UMASS/AMHERST i^2Q66 0308 0429 2 ? F'VE COLLEGE THE FARMERS' REGISTER: A MONTHLY PUBLICATION, DEVOTED TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE PRACTICE, AND SUPPORT OF THE INTERESTS OF AGRICULTURE. And he gave it for his opiaioiij " that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of grass, to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his coun- try, than the whole race of politicians put together." Swift. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. VOL X.— 1842. PETERSBURG, VA. : PRINTED BY EDMUND RUFFIN, 1842. V. 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. X. Age of cattle, shown by their teeth 29 Agricultural Society of South Carolina, extracts from an address to 246 ; of Prince George, and of King William, formed on the working plan 237 ; of Cayu- ga, address to 283 ; of Mason, Cabell and Kanawha, addresses to 91, 116 — and premiiimsof 119 ; of Albe- marle, address to 505; of l<.SHex, address to 200; of United States, constitution of 19 ; remarks en 20, and reply 65 Agricultural survey of South Carolina, recommended by the State Agricultural Society 453 Agriculture, essay on the system best adapted to Ken- tucky 70 Agriculture, the Board of, its designed action 1 ; law concerning 13S Agriculture, Board of, debate in Virginia legislature concerning 213; remarks thereupon 217; reports to 241, 257, 274, 298, 335, 3S3, 512 Agriculture, of lower Virginia, defects of 264 Agriculture versus commerce 30 Agriculture of Pennsylvania 273 Alkalies in soils, importance of 5 "Amende honorable" 490, 499 Aqueduct, Croton, account of 394, 474 Aqueducts, ancient and modern 474 Artesian well of Grenoble 240 Ashes as manure 146 Asparagus, culture of in Spain 239 B Banking of New England Banks of Virginia, their condition, fraudulent proce- dure, and prospects 179 ; exposure of their false pre- tences of having resumed specie payments 63, 442 Bearing rein, objections to 333 Black, the worst color for wood in open air 110 Blossoming of fruit trees a second time 444 Blue grass, Kentucky, (green-sward) 56 Bone earth, mineral, 323 Bones, quantity shipped to Europe 415 ; imported into Hull 452 Brandon farming, account of 274 Broom corn, culture and value of 22 Butter, directions for making 28, 479, 493 Camels, use of, recommended for the western prai- ries 478 Canada thistle 352 Candles, dipped, the making of 55 Cane, history of 288 Canker worm 324, 482 Carrots (or horses 414 Casks for preserving grain 288 Cpstor-oil, fatal effects of on a horse 496 Caterpillars on elms 349 Cattle, English, remarks on, and comparison of with American 79 — newly biought to the south, how to be treated 108 — driving oi when restive 70 — mur- rain of 78 Chalk hills of South Carolina, (improperly so call- ed,) 486 Charcoal as manure 253, 430 Cheat, spelt and darnel, papers on 6, 7, 8 Chickens, gapes of 17 Cider, the making of 53 Climate of United States, advantages of, over that of England 115 Clover and timothy together 103 — top dressing of 130— gayting 158— husbandry, introduction and pro- gress of 260 — Butfalo 4rthat, in favorable seasons and locations, it may be rated at one to one and a quarter ton per year. These lands in general, are mowed once only in a season. There is an instance in Conway, of a piece of moist land lying at the side and foot of a hill, where the soil is deep, being a rich mould, resting ■ upon a substratum inclined to clay, on which, by copious top-dressings of barn manure, the product has been kept up, and averages yearly nearly three tons to the acre. Of peat lands, I know of no considerable tracts in the county ; and, as yet, no great attention has been paid to the draining, either by open or under-ground drains, of wet lands. The quantity of this kind of lands is not considerable ; but such improvements, where required, would be amply compensated. The next quality of grass lands are the alluvi- ons on the Deerfield and the. Connecticut rivers, and small patches on their tributary streams. The alluvial lands on the Connecticut are rarely over-Howed, excepting at the breaking up of winter; and they axe, therefore subjected to a course of culiivaiion the same as other arable lands. The rotation on these lands is commonly the first year corn, or potatoes with manure ; the same the second year, and the third year oats, |)ea5e and oats, rye or wheat, with grass. Where broom corn is planted, it generally Ibllows a crop of Indiiin corn ; and is continued often two or more years on the same land. The annual depo- sitesmade upon ihese lands hy the flood are not of great advantage, and the fertility of the soil can by no means be kept up without manure. The low alluvial lands on the Deerfield mea- dows, essentially diH'cr from these from a circum- stance already alluded to. The waters on the low Deerfield meadows are set hack from the great river, and remain comparatively quiet ; and in addition to this, the banks and hills bordering the Deerfield and its tributaries are more sleep in general than those on the Conneciicui. Much n;ore enriching matter is thus brought down from ihem to the river in times of rain and freshets. These lands, therelbre, annually and commonly oftener over-flowed, constituting the lowest mea- dows on the Deerfield riv^er, are never ploughed. They require no manure ; and being entirely alluvial and receiving the richest deposites, are of extraordinary and inexhaustible fertility. These meadows are always mowed twice; in some cases, three times ; and the annual yield is gene- rally estimated at three tons to the acre. The hay on these meadows is of a very fine quality, known there familiarly as the English bent (agrostisalba'). li is a natural grass, and formsa fine and impervious sward. The upland intervales on the Deerfield, are devoted to culiivation ; and most of this land ia seldom suffered to rest. For hay, the main de- pendence is upon the low flooded meadows : and those low and uneven portions, which it is difficult to reach with the plough. An example has been given to me of the pro- duct of one of these low meadows in Deerfield containing nine acres, at a place called Old Fort. The first crop of hay was, - - 25,325 lbs. " second crop, - - - 15,120 40,4-15 Ibe. The hay w.'.s sold and delivered as soon as cured, at nine dollars per ton, ^182 00 The fall feed, sold (or - . . 450 S186 50 The whole labor was performed by contract at four dollars per acre for both crops, - - - - 36 00 Leaving a balance in favor of the land of $150 50 The hay was considered as sold at a low rate. The same quality of hay in the following winter brought 13 dollar* per ton. The land has been estimated at one hundred dollars per acre. No manure has been put upon the ground. The produce in this case, was not more than an average crop. This yield was at the rate of 4,494 lbs. to the acre. First crop, 2,813 8-9 per acre ; second crop, L657 7-9 lb?, per acre. This constitutes some of the best land in the meadows. There is that, however, which is deemed even more productive- 14 THE FAIliMEKS" REGISTER. The hay from these natural meadows is ex- ceedintrly covetfd by the callic and remarkably nutritious. It consisis of a very grenl variety ol plants, but what is called the English bent (agrostis alba,) prevails with a slight iniermixiurc of clover. I do not know what lias given it the name o( English, as it is without doubt indigenous to the soil. It requires to be cut early, otherwise it becomes iiard and wiry. Some ol' the liiraiers are in the habit of making or drying this hay much less than formerly. It was considered best to dry it as much as possible ; but this is not now (he case. Hay, wet from external mois'ure, whe- ther dew or rain, always suffers and becomes mouldy and sour, il' packed away with any ol this dampness upon it. But hay when perlecily dry may' be put away with much of the sap remaining in it ; and though it sweats severely in the mow and becomes somewhat discolored from the heat, yet it is not the less relished by, nor the less nutritious to, the fatting cattle. This is the actual experience of some of the best feeders ; but though no evil may come from giving euch hay to cattle soon to pass into the hands ol the butcher yet in the condition in which it is often given to fatting cattle, it would be quite pernicious to horses. There ie reason to believe, that hay is generally too much dried ; and with some farmers, the practice of curing it in the cock is much approved. In this case, the hay being perfectly dry Irom any exter- nal wet, after being slightly willed in the sun, is made up into cocks. The second day these cocke are opened and afierwards doubled. In good weather it will soon become sufficiently cured to be carried salely into the barn. In bad weather it is in a great degree secure from theeffiects of rain, if the cocks are macle up with care. In this way, the hay is never so much dried as to be broken ; nor are the leaves and seeds, as in the common way of making hay by tossing it about a great deal, scattered and lost. Two of the best farmers in the county, residing in Bernardston, are of opinion, that herds-grass should not be cut until it is ripe, and the seed perlectly formed. They speak with confidence in this matter from having made many experiments in the fatting of cattle. They are persons, whose word is above question and whose judgment is entitled to great respect. ON THE QUESTION OF TOPPING AND STRIP- PING CORN. HARVESTING THE CROP. Prom the same. The subject of topping the stalks has been much discussed ; and its inexpediency may be considered as settled. A Pennsylvania farmer, highly intelligent and observing, made an experi- ment with a view accurately to test this point. Taking three equal rows in the same field, top- ping two and leaving one untopped, the result was as follows : — " Produce of the row which had not been top- ped, nine bushels and five-eighths of corn in the ear. " One of the rows which had been topped and etripped, — that is, the blades of the plant taken off, — measured seven bushels and six-eighths; and the other, topped and stripped, measured seven bushels and three-eighths of corn in the ear. Thus it clearly appears that mutilating the corn plant before its fiuitis perfected, is a very injurious practice." The experiment of Josiah Quincy, of Quincy, Norlblk county, was to the same effect. This was upon carrois, and I shall give the account in his own words : — "It was stated confidently, by some English writer on the cultivation of carrots, that the tops might be cut early for the purpose ol" feeding cattle which were soiled, not only without injury, but even with benefit, to the roots, which it was said, would in this way grow larger. Mr. Quincy took twenty-six beds ot' carrots in the same field and of the same size, with a view of fully testing these statements ; and in the month of July, when the lower leaves first began to wither, he caused every other bed to be cut as directed, be- ing careful not to crop the crown or the head of the root — so that there was a cut to an uncut bed alternately through the whole piece. They were gathered, and the roots measured carefully, on the 20ih October. The total product of the uncut beds was 104^} bushels : the total product of the cut beds was 58 bushels. Judging by the eye, the size of the roots of the cut bed was nearly two thirds less than that of the uncut bed." But the question may be considered as put to rest by the experiment of William Clark, Jun., of Northampton, Hampshire county. The experi- ment was conducted with much care and intelli- gence ; and, omitting several of the details, 1 shall give only the results: — Row No. 2, on which the experiment was commenced, was as follows, viz : 46 hills on which the stalks had not been cut, gave - - - 42 lbs. 8 oz. Dry shelled corn, equal per acre to bs. 60, 8 lbs. 46 hills from which the stalks had been cut, gave - - - 33 lbs. 7 oz. Dry shelled corn equal per acre to bs. 47, 18 lbs. The loss by cutting the stalks per acre was - - - - 12 bs. 46 lbs. The four rows taken together, stand as follows : No. 1 and 4, on which no stalks were cut, gave an average per acre of 60 bs. 8 lbs. No. 2 and 3, from which half the stalks were cut gave an average per acre of 54 bs. 25^ lbs. Loss by cutting half the stalks per acre, - - - - - 5 bs. 38^ lbs, or cui.Uing all the stalks would make a loSplqual per acre to - - 11 bs. 21 lbs. The difference in the result of the two cases is 1 bs. 25 lbs. per acre ; or in the two experiments, i( it may be so termed, there i^ an average loss by cutting the stalks, of 12 he. 3^ lbs. per acre ; a- loss quite equal to all the e.xpense of hoeing and harvesting. Mr. Clark adds, " if this experiment is a fair test, it seems that about twenty per cent, or one-fifth part of the crop is destroyed by cut- ting the stalks in the way they are usually cut." Aiiother exact farmer in Conway has made a similar experiment in reference to this very point. By a careful measurement he states that the difference between cutting the stalks at the cus- tomary time or leaving them uncut until after the corn is ripened was eight bushels per acre in favor of the latter practice. Mr. Clark advances another opinion, which is THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 15 quite conformable to ray own and to the expe- rience of many other larmers. '*' This twenty per cent, is not saved at the expense oi' losing the Btalks ; they are worth as much, and I think more, all things considered, after the corn is harvested, than they are when gathered in the usual way. ir, alter being bunched up in a green stale, they heat or become mouldy, (a case of frequent occurrence.) they are utterly worthless, except it be ibr manure ; I know of no animal that will eat them. But alter they have once been dried by the sun and wind, a subsequent moderate degree of mouldiness, seems to be no injury." This con- Ibrms to the opinion of one of ilie best farmers in Northlield, Franklin county, who is in the habit of gathering his corn and then cutting up the sialk al the ground. The mode of harvesting Indian corn is of con- siderable importance. On this subject the opi- nions of farmers are at variance. Some chffose to top the stalks as soon as the corn is glazed, and gather the corn after it has become fully ripened. Others prefer leaving the whole until the grain is sufficiently ripened to be cribbed, then gathering the corn, husking it as it isgaihered, and collecting the fodder afterwards. Others choose as soon as the corn is glazed, or is so far advanced that an ear fit for roasting is not to be found in the field, to cut the whole up at the ground and shock it in the field Ibr ripening. This practjce, is almost univer- sal in New York, but it prevails only partially in Franklin county, where in general the first describ- ed mode of harvesting is adopted. In many places the but-stalks after the corn is gathered, are left in the field to be browsed by cattle, a manage- ment which is wasteful, and has nothing to recom- mend it. 1 shall take the liberty in this matter to detail my own experience, while a resident in this coun- ty. The leaving the corn untopped until it is sufficiently advanced tor gathering, and then cut- ting it up at bottom, allowing it to finish the ripen- ing in tlie shock, has sometimes with me been attended with success. In some cases, however, I have had by this management so much mouldy and soft corn as to question its expediency. But as I think I have discovered the causes of my failure, this method now commends itself strongly to myjudgmenf. The summer of 1832 was so cold, that corn generally was three weeks behind its usual condi- tion ; and fears were entertained that the crop would be entirely cut off. On the 9ih of Septem- ber there was a slight, and on the 12ih and 13ih, there were severe frosts. Corn was generally in the milk ; and, in many places, much was killed. The fogs on the river near my residence served as a protection to my crop. Under these threatening appearances, fearing through delay the loss of my wfiole crop, I determined to cut up the whole al the ground as soon as it should be slightly glazed ; and the results and facts in relation to it, I took pains to record. I was desirous lo ascertain whether corn cut in the milk and not at all glazed, would ripen. Three stalks with one ear on each were cut in this condition and placed in as favorable a si- tuation as possible for the access of the sun and air. They ripened perfectly ; and to appearance became as fair and hard and heavy as any ; but the experiment on a whole field could not be advised, as so favorable a situation for curing a large quantity could seldom be obtained. I began cutting my corn on the 14ih September, alter having previously cut out the suckers and barren stalks. In the fieldwhich I look first, the corn ap- peared dead ; but this was occasioned by the rust, not by the frosts. This corn being cut at the boliom and not sufTered to he laid upon the ground, several hills were brought together, the stalks were spread widely al (he bottom, and were lied by a single band at the top. Much of this corn upon husking, iippearrd of a pale yellow, and a good deal of it was soft and mouldy. The shocks did not stand firmly, and many were over-turned by the wind. The centre hill, around which the stalks were gathered, should not have been cut until the time of husking, but should have been left as a support to the shock. Another field wliere the corn was slightly glazed and the stalks very green, was cut, lied in small bundles above the ears and put in small shocks or slooks. This came out better than the former, but not so well as could be desired. It was cut too early, and was not suffered to remain long enough in the shock. Two other fields were necessarily left to a later period after the corn had become fully glazed, that IS in the main every kernel on an ear was well touched, though the stalks were still green and succulent. It was tied near the top in small bundles ; put up in small shocks, and spread at bottom so as lo give free access to the air. ^This corn at husking came out bright and sound, with less refuse than ordinary ; and the fbdder was suc- culent and of the best quality. There is a small matter connected with this subject lo which my attention was directed by an excellent farmer in the county. His advice was by no means to shock the corn, thus cut up and iraihered, upon grass ground, as is often done on the borders of the field, because the grass is likely to exclude the air from the bottom of the shocks. Upon the whole my own judgment, especially liable as we are to early frosts, is to cut up and shock the corn as above described as soon as it is well glazed ; and it is a safe error to do it too early rather than too late. The fodder in such case is always of superior quality. RELATIVE MERITS OF BERKSHIRES AND WO- BURNS — BANTER FROM MR. MAHARD TO DR. MARTIN. From ttie Kentuclty Farmer. The reader will find below a letter written by Mr. Mahard upon the relative merits of Woburns and Berkshires. We have admitted it on the ground that it discusses facts interesting lo the breeding public in relation to two popular breeds of swine and particularly as it proposes a test of their comparative merits in a way more satisfac- tory than any hitherto tried. At the same time, however, we regret to perceive that Mr. M. has adopted a style of discussion calculated lo provoke a controversy hkely to degenerate into personality. Although individually sick and tired of mere pa- per discussions on the question, which is the best breed of hogs, we do not feel at liberty to decline discussions which may lead to the discovery of 16 THE FARMEllS' REGISTER. iruihs useful to the pork raiders of the country. Yet we dare say thai, il we were lo exercise our right ol' either reiuruirig the communications ol' gentlemen or ol expurgating ilieir perc-onal and otieiisive expressions, ihey would gei into a high- er passion on account ol' ilie act than they exliil)il in tlicir produr.tioiie. Tliere is an exceeding de- gree of sensibiliiy manilested by breeders vvtien- evcr a discussion oi' ilie merits ol' lliis or that breed ol animals is in hand. As much heat is exhibited, by the advocates ol' the various breeds, towards eacli other, as is usually observed be- tween the diHereni pohiical parties. We shall lake no side in these controversies. Throwing our pages open alike to all, we have only 'o say to each, bring Ibrward your strongest lacts and give our read', rs the benefit of ihem. * * * —FA. Ky. Far. Cincinnati, 2nd Dec, 1841. 