,) whicfi had become so much bound out that it yielded not more than 14 or 15 cwt. of hay, and that little was 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 309 of poor quality. After ploughirid ; Irom which, by spending on the farm will again increase the manure, and so on, until Ids fhrm may be enriched without limit. Finally, I believe that if all the fltrmers would pay their attention to making manure and enriching their larms, th;it their interest requires, the western fever would be less prevalent among us; and our young men, instead of leaving the farms of their sires and engaging in speculation, or emiirratino; to the far west, would cultivate the land of their fii- Ihers. and learn from experience that they may be amply repaid (or all their toil, and that the cul- tivation of the earth is second to no other employ- ment. Yours, with sincere respect. .TosKPTi Hov»'. COarPAUATIVE VALUF, OF THE: WHITE AND CHINESE MUI.nRRRV. To llio l^ditor of tlic Farmers' Register. In the Register, Vol. vii. No. ii. you have co- pied Irom the 'Southern Agriculturist,' a letter to J)r. .Toseph Johnson, dated "Paris (France) 13th September, 1S37" — the following parasraph relative to the value of "morns multicaulis'" is extracted from that letter: "Silk-wor7ns. — This is a subject of deep con- cern to our country. Prince and others have pro- pagated and recommended the "morus multicau- lis," as the best subject lor that purpose — do all you can to destroy this opinion. Noisette, who has studied the "morus" more than others, tells me there is none equal to the common white (morus alba.) that the " morua multicaulis" after four or five years dies, or vegetates badly. This is experience — profit by it." This is French experience, let us contrast it with a little of jJmericaii experience. On the farm of the Potomac Silk and Agricul- tural Co., situated G miles north-east of Freder- icksburg, and 4 miles west of the Potomac, there is a field of 3^ acres of "morus multicaulis," con- taining about 7,000 trees. The roots of twelve hundred of these trees, are now taking their fifth years growth. They have been transplanted twice on this farm — were headed down in Novem- ber last, near the ground, yet, not one of them has died, and they are now throwing up stalks, much more promptly than the " morus alba" standing but a few steps distant, and which was headed down about the same time. The "morus alba" was transplanted in the' spring of 1837, the " multicaulis" in the spring of 1838. Layton Y. Atkins. Slafford CO., Va., May lOth, 1839. THE PROPERTIES OF FLOWERS. From tlic London HorUcuItural Journal. The advancement of floriculture has always been an object of the first importance with us. We have taken more pains with it than with any other branch of horticulture or gardening, because it would be Ibllowed with advantage by a large class, and by persons in all grades of society. The HorticulturalJournal has paid great attention to the properties of flowers, with a view of teaching the amateur what is necessary to render him a suc- cessful exhibiter, and confirming the more experi- enced, but perhaps wavering, professional garden- er in some fixed principles. It is desirable that all persons should be united upon the value of fancy flowers, and, of course, upon the standered of perlection by which such value shall be estimated. The ]Metropoliian Society has done more towards fixinar this standard than all the hoiticullural and floral societies put together. The rules laid down by that society have been followed, or pro- fijssed to be Ibllowed, by almost every establisli- ment deserving the name of floral or horticultu- ral, in the kingdom, and it has been of great service to the science. The properties of flowers were, at one time, valued by no set rules of pro- priety, by no consistent attribute of beauty. The whims and fancies of particular individuals pro- nounced particular points estimable, without con- sidering whether such points increased the splen- dor of a flower ; whereas the points insisted upon by the Metropolian Society, without a single ex- ception, increased the beauty of a flower even to ordinary eyes. Thus it was that roundness and flatness in the bloom of a pansy were said to be the standard of perfection ; place side by side a pansy of the old shape, and one nearly approaching thecircle, unbroken through the petals, overlapping 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 3iJ each other and tolerably flat, the most unpractised eye will see the richness o/ one compared with the other, and thou2^h there are none quite round or quite flat, there are many which approach both, and they are the more valuable in proportion to their near approach. Again, the properties of the dahlia are equally well defined; the nearer the shape approaches two-thirds of a'ball the better. Every body can understand this definition of the property of a dahlia. It is true, that to become of this form, the petals must be broad, round ended, short, and imbricate well, free from notch, plenty of them, and the centre not over bloomed ; but these are details. If the flower be two-thirds of a ball, the detail is sure to be good, lor if the petals be narrow or pointed, or long, the flower cannot be well formed. A tulip has been equally as well defined as to property, and very fbriunately, for the flowers which were bearing hish prizes were perverting the taste of the growers^; and it will take some years to correct it. Nevertheless, the rule laid down by the Metropolitan Society cannot be mistaken. The desired form, when expanded, is from one-third to one-half of a hollow ball, for- ming, as a matter of course, a perfectly round shallow cup ; /or, as the beautv of a tulip 'is in the inside, no other form will so well display it. The tulip must, however, possess one quality without which it will be now set down as valueless. The white or the yellow must be of one uniform shade or tint, without stain, to the very centre. In this case, as in the other, the most ordinary observer, who may know nothing about tulips, shall, ne- vertheless, in a moment decide the clear round flower IS more beautiful than one that is stained or not round. Upon this principle should the value of all such productions be estimated. We do not mean that every body should be able to appreciate all the points of a good flower; but that the lead- mg ones, especially the form, should be that most likely to please ihe world. The auricula is a flower equally requiring a proper estimation of properties, and equally indebted to the Metro- politan Society for published rules by which to regulate them. The chief point here again is forvi. To be quite round and quite flat,°like a counter, would be perfection ; but here the colors form a much more important feature than in other flowers, for the auricula will come all green like a calix, or all white and mealy, without any dis- tinct color. It has been, therefore, necessary to state thej-6f should be several divisions of color; the small tube in the centre should be bri^rjit yel- low—the circle round this perfectly whrte-^the next circle should be a distinct color, lilac, violet, purple, blue, brown, or dark approaching to black, and very unbroken— and the outer circle of all green, grey, or white ; and in proportion as all these form distinct circles, and the individual pips are flat, &c., does the value of the flower increase. There is anothor property estimated in London and its vicinity more than in the country. The Metropolitan Society consider it a leading properly that the auricula should form a bold truss of seven pips or flowers at the least ; in the country they do not require more than five. Thus many flowers will do for the country that would not do in the metropolis. In roses, novelty seem to have been the leading point, and many growers have discovered novelty where nobody else could ; but there are properties as essential to a good rose, as to any other flower, novelty forming one of them. A rose should be strongly perfumed — the petals should be thick, round, and plentilul; the color bright, and the flower double; the more of these properties are pos- sessed by a rose, the better it is. Hundreds, how- ever, are in cultivation so nearly resembling each other, so nearly approaching to single, so weak in their perfume, and so straggling in their growth, as to make every amateur who has purchased largely repent truly that he has been governed by fine names, instead of fine qualities. Gera- niums have come in for their share of attention as to properties. The majority of them have petals so narrow, that, as there are but five, they divide and form an irregular star; they ought, like the heart's-ease, to be wide enough, to lap over each other, and form a whole and nearly circular flow- er rather companulated than otherwise. These ought to come in trusses, comprising at least six or eight blooms each, and forming good close heads. Bright colors, novel pencilling, and deep dark spots on the upper petals, are in great esteem; but the best at present, for form and style of growth, is Dennis's Perfection, though the color is deficient. Others asserted to be as ic ell formed and better colored, are said to have been raised and coming out, if^ not out already; and indeed we have observed several bright and good flowers which very closely approached it, but we confess we have not seen any fully up to the point ; and though, as we have said before, the coloring is deficient, we have not seen any one so complete in form of flowers, beauty of truss, and general style of grou'th. The principal object w^e have in view here is to show that, in the estimate of properties by the Metropolian Society of Florists, regard is had to those points which please every body ; that in fact, taken in any way, an ordinary flower placed by the side of a flower approaching the standard of perfection, if down, shall appear inferior to ordinary observers, that the properties estimated as valuable to the connoisseur shall en- list among its admirers all persons of taste, whether florists or not ; and when we resume this subject e fourth of them by 7 P. JM. when the hurdle was lilied and removed. Those left, generally still, and no food given Ihem. Those of No. 2 have required to bo fed through the day, as befjre. May 10th.— 24th day, and 1st of fifth age. Morning. 2P.M. 9P.M. Temperature, ext. 64^ 54 47 " int. 71 65 59| Steady rain all last night, which incrensed to-day lo a storm of wind as well as rain. Fortunately, in anticipation of this worse weather, a stock of leaves had been gathered yesterday, though du- rinsirain, which lasted until 1 P. M. to-day. Transferred of the best revived worms of No. 1 as many as would rise lo food. Balance, not fed, nor needing it, until noon, it being 42 hours since any leaves had been given to them. Then they were transferred to clean shelves ; as also No 2, and all the other lots — the whole being now on the new shelve-. The litter from which soine of the oldest worms (hatching of April 13th,) were now removed, had not been cleaned or transferred since first mouhing. These were on a large paste-board tray, or siuillow box, in which litter always kept much dryer than on the table. The observation of this fact, some lime before, had induced me to prefer cotton cloth to close board floors. On the latter, a mass of damp lifter cannot dry at bottom; on the cloth, it is exposed to air and is drying at bottom as well as at fop. The particular tray of litter left so long for trial, and just referred to, when thrown out to-day, was generally green, dry, except being pliant from the damp atmosphere, and sweet in scent, like newly cured hay. One spot only, in the middle, where it lay fvyo inches thiek, it was mouldy. All the worms of the experiment lot, until their being transferred and thinned after this last moult- ing, were kept too much crowded ; and though, if there had been no mode ol comparison, I should have considered them as in first-rate condition, there is sufficient evidence at hand that they might have done much better. The worms hatched on the 17th, were ft3wer in number than any other lot, and therefore had more space than any. They have received less attention, by fiir, than those hatched on the 16fh ; yet the fi)rmer have become as much advanced, are more regular in size, and altogether are of finer appearance. These also have until now, been lying on a table where most exposed to the wind, which, though feared as hurtful, probably helped them. Lately, while the weather v/as yet clear, I was afraid of a failure of the supply of leaves, and this horrible spell of cold and v/et weather makes the prospect much worse. From one or both these causes, there is now great danger of a total loss of the silk-vvorms. No food given to any after 1 P. M., for want of dry leaves, except a very slight meal at 9 P. M. Some had been gathered in the rain, and were spread on net hurdles to day. Luckily the youngest and latest moulted worms have not yet acquired much appetite, and bear the privation of food better than the older. May lllh, — 25th dav, and 2nd of fifth age. Morning 2 P. M. 9 P. M, Temperature, exf. 48.V 68| 51 " int. 54^ 61 63 Cloudy in the morning ; afterwards clear, and strong wind. T!ie worms generally quiet, from cokl, and none would eat until 11 A. M. when first fiieding was. begun. Fed repeatedly afterwards, but they eat very little compared even to yesterday — though, but lor the weather, the appetite of all the lots would have greatly increased. May 12.— 26th day, and 3rd of fifth age. Morning 2 P. M. 9 P. M. Temperature, exf. 40^^- 71 58 " int. 57" 66 67 Clear and windy. Worms scarcely moving in the morning, and therefore not fed until 7 A. iVL; then they began to eat heartily, though the tem- perature continues so low. The largest worms of the experiment lot now 2| inches long; but sizes various, thereby showing evident injury sus- tained from having been loo much crowded. Light rain began again at 9 P. M. Stock of leaves ex- hausted, and therefore no feeding as usual at 9. This fiist must be very injurious in the present state of the worms, and their appetite now grow- ing hourly. May 13th— 27th day, and 4th of fifth age. Morning 2 P.M. 4.30 P.M. 9 P.M. Temp. exf. 58 73 76 70 mt. 61J 74 76 77 A day of rains — some mere April showers, but others remarkably fheavy. After 12 o'clock, the rains were separated by gleams of sunshine. The airi excessively damp even inclose apartments; and that of ihe eilk-worms, had the door kept open, for better ventilation, and the air-hole, which had been made by breaking out an upper pane of glass, was scarcely more than half closed by a piece of paper tied over the opening. At 5 A. M. when fearjng that all must be lost, 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 317 and speedily, for want of food, a wagon arrived with white mulberry leaves in bags, brought from my farm 16 miles distant. They had been gath- ered the preceeding afternoon, and were ordered to be here by 10 af night ; but the extreme dark- ness of the night compelled a stop on the road, by which the leaves were kept in the bags 7 hours longer than was expected. They had become hot, in every bag; and a thermometer put into the leaves from the middle of one of the bat^s. taken at hazard, as soon as emptied, rose to 105 degrees. The leaves were immediately spread on cellar (earthen) floors. This supply was all-important to the worms ; and throughout the day, the sus- tained voracity with which they devoured was as- tonishing. The slow remnants of several lots, had not yet revived from their Iburth torpid state. To my surprise, a few worms of the earliest hatching, began to spin this forenoon, it being their 30th day. Morning drizzly, and at 9 P. M. another very heavy rain, with thunder and lightning. The last meal at night double as heavy as any before, and given to all the worms — the most backward lot havintj then well revived. May 14lh.— 28th day, and 5th of fifth age. Morning 2 P. M. 11 P. M. Temperature, ext. 59 72 60 " int. 70 69 70 Morning cloudy ; by 7 A. M. cleared up, and a fine day afterwards. Appetite of experiment lot in general somewhat abated, and a few of them began to spin — and many of the older worms of other lots. But none are yet disposed to climb well, though provided with the twine Indders, as directed at page 248 of last number of Farmers' Register. Supposed (at first) the cause to be that the earliest spinners were premature, from some injurj', or privation, though not otherwise made manifest; ibr all have suffered so much by the prevalence of cold '.hroughout, and other dis- advantages, that the time ofspinningwas expect- ed to be later then these beginnings, by five days at least. They have actually begun three days earlier than according to Dandolo's rules, when supposed to be under the most perfect and suita- ble artificial temperature, and best treatment. Lest there should be any want of Ibod in the present critical state of the worms, and when they are expected to cease eating very soon, and that t^iey might select the freshest, the leaves were given very frequently and lavishly. May 15th.— 29th day, and 6lh of fifth age. Morning 2 P. M. 5 P. ]\I. 11 P. M. Temp. ext. 57 85 85 68 " int. 67 80 82 78 Fine bright day — windy, and dry air. Con- trary to expectation, the appetite of the experiment lot, instead of abating, is increased. This is doubtless owing to the increased warmth and dry- ness of the air. Until the latter part of yesterday, the weather could scarcely have been worse than it has continued from the 9th inst. to 14ih inclu- sive— and this at the most critical age and condi- tion of the worms, when they suffer particularly from every privation, and when no time is left to repair, by better subsequent care, any damage then sustained. This is the only day since the feeding commen- ced which has not been much too cold, wholly or in part. The food used, up to this eveninff, is still entire- ly of the leaves Gathered on the 12th, and brought 16 miles, and now more than three days old. They were, when the last were used, at 5 P. M. nearly or quite as dry as grass half cured for hay ; yet they were still eaten greedily by the worms, though no doubt fresh leaves would have been better re- lished and also healthier food. Those left, after the meal given at 5 P. M. were quite too dry to- be given, and there was no other supply then on hand tor later leedinG. However, a supply fortu- nately arrived by 10 P. M. in bags partly warm with fermentation, and a good meal was given, which seemed to invite redoubled appetite. All the worms have grown much since yester- day. The largest of the experiment lot are now 2j| inches long, and can stretch out to 3 inches. But lew of them yet have begun to spin, except of No 2, and part"of No 1, previously the most backward, which tvere on the highest shelf; and these also climbed the best, though still far from well. The cause of this more rapid progress was afterwards discovered in the fact that the temperature of the atmosphere above the upper shelf was usually 2 degrees higher than that be- low the lowest, though the perpendicular distance is but about 5 leet. This difference was observed both when the room was closed, and when opened, and the air passing through freely. The other worms of No 1 were now, divided between a hurdle on the lowest and another on one of the central shelves. The position of the thermometer, by which the interiortemperature has been marked, is nearly midway between the extremes of eleva- tion. If so great a difierence had been known of early, it would have afforded easy means Ibr equal- izing and bringing together worms of the most re- mote states of advancement and growth. For the last three days, the leaves have been- so heaped on, and so large a proportion left uncon- sumed, that 1 fear they will ferment, if the worms do not hasten their climbing, and fini.fch much sooner than now seems at all probable. The many shoots and twigs intermixed, also, are found hurt- ful; as they induce the worms to spin upon them, and among the litter. May 16th.— -30th day, and 7th of fifth aire. Morning 11 A.M. 2 P.M. 9 P.M. Temp. ext. 59 84 86 60 " int. 721 77 81 88 Clear, and a warm day. Though the fresh food was laid on last night, to 11 o'clock, very heavil)', before morning it was all devoured. Fed as usual at 5, and then not again, (by inadvertent omission,) until 11 A. M., which was a very im- proper and probably hurtful privation, The worms of the hatching of April 16th seem now to have generally reached lull size, (more than 3 inches long,) and yet hut few have begun to spin. Judging by the oldest (of the 13tl),) which, as fore-runners, have been very useful to my obser- vations on the experiment lot, it seems that nearly all, if left to themselves, would spin among the litter. Fn regard to their climbing to spin, 1 ex- pected difficulty ; and 1 now tear in it utter failure. May 17th.— 31st day, and 8ih of fifth age. Morning 2 P. M. 9 P. M. Temperature, ext. 62 86 67i " int. 73 80 78^ The disposition to climb seems rather to have 318 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 abated than increased, and now I despair of it. Not more th;in one in twenty liave yet climbed, (including (he oldest,) and in waiting lor the oth- ers to do so, nnaided, I (ear that their energy and healtli have already been wasting, judo;ing from the shunken appearance, and soil llaccid I'eel to the touch, of the worms oC the experiment lot, and those stUl older. There seemed to be no hope of saving them, except by the very troublesome, laborious, and, to ihe worms, hurtCul procedure, of lifting every one by hand, and putting them in euitable places to spin. This was Ibrthwith com- menced. The worms placed under the shelves floored with coiton clotli, adhered well, and gene- rally soon began to spin. From the sleek paste- board floors, they dropped almost as ffist as put on; and the two shelves so fixed were nearly useless as spinning places. The wood-work, also was planed too smooth ; and rougher surfaces would have served better. Alter filling all these suitable receptacles, next all the jelly and wine-glasses at hand were put in requisition; and about two thou sand little paper cones made and hung up, in each of all of which a worm was put to spin. These troublesome means served admirably in this case of pressing necessity ; but, of course, such are out of the question lor ordmary or profitable procedure in rearing silk-worms. By all the means used, all the worms of April the 13th, 14lh, and 15ih, and part of the experiment lot, were disposed of by night; and the hurdles, or shelves from which all were entirely removed, were immediately after cleaned olilie Iitlcr, which was about lour inches thick, generally, mouldy beneath the surface, and when turned up, ofl'ensive to thesmell. These and all ought to have been cleaned some days before. But, besides the twine ladders at the sides and ends of the divisions, rows of twigs and slicks had been set up across all, lo afford the worms more facilities for climbing to the frame-work above ; and these sticks served but the more to induce the worms to form cocoons at their bottoms. Of course it was impossible to remove, or even to thin the accumu- lated litter, on any division, until after taking ofl' all the worms; and even then, the partially finished and very soft cocoons, there fixed, were necessa- rily sacrifieed ; as well as such of the worms as had already exhausted too much of their material to recommence theirspinning. Such as were man- itesily of this class were thrown away when the litter was removed. JNlany of the finished co- coons, however, though enveloped in, and even covered by the litter, were firm and of good quality. Food scarce to day ; and the most backward worms, which are now ravenous, were neces- sarily on short allowance. At night, a heavy rain. May 18th.— 32nd day, and 9th of fifth age. Morning 2 P. M. 9 P. M. Temperature, ext. 63 67 58^ " int. 71 68 66^ Still raining, until noon, and interior air very damp. Notwithstanding the great and increasing coldness, it was deemed necessary to keep the door open, for ventilation, which admitted the cold and damp outer air freely fi^om the open door below. Several more hurdles cleared of all their worms, and immediately afterof their litter, some of which was hot at bottom, with fermentation. By night, (bund that, in our desperate haste to save the worms by removal, another great error had been committed; some hundreds had been moved lo places to spin before they were ready to begin ; and alter they had been either lying quiet, or crawling about, and fasting from 6 to 21 hours, they had to be replaced on the cleaned hurdles, were fed. and returned to eating with more or less appetite. Some went to spinning very soon, and after a very light meal ; more generally they con- tinued sluggish, or continued to eat, and of course will not spin, while any appetite remains. The course of the latest of the experiment lot of worms (all hatched on April the 16th,) may now be considered as finished, and every one of the worms as now spinning. For though it may be the case, that some of these are among the number brought back, because of refusing to spin, I do not believe it to be so. Though no separa- tion was kept between the worms of different lots, sfter they were placed to spin, still there is reason to believe that all those brought back had been taken irom the most backward remnants, which were considerably behind the experiment lot in pro- gress towards maturity. The spinning then of the earliest of this lot began an the 28th day, (May 14th,) and the latest on this, the 32nd day — not counting the 16th of April, during which they were hatched. Morning. 2 P.M. 9 o'clock. May 19th.— Temp. ext. 56 80 67^ " int. 62 72 73^ Clear. — Procured fresh leaves, and fed the returned worms, and all the still later ones which had not yet been moved, continuing to place for spinning all that seemed ready, until evening, when no places were left for any more. There then still remained from 800 to 1000 of the most backward worms, part ot which had been brought back after being placed too soon for spinning. Not being disposed to provide leaves for, and to vvait longer upon this slow remnant, and wishing to clear my dwelling house of what might become an offensive nuisance, if the sluggishness of there worms was caused by disease, as I suspected, I had all that remained put into baskets and carried to a vacant room in another house, nearly half a mile distant. Many of them were immediately placed in situations suitable lor them to spin on ; the greater number were spread over the floor, the remaining and last supply of leaves sprinkled over iheni, a number of crumpled newspapers laid over and around, and then the worms were left, to spin or die. Morning. 2 P.M. 9 P.M. May20th— Temp. ext. 58 81i 71 " int. 66 76 77 Most of the worms which are in the new location are spinning^; but still others have not begun, both there and in the first room. All such as were visible, in both places, amounting to 150, were collected, after fasting 16 hours, and given a tew t>esh leaves. They eat a little, and being pro- perly placed, soon began to spin. Took down, and had wound by hand, some of the earliest cocoons. 21st. About 50 more worms had crawled from under the newspapers, and these, alter fasting two entire days, were also removed, and supplied with a little food. These, as well as the others, went to spinning, and without a single exception, made cocoons, and mostly of good quality. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 319 23rd.— Took down all the cocoons made in the dwelling house, and had a large number cleared of floss, and weiglied, and various weighed parcels of different kinds counted, of which the quantities will be hereafter stated. The room then was en- tirely cleaned, and contrary to what had been feared, no offensive scent was left after removing the last of the old litter. 