7'o the Editor of the Kentucky Farmer :— I find on looking over various agricultural papers of the United States, that Dr. S. D. Mariin of Kentucky, has published a trial made by himsell and James F. Taylor, of liieding a Berksliire sow and two Woburns, for ten days, and as the whole particulars of the case have not been pub- lished by the Doctor, 1 leel anxious that ihey should be, for the inlormaiion of all concerned, and as he is such a stickler ior facts, he of course will have no objections to what 1 am about to ptate. What I learned of this trial of IL-edlng be- tween Doctor Manin and Mr. Taylor, was at the Doctor's own house last September, when I visii- cd him m company with Mr. Affleck, editor of the Farmer and Gardener. Here i met Mr. .James t'. Taylor, and heard him and Dr. M. discuss the whole subject, and I must conless, al- ter which, 1 could not but wonder that the Doctor had come out in the public prims and published this trial, as 1 think it can be made to appear from ail the facts in the case, that he has gained no- thing by it, only so lar as it helps lo make a noise about his hogs, and keep ihem belbre the public. It appears on the 13ih August last, Mr. Taylor placed a Berkshire sow of his, and Dr. Martin two Woburn sows, in the hands of a Mr. Wea- thers, a disinterested man, to be fed (or ten days, on 5 pounds of corn per day. Mr. Taylor is a nephew of the Doctor, and Mr. "Weathers is a tenant. These things I state because ihey are facts. Well, as to the result. Doctor M. and Mr. T. agreed as to the gain of the Berkshire sow and one of the Woburns, which they said uas 21 pounds each on fifty-two pounds of corn ii. len days, but upon that of ihe other Wobuni .-,,w, Courtney, on the same allowance and same number of days they disagreed. Doctor, M. as- serting that she had gained 30 lbs., while Mr. Taylor contended that she was incorrectly weigh- ed, and that he did not believe that bhe had made any such gain. I now contend that Doctor M. has published to the world what is noi a fact, for it is disputed by his own nephew, Mr. T., that the Woburn sow, Courtney, did gain as much as was represented she did. The Doctor goes on to state, from this trial made with Mr. Taylor, that it is a lact thai ihe Berkshire hog is a greater consumer than the Woburn. (See his communication particularly to the Tenaessee Agriculturist, November No. p. 259.) Now only hear what he told me in a private conversation on this very subject. He said that on the day he brought home his Wo- burn sows from Mr. Weather's, he told his man Patrick to put up Courlriey and give her as much as she would eat lor two days, and then they would weigh her again. He did so, and found she eat a bucket of swill ! a bucket full of ap- ples ! and nineteen ears of corn ! and gained 19 lbs., and from these facts, the Doctor concluded that the Berkshires were the greatest consumers ! The gain of 19 lbs. in the two days was princi- pally in the weight of food given j^er, and with which she had gorged herself, and I believe just as.much in it, admitting that the Doctor was cor- rect, as I do in an animal gaining 30 lbs. of flesh on 51 lbs. of corn. Such a thing is utterly im- possible, and if she did weigh 30 lbs. more at the end of the ten days, it was because her stomach was full of water, or something else besides the 51 lbs. corn consumed. It will now be seen, that the trial between Messrs. Mariin and Taylor proves nothing at all to me, regarding the relative merits of the difJe- renl breeds of swine, and inasmuch as the Doctor -has been bragging and bantering the whole world to ((jed against his Woburns, and as I do not be- lieve that there has ever been a fair test yet made, I propose selecting six of my Berkshire pigs, 3 months old, and I call upon Dr. M. to select the same number of his Woburns, and put them into the hands of a disinterested man together, to be fed fi-om twelve to fil'teen months in ihe usual- method of feeding hogs for pork — to pasture them in the summer, and to have all the grain mea- sured that they consume, and then let them be drove to this market or to any other that may be agreed upon, and the hogs weighed alive, then kil ed and weighed again, and the whole trial be published to the world. I am now busy in packing pork in Covington, Kentucky, and I wish to mention a. fact with re- gard to a lot of 103 head oi' hogs, 69 of which were one-half and three-quarters Berkshire, be- longing to N. McNeese, of Harrison county, Kentucky, the whole averaged 268 lbs., gross at home, and after being driven 50 miles to this place, and kept on hand lor several days, they were slaughtered and weighed 219 lbs. net. The usual loss between gross and net lots, in common hogs, is one fourth and over, this shows a gain of 18 lbs. per head in this lot ; and had the Berk- shire cross been weighed by themselves, it would have been still greater. I "do not think their loss between gross and net weight would have been over 40 lbs. a hog, or less than one-sixth. So thoroughly am I convinced in ray own mind that the Berkshire hog is superior to all others, that i am anxious lo have a fair and impartial test made between them and any other breed, and the sooner it is done the better. As far as I have been able lo learn from those to whom 1 have sold Berkshire pigs, none have been disap- pointed in them. A correspondent of mine writes from Tuscumbia, Alabama, under date of 19th November last, informing me that a lot of Berk- shire pigs i had sent him had arrived safely. He said he had an opportunity of seeing one or two pairs of Doctor Martin's thorough-bred Woburns, "There is," says he, " humbuggery in the Doctor, his hogs wo'n't do what he says they tw//." THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 17 " They are a hirire boned, coarse hoou the root part of a curii sialk, raised in the lollowing way. I dug a trench aliout 20 inches de^o. One uhji-ct was to try an cxpcii- tnent with poialofs, to see if they won'il thrive vveli at a considerabe distance beneath iheeiir- facc. I jtlanted my potiitoes wi:li a lew grains of corn at the boltom, tovefeil w'lh cljip manure, mixed with the soil, and alter they came up, ( filled the trench as last as I could wiiliout emotlier- irjg them. I at the same time planted two giai.-'a of corii on the surface near l>y, one of which 1 cultivated by hoeing about it and making a hill, and to the other 1 made no hill, nor loosened the soil near it. The season was a very dry one, with but little wind when the corn was in blossom. When it was ripe, I found a good well set ear on the stalk, I did not cultivate, further than to scrape away the weeds and grass. None of the others produced as well, which I supposed might be accidental. I hilled up the trench so as to make it about two feet Irom the bottom. The next spring 1 dug my potatoes and Ibund a very poor yield, though I lound potatoes ai all depths. I have since tried the same experiment in potatoes in a good season, and with nearly ilie sail e suc- cess. 1 was induced to irythc expcmnent li-um one 1 !iad tried helbre. 1 took sprouts Irom pota- toes and plan cd them in hills in my garden, and culiivated them as usual. In the lall I dug li.eni, and their J ield was moderate. J Ovn|joky hilling them up. Hill up potatoes that are in blossom, and ihe blossonis will lall off. A new growih commences, and in time iliev vvill bloesou) anew. In iliis way one can put olf the ripening ot' early planted poiaiors till lall. There is in this climate a d fKculty in keopinj; potatoes from deteriorating in quality. They will keep in some t)arts cl France by burying ihem 3^ leet beneath the surface. I iiave tried Ihem here 5 feei, and still they were within atmcspheric influence. I once Ibund a small pipce ol sweet potato, perlectly sound, four leei beneath the sur- iace, in what had been a potaio cellar beneath my kitchen, which to my certain l.d lionrd thai! give due no- tTce, I'y uJver.iii u'iCii', oi tlio liniti nn'-i place ol sucii txLi'jition, Iliii j.rimiunii lo be awauh-d, and the coininittcc by uhoni they are lo be awarJeil ; and lor i!ie expense aHendi(ig ihe discharge ofihe iluiics herein luipoied, iliey shall draw rcquisilons on tiie presiden!, selling Ibrih, severally, the iienis of expense, which requisiiions shall be recorded by the recording eecretary, and \he (jresioeni, iC he approves the same, shall thereupon issue his drait on the treasurer (or the amount. Art. 15. The said board thall also be in- 8irucled lo ninke efforts to obtain funds lor the establishment of an agricidtural school in ihc district of Co'umbia, and, appurteniint thereto, a course of ()ublic leciures on agriculture, che- misiry, botany, niineralogy, tienluiiy, and enlo- mology, as appiopriaie scieixt-s lo the great busi- ness of agriculture, aud an experimenial larni, which, with the builoingsand imjirovtmenis ihere- on, shall beset npaii lor evtir ^' as an eslablish- mentfor ihe. increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.'^ Art. 16. The board of control shall procure an appropriate seal lor the society, to be attached bia ; Hon. John S. Skinner, of the District of Columbia ; and John F. Callanj Esq. of the District of Columbia, were then appointed a commiitee to select ihe officeis of the society pro- vided lor in the cousiitulion, to serve until the re- gular election in May next. The commi tee, appoinicd by the Agricultural Society of the United States to select the officers of the society lo serve until ihe first general meet- ing and exhibition on the 4ih day of May next, have met, and do hereby recommemd and report the Ibllowing gentlemen lo fill the offices annexed to their respeciive name;:. The recording secre- tary ia lequesied to publish the names, and give special in'ormation to each individual of his se- leciion. Levi Woodbury. Chairman for the Committee. President, James M. Garnet t ; Corresponding Secretary, John S. Skinner ; Recording Secretary, John F. Callan ; Treasurer, Edward Dyer. Board of Control— Levi Woodbury, Elisha Whitdesey, Alexander Hunter, John A.Smith, W. J. Stone. Vice Presidents— Maine. George Evane; New Hampshire, Isaac Hill ; Massachusetts, B. F. French; Connecticut, Eli Ives; Rhode Island, to diplomas or other documents or instruments j Goy^ F^nuer; Vermon', Wm^Jarvjs; Newport, which may be issued to honorary member-j or ■" ^' " . kt t /-< c /-, t-> other persons, under the direction of the society. They shall fill all vacancies that may occur by death, resignation or otherwise, either in their own body, or the list of the officers, to continue until the next general meeting. Art. 17. In furiher aid of the purpose of this socieiy, the said board shall invite some suitable person to establish an agricultural publication in this city, and shall also petition congress lor ihe incorporation of this socieiy. 1 Art. 18. The first general meeting of ihis < society shall be in the city of Washington, on the first Wednesday in May next, and ihereafier at such times as the socieiy may direct. Art. 19. All moneys paid to the treasurer, either for subscriptions or as donations to the so- ciety, shall be deposited to the society's credit in such bank or institutions ae the board of control may direct, and can only be withdrawn upon the requisition of the president or acting president, countersigned by the secretary and treasurer. Arjt. 20. This constitution shall be amended only by a vote of two thirds of all the members present at an annual meeting of the socieiy ; but t;ie board of control may, by the aid of the pre- sident, establish any needful by-laws (or ihe bet- ter order of the society not incompatible with this constitution — which by-laws may at any lime be amended by a majority of the socieiy present. Art. 21. Elections for all olfii'ers of ihe socie- ty shall be lield by ballot at every general meet- ing thereof; but, until an rleclion at the general meeting in May next, ihe following persons sIimII be a commiitee to appoint the officers hereinbefore mentioned, and to make publication of the same, in len days from this lime : The Hon. Levi Woodbury, of New Hamp- shire; Hon. Lewis F. L'nn, of Missouri ; Hon. Wm. C. Rives, of Virginia; Hon. Wm. Cost Johnson, of Maryland ; Hon. Dixon H. Lewis, of Alabama; Hon. John Hastings, of Ohio; Hon. H. L. Ellsworth of the District of Colum- C. H. Bement, New Jersey, C. S. Green ; Penn- sylvania, George M. Keim ; Delaware, J. W. Thompson ; Maryland, Thomas Emory ; Vir- ginia, Edmund Ruffin ; North Carolina, Edmund Deberry ; South Carolina, Wade Hampton; Georgia, W. Lumpkin ; Alabama, Dixon H. Lewis; Louisiana, Alexander Mouton; Arkan- sas, Archibald Yell ; Tennessee. F. H. Gordon; Mississippi, M. W. Phillips; Kentucky, Chilton Allan ; Missouri, Lewis F. Linn ; Illinois, A. W. I Snyder ; Indiana, Solon Robinson; Michigan, Isaac E. Crary ; Ohio, John Hastings ; District of Columbia, H. L. Elleworih ; Florida, R. W. Williams: Iowa, Timothy Davis; Wisconsin, Henry Dodge. The vice presidents of Virginia, Maryland, District of Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Dela- ware are ex officio members of the board of control. J. F. Callan, Rec. Sec. [Though it is contrary (o our usage to publish the constitutions and preparatory proceedings (of merely intended operations) of new agricultural societies, we have made an exception to that usage in (hvor of the " United States Agricultural Socie- ty," recently instituted at Washington — an excep- tion due to the magni ude of the plan and object, and also to the public spirit and patriotic views of the individuals who have (bunded the socieiy. But neither our high respect for ihe (bunders, (the prin- cipal of whom are also our valued friends,) nor the unexpected and unsought honor which the society awarded lo us among their appoinimenis to office, will prevent our again expressing the opinion and the lear that a society so constituted, and so located, cannot possibly work right, nor do much good in promoting agricultural improvement, compared to the results that might be produced from the opera- tion of as much talent, zeal, labor and money, di- THE FARMERS" REGISTER. 21 reeled differently. It cannot be expected that any considerable number ol" individuals, or enough lo maintain the semblance of a " United Stales Agriculiura! Society," can be induced to travel lo Washington, li-om all the stales ol ihe union. And even iC such incredible sacrifices were nuide, and some members were lo attend from Maine, Iowa, Missouri, Louisiana und Florida, as well as from the near neighborhood ol" Washington, what could be expected from their meeting, more than the usual and almost useless procedure of agri- cultural societies in general? And il" no more should be done, no member would again iravel 1000 railed — unless he had oiher work to do, and private interesis lo attend to at the seat ofgovern- ment. It is not that there are not excellent and abun- dant materials and means at Washington lor an agricultural society of more humble pretensione, and yet of far greater utility than this. There are some resident individuals there, whose names ap- pear in the loregoing proceedings, whose general intelligence, zeal for and knowledge of agriculiure, would dignify and utilize any properly constituied district society; and such a society would be great- ly aided by facilities peculiar to that locality. But these mdividnals and these means will re- ceive no additional aid by belonging loan orga- nization and plan so ambitious as to be made co- extensive With the whole space ol our enormous territory. But whatever may be our anticipations and fears, we shall most heartily rejoice if they shall prove to be unfounded, and the value and results of the " United Slates Agricultural Society" shall be shown to be equal to the most sanguine ex- pectations of its founders. VIRGINIA SALT MINE. From the Journal of Commerce. I received last week, from my correspondent, Alexander Findley, Esq. of Saltville, Washing- ton county, Virginia, a package containing, amoiTg other geological specimens, several pieces of rock salt, or sal gem, which is of a very superior quali- ty. 1 have left a sample of it at the office ol the Journal of Commerce, for ihe inspection of any person who may wish to examine it. The rock salt is siigliily iinged with a leddish color. This is the first salt mine found in the United Slates east of the Mississippi river and the great lakes, and may well be reckoned a great treasure. The stratum is about one hundred and fifty feet thick and reposes on a bed of plaster rock, and is a little more than two hundred leet below the surface. The section of Virginia where this .salt mine is located lies between the Clinch mountain and the Blue Ridge, and is near the line of East Tenne- see, about equal distance irom Nashville in Ten- nessee and Richmond, Virginia. I have also re- ceived a sample of most beautiliji table salt, manu- factured at the salt works at Saltville by evaporation. 1 have put up specimens of the rock salt to for- ward to the slate geological cabinet at Albany. This salt mine was discovered in boring lor salt water — and although it is so near ihe eurlace, the proprietors find ii more profitable to evaporate the brine which yields about two pound* of pure salt 10 the gallon, in prelerence to excavating the sal gem. The stale ol Virginia is rich in her mineral deposiies — of iron, coal, sail, plaster and gold — iron, coal, salt and piaster are generally lound near together. E. Meriam, From the Kentuclsy Farmer. RELATIVE WEIGHT OF GRAIN AND COB OF INDIAN CORN. Bourbon county, Dec, 13, 1841. To the Editor of the Kentucky Farmer — In look- ing over your inieiestirig periudical, 1 sometimes meet wiili notices ol fine ears of corn produced in our country. Now in order to enable your readers to understand precisely how good they were, it seems to me that jour correspondents should, in deeciibing ilieni, give us the exact weight of the corn both on ilie cob and when shelled, as this would afiord a very certain stand- ard. The length or girth of the ear, the number of rows or grains, are loo uiitwtain measures by which to deiermine the excellence of an ear of Indian corn. A refiection ol ihis kind led me while gathering my corn lo luake the following experiment : On the 17ih November last, without any very great care, I selected twelve ol the most remark- able ears that were convenient to hand. The whole, being quite dry, weighed thirteen pounds good weight on ihe cob. The longest ear mea- suring ihuieen inches in length, but only 5| inclies ill circumli^reuce was Ihe lightest of the twelve, and coniained 742 grains. The shortest ear measuring 85 inches and 8^ inches in girth, had 22 rows and about 1100 grains— the greatest number of grains on any ol the twelve— but the ear was much lighter than many others of the dozen. The heaviest and best ear of all mea- sured only nine inches in length and S^ inches in girth, containing 18 rows and about 846 grains, it weighed 1 lb. 3^ oz. unshelled ; the corn when shelled weighed 15^ oz. I did not consider this a very remarkable ear for size; but the experi- ment shows how much the eye may deceive us as to the relative value of an ear of corn. Among the dozen there was one ear, selected by several as being decidedly the finest and best. And cer- tainly its appearance was prepossesiing, being 12 inches long and 7^ inches in circumference, con- taining on y 14 rows and about 700 grains, which, however, were very large, wide and lull. This ear was the second m weight, mark that, weigh- ing 1 lb. 3 oz. ; the corn it shelled weighed 14^ oz. having a much heavier cob than its success- fiil competitor. The description of corn is the white flint; and considering that the past season was not the best lor corn, 1 think mine tolerably good. The above experiment has suggested to my mind an important improvement that I think may be made in corn. I intend to try it, and if I succeed will indue time inlbrm you as to the result, i am, respectlully, yours, JnO. ALF..KN GaNO. 22 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. BROOM CORN. From the Fourth Report of the Agriculture of Massacliusetts, Broom corn {S'orghinn saccharatum.,) is the next most important crop grown in (he county o( Franklin. Its cultivation is chiefly confined to the meadows on the Deerfield and Connecticut rivers, thougli there have been instances of iari:;e crops in the interior. Deeifield, Whately and Sunderland in particular grow large amoun's of il ; and it is said that the j)roFperity of iIk' lasi- nanied (own is mainly attributable to this product. The average yield under good cultivation ie from six hundred to eight hundred pounds of brush or broom. One thousand pounds are not unfrequently reached. Six to eight hundred pounds are reported as the average yield in Sunderland and Whately. A crop of seed Is obtained about once in four years, and forty bushels of seed are considered a good yield. A respectable farmer in the county informs me that in one instance, he obtained one hundred and fifty bushels of seed to the acre. Ft is planted in hills at a distance of eighteen inches between (he hills lengthwise ; and iu rows about two and a half feet apart, or at a distance wide enough to pass the plough or the cultivator. By some farmers, broom corn is planted in hills two and a half feet distant each way, and fifteen stalks are left in a hill. It re- quires good manuijog ; and is pometimes manur- ed as Indian corn in the hill, or the manure is spread. The cultivation is more expensive than that of Indian corn. No crop is more beautiful than the standing corn, when in perfection ; and it frequently reaches a height of twelve to fifteen feet. The stalks of the plant are long and hard, and thereibre difficult to load on a cart. They are generally considered as of no value excepting for manure. This, liowever, is an error. The Shakers at Canterbury, N. H,, among the very best farm- ers in the country, are as careful to save their broom corn stalks, as their Indian corn stalks (or fodder; and, for the feeding of their young stock, deem them equally valuable. The usual mode of gathering is to table the corn, that is, to cut oft' the top, or tassel the broom as it is called, about two or three feet from the top, and bending the stalks of" two rows together, lay it down and leave it until it is seasoned and fit to be gathered. The brush is then cut, tied in small bundles and carried in. The remainder of the stalks are burnt in the field the ensuing spring, and some little advantage is supposed to be de- rived from (he ashes. Some farmers prefer, after gathering the brush, to cut the stalks and lay them lengthwise in the rows, and plough them imme- diately under. They will be entirely decomposed by the ensuing spring. A stilt better mode is (o carry (hem in(o the cattle and sheep-yards, where they become incorporated with the manure and make a valuable addition to the compost heap. I am satisfied from the experiment of the Shakers, that if properly cured, they might be well applied (0 the feeding of young stock. It is deemed ne- cessary by (he raisers ol broom corn to connect with it the feeding and liittening ol cattle, that the necessary manure may be procured for the cultivation of (his crop. It is considered a profitable crop when the brush will command five cents per pound. The price has been subject to great fluctuations. Formerly, it was common fur each farmer to make his brush into brooms, and sell them when and where he coulil. This was bad lor all parties. It brouaht too many competitors into the market, and often unduly depressed the price. The buyers likewise were often obliged to put up with an inferior arti- cle. I'lie growing ol the brush and the manu- laciure ol the brooms are now in different hands. The farmer, as soon as his broom is ready for the market, finds in the manufacturer a purchaser at a steady price ; and the manufacturer knows that his reputation, and consequently his success like- wise, is concerned in the qualify of the article, which he lurnishes. The Shakers (or a loma: lime almost monopo- lized the raising of the corn and the manuliacture of brooms, which, like other manufactures of this indusirious community, were always ofa superior quality and generally commanded a high price, usually 37^ cents a-piece or more. Now, corn brooms are frequently sold (rom 8 to 25 cents ; but many of them are, like Pindar's razors, " made to sell." The handles in an unfinished state, made eiiher of maple or ash, are furnished for a cent a-piece. The wiring and tying on are usually done by the hundred. The scraping the seed from (he brush is an unpleasant business, and the dust is prejudicial to the eyes. A common flax comb is generally employed ; but an improved machine, moved by horse power is coming into use, perlbrms the work quickly, and greatly lessens the labor. The manufacture, when carried on extensively and with ample capital, has yielded encouraging profits. The seed is sold at two-thirds ihe price of oats, and is ordinarily of the same weight. It some- times weighs more than oats, and by some per- sons is more highly valued. It is by many esteem- ed good food lor the fattening of swine, when mixed with other grain. Some have used it for (a(tening cattle and horses, but it is not approved. The saving of the seed of broom corn is, by the best farmers, deemed a matter of much import- ance. It must be taken (i-om that which produces a full and square head ; and not from that which runs up in a spindling Ibrm, and " branches like a pine-tree." The difference in (he seed is deemed of so much consequence, (hat while ordinary seed for planting can be obtained at one dollar and fifty cents per bushel, the best always commands four dollars. In no single thing do farmers commit a greater error than in respect to seed. Inferior seed of any kind of plant should never be used ; and the difference in the expense between good and poor seed is nothing compared with the increased value of the crop from good seed. It is a fact, which certainly deserves mention, that broom corn is taken three, (bur, and some- times ten years in succession from the same field without diminution of the crop. I have the testi- mony of three respectable farmers to this point. Yet this can only be done by high manuring. By many farmers it is deemed an exhausting crop. The brooms made from (he brush, cut and dried while green, are tougher and much more durable than those made from the brush, when suffered to become quite dry and yellow. The returns of a crop of broom corn in Gill are as follows : the land cultivated was one acre seven rods. The crop of brush was nine hundred and thirteen pounds. Of THE FAKMERS' REGlbTER. 23 seed, there were one hundred and thirteen bushels; eighty bushels o!" which, sold for twenty-five cenis per bushel. This was at the rale ol eight hun- dred and seventy-five pounds of brush to the acre. 1 subjoin, also, the exact account ol'a crop culti- vated by Alvah Hawkes, in Deerfield meadows, with which he was kind enough to favor me. Expense of cultivating one acre of broom corn. One ploughing the 12ih of May, - -$125 Holeing out, one third of a day's work, - 34 Ten loads ol' manure at 75 cents per load, 7 50 Putting manure in the hills, - - - 2 00 Planting, one day's work, ^1; seed, 4 quarts ai 75 cents per bushel, - - 1 10 Hoeing first tiiiie, 3^- days, $3 50 ; hoeing, second time, 3 days, !§3, - - - 6 50 Hoeing, third time, $2 50 ; horse and boy to plough for the season, j§l - - - 3 50 Tabling and cutiing, 4 days, - - - 4 00 Gathering, carting, and packing away, - 2 50 $28 69 The expense of cultivating one acre is as bbove $28,69, the labor being rated at $1 00 per day; which is more than the actual cost. The yield was at the rate ol 991 lbs. to the acre. If the ground had been fully stocked, the crop wou'd have been more than 1000 lbs per acre. The brush was sold at 8| cents per lb. The crop of seed was light and poor ; at the rate of 50 bushels to 3 acres ; and was sold at 16| cents per bushel or $2 77 per acre. To the above expenses of $28 69 are to be added as (bilows: Scraping 1000 lbs. $3 30 ; board of man 5 days $1 07, - - - - - $4 37 Rent of land, 1 acre, - - - - 16 00 $49 06 The sales of the above brush 1000 lbs. at 8.i cts. pr. lb. 85 00 Seed upon above acre, - - - - 2 77 $87 77 Net profit per acre, - - . . ^33 71 This product may be deemed unusual ; but there is no difficulty under suitable cultivation in obtaining it. The price is not extraordinary ; and had the brush in this case been kept until the spring, it would have brought 12^ cents per lb. Another estimate by a good farmer, is as fol- lows : Ploughing, $4 00 ; drasgrng, $1 00 ; ma- nure, $12 00; seed, 25 cents, - - 17 25 Planting 2 feet by 3^ leet apart, 75, - 75 First hoeing, $4 68 ; 2d hoeing, $2 34 ; 3d hoeing, $1 17, - - . - 8 19 Gathering brush and scraping seed off, 12 00 Returns. 700 lbs. of brush at 8 cents, 40 bushels seed at 25 cents, Net profit per acre. $38 00 56 00 10 00 $66 00 $27 81 No charge is here made for the rent of the land. MANURES. STABLE, COW AND HOG YARDS. HUMAN EXCREMENT. From the same. The price of manures in this county is very high. The farmers in the vicinity of Boston de- pend upon the city stables for a large portion of what they use. The price in Boston varies irom three to lour dollars a cord. I have known a market larmer to purchase one thousand dollars' worth in a year. Since the value ol liquid ma- nure is esiabli hed, and its intrinsic efficacy is so much superior to the solid parts ol manure, it is strange that no provision is made by the larmers lor Saving the vast quantities that are now lost in the city. Hardly an instance can be lound, there is not one within my knowledge, of any ] fovision for saving it at their own barns. This is an improvement yet to be effected. I have urged this matter so strongly, though not beyond its importance, in my tbrmer reports, that 1 shall add little more. 1 have known $6 50 paid per cord ibr stable jnanure taken at the stable ; and a larmer, whose soundness 0! judgment in other matters 1 have always respected, expressed his willingness to purchase all the n)anure (rom the cow-stable in Lowell at five dollars per cord, though he must then cart il lour or five miles in order to reach his farm. These prices are enormous, and the more surprising, since almost every farmer in Middle- sex has at hand the means of preparing a com- post-dressing ibr his land of equal value, at not half the cost. Upon the larms in the vicinity very great quan- tities are carried Irom the livery-stables in the city. The hog establishment at West Cambridge supplies a large amount of manure to the farmers in its neighborhood. I do not, refer in this case exclusively to the excremenlitious matter of the swine, but also to the relirse garbage from the stables, of which I have spoken. This is spread upon their grass lands, or ploughed in on their cultivated grounds, or spread round their apple trees; and in every case with great advantage. If not used immediately, it is placed in a compost heap, and covered with mould, to be used when needed. It has been found particularly useful when applied to Iruit-trees at the roots. It is of course llill of animal matter, and must furnish in abundance the principles of vegetable life. The intelligent farmer who gives me this account speaks of the effects of this manure as immediate and powerful. To night-soil he objects that its influence is transient. He gives the preference over all others to stable and horse manure. He raises largely of early vegetables and small fruits for the market. The stable manure is more con- venient for his forcing beds in the spring, and, af- ter it has performed its part there, is easily ap- plied to other crops. Large amounts of night-soil are obtained in Boston and Charlesiown, and applied by the market-gardeners. It is brought out in a crude state in covered and tight wagons, and too often, without regard either to decency or comfort, is carelessly deposited by the road-side near the dwelling-house in a kind of basin, where a quan- tity of mould is at hand to mix with it, to absorb the liquid parts, and to put the whole into a con- dition to apply to the soil. The slovenliness with 24 -IHK FAKMEliS' REGISTEK which these mailers are eomeiimee managed des<>rves no ligl)t ceiieurc. I knew a case in wliicli, in ilie opinion ol his physicians, ihe iile of a resjiectHlile iiniividual was a eacnfice lo one ol these neirjigenlly manajred depot-iies made hy a rieighhor in liis immediate vicinity. I do not know wliy, in a civilized coa)muiiity, ilic puMic have not an efjuai riglii to claim ih;it ilie air fcliall not he needlessly corrupted, any more than the wells in a neiglit)orliood poif^oned, whe'her it be by the effluvia ol' some odious m aiure-heap or the scarcely le^is disiJiusiinjr odors of i()t^)acco. These phicts ol deposile, as niaittr ol pnhlic de- cency, ouirht never, under any preit-nci', to be permiiied tiy the hiirhway. By caidul manage- ment of them in some suitable place on liie larm, remote lioni the road and the divelling, this great nuisance might be abaied. I am aware u|)on what a homely subject I have fallen ; but I know how essentially it concerns the larmer's interest and ihe (lublic healih. " Evil be to him who evil thinks." I would advise a I'astidious reader to pass over this whole chapter, but that I .'ear il 1 did, as it happens wiili Ibrbid- den passages in the classics in college, he would think that lie owed it to himsell' lo determine on the propriety of such advice, by first reading with increased ailenlion what (he chapter con- tained. Every advance in cleanliness is an advance in civilization, a coniribuiion to health and an equal help to good morals. The unfortunate beings who live in cities, are doomed to inhale and ex- hale the innumerable odors, wliich are there com- mingled from cellars occasionally filled with bilge- water, muddocks, which tlie receding tide has left bare, common sewers, and broken gas-pipes. In the country there is no apology lor allowing any thing offensive on the premises. The farmers who obtain the night-soil from cities, would find an advantage in digginir a long and deep vault, at least four feet in depth, walled up wiih stone and plastered and floored so as to be made thoroughly light, and having a close and movea- ble covering. Into tills the contents of the carts should be careliiily turned, with such a constant supply ol" soil or muck or ashes or efl'ete liaie or gypsum as would C(^mplelely absorb the liquid parts, and miijlit lie so iniimatdy incorporated with the solid parts as to bring all into a (easibie state of application to the land. This vault or Btercorary should hkewise serve as a place of de- posile forall dead animals in the place, and all other offensive mailers, which might be converted into manure. The contents of the family vault, being freely mixed with mould or spent tan, should likewise be conveyed thereat least once a week. This would be a great gain to comlbrt and health. I saw much an arrangement on one (arm, and its advantages were most obvious. Ft Ibrmed an ex- cellent bank of general deposite, whose discounts in the spring were always most liberal and useful. Tite |)reparaiion of night-soil for easy use and tran-poriation, has been the subject of various chemical experiments. The prepared article goes under the name o( fioudrette ; and though there have been occasional disappointments, I have seen it used with great success. The admixture of effete or slacked lime with it has the same effect as any other absorbent ; but the application of quick lime, while it deetroys its offensive odora, expels its ammonia and proportionately reduces its value. Liebig recoiiiinends its mixture with gypsum or chloride ol calcium, or sotne mineral acid. 1 have not known this tried. This would fix the ammonia and give it out to the plants as llievita! process is prepared to take il up. The mode of preparing it in Pari=:, is by drying it in large vats in the sun until it can be reduced to a fine powder and loses all smell, fts best proporiies are then gone. Fine pea', muck, fine mould, powdered charcoal, tanners' bark burnt and char- red, are substances which may be mixed with it 10 great advantage. It is beyond all question one of liic most power.'ul of manures, but can only be applied advantageously in a prepared stale. An es:ablishment (or this purpose is about being made in the county which may prove eminently beneficial. Bone manure has been tried to some extent ; in some cases within my knowledge, with great and decided success ; in otherf-, without perceptible benefit. These diverse results convince us of our ignorance, and show how much we have to hope from the investigational of chemistry and philosophical experiments in relation both to ma- nures and soils, and the hitherto scarcely approach - ed mysteries of vegetable Iile. Much o( the bone manure v/hich has been used has been Irom bones which have passed first through the hands of the soap-boiler, and after all the gelatinous parts have been extracted. A considerable portion of their fertilizing properties has thus been taken away. The most successliil applicaiion of bone manure which I have known was where they were mixed at ihe rate of about one part to eight with leached ashes or mould, and a fermentaiion brought on belore they were applied. They were then spread lighily in the lurrow, where carrots were soivn. 