25th. Gathered ail the cocoons made by the backward worms in the out house. They seemed as good as those earlier made, and every worm had spun here, as in every other case. The crum- pled newspapers had served well for the fixing of cocoons upon. No deaths from disease, or from any other than violent and known causes, have occurred, except of the three very young worms mentioned formerly. Some v^rere crushed or injured by accidents; and in the hurried general removal, many of them fell from such heights that it was supposed they might be injured ; and all such were thrown away, lest, if kept, the subsequent deatli of any of them might lead to error as to the cause. Some others of them, buried in the litter after beginning to spin, made very imperfect and worthless cocoons, or none, and when uncovered and dislodged, though all living, their advancement towards the chry- salis state, and therefore the exhaustion of their silk material, had gone too far for them to recom- mence spinning cocoons, to any purpose. These were also thrown away. Since the favorable issue of the other worms, I regret that all of these two discriptions had not been saved to themselves, and the precise degree of necessary loss among them observed; as 1 have reason to believe that much the greater part of all of those thrown away because of their having fallen from heights of 5 to 7 leet, were in fact not materially hurt, and would have spun well, if preserved. But, at that time, nearly all the worms were supposed to be in great jeop- ardy ; and so much trouble was required to save the greater number, that ihere was no time lo expe- riment with, or even to think of counting, the lew hurt or exhausted, and thrown away. But 1 am confident that all that were thrown away as doubt- ful, and lost, for these and for all other causes, did not amount to more than 100 out of the whole rearing ; and that there were not more than 150 others of the whole, that spun cocoons so imper- fect as to be unfit for any use. So much as to the losses ; now for the quality and quantity of the product. As stated above, finally not one worm, even of the slowest, failed to spin a cocoon. The whole number of cocoons, after being stripped of their floss (and more closely than was afterwards found to be necessary,) amounted to 2 bushels and 2^ pecks. Nearly all the amount was ascertained by accurate measurement ; but a small proportion, by estimate only. Of the quality of cocoons I know nothing ; except that Dandolo says that 360 of the common four-cast worms, (to which these belong,) are required to weigh a pound. Of these, various careful and fair trials gave the following results : Of 5i lbs of cocoons, stripped of the floss, and taken without selection, (except that none were of those spun among the litter,) the average number to the pound was 326|. In two other trials, of smaller quantities, in one case 336 were required to make a pound, and in the other only 296. Of the cocoons spun in the litter (which altogether were not quite a peck and a half,) 408, taken as they came, made a pound. Of good and firm co- coons, picked out to produce eggs, and from which all double cocoons, (dupions) had been carefully excluded, 267 weighed a pound. All these were after the floss had been removed. The next trial was with the floss on (which however weighs very little,) and the best result of all, considering the circumstances. Of the cocoons spun upon the old newspapers by the most backward worms, and taken as they came, 291 only made a pouud. While gathering my cocoons, Mr. Gay, the in- ventor of the machinery for winding and twisting silk, unexpectedly arrived in town to exhibit the operation ; and he was much surprised, as well gratified, to find, so eariy in the season, new co- coons ready for him to operate on, and of such good quality as he pronounced these to be, instead of the very inferior parcels of last year's produce, which he had brought with him for that purpose. He said that these cocoons, taken together, were far better than any he had ever seen made in New Jersey or farther north; and, after flill trial, he added that they were better than any he had ever made, or reeled, and worth more by one third, to the bushel, than what are considered good northern cocoons. He bought all of my little crop that I would spare, l^ bushels, at ^6 the bushel ; and in half an hour, on this 25th of May, some of it was undergoing the beautiful and very perfect operations of winding, doubling, and soon after of twisting, upon his admirable machine. Mr. Gay further told me that of a peck of co- coons, first operated on by the machine, nearly all were run off completel}', leaving the chrysalis perfectly naked. All these which had any cover, or even shred of the silk left on them, would not have made a handful. But gratifying as is the general result, and un- looked-for as" gratifying, (under all the adverse cir- cumstances,)— and though there has been almost no loss of worms by disease and death, and very little in unmerchantable cocoons — still the great number of cocoons defective in size, or firm- ness, or both, (when compared with the best,) alone would prove that there is yet plenty of room for improvement and increase in the product. The disadvantages necessarily suffered, and some of the errors committed, are so evident as to need no further pointing out than has been done by the mere statement of procedure. And even though the full extent of my wrong management may not yet he known, nor the best remedies for those evils and errors which are fully understood, still, I have no doubt, but that even now — in the ordinary wiNiiher of a later and proper time, with sufficient and proper food, and suitable fixtures and method,, and with the aid even of the little practical know- ledge now gained — that nine-tenths of the loss of value in product incurred in this experiment could be avoided, and the labor and cost be diminished in a far greater degree than the product would be increased. Great as has been the trouble, and small as is the return, if viewed as remuneration, I consider the result as highly satisfactory, and strongly encouraging to future and better conducted operations. Edmund Ruffin. P. S. Afier the above statement had been com- pleted, I received a letter from T. S. Pleasants, 820 FARMERS' R E (J I S r E R [No. 6 who had reared worms at Bellona from the same stock of prematurely hatched ejigs. I am much /.^ratified to learn that he succeeded well in the im- portant particular in which my failure was so signal — that is, the climbing' of the worms. He had in part such fixtures as he described in last number of Farmers' Register, and, where they were wanting, others less perfect. All served well. The only difference of" treatment which he states, to which I can ascribe the great difference of result in this respect, is, that '^fires were lighted whenever the air was damp and cool.''^ The need of tliis I was well aware of; but the situation per- mitted no such aid of artificial heat ; and even if it had, my experiment was designed to show, as it certainly has done, the worst effects of the natu- ral temperature, at so early, and so inclement a season. E. R. ROSE BUSHES. For the Farmers' Register. For some years past, complaints have been made, that the rose bushes in and about Peters- burg have been Icilled by an insect which in great numbers have infested them. This is a very small red bug, with a covering, or house over it, of a dusky white color, resembling dingy white- wash scaling off. In a short time this insect greatly multiplies, so as to cover the stems and branches. My own garden has been much annoyed, and I have had some of my best shrubs killed by them. Last year I had a favorite busii attacked, which I endeavored to protect by fre- quently applying, from a watering pot, the infu- sion of tobacco ; but from which no good was ob- tained. It has long been known that sulphur, where it could conveniently be used, was a reme- dy against many insects on plants, but in this case there seemed to be some difficulty in its ap- plication; and until I read in one of the late num- bers of the Farmers' Register of a mode by which the flowers of sulphur could be so prepared as to be applied with convenience, it did not oc- cur to me that this was the remedy. Profiting however, by the idea there published, I mixed a quantity of that article with lamp oil, to a very soft consistence, and with a mop, spread it over the stems and branches of the plants, wherever the bu . . . 289 Shaker's establishments .... 259 Ruta baga --....-. 261 Alchemy of the dust hole .... 261 Heading down peach trees .... 261 Account of the culture of silk in Italy - - 271 To prevent crows from pulling up corn - '276 Condition and prospects of agriculture in Ja- maica ....... 276 Experiments on carrots .... 277 Method of perforating glass - . - . 278 The deepest Artesian well - . - . 278 On the use made of leaves in Italy, for feeding cattle 280 Mineral tar, or pyroligneous liquor, for protec- tion of walls of masonry or mud - - 283 Preserving specimens of plants ... 283 Kyanizing wood 2S3 Agricultural publications in the United States 283 Cost of breeding horses of racing stock - 286' Extraordinary sale of Hereford cattle - - 286 The cocoonery — fixtures — feeding silk-worms 288 Malaria — its effects in producing country and other fevers 293 Of the effects of wafer in the agriculture of Italy 295 Experiments on manures, &c. ... 308 The properties of ffowers - - - - 310 THE FARMEllS' REGISTE Vol. VII. JUNE 30, 1839. No. 6. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. THE CULTURE OF THE POTATO. By Mr Towers, C. 31. II. S. From Ihe Quarteiiy Journal of Agriculture. " The subject of the potato culture is yet (|uile open to the experimenter. Experiment on it by all possible varieties ol" vvays is our advice; and when a sufficiency oC facts have been collected, we shall then, but not till then, be warranted in theori- ■i^ing on the nafeure of the potato plant." It is neither loss of time, nor useless repetition, to copy verba- tim the closing paragraph of the editorial note, p. 110 of the last number, 41,; lor, by so doing, at- tention may be rivetted to a very grave subject, and also lo the other papers, in the same number, to which the note refers. Considering the admonition to experimentize in all possible varieties of ways as most sound advice, I believe that 1 shall be acting in accordance with it, by entermg into a detail of the various methods of culture which I have pursued during a period of eight or more years, and noting down, as lar as existing documents permit, the corresponding results. 1 will premise that, previous to 1830, my practice was regulated by that of ordinary culti- vators in the west of Wiltshire, where I then re- sided ; but that subsequently, in consequence of the frequent intercourse by letters with the vene- rable (late) President of the London Horticultural Society, and of receiving numerous varieties of potato from that gentleman, the product of his own unremitting experiments, I altered my prac- tice, and have met with great success. At the period when the public press was burdened with alarming notices of "failure," I never saw an un- healthy plant, with one most singular exception, which i will, in its place, adduce as such. If this article fail to announce, or give weight to any new and important facts, it will, at the'least, offer a pledge of what has been, and may again be successfully attempted. The opinions and'' theorv ol the lamented president shall be referred to, and thus the reader will be placed in possession of some valuable extracts from original letters, which are by me esteemed very precious relics, for they are now all that remain of one of the most candid, liberal, unselfish minds that ever adorned the worki of science. In the cultivation of the potato, t!ie chief object ought to be the production of the utmost quantity of that mealy subsiance which constitutes the nu- tritive property of the root. This substance was lormerly called the farina, a term which, if refer- red to qualities resembling those of meal or flour, can by no means be admitted, because of the total absence of that peculiar g/«ie/), which distinguishes the flour of grain, and qualifies it to unde7go the panary fermentation, and become bread, j/myliim and starch, on the contrary, are correct terms ; and with this remarkable substance the potato abounds, but to a greater or less extent, according to the J?round in which it grows, and to the routine of cul- ture to which it is subjected. By the analysis of EiahofT, referred to by Sir V OL. VU— 41 H. Davy, in his agricultural lectures, the follow- ing results were obtained : — From 7680 parts of potato — Of starch (amylam) - - . J 153 Fibrous matter, analogous to starch 540 Albumen - - . . . 107 Mucilage, in a state of saturated solu- tion - u - _ . 312 2112 Residue, or loss, must have been worthless fluid== ----- 5568 Thus the starch, to the extent of about 1700 parts in 7680, constitutes the chief material of (bod, be- cause the mucilage in solution, represents only just so much gum-water, and the vegetable albu- men can hardly be admitted to be equal to a like quantity of the •' white of '^.gs,,'-'' animal albumen. My own more simple and familiar analysis, de- scribed in the ' Domesiic Gardener's Manual,' under the article " The Potato,''' gives, from eight pounds of washed, but unpeeled potatoes, finely rasped, — ib. oz. 1 6 1 It 4 15 Of amylum or starch - 01' pnip) after pressure by hand Loss in water, or soluble matters The amylum, whether it exist in the slate of powder, or in the form of ''fibrous matter is the substance which conliirs excellence upon the ve- getable. Potatoes will grow in any soil, li'om that of the loosest sand, if it be united with isome re- duced vegetable matters, to the strongest clays of agriculture ; but what is of slill greater moment to the subject under consideration — the produce in amount or quality appears to be materially influ- enced by local agencies, even in soils of the same constitution. Thus the sands which bring fine mealy tubers in Somersetshire, fail in othei°quar- ters of t!ie kingdom. On this gnujiid only can we account for the discrepancyVhich we "meet with in the papers of the many cultivators who have given publicity to their practice and opinions^ one asseriing that the light and dry lands bear the best crops, while another maintains, that stiff and clayey soils are most congenial. The operations of soils, therefore, are contingent; and it is proved almost to a demonstation, that potatoes which are excellent in West Wiltshire, as (or «>.^ample, the varieties there termed the "early purple-eyed," and the "Princes beauty," became deteriorated in Berkshire, treat them how you may. Lancashire is famed lor its varieties which boil lo a meaJ that; crumbles under the fork, and is neariy as white as flour, but the varieties change in the midland and southern counties. That soil, and routine of cul- ture, which produces the strongest haulm, and most expansive system of foliage, will yield the greatest bulk of tubers; hence the o|)inion which we constantly hear expressed, ''that the potatoes run away tnto haulm,^' is a fallacy, because expe- rience proves, what physiology teaches, that the- tuber is the product of the Ipliage, by the quality and breadth of which its comparative substaace i* 322 FARMERS' REGISTER. Li> 0. u regulated. But experience tind facts also demon- strate, that when the foliage is rendered too mas- sive, and the slems become too liigh. and there- fore unable to support the weight of a luxuriantly rank herbage, the tubers, though large in size, numerous, and weighty, are poor in quality, defi- cient of aaiylum, and Irequently hollow. A me.- d'mm g-TOw/A, wherem the balance ol" strength is supported betvveen the stem and leaves, is the re- sult of a well prepared and healthy soil, recipro- cating with the stimulus ol' the sun's rays, and the decomposing agencies of atmospheric air, and of water. Such a soil will yield sound tubers, be it sandy, light, and easily pulverizable, or unctu- ous and adhesive. And on these grounds, quality, firmness ol texture, and mealiness, ought to be the standard, rather than weight of tuber. Thus, in the west, we find the return from the seed sown in the sands, however sound and excellent it may be, is still little more than half what may be, and is produced in the rich loams of Berkshire. In the latter, I have been told of 700 bushels, of 60 lb. each, from the statute acre; whereas I have seen lit- tle more than from half tothree-fourthsof abushel, digged up from the rod or perch, in the grey sands of Wilts, which is in the proportion of little more than 100 bushels per acre. Mr. Knight has cal- culated that 1000 bushels, imperial measure, each weighing SO lb., may be produced ; and experi- ment goes iar to shew what can be eti'ected. Ne- vertheless, take one country with another, the utmost average might perhaps be rated at 300 bushels of ordinary weight, lijur bushels to the eack. To conclude this view of the old treatment, and its results, it will be only needlul to state, that potatoes of the smallest medium size, were cut into sets, each containing from one to three eyes — the rose, or crown ends, being frequently rejected ; the sets were then suffered to become dry under a ehed ; the starch setting and coating the wounded surfaces, and the texture becoming soft and flaccid, in consequence of the emptying of the cellular tis- sue by evaporation. Could robust growth, or large healthy produce, be reasonably expected to result from treatment so diametrically opposite to sound philosophy'? /)tsease, however, is not now con- templated— that, perhaps, was purely local and epidemic ; but it were as rational to expect vigor and strength by the operation of agents purely debilitating, as to hope for great bulk and prolifi- city, from mangled fragments of tubers, rendered inert by exhaustion. My correspondence with Mr. Knight, upon the subject of potato-culure, commenced in 1831. A letter dated 4lh February of that year, is now be- fore me, and from it I extract the following con- nected partici'ilars entire. These, I imagine, will now prove a source of valuble information to others, as they did to me, at the time when 1 de- rived the first correct knowledge of that improved culture, which must finally, if it be duly appre- ciated, supersede the old and faulty routine. "I obtained," said Mr. Knight, "from the ash- leaved kidney, last season (a bed one), a produce equal to 670 bushels, of 80 lb. each, per statute acre ; and I entertain no doubt of having as many this year. To obtain these vast crops of the ash- leaved liidncy, I always plant them iDitole, select- ing the largest I cp.n raise, and from very early crops: those ripened early in the preceding sum- mer are kept dry. I usually plant them upon their ends, to stand with the crown end upwards, and place them at lour inches distance from centre to centre in the rov/s, and the rows tvi?o feel apart, and always pointing from north to south. I plant my large potatoes much in the Er".ir.e way, but with wide intervals, according to the height which the stems acquire. "Thus I plant 'Lankman's' potato" (a noted variety, then, I believe, the subject ofexperiment), "which grows a yard high, at six inches distance from centre to centre, and three fee.t six inches, or four feet between the rows; never cutting any potato, nor planting one of less weight tlian a quarter, h'ci ^emrdWy half a pound. By using such large sets, 1 get very strong, and large plants, with widely extended roots, early in the summer ; and I begin working, as it were, v/:th ?>. four-horse, instead of a one-horse power. ( do not despair of getting 800 bushels of pototoes from an acre of ground, if I live long enough to see the produce of some new varieties, which I have formed, and which are of very vigorous growth, whilst they do not expend any thing in blossoms. The blos- soms take aivay a good deal of sap, which may be better employed in forming potatoes ; and when- ever a potato affords seeds freely 1 think it almost an insuperable objection to it. As a general rule, I think potatoes ought to be planted in rows distant from each other in proportion to the height of the stems ; the height of the stems being lull three feet, the rows ought to be four feet apr.rl, and the sets ftubers) of the very largest varieties planted whole, never to be more distant from centre to centre than six inches. By such mods of planting, the greatest quantity of leaf (the organ In which alone the vital nutritive fluid is made) is exposed to the light. I have this year obtained many seeds of the ash-leaved kidney potato, crossed with another early variety, from whicli I expect some valuable early varietie::, though I scarcely hope to get any thing preferable to the ash-leaved, if that would not wear oi/i." The foregoing passage may, I conceive, be regarded as a compendium of philosophical culture. The extract which follows, is from a letter dated 5ih July in the same year ; it contains interesting observations on the means to accelerate or retard a crop of potatoes. Speaking of the earliest va- riety, Mr. Knight observed— "I'he tubers which have ripened early in one season, are alQiie proper to plant fbr a very early crop ; those which have ripened late, being not sufficiently excitable, though more eligible fbr a late, or rather a moderately early crop, the produce cf which wiH be proper to plant for a very early crop. Ey attending to these circumstances, and by planting tubers large enough, and near enough in the row, with proper intervals between, according to the height to be attained by the stems, 3'ou will be able to obtain much larger crops per acre, than are usually ob- tained." As respects the age or condition of seed-tubers, Mr. Knight says — "Potatoes somewht immature, are quite as good for planting in the fbllowi ^g year, as others ; and in some cases, perhaps in many, better: for, a particular dise?.se, formerly well known under the name of 'ci/rZ,' appeared on plants raised from mature tubers, and not from those raised Irom immature tubers." During the years 1830-1-2, Mr. Knight had raised, by cross impregnation, a great many vari- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. 323 eties. fourteen or fifteen of which he sent to me, as specimen? : they all possessed the characteristic mark of excellence, which it was the object of the orjfjinator to attain — (hat o( developing no perfect flowers; the flower-stalk would rise with its germs of b!os.-om, but Ihese would suddenly become yellow, and fall off, without expandinir, conse- quently the plant had all its energies devoted to the subterraneati expansions. Of the enormous yield of several of'lhese varieties, I hold by me the written prools. One which was numbered 4, Mr. Kniffht states to have produced 23 cwt. 1 qr. 761b. per acre ! V/ith these, and other flicfs before me, it was natural that a course of experiments should be immediately instituted ; and these have been per- sisted in. with some modifications to the present day. J\ly practice, therefore, differs from that of every ordinary cultivator, and its results, which will now be stated, cannot be reckoned unsatislhc- tory. I have not, however, adhered rigidly to the system of Mr. Knight, in planting entire tubers, because it sometimes required more seed-stock ttian could at all times be conveniently spared. Bat there are cases which require certain modes of practice, and these ought to be clearly under- stood by those who cultivate several varieties. A few lines will render this sufficiently clear. Every county has its own peculiar favorites ; and local names are applied, which make it diffi- cult to identify varieties. All persons, in England at least, appear to understand and appreciate the (]ualiiies of the early ash-leaved kidney potato, and therefoi,e I assume it as a standard tor the treat- ment of varieties intended for the earliest summer sup[)ly of the table, rejectiiiij as irrelevant to the present inquiry, any reference to artificial excite- ment, either by frames and glasses, or by vvarra beds of lernienting materials. The growth of every plant must imply (he pro- duction of heat, and of this heat there are ample sources to be found in the decomposition of water, and vegetable or animal matter in the cround, by the agency of that enormous volume of the elec- tric elementary fluid, which holds the constituents of tiiose substances in a state of natural union. In plantiniT the ash-leaved kidney, it is my prac- tice to provide for early developement, and ample security li'om sprino; frost, by digsjing trenches six or eight inches deep, and nearly a foot wide, throwing the earth in the form of a ridge on either side of the trenches. Into the soil, at the bottom of each trench, three or four inches of half decom- posed stable manure, with leaves, used for lininirs, are digged, and then a little lightearth, if required, is raked in, sufficient to leave the surface, when settled, about four inches below the level of the ground. The ash-leaved potato has very ihw eyes, therefore it is desirable never to cut it into sets ; the potato is pressed info the soil, uprio-ht, the eyes being uppermost, and the potatoes stand- ing five inches asunder, according to the directions by Mr. Ivnight. Earth from the ridges is drawn over the crowns, to the depth of an inch, and oc- casionally half an inch of sif ed ashes, or of light linings' manure is superposed, thus making the first covering an inch and a half deep. It is the usual method to place the | otatoes, or sets, four or five inches below the surfiice of level beds, and when the shoots appear, to draw earth to the stems. But by the irench-planting, which may be performed in March, or even earlier, the crowns and advancing buds are quite sufficiently protected from the li;osi, unless it happen to be of very severe character, and then an inch cr two of light litter may be laid in the trenches. The great mischef, however, wiiich befals the earliest plots, is occasioned by iiosts in May. Now, the trenches afford protection to the tubers, while un- c'er ground, and as soon as the shoots are seen above the surface, fine earth is raked or hoed from the ridges, so as to cover the first develope- ments. As the shoots advance again, more earth is drawn down, till at length, the trenches being filled, the level of the surliice is again produced, and with it a sufficient and ample depth ef earth is afforded to the tubers, and their fibrous pro- cesses. All then that remains to be done, is to dig the ground between the rows, to the depth of three inches, sufficiently to give freedom, and openness of texture. I am averse from ridging and earth- ing-up, as I can see no utility in it, and never once found an additional potato from its adoption. I have seen whole ranks of potatoes blackened by the frost of an hour or two ; and even in the pre- sent season, have been told that great destruction was produced by the frost of the 16th of May. My thermometers gave proofs of at least six de- grees, but the potatoes remained safe ; and if any persons be inclined to cavil against the practice re- commended, I can only, in self-defence observe, that fmst has never hurt me ;— my potatoes have lost no shoots, have run their course uninterrupt- edly, and have evinced neither failure nor disease. In 1836. March 16 to 19.— Four rows were planted, in trenches between single asparagus rows, and about eight feet asunder ; they yielded 72;\ lb., from 12| lb. of seed-tubers. fn 1837. March 3 to 7.— Twelve pounds were set in a single trench, twenty-four yards long — abreast, and lour feet in advance of a wall, with an aspect soul h by east. From this row were digged 721b., of excellent flavor. In planting this variety, 1 have never been very particular as to the direction of the rows, but have placed them widely asunder. The yield has rarely exceeded six times the weight of the seed. There are so few eyes in this potato, that extensive herbaire cannot be expected. In- deed, on some occasions, blardht ; then another space was digged, and a second trench struck out and planted. I have, in the present season, made a further improvement, by sprinkling an inch-deep layer ol light hot-bed manure, over the eurlace of the ground which covers the tubers ; thuseach row is clearly marked, the soil protected, and enriched, to the width of a foot, without bringing manure into contact with the potatoes. After a time, when the haulm has become six inches liigh, the intervening spaces are fork-digired, or the soil otherwise, by hoe or spade, rendered light ; the little manure which remains is thus intermixed with the surface, and about two inches of earth is drawn over it, and against the stems on each side; this is all the earth- ing I allow. The soil remains loose and free at top, over a more solid stratum beneath. This is the actual condition the plots are in at the moment of writing (July 29). It has been conjectured by many, who have accordingly adopted the practice, that potatoes may be planted year after year in the same land. I have never risked the trial to an extent sufficient to decide the question, and, indeed, the difference of soil would ai once throw an obstacle in the way, which could not be surmounted ; but as far as 1 have seen, a loam constituted as mine is, does not appear to bring two successive crops of the same potato to a corresponding degree of perfection. It is not to be doubted, that all plants convey into the soil matters either gaseous, fluid, or solid — for the odor diffused will prove the fact to a demon- stration ; therefore, without dwelling upon the theory of radical, fecal exudation, or clainiing tlie admission that, by analogy, whatever a plant throws off from its system cannot become salubri- ous food for another of its own species, it certainly appears reasonable to vary the crops according to the order of rotation, either in the field or garden. I have acted by this principle, and, whenever it has been in my power, have planted one or other of the cabbage family after potatoes. But in reasoning by the rules of rotation, we must not be led away from particular liic's. The tubers of the potato- plant do not appear to derive support from the soil, they being appended to pro- cesses which are conduits of supply downward or laterally from the leaves and stem ; the sap-fibres which convey the fluids upward are wholly inde- pendent of these processes. Just in proportion to the amplitude of foliage, duly exposed to the sun and air, is the bulk of the crop ; hence, although manure, or humus, becomes decomposed by the action of the proper roots, and is by them convey- ed in the form of raw sap to the herbaije, the ground does not become impoverished by the po- tatoes themselves, however numerous they may be, they being organic bodies (propagines),ov sya- tem onife — a congeries of new plants imbedded in a pulpy and amylaceous mass, which has no con- nection whatever with the soil. Hence, also, as the potato is thus viewed as a product of the leaves, it becomes the recipient of the exudation, which it thus prevents from coiilaminaiing the ground to any consid(.Table exient; and thus, upon the theory of fecal exudation, the potato may be plant- ed year after year on the same spot of ground, with comparative safety, but by no means advan- tageously. Little remains to be said. The crops I have produced, and llieir excellent quality, prove, that the rows may stand widely apart, and thus llirnish ample space lor the horizontal expansion of the radical processes, without causing any diminution of the yield ; lor what is lost in space one way, is made up by the proximity of the sets in the rows. The loam (as a staple, naturally) is composed chiefly of a gritty gravel, containing a little chalk, more iron, and a moderate portion of alumina — ■ the matter of pure clay ; its vice, is the condition of the sand, or siliceous constituent, which renders it bindincT, under the influence of a hot sun, after rain. A perfect loam requires the silex to be in a stale of minute division. If this fine silex abound, even to the exient of five-sixths of the whole bulk, leaving the remaining sixth to he composed of alumina, sub-oxide of iron, of a light ochre tint, and chalk ^carbonate of lime,} the loam will be rich, unctuous, and of high quality ; but if a consider- able portion ol' the silex is coarse (the detritus of gravel), the texture of the loam beconues vitiated, and it sets like a brick. Those loams, wherein the iron exists in the Ibrm of a per-oxide, assume a purple, or red tint ; they are abundant in Somer- setshire, and are the staple of permanent fertility. Agriculture, or the science of cropping and ruta- tion, will never be duly understood, till the consti- tution ofall loams, and their power of decomposing manure under the stimulus of the vital, vegetable principle be accurately determined by experiment.