'Fhe effects were most favorable, and surpassed a Iree dressing ol barn manure in the neighboring part of the field to the same kind of crop. 1 have known this manure applied likewise with great advantage to corn in the hill, a small amount in each hill without other manure, and to turnips in ihe drill. Peal mud is used with much success by many persons. Its application, when spread directly Irom the bog upon the soil, has not been approved ; but when it has been thotoughly decom|)osed and rduced by a mixture with stable manuie, with ashes, or with quick lime, it has lurnished a valuable manure (or spreading upon grass ground or putting in the hill with corn. Various other manures have been used with great success. Ashes are every where commend- ed as excellent (or corn and wheal, and likewise lor grass. Ashes being the dirtct result of vege- table combustion, contain olcourse that which is essential to vegetable growth and Iile, and being constantly carried from the earth by the removal of its vegetable products, must in some (brm be returned lo it. in some cases the waste Irom the cotton mills has been used with much advantage. This con- sists of that which is thrown out when the cotton passes through the picker, and is made up not only of the wool itself but a considerable amount of the seeds, which are known to abound in oil, and at the south are much valued as a manure. This manure is sometimes spread thinly on grass land, and at other times put into the compost heap. It has been too little employed for ub to THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 25 determine the best mode of its application. The waste from the woollen mills has likewise been used as a top-dressing lor grass boih in Tevvks- bury in this county, and at Norihampion in Hampshire. I have seen its etiects in tliete places and in some oiher pans of the country. They have been most remarkable, and surpassed by no manure which I have ever seen a|j|ilied. 'J'his reluse used lormerly to be accumulated ni the neighborhood ol'the woollen I'actoriee at Low- ell ; and being surcharged with oil used in cleans- ing it, there was great risk always of spontaneous combustion. When thrown into the river it was complained ol'as inierlenng with the shad fishery. The,amount ot wool used at the Middlesex mills in Lowell is more than 600,000 lbs. per year. Be- ing full of animal matter it is a most excellent manure. Its value has long been appreciated in England, but we seem to have come late to the knowledge of it. I have seen it spread directly upon grass land, both in mowing and pasture grounds, with surprising effeci. It is much to be desired that the water in which their wools ate washed, llill as it is of animal oils and alkalies, could likewise be saved and applied to the land. It would prove beyond doubt a most valuable ma- nure either applied on the grass lands or mixed in the cerapost heap. In the economy of nature nothing is without its use; and ihe first duty of the lariner is to remember that nothing should be lost. A very exact and intelligent farmer in Groton made some comparative experiments with differ- ent manures on pieces of land contiguous to each other, of which he has favored me with an ac- count. The land to which these difierent sub- stances were applied was what is there termed reclaimed meadow, and rich in vegetable mould. One bushel of ashes applied to three square rods of land at the rate of 53 bushels per acre ; this produced a heavy burthen of grass, and was considered the best of the several manures ap- plied. Sah, applied at the rate of one peck to three rods, or fourteen bushels per acre, produced a fair crop, and was considered the next best to the ashes. Gypsum, sown at the rate of three bushels to the acre, manifestly much improved the crop, and was much the least expensive application. Lime was dry slacked and applied at the rate of one bushel to six rods, or 26 bushels per acre, without any perceivable effect. 1 do not present these examples as furnishing any decisive results, but rather with the liope of inducing farmers to make and record exact expe- riments, though on a very limited scale, that by the accumulation of such facts we may arrive at something more definite. Little can be deduced from the above experiments, unless equal quan- tities of each kind of manure had been used ; and then we want likewise to understand the nature of the soil, as in respect lo some soils it is obvious certain kinds of manure are much more suitable than others. Vol. X.-4 COMPOST MANURE, PRINCIPALLY OF PEAT OR SWAMP MUD (OR MUCK. J From tlie same. D. S. Ilaggerston, the intelligent and experi- enced manager ol J. P. Cushing's garden and larm at Watertown, has been kind enough to lavor me, at my request, with some practical observa- tions and experiments on the subject of manures, which deserve attention, and are therefore subjoined. " I send you an account of experiments made onthefarm of J. P. Cushing, Esq., of the differ- ent composts used as manures, and the apparent effecis of each. "Meadow muck or peat has been used in various ways, and loundso very beneficial, that two thirds of the manure used on the farm is dug from the swamp. " A compost for top-dressing mowing land is made from leacheci barilla ashes Irom the soap- boilers', and meadow muck, in the following manner. The muck is dug (rom the swamp, the last part of August, or early in September, and lies one year on the surface, after it is thrown out of the pit. It is then carted to a convenient place to make the compost heaps, which are formed by spreading a layer of muck ten feet wide, eight inches thick, and of any length desired ; on the muck four inches of ashes are .spread, tfien ano- ther layer ol muck, and so on (or five layers of each, which makes a pile five leet high, in the lorm of a ridge. This is to lie through the follow- ing winter. As soon as the Irost is gone in iho spring, the pile is turned over, well broken, and mixed together. It then lies till the October or November Ibllowing, when it is spread on tlie land at the rate of fifteen cart-loads to the acre. " Two accurate trials of the above compost, ui comparison with decomposed stable manure, resulted as follows ; 4 squares of equal size which are kept as lawns and mown seven or eight times in a season were manured, two with the leached barilla and muck compost, and two with a com- post of well-rotted stable manure. It was spread, at the rate of twenty cart-loads to the acre. The grass on the different squares was mucfi the same in quantity, but on the squares manured with the muck compost, it was decidedly of a darker and richer color, and the manure introduced a greater quantity of white Dutch clover or honeysuckle. The second trial was in a field mown for hay, 2^ acres. The field was divided into two equal parts, as near alike as possible, one half manured with muck compost, the other half with rotted manure, at the rale ol fifteen cart-loads to the acre. Eight tons and eighty lbs. of hay were cut from iha field. No difiisrence could be discovered in the parts manured by the different composts. This proved that, for a lop-dressing, the compost of leached barilla and muck is equal to stable ma- nure. Alter using it to a large extent for sever-al years, I am still in favor of it as a top-dressin,^. The compost manui:e, which we use tor plougliesd land, is made up of two thirds muck, and on-.e third manure. The muck in all cases is mixfjd with the manure bcfbie it ferments, and care is taken not to put in so much muck as lo prevent the compost's lieating. The fermentation of i he manure decomposes the muck rapidly, and I sm 26 THE FARMERS' REGISTER convinced the greatest art in the use of muck, as a manure, is to have it in a proper state before it is put upon the land. To dig it from the swamp and apply it before it undergoes a chemical change is undoubtedly injurious. This change is brought on rapidly by. hot horse manure or unsiacUed lime, but with colder substances it requires longer. For mixing with cow manure, or putting in hog Btiee, it ought to be dug from the swamp, at least six months, and it is better that it should be ex- posed (0 a winter's frost, belbre it is used. The air then, in some measure, effects the change. The action of the manure soon decomposes the fibre in the muck. It fails to pieces like lime, and then has an earthy appearance. In this stale, a mixture ol' one third manure and two thirds muck has nevei failed with me to produce belter crops of all kinds oi' vegetables than clear manure. For the hist five years we have thought it waste- ful to use manure without being mixed. Before coming to this strong conclusion of the benefit ol muck, when used as a manure, manyexperiments were made, and universally resulted iu favor oi muck." SALTPETRE AS MAKURE. From llie same. Saltpetre has been used to some extent in Mid- dlesex count}'. The use of this manure and the nitrate of soda, abroad, has, according lo the re- ports which we have had, been productive of so much benefit, that every Rict connected with their application .here is important. I shall subjoin some few of the results which have come within my knowledge. E. Phinney of Lexington thus writes to me : " My experiments with saltpetre as a manure have satisfied me ol" the inexpediency of using it for that purpose. In the spring of 1839, I pur- chased 400 lbs., for which [ paid ^8 per cwt. I tried it upon wheat, rye, and grass. Fifty pounds to the acre on wheat and rye had no perceptible effect, and on grass but very little. One hundred pounds lo the acre occasioned a very considerable increase of straw and grain, boih in wheat and rye as well as grass. But had 1 bestowed an equal outlay in compost made from peat-mud and stable manure, or peat-mud and ashes, I have no doubt the immediate crop would have been more benefited and the land have received more per- manent improvement. I have in one instance seen very striking effects produced by the use of eaitpetre upon a light, sandy soil. But the quan- tity used I could not learn, any further than that it was much greater than the quantity to the acre used by me. I believe a portion of saltpetre and common salt, eay ten pounds of the (brmer and twenty pounds of the latter to a cord of compost manure well mJxed, would greatly improve it. The beneficial effects of saltpetre in the desiruc- ti.on of insects that annoy our crops, catmot be dtoubted. I noticed on the farm ol Mr. Whipple, ctf Lowell, two orchards separ ited only by a stone \vall. The trees upon one side of the wail were b'tidly eaten and almost destroyed by canker- \\Turm8, while lho,=e unon^ihe other side wereun- tctuched. On inquiring the cause, 1 learned that •tjtpetre had been used upon the land of the lat- ter orchard and none upon the former. The re- medy may be an expensive one 5 but were my trees attacked by this terrible scourge, 1 should immediately apply it. The saltpetre, instead of injuring the trees, as most applications do which are made lor this object, would greatly promote their growth." I think proper 10 subjoin here, though from an- other counij', the experiment of John E. How- ard, of West Bridgewaier, Plym.outh county, an account of which he was kind enousrh at my re- quest to furnish me. Mr. Howard's exacinesa and intelligence are well known. " You expressed a wish to hear furiher con- cerning the experiment which I made the, past season, to test the efficacy of saltpetre, when ap- plied as a top-dressing to grass land. " Of the patch selected the soil is a light sandy loam. On this, some time in the latter part of May last, I sowed saltpetre at the rate of one pound 10 the square rod. The eflecis were soon visible; the grass exhibiting a deeper shade and a more luxuriajit growth than in any other part of the lot. It continued to grow thriftily until the period ol its matiirity, when, on cutting if, the produce was judged to be double that grown on any equal number of leet in the same field. The beneficial action of this substance, however, seems not to have extended beyond the first crop ; ae, since that was removed, no appearance of superior lertilily has marked the spot where it was spread." O. M. Whipple, of Lowell, the proprietor of a large establishment for the manufacture of gun- powder, in which much of this material is used, has favored me with successive communications on this subject, which I can do rfo better than present in his own language. "Ii is now about sixteen years since I com- menced using saltpetre. The grounds upon which I have used it, have yielded large crops, and have held out much longer than grounds in general, of the same quality of soil, and of the same kind and quality of dressing commonly used. The kind of saltpetre which I have used has been that part extracted from the common salt- petre while undergoing the process of purification, and is not fit lor gunpowder. I have, therelbre, not been particular as to quantity, using what I have had to spare ; ]5ut I am satisfied that it re- quires but a very small quantity to produce favo- rable results; I have thought ihat one hundred and fifty pounds per acre would be a sufficient quantity to be used generally. The best mode of using it is to mix it with barn manure, mea- dow mud or any kind. of compost which may be at hand ; although I have used it in various other ways, as I shall now describe. I have one piece of ground of 2f acres. It had been used for a long time as mowing ground, and had, as it is termed, run out, and grew but a very small crop of gras$, eay 1500 lbs. to the acre, I ploughed it in the lall of 1830 ; in the spring of 1831, I covered it with barn manure, mixed with saltpetre, as described above, and harrowed it in, and planted corn without disturb- ing the furrows. 1 bad a very handsome crop of corn. In the spring of 1832 I again dressed it as before, that is, with barn manure and saltpetre, sowed oats and slocked it down. The oats were- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 27 good. In 1833, 1 took from it a crop of grass, which was esiinaated to be six toas. It had grown grass every year since, and I beUeve not a less quaniity than tlic esuiouie above lias been taken iroai it since tlie first crop. 1 ehuuld bt; • saiti in saying that there were six tons giown up- on the lui ihe last year, and this year ihe crop is good. 1 have anoihi r lot, containing 1^ acrcsi, ; which like the oiHer yielded little grass j 20 cwt. being all tiie lot produced in lb22. In iIjo spring of lb24, 1 dressed ii upon the surliice with ma- nure, meadow uiud, antl saltpetre mixed; and it yielded anioderaie crop that year. In the spimg oi 1825, 1 sowed upon thesurlace, as you v.'ould sow rye, aquduuty oi saltpeiie. 'I'ne result was, that 1 took irom the lot at least four tona of hay, as it was adjudged. This too was in a lot con- taining appie-iiees, and the grass much lodged all over the held. I continued sowing upon this j lot a small quantity of saltpetre once in two yeais, | lor five or six years, and at the same time raising a very large crop of grass yearly. Nothing has been done lo this lot lor lae last six years, and there is at this time upon it more than a middling crop of grass. " I have another lot of light-soiled ground, of about lour acres j it had been used ior growing rye. It occurred to me that 1 would try the ex- periment ot saltpetre upon a small piece of this ground. The result was so lavorable, that the next year, in the spring, i covered the piece uiih meadow mud mixed with sahjietre. 'I'he result was, that 1 obtained Irom the ground as large a crop of grass as it was considered profitable lo raise. Last year, which was the filth, it yielded two tons per acre. There has been, however, a small quantity of saltpetre sowed upon the lot since. I could describe other lots ujion which saltpetre has been used, but with the same results as those already mentioned. " 1 shall now designate the above lots and de- scribe the kind of soil. " The first is No. 1, of a middling quality, nei- ther very wet nor dry. "The second. No. 2, is an orchard adjoining Concord river, of a damp soil and oi a very good quality. "'Ihe third is No. 3, a dry, sandy soil, consi- dered by me of no value, until I practised using saltpetre upon it as a dressing. With regard to the mode or manner of using saltpetre upon ground, I do not think it makes much diflere::ice, if it is but put upon the ground. I have practised sowing it upon the surface, and mixing and ploughing it in with, lor aught I know, equal re- sults ; but I should be rather in lavor of mixing and ploughing it in. In this case it would require a larger quaniity, say 300 lbs. per acre ; the etliects would be more slow and lasting. In sowing upon the. surface, it would require a less quantity, say 150 lbs. ; but it would be necessary to repeat the dressing yearly, until the crop should he satisfic- torily large, lam more in favor of bringing up the ground gradually, by the yearly appiicBiidn of a small qu mlity of saltpetre, than I should be by a larger quantity, and getting a large crop •the first year." Since the foregoing, the same farmer has fur- nished me with some additional inlbrmation, which follows ; and again, the present year, assures me of his continued success in this appli- cation. I could have wished that the experimenle had been made with more exactness. " Since my communication to you in June last, respecting the use of saltpetre as a manure, I have had a more particular practical demonstra- tion of its utility. "Having an iBJand in Boston harbor, called Spectacle island, and its dij>tance Irom land ren- dering It very expensive to lurnish manure lor it, in the spring of 1838 I concluded to try the ex- periment of using saltpetre as a substitute, and in order to test its abiliiy with some exactness, out of two acres which had been cultivated the year belbre, half an acre was set apart for the purpose of receiving 150 lbs. salipetie, which were sowed on the surface and the whole two acres were then ploughed and planted with potatoes. At har- vesting, I found that there was an increased crop upon the ground where the saltpetre had been applied. I directed the man ii^ charge to dry 5 hills upon the ground where the saltpetre had been applied, and also 5 hills where there had been no saltpeire, and weigh each parcel. The potatoes on the ground where the saltpetre was applied, weighed 9 Ib^., the other 4 lbs. This, it wiil be perceived, was the result of one year's application only. lam inclined to think that its influence will be felt more or less the second, or even the tlsird and fourth 3'ears. A field containing two acres from which grass had been taken tor 8 years, I had ploughed in the spring o!' 1838, once only ; it was ploughed deep, and 90 rods were appropriated to the growth of ruia-baga. The seed was sown upon the tops of the furrows, without any manure in the drill, and the result was, that I obtained 500 bushels ol the article specified above ; the remainder of the field was sown to oats, but the crop was most- ly destroyed by the unexampled growth of hog weed. This field had been wholly sustained by tlie application of saltpetre upon it's surface, pre- viously to its being ploughed, excepting al the time of ploughing, when there was turned in a small coat of manure." ■WHITE HOGS. From tlie Farmers' Cabinet. Mr. Editor — It is really amusing to find ihatraany of our friends are beginning already to turnup their noses at ihe black Albany Berkshiree, and express a strong preference for Mr. A. B. Allen's white Kenilworths, wondering if that gen- tleman will have a sufficient supply lor all his cus- tomers the next season '? And I have heard some apologizing for having gone into the black Albany breed, by declaring \hey never liked them, alwaya having had a strong prejudice (or a while hog — and so we go on. Bu' I susp.°ct the lienilworth harvest will not be so prcfitable as has been the Berkshire?, lor notliing will be more cas}- than to compete with the Kcnilwonhs by means of our own Chester and Delaware county white breeds; and I am sanguine in the belief that we shall be able to convince all di.-iniercsled person?, that so far as that distinct breed is concerned, our intelli- gent friend Allen might just as well have remain- ed at home; and of this he might convince him- self, by taking a jouroey to these parts, at a com- 28 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. paratively trifling Bacrifice of time and money. And I take the opportunity of introducing to tiie notice of those who, having tried t!ie Albany Berlishires, and lound iheni wanting, a breed of hogs now in the hands of iVlr. WiUiam Reybold, Delaware state, which, or I am much misialven, will not be Ibund at all iulierior lo the imported Kenilworths, if ihey be not much superior, as 1 strongly sut^pcct they will prove. They are per- fectly vvhile, loo, and eoli-haired, vviih the deep eide of the old tawny Beikeihire, cutting up nearly as thick in the side and belly as on the back, which is, I guess, about as much oC an aniipode to the black Albany, as the color of the breed. Mr. W. Reybold is the son of Major Philip Rey- bold, the breeder and feeder of those superlative Leicester sheep which were slaughtered at Ralii- luore the last seaton, several of which weighed over 40 lbs. a quarter, dead weight, at the age of ivvo years; and Mr. Allen would find thai ihe major's present stock of fat wethers would vie with any of the thoroughbred varieties in Eng- land, of any name or county. And I cannot but suspect, from the perusal of Mr. Allen's letter, thai the time /ias come when we may take cur stand and breed from our own stock, without be- ing beholden for any more help from abroad ; for indeed it is curious to observe how very small have been the importations by this first of breeders and judges of Slock, which, as far as I can learn from his letter, amount to five pigs of the Kenilvvorth breed, " tliree of them from a smaller and coarser boar, and from sows still less!" But what our Iriend means by stating that " he was informed this was always ilie case with this breed," lam at a loss to conjecture. It might disclose my igno- rance, perhaps, were I to ask, if this admission be meant as a recommendation or otherwise, of this particular breed 1 To these are to be added the number of Berkshiree brought, which is not stated iu his letter ; the sheep lor Mr. Rolch, Mr. Ste- venson, and Bishop Mead ; one dog, o( a sort which requires no instruction to break into the management and care of a flock — which no one will believe who knows any thing about the mat- ter'— a Itivv Dorking Ibwis, wilh extra toes lo their heels, sometimes attaining to the great weight, when fatted, of 8 pounds — and a liew pheasants ! Of ehort-horns he brought none, and confesses that it pains him lo see so many Durhams of ordinary quality imported ; and as for horses, •' England ought lo come lo us!" What, for carriage horses, the present racii}g blood, and the high-bred hunters 1 Try again, friend Allen. On I he subject of the Dorking fowls, I would just say, if Mr. Allen had come on lo Jersey stale, lie would have (bund thai Mr. Wood, of Haddon- field house, could " beat that hollow," not some- times, but always, many ol his chickens weighing more by a couple of pounds than the great weight he mentions. He is in error in the statement that the game cock of England is from across with the pheasant ; if he had seen any of that particu- hir cross, he would have known better. If I could say what I wish on the subject of the travels of our eastern friends, without fear of oflence, I vyould just hint the probability of their being more gratified, and of reaping more wisdom as well as profit, by going abroad in their own country, rather than by visiting foreign lands in the expectation of speculating in stock, a very precarious business at besi. Mr. Allen complains of the enormous expense of shipping animals from England. I fear if his expenses of travel were to be spread over thi'Jew animals which he has brought over, the account would deter many from making the experiment in future. 1 wish that we could /or once come doivn lo the improvement of our breeda of catile without the vile sf)irit of speculating for money ; but that has been our easily-besetting sin, from Ihe lime of the Merino-mania to that of the muliicaulis and the black Albany Berkshire fever. " All wrong, depend upon it." I have heard thai when John Lossing found that A. B. Allen had gone to England to import big Berkshires, he had the precaution to sell out his Albany Berkshires, making a profitable specu- lation of it. That was wise ; (or he may now ei- ther go back lo the breed by which he has made thousands of dollars, or/orujar(i, into the Kenil- worth ; and as he knows so well how to "strike the iron while 'tis hot," lie may make capital slock by commencinii; with such hogs as those de- scribed by Homer Eachus, at p. 329 of the Cabi- net, vol. v., wliich might be denominated the improved-improved Kenilworth white Berk- shires ; he will not be at a loss for individual names, for there may as well be ^300 white Maxi- mas, as black ones ; but he had best be quick about it, for in this part of the country, where that breed has long been known and properly appreciated, persons may be found who will " hit the right nail upon the head," and go into the business at once. G. H. D. Chester county. From the Halifax Colonial Farmer, The Low Dutch inhabitants of Long Island were accustomed to churn their milk instead of the cream, as habit had taught them to prefer buttermilk to sweet skimmed milk. They conse- quently churned every day ; the morning and evening's milk was put into a very large and very clean churn which was placed near the fire, and securely covered, always putting to it a small quantity of coagulated milk. As soon as the milk was all coagulated, which it generally was by nine o'clock the next morning, it was carried lo the milk-room and emptied into the churning churn, adding one third the quantity of warm wa- ter. The woman churned with her foot, as she was accustomed lo turn her flax-wheel, the dash- er being lilied by a spring-pole, such as is affixed to the most simple kind of turning lalhe. While churning, she was always knitting, for a Dutch woman will never lose any of her time. The churning was generallj' conjpleted in half an hour, ihc buttermilk was then strained off, and the but- ter turned into a tray ; then taking a large wood- en ladle with a handle about half a yard long in each hand, she took up in ihe ladle in her right hand about a pound of butler, which she tossed up five orsix feet high, catching it wilh her ladle as it fell, ivvo or three times ; and then with a smart stroke at arms' length, struck it into the ladle in her lefi hand, when after changing hands, and lossing and catching it again, she deposited it in a tray previously rubbed with fine salt, and com- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 29 menced with another lump. This work is per- Ibrmed wiih remarkable agility even by olJ wo- men. I think that I have seen a woman of six- ty work the buttermilk out of ten pounds ol' but- ler in this way in less than five minutes'? The butter is then cut to pieces with the edge of the ladle, the proper quantity ol' salt taken up in a horn spoon and sprinkled over it, and worked iiiio It by chopping, tossing and catching and slrikiug it liom ladle to ladle (lor a Dutch woman nevei touches butter with her fingers.) She then with the ladle places in a balanced plate in her scales the quantity sLie means to have in a print, and when ii is weighed, gives it a neat figure by toss- ing and catching it, and then with a smart stroke ol her paddle brmgs it upon ihe print which is held in the leli hand, having a long handle like the ladle. As we have some of the descendants of the Low Duich in the county of Aimapohs, it is to be hoped that they retain the ancient practices of their mothers, who were well qualified to give use.ul lessons to many ol'our countrywomen u[)- on other pans of housewifery as well as upon managing the dairy. Many women who make good butler have the custom of skimming their milk the same morn- ing that they churn, and mixing the cream wiih that which they are about to churn. This cream is left in the buttermilk, lor it will not make but- ter till it becomes sour. Of this any persons who follow this practice may convince themselves by allowing their buttermilk to stand twenty-lour hours and then churning it again. When the strippings (the last milk taken, af- ter three-fourths or more have been milked) are mixed with the cream, it should be allowed to co- agulate belbre it is churned, or else a part of the butter will be left in the buttermilk. The strip- ping or last milk, and the first cream that rises, make the best butier. The salt used for buiier should be of the best quality. That which turns damp in wet weather is not fit to salt either but- ter or pork. This dampness is caused by muriate of lime, a salt of which there is a small quantity in sea-water ; it will attract an extraordinary quantity of water from the atmosphere, and al- ways weaken the brine in which it is mixed. — When good saltcannot be procured, the damp salt may be freed from ihe muriaie by the following process : make a strong brine with some of the salt, let the salt that is to be refined be put into this brine for a day, stirring it occasionally ; then pour off the brine, put clean water lo the salt, Biir it for a few seconds, pour it off and dry the salt in the sun. To make this process intelligible, it should be observed that brine so strong that it can dissolve no more common salt, is still capable of dissolving a considerable quantity of muriate of lime. To make good butter from milk of thin ridge- backed cows in hot weather, the milk should be scalded as soon as it is strained ; the cream will then rise as thick as that of muscular broad-back- ed cattle, and make nearly as good butter, and the churning may be performed in less than half an hour. Care should be used that the milk is neither burnt or smoked ; for this reason the pot should be set on coals, and not allowed to boil. One part sugar, one nitre, and two good salt. will preserve butter, almost unchanged for a long lime ; but the butter must not have been washed with water, and when packed it must be secured Irom the air by covering it with a cloth dipped in melted buiter, the eilge of which must be soldered to the tub ur crock wiih melted butter. Charcua! il it could be Used without dilTiculiy has a more powerful effect in preserving butter !han any kind of shIi. When a boy I had occa- sion to see many fiikms ol Irish butter opened whicti had been ke|)i long in siores. A part of ihe casks were burm to a coal on the inside. In all these the buiier was perlectly sweet ; in all ihose (hat were noi burnt, ii was very much damaged. THE AGE OF CATTLE AS SHOWN BY THEIR TEETH. From tlie Kentucky Farmer. My attention has been drawn to this subject ever since our Winchester lair. Oneof the judges appointed upon that occasion examined the teeth of several of the cattle that were presented there, and pronounced tfiem to be older than repre- sented. Some of these cattle were bred in this coun- try, and / know that their ages were correctly stated. At Paris, the treatise upon cattle with the plates was introduced by one of the judges, aijd the teeth of some of the animals were examined to see if they corresponded. This led to suspi- cion that there had been imposition in some of the cattle presen'.ed. Since that time I have examined the teeth of a number of thorough-bred Durhams whose ages I know to a day, and have found that in this stock their teeth would make them appear to be about four months in each year older than they really are. A three year old will have the teeth that in the treatise upon British cattle is said to belong to a four year old. I attribute this lo the early maturity of the Durham stock. It is reasonable to suppose if they get their growth sooner than other cattle that they will also shed their teeth sooner. I have said about four months to the year, which was the case generally. Some showed even a greater dif- ference. Samuel D. Martiiv. BERKSHIRES. From tbe Farmers' Cabinet. Mr. Editor : — So much has been said and writ- ten about the Berkshire hogs, that people have procured them, at a heavy price, merely because they have been highly recommended in the ag- ricultural papers of the day, and because it has be- come fashionable to have them, so that when a friend drops in, why, if you have nothing else to show, you must fain show your Berkshires. Now, what 1 am going to say will no doubt raise the hue and cry of the whole fraternity of Berkshire breeders. Yet I care not : what I seek are facts, and these must be told, and cannot be con- troverted. I am a subscriber to your valuable 30 THE FAliMEKS' REGISTER. paper, and as such, I have always been pleased to see that your colunms are open to a lempertUe diacussion ol mailers and ihings, even when men d'j diHf^r, and this lacl is the cause of my trou- tilmg you lor the first time wiih my observations. This IS, however, digre.-sion. In the firsi place, ilien, the Berkshire liog.s arc, rot what ihoy liave been " cracki d up lo be." 1 have a neighbor, who has given ihem a fair iri.d, to which I have t)eeii an eye-witness. The ex|.erimeiii w. is made in this way: — two Berk.