* ESSAY ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. [Continued from page 271.] Chap. XII. NATURE OF THEORIES. THEORETICAI. ORI- GIN OF THE FLOWER. BIETHOn OF REN- DERING BARREN TREES FRUITFUL,. For tlie Farmers' Register. In treating of natural phenomena, we very fre- quently suppose a cause from which they may have arisen, and, for the time, considering this as the true cause, proceed to point out the manner in which they must have been produced. Where the phenomena result so naturally from the supposed cause, as to render it highly probable that it is in- * When Mr. Towers was explainin;^ the character of the JEgrostis scgefum, in p. 89, of this volume, we expressed a doubt of the insect described being an iEgrostis. It is but justice to Mr. Toweis to take this opportunity of stating, that from tlie facts which he has since furnished, regarding the character of the insect he described, we are quite satisfied that it is the ^grostis segeium, and no other. — Editor. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 327 deed the true cause, we call the supposition a the- ory ; where they do not thus naturally result, but still, without doing any great violence to reason, may be considered as resultintr from the supposed cause, we term the supposition a hypothesis. Theory and hypothesis do not differ from each other in their essential character, but only in their degree of probability. A hypothesis may be looked upon as a probable iheory ; or a theory, as a very probable hypothesis. When we account for any phenomenon, by tracing it to the cause supposed in theory, and assigning the manner in which it must have been produced, in case the supposed cause be the true one, we are said to treat the subject theoretically. Such is the mean- ing ol these terms, when strictly used in treatises on natural science. AVe sometimes, though more rarely, use them in a looser way ; meaning by theoretical reasoning, the assigning of a cause, and tracing out its operation, in general, when the cause is known to be the true one, as well as when it is only a supposed one. It is so much easier lo remember any number of facts when we have in this way connected them together, than it is without such connexion, that these suppositions are found to be of essential service to the student, both in acquiring the facts in the first place, and in retaining them afterwards. And beside this, we may almost always, by reasoning upon our sup- position, ascertain tacts, which were not known before. If our supposed cause so nearly resembles the true one, that known effects seem naturally to arise from it we might conclude a priori that other effects which would arise from the true cause, will seem naturally to arise from our supposed one ; and that thus, even though our supposed cause be not the true one, we might, by reasoning upon it, learn facts of which we should otherwise remain in ignorance. And such is found to be the fact. There is no truth more clearly taught, by the his- tory of natural science, than that theory and hy- pothesis are two of the most efficient instruments which man can make use ol] in extending his knowledge of nature. Much objection is often felt and expressed against theoretical discussions, from a misapprehension of their true character. The scientific writer in advancing a theory, and tra- cing out its application to the subject in hand, does not intend, that it shall be received as a constitu- ent part of our knowledge of nature, or that it shall be placed upon a footing with the facts ofscience ; but only as something which may be supposed, lor the purpose of iiicihtating our acquisition of knowledge, and to be used for increasing the amount of that knowledge. Whether the theory shall, in the end, turn out to be true or not true, so long as it agrees well with known facts, it may be used with great effect in extending our knowledge of nature. We should always, however, remem- ber, that it is nothing more than a supposition ; and of course, hold ourselves in readiness to give it up, the moment a more probable supposition is advanced. I have thought it advisable to say thus much on this subject, as I purpose, in the present chap- ter to give the commonly received hypothesis respecting the origin of theflower. I should leave my examination of the flower incomplete, as well as fail to give some information respecting it which is curious, and of considerable practical impor- tance, should I pass on without giving, at least, an outline sketch of this theory. Ifany one will advance a more probable theory, or one, which agrees better with known facts, I lor one, will give up the present theory, so soon as I am satisfied that such is the case. This iheory may be briefly stated thus: A flower, and all that spiings from it, is nothing more than a transformed branch, including under the term branch, not only the axis or stem, but also its appendages, the leaves. Thistranslormation is sup- posed to take place by the abortion, degeneration, or adhesion of thediflerent plants of a branch. In supposing the transliarmation to be efl'ected by the operation of these three several causes, we are not assigning any other causes than those which we see in operation every where around us. The term abortion, would seem to mean, that a part soon after its original formation, became deformed, and ceased to have the power of further developement; but such is not the sense in wliich botanists use it. "By abortion, they mean, the non-appearance of an organ at the place where one would expect that it would appear, and where, in lijct, it would be found if the structure were regular." Instances of abortion in the organs of vegetables, must be liimiliar to every one at all in the habit of ob- serving nature. Degeneration, consists in a part being less fully developed than is natural. De- generation is a much more frequent source of al- teration in the appearance of plants than abortion. That the different parts of a plant may degenerate, we have proof in the falling off' both in quality and quantity ofthose which are cultivated by man, when they grow in circumstances unfiivorable to their full developement. The operation of this same cause may often be detected, where at first thought we would not suspect it. The thorns on a wild crab apple-tree, are nothing but degenerate branches ; that such is the fact is proved by an ex- examination of their position and structure. They are situated just at the points at which branches would normally have appeared. They always, whilst young, bear lea ves,and these leaves are situa- ted with respect to each otherjust as the leaves on a branch are. But the most satisliictory proof is aflforded in the fact that when one of these trees is removed, and placed in circumstances morefiavora- ble to its growth, not another thorn will be pro- duced upon it, and often its old thorns will be converted into true branches. Adhesion, or the growing together of parts, is a much more common source of alteration, than either of the other two. Of the operation of this cause we have instances in the accidental growth together of two cucum- bers, or of two apples, or of two or more stems which have sprung up very near to each other. Indeed the liftj of every graft depends upon its adhesion to the stock. In assigning abortion, degeneration, and adhesion as causes by which the transformation of a branch is effected, it is evident we are not assigning causes which are merely sup- positious ones ; but such as we do, in fact, see in operation around us. But are the changes, which it is necessary that a branch should undergo, in order to be converted into a flower, such as we ever see to take place in plants'? In answer to this question, it might be sufficient simply to mention the well-established fact that any branch of a steril tree may be made to produce flowers and fruit by removing a ring of its bark near the point at which it is inserted in 328 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No.(} the stem, and this alter the leaf-buds have beirun to be Ibrined. Or, to state the case a little diHer- endy, but in a way in which it lias often been put to the test of experiment, and unilbrmly with the same ellisct — two young a|)ple trees may be growing side by side, trees which if" left to them- selves will never bear fruit before the 7ih or 8lh year : if from one of them a ring of bark be re- moved near the root, antl not from the other, the succeeding summer the first will beartlowers and fruit, whilst Uie second will not ; and the flowers and fruit of the one will be found on just those parts of the stem where branches have grown on the other. Now this effect will be produced if the ring of bark is removed after the buds have begun to be formed. In this case it is evident that those buds which in ordinary circumstances would have produced branches, have been actually converted into flowers and fruit. Let us now inquire what are the changes which it is necessary that the leaves should undergo in order that they may be converted into the diflerent organs of the flower and fruit. In order that a number of leaves may be converted into a calyx, a change in position is necessary, and generally a slight change in form. If we take two pairs of op- posite leaves, and suppose the internode, or part of the stem which intervenes between them, to be destroyed, or what amounts to the same thing to fail to be produced, we shall have lour leaves occurring in a circle around the stem. Let these undergo a slight transformation, and they will form a fbur-sepaled calyx. If we suppose them to ad- here or grow together at their edges, for a part of their length, instead of a four-sepaled calyx, we shall have a four-parted one. In order that a num- ber of leaves may be converted into a corolla, a change in color, and the same changes in position as in the case of the calyx, are necessar}'. A petal is nothing more than a refined leaf. Of the ne- cessary changes in color, we have many instances in those organs which still remain leaves. The iu^per leaves of the balm (melissa^ are always ■colored. The upper leaves of love-lies-bleeding .(^amaranthus melancholicus). are often of as deep and beautiful a crimson as the flower itself. It is not an uncommon thing in the tulip, to see one of the leaves growing near the flower, variegated with the same rich colors as the flower itself. In order that a leaf may be converted into a stamen, it is necessary that the expanded parts of the leaf on each side of the mid-rib should be aboriive, and that the end of the mid-rib itself, should be devel- oped so as to form an anther; and pretty much Ihe same changes are necessary in order that a leaf may be converted into a pistil. 'J'he change of stamens into petals, and of petals into stamens, is one which very fi-equenlly occurs. The rose has naturally but four petals, or flower-leaves, as we see in the wild-rose and eglantine. All our double roses have been produced by the conversion ofsta- xnens into petals. It is very common thing to see a double rose with 30 petals ; of these 30, 26 are metamorphosed stamens. In fact, in the double rose, we may often find the stamens only about half metamorphosed; having their anthers perfect but their filaments developed as petals. In some plants, this doubling proceeds so far that not only the stamens, but the pistils also, are converted into ■petals, as in the flowering-almond (aiuygdalus jiana). Li the double flowers of the flowering cherry I we find the pistils actually converted into leaves. From the very centre of this curious flower, one and sometimes two perfectly formed green leaves make their appearance, by their position indicating that they are metamorphosed pistils. We some- times meet wiih more remarkable translbrmationa than these. In one instance, i have seen a stem growing from the very centre of a double rose and bearing a second rose upon its extremity. The germ of a pistil is the carpel, or fruit in the inci- pient stage of its growth. Of course, in the conversion of a pistil into a leafj we have in fact at the same time an instance of the conversion of a carpel mto a leaf Thus it will be seen that the changes which this theory supposes are not so contrary to the common course of nature as we would at first be inclined to think ; indeed that they are no other than such changes, as nature herself aflbrds us numerous examples of. Let us now attend to some of the consequences which must follow if this theory be true. 1st, it would follow that all the organs of fructification must have essentially the same structure. This conclusion agrees with the fiicts of the case as de- termined by examination. All the organs of fi'UG- lification, the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils and' carpel, consist of a vascular and a cellular system, arranged on essentially the same principles; the apparent diflerence arising principally from the more or less perfect developement of the cellular system. 2nd, that the number of organs of each se- veral kind, should, in the same flower, be some mul- tiple of each other. As all leaves are normally situated in whorls, and all the leaves of each whorl at the same height on the stem, and in the same situation with respect to the circulating sap, we would naturally coixlude that all of the leaves belonging to the same whorl would be converted into the same kind of organs. The number of" leaves in a whorl being definite, the number of organs of each kind, must be some multiple of every other. This is fbund to be true in a great number of flowers; thus the /(a'm«me/(S (witch- hazle) has four sepals, four petals, lour stamens and two pistils grown together at the base ; the wake-robin (Jrillium) has three sepals, three- petals, six stamens and three pistils; the cherry (primus), has five sepals, five petals twenty or twenty-five stamens, and five pistils ; the flower- de-luce {iris) has three sepals, three petals, three stamens, and three pistils, grown together at the base ; the blood-root (sanguinaria) has two se- pals, twelve petals, twelve stamens, and 2 pistils ; the garden pea (/3('sw?») li3s five sepals, five petals, ten stamens, and one pistil. When this, which is considered the normal structure of a flower, is de- parted from, the departure is to be ascribed to the abortion, degeneration, or adhesion, of one or • more ol' the organs. In several flowers, belong- ing to the same natural division, we may notice a series of departures, thus seeming to evince a tendency towards the norina! form ; thus in the natural division of scrophvlarice, the graiiola vir- ginica has five sepals, five petals, and two sta- mens ; the graiiola aurea has five sepals, two stamens and two rudimentary stamens ; the digi- talis, five sepals, five pei:a!s, four stamens ; the pentotcmmon, five sepals, five petals, four stamens, and a fifth one imperfectly formed; the verbascuniy five petals, five sepals, and five stamens. So gen- erally is it true, that the number of each class ci i83Dj FARMERS' REGISTER. 329 organs is some multiple ofevery other, that the bo- tanist in determining the Linn^ean class to vvhicli any small flower belonjis, olien counts the petals, and not the stamens. 3rcl, That the several organs of Iruclification are severally convertible into leaves; and vice versa, that leaves are convertible into the several organs of fructification. Of the truth ol this conclusion, proof has been already given. The circumstance on which the convert^ion of a ie'af-bud into a flower, and thus into iiuit, seems mainly to depend, is the accumulation of a larire quantity of nutritious matter in the part to which the bud is attached. The elaboiaiion of this nulritioup matter, as has been already men- tioned, is performed by the leaves. Hence it is, that a hyacinth, if deprived of its leaves one year, will not blossom the next ; but if its leaves are so fully exposed to the light and air that they go throiiLrh their growth in uninterrupted health, and if at the same time, the flowers of the first year are removed, the bulb will hlo.ssom more finely than ever the second year; fi)r, in this case, not only is a sufficient quantity secreted by the leaves, but the Slock prepared for the previous year remains unexhausted, in consequence of the flowers, which would have consumed it, having been des- troyed. After a hoi and briirhl summer, when the leaves have been in uninterrupted action, and a great quantity of solid matter has been deposited in the stem, an abundant quantit}^ of blossoms in- variably results ; while the reverse takes place after cold and gloopiy summers, when the shoots produced are weak and watery. If a tree is barren, its branches may be rendered fertile, by depriving them of a ring of bark, near the point at which the}' are inserted into the stem ; this inter- rupts the backward flow of the elafioraled sap causes nutritious matter to accumulate above the place where the bark is removed, and thus brings on the Ibrmation of flowers. An apple tree when raised from seed, and left to itself, will not flower in less than 7 or 8 years. But if a tree one year old, be cut off and grafted upon an old bearina: tree which is able to supply it with a lame quantify of nutritious matter, it will bear thesecond year after it is gralted ; so that in this way, in three years a plant may be made to bear, which under ordinary cir.'umstancesj would not flower in less than seven or eight. While the previous accumulation of nutritive matter in the part to .which a bud is attached, seems favorable to its conversion into a flower, and thus into fruit, the abundant supply of nour- ishment through the roots, at the time when the bud is opening, seems uniavorable. This is illustrated by the fact, thai in wet and warm sjirings, a great number of the blossom-buds of pears and apples are converted into leaves and branches. We account for this, by sup- posing that the excessively rapid developement which they undergo, breaks up the whorls of their flowers, and by throwing an excessive quantity of sap into the organs destined lor flowering, converts them into leaves. Such is the commonly received theory respecting the origin of the ilowc^r, and such the liicis by i which it is supported. Whether we adopt this! theory or not, this much seems certain; that a leat'-bud, soon after its ibrmation, may be convert- 1 ed into a flower, then into fruit ; and also, that a flower-bud, in the early stages of its growth, may I Vol. VII— 42 be converted into a branch and leaves. This is a fact of great importance to these engaged in fruit- culture, and European gardeners have long availed themselves of the advantages which nature thus af- fords. It is much to be desired, that we had a series of accurate experiments, perlbrmed lor the purpose of ascertaining all the circumstances which affect these metamorphoses. That which is known, I have attempted to give in the present chapter; but it must be conliissed, that it is too uncertain to be entirely satisfactory. Chap. XIII. SJfcED. THEIR STRUCTURE. MEANS OF DISPER- SION. PROPAGATION OP CR YPTOGAMOUS PLANTS, EFFECTED BY 3IEANS OF SPORES. The structure of the seed is very simple. In its most perleci form, it consists of an external coat, generally thick and hard, surrounding a cellular mass in which the rudiments of a new plant lie imbedded. The office of the external coat or skin is evidently that of protecting the more important and delicate parts within it. To this, its thick and hard structure is admirably adapted. In some seeds, this skin, or shell as it is more commonly called, is perli?ctly smooth, as in the acorn ; in others, it is irregularly furrowed, as in the peach stone; in others, it is cross-banded, so as to resemble net-work, as in the seed of the prickly poppy. The marking of the surliace of seeds is greatly diversified in different species, often ren- dering the minuter kinds beautilul objects of microscopic observation. When a seed germi- nates, the younir [)lant has to burst through thi.s shell, and in every instance, we find provision made for this, in the formation of the seed. Where the shell is very hard, it is always composed of two distinct and separable valves, as in the stones of the peach and cherry. The means by which the shell is broken, is the absorption of water by the cellular tissue of the kernel, through a small opening left in the shell itself The force with which cellular vegetable matter expands, during its absorption of \\*ater, is almost irresistable. The common method adopted in France, of splitting out mill-stones from the quarry, may be men- tioned as an example. The method is this : holes are bored arounii the piece intended to be split out ; into these wooden plucs are tightly driven, and things being thus arranged, water is poured upon these pliio-s. The cellular tissue of the wood absorbs this water, and with snch irresistable force does it expand, as invariably to split out the piece of rock intended. On the shell of many seeds we notice a scar, left by the separation of the seed from its funicle, or the vessel which originally connected it with the parent plant, and through which it received its nourishment. This is termed the hylum, or more comnionly the eye. It is very conspicuous in peas and beans, in which it has a different color from the remainder of the surface of the seed. Next to this outer skin or shell, lies the albumen consisting of a mass ol cellular tissue, filled with nutritious matter. This is intended for the nour- ishment of the younff plant, before its roots are sufRrientl}- developed to enable it to gain nour^ ishment immediately from the soil. The albumen is fi-equently divided into two or more separate 330 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 6 portions, termed cotyledons. When the young plant, protrudes lioni the ground, it soniclinics carries these cotyledons with it, as in the garden bean, where they have the appearance of thick fleshy leaves. The most remarkable i'act re- specting the cotyledons is, tliat their number is found always to correspond to the structure of tiie plant which springs il'om them. The seeds of plants with acrogcnous stems, such as feins, have no discoverable albumen, and ol' course no cotyle- dons. Hence such plants are called acotyledon- ous plants. Those of plants having endogenous stems, such as the Indian-corn, have but one colyledon. Hence they are called monocotyle- donous plants. Those ofplants having exogenous stems, have always two or more cotylodons ; hence these are termed dicotyledonous plants. The division of the vegetable kingdom thus indicated, forms the basis oi Jussieu's natural system of clas- sification— the natural system in common use among botanists at the present day. Besides the shell and the albumen, a rudi- mentary plant, termed an embryo, always Ibrms a part of the seed. This is the most important j)art of the seed, and for its protection, and fulure support, all the other parts are destined. The embryo makes its first appearance in the young seed, as a minute point or speck, in the midst oi' the pulpy matter of which the seed then consists. It afterwards gradually increases in size, derivinii its nourishment from the pulp until it has assumed the appearance of an organized body, and reached its destined size. H;iving in itsehj in a rudimen- tary stale, all the essential organs of vegetation, viz., a root, stem, and leaves, it becomes a plant by the mere developement ol its parts. When placed in circumstances favorable to its growth, it sends forth a root downwards, und astern upwards, and lijeding for a time upon the stock of Ibod which the parent plant has laid up lor it in the cotyledons, it strengthens and gains a firtn foot-hold in the earth, and at length becomes a perfect plant. The embryo may be looked upon as a rudi- mentary plant, provided by the parent tree, with a certain stock of ibod, and thus Kent fijrih into the world, to seek subsistence, and a home for itself Did the seed drop down from the plant on which they grew, and immediately bury themselves in the soil, great numbers would have to spring up in close contact, so that if llicy did not destroy, they would, at least, impede the growth of each other. Tills, however, is seldom tlie case; there is almost alwajs some provision made for re- moving the seed from the immetiiate neighbor- hood of the parent plant, and dispersing them abroad in the earth. An examination of the means made use of for elfecting this dispersion, presents a subject of interesting consideration. In some plants, the seed are contained in an elastic pod, or pericarp, which opening, when ripe, with a sudden jerk, scatters the seed to a considerable distance. Of this the Scotch broom (^spariium scopariu7n) aflords an examjile. During a dry day in August or Scptend)cr its pods may be heard snapping, at a very considerable diatance. The wild touch-me-not (impaticns fulgida) af- fords another example. If its seed-vessel be touch- ed when ripe, it at once bursts, and the valves, coil- ing themselves up, spring li-om the stem and scatter the seed around. The bursting of the pericarps of some species of pine, is also worthy of notice. The pericarp, which is a cone, remains on the tree till the summer succeeding that during which it was produced, the scales being still closed; but when the hot weather has commenced and con- tinued l(^)r some time, so as to dry the cone tho- roughly, the scales open with a jerk, ejecting the seed in every direction. But llie hura crepitans, a plant of the West Indies, aftords the most re- markable instance of this. "If the bony pod oi this plant be bound with several folds of strong cartridge paper, it will, so soon as it become tho- roughly dry, burst with force sufhcient to tear this paper in pieces." We observe a different means of dispersion in the barley (hnrdeum.) "The awn of the barley grain, which is beset with a multi- tude of little teeth, all pointing towards its upper ex- tremity, effects the movement of the grain away fi'oni the place where it fell. For when tlie seed with its awn falls from the ear, and lies flat upon the ground, it is necessarily extended in its dimen- sions b\' the moisture of the night, and contracted by the drought of the day; but as the teeth pre- vent its receding in the direction of the point, it ia consequently made to advance in the direction of the base of the seed, which in this way, is often carried to the distance of many fi;et from the stalk on which it grew. If an}' one is yet skeptical re- specting the travelling capacity of the awn, let liim only introduce an awn of barley, with the seed uppermost, between his coat and shirtsleeve at the wrist, when he walks out in the morning, and by the time when he returns to breUidiisf, if he has walked ar.y considerable distance, lie will find it up at his shoulder. This journey has been ef- fected by means of the continued motion of tlie arm, and consequently of the teeth of the awn, aclino; as feet to carry it forward." Where seed are to be dispersed to a great dis- tance, nature makes use of the agency of winds, streams, ocean currents, and living animals. The agency of winds is one of the most efiiective of these modes of dispersion, and in the case of many seeds, we may notice in their structure, peculiari- ties fitting them for being scattered in this way. The seeds of mosses, lichens, and fungi, are so exceedingly minute, that they float with ease in the air, and veiretate wherever they meet with a suitable soil. The seed of the white poplar (^liri- odendron iuHpifcra) are flirnished with a wing, so that v/hen failing fi'om the tree, they are caught by the wind, and carried to some distance. The seed of the maple (accr) and el.n (ulma) are fitted for this mode of dispersion, by the structure of their capsules, which are furnished with membrana- ceous wings, and of course are aflected by the wind, in the same way with the seeds of the white |)oplar. The seeds of the dandelion (lenntodon taraxacum) and thistle (cnicus lanccolatus) are terminated by a slender stalk, supporting a tuft of fine hairs at its extremity, 'i'his tuft of hairs is eminently h^grometrical. spreading out in dry weather, and collapsing again when the atmos- phere is damp. In consequence of this spreading of the hairs, so soon as the seed are ripe, they are broken off from the stem, and thus the more easily taken up and borne along by the wind ; but so soon as a drop of rain strikes one of them, the tuft of hairs immediately collapses, the seed falls to the ground, and is imbedded in the soil, in circum- stances the most favorable to its fulure growth. The seed of the curly-head {clcviatis viurna) are 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER. 331 furnished with a lonfj plumose tail, which serves I of the polte-berry (phytnlacca decandra,') which to scatter them in just the way in which the tuCi of hairs does those of the thistle. The instrumentality of streams, rivers, and ocean currents, and a further means, are made use of b}'- nature, for the dispersion of seed. The moun- tain stream washes down to the vaile}' the seed which may accidentally fall into it, or which it sweeps from its banks during a (reshet. The river, winding along lb-rough extensive portions of coun- try, conveys to the distance of many hundreds of miles the seeds of plants which have grown at first only at its source. On the islands in James river at Richmond, there is no more common plant than the tradescaatia, a plant which properly belongs to the mountainous regions in which that river takes its rise. Thai the seed from which these plants have sprung, must have been floated down by the river, is evident from the ftct, that in eastern Vir- ginia i hey are Iburid no where except on tlie islands in this river, and along its banks ; whilst they grow in great profusion and luxuriance in the part of the country in which the river takes its rise. "The southern shores of the Baltic, are visited by tino"." are eaten in great numbers by black-birds and ro- bins. It seems indeed surprising, that any seed should be able to resist the heal and digestive ac- tion of the stomachs of animals, and yet it is an undoubted fact that they do. Some seed seem even to require it. It is stated by an English bo- tanist, that the seeds of magnolia glanea, which have been carried to that country, have generally refused to vegetate until after undergoing this pro- cess. It is known that some seeds will bear a great degree of heat without injury. "Spalanza- ni mentions some seed that germinated after hav- ing been boiled in water; and Du Hamel gives an account of some others that germinated after having been exposed to a temperature of 235'' Fahrenheit." It is stated by Mr. Cleghorn that '•a farmer in the west of Scotland has been in the practice, for some years, of feeding his cows upon potato-balls, and using their dung; raising seed- ling plants from it, the seed having passed through the stomachs of the cows, without having under- gone such a change as to prevent their vegeta- seed wliich have grown in the interior of Ger- many, and the western shores of the Atlantic by seed from the interior of America. Fruits indige- nous to America and the West Indies have been found on the western shore of Europe, and even on the coast of Orkney and Shetland, evidently carried thither by the ocean currents." Another very common means made use of for (he disperson of seed, is the instrumentality of ani- mals. Many seeds are carried to a distance (rom the place where they grew, by attaching them- selves to the bodies of animals, who have acci- dentally come in contact with them, whilst in search of food; the hooks or hairs with which either the seed, or the pericarp is furnished, serving as instruments of attachment, the seed thus fas- tened upon the animal, bring carried about with it imtil it is detached by some means, and commit- ted to the earth. This is exemplified in the beg- gar's-tick {bktens) where the hooks are attached to the seeil itself; in the bed-straw (galium,) where they are attached to the pericarp; and in the burdock («rc/a/,ni,) where they are attached to the general calyx. Many seed are dispersed by animals in consequence of their pericarps bcinnr used as Ibod. This is ofien the case with cher- ries, and the berries of various plants, which birds often carry away, until they meet with some con- venient place fov devouring the pericarp, and then drop the seed into the soil. So also seed are dis- persed by such animals as the squirrel, who hoard them up lor their winter's food. Sometimes the seed arc hoarded up in the earth itself, in which case some of them will generally be found to take root and spring up into plants; though it has been noticed that grouad-squirrels often deprive the seed of its germ before depositing it in their holes, as if apprized of its liabilit}'- to grow in such a sit- uation as that in which they place it. The Indians assert that all the oaks of this country have been planted by squirrels. The seed is frequently taken into the stomach of the animal, and afterwards deposited in the soil unhurt. This is the case with the seed of the mistletoe, Qviscum,) which the thrush swallows, and aftervvards leaves upon the boughs_ of such trees as it may happen to alight upon. The same is the case with the seed That all the more perfect plants are propagated by means of their seed, is a fact so abundantly proven by experiment and observation, that it can no longer be called in question ; but that the same is true of the more imperfect plants, such as ferns, mosses, lichens, fungi and sea-weeds, is not equal- ly certain. As such plants produce no regular flowers, and possess none of those organs of fructi- fication by whose instrumentality the seeds of more perlijct plants are produced, we would natu- rally expect, that if they produced seeds at all, they would be of a nature entirely different from those to which we have already attended. That nature has not neglected the means of reprodu- cing these plants, however, is plain, from their great abundance in favorable situations. On ex- amination we find that although they do not pro- duce regular seed like the more perlect plants, they nevertheless, produce that which answers the purpose equally well. The bodies by means of which they are reproduced, are termed spores or spondes. In the case of the more perlect flower- less plants, that these spores act precisely like seed in reproducing the species, there can be no doubt; for if those from the back of the leaves of a fern, or from the urn of a moss be sown, as has often been done, they uniformly produce the same species as that fi-om which they were derived. Spores differ from regular seeds, both in their struc- ture, and in their mode of growth. Instead of possessing a regular germ, divided into plumule and radicle, to v/hich one or more cotyledons are attached, they are mere homogeneous masses of cellular substance; and indeed, sometimes consist of a single cellule. When they begin to grow, instead oi" growing from one fixed point of their surfice upwards, and from another (i nvnwards, they are capable of sprouting from any part of their surftice indifferently; that portion of the suffice which is exposed to the light, extend- ing into a stem, and that which is turnecl from the litrht, becoming a root. "Mirbel, in his expe- riments on marchantia, ascertained tiiat it waa possible, up to a particular period of the growth of the spores of that plant, to induce the parts which they had developed to change their Hjnc- tions; the rudimentary stem taking on itself (he 832 FARxMERS' REGISTER [No. 6 office of a root, anil tlie new-born root becoming a sten), when their siiuafion was ir)vertec1." Witli respect to tlie more simple Ibrms of vege- tation, each a.« lun<^i, lichens, and sea-weeds, this matter is involved in greater mystery; some bota- nists believing them to be produced by a sort of equivocal generation. In their opinion, there is a common vegetable matter, consisting ol" sinifjle globular cellules, cachol' vviiich is possessed ol'ihe vital principle, and cnpable of growing into a new plant, Cut whilst they allow to these cellules the power of growing into new plants, liiey contend that the particular s[)ecies of plant into vvhicli any one of them shall grow, is determined, not by any thing in the cellule itself, but by the particular circumstances in which they are developed; "that such cellules, if called into life upon a bare wall, become lichens; in adark cellar, fungi; in the skin of a plant, parasites, and in water, confervcR'^ or sea-weeds. In favor of this opinion such arguments as the Ibllowing are adduced. That a conferva is never found in any other medium than water, and a lichen only in air. Many forms of matter, it is said, nnilormly produce the same species of plant; for example, decayed cheese, which has always the same blue mould, or ILingus. The parasites which grow upon the rose, and many other plants, are always confined to particular species, and some- times to particular organs, those of the bark not being always the same as those of iho leaves. If one of these filants is examined microscopical- ly, it will generally be found a mere mass of cel- lules, exactly like the spores or reproductive cel- lules. It is lurther asserted, that the power of re- production is not confined to the spores, but exists in all the cells of which these plants are composed. "If we add to these considerations, the singular fact, that man holds, as it were, in his hands, the power of creating these things at will — at least in the case of the common mushroom, which will al- ways be produced by a mixture of decayed and earthy matter — it cannot be denied that a strong prima facie case is made out by those who doubt the specific power of reproduction in the spores of (he lower tribes of plants," In answer to these arguments it is nrged, by those who liold a ditterent opinion, that it is by no means certain that all these statements are true as matters of facts. The imperfection ol' our means of observation may lead us to confound forms of matter which are essentially different ; and also, to separate lijinis of matter whch are essentially the same. It has lately been shown, that many of the so-called parasites are nothing more than morbid conditions of the cuticle of plants ; and moreover that the separation of the different or- ders of these plants into species, is in very many cases, erroneous. As to the assertion that the power of reproduction is possessed by other parts of the plant besides the spores, it is plain that no certain information can be obtained respectintrthis matter, unless some way oi" effecting a perfect separation of the spores fi-om the part experi- mented on, can first be devised, and no one pre- tends to have discovered such a way as yet. On this suh|ecl. Prof. Lindley remarks "surely it is more philosophical, more conlbrmable tt) what we know, to ascribe these phenomena to myriads of microscopic spores, floating in the atmosphere, and c|isperscd by currents of air wherever that air can penetrate; and those who are practically acquainted with the nature of spores will be the least likely to question the probability of this; for they best know how inconceivably minute, and how mfi- nitely numerous these spores are. Even the most common observer may form some notion of the fact, from the calculation that millions must be contained in a single puff-ball ; and that many hundreds of these reproductive organs, are emit- ted by every microscopic head of the common blue mould of cheese. Let us not then be led astray, by specious theories and imaginary tiicts concern- ing bodies so liir beyond the cognizance of our senses ; but in the absence of demonstrative evi- dence to the contrary, fet us believe that the great author of nature is consistent with himself in all his works, and has taken care to enable the most humble liingus to be multiplied by means as cer- tain and unchangeable, as is provided for the state- liest oak of the fijres*. We may rest assured, for all philosophj', and all observation, and all reason prove it, that there is no such thing in nature as blind chance; but that all things have been care- fully and wisely designed, with reference to the particular circumstances in which they exist." Chap. XIV. GERMINATTON, CIIKMICAL CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE. CIRCUMSTANCES FAVORABLE TO GERMINATION. CIRCUMSTANCES FAVOR- ABLE TO THE PRESERVATION OF SEED. BIATURATION Ot FRUIT. Germination is the process by which a new plant originates from the seed. The phenomena which are presented during germination may be divided into physical and chemical. The physical phe- nomena have been already adverted to. The most important of them are, the production and developement of the young radicle downvvard, and the extrication of the plumule and its develope- ment in the air. The chemical phenomena we will now examine more particularly, for the purpose of ascertaining what circumstances are fiivorable, and what unfavorable to germination. The change which is produced in bailey {hordeuni) by the pro- cess of malting, is nothing more nor less than the germination of the barley. From an analysis of malted and nnmalted barley made by Proust, their composition is as follows : One hundred parts of barley of malt Contain of resin 1 1 " gum 4 15 " sugar 5 15 " gluten 3 1 " starch 32 5Q fa proximate"! u I I • I principle pe- \ ^-r " hordein-^ ' ,. ' ,' >o5 j culiartobar- Uey, J From an inspection of the results of this analysis, it will be seen that the principal chemical change which takes place, during the germination of the seed, consists in the conversion of hordein into starch, gum, and sugar, so that from an insoluble material, f for hordein is insoluble in water,) which could not in that state be applied to the use of th9 young plant, two soluble and highly nutricioqa 12 1S39] FARMERS' REGISTER 333 principles result, which, by being soluble in water, are easily made use of by the plant. The pro- duction ot sugar in this case, identifies the change which the seed has undergone, with what is termed the saccharine lermentation. The circumstances which are favorable to the production of the sac- charine lermentation in vegetable matter, are well known ; they are, a temperature from 60° to 70° Fahr., the presence of moisture, and the free ac- cess of atmospheric air. J^et us see how fir obser- vation will justify us, in applying the remark to the germination of seed. Isf, With respect to the temperature best adapted to the germmation of seed. No seed has ever been known to germinate at or below the freezing point ; hence seed do not germinate in vvinler, even though lodged in their proper soil. The tempera- ture most fiivorable to germinal ion, varies widely in different species; seeds being known to (germinate at almost every temperatu.-e between the freezing and boding points of water. Nearly all plants in- digenous to temperate climates, require a tempera- ture of at least 50'^ Fahr. for germination ; the precise temperature in each varying with the pe- culiar constitution of the species ; a circumstance which explams the regular succession noticeable in the leafing of difl'erent trees, and in the appear- ance of annual herbaceous plants, during the spring and summer. We are not, however, to infer from this that the particular temperature at which the seed of any plant usually germinates, is the most favorable which is possible for its ger- mination. Adanson found that seed which will germinate at ordinary temperatures in the space of twelve liours, may be made to germinate in three hours, by exposing them to a "reater dei^ree of heat. 2nd, The presence of moisture. Seed will not germinate if they are kept perfectly dry. Water, or some similar lifiuid, is essential to germination ; hence seed sown during a drought will never grow until the rain has moistened the ground in which they are deposited. But the (]uantity of water present is not a matter of indifference ; for it is found that if there be two much water present the seed wili rot. The quantity of water required by dilli'rent seeds is not the same. Some can bear but little water, whilst others will germinate when partially immersed, as has been proved by an ex- periment of Du Ilamel, at least in the case of peas. When he placed peas so that they should be about half immersed in water, he found that they ger- minated as freely as if placed in the soil ; but much more than this they could not bear, for when to- tally immersed they rotted. There are some seed however, which will germinate when totally im- mersed, as must necessarily be the case in the seeds of aquatic plants. 3rd, The access of atmospheric air. Seed will not germinate if placed in vacuo. Ray introduced some seed of lettuce into the receiver of an air- pump, and having exhausted the air, he let them remain for some time, but no germination ensued ; he then readmitted the air, and the seed ger- minated after the usual period had elapsed. It'has also been ascertained by experiment, that seed Will not germinate either in nitrogen, carbonic acitl, or in hydrogen gas ; and hence we conclude that it is the oxygen of the atmosphere which is essential to germination. The influence of light, which is so favorable to growth in all the subsequent stages of vegetation, is injurious to the germination of the seed. Sen- nebier has provecl that a seed germinates more rapidly in the shade, than in light, and in diffused dr.ylight, than when exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The reason of this is, that light ef- fects the fixation of carbon in the tissues, a liard- ening process, exactly the reverse of that which takes place in germination. Soil is by no means essential to the germination of seed; the retjuisite nourishment tor the young plant during the first stages of its (rrowth being deposited in tfie seed itself at the time of its formation. The embryo requires only the joint influence of air, moisture, and a proper temperature, to enable it to grow, and appropriate this nourishment to its own use. Yet soil, in consequence of its mechanical texture, permitting, as it does, the free access of air, and excluding the light, is very favorable to ger- mination. Besides these circumstances, it is gen- erally necessary that the seed should have reached full maturity in order to germinate well. Tills however is not always the ccse. The seed of the sacred bean of India (^cyamus nelumbo) will some- times germinate whilst it is yet in the capsule and connected with the parent plant. The same is true of the seed of the mangrove, a tree which grows along the borders of tlie sea in tropical coun- tries. Whilst the seed of this plant is yet in the pericarp, its young radicle pierces the seed vessel, and elongates until it reaches the soft mud in which such trees grow, where it takes root, and afterwards separates from the parent plant. These instances however must be considered as ex- ceptions to a general rule. The period necesary to complete the process of germination, is not ttie same in all plants, even where all the conditions necessary to germination are fulfilled. Some species require a shorter, and others a longer period. The grasses are among the number of those plants whose seeds germi- nate most rapidly, and rosaceous plants among those which germinate most slowly. The follow- ing table indicates the period of germination of a considerable variety of seed, as determined by Adanson. Wheat - - Beans, mustard Lettuce - - 1 3 4 day Cabbage - Hyssop - Parsley - 10 days 30 40-50 " Melon, cucum- ber - - - Radish, beet Barley - - 5 " 6 " 4-7 •' Peach - Rose - - 1 year 2 years When seeds are protected from the action of those agents whicfi facilitate germination, they may generally be preserved for a long time ; but even in ilie most fiivorable circumstances, they at length lose the power of germinating. The period during which seeds preserve their vitality, varies much in difl'erent species, and also in the same species, in ditlerent circumstances. An exposure of a \'e\\ weeks is sufficient to destroy the vitality of many seeds; especially those which are covered with a thin and delicate skin. On the other hand, all hard bony seeds, such as those of the pea tribe, may be kept fijr many years, without material detriment to their germinating power. Seeds of the sensitive plant (cassia nictitans') have been made to grow after an interval of 26 years; and peas, taken from a collection of seed made by 334 F A R M E R S' R E G I S T E R, [No. 0 Tournefort, where they had remained for more than 100 years, gcnninateil quite Ireeiy. The circumstances winch seem most fiivorahie to the preservaiion of seed, are; Isl, uniform tem- perature; 2ik1, moderate dryness; and 3rd, exclu- sion oT Hght; and the success wiili wliicii seeds are preserved for any lene as a medicine, that changes tlie nature of the soil, and in the other, as rousing, or bringing into action, the vegetable powers contained in the soil, which without such an application, would have remained dormant and inactive. These opinions, we know are different from what have been maintained by several ingenious men on the subject; but they are supported by the result of numerous trials, un- dertaken to ascertain how, and in what manner, lime operated upon the soil, and whether it could be used in a hot or ej^l'/c state vvith the most ad- vantage. On these points, theoretical writers are apt to fall into mistakes; and therefore every the- ory not formed Ir-om fiicts, must be viewed as a romance which may amuse, but cannot instruct agriculturists. The writer of this article, for a period of f'tirty years, has been in the regular habit of appiviuij considerable quantities of lime ; indeed few of his profession have used more of this useful article. In Ihe majority of cases, the application has been highly beneficial to his interest, changing in a manner the very nature of the soil, and causing il to produce the most abundant crops; whereas in others^ the articlo has been altogether useless, and in some instances the application has been followed by mischief instead ol" benefit. As most of these trials were executed upon a large ycalc, and upon soils of almost every different (juality, more ben- efit may be gathered from a succinct account of them than from a long chain of argument. The trials are fairly staled, and the results may perhaps throw some light upon this ahslruse subject It is proper to premise, thai a good deal of un- certainty prevails with agriculturists, respecting the application of this article ; and that-much dis- pute lias taken place among those who have ap- plied if only to one kind of soil, or who have not used it under different circumstances. Some have contended, that lime ought t5 be applied only when it is in a hot powdered state ; and that when it becomes effete, the effects are comparatively tri- fling and unavailing. Others maintain, that grass land is the best bed for the reception of lime, 'while many of our most enlightened farmers strenuously affirm, that it is most judiciously used when the land gets a complete, summer-lidlow. It would not be difficult to prove, that each class of dispu- tants, in the view they take of the subject are equally in the right; and that ihey only condemn the system of others, because their own has turned out to be successful. Our opinion is, that, in every case where the land is constitutionally dis- posed to receive benefit liom a calcareous dress- sinir, ihat is, when it is reli-eshed by grass, or en- riched by dung, it is of little importace, in respect of operation, whether lime is apfilied hot or cff'cte; upon grass land, or upon fallow ; and that conve- nience ought chiefly to be studied, when the most proper time for api)lying the article is to be ascer- tained. In point of economy, there can be no doubt, but that lime is most economically used, when laid upon land hot from the kiln; this mode also lessens the expense of labor considerably; consequently the practice of using it wl)en effete is more exjiensive. It is obvious, however, lliat a choice of season is not always in the iiumer's power; and that im- posing necessity often obliges him to lay on lime when completely eff'ete. Repeated trials, how- ever, have convinced us, that its operations are equally beneficial in the one state as in the other; though the expense in the last case, as already said, is greater than in the former. With regard to the other branch of dispute, whether land in grass, or land in fallow, is the most proper bed for the re- ception of lime, we are ofopinion, that the diflt?rence is immaterial. If grass land is clean, and if lime can be got forward at the time, the application will be as efficacious upon it, as upon the richest and best wrought summer-fallow. That these things are not matter ofopinion, we mean to show, by detailing the results of the trials made to ascertain the fiicts. To render these de- tails more perfect, we shall mention the nature of the surface and subsoil upon which the several irials were made, and explain the state of the ground at the time; and, when necessary, the management practised for a series of years after- wards. Field. No. I. was soil chiefly composed of thin clay, some of it approaching to a moorish quality, i. e. mixed with peat earth;" the whole incumbent upon a subsoil rclcniive of moisture. This field had been in grass for several years, but yielded very poor returns. It was fallowed without taking any corn croji; and the lime which ^6 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. s was brought forward during the sumnler months, Was applied in the following spring. |)revious to tlie seod-furrovv being given. At that time, it was completely cfete, and would hardly go from the shovel;=. About 45 Linlithgow barley bolls, or 280 Winchester bushels, as originally laiil down, were applied to each Scottish statute acre. First year— The crop was oats, but little bene- fit was discovered from the lime. Second year— The ground began to ferm^ent, which showed, that the lime was in action. The husbandry of flax being then in vogue, it was tried upon this field ; and liie crop was excellent, both in respect of flax and seed. Third year— It was sown witli gray pease afler two furrows, which returned a great bulk of straw, but not much grain. The clay part of the field was now quite loose and free, while the moorish soil seemed more compact and firm. Fourth year— Red wheat was sown, which turned out a bulky crop, though the season was adverse. The straw was hard, bright, reedy, and of great length. Perhaps the greatest quantity of dung applied at once, would not have produced such a crop. Fifth year — The field was summer fallowed, but no dung was applied. Here it may, with justice, be urged, that a great error was committed in withholding dung at this stage ; and it is acknowledged, that a dose ol" ma- nure, i)ad circumstances permitted, could nothave been more beneficially bestowed. In vindication of the management practised, we may only state that at the period in question, dung was a very scarce article upon the larm ; and that many fields would not crop at all, if it was withheld. The one under consideration, appeared quil^e capable of carrying several more crops, without assistance ; consequently viewing the economy of tlie farm as a whole, it was thought preferable to act in the man- ner described. Many things are eligible in general management, which cannot be indivuk'aily exe- cuted ; and, as in public affairs, a partial evil must often be conmntied^to promote the general good. Sixth year — The field was sown with oats, and produced a heavy crop both of straw and corn. Grass seeds were sown with the oats. Seventh year — The field was despastured with cattle. The grass was but indifferent, which is a common circumstance upon new limed land ; at least where a heavy dose is given. This induced us to plough it again, in the succeeding .spring. Eighthyear — Oats were sown, which yielded a decent crop. Ninth year — The field was thoroughly summer- fallowed and dunged, at the rate of sixteen double loads to the Scottish acre. Wheat was sown. Tenth year — The crop of wheat was excellent, being not only bulky, but of fine quality. Eleventh year — Oats and grass seeds were i^own, and the ground surrendered to pasture. Since that time, it has been a few years under corn : and though the produce of these crops cannot, by any exertion, be made to equal those which are enu- merated ; yet the soil is evidently much improved in every respect, when compared with its original state, previous to the lime being applied. Field, No. 2. was a real nioorish soil, incum- bent upon a clos'^ bottom, which had been over- cropped afier lime, by a former tenant. We began with a summer-fallow, and applied a part of the same kind of lime which answered so well upon field No. 1. 'Vhe lime, was laid on dnrinir a liard black frost, at the rate of 35 bolls, or 210 bushels per acre, and was then effete. Oats were sown ; but the crop was a poor one, and the after attempts were not more successful. The stalk of the plant generally singed and de- cayed, alter the strength of the seed pickle was gone ; which is a sure proof of ground being worn out with lime. This will always happen, though in difftM-ent degrees, upon all such land, unless a consi.lerable quantity of dung is bestowed ; vvhicli unfortunately, in this instance, was not the case. Field, No. 3. — The soil was of a moorish qual- ity, but superior to that of No. 2. We fidlovved the field out of grass, and applied lime hot from the kiln ; but the consequences were much the same as mentioned in the preceding instance. The oat-crop looked brisk at first, but decayed daily, as the strength of the pickle was exhausted. 'Tried dung with a second (iillow, when the lime appeared to operate in a trifling de- gree, but not to that extent as to repay the expense incurred. Field, No. 4.— The soil was partly thin clay, the remainder of a soft sandy nature, but all upon a wet bottom. This field had lain, for a great many years, in grass, and displayed no signs of having been pre- viously limed. We applied the lime upon the grass surface, when it was effete, and ploughed for oats : the crop good. The lime did not come into full action till the third year, when pease were sown; and, for a number of years afterwards, the different crops taken were not inlerior to those of the be-t in the field. Field, No. 5.— The soil was chiefly a soft loam upon a wet bottom ; which at any rale, had not been limed since the ridges were levelled and straightened. We summer-fallowed this field, afler a crop ol wheat, and dunged it substantially, as it appeared to be in an exhausted slate. We applied lime hot fiom the kiln, at the rate of 40 bolls, or 240 bush- els per acre, which operated immediately. It is now sixteen years since the application; during which lime, the field has been only three years iu grass, and yet its eflijcts have not ceased. Field, No. 6— The soil was a strong loam in- cumbent upon clay, which had carried five crops ol iirain alier being ploughed from old grass. We summer-fallowed and dunged 'this field; applied lime also, which was laid on hot from the kiln, in the month of August, after six ploughings were iriven. The quantity applied was forty bar- ley bolls per acre ; which, in less than a month, occasioned a fermentation of the soil, something similar to what is produced by yeast upon unbaked bread. In another respect, the improvement made upon this field by lime was conspicuous. Barley could, with dilFiculty, be raised belijre lime was used ; whereas, afterwards, fine crops of this grain were procured with facility. The ground was likewise much easier ploughed and harrowed than firmerly, which is always^ a sure token of an im- provement being accomplished. Field, No. 7.— Tlie soil was generally a thin sharp loam, a great part of it incundient upon a close bottom. Ii iiad been three years in grass, and was sown down in good order ; and, therefore, 13393 FARMERS' REGISTER 83? Was a proper eubject for receiving lirne upon the sward. There was reason to beheve that lime had been applied by a former tenant, but this wa.s not certain. After h.arvegtj we laid on from Ihirty- five to forty bolls per acre, not thinking the soil recjuired a heavy dose. It was partly hot, and partly effete, as generally happens at that season of the year. First year, oafs were taken; the crop good. Second year, drilled beans, wuh intervals ojtweniy- seven inches ; the ground being twice ploughed before sowing, and lour limes horse-hoed; crop midilling. Third year, wheat after one. ploughing, which yielded a lull average crop. Fourih year, it was under summer-lallow ; to vvhicli 12 double loads of dung per acre were given. Filili year, in Avheat; cjop excellent. Sixth year, in drilled beans, which were managed as above. Seventh year, wheat ; crop above mediocrity. Eighth year, barley, with grass seeds, after three ploughings; wlfich, though the season was adverse (1799), turned out a decent crop. Ninth year, under grass, which was pastured with cattle, ar.d not in- lerior to any in ihe country. It may be olijected, that the above is hard crop- ping. This may be the case ; but we are far from acknowledging that hard cropping.in certain cases, is inconsistent vvidi good I'arming. The expense of lime in general is so great, that a necessity ibr hard cropping may be said to be thereby created. Resides, this necessity is increased by the general shorine5s of leases, which impedes every perma- nent improvement; and, in the usage of lime, calls tor the utmost exertion of the tenanf, that he may be reimbursed his exlrordinary outlay and trouble. Field, iSo. 8. — The soil was chiefly loam, though of different varieties, and mostly incumbent upon a close bottom. This field, which consisted of fifty acres, had been cropped for time immemorial; and, when we entered to the fu'm, was so tired with carrying wheat, that is was scarcely worth the ploughing. It was therefore laid down to grass vvilh all con- venient speed. In this state it remained five years, when it was broken up again ; thirty acres having been limed ui)on the swa:d, at the rate of forty barley bolls per a(;re. Some of the lime was laid on three years belore ploujzhing, some of it two years, and the remainder a lew da3s before the ploughs entered. Part of it was hot, part of it effetr.; but the effects over the whole field, even in the first year, were nearly the same; if there was any difierence, the ridges last limed fermented most, but the crop was equally bulky wherever the lime had been applied ; though, upon the twenty acres unlimed, the inferiority was evident. From ■this it appears, that it was not necessary to apply lime to grass land one or two years belore it was broken up, as inculcated by several writers upon husbandry; a practice, at any rate, not reconcilea- ble with economy, as much of the liitie is washed oti the surface, and carried away by rain belore the »lay, IbOl, for £250. £,.s. d. On the 14ih of May, Mr. Day could have sold him for - - 525 0 0 On the 131 h of June, for - - 1000 0 0 On the Sth of July, for - - 2000 0 0 Mr. Day travelled with him nearly six years, through the principal parts of England and Scot- land, "till at Oxford, on the I9ih February. 1807, the ox dislocated his hip-bone, and continued in that state till the 15lh April, v/lien he was obliged to be slaughtered ; and, notwithstandinfj he must have lost considerably in weight, during these eight weeks of illness, his carcass weighed — Imp. stones " Four quarters - - 265 Tallow ... 11 Hide - - - - 10 This was his weight at eleven 3'ears old, under all the disadvantages of travelling in a joliing car- riage, and eight weeks of painful illness. Had he been kept quietly at Ketton, and led till seven years old, there is little doubt but ho would have weighed more than he did at ten years old, at which age Mr. Day slated his live weight to have been nearly ihirty-lbur hundred weight, or two hundred and seventy stones, irom which if filiy be taken for offal, it leaves the weight of the car- cass two hundred and twenty stones. It is a well ascertained fact, that, during his ca- reer as a breeder, Mr. Collmg tried several expe- riments in crossing, and the breeds to which he resorted on these occasions, being very considera- bly smaller than the short-horns, this circum- stance tends to corroborate the writer's opinion that he considered it desirable to reduce their size. The cross with the Kyloe led to no results worthy enumeration, but that with the polled Galloway must not be passed over without comment. Be- fore stating the circumstances attending this expe- riment, it may be proper to observe that no breed of cattle promised so successful across with the Vol.. VII— 44 IDs. 12 2 2 ere Calculr.- d short legs, to bring the short-horns nearer the ground, and to dispose their weight in a more compact manner: (heir hardy habits would be essentially useful, and the quality of their flesh and hair were such as to render- the experiment still more safe. Add to this, that thej' could be obtained of a red color, and we are prepared to admit, even without the sane' ion of a successful experiment, that tliey were admi- rably adapted to cross with the short-horn, stand- ing frequently loo high from the ground, not very well ribbed home, and not seldom of loose, dis- jointed frame. To this breed Mr. Colling resolved to resort; and though at the time when he did so, the event was regarded with some degree of ridicule by the pure blood advocates, and cominents passed which would have deterred ordinary men from the ex- ercise of their judgment, Mr. Colling persisted. He was much fiivored by circumstances in pro- moting his object, which was to take one cross, and then breed back to the short-horn,-— the only course, by the way. in which crossing can be suc- cessfully adopted. To breed fi-om the produce of acvosH directly among ihemsclvea will lead to the results which have induced man}'' persons, willi- out due consideration, to believe conclusive against crossing; but to take one cross, and then return and adhere to one breed, will, in the course of a few generations, be found to stamp a variet}^ v,'ith sufficient certainty. Mr. Colling's short-horned hull Bollngbrnkt was put to a beatifiil red-polled Galloway cow, and the produce, being a biill-cali; was. in due. time, put to Johanna, a pure short-horn, — she also produced a bull-calf! i'his grandson of Bo!;ng- hroke v;as the sire of the cow. Lady, Iiy anotlier pure short-horned dam, and from Lad v has sprung the hitrhly valuable family ofimprovcd short-horns, terji^ed, in reproach, the alloy. How fir the alloy was deroiiatory, k^\ facfs testify,* It will probably be admitted that the prejudice against this cross was at the highest at the time of Mr. Charles Colling's sale. The blood had then been little, if at all, introduced toother stocks, and it was manifestly the interest, whatever mirrht be the inclination, of the niany breeders who had it not, to assume high ground for the pure blood, and to depreciate the alloy. Under these untown rd circumstances for the alloy, Avhat said public opinion, unequivocally certified by the stroke of the auctioneer's hammer? Lady, before- men- tioned at fourteen years old, sold for two hundred and six guineas. Qnnitess, her daug-hter, nine years old, for four hundred guineas. Laura, ano- ther daughter four years old, f)r two hundred and ten guineas. iJ/ajor and Ceorg-e, two of her sons, the former three years old, the latter a calf, for two hundred guineas and one hundred and thirty ; be- side a number of others, more remotely descended from Lady, which all sold at high prices ; in fact, in a sale of forty-eight lots, realizing £7115 17.s. Lady and her decendanfs sold for a larger sum than any other family obtained. * The dam of Lady was afso the dam of fho bull Favorite: and as the grandson of Bolingbroke is not known to have been the sire of any other remarkabiy good animal, it is most probable that the unquestiom;" ble merit of Lady and her descendanis is to be attri- buted more to her dam than to her sire. — Edil. 346 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 0 Ae a epecimen of the allny, the reader is re- ferred lo Mr. Derr3''s cow. She gives a nioderale quantity of particularly rich milk. It would answer no uselhl purpose, and would certainly be an ohjediouahle course, lo hrinu; un- der particular notice any one or more of the hi encourage the sales of mulberry trees at high prices, one hundred per cent, is a very trivial mis- take ! In the table of probable produce per acre, given by E. Roberts, from 16 dilierent persons, we find the numberof pounds of silk varying from 18 to 27, and 61 lbs. iii the lowest, to 333', to 666, and even 1296 lbs. in the highest; and hence the esti- mate of the leaves per acre multiplied by 200 lb, leaves for 1 lb. silk, must vary Irom 3600 lbs. to 259,200 lbs. of leaves to the acre! ! or 7200 per cent! ! ! Mr. Roberts very gravely remarks that some of these are quite too high ! ! and then very gravely sums up the total, divides by 10, and as- sumes that 249 /j5 lbs. at $\ per lb. or ^1000 per acre, may saliily be put down as the average pro- fits ! ! ! This mode of ascertaining profits reminds me of the mode of ascertaining damages prac- tised by a frontier jury in Illinois, when I resided there many years ago, Eacli juror chalked dowH his individual estiuiate of the damages in a suit for assault, the lowest being one cent and the highest 500 dollars, the aiigregate of 600 was di- vided by 12, and the verdift brought in lor 50 dol- lars ! Rut seriously, tlu'se extravagantly discor- dant estimates will injure the progress ol legitimate silk-culiure in the United States. I have seen the weight of leaves requisite lor one ounce ol eggs vary from 1050 to 2500 lbs. in eitiraalcs ; the weiglii of cocoons from one ounce of eggs vary from §0 to 165 lbs. ; the weight of cocoons from 100 lbs. leaves from 3] lbs. to 7;f lbs. ; the weight of cocoons for 1 lb. silk, from 8 to 13 lbs.; the number of cocoons lor 1 lb. silk from 2000 to 6000 ! ! What the public wants are positive facts fi'om the bona fide silk-culturists themselves. When a series of poor men on the poorest soils shall credibly testify that their ordinary crops of leaves, with ordinary culture, have exceeded 5000 lbs. leaves per acre, I shall believe the facts, but not till then. With these moderate opinions of the value of the silk culture, I nevertheless esti- mate its national importance on a much higher scale than those who attempt to seduce the public by the specious prospect of speedier and greater profits than are obtained li-om our old staples ol ag- riculture. I was the first person that introduced the mo- rus multicaulis, not only in Tropical Florida, but into any part of East Florida, i^y the '.Silk Culturist' of July, 1836, p. 123, I perceive that under the date of St. Augustine, June, 1836, a Mr. D. Brown, claims that honor by saying, '-In November, of '33 I anived in S!. Augustine with fitly small plants of the morus multicaulis, obtained fi'om Mrs. Parmenlier. They were the first ever brought to Florida." Now the facts are, that the same worthy lady, under date of the 5th April, 1833, slujiped for me twelve trees of morus multicaulis in the schr. Olynihus, Capt. Trowbridge, care ol T. A. Browne, Key West, by whom they were for- warded (or rather backwarded) north-eastwatdly S94 FARMiEllS' REGISTER. No. 6 e&y 150 milea to John Dubose, inspector ai Cape Florida, where they arrived on the 20ih May, 1833, I taieanp. The detriment to the preparatory nursery, and consequently to the public progress of agriculture on this reelj will be infinitely greater than the individual benefit which can result to Lieut. Coste himself; as his coniessed ignorance of the nature or culture of plants will be the cause of the destruction of most valuable species which might otherwise be multi- pled on lower Matacumba, both for a nursery of abundant supply, and a model of successful cul- ture. You should be aware that such is the slate of the limited society on this wrecking reef, that no injury can be easily prevented or redressed by due course of law ; and, as I have learned, by a long course of painful experience, that it is less troublesome to endeavor to forgive injuries than it is to attempt to punish them, I simply relieve my feelings by thus exposing the facta to the ag- ricultural community, who can sympathize with me lor these outrageous obstacles to the progress of my great enterprise. Besides, were I even in- clined to make formal charges against Lieut. Coste, to the proper department, I would not make them now, because I am persuaded that he will avoid the punishment of removal from otfice on tire prior charges of speculating in town sites, and receive the reward of an appointment to otlice under the collector of Key West, say an inspec- torship, which will enable him to continue at Tea- Table Key, and thus more efi'ectually subserve the hostility of the monopolizing proprietors of Key West against the monopolizing proprietor of Indian Key. I never had, and never shall have, any personal interest in any of the rival islets of Florida ; the Tropical Plant Company never shall have any connection with the rival proprietors, as partizans of interests of any Key in the Florida Reef; and as soon as the Seminoles may permit, I shall remove my family to some spot between Cape Sable and (Jape Florida, to which a wrecking ves- sel cannot possibly come, and where even a wreck- er's voice cannot possibly be heard. As Key West, by being a port of entry, has long enjoyed the 1839] FARMERS* REGISTER, 855 whole monopoly oP the wrecking business on lliis reei^ and as an additional port of entry would at the least divide (he monopoly) the fact that n:ie- morials have been presented to confrrese in favor ol Indian Key, and that it is at least very near the central position, or wrecking rendezvous, where the new port of entry must necessarily be made, furnish sufficietit explanations of the hostilities of the proprietors and officers of Key West, not only to Itidian Key itself" but also to every site and enterprise in its vicinity, which may not be directly prejudiciai to the prosperity of Indian Key. Hence you perceive that the evils of the public vessels cruising on these coasts; for while Lieut. Shubrick of tlie U. S. Sloop Panther be- came the temporary partizan of Indian Key, Lieut. Coste oC the Revenue Schooner Campbell, has become the permanent partizan of Key West. The result of the whole to the nursery will be: 1st. As all regular mails are suspended, it will be impossible to procure any plants from the green houses of tile stales, or of Europe. 2nd. As the instructions of the Secretary of VVar will continue to be perverted, there will not be obtained any plants Irom even the vicinity of Cape Florida. 3rd. That as even the express instructions of the Secretary of the Treasury would as likely be per- verted, we shall not be able to obtain trom the ste- ril Bahama island those valuable plants which will be equally valuable to these steril Florida Keys, as the collecter at Key West can easily avoid the employment of the waste time of a re- venue culler in that service to the public, and can as easily prevent a private vessel h-om being char- tered for that purpose, bj^ refusing her permission to transport the living plants direct into the nur- sery at the only ptoper season, the beginning of the rains in June next. 4. That hence for a whole year we shall have no plants to mutiply in the nursery, except those planted in boxes in 1837, in this islet, which have survived exposure to the gale; and that it will continue efjually isolated from all faciliiies of commuiiicalion and transportation for many years, unless public opinion shall com- pel the restoration of a regular mail, the establish- ment of a new port of entry, or the direct employ- ment of public vessels in the importation of plants under the treasury and navy circular of Sept. C:h, 1837. Henry Peukink. re3iarks by the kditor. com paiii.soiv of estimates. Fearing that our readers had been surfeited with articles on the niorus muliicaulis, and espe- cially those who had not been affected by the "mulberry fever," we had latterly endeavored to avoid subject. But the little zeal that now exists among agriculturists seems to have all taken this direction : and they either think and write about silk-culture and morus multicaulis, or not at all, at least for the benefit of the public. But the fore- going communication is from one in the singular attitude of afl opponent ; and therefore his views ought to be welcome to all among our readers who may disbelieve in the fitness of our country for silk-culture ; and those of the contrary opinion may well agree that an opponent shall have full scope for his argumetit, and a respectful hearing. Dr. Perrine has not mistaken our. views, when he supposes that we concur, in the main, in the gen- eral propositions which he states, and which place the products and profits of silk-culture upon a footing of something like equality with those of other and ordinary agricultural pursuits ; and we even more fully concur with him in withholding all confidence from, and awarding nothing but con- tempt to, the extravagant estimates of prospective profits, which have been published either through ignorance, or the desire to mislead and delude the credulous public. But, it must also be admitted, even if writers have the strongest desire to learn and to state the truth, that it is very difficult to prepare estimates of the cost and profits of a chI- ture so new, and oi' which so little is known any where, without there being considerable errors made, and great discordance between the same items, as set down by different calculators. There- lore we are distrustful of all estimates, not founded on practical results ; and no less so of our own ability to correct what we may consider as erro- neous premises. For this reason, although believ- ing Dr. Perrine's estimetes of products and pro- fits to be generally too low, we shall ofTer corrections with the diffidence which ought to attend ignorance ; and shall not presimie to sub- stitute any arithmetical statements as absolutely correct, and entirely unimpeachable. With this salvo, then, afforded by the confessed wantofpracti- cal knowledge, and of full and correct information in regard to silk-culture — and after having admit- ted our concurrence in our correspondent's general propositions— we shall proceed to state our dissent from some particular items and premises, from which he deduces his objections. Dr. Perrine supposes that 200 lbs. of leaves will be required to produce 1 lb. of cocoons. But Dandolo, whose authoriiy is beyond question in all points which, like this, could be tested strictly by experiment, allows 1609 lbs. of leaves, "as gathered from the tree," to produce 120 lb. of co- coons, and which ought to be obtained from 1 oz. of eggs. This would give 15 lb. of cocoons instead of 10 lb. fiom 200 lb. of leaves — a difference of 50 per cent, in gross product, in this our item alone, and which might be equal to a difference of 200 per cent, in the net profit ofthe two rates of product. Dr. Perrine's estimate ofthe quantity of cocoons required to produce 1 lb. of silk, is 10 lb. But Young states of several places in Italy that 8 lb. of cocoons made 1 lb. of silk ; and this was the usual rate at Padua, where the general management must have been very bad, as 30 lb. of cocoons only were obtained from 1 oz. of eggs. (See Far. Reg. p. 275. vol vii.) In the more full and par- •i56 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 6 licular estimates made by Sig. Modena, of his operations in 1778 and 1780, in the one year it took only 6 lb. of cocoons, and in the other 7^- lb. to niaite a pound ofgood sillt, besides all the inlerior, (or refuse.) which was very considerable in amount. These are such unusual products, that they may well be distrusted, although stated with great ap- pearance olaccuracy. (See F. R. p. 274, 5, vol. vii.) It has been ascertained in this country, even north of Virginia, that 8 lb. of good cocoons will make a pound of silk. The difTerence, then, be- tween 8 and 10 lb. of cocoons being required to make the same amount of silk is of itself more than 20 per cent, added to the gross product (and per- haps 50 per cent, to the net product) of the cullu- rist who reaches the highest of the two grades of product. The price stated for raw silk (^3 the pot>nd,) is much too low for the European, of good quality, at this time; and it is understood that American silk has recently been tested in Europe, and is admitted by competent judges to be worth more than the European by ^1 in the pound. The mar- ket value therefore may be comjjuted at nearly double the sum supposed by Dr. Perrine — which of course, shows another very large percentage lo be added to the net profit of the culture. The valuation of mulberry leaves, (25 cents the 100 lb. on the tree, and 50 cents, if gathered and delivered at the cocoonry,) is also much too low. M. Carrier states that for the preceding 20 years in the Cevennes, (which may therefore be sup- posed to be similar in demand to France in gene- ral,) the price had been 5 francs the quintal, or 93 cents the 100 lb.; and, as it may be fairly as- sumed, without a particular estimate, that the leaves will be worth as much for feeding worms here, as in France, if the general returns of silk- culture are here as great as there; and if greater here, the leaves of course will be worth so much the more. In making the foregoing corrections we have abstained from referring to any doubtful authority, or using any of the abundant, available and recent testimony, which might possibly be suspected of being influenced by the mulberry speculaton, or any other bias of self-interest, or of delusion. It is therefore that we have appealed principally to authorities so remote, in point of time or of posi- tion, as to be free from all such objection. It may be objected to these corrections of Dr. Perren's premises, that he speaks of "common management," and that it might, and probably would, require good management lo obtain the above products from the silk-worms. Admitted; but it should be also considered, that "common management" in Europe is decidedly "bad man- agement;" and that bad management, in this bu- siness, is always more cosily and less profitable than good management. In most cases of "com- mon management," it is computed that half the worms perish by disease, or yield litile or nothing. In Virginia, even t>pyn first trial?, and in ignoranit hands, it is clearly seen that 5 per cent would be an unusual and unnecessary \oi^s.. Though uninformed as to the product of leaves from any particular quality of land, whether the best, the middling, or the worst, we are induceed to believe that Dr. Perrine has atlowed too much, (5000 lb.,) as the product to be expected from the "poorest soils." This admission, whether proper- ly made or not, should however exempt us from the charge of wishing to m-ake the most of bia estimates, for the purpose of exaggerating the pro- fits of mulberry or silk-culture. If taking as cor- rect Dr. Pcrrine's own estimate of the crop of leaves, and also his manifestly too low valuation, (25 cents the 100 pounds,) it will make the amount $12 50 per acre, annually, for the value of the leaves, as standing on the tree; and every cultiva- tor In Virginia knows that this is a much better profit than is obtained, not only from the poorest, but li'om those much better than the poorest soils — perhaps from half of all the land now cultiva- ted in grain. For, after a lew years' growth, mul- berry plantations will need but little tillage or other expense, and the value ol" two-thirds of the crops of leaves, as they stand on the trees, must be clear profit. This would be, say, ^8 clear an- nual profit iiom the poorest soils. Deduct one- hall the crop, lor supposed over-estimate, and still there would be !2!4a year, per acre of clear pro- fit. This product alone, contemptible as Dr. Per- rine may consider it, if derived from all the "poor- est soils" in the southern slates, and which now yield no clear profit whatever, would be an im- ■ mensely profitable change from the present state of things, both to the individual proprietors, and !o public interests. If then we should take Dr. Perrine's estimates without abatement or correction, they will go to prove the great profits which invite all southern cultivators to mulberry and silk-culture; and the deduction is so much the more valuable, as com- ing from facts and reasoning designed to show dif- ferent results. And ifthepropercorrectionsbemade in the three items — of product of cocoons from a certain quantity of leaves, of silk from the cocoons, and of the price of the silk — then I he whole amount of profit will be much higher. It will then not ap- pear so strange that, taken in either way, we con- sider Dr. Perrine's estimates as decidedly in sup- port of the position that silk-culture must be high- ly profitable. But we are not arguing for victory, but to ar- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER, 357 rive at truth ; and we readily admit that all arilh- metical estimates ol expense and profits, built upon doubtful preniises, (its they must be on a subject so little understood as this,) ouglit to be received with much caution, if not distrust. We would discard all such grounds of estimate, as too uncertain to be ronfided in, and take different steps to reach our conclusion that silU-cuIture in this country will be sufficiently profitable, compared to other crops, to each individual undertaker, and of immense advantage to freneral interests. We base this opinion on llie following sure grounds: 1st. Silk-culture in Italy and the south of France is generally conducted ignoranlly and badly; and yet, on the whole, is in those origins a highly pro- fitable culture. 2nd. Whatever products and pro- fits are obtained there, might be as well obtained here, with no better management, and if the cli- mates were alike. But our climate is undoubted- ly and greatly better Ibrsilk-culture; and therefore better products may be counted on, from like ma- nagement— and much better from proper manage- ment. 3rd. Even if a single acre of land in mul- berry trees, for feeding silk-worms, should yield but as much profit as the same acre if in corn or other grain, still the change of part of every farm, from ordinary crops to the new product of silk, would serve to increase the profits of all the old diminished cultures, as well as to give the profit on the new. And the general and national bene- fitt from such change would be far greater than the mere sum of the pecuniary gain of all the in- dividual cultivators. 4th. That besides the bene- fit of the change of culture, many thousands of acres of soils too poor for grain-culture would be put under mulberry culture; and other thousands of acres, which, though not poor, are either too hilly, too stony, too calcareous, or otherwise unfit for tillage. On these grounds, together with the peculiar fitness of our circumstances, and superiority of our climate, (which we have formerly and fully treat- ed of,) we are content to rest our claim of good and sufficient, though not very excessive profits of silk-culture in this country. Upon these grounds we rest our confidence, and shall direct our own private labors and operations, in silk-cultun-. These relative or comparative grounds cannot well be shaken, even if some of Dr. Perrine's al- lowances should prove to be too liberal, and the ordinary extravagant estimates should be made, as they deserve to be, the subject of universal de- rision and contempt. AN ACT TO IIVCORPORATE THE TROPICAL PLANT COMPANY OF FLORIDA. Section 1. Be it enacted by the Governor and Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida, that Henry Pertine, James Webb, and Charles Howe, and such other persons as shall become owners and holders of stock in said company, be, and they are hereby constituted and made a body corporate, by the title of the "Tropical Plant Company of Florida." Sue. 2. Be it further enacted, that the capital stock of the said company shall be fifty thousand dollars, to be divided into one thousand shares oi' fifty dollars each, and in case the trustees shall hereafter find it expedient to increase the said capi- tal, they are hereby aiiihurized to do so from time to time, to any amount not exceeding in the ag- gregate one hundred thousand dollars, and to in- crease the number of shares in proportion to said increase of capital. Sec. 3. Be it further enacted, that the com- pany hereby incorporated shall be capable of hold- ing such lands and hereditaments as they may ac- quire from the government of the United States, or from individuals, lor the purpose of carrying into efi'ecl the objects contemplated by this act. Sec. 4. Be it further enacted, that the said company and their successors, by their corporate name, shall be capable of sueing and of being sued, pleading and being impleaded, defending and being defended, answering and being an- swered in all courts and judicatures whatsoever and whatsoever, and also of contracting and being contracted with, and of purchasing and selling real or personal properly, when necessary for the efficient prosecution of the business of said com- pany, and shall have a common seal, which the said incorporators may alter, destroy and renew at pleasure. Sec. 5. Be it further enacted, lliat books of subscription to the capital stock of said company, shall be opened under the direction of the trus- tees herein after named, or a majority of them, under the superintendence and direction of such person or persons, as they, or a majority of them shall designate and appoint at Tallahassee, Pensa- cola, St. Augustine and Key West, in the terri- tory of Florida, and at Charleston in the state of South Carolina, and at New Orleans in the state of Louisiana, at such times as to them shall seem fit, which books shall be kept open for the space of ten days, or longer, if said trustees shall deem it necessary. Sec. 6. Be it further enacted, that six hundred of the shares of said capital stock may be sub- scribed lor and taken in the territory of Florida, two hundred in New Orleans, and two hundred in Charleston ; but if any of said shares shall remain unsubscribed tor at the time of closing said books at the several places herein designated, then and in I hat case, the said trustees may open books of subscription at such other places as they may think pro])er, either in said territory, or elsewhere, and the said remaining shares, unsubscribed ibr as aforesaid, may be subscribed for and taken by any person, whether a previous stockholder in said company or not; it shall be the duty of said trus- tees to require a payment of ten dollars on each share at the time the saine is subscribed Ibr, fifteen dollars in one year after said company shall have been organized, and the remaining twenty-five dollars in two years from its organization ; and if any stockholder in said company, shall fail to make either of the two last mentioned payments, at the limes specified, and for three months thereafter. 359 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. G he shall forleit for iho use of said company, his said stock, and ail paytrn-iilf^ iiiadt; thereon. Sec. 7. Jie it ILirtiier eiKicloii, that the capital stocU, property and atlairs of said company, shall be managed by three trustees to be annually chosen by the said stockholders, alter the vvhole amount of the capital stock shall have been paid in as aforesaid, and that the first election lor said trustees shall be held at such lime and place as a niajorty of said trustees shall by publication for one month in some newspaper published in said territory direct, within three months alter the said capital stock shall have been paid in as aforesaid. Sec. 8. Be it further enacted, that Henry Per- rine, James Webb and Charles Howe, shall be the trustees from the date of this act until the time appointed for said first election and until others are elected, and ail elections shall be holden under the inspection of two managers to be appointed by the trustees for the time being, and ehall be by ballot, and a plurality of the votes given at such election shall constitute a choise; but all absent stockholders shall be allowed to vote by pro.xy, and for each share shall be entitled to one vote. Sec. 9. Be it further enacted, that no person ehall be elected a trustee of said company, unless he be at the ti.me, a resident in the territory of Florida, and the owner of at least twenty shares of the capital stock of the same ; and if at any lime after the election of any trustee as aforesaid he shall cease to be a resident of said territory, or the owner of twenty shares of the said stock, his situation as trustee shall be considered as va- cant, and another trustee shall be appointed in the manner hereinafter pointed out. Sec. 10. Be it further enacted, that if from any cause an election of the trustees shall not be made at such time or limes as is provided lor by this act, the said corporation shall not for that cause be dissolved, but it shall and maybe lawful, to hold and make an election of trustees, at such other times as the by-laws and ordinances of said corporation shall prescribe, and in case any va- cancy should occur in said board of trustees, by death, resignation, or otherwise, the remaining trustees are hereby authorized, by appointment to fill such vacancy, and the person so a[)poiiited, shall hold his ollice imtil the next election in the same manner, and shall possess ail the powers and authority, which he would have been invested with, had he been duly elected by the stockholders. Sec. 11. Be it further enacted, that trusiees for the time being, or a majority of them, shall form a quorum loathe transaction of all business of the company, one of whom sliall be selected by the others, as president of the board of trus- tees, and they shall have power to make all such by-laws, rules and ordinance*, as to tliem shall appear needful and [)roi)er, toui-liinii: the manage- ment and disposition oi' the property, estate, and eHects of the said coiporalion, and all such mat- ters as appertain to the concerns of the association; but all such by-laws, rules, and ordinances, made as aforesaid, may be reviewed by the stockhold- ers of said company, and upon the concurrence of two-thirds thereof; shall be rescinded, and no by- law of said company, which is repugnant to the laws, of this territory or the laws and constitution of the United States, shall have any force or ef- fect whatsoever. Sec. 12. Be it further enacted, that the stock of said company shall be assignable, and trana- lerable, according to the rules whicfi may be es- tablished by said trustees, but no stockhoder in- debted to said company, shall be permitted to make a transtisr of his stock, or receive a dividend, until such debt be paid to the satisfaction of the trustees. Sec. 13. Be it further enacted, that the trus- tees shall at all times keep, or cause to be kept, at the office lor transacting the business of said company, proper books in which shall be regularly entered, all the transactions of said company, which books ehall be subject at all times to the inspection of the stockholders, and all trustees on going out of office, shall account to their suc- cessors, and pay over all monies of the company which remam in their hands, unappropriated. Sec. 14. Be it further enacted, that it shall be the duty of the trustees, to call or appoint meet- ings, and notify the stockholders of the same, in the manner before mentiotied, when retjuired by stockholders owing one-fourth of the stock, and at all such meetings, absent stockholders may be represented to the extent ol their stock, by attor- nies or proxies, dul}' constituted and appointed. Sec. 15. Be it further enacted, that the said Henry Perrine, shall have the selection of the place deemed by him most suitable in soil and cli- mate, for the establishment of a botanical garden and nursery for acclimating tropical plants, li-uits, and flowers, provided, in making selection, he in- terferes with no private rights previously existing, nor with the laws and rights of" the United Srates in relation to the public lands in said territory, and the said Henry Perrine, shall be the manager and superintendent of said garden and nursery, until he shall voluntarily relinquish the same, or remove Irom said territory, unless he shall be removed from the management and superintendence of the same, by a vole representing at least three-fourths of said stock ; and the said Henry Perrine, shall be entitled to receive as a compensation for his services, the sum of twelve hundred dollars per annum, out of the profits accrueing from said stock, and if the said profits shall at any time amount to the sum of twelve per centum, or more on the capital invested, the said salary may be increased to any sum, not to exceed two thousand dollars per annum, at the discretion of the trus- tees for the time being. Sec. 16. Be it further enacted, that if at any time, there should occur a vacancy in the office of superintendent and manager, it shall be the duty of the trustees for the time beintr, to appoint some otlie"- suitable person to fill said vacancy, which appointment shall be of force until the next regu- lar election for trustees of said company, at which said election, there shall be a superintendent and manager chosen, by the holders of a majority of said stock, or their representatives ; but no person shall be appointed or elected to said office, who is not the owner of at least twenty shares of said stock, and who is not a resident of said teritor}^ Sec. 17. Be it further enacted, that the said trustees shall at all times, have the power and authority, to appoint all such other officers and ser- vants as they may deem necessary for the trans- action of the business of said corporation, and to displace them at pleasure, and shall allow them such compensation for their services, as they may deem right and proper. 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. m Sec> 18. I3e it further enactetl, that such of the stockholders as may prefer il, shall be entitled to receive their respective dividends of profit?, in any seeds, plants or other articles, cultivated in said jrarden by said company, in procuring the same or similar articles. Sec. 19. Be it further enacted, that it shall be lawful for the said trustees, lor the time bein<^, to raise by lottery, in such scheme or schemes, as they may deem appropriate and advisable, a sum of money, not to exceed ten thousand dollars, j wliich sum of money, after the payment of ex- penses of condiictiiiir said lottery, shall he wholly appropriated under the direction of said trustees, Isl. to the procurini": and purchasini^ a sufficient ] botanical and scientific librar}', for the use of said company. 2d. to the procurintj and purchasing the tools, implements, and machinery necessary to the conducting and carrying on the business of said company. 3d. to the paying and compensa- ting, to such extent as the said trustees shall deem reasonable ami just, the said Henry Perrine, for such exotic and other plants, as he may have already procured, and shall turn over to said com- pany ; and 4th. to the procuring from time to time, irom foreign places, such oiher seeds and plants, as are valuable, and may be rendered valuable to said territory, by their cultivation and acclima- tion therein. And said lottery shall be conducted by such managers and olFicers as the said trustees shall appoint for that purpose; provided, (hat all such managers and officers shall give bond and security in such sum or sums, as said trustees shall direct, faithfully to conduct said lottery ; and provided also, that said managers and officers shall not be entitled to receive for their services, a sum, which in the aggregate, will amount to more than five per centum upon the nioney raised by said lottery. Sec. 20. And be it further enacted, that this charter shall last, and provisions of this act con- tinue in force, for the term of twenty years, from the time when said company shall be organized. Passed February 6th, 1838. — Approved Feb. 8th, 1838. To the friends of the enterprise. The principal objects of the company, arc to form a nursery of supply and a model of cultiva- tion of the valuable plants of the tropics. As, however, while Indian hostilites continue, it will be impossible to pursue with safety their in- tended labors on the main land, of Tropical Flo- rida, the trustees will delay the organization of the company, and will apply their personal resources to the formation of a preparatory nursery at In- dian Key, and the adjacent inlets. The super- intendent, Dr. Perrine, will hence reside with his family at Indian Key, until the cessation of the Seminole War, where he will continue to accu- mulate all the seeds, plants and other elements for the permanent nursery, to be then established on the southern coast of the Peninsula. During this important interval, the most essential aid to these preparatory labors may be immediately afforded by very easy meaiis in the power of many philan- thropic friends of this patriotic enterprise. 1st. By transmitting to Indian Key, at least two seeds or cuttings, &c., of every superior vari- ety of every valuable vegetable, which the posses- sor may consider adapted to the climate and Boils of Tropical Florida. 2nd. By iransmilling a detailed list of all books which the owner may deem necessary to enter into a botanical and vegecullural library, espe- cially adapted to the tropical climate and produc- tions of South Florida. 8rd. By transmitting a letter containing the desires of the writer in respect to the purchase of one or more shares of stock, in the Tropical Plant Company. The trustees do not expect to receive any articles or services without returning an ample equivalent. All letters ahould be addressed to Charles Howe, postmaster, at Indian Key, South Florida, the financial trustee. All packages of seeds, &c., not exceeding two ounces, should be directed to the Patent Office at Wushingion, whence they will be Ibrwartled to Indian Key. The proprietors of Green houses, &c. will render themselves espe- cial services by sending their respective mites du- ring the ensuing six months. Even the druggists may contribute the valua- ble seeds, occasionallj' Ibund among their tropi- cal medicines. The trustees are James Webb, judge of the district at Key West; Charles Howe, inspector of the port at Indian Key ; and Doctor II. Perrine, late American consul at Cam- peachy. Indian Key, Tropical FL, 25th Dec, 1838. THE " MARL, INDICATOR, NOT THE VERONI- CA ANAGALLIS," KOK "VEKONICA BECCA- BUNGA." To Ihe Editor of llu; Farmers' Register. June 9th, 1839. I have perused the communication in the last number of the Farmers' Register, headed "The iVlarl Indicator, not a new species," over the sig- nature of "Clayton." When 1 handed you the botanical description of the "indicator," I had not an opportunity of consulting any other authority than Loudon, nor have I any other now, except those published by the correspondents of Clay- ton, as stated in his communication. I would here take the liberty of respectfullj'submiting, that, to the best of my judgment, the marl indicator is not identical with either of the species oi' veronica described of the two correspondents of Clayton. The indicator agrees in some of its characters with the veronica anagaUis fas described by the lady of Pennsylvania,) but difTers so far from it in others, as to entitle it to be considered an entirely difTerent species. From the species veronica becca- bunga, the indicator differs widely; (he leaves of the beccabunga are peiiolate, those of the indica- tor are strictly amplexicaul, so much so as to ap- pear at first glance, perfoliate. As formerly ex- plained by you in the Register, the engraving of the indicator, does not correctly delineate its bo- tanical characters; the artist who flirnished the representation from which the engraving was taken, having overlooked (he amplexicaul charac- ter of the leaves, representing them as petiolate; the error though impoitant in a botanical point of view, might easily escape the notice of an artist who probably was not a botanist. In every other respect (he engraving is a correct representation. 3€ FARMERS' R fc: G I S T E U, [No. 6 I considered the botanicnl doscription, accomp:!- nyiriu; ilie eiiirraviiioinis slicking up all round, look too furmidable. The philosophy of the thing, is- this. The hen is not very good for flight, and when she attempts to fly over any thing, she almost invariably liirhls upon it, and then jumps ofl'. As they cannot light and rest upon these sharp points, they cannot get over very conveniently, and should any succeed' in flying over at a single leap, their wings may be clipped. When put into one of these coops, food should be kept by lliem constantl}', and also wa- ter— a little ashes for them to shake up among their feathers in a sunny da}', some gravel to grind their food with, and some lime to manufac- ture mto egg shells. When thus supplied, they it also contains 2 or 3 parts of! will lay as well, and do aa well here as when out an extract which appears insoluble. | ranging about. We keep our hens and turkeys in One thousand parts of the parsnip afford about such a yard, and find that they do extremely welK 100 of nutritive matter, 9 or 10 of which are starch, and 90 saccharine matter. The remainder of the thousand parts are vege- table fibre, usetlil to the animal that eats it in filling the stomach and aiding the digestive organs by what is called the "stimulus of distention," and very probably affording other aid to them, which we know nothing about and which cannot he de- tected by the chemist in his laboratory. Compare almost any of the above roots, with the nutritive matter procured from, the same number of parts of clover, or herds or timothy grass, as they call it at the south (phleum pra- tense.) • One thousand parts of the clover contain about 40 of nutritive matter, of which sav 31 or 3 Vol. VII-46 90AP MAKING From tlie Geuesee Farmef. We recently mentioned some of the necessary requisites in the manufacture ol common soft soap, without an attention to which, failure would be the consequence. We have since been lurnished with the following particular statement of the whole process by an experienced manuficturer, who has never, in a single instance, failed in making good soap by this method. The leach-tub should hold about four barrels, ire I In the bottom of it put a little straw to prevent ths 362 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No, 6 ashes from Iklling through. Put in a pailful of ashes and pack it. down. Then put in two quarts of quick-lwie ; fill the tub with ashes, packing it closely wilh a pounder, and leaving the upper surface concave so as to hold two or three pails of water. Fill this caviiy with hot water aa fast as it soaks in the ashes, till ten or twelve ^jails have been poured in. Let Ihis be done in the evening. Let it remain about 12 hours. If the ley begins to run from the leach-tub in this time, try it wilh an ecor ; ii'ii bears the egg, it is strong enough. If it has not begun to run at the expiraiion of the twelve hours, add cold water until it does. If it will not bear an egg, pour the ley upon the ashes again, until it becomes sufficiently strong. If the ashes are good, this quantity will make a barrel of soap. Put the soap-grease into a vessel over the fire, stir it frequently until it boils, then add a small quantity ol" ley and make it boil. Add sufficient ley at intervals of about two or three hours, to have two gallons of ley to four pounds of grease. Ii'lhe ley stiould begin to run weak before a sufficient quantity is obtained for this purpose, do not add it until the previous contents oi'this kettle have boil- ed nearly enough, except a little should be neces- sary to prevent its boiling over. To ascertain whether it has boiled sufficienily, mix a small quantitv of the newly made soap with an equal bulk of water, and let it cool. The appearance will at once show il the soap be good. When this is found to be the case, add as much cold wa- ter as there is ley, stir it well, and the work is fin- ished. If the ashes are not packed closely enough, the water passes through too rapidly and the ley is weak. If packed too closely, the water cannot get through during the twelve hours. There is however, little danger of the latter. If the ley is not strong enoujxh, it will require sometimes a day or two of boiling before good soap can be made. This should, therefore, be previously well attended to. If the ley should stand a day, it will not unite with the grease ; or if it should, they will separate when they become cold. This appears to be ow- incT to the combination of the carbonic acid of the air" with the potash o4" the ley, rendering it less caustic. If so, the evil miixht at once be removed by the addition of quick-lime to the ley. It appears that ihe corroiling quality of soap is owing to a deficieJicy of grease. If this is the case, the addition of an excess ol lime, in making the potash caustic, would not produce any bad eflect. Good soup is eouieiimes made from ashes of the maple without any lime, but beech ashes abso- lutely require it. The consistency of the soap is in a great mea- sure rc^J^ulated by the addition of water at the end of the process. If the soap is too thick and brittle, it ia very liable to become wasted in using. To be in the best condition, it should be quite tena- cious. To preserve the grease from becoming mouldy or ipoiling, it should be kept in weak ley. A pine tub is the best thing to keep the soap in ^an old tar barrel answers admirably although it imparts a dark color to the soap at first, but does not irijure it. Oak has the texture gpon destroyed by the soap-, and the tub bursts open. THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST. From tlie Genesee Farmer. We are happy in giving the following extract from a letter to us, from Mr. Tripleit, of Kentuc- ky, on the important subject of legislative aid to agriculture. VVe have the more pleasure in doing this, as the aentimenls are just and Ibrcibly ex- pressed, and agree wilh the opinions so often ex- pressed by us in the Farmer, and which we are confident will ultimately prevail. It is but a few days since an honorable senator, in his place at Albany, declared, that the project of aiding agri- culture by legislative enactments, was "■the most arrant quackery.'''' If quackery, in this case, why is not aid ti-om the same source, quackery in other cases? It was this legislative quackery, that in- corporated our colleges, and endowed them; that surrounded the prolessorof the law wilh exclusive privileges and- numberless ways of acquiring wealth and power, that are forbidden to the peo- ple; and by so doing, placed that man in a suita- tion to sneer at, and injure those who aided his rise. When what are termed the professions ask for aid, the vaults of the treasury are thrown open; when those who have de|)osited the cash there, ask for the use of a lew thousand dollars of their own money, they are repulsed with taunts and sneers. The evidence is daily becoming more clear, that farmers must see to their own legisla- tion, or it will be left undone. But to our corres- pondent:— "Considering the vast importance to our coun- tr}^ of the agricultural interest — it being the very basis of all others — without the prosperity of which all oihers dwindle — il is strange that it is so overlooked and neglected in the legislation of our country. 'Manulactures, commerce and naviga- tion, are all found to be benefited by a little legis- lative aid, but agriculture is supposed not to need it. 1 am against too much legislation. It is one of our errors, and ever will be in a republic. But while there is too much on other subjects, there is too little on agriculture. I will illustrate the evil felt in some instances, and show how legislation might remedy it. We see accounts in the jour- nals, of the day, of improved farming implements, and labor saving machines, &c. A farmer pur- chases, say, a reaping, machine. It does not an- swer. He curses the impostor, and forswears all humbugs. He is told he did not get the right article. But how is he to know the right one? Certificates have little value ; we believe in none of them. In the course of time perhaps a neigh- bor gets the right implement, and when he sees its operation, he will buy one. I have had my- self a knowledge for several years of various im- provements, which I have been anxious to adopt, but have waited to see them introduced and proved by others; not wishing to be humbugged myseli". In these improvements, real ones spread but very slowly. How rapidly would our pros- perity advance, if the march of those improve- ments could be expedited, and show how much could that be done, if each state would haveamofZeZ farm, where all reported improvements could be fully tested, and reported on by authority that could be confided in ; and where the operation of the thing itself could be seen. There, too, manufac- tories of the most improved articles could be es- tablished, and the implements or machines fur- 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER 363 nished at the most reasonable rates. Pure seeds, planis, &c., could also be had at such a farm ; and what would be the expense? ^6,000 per annum would borrow SIOO.OOO, whicli would amply suf- fice for the establishment, including a large liirm, which would be annually increasing in value, and the income trom which might be made, by good management, much, if not all of the interest on the cost ; for the implements, seeds, &c., would all be considered as proved, and the demand, for them would be almostiinlimited. There, too, could be demonstrated the best melhodfe of aariculture in every branch.' Much speculation would be put to rest. Any improvement, when shown to be such, would be quickly adopted, and agriculture advance with rapid strides. I do not pretend to say, there may not be more advisable modes of advancing the agricultural interest ; but I am well convinced that such a plan would render it a great service. The best stocks of domestic animals could be con- centred on these farms; all grains, seeds, imple- ments, machinery, &c. &c., and an agricultural school might be attached to it. Such plans, or similar ones, I believe, have been repeateiily suggested ; but it seems, that as yet, the public mind has not been sufficiently en- lightened to be ripe for it. I think, however, (hat every agricultural jourhiij ought to urge it, until the subject is taken up, and some such plan adopted." SHEEP TICKS. From the Gencsco Farmer. Farmers sometimes ask liow they shall contrive to ti-ee tlieir flocks from the sheep lick, since every one is aware that if these pestiferous insects abound, it is impossible to keep th.e animal in good order, or prevent a serious diminution in the quantity of wool. Some have recommended mercurial oint- ments, but these are always dangerous, and should only be resorted to in cases of necessity arising from disease, such as the scab, or other obstinate cutaneous diseases. Some have proposed dipping in an infusion of tobacco, and this would, in our opinion, be preferable to ointments containing mercury; but this occasions considerable trouble, and to be efficacious, must be perfoimed with more care than is usually given to such matters. We will tell how we manage this matter. We do not keep a large flock, only one or two hundred, yet our system is applicable to any number, and for several years past not a tick, or scarcely one, has been seen on our sheep. In the first place, we wash our sheep in a large tub, of such capaci- ty that the sheep cannot reach the bottom, and wide enough at top to allow two to wash at once. The tub is kept full and running over slowlj', by a small stream conducted into it of clear, pure water. In washing our sheep, soap is always used at the rate of about two gallons to a hundred, and after a few have been washed, the water in the tub will be strongly impregnated with soap, or in other words, will be soap suds. This cleans the wool and the sheep thoroughly, and by letting the sheep remain a lew days after washing in a clean pasture, the wool becomes again -saturated with the oil which is so essential to its sotlness and elasticity. This is the first step in freeing the animal liom ticks. At shearing, it is well known, when this operation is performed as it should be, and no pla- ces where it is only half cut by the shears, or tag- locks aroiind the belly and legs are left to give the vermin a hiding place, that Uiey will quit the old sheep for the lanib, in the wool which they find a secure place of retreat. To get rid of them fiilly and finally, we now shear our lambs. Some far- mers apprehend that such a process would injure ilie lamtis, but the experiments we have purposely made, and the experience we have had, has con- vinced us that such li^ars are ffrotmdless, either as respects tj^ animal itself or the effect on the next clip of wool. Let any farmer whose sheep are rendered poor and sickly by the constant irritation of these insects, try washing thein in soap suds, and at the proper lime shearing the lambs, and we think he will make no more complaints of ticks on his sheep. CrpE FOR GRUBS IN HEAD OF SHEEP. • From the Genesee Farmer. Havinfr read considerable in the Genesee Far- mer concerning diseases in sheep, and seeing no account of the grub in the head, I think proper to awe the public a relation of a circumstance which took place with me when I had a email flock of sheep. It was in the latter part of winter, one of my flock was taken sick, and became so week it could not rise without being lifted. I suppose its ailment to be the grub in the head ; and knowing something of the virtue of flax-seed oil, I resolved to try an experiment on it. I laid the sheep on its rump, or rather on its back, with its nose a little inclinint; backward, and poured in near a fable spoonful of the above oil, part in eacii nostril. The next morning the sheep was able to get up and eat with the rest of the flock, and speiidily recovered. After that, nnd while I kept sheep, when I discovered- any of them snotty-nosed and coughing, (an indication of the grub.) I put q lit- tle oil in their noses as above, and they soon be- came clean and healthy. I do not remember that I failed in one instance : some of my neighbors also received benefit bv the above process. T. B. Columbiana cowity, Ohio, 5th mo. 18, 1839, IMPROVED DURHAM SHORT-IIORXS. [Subject continuoil from page 350.] From tlje Whip. What we have said, it is considered, will render superfluous any attempt more particularly to de- scribe the sbort-horns. Of course they will be found to vary greatly ; but sufficient may be collec- ted from what is presented to the reader to inlbrm liitn ;is to the character of this superior breed of cattle. The next object, then, will be to show their capabilities to iTiake a return for food consum- ed, and the unparalleled early period at which stich return may be made. Indeed, early maturity is the grand and elevating characieristic of the short-horns, and their capacity to continue grow- ing, and at the same time attaining an unexam- pled ripeness of condition at an early age, has $64 i'ARxMEKS' REGISTER [No. 6 exciteii the wonder, and obtainod the npprobation, of every looker-on not blinded by prejudice. In order todo jaslice to the subject, and to show tliat these properties are not all ol' recent ac(]uirc- monf, bnt were possessed in an eminent (joirree by tliti Teeswater oattle, as well as the improved shori-hornp:, it will be rcqinsiie to return to the Ibrmer tor a lijw facts, in evidence. About fifiy years ago, Sir Henry Grey (of How- ick) bred two oxen, which were led by JVlr. VVaistel, and when pix years old weighed 130 ptones each, 141b. to the stone; their insj^e fat be- ing most extraordinary. A heifer, three years old, bred by Miea Allen (of Grange) fed on hay and grass alone, Aveighed 90 stones. Two threC'^years' old steers, bred by the same iady, and similarly fed, weighed respectively 92 and 96 tons. Mr. Waislel's four-years' old ox, by the bull e ipposed to be the grand-sire ofHubback, weighed 110 stones. A four-years' old ox, bred by Mr Simpson (of Ayclifie) led on hay and turtn'ps only, weighed 135 stones. About the same period, a five-years' old heifer, bred by a bishop of Durham, weigheil 110 stones. A cow of Mr. Hill's slauglitered in Northum- berland, weis'lied 127 stones. Mr. George Coates, before-mentioned, slaugh- tered a heife.r, by the supposed sire of Hubback, which, led on turnips and hay, weighed, at two years and two months old, 68 stones. An ox and heifer, bred by JMr. Watson (of Maiifield) weighed, at four years old, within a few pounds, 110 stones each. A sister to Mr. G. Coates' Badsworih, havino; run with her dam, and fared as she did, without cake or corn, met with an accident, and died vvhen seven months old ; she weighed 34 stones. A steer, by a brother to the above heifer, three years and two months old, weighed 105 stones, and another steer, by the same bull, exactly three years old, weighed 95 stones. Both were kept as store-beasts till two years old. An ox, bred by Mr. Hill (of Blackwell) slauffh- iered at six years old, weighed 151 stones, 101b ; tallow, 11 stones. The Howick red ox, seven years old, weighed 152 stones, 91b ; tallow, 16 stones, 71b. Mr. Charge's ox, seven years old, weighed 168 stones, 101b ; tallow, 13 stones. The foregoing instances of weight and proof eatis'iiclorily show, that in the Teesvvater cattle, iMr. Cliarles Collins had pretty good materials with which to commence operations. Let us now refer to a later period, and state some particulars respecting their decendants, the improved short- horns. In the year 1808, Mr. Baily, the agricultural Iiistoriari of Durban), informs us, he saw, at Mr. Mason's (of Chilton) a cow, not less remarkable in point of fat than the Durham ox. At that time, the depth of fat, fi-om the rump to the hips, in a perpendicular position, was not less than twelve inches ; and the shoulder score, at least nine inches thick, Mr. Robert Collinff'e heifer, wliich, like the Durham ox, was exhibited as a curiosity, was es- timated, at four years old, to weigh 130 stones. The same gentleman *oId, in Darlington mar- ket, on the 18ih of April, 1808, a two years old steer for £22 ; the price of fat stock being at that nme seven shilliuirs per stone. At Mr. Neshani's (of lIr)ughfon-le-spring) Mr. Bailey saw a steer, 25 niomhs old, completely covered wiih fat over the whole carcass, and sup- |iosed to be the fullest steer of his age ever seen. Butchersestimatedhim to weigh 75 stones. Neither of the last mentioned were of large size, and would not have weii/hed above 40 stones had they been no fatter than those usually slaughtered, Mr. Wetherill (of Fielil House) sold at the fair in Darlington, in March, 1810, two steers, under three years old, for £47 10s. each. The price ol" cattle at that fair, 10s. perstone. Mr. Arrovvsmith (of Ferryhill) who fed ofl'his short-horns at two years old, furnished the follow- ing particulars of the prices he obtained from the butchers : viz. In 1801, sold four for £25 each ; two steers and two heifers. 1802, six for £ 17 10s. each ; three steers and three heifers. 1803, Ibur for £17 each. 1804, six lor £18 10s. each. 1805, six for £17 10s. each ; two steers and fouf heifers. 1806, Ibur lor £16 eacH. 1807, eight for £18 each. 1808, eight for £19 each. The lime of seeing, from the beginning to the latter end of May. Management. In the first winter they got straw in a fold-yard, with nearly as many turnips as they could consume ; in May they went to en millions, and those of Virginia to about five millions ! New York imported, there- lore, in 1832, eleven times as much as Virginia did in eight years preceding, and nearly four times as mucFi asSouth Carolina did in eight years prece- ding. Again, New York imported in one year (1832) ne'tirly fifty times as much as South Caro- lina in the same year, and about 110 times as much as Vircrinia." REMARKS ON THE VEGETABLE KINGDO^r. Delivered before the Cumberland Jlgricultural So- ciety, xlpril I2{h, 1839. By William B. Smith, M. D. fCommunicated for publication in the Farmers' Rcgi>ter.J I propose making some general remarks on the vegetable kingdom, and will give an outline or synopsis of botany, stripped of its cabalistical covering. I shall do this in "simplicity and truth,'' endeavoring to comprise much in a short compass; and hope to be comprehensive without being con- sidered technical. First, I shall give a short history of plants; secondly, vegetable physiology ; thirdly, the anal- ogy between plants and animals; and Iburlhl}-, conclude with remarks on the fossil remains of vegetables. 77ie seeds. — The seeds of plants are of sexual origin, and in many respects correspond with ihe eggs of animals ; they are umbilically attached to the parent, and when ripe, drop in a dormant state, and; under favorable circumstances, remain ibr a length of time, uninjured. They contain a vital principle or embryo, and, when lully developed, are an exact likeness of the parent. Seeds have one or more coverings for the purpose of giving them form and preservation, until the time arrives for germination. They are wonderfully made, and contain more mystery than has been explained l)y the wisest philosopher that ever lived. An acorn IS said to contain in its little shell, the rudiments of every member of the largest oak. If this opinion be correct, a germ is not a unit, but contains in its compass a plurality or multiplicity of its kind, vviih reproductive or procreative powers ; and maj' be considered multiparous, capable of bringing lorth many at a birth. An acorn, therefore, contains the rudiments of many thousand young buds; some of which require ages lor their fijll developemcnt. The oak attains the age of one thousand years ; duiing this period it is annually bringing into being young trees. Every bud is a distinct tree, and when evolved, will be like the parent. In a stalk of corn, each o(F-set may be considered a mulliparous shoot, producing i's like; and, with a few exceptions, tiiis is the case with regard to ihe whole vegetable race. We observe in seeds, a living principle, in a minute organic germ, capable of wonderful de- velopement. When seeds are placed in the soil, liaving a due [)orlion of heat and moisture, they swell, become soft and mucilaginous, are enlarged, and in a short time, burst asunder their mem- branes ; the little root is seen descending in the earth, in search of humid, gaseous, elemental 374 FA RM ERS' REGISTER. No. 6 food ; and becomes perinani'ntly fixed. Soon af- ter lliis, the ascen{lin^s|jroul climbs upward, peeps out of ilarknesff, and is l.rouirht into Ijirht and liH^; expanding and enlar>rinij until there is a tidl dove- lopement ol' all its parts. The younii; germ or eaibryo, is in contact with one or more lobes of nutritive matter, yielding food (or the infant plant, until its tender root is sufficiently large and strong, to go ill search of aliment. This nutritive or lari- naceous matter, is entirely absorbed by the plant, during the first period of its growth. The iorm, size and color of seeds, are so va- rious, that I shall not attempt to describe them ; eoine are extremely small, others large, having a great variety of form, size and color. Many are found on the spot where they grew, and become food for man and other animals. Some are driven by currents of water in various directions ; while others take wing, and fly (rom one situation to an- other. The great aerial ocean, that surrounds this earth, is filletl with minute seeds, which are perhaps wafted from continent to continent; those that are heavy become saturated with water, return to the earth, and as soon as they find a matrix, s|)ring into life, run tiieir course and rot. If large trunks of mahogany, palm nuts, &c., are driven from the gulf of Mexico, by marine currents, to the coasts of Ireland and Norway, I see no cause (0 prevent the finer downy seeds from being wafted on the wings of the wind across the Atlantic Ocean. There is a singular circumstance in the history of seeds, viz., they are said to remain i'or ages, in a state of preservation ; the different kinds of plants that occasionally visit us, favor such an opinion. In our Ibrest plant beds, we fre- quently observe a new set of plants, diflering in genera and species from those in l lie neighbor- hood ; and I think it probable Ibrest seeds lie dor- mant under the earili and leaves, retaining their vitality, and may be made to germinate f)y expo- sing them to the ac'ion of light and air.' Seeds are said by botanists to be the essence of the fruit of vegetables. Linnaeus denominates seeds to be the deciduous parts of the plants, containing the rudiments of new organization, lerlilized by the male dust. Plants are furnished with one seed, or with two, three, (ijur, five, six or many: the lecundity of plants is often astonishing. A single plant of' to- bacco, is said to produce 500,000 seeds; and a single stalk of spleen-wort one million. If these two plants could multiply and beget their like Ufi- molested and undiminished for twenty years, and every plant during that period retain its org:,mi/,.i tion entire, so that there could be a fuirevoliiiion and developemcnl of every plant ; ;i mass of tobac- co and spleen-wort, in all probability, would be formed, equal in bulk to this earth. This may be considered a novel opinion ; but wise philosophers have said that a single herring, if suffered to spawn and multiply, under favorable circum- stances, would form a mass as large as this earth in fifteen years. The mot. — The root is the first part produced by a germinating embryo ; and its presence is ne- cessary to most plants. Some plants feed from the atmosphere. The dodder, or love vine, entwines various grasses and weeds, and would seem to ex- ist without roots ; it is, however, propagated from seeds deposited in (he earth, and as soon as the plant begins to feed from the atmosphere, the commimicaiion between the earth and dodder is cut off, and the root dies. When the primitive root enters the soil, it gives off small fibres from the end and along its sides; these end and side roots (rive oil branches m like manner, until by re- peated division and sub-division they are all ex- panded and cnlarired. They serve to fix and hold plants to the soil from which they imbibe nourish- ment throuLzh their porous and elementary tubes. A root is semi-annual, annual, biennial, and peren- nial. Semi-annual and annual plants live but one season, as many kinds of grass, oats, &c. Bien- nial roots survive one winter, as clover, wheat, rye, &c., and perish the following summer after perfecting their seeds. Perennial roots are such as remain and produce blossoms and seeds for many years. The body of a root is denominated the cordex, and the fibrous part the radicular. It is highly necessary that we should be well ac- quainted with the various kinds of roots, for they differ verj'^ widely in their nature and (unctions. Fibrous roots, particularly those near the surface, recpiire a constant accession of moisture, while those of the more fleshy kind most powerfully re- sist drouiiht. and are reservoirs of the vital ener- gies of filants. Roots are distinguished as follows: 1st, A fibrous root, as in many kinds of grasses and grain. 2nd, A creeping root, as in weeds. 3rd, A spindle-shaped, or tap roof, as in cotton, car- rots, and radish. 4th, A stumped root, as in many kinds of plants. 5th, A tuberous root, or knobbed root, as in the potato. 6th, A bulbous root ; this is a subterraneous bud, being solid, as in the crocus, ternicate. as in the onion, or scaly, as in the lily. 7ih, A granulated root. 8th, The extended root, as in forest trees. There are some remarkable circumstances recorded respecting the longevitj' of roots. It is well authenticated that theroots of some trees, when grubbed up, were found fresh and sound, though the tree had been felled many years. The larger roots of plants, trees, &c., have a triple office to perfornij^viz., they act as supporters and feeders, and give off stems ; whereas the smaller roots, are most actively em- ployed in supporting the plant with nutritive mat- ter. The ends of young roots are extremely soft, tender and delicate, and cannot bear the action of light and air: hence their downward direction at first, but as soon as they gain strength, they change this direction, and climb up near the surface in or- der to breathe. They travel a considerable dis- tance in search of food ; the Indian corn extends its roofs to the distance of ten or twelve feet; and Ibrest trees, such as the oak, poplar and pine, run out their roots to the distance of 75 yards. All roots are said to be choice in their selection of food, for they are known to creep aside and avoid bad earth, in order to approach good. Whoever has attended, in the slightest degree, to the deve- lopement of plants, must have observed that as soon as the little germ commences its course in life, it has two opposite directions ; one perpendic- ularly upward, and the other immediately down- ward. There is a line of demarkation between the ascending and descending members which seems peculiarly organized. Whatever enlarge- ment, division or sub-division, takes place in the first Plage of life, below this line or point, are roots, which descend ; and wiiafever is above, are shoots and sprouts, and rise into the air. Tliis point 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER bears the seed leaves or cotyledons, and is the crown of the root, and base of the stem, called radical plate or life-knot, which is of the greatest importance in the economy of vegetables ; for all the other nieinbers of the plant may be destroyed or separated without loss of life, if the radical plate, lile-lvnot or collet, be f)rescrve(!. If divided in many parts each will become perlect plants. Ii is a hontogeneous substance, and has the property of giving off many individual plants, and is pro- perly speaking an assemblage of vital buds, to be developed in the order of their position. The oldest central bud is the largest, and generally puts forth first, and the others follow in regular succession, which may with propriety be called oH'-scts. The life-knot or radical plate of a turnip is Ibund on the top; that ot' an onion at the bot- tom. Planters and gardeners should be particu- lar, and not place the life-knot or radical plate too far below the surface of the earth; if they do, at- mospheric air is excluded, and the plant either dwindles or dies. In transplanting trees, the iile- knot is often placed too deep; the consequence is, that the tree remains stationary for a length of time, ar>(l if the buds shoot, they are diseased, grow slowly, and the whole tree is imperfectly de- veloped. In transplanting tobacco, cabbage, &c., Ave are apt to plant deep in order to secure mois- ture to the root ; such plants live and are station- ary for six weeks or two months, and the result is a small unhealthy crop. Some roots have buds in abundance, and produce stems ; and we may say in truth, that both roots and stems contain buds. The stem or trunk. — The stem or trunk, is that body which is above ground, and serves to sup- port and elevate branches, leaves, fi-uctification, and fruit. The stem assumes many forms and char- acters, as to bulk, structure, position, place and du- ration; varying in size, from the smallest thread, to a trunk of ten ft>et in diameter. The structure of stems are hollow or solid, jointed or simple, single or numerous. In position, they are erect, incli- ning, prostrate, &c.; they rise in the air, or creep on the surface, and are succulent or woody. The form of stems are various, being round, fiat, an- gular, square, &c. Some have but few branches, as the reed, others give off many and divide until we observe almost a countless number from a sin- gle stock. The stem is composed of pith, wooil, and bark; the pith generally occupies the centre of the stem, and constitutes the principal part of the bulk of the seedling, and of every young shoot: it is soft and spongy, and as it increases in size, diminishes in volume, and ultimately becomes lig- neous matter: this is the case with "woody trunks. The layers of wood are supposed to be formed from the pith, and the diameters of trunks arc an- nually enlarged by concentric layers; the pith be- ing in the centre of the ligneous circles. Tltese annual circles of wood are composed of parallel fibres longitudinally arranged, extending from the root or lit(3-knot, to the summit of the Trunk, and throughout every branch of the spreading tree. The concentric layers or circles are distinct fi'om each other, and are connected by inspissated sap, and cellular tissue. Tiie ages of' trees may be as- certained by counting the number of rings from tlie pith to the bark. Afier trees have passed their usual_ age, they begin to decay; tlie oldest and first formed circles, next th.e pith, decay, and so on until the tree becomes a hollow shell, and nothing remains but the sap-wood next the bark. The bark. — The tender plant, rises from the earth with its exquisitely delicate coat of batk; which remains as an external covering, enlarging as the tree increases in size; some plants, howe- ver, shed their bark periodically. The inner bark is formed into while-wood, or sap-wood annually, and another coat of bark formed from inspissated sap. These new layers of bark and wood are the princi|)al channels for the circulation of sap. The bark or covering of trees corres|)ond3 pretty much with the skin oi' animals, having an external, mid- dle, and inner coat or covering. Branches are sub- divisions of the trunli, and every bud they con- tain is a young tree. The leaves.— The leaves of plants, are very important organs; and yet it would seem, they are not absolutely necessar}' to all plants; as the stem and stalk in some ihw instances perform the office of leaves. They are decidedly organized, and so formed, aa to present a large surface to the action of light and air. Next to the flowers, they are the grand ornaments of plants, and from their number and position must perform some very important office in the economy of vegetables. Leaves are supposed to be the organs of respira- tion, or in other words, they are the lungs of ve- getables. They contribute to the growth of plants, having inhalingand exhaling vessels. Vegetables take in atmospheric air, and give out oxygen gas; the reverse takes place with respect to the animal kingdom. In animal respiration, oxygen gas is absorbed, and it would seem by this wise provision of nature, that a just balance is kept up between the two kingdoms. Leaves produce a constant flow of sap upwards, in consequence of their ex- haling and inhaling functions; hence it is that plants die if robbed of leaves; their health and vi- gor depending pretty much on these important ap- pendages. The inhaling leaf vessels not only take in atmospheric air, but they imbibe large quantities of water, and modern naturalists are de- cidedly of the opinion, that the hydraulic action of leaves are their chief oflice. Leaves have a great variety of form, and many appendages which I consider unimportant, except to the botanists, and will pass on the Flower and fructification. — The parts of the flower are the calyx, corolla, stamens, disk, nec- tarium, pistillum and receptacle. The calyx is the external covering or investment of" the flower; in which it sits, and serves to deliind the more delicate members of the flower. The coralla is the beautiful brilliant assemblage of variegated and highly colored leaves, or petals, which stand immediately within the calyx. The stamenis the male part of the flower, situated in the corolla, and consists of three members; \he filament, the an- ther on its summit, and the pollen, or dust dis- charged from the anther. 'Vhe pollen is formed in the anther, by a process called secretion: it con- tains the fectjndating influence or principle, with- out the contact of which seeds, already formed in the ovarium, would be abortive. This dust, when seen by a microscope, appears globular, oval, square, &c. The dispersion of the ji)o//c7i is caused by the spontaneous action of the anthers, and fa- cilitated by the visits of int^ects. The stamen is of short duration, and disappears soon alter the pollen is discharged. The disk is at the base of' i'^ A R M E R S' REGISTER, [No. 6 the stamen, connected with the seed vessel, and forms a vacant space. The pislilluin,, occupies liie centre of the flower; it is the (emalc or repro- duciive part of the plant; and like the anther, con- sists of three divisions; viz. the sccd-vessoi or nvn- riam, the siyle and the stigma. ' rha oiHiriu7n \s differently constructed, and assumes various shapes. The style is that portion of ihe pistilhnii which serves to elevate the stigma, ami is usually seated on the topmost part of the ovarium, and is of" various lenglhs; it is a cylindrical tube for the purposed of admitting the descent of iho pollen shed from the anthers. Sometimes the stijle is wanting; when this is the case, the siigma is in contact with the ovarium. As soon as the ova- rium hecomcs impregnated, the style dies; some plants have one style, some two or more. The style and stigma, are very delicate members of flowers, being easily injured by cold wiruls and fi'osts. The stigma is found on the summit of the style, if the latter be present; if not, on the apex or crown of the ovarium. It is the only part of the plant iliat has no cuticle, and, where perfect, is covered with a lymph to catch and dissolve the pollen shed from the anthers. In this delicate mucilage, the pollen undergoes some kind of change, or solution, preparatory to lis descent into uterus. 'J'his seems to be the course in which the sexual powers of plants are united and consumma- ted. The receptacle is that part on which all the members of flowers are sealed, and may be called the flower stem. We have traced the plant from the seed, through its various evolutions, and have given a short ac- count of its members, organs and woody structure; which may with propriety be called the solid parts of vegetables. We propose now to make som.e remarks on the fluids and tissues of plants. The various matters affording food for plants, are changed by the organization of the vegetable; from which their results a fluid generally distribu- ted and known by the name of sap. This juice, when conveyed into the several pans of tlie plant, receives an infinity of modifications, and forms the several fluids which are separated and afford- ed by their various organs. The fiuids consist of aqueous and gaseous prin- ciples, extracted from the earth and atmosphere. These principles arc taken up by the plant and elaborated into sap, mucilage, gum, glue, oil, resin, sugar and various acid alid saline secretions. Plants have numerous vessels, for the purpose of transmitting these fluids; they are found perva- ding every part of I he root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, fructification and fruit: indeed these ves- sels, as numerous as they are in large frees, may be found in the young tender plant, and even in the embryo, long before germinalioii. Tlie circu- lation then commences with the seo;', imJ conti- nues through its evolu'.ion and growth, duwn to ihe closing period of lift?. The vessels common to plants, are inhaling and exhalinor vessels, spiral tubes, and longitudinal ducts. Vessels are com- posed of circular fibres, so delicate and clastic, that they are capable of contraction and relaxation. This alternate contraction and relaxation of the circular fibres, together with capillary attraction and heat, causes the fluids of plants to circulate through their numerous vessels; which divide and sub-divide into an infinite number of branches and ramifications, unii! every part tif the plant is su])- plied with fluid matter. Tiie cellular tissue, or membrane, is found in every part of plants, bind- ing their structure, giving them form, and may be considered a bond of union; tying not only every woody fibre to its fellow, but linking together there, in one solid mass, all their various parts. The cellular tissue, has innumerable minute cells, va- rying in form and size, slightly attached to each other; these cells attract and al>sorb moistin-e and gaseous matters, from the atmosphere and earth, and after elaborating the elemanlary principles, they go the round of circulation, and are formed into sap, oil, mucilage, &c. The delicate pellicle or skin of the cells of this membranous tissue in the lower order of vegetation is mucilaginous; in the higher orders, they become ligneous, and consti- tute what is called wood or limber. As all plants are of rudimental origin, it is natural to conclude that the cellular membrane, vascular mendirane, and woody membrane or tissues, are co-eval with plants, which "grow with their growth, and strengthen with their strength." These three ele- mentary organs, viz: the cellular, vascular and woody tissues, when united, form abend of union, and by their wonderful inosculations and ramifi- cations, pervade the whole plant; giving to every part, its organic structure, form and comeliness. Plants may be compared to animals; having their solid parts analogous to bones, cartilages, muscles and tendons: the fluids of the vegetable kingdom may be compared to the blood of ani- mals; with this difference, that the latter is pro- pelled through arteries, by the muscular power of the heart, and sap, we have reason to believe is pushed forward by the expansive power of heal and capillary altiaction. Blood, after going the round of circulation, is returned by veins, except that part washed olT, and arrested by a number of glands, a process called secretion. This we be- lieve is pretty much the case with the sap of ve- getables; for we know secreted fluids are formed from sap. and afier supplying every part of the the plant vvith fluid matter, it returns and descends to the roots. The blood is formed from well digest- ed food, this is the case with regard to sap; so that vegetables are analogous to animals, both king- doms being dependent on the earth and atmos- phere for subsistence. The Iiigliest link in the vegetable scale of existence, is perhaps but one remove from the lowest link in the anin;al king- dom. Vegetables, have roots for their digestive organs, trunks for their support, branches for their exlremilies, leaves lor their lungs, bark for their skin, woody fibres for their bones, cartdages, mus- cles and tendons, spiral vessels and ducts for their arteries and veins, and sap for their blood. They have, also, male and female organs of generation, and fruit and seed as their offspring. The growth of vegetables depends on various decomposition; which evolve anumber of gas.ses that are absorbed by the plant, and elaborated into sap, mucilage, oil, &c. Like animals, they cannot live without food and drink ; like animals, they feed upon air. water, animal and vegetable productions. The rapid or slow growth of vegetables, depend on ra- pid or slow decomposition ; (or nothing can exist except it be from something which had previously perished; composition and decomposition are con- tinually taking place upon tlic earth, and without this [irovision in nature, the vegetable and animal kingdoms would, in a short time, become extinct. (To be continued.) 1839] F A U JSl E R S ' R E G I S T E li 377 THE "aiAMMOTIl" SI Mi-WORM EGGS; AND THE GnoujvDs OF cijoici:: among different VAUIETIES. The ''inammoih s'lk- worms" have rcccnlly bi'en mucli puffed in newspaper pariigra]!h.s mul advertisements; and ihese rec-ommcndaiions have been received by the coniinually humbu<>'(red ag- ricuhural pubhc, vviih the deirree of respect and confidence which is usually given to ail who offer "mammoih" seeds or plants, or either ve^'etahles or animals which, by grealer size, and supposed pro- lific power, are promised lo produce more profitable results than any known bejbre. If the recomnien- daiions of the "niatDmotii silk-worms" eo-gs had been limited merely and truly to sujjerior size, the subject would not have needed remark. But when ihey were ofi'cred for sale for the purpose of raising second crops of worms fion), in the same season, and were actually engaired by many persons under this delusion, at ,^70 lo ^80 the ounce, it was time to try to save to some of our readers at least, the money which ihey might otherwise throw away in misdirecteJ eflbrls in the important business of silk-culture. With this view, as well as in an- swer lo special inquiries of correspondents, the fol- lowing remarks, in substance, were prepared lor the last sheet of the May number; but could not be inserted, (or want of room at the closing. In the first place we deny totally the main ground of the reputed value of the "manmioth" silk-worms eggs, which is, that they will hatch more than once in one season ; and but lor this opi- nion, certainly no one would have paid any ihinf liice ^80 the ounce fbreggs of 1839. It will not be expected of us to prove a negative proposition ; and if this assertion is denied by the advocates of the mammoth variety, it will be (or them lo exhibit proof thai it is truly a "iwo-crop" kind. That, we confidently believe, cannot be done, and without It, the only remaining recoinmendaiion will be that of sujierior size, which will presently be ex- amined. We had befljre believed— and since have been assured by the testimony of L. Y. Atkins, es(]. in a previous page— that the eggs of none of the ordinary kinds of worms could be relied on lo hatch a second lime in the same season ; and that the only known kind which can be trusted lo, is the small "two-crop white" variety of this country, and which, though a f^jur-cast worm, seems in all other respects to be the same with the small worm of "Ihree-casis" described and recommended by Dundolo. We, as well as Mr. Atkms, have known eggs uf the common sized worms to hatch soon after being laid ; but such hatching is not cer- tain to occur at all, and never but to a very limited extent. Such may be the case with a like small Vol. VH— 48 prop.orlinn of the ''mammoih" eggg-but even that has nor beeti warraitted in plain terms; and until il is proved lo the contrary, we must consider that these stand on no belter ith, and L. Y. Atkins. Near Richmond, Mr. Curtis Carter is one of those who are now feeding eilk-worms to as great extent as temjiorary accommodations permit ; and he is now erecting a new building for a cocoonery, 110 feet long by 30 in Vv'idih, and two stories high. Mr. John Carter is also feeding to considerable extent ; and Mr. Staples on quite a large scale. Sundry others, in and near Richmond, have experimented to less extent, and with results satisfactory to 'hem- selves under the existing circumstances. In Brunswick, Mr. Thomas Hicks has enlarged and improved his facilities, first used last year, and will feed more largely. A joint-stock com- pany is there also extensively engaged in feeding ; and, as we have lieard, perhaps a hundred separate individuals on a small scale of experiment. In and near Petersburg, no one has yet pre- pared complete fixtures and accommodations, but several persons have commenced, or have deter- mined to prepare for the regular business; and many have fed silk-worms this sjiring, under every variety of disadvantage, and yet generally widi successful results, and fair products. Lastly, though aniong the first in operation, in zeal, and, we doubt not, in iiilure valuable results, are the occupiers of Bellona in Chesterfield ; where no care is spared to acquire and to apply the best information on silk-culture ; and whence, we trust, it will be diffused, for tlie instruction and profit of the whole commonwealth. ll would be unreasonable for any one of these new experimenters to expect net profit upon his first adventure. Of" course, every such first trial must be made at loss. But it is a gratifying fxct that very lew persons have been discouraged by this price necessarily paid in advance (ijr experience, and that nearly all whom we have heard li'om will continue the business, with greatly increased confidence and energy. The pioneers have, in effect, taxed them- selves to pay a bounty lor introducing and es- tablishing silk-culture in V'irginla ; and thus, while the most zealous and public-spirited will bear all the burden of the lax, and first cost, they will but share with all their fellow citizens in the eventual benefits. We trust ihiit no'hing now can obstruct the progress of this important new culture, and prevent its becoming a great business in the United States, and especially in Virginia and the other southern states. The establishment and diffusion of silk-culture will be the greatest agricultural and economical benefit ever gained by this great region, 1839] F A H M E K S ' J J E G I S T E R . 381 except tlie introduction nnd use of calcareous nin- niires; nnd these two jjreat improvoments will most linppily unite wilh, aid. and give increased value to each oilier. THE MULBERRY CROP, AND PRICES. Th(; planliufT of morus multicaulis trees this year in Virginia, and generally in the United States, has become so large and costly a husiness, that it (onus an itnjinrtant item of agricultural ia- hor, investment, and product; and on that score alone, deserves notice, whatever may be tlie opi- nion us to the propriety, and ultimate profit, of this diret-iion of so much energy and so much capital. Tiiough there has been no lacli ofopinions, pre- dictions, j)romises, and rumors, ol' prices of morus uiulticaulis j)lanls of the growing crop, all seemed uncertain, and little worthy of trust, until very re- ivnily. Therefore, we have remained silent on this point, until we had lacts, and such as were unques:iunable, to report, instead of mere opi- nions, or rumors of prices and prospects. There now can be no doubt of a general short crop of the morus multicaulis. Besides tlie many concurrent newspaper statements, which have been open to the public, we have had private let- ters and other inlijrmalion giving reports I'rum Pennsylvania to Fioiida inclusive. All such re- })orls are ol very short crops — the numbers of plants standmg in each particular lot stated as va:ying from one-half to one-tenth ol the cut- lings planted; and fewer persons exceeding the (brmer proportion, tlian there are who fall short of the latter. Of our own planting, there is stand- ing but ihree-eighlhs of the mature and well pre- served cuttings planted. We have heard of but one place where the stand is reported to be all satisliiclorv; this is th". vicinity of Burlinii;lon, New Jersey; and o!" this, our inlbrmulion is by no means full or precise. The causes of the general and great failure of the cuttings to grow, (where sound and I'v^U, and properly preserved,) were, the following: 1st. In many cases, improper management in planting— in which some of the most experienced cultivators have suffered greatly; and almost every I)lanter novv knows sorrie one or more great errors which he commuted, and the avoiding ol which would have prevented half his present loss. 2nd. The long and severe spring drought. 3rd. And still more, the planting of single-bud cuttings, which was done almost universally in the south, even when of the smallest size. As to cuttings of unripe extremities, which the raisers have planted extensively, there has been so total a failure, as to show that they are not to be relied on at any time. We Unow nnthinir of the crop north of I'l-nn- sylvanin, and it is alniosi too soon liir i* to be yet above ground. Bn' there, every year wi'l show a failure, or at least what wouKl be consiiiered a great fliilure here. Mr. Prince, nolwitli^tanding his undoubted irreat advantages at hi? own nursery and garden on Lonij Island, has made a large plai) ting in Vir- ginia. This is a most striking evidence of the vast superiority of our climate for this cnhure; and a not less complete admission o{' JMr. Prince's not confiding in his own former assertions and claims, in this publication, in favor of the northern growth. His argument, then maintained, if it needed any refutation, is now completely refuted by himself. The whole crop of the United Stales, we infer, cannot much exceed half of the proportion expec- ted to grow from the cuttings planted. Of course, whatever might have been the demand, for a full crop, must be greatl}^ increased. Not many sales of trees of the growing crop have yet been made in Virginia. In the early part of the year, a contract, as lariie as the buyer chose to make, was made to deliver trees, in Greens- ville county, next autumn, at G^ cents. Some other, and large contracts were njade at 12i — and of these, one in Nottoway bet >vcen two intelli- gent and wealthy landholders, was as late as two or three weeks ago. Still later, an entire lot of 20,000 trees were sold in this town for 15 cents each, not to include any under three feet hi/h. In Richmond the Ibllowing sales of growing trees have been made within the last week. Thomas J. White, esq. sold all the trees, of his crop (10,- 000 cuttings planted,) which may reach or exceed 3 feet in height, at 25 cents. Messrs. Hill and Dabney sold 3000 trees, all to be as high as 4 feet at 27 cents. Messrs. L. and R. Hill bought a lot, to include all of 4 leet and more, at 27^ cents. No holders there will now take offers of less than 25 cents the tree. On the 24th of June, a small lot of the roofs and young shoots of 50 trees ("being all on the piece of ground, now in the fourth year fro:ii the planting of the buds,) raised by S. D. Mor- ton, esq, of Petersburg, were sold by him (or $5 each. The tops had been cut off at the ground last fall, and sold then ai $10 each. As this is the only instance yet known of two successive years' sales llom precisely the same stock and land, we had the curiosity to have the ground ac- curately measured. The trees occupy (partly, for the ground has also two rows of corn to each row of trees,) a space of 20 by 60 lijet, including 3 feet of additional space beyond each outside row. 882 F A R M E R S ' REGISTER, [No. 6 This is at the rate of 1815 trees to the acre; and at ^15 each, the amount of cash sales for the two successive years' growth, fi'om l!ie same roolp, is at the rate of ^27,225 per acre. This is pretty well for a "huinbuiT," (as some still call it,) of two years' duration. We might state reywrfs, and apparently on good authority, of sundry higiier prices, otfored and re- fused, or taken; but we have disregarded all ru- mors of prices, and all offers not accepted — as most of such reports are founded upon error, and not a few upon fraudulent intention. Judging however from llie real transactions stated, it would seem that the price has been certainly and steadi- ly advancing to this time, and that good profits at any rale may be secured by every planter, whose loss of plants does not exceed SO in the 100. As to whether the prices have reached, or near- ly reached, their greatest height— or whether they will (as most persons suppose,) rise much higher before the crop is ready to be delivered — we shall not presume to ofier an opinion. Since writing the above, a private letter from an extensive planter and dealer, in Burlington, New .Jersey, has been shown to us by the friend to whom it was addressed, and at our request, per- mission was given to copy the following extract, which more than confirms what we had stated. The writer is a man who stands on the highest ground lor sound discretion and judgment, and un- impeachable integrity. His facts are important. To his mere opinion, the reader may attach what degree of importance it may seem to deserve. ''Burlington, N. J.,Q mo. 24th, 1839. "There are very great failures in this region of country, but at this place they are doing^better than in most others. My trees, [from which the planting was made,] were not very large, it is true, but they were in very good condition; and yet they will not give me a return of more than 6 for 1. Some others have as much as 8 for 1, and one of my friends here has more than 12 for 1. But, fi-om what 1 can learn, I think 5 for 1, will be a large calculation for New Jersey and Pennsylvania. "^I have a letter Irom Hartford, from a gentleman from this state, in which he says the trees in Connec- ticut, have come up badly. I have purchased about 60,000 to be delivered in the fall; the first 50,000, at 15 cents for three-leet trees, mature wood, exclusive of the roots, nil raised from cut- tings. These were piircha.sfd about two weeks ago; they would now bring 25 cents. The last purchase was 10,000 in this place, which I expect will be very fine, at 25 cents per tree, without re- ference to sizes. Several sales have been made here at 25 cents, and one of 6000, at 30 cents. The last is I think, the highest price yet obtained! But I believe they will lie 50 cents, before next month expires." state, but in the same and small districts, and even on neighboring farms. Hence the impossibility of guessing at the general result, from particular re- ports. The product of numerous crops in the tide water region will be reduced, by the ravages of the Hessian fly, and still more of the chinch-bug, to less than the fourth of a fair crop ; yet other farms in the same counties will make an average product. The relative product of the great divisions of the state (in general, though with many exception?,) is still believed to be as stated in our last number ; that is, increasing fi-om very short crops in the tide water and adjacent higher counties, to belter in the middle region, still better in the Piedmont range of counties, and to very fine crops in the great valley, or region west of the Blue Ridge. The corn crops are good, and afford a fine prospect, except for the great danger of the chinch- bugs passing fi-om the wheat to the corn fields. We wish that some of our readers would furnish for publication such facts as they have learned by observation, of the history and habits of this de- structive insect. Such a subject at the north would have engaged the pens of scores of observing and suffering farmers ; here, of not one. Oats are very good, owing to the unusual amount of moist and cool weather in the latter part o( spring. The crop of tobacco is remarkably good. LiaiixG. STATE OF CROPS. The condition of the wheal crop in Virginia is not only very difTerent in different si^clions of the To tlie Editor of tlic Farmers' Register. It is one of the great blessings of man, that the discoveries and experience of past ages may be handed down from generation to generation, until time shall make his practice in the arts, sciences and professions, perfect. This is what he proudly calls mind, his electrical part; and yet sir, in truth what is he? A poor thing, a "wild ass's colt." We, sir, the good people of Virginia, received from the hands of our Ileavenly Father the fair- est, the kindest portion of dear old mother earth, and what is it now? Thorns and briers? No sir, it is gullies, sedge and poverty grass; the expe- rience of ages has been scotfell; and like that proscribed animal of the Jews, we have rooted up and destroyed the pasture upon which we fed. Is this turning the experience and mind of past ages to our use and benefit? Have we done better in other matters necessary to the civilized man, than that v/hich we have done in agriculture? 1 fear not, "wise in our own conceit,'' folly has had a mark to point at. 1 was going to show, sir, that we had done in many other matters as in agri- culture, but I should trespass upon your rules and space, and shall, therefore, turn my pen to some report of our crop of wheat. 'J'liis is good; for how could it be otherwise upon land well prepared and limed? Wheat, corn, oats and grass, all upon limed land, show that hitherto we have been in the dark, we have literally "toiled all night and caught no fish." Noneof those, or any other crops, can be made to fail upon limed land, if it be well 1839] FARMERS' REGISTER. S8f? drained; and I could not give you a true description of those crops without incurrmg suspicion of inac- curacy. To make two or ihree times as much as I have ordinarily made, is ahnost matter of alarm; but I hope to get through vvith it, and could I per- suade my friends and neighbors to lime their land, I should think that I had lived lor some purpose. One thing is inexplicably strange. I have fine clo- ver; and yet I am told that this has failed both in the lime-stone and mountain countr}'. No address that I can use with my neighbors, can persuade them; they are far worse than Thomas O'Dedi- mus; for fijeling or seeing will not avail me. But, sir, our march is onward; self-love, that powerful and controlling feeling, will make sure our success; for though pride may retard, interest will ultimate- ly prevail. At a future time I will give you some account of the crops of my predecessor, compared with those now made; not for the purpose of boasting, for I feel that ! have done but little; but to show you that, in spite of conceit and ignorance, our march is onward. That you will live to receive the homage of a grateful community, I doubt not, (or you well deserve it. Lime. P, S. I look soon for the day, when farmers will leave the dirty mire of party politics, and contend for the cheapest, and most sure protection of per- son and property. This is their duty and interest; and they cannot be so unwise as not to see it. One-half' of the eflort made in party politics would niake millions of dollars' benefit to agriculture. Who can doubt therefore the ultimate results? L. Fairfax county, June 3rd, 1839. ON THE SVSTKM OF HUSBANDRY I'RACTISED IN LOUDOUN COUNTY, VIRGINIA. From the American Farmer. Loudon County, jiugust l'2th, 1818. Dear Sir, — I have the pleasure to acknowledge the receipt of your's of July, and I venture, al- though but an indifferent pensman, to answer your queries on Loudoun husbandry. 1 hope you will excuse my manner of writing, and attend only to the matter which I shall communicate, which is founded on a long experience in agricultural pursuits ; and as information is all you want, ( shall endeavor to answer your queries, by taking them collectively, and in so doing, 1 shall confine myself to stubborn fiicts which cannot be disproved. The first thing that I shall notice, is the plough. The improvement of this valuable machine, was the first step we took to improve our lands, we formerly adopted the absurd plan of shallow ploughing, leaving the under stratum unbroken, which should have been torn up and mixed with the surface ; we have constructed our ploughs much larger and stronger than they formerly were; the mould-boards are all of cast iron. We sel- dom break up our land with less than three horses to a plough, which enables us to plough our ground deep. In the fall or early ia the spring we break up our corn ground, then harrow it well with a heavy iron-toothed harrow ; this done, checker it with a shovel plough, leaving our rows from 3^ to 4 feet apart, ready fur planting. When we commence planting corn, we take out water and plaster of pans, and after wetting the corn, then put on as much plaster as will slick to it, and make the grains separate li-eely, and keep it in that stale by adding water and plaster when ne- cessary, until we are done planting. When our corn gets to the usual size for harrowing, say four or five inches high, we hitch two horses to a har- row, and run once over each row, minding to straighten all the corn that gets bent or covered up by this operation. When our corn is fit for thinning, we generally leave but two stalks in a hill ; after we have done this, let our land be never so good, we take as nmch plaster as we can vvith a thumb and two fingers, and drop on each hill of corn ; should drought succeed alter we have done plastering, we do well to work ou." corn so as to cover the plaster, as long droughts and hot sun are injurious to its stimulating powers. Thia method of cultivating corn, is generally pursued here, and seven or eight barrels to the acre, is considered a saving crop, but ten or more to the acre is very common here. I have been in the habit of using plaster more than twenty years, and its efiects on every kind of vegetation (sedge-grass excepted, which it di- minishes,) are surprisingly great. There is no ara- ble and left unsown with clover seed here, — neither is plaster of so much benefit to land left bare of grass ; plaster is not a manure, but a stimulus ; it stimulates clover, and clover manures the land; three pecks of plaster are enough as a top dres- sing lor clover per acre, and all kinds of small grain including hemp and flax, are benefited by the same quantity to the acre. Early in the spring we sow plaster on our clover pastures and grain fields. Our sheep are not permitted to run in the clover fields in the winter, and are kept out in the spring, until the clover is well grown — at this lime also hogs are permitted to graze upon it, and if they are well salted, ihey will thrive as long as the clover lasts. The second crop injures slock, particularly horses, very much, by creating a slavering, and it is best to keep them off, and devote the second crop to seed, as it makes the best seed. We generally salt our clover hay, and put it under cover, not much together: mix- ing it vvith straw, answers a good purpose. In saving clover seed, the heads should be gathered quite dry, and kept in thai state until sown. Those who save seed for niaiket loo often heat it, which prevents it from coming up; the good or bad quality of clover seed, may be discovered by filling a glass tumbler half full of water, and dropping a few seed in, those that sink are good, those that swim are generally deprived of their vegetating powers. Clean seed should be sown in the following man- ner. Let the weather be calm (which is also ne- cessary tor sowing plaster) and let the ground be laid off into eight ftjet lands; take as much seed as you can between your thumb and two fingers lor every two casts or steps, and let the casts not exceed the width of the land. But we generally raise our own seed, and sow it in the chaff. Wheat is grown here mostly upon fiillowed land, which is prepared as follows : in the months of August and Setember, we turn our clover un- der nine or ten inches deep, in ten or fifteen days after we harrow the ground well, then sow and plough in the seed with a shovel plough in eight feet faiids, lliis method saves the trouble of staking off the ground in the spring of the year, for sow- ing clover seed and plaster, which should be done D8i F A R M E R S ' REGIS T K K [No. 6 ill Miircli or April. []nt .sowing fiillow wiili oiic ploughing ii? llie genr>rnl praciice here, \v(' sow one ;ui(l a !i;iiriius-hc!s ofwiieat on tht», acre. Tiie average product of the wheat cropfl may he stated to be frnai 18 to 80 husliels to the acre: I have n)y?eir raised crops oC wheat averaginir 30 bush- els to tiie acre oti' of fields, which, before I used piaster and clover, would not brinii,- me more than 18 bushels. Manure is a grand object here, every thing ta- ken from iheearlii, wiien returned is beneficial to it. JVJr. JMudison has a more lavorable opinion of corn-slallis than I have. Corn-aliiiks and bnck- wfieat straw, answer very well to fill gullies. When we got out our wheat we haul out the straw in'o the fields, and stack in pens on the poorest places of the field, and let our cattle have their will of it— all other coarse kinds of manure oufrlit to be taken to the field belbie it loses any ol' its strength and ploughed in. Where there lire but lew or no slaves our farms are small, 150 or 200 acres is considered a good farm, one-third ouuhl to left uncleared— ten or twelve acres aresulficient for meadow, as we mow as much clover uti' our high land as we want. All timothy meadows are the better of water, especially in the winter— throw the water over a bank and let it freeze no matter how deep. All wet land ought to bedraii^.ed by ditching— if there is not very much water, cut your di:ch two (eet deep, and as wide, fill it half lull with round stones, then take corn-stalks, leaves, buck-wheat straw, or any other trash and cover the stones, then fill the ditch with dirt, and it wants no more repairs. There are ditierent soils here, as many as two or three different kinds in one field ; red laml is the worst, and requires the most manure, the gray flint is the most durable. Our former mode of fencin" was with split rails; but as wood grows .-scarce, we substitute stone, and that is one reason why our lands sells so high. From Putomac to Fautjuier I suppose is 25 nnles — from (ioo.-e creek to iIkj Frederick line 20 miles. On this tract of land I suppose there is stone enouress of silk-culture in the neighborhood of Philadelphia The .=;ystem of husbandry proctised in Lou- doun county in 1S18 339 3J0 3^0 3-10 342 343 343 S63 357 SCO 3C0 360 361 361 363 363 368 369 369 370 oil 371 372 373 379 383 ] Hivfii}mgf,f^fi^iui»HBw«irTMWiiimii 'asiw^artBi^BW THE FAMMEllS' liEGlST Vol. VII. JULY 31, 1839. No. 7. D M U N D R U F F i N, EDITOR A N D^ p U O P R I K t Ofe . REMARKS ON THE V KG liTAB LlC KI.NGOOiVI. [Continued fioiii page 376.] Piaiiis:, Iroiii vvliat. has been saiil, aro oijianizcd bodict:, and, Ike animals, capable of betreiting their !d