-hires were p'aced in a stable with two o the common breed, all of ihe same age, and were careiully led, and at the end of nine months they were killed, and the result was, that the common breed exceeded the Berk- shires in weight, one fifty and the oth' r sixty pounds. Experiments liave been made, lo my knowledge, in other instances, with similar resulis, and even wiih worse credit to the far-iamed Berk- shires. They are not polific : a gentleman of my acquaintance had lour sows, each of which had but one pig, being a loss of at least ten per cent. a head, and the generality of them, I believe, do not get more than (bur or five. The only redeem- ing quality which they possess is, that ihey iatien | easier and quicker than some breeds of the native ' hog; but even this is counterbalanced by their diminislied weight when slaughtered. They may be considered an improvement on the common China hog, and that is about all. I have a num- ber of common hogs in a pen lor killing, which are but nine months old, but they will weigh 300 pounds a-piece by Christmas ; they have been fed on nothing but ihe otial of" a kiichen, and a run at grass, until within about (bur weeks, since which they have been (ed on corn and boiled potatoes. Considering their leed — (or after all that makes the hog — these hogs of mine will challenge competition with any Berkshires in the land, for symmetry, heavy hams, finely turned shoulders, thick and deep in the sides, &c., &c. 1 purchased them when small, but not being aware of their qualities, I did not preserve the breed ; I shall, however, endeavor lo get others, and by a judicious crossing, I have no doubt ihey will make a far superior hog to the Berkshire, which a number of my neighbors have given up, preferring the best of Ihe common kind to them, and in so doing, I think they are perfectly right. I have no disposition lo discourage the propaga- tion of a superior bleed of animals; on the con- trary, I would do all in my power to further so laudable an object; but the Berkshire pig mania, like the mulberry speculation, is upon the wane, and if A. B. Allen, of Buffalo, New York, has •in his late trip to England, brought no better epeeimen of improved animals than Berkshire hogs, he might have saved himself the risk of a duckinff in the Atlantic lor such an object. II. S. B. Hanover township, Northampton Cb., Pa., Dec 5, 1841. AGRICULTURE VERSUS COMMERCE. From the Farmers' Cabinet. Mr. Ediior : — On reading the article of your city errespondent, G. M., in the last number of the Cabinet, I have been led to the conclusion that the writer is either an extravagant liver, or that mercantile business is not what it has been " cracked up to be." He informs us that he in- vested i§ 15,000 in the year 1827 in commercial business, and has been considered ever since a successful merchant, and that for the fifieen years he has been in business, his living has consumed all the prufiis, and that he is now not worth more than when he t;egan, if so much. Now, il that hvmg which has absorbed all the profits ol a business with a clear capital of ^ 15,000 has been an economical one, I should say that the sooner the capital is diverted to another chan- nel of indusiry, the better; and as your corre- spondent wishes to escape ihe reverses incident to his present business, and seems desirous to turn his attention lo the independent and noble pursuit of agriculiure, (br which he is prepared, at least in capital and theory, 1 would, therefore, lor his in!bnnaiion, and that of like inquirers, contrast fiis mercanii'e operations, and the results as given by l)i:i!self, with the agricultural operations of my neighbor, S.»G., and their happy results worked out, through an experience of 17 years, on land that in ihis section of the country is considered naturally ihird rate. Mr. G., by close af)plication fur some ^ears to a mechanical trade, and at the same lime living economically, accumulated a considerable sum, -with which he purchased a poor (arm of about 1.30 acres, and the necessary stock for the same, which consisted of a yoke of oxen, a horse, and two cows. In conveying an idea of the condition of" this larm, I could not use language more significant than that used by JNlr. G., when speaking on the subject of his cona- mencemenl in larming. He stated, that his farm was so poor when he purchased it, which was in ihe sprmg of 1824, that "he did not believe that his two cows, pair of oxen and horse, got a belly- full of grass on the farm the first summer." This poor land cost him 30 dollars per acre ; his stock and farming utensils amounted, perhaps, to about ^400 ; this will increase the investment to $4300. The farm-stock and utensils, he informed me, " he had about clear." The first year he put on ihis worn out land 2000 bushels oflime, and the manure made in the yard the preceding winter, which was carted out with a yoke of oxen in less than a day. This lime was spread on the land at the rate of 100 bushels to 3 acres, or 33J bush- els to the acre; and Irom an experience of 17 years, he finds that a top-dressing ol about that quantity repeated every five years, keeps the land in a better condition than when put on in larger quantities at more distant periods. But this ex- perience, it may be remarked, has been altogether confined to the treatment of mica slate land. The lime acted with magical effect. The manure-heaps, (the farmer's gold mine,) which in the (all of 1824 had been quarried out, and carted on the land with a yoke of oxen in less than a tiay, increased, until double that power was required from ten days to two weeks to re- move it Irom the yards and stables. The capa- city of the farm to support animal life consequent- ly increased ; and in a little time Mr. G. s'ood by the side ol his more fiivored neighbors as a re- spectable farmer, no more to receive the jocular expressions of "poor farm," "starved stock;" and the thousand and one mortilying thrusts of home-spun wit and neighborly jest. Actuated by the right agricultural spirit, he has continued his THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 31 excellent treatmeni of repeated liming and ma- i nuring, until he has brought his (arm into a state of improvement lor grazing, and indeed lor any \ other purpose, equal, perhaps, to the best land J in the country, lie has led this year upwards ol 40 head of cattle; and as an evidence of the | capacity of his larm to produc* grain, his field oli corn, containing about ten acres, averaged about j 85 bushels of shelled corn to the acre. In speak- j ing of the powerful effects of lime as a (eriillizer, | Mr. G. made the remark that " if lime pat a man in jail, it would soon take him out again." Thus conveying a good deal in lavorof ihat valuable mineral in a lew words. But is it saying loo much"? Every experienced agriculturist in this section of country, I am inclined to tiiink, will unite in opinion vviih my neighbor G. ; and I be- lieve that if the truth conveyed in ihe remark were impressed more generally, we should find through the country. more good land, and hear less complaint of hard times. We now have the case presented, ol an investment of ^4300 in ag- riculture, and a successful and judicious pursuii of the same for 17 years ; and what is ihe rrsult? First, a good living lor a large family. Second, an increase of the value of the larm from ^30 per acre so ^90 per acre. Third an increase in ihe value of stock and larming wiensils, from $400 to from SIOOO to $1200. Fourth, several thou- sand dollars at interest, as profit from the farm on good security — not bank stock — besides suiiabie marriage portions to several of his cliildren. I have now drawn (he contrast, and without com- ment, would conclude by observing that Mr. G. is worth from $15,000 to $20,000, without a creditor; and is now enjoying his otium cum dig- nitate in the character of " Gentleman Farmer." POA ViRIDIS. Goshen, Chester county, Dec. 9th, 1841. HINTS ON POISONS. By Thomas D. Mitchell, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeautics in the Medical Depart- ment of Transylvania University. From tlie Kentucljy Farmer. Lexington, Ky., January Ath, 1841. Dear sir;— Hoping that the hinis and facts herewith communicated, may lead to further and more stable conclusions on the subject of milk sickness, than any that have yet been formed, I extract them from a manuscript work on poisons, in which I have been for some time eno-ao-ed! You will perceive that they have no clafms to methodical arrangement, and have not the charm of novelty to commend them to public notice. That milk may be poisoned, even without crimi- nal design, is now well understood. The milk pans in use in Europe, and to some extent in this country, have often imparted a deleterious qua- lity to cream, and consequently to butter. Many facts directly in point could be cited from the best authorities. But the most fruitful source of injury to milk IS that agent, whatever it be, that gives rise to the disease eo common to (he western country, and caWtid mtlk sickness. This unexplained source of nnschief has perplexed not only the common peo- ple, but men of science, all over our own coun- try, and not less the learned and utdearned of Europe. Hence, the inaugural dissertations, that have been repeatedly written by candidates lor graduation in medicine, the numtrous essays of practising physicians, in various sections of the union, and the elaborate disquisitions ot eminent Germans and Frenchmen, on this recondite ques- tion. And yet, the darkness that envelopes it is dense as ever; and we see not that science pro- mises much to dissipate ilu> gloom. C7irisitso7i justly remaiks, as others had done beiore, '' that the milk ol ihe tow, the ewe and the goat, may act like a virulent poison, alihougti no mineral or other deleterious impregnation could be delected in it; and these ellecis have been vaguely and variously ascribed to the animal hav- iiay been diseased, or to its having been led on acrid vegeiables, which enter the milk without iiijuiing the animal, necessarily." And Orfila, lo whom in conjunction with Marc was entrusted the examination of goat's milk that had proved poisonous to many persons, reported, " that no mineral poison could be detected ; that none of the usual explanations were saiislaciury, and that the poisonous change in the milk should be ascribed to new principles, formed or developed by a vital process.''^ The conclusions just staled are, it may be, cor- rect ; yet there is reason to believe that the poi- son may be derived from some kind of vegeta- ble matter, which could not be detected by chemi- cal tesis. Dr. Westrumb, who wrote on the poi- son of cheese, held this opinion ; and conjectured that the milk was poisoned by the cuttle par- taking of a species of spurge, {Euphorbia esula,') which, agreeably to Viridet, caused certain fields in the neighborhood ol Embrim to be abandoned by the shepherds, because it rendered the cows' milk useless. The same writer also observes, " that the cows would not touch this plant so long as wholesome pasture was within their range." The eympioms, in the cases already reierred to, as having occurred in France, were those olten seen in violent cholera. At Herelord Westpha- lia, vvhere, according to Rusfs Magazine, for 1828, a woman and her 5 children were poisoned with goat's buttermilk, sent to them by a charitable neighbor, the symptoms were violent j)uking, di- lated pupils, the eye-lids half closed, pulse small, hard and slow, epigastrium turned, abdomen con- tracted, bowels unmoved. These, as will be seen, were not unlike the symptoms of milk sickness, in this country. Lukewarm water was given, to increase the vomiting, after which two ounces of medicated soap, dissolved in a pint of water, with the addition of an ounce of almond syrup, were administered, and the bodies of the patients were washed with vinegar and spirits. In ten hours, all the patients were recovered. The most careful examination of a portion of the buttermilk that had poisoned the family, failed to detect any trace of mineral poison ; and the physician attributed the mischief to some narcotic herb, probably the Ethusa cynapium, or fool's parsley. I have been at some pains to compare a thesis, written by Dr, Read, of Ohio, who graduated at the Medical College of Ohio, in 1832, with ano- ther thesis, written by Dr. Simpson, of Kentucky, 1 who graduated at Transylvania University, in 32 THE FAUMEKS' KEGISTEK. 1839. Butli treat of 7)ulk sickness, and although entirely inikaowii to each other, their staiemeiiis, prolessedly drawn Irom [jersona! experience and actual observation, very closely agree. Boili as- sign the deleierious agent in milk lo some vegeta- ble consumed by the cows, in new lands; and ihey testily that the eHeci laild when the lands have long been under cultivation. This eiate- ment accords with the great mass ol evidence throughout ihe world, where the ph^iiomena have been noticed. Dr. Simpson and oihers object to ihe miasmatic ductrine, contend, d (or by some, in accounting for milk sickness, because, as ihey alletre, if cattle be placed on two disumi lie ds on thelame farm, llie one suijeci lo cullivaiiun lor several years, the other in a wild siaie, and liill o( native vegetation, those m the latter will be sick- ened, white those in ilie former will retain their accustomed health, alihough both be precisely alike as to the inHuence ol" the usual sources of miasmatic exhalations. In 1833, two citizens of Kentucky came to Cin- cinnati, anxiously seeking the cause of a terrible devastation among cattle, and human beings, in their neighborhood, which ihey eupi)osed could be detectedln the water, of which the animals and oihers drank. They handed me a jug lull of the water, which was perlectly limpid, insipid, inodor- ous, and without sediment. The disease com- plained of was the rnilk sickness, and the water was imagined to be poisoned with arsenic, in some way or other. Yet, it was not possible to delect any sort of poisonous matter ; in lact, the water was of the purest kind. I gave it as my opinion then, and still believe, that the milk had been de- teriorated by some unknown and not discovera- ble agent, belonging to the vegetable kingdom. When! say "not discoverable," I reler lo the action of tests, for I fondly hope that the source of this poison is yet to be ascertained. Cheese.— For many years it has been known that cheese, owing to some unusual quality, ex- erted occasionally a poisonous influence. In the German journals, may be found several very in- teresting papers on this subject, and they go to confirm the statements so olien made in this coun- try, on the same point. It has happened, that, of a whole cask oC cheese received from a given cheesemonger, only one has evinced any poisonous properties, and that had no obvious peculiarity about it, in color, con- eistence or taste. The symptoms develope themselves according to the quantity eaien, commencing in from 10 to 15 hours, but deferred, now and then, to a more remote period after the noxious meal. The first notes of distress are, pain in the stomach, vo- miting, purging, and dryness of the mouth and nose.° The eyes, eyelids and pupils become fixed and motionless ; the voice grows hoarse, or lails entirely ; the power of swallowing is impaired, the pulse gradually flags, swoonings occur, and the skin is cold and insensible. The secretions and excretions, excepting the urine, are suspended, but sometimes there/is a profuse diarrhoea. The appetite is not aflecied, there is little or no fever, and the mind is unclouded. Fatal cases end with convulsions and laborious breathing, as early as the third, and as late as the eighth day. If the patient recover, he feels badly lor weeks, and Bometimee never regains his wonted vigor. The symptoms mark this substance, as belong" ing to the irritant poisons, although, secondarily, it would seem lo merit a place among the narco- ticoacrids. The morbid appearances are, inflammation of the mucous memttrane of the stomach and bowels, whiteness and dr^iness ol the throat, flaccidity of the tiearl, and a strcJng tendency lo resist putre- faciion. That cheese is sometimes poisoned with red lead, that is presein in the annato employed to color it, cannot be doubted. Mr. Wright has fur- nished a <)(iod paper on ihis subject in the Repo- fciiory of Arts, vol. 8ih, page 262. It presents undoubted proof of the po sunous action of some fine looking Gloucester cheese, in which the red oxide of lead was easily detected, by a neighbor- ing chemist. Samples of the annato employed as a coloring for the cheese, were found lo be strongly impregnated with the lead. This very dangerous sophistication can be readily detected, by nidsceraiing a poriion of the suspected cheese in water inpregnaied wiih sulphureted hydrogen gas, acidulated vvuh muriatic acid. A brown or blackish color is iiistanily struck, if the luinuteat poriion of lead be ()resenl. But the most embarrassing cases of cheese poisoning are those in which Ihe ordinary tests' tail to discover any evidence of poisonous adul- teration. These are of frequent occurrence. About 12 years ago, a large number of persons sickened, alter eating of a fine looking and well tasted cheese, which was one of a cask, more than half of which had been sold in the same village. There was no (aial case, but some per- sons were made extremely sick and suffered great gastric and intestinal distress. I was requested to make an examination ol the cheese, and portions were sent to others, for the same object. After a careful research, no poison could be detected by the ordinary means, and we came to the conclusion, that the source ol ihe evil must have been derived from some vegetable matter, eaten by the cows. The inquiries of Serlurner and oihers go to make it probable, that the poisonous property of cheese often depends on two animal acids, analo- gous to, if not identical with the caseic and se- bacic acids, which we know to be, chiefly, the source of evil in poisonous sausages. It is cer- tain that caseic acid, obtained from cheese, will destroy the smaller animals very promptly, and that the sebacic is even more rapidly fatal. 1 feel confident that not a little of the cheese I that induces poisonous effects, owes its pernicious quality lo the same, or to a similar vegetable mat- ter, that is generally regarded as the cause of ?m7A;sic/cness, in new countries. If the milk and Ihe cow that yields it, may be poisoned, as they certainly are, what can prevent butter and cheese made from such milk, from sharing in the evil? Fatty matters. — By some process, not by any means understood, certain animal matters are so changed, although their exterior may appear as usual, that the eating of them gives rise to very distressing symptoms, and sometimes causes death. Some have supposed, that there is carried on, si- lently and imperceptibly, a modified putrefaction, which changes the quality, without afliecling the form or apparent condition. The articles, most usually altered in this or in some other way, are sausages, lard, pork or bacon, and butter. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 33 Thepoison of sausages has become so notorious, in some parts ol .Europe, as to have been ihe sub- ject o( a thesis, a prize essay, and other papers. In the Wirtemberij territories, in Germany, we are assured that 234 cases of this kind of poisoning occurred in about 34 years ; of which number, 110 proved latal. In the winter and spring of 1834, similar cases occurred in the neighborhood of the Black Forest, in the territories above named. The symptoms are reported to have been very alarming, and several individuals died. The Ibod eaten by these persons was the sausage of the country, and liver puddings. The former were reduced to a pulp in the centre, were very bitter and rancid, and smelled like cheese. The puddings had been evidently decomposed, as they were quite sour. The remedies lound most suc- cessful in these cases, were immediate vomiting, a purgative draught of Glauber's salt, and clysters of vinegar and soap. It is stated by various writers, that the symp- toms of sausage-poisoning do not begin until twenty-four hours after the noxious meal has been taken. This is said to be owing to the great in- digestibility of the fatty matter, which enters the Jbod. Pain in the stomach, vomiting, purging, dryness of the mouth and nose, are usually the first symptoms. The eyes and eyelids, and next the pupils become fixed and motionless ; the voice fails or is entirely lost ; deglutition is difficult ; ihe pulse gradually sinks, frequent swoonings come on, and the skin becomes cold and insensible. The bowels are sometimes torpid, at others the very reverse. The appetite is not impaired; there is little or no fever, and the mind maintains its usual tone. Fatal cases end with convulsions and great difficulty of respiration, between the third and eighth days. Such is the shock imparl- ed to the system that even in successfully treated cases, the effects are felt for years. The morbid appearances, in the dead body, are inflammation of the mucous raembrance of the stomach and bowels, whiteness and dryness of the throat, thickening of the gullet, croupy deposi- tion in the windpipe, great flaccidiiy of the heart, and a morbid tendency to resist putrefaction. What is the nature of the change effected in the sausage, no one has been able to reveal. It has been asserted, that the poisonous principle re- eidee in a fiitty acid, called hy Buckaer \heBot-' ulinic acid. Experiments with this acid, as ob- tained from the spoiled or poisonous sausage, showed the same results as are witnessed in ani- i mala that partake of the sausage itself. i In regard to the poisonous quality of lard, \ under peculiar circumstances, we have little to say, that is satisfactory. Mere rancidity does not j seriously affect it. Keeping it in copper or cedar j vessels, may render it more or less deleterious. | In the winter of 1838-9. I saw a portion of { lard, sent to Professor Peter, for examination, in j consequence of having sickened those who par- took of it, in any shape. Some were affecied j pretty severely, though no one died. The lard j looked as well as usual, and had no particular j emell nor taste. The examination tailed to de- | tect any thing of a poisonous nature. It is quite possible, that lard may be poisoned by the em- pyrcumalic oil, resulting from the application of a strong heat to a small portion of it. It is known that this oil, as produced by the deelructive distil- VoL. X.-o lation of lard, is decidedly poisonous. Five drops, passed into the throat of a bird, nearly killed it. Pork, in the fresh, as well ass the cured state, under the name of hatn, bacon, &c., has often evinced poisonous properties. I am of opinion, that some of the cases of poisoning, as they are ler.Tied, by fresh pork, were dependent on other causes. In the summer season, when green or ripe fruit is freely indulged in, almost any kind of fresh meat, not well seasoned, will derange the digestive apparatus, and it has frequently occur- red, that true and fatal cholera morbus has re- sulted from such imprudence. In the Philadelphia Medical JFIxarniner, for Jan. 1839, we have a short paper Iieaded, '■ poisoning from joor/c," ILirnished' by a physician of Illinois. The patient died, it is true ; but he had been labor- ing for months under gastro-enteriiis, was fre- quently attacked with colic, and often much dis- turbed by any sort of food that did notsuit his con- dition. Under these circumstances, fresh pork was li-eely eaten, and soon after, a quantity of grapes, and the man died in nine hours after the commencement of the attack, which did not begin until the day after the pork meal. I will not say, however, that young pork may not acquire a poisonous qualiij^, and kill, as the consequence ; but the cases that I have met with, are not satisfactory. In reference to ham, and al! kinds of bacon, the evidence of occasional poisoning is conclusive. This may be the result of very different causes. j The meat may be poisoned, in the act of smok- ing it, as is known to have happened to certain suldiers in Corsica, who smoked their meat with mezereon and other woods. In the careless man- ner of gatherinii' rubtish for this purpose, many poisonous articles may be accumulated, and the meat may thus be effectually poisoned. The more common source of poisoning in bacon, however, is doubtless the same fatty acid that renders sausages so deleterious, in some vicinities, and in certain seasons. The history of a family poisoned by eating a ham-pie, made at a Parisian pas'ry-ccok shop, is deeply interesting. The examinations, made by Ollivier and Barruel, to deled some kind of metallic poison, totally faile^i, and the able che- mists were forced to the conclusion, that the meat had experienced a change similar to that which gives a poisonous quo-'iiy to German sausages and liam. In three houiv after dining on the ham-pie, the master of th« house was seized with general uneasiness, cold sweats, shivering, violent gas- tric pains, frequent vomiting, burning thirst, ex- treme te/iderness of the abdomen, profuse purg- ing: and very violent colic. Thepoison v\a3 evi- dently of the irritant class, as the same symp- toms at'acked a daughter aged twenty-seven, and another aged nine. The physician who was called in supposed that verdigris, or some other salt of copper had been communicated, by the pastry- cook's copper mould?. By a vigorous course of treatment the patients recovered. The plan pur- sues! is not stated. It should be borne in mind, however, as a reason lor suspecting a copper poi- son, that the alvine discharges were as gteon as the common house leek. Dr. Gcisler has given, in Horn's Archives for 1828, the account of a family of eight personSj 34 THE FARMERS' REGISTER evidently poisoned by bacon. Their symptoms, with the addition of delirium and iosa of" recollec- tion, were the same with those resulting Crom the sausage poison. A remarkable circumsiance in this history is, that the lather escaped unhurt, " having stewed his bacon, while the rest aie it raw.'' It is supposed, that the process of stew- ing dissipated or decomposed the fatty acid, so as to render it harmless. In ihe London Medical Gazette, vol. 19, 378, we have the case of a fiimily poisoned tiy bacon, or rather, several members ol' ihe Tamiiy. All who partook of the meat were sickened, ami one of the children died, after severe gastric and in- testinal distress, which continued lor more than three weeks. Severe spasms and violent retch- ing with dreadiiil headache were the atieiidani symptoms. Post mortem examination revealed extensive gastric ulceration. The difficulty of deciding, satisfactorily, as to the true source of poisoning, in animal matters, has been alluded to. We may remark, further, that many families have been sickened and some persons fatally poisoned, by eaunij the meat, va- riously cooked, of animals that had sickened and died. The symptoms in these cases, are those of irritant poisoning, such as gastric pains, vomit- ing, severe colic, diarrhoea, &c., &c. In all these cases, it is quite probable, that the fatty matter of the animal experiences a change such as oc- curs in the German sausages, though this is only a conjecture. It would seem that the proper course of treatment would be to dislodge the meat from the stomach, and then to allay the irrita- tion, by means of anodynes and rubefacients, blisters, &c., to the epigastric region. The fa'ial poisoning from a wound inflicted by the dissecting knife, is too well known to require any detailed notice here. That such wounds are not always injurious is certain ; and we are at li- berty to suppose, that when they do prove alarm- ing and fatal, it is in consequence of the change already named, in the fatty menter of the dead body. In view of all the facts above stated, in refer- ence to the poisoaous agency of animal matters, may we not very ration illy extend our luture re- searches in the fbllow%ng queries, in the hope of reaching the truth at las.i 7 Isf. Is it not probable, vhat the fatal effects at- tending the use of the mea-^ milk, butter, cheese &c. of cows, as well as of the flesh of other animals, may depend on the nox"nus influence of many articles in the vegetable kingiom? 2d. Is it not probable, that sowie ctxaes of milk- sickness, as well as thedisaslrous train of symptoms that follow the use of various animal matters, as articles of food, may be lairly ascribed (conform- ably to Orfila's suggestion) to neio principles formed or developed in the living animal, bxj a vital process, and wholly independent of the pernicious agency of any vegetable matter? Perhaps some of your readers may think there is no sort of relation between the several tacts con- tained in this article. On this point I beg to dif- fer ; and hoping that some good may result from their perusal, 1 submit them to the intelligence and good sense of all candid inquirers. AN ESSAY ON THE MAKING, THE PRESERVING AND THE APPLYING OF MANURES. For tlie Farmers' Register. This subject, as the caption indicates, is divided into three pans; 1st, the making; 2d, the pre- serving, and 3d, the applying of manures ; and I shall treat the subject according to the above divi- sion. And liere it is obvious to remark, that this subject is to the fdrmer one of primary importance; (or in this section of country our lands are natu- rally very poor, or by long cultivation have be- come completely exhausted. It is there.'bre a question of the gravest importance, how we can most economically, and at the same time most cer- tainly, impart that lt;rtiliiy to our lands, which will make them capable of producing large and profi- table crops. This subject, at this time, derives an additional importance from the fact that, owing to the ex- ceedingly deranged state of our currency, the high rate of exchange to which we have to submit, the consequent depressed state of the market, and the extravagant and constantly increasing taxa- tion which is imposed upon us, for the support of legislation — our salvation, and indeed our very solvency as fiarmers, depends upon the large amount of produce we can throw into the market. The lime has been, as many of us well recollect, vvhen a barrel of corn would bring ^10, or a bushel of wheal ^2.50, or a hoi^shead of tobacco would bring ^250, and in some instances a still higher rate. Now, although I am no advocate for inflated prices each as these, yet it is obvious that a reaction has taken place, which has pro- duced a state of depression still more injurious; for if the fiirmer can noio get one third, or evea one fourth as much for the same articles, he con- siders himself as liaving made a good sale. Our farmers are at present in this strange situation, a situation which operates with peculiar oppression upon them, that whilst their expenses with the blacksmith, with the shoemaker and grocer, and for labor, generally remain the same, and in some instances are even enhanced, nearly or quite all the products of his farm are at a slow sale, and at greatly depressed prices. The only remedy in this case is greatly to increase the amount of dis- posable products. Instead of one hogshead of tobacco, or 07ie barrel of corn, or one bushel of wheat, we must have at least three; and even then our net income, compared with former times, will be greatly curtailed. And now the question is, how are we to secure this greatly increased product? It is evident that our lands, in their present poor and exhausted state, cannot supply it. The only alternative then is to enrich the lands, if we would increase their product. And here I will remark, that bad as the times are, I have no idea of " giving up the ship," for I do know, from actual experiment, that by a judicious course of manuring and cultivation, it is practicableto increase the product ofourlandssorae three or even four-fold. Of all mothers. Mother Earih is the most generous ; the more liberal we are to her, the more liberal she will be to us. Having made these preliminary remarks, 1 pro- ceed at once to the first branch of my subject — the beat method of making manures. And here I intend to confine myself to the actual circum- stances of that section of country in which the THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 35 great majority of our Agricultural Society reside. In some portions ol our slate, large and even inex- haustible quantities of marl and lime may he commanded at comparatively little expense. Here ~ then the very best manure is at otice i'urnished to ihe industrious husbandman. JBut as compara- tively little ol these articles has as yet been lound in our county, I shall say nothing as to their pre- paration or application. Indeed the subject, as presented, was intended to embrace, not the calca- reous, but the putrescent manures. I would observe, then, that the great basis of this article is vegetable matter. This matter, when reduced to a stale of decay, is manure, bul the quality may be greatly improved, and the quantily greatly increased, by a proper mixture of animal excrement. Stock then, of some kind, if not es- sential, is highly necessary to the making of manures. The whole subject then resolves itself into this one thing — how are we to employ our stock, so as to make them most available in 'his important particular? Of animals, there are three classes in coiimion use among us — the horse or mule, the cow, and the hog. As to the first, I suppose there is but one opinion among us, and that is, that when not employed, he ought to be confined to his stable, and there plentifully supplied with litter of some kind. How long this litter ought to accumulate before it is removed, is a matter of some doubt. Some are in the habit of removing it every morning ; but after paying con- siderable aueniion to the subject, 1 am of the opi- nion that it ought to remain, until by its great heat it endangers the health of the animal. It is a laci well ascertained, that decomposition goes on much more rapidly in large than in small masses. The best plan, iherelbre, is to keep the stable clean, not by throwing out the old mass, but by putting in frequent supplies; of fresh litter. That which is already undergoing decay, will greatly expedite the decomposition of the fresh supplies. But as during this process not only great heat is evolved, but also a large amount of gases is thrown off, there is great danger of allowing this thing lo pro- ceed too far. Every farmer ought therefore to pay special attention to the condition of his stable, and when the heat becomes excessive, or when on opening the doors the slightest degree of offensive effluvia salutes him. he ought forthwith to remove the whole. My plan has heretofore been (and I am more and more pleased with ii) not to throw it out in a mass, and there allow it to fire-fang, or to be lorn to pieces by the hogs, but to carry it di- rectly lo the field, where it is spread, or to deposite it in small quantities, ready for future use. Fresh litter then is put into the stable to a large amount, and thus a foundation is laid for another supply. Two methods have been successfully practised to make cattle useful in supplying manure. The first is to confine them to their stalls, in which case the same process is to be employed as wiih the horse or mule; or, 2dly, to let them have the general use of the farm pen, restricting them to their stalls only in bad weather. The latter, espe- cially where the fiarm pen is kept well littered, I think the preferable mode : for on this plan, much time is saved in feeding, it being much easier to scalier the food over the farm pen, from which each one takes his portion promiscuously, than to place it in each separate stall. After taking their food they either remain in the farm pen, where their ■ droppings are left, or if the weather be bad, they reiire to their shelter and deposite them there. [ Here also great cleanliness ought to be observed, i which can easily be secured by frequent supplies i of fresh liner. Nor let any one grudge the time I and care of this apparentiy troublesome process ; I lor the more litter he furnishes, the more manure ' he will have for his exhausted fields. There is also a third method of employing cattle in ihe enriching of land, of which I think very favorably, and that is by confining them to a small portion of land, until this is properly enrich- ed, and then removing them to another portion. This is done with considerable convenience, by means of what are commonly called moveable pens. The size of the enclosure will of course de- pend upon the number of the cattle, and the length of lime it is intended to keep them on one spot. By this expedient, especially where the number of caitle is great, a large quantity of land maybe greatly improved every year. And it is done with this great convenience also, that all the labor of carting out the manure to the field, and then of spreading it, is saved. But it ought to be ob- served, that on this plan the land ought to be ploughed before, and some say after, it is ma- nured. In the latter, however, 1 do not agree with ihem. But there is another animal, the value of which has been heretofore greatly overlooked, and there- lore greatly neglected, which, if properly treated, will show himself not inferior to any other in the great busintss of manufacturing manure, and that is the hog. In England, where this great con- cern is attended to with an economy and success, altogether unknown among us, each hog is taxed with ten loads of manure every year ; and when he is treated properly, and is furnished with suita- ble materials in sufficient quantities, he invariably acquits himself as a clever fellow. But on this point I must be a little more particular, I would, then, confine my hogs in small pens, say 10 feet by 8, with a floor sloping considerably to the front. In rear of this should be another pen, say 8 by 6, well sheltered, to which the hogs might have free access in bad weather, as also for sleeping. This will afl'ord accommodations (or five or six hogs. In the Iront or larger pen, besides the trough for water, I would put large quantiiies of litter. In addition to this, I would furnish regular supplies of din, taken from the scrapings ofroads, ditches, &c., or of rich deposites of mud collected from marshes and oiher low places, and, as still better than this, all ihe ashes I could command, and over the whole strew corn as food for the creatures. And now would commence their work in good earnest. That snout of theirs, which to my fields and diich banks is such an annoyance, would here display itself lo my immense advantage. In a very short time, they would thoroughly mix and incorporate this whole mass, so that new acces- sions of similar materials would be necessary. When this is the case, put in fresh supplies, and thus continue till the mass becomes inconveniently great, then remove the whole, and begin the pro- cess anew. Ifi upon cleaning out, the litter is suf- ficiently rotted, carry it directly to the field ; if not, (and this is frequently the case,) let it be heaped up, in which state it undergoes a slow decomposi- tion, and in time will be fit for removal. In this way the 5 or 6 hogs will make from 50 to 60 loads 36 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. of manure during the year. According to this, a hundred hogs (and many farmers keep ili^t num- ber, or even more) will make a thousand loads, and this is enough to enrich tweniy acres of poor land, or to keep ibriy in a stale ol' continual nn- provement. I have now finished what 1 had to say as to the stable, the catile shelters, and the hog-pens, as so many sources of manure. But there is another resource wliich, in a treatise of this kind, ought not by any means to be overlooked, and that is the farm pen. It will be conceded, that no larm can be properly conducted, without this indispen- sable appendage. As lo the location of the larm pen, all will agree that it ought to be situated im- mediately adjoining the barns, the stables, the ca - tie shelters, and such other buildings as wc use lor storing away our winter supplies of food. Here the catile are led, and here we deposite the coin stalks, and wheat straw, and damaged provender, and weeds, and litter from the woods, and such other materials as we wish the cattle to tread down and to convert into- manure. This is in fact the great depot of all the raw materials, whicii we intend to work up in the great manure workshop. But if we would conduct the concern with effi- ciency, we must keep a plentiful supply of mate- rials ort' hand; and if with these we mix small quantities of lime, or larger quantities of wood ashes, or even of coal ashes, the quality of the manures will be greatly improved. As yei, I have said nothing as to what is com- monly called the liquid manures of our stock. Id older countries, where the population is very dense, and where every foot of tillable land is ne- cessary to raise the (bod needed by the people, and where, oi'course, they cannot command, from the woods and the fields, the quantities of litter which we can, there great care is taken to collect and preserve all the liquids of their stock. For this purpose their stables, both for horses and catile, are furnished with cisterns or tanks, into ivhich all the liquids are carefully drskined ; and after they have undergone the necessary putrelac- laction, are pumped out, and sprinkled over the crops, and great benefit is said to result from the application. But in this country, where popula- tion is lamentably thin, and woods and weeds are lamentably plenty, and large supplies of litter are always at command, I do doubt if a discreet economy would warrant the expense and trouble ol collecting and applying the liquid manures. And my doubt is founded in this, that just in pro- portion as we increase the liquids, we diminish the solids. My theory is, that the liquids are quite as necessary, and even more so, in exciting and hastening the decomposition of the iitier, than the solids are. If therefore we drain away the liquids, we arrest or at least retard the decomposi- tion of tlie litter, and therefore a less quantity of manure is made. No one, I hope, wiil understand me as detracting from the value of liquid ma- nures. My plan is to furnish a sufficiency of litter to absorb the whole. The liquids therefore are not only secured, but they display their great ef- ficacy by rapidly converting the large quantities of litter into a valuable manure. But as the term litter occurs very frequently in this treatisi?, perhaps I ought to explain precisely what i mean by it. It is, first, the corn stalks, which ought to be cut down as early ae possible, and deposited upon the farm pen, and thereby passing the carls and wagons over them, and the trampling of the cattle, and the rooting of the hogs, they are broken down and made fine ; so that by the next spring a considerable portion of them, perhaps hallj are in a condition to remove from the lop. These are carried to the corn field, and when properly managed are a great aid in the subsequent crop. The balance are left till the fall, when the most of them are sufficiently de- composed to lop-drees the grass lands with. Be- sides this resource for litter, the fields which pro- duced ffmall grain, if in good heart, and none others are worth cultivating, wiH be Ibund, early in the f-dl, well covered with a large crop of the wild carrot and other weeds, intermixed with young clover and other grasses. These ought all to be mowed down, and carefully stowed away as litter for the stable and hog pens, and I know of no material of which a richer and better ma- nure may be made. And then they who cultivate grass on a large scale know that portions of their fields, particularly along ditch banks, and low sunken places, and corners of fences, are much infested with weeds and briers and coarse grass, such as will not make merchantable hay; these ^ ought all to be taken care of in ihe same manner and (or the same purpose. And then last, "though not least," leaves from the woods. When all these sources are cardully husbanded, every one must see, that an immense amount of valuable material will be stored away for the manure pile. Indeed! will venture to affirm that, as a general thing, not one farmer in twenty avails himself of the abundant supplies which he has at his com- mand, to enlarge the stock of his manures. And as (long as this continues to be the case, our land must necessarily remain poor and unproductive. For my part, I would leave ihe song of " hard times,'''' to be sung by the merchants and other traders alone. It is a chant which very illy befits the mouth of the farmer. He, with his rich land, and habits of economy and industry at home, is 1^ an independent man. Whilst, therefore, others harp upon the ruinous exchanges, the scarcity of money, and the villany of the banks, let the farmer look well to his manure pile. Above all, let him feel that his great business is lo add to the fertility of his land every day. Then, when others yield to the pressure of the times and become insolvent, he, with no money deposited to his credit in the banks, but with his fat hogs, his full corn crib, and his barns well stored with all kinds of pro- vender, will remain firm amid the general wreck. 1 close what I have to say on this branch ofthe subject, with one remark, and that is, that the quantity as well as the quality of manure will be materially affected by the quantity and quality of the food which we give to our stock. If we dole out poor (bod lo them in limited and stinted supplies, the returns in the way of manure will be of the same character. Whereas, if we supply them with generous food and with a libe- ral hand, the returns will be of the same nature. 2dly. The next thing lo be considered is the beet mode of preserving manure. This is also a very important part of the subject ; for it is surely very bad policy, to waste or destroy that which is so valuable to us, and which it has cost us so much lime and labor to obtain. We should justly con- sider that man a maniac, who would wantonly THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 37 throw away his puree well stored with silver or i covered wiih the plough. And my reason for this gold, a case, by-the-by, which could occur with | course is, ihat the finer and well made, manures but very few now-a-days. Equally foolish would l being now in a state to act availably, I wish lo con- that man be, who would suHer his manure, the, j linue in tlint siaie as long as possible ; whereas, strengih o( his land, and the very basis of his ; I wish to change the state ol' the coarser, by sub wealth, to perish lor want ol proper preservation. And hore 1 would remark, that the great enemy to be guarded against is inatiemioii and indo jeciing it to as rapid a decomposition as 1 can efh-ct. Il, ihfrelure, I have the coarser on the surlitce, il will but Itieach in the sun; but il'I cover lence. As a creneral rule, manures ought always , it to a hiuiII depth, ii will imbibe moisiure, and, as to be used, or at least placed in a situation to be used, as soon as they are thoroughly made. JVla- nures consist of vegetable and animal matters variously combined, in a slate of decay, which, in consequence of the decomposition in actual pro- gress, are constantly evolving certain rich 'ind nutritious gases, and these gases, if not imbibed by other living vegetables, are constan'iy escaping in the air. The manner in which manures bene- fit the growing crop, whether by entering into it in their solid state, or whether they are fir^i de- composed into their original elements, these e!e I rots, impart its mitriiious [irojterties lo the grow- ing crops. On th'S plan, I permanently secure ihai which is lully made, in its present state; vvhiltit, by covering, i j-uhjeci the oiher to a con- tinued decomposiiion, and thus bring it into an ;ivailable state also. The main argunif-nt by which the advocate of the covering system supports liis theory is, that manures, when Icit on ihesurlsce, are continually subject to evaporation, and iherelbre lose their valuable gases and oilier flaids. Now what are these gases? Every chemist will tell you, and ments enter into it, I shall not now undertake lo | that upon tictual experiment, ihat they are fluids so subtle, so elastic, that it is almoyi impossible to confine them. This being the case, can any suppose that they can be confined by a covering ol loose porous earth, such as land always is when Iresh ploughed? These subtle substances — if I may be allowed the expression — would laugh at a confinement of this sort. No ! the chemist can scarcely confine them in his retorts, prepared with the greatest skill. In vain then will you attempt to confine them by a slight covering ol loose earth. But suffer me further to inquire, what is the o6;ec< of confining them? Is it, that when thus covered up, they may enter into the plant by means of its roots, and thus nourish if? But it is a fact, admitted as such by determine. It is sufficient for me to knov/ that manures, as soon as fairly made, begin to waste away. Here then is a loss ; nor is this loss occa- sioned merely by what is commonly called evapo- ration, his greatly accelerated, if not principally caused, by what may be properly called a combus- tion. To satisfy any one ol" this, let him put a small quantity of manure in a heap, a single cart load is sufficient for the experiment, and in 48 hours or less he will see a dense vapor issuing from it, and on digging to the centre, will find that a great heat has been generated, so that a real combustion, commonly called fire-fang, has actually commenced. Now it is obvious, that unless this destructive process is arrested, a con- siderable portion of the solids will not only he every body, thai the roots are not the only appen- burned up, but in this process we shall lose a large share of the nutritious gases also. The best preventive thai I know ol for this waste, is to remove the manures to the field as soon as fair- ly made, and then spread forthwith, or if inexpe- dient to spread, to place in small heaps, not ex- ceeding 5 or 6 bushels to each. Some farmers dagee ol the plant by which it receives its nou- rishment. The Zeaues are essential lo the plant in this respect. Hence, if you destroy the foliage of the plant, it sickens and dies ; and hence caterpil- lais and other worms are so destructive to li-uit trees. The leaf then, is intended to perform cer- tain primary functions, connected with the health are exceedingly afraid that vheir manures will j and thrift ol the plant. For this purpose it is sink down into the ground, and thus become in- furnished with two surfaces, by which, it is said, active. I will cheerfully incur this risk, provided 1 it performs certain offices very similar to respira- you give me a guaranty that they will not rise up, | tion in the animal creation. By one, it receives and be dissipated in the atmosphere. The whole ; the gases, and by the other, it throws thera off, secret, therefore, as to the preservation of manures, 1 when they have been sufficiently elaborated. It resolves itself into this one thing, to mark when i appears, therefore, that we should but partially do they are thoroughly made, and then immedi9tely | our work, were il in our power, to place these to use them, or, at least, to place them in a situa- fluids in a state to be taken up by the roots alone; tion for future use. And the longer this thing i delayed, the less manure you will have, and of course the greater loss you will sustain. The third and last thing to be treated of is the the leaves require their portion, and this is indis- pensably necessary to the healihfiil thrilt of the plant. My theory is sim|)ly this, that between ihe plant and its several parts, and these various best mode of applying manures. There are, as i gases, there is a strong affinity; when therefore far as I know, but two theories on thissubject; and each theory has its strong and decided advocates. The first is to use it as a top dressing ; the other is to spread and immediately cover with the plough. After a long and close observation on this subject, I have come to the conclusion, that each mode, according to the circumstances of the case, is the correct one. If the manure be fine and fully made, then I hesitate not to say that the most judicious mode of application is in the way of a top dressing. If on the other hand it is coarse and but partially made, then it ought to be the attraction to the root is strongest, the gases go there, and when the attraction to the leaf is strong- est, the gases go there, and this is the case, whether the manures be left on the surface or covered up. In the one case, they descend to the root, in the other they rise up to the leaf, and the peculiar position in which you place them makes very little difference, /or their great fluidity pre- pares them for the change. I have already stated that the great object is to preserve the finer ma- nures as long as possible in their present state. Being now available, the great object is to con- 38 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. tinue them as they now are. And now the whole question is narrowed down to this single point, in which stale are manures most susceptible ol pre- servation, when Ipfc on the eiiifkce, or when par- tially covered? On this suhjpct, I suppose, there can be no division of sent nient. Every one will agree, that vpgelaiion undorjiDes a murh more rapid deray when covered ilian when uncovered. In accordance vviih this, every farmer ploughs in his green crofis, or dry crops either, when he wish- es ihem to undergo a speedy decomposiiion. I conclude, therelbre, thai surface applications of manure are to be preferred. COCKROACHES. From tlie American Farmer, for 1827. Having eeen a plan proposed some lime since, in the Former, for driving the cockroach Horn books, furniture, &c., by the use of spirits of tur- pentine, for the benefit of those infested with ihem, I propose the followinff plan, the success of which 1 have ILilly tested. Take an ounce vial and put in sweet oil or soap-euds, to the depth of an inch, and set the via! against the books, shelves, or places infested, so as to facilitate their getting in. They will readily go into the vial, and are unable to return, as the oil or suds renders it impossible for them to climb up the sides of the vial. I tried this plan in a closet very much infested, and in a few weeks the vial was filled within an inch of the neck. I emptied it, and in a lew days there was not one to be found in the closet. If you consider this worthy of publication, it is at your service. OK LIME AS MANURE, AND CALCAREOUS FOR- MATIONS OF THE MOUNTAIN REGICN. [The remarks and inquiries addressed to us by one of the most intelligent and successful improvers of land in western Virginia, concerning the calca- reous tufa of the limestone streams and other calcareous substances of the mountain region, have induced the republication of the following letter, which presents views that we long ago took up on that head, and which we have since had no cause to alter, nor means to test, by further observations. — Ed. F. K.] From the Winchester Republican, Agricultural Society of the Valley— May 29, 1826. A letter from Wm. B. Pace, esq. enclosing a communication from E. Ruffin, esq. was receiv- ed, and the communication Irom Mr. RufRn or- dered to be printed. Coggiri's Point, October 20, 1825. Dear sir, — Your letter reached me only a Cew days before the commencement of a long journey, which has prevented my attending to your re- quest until this time. 1 shall now endeavor to answer your inquiries as fully as my limited means will permit ; though I cannot expect to furnish anv thing of more value than loose hints, which perhaps may serve as subjects for a Frederick farmer to think about, but not as rules to direct his practice. It should be observed, that though I have ap- plied 7nild lime !o more than 500 acres, scarcely any use h;is been made by me of caustic or quick lime; and therelbre I have no practical know- ledge 01 its peculiar solvent power. According to the theory of Davy, while lime continues caus- tic, it acts powerfully on all animal and vegetable matters in contact with it — breaking down and rotting whatever is hard, insoluble and inert — and driving off or destroying whatever is already rotten, or fit for the immediate use of growing plants. Hence, we may infer that the mere causticity of lime will he serviceable or hurtful, according to the state of the vegetable ingrediens of the soil. But as usually applied, quick lime becomes as mifi as before burning, by again ab- sorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere, before its solvent power can be exerted. JNor do I think this power can salely be used in our climate, ex- cept in very lew cases j as on broom-straw old fields, or newly cleared poor woodland, which contain much inert, and hut little active or soluble vegetable matter. Under our hot summers, vegetable manures rot too fast, and the cultivator should endeavor to retard, rather than hasten their decomposition. But a different practice may be proper in colder climates. Frequent applications of caustic lime must be highly useful in Scotland, lor. example, where vegetable matters, unrotted and insoluble, have continued to accumulate and extend, until one sixth of that country is covered with barren peat. It follows, then, that however powerful may be the effects of caustic lime, they must be consider- ed as separate and distinct from the durable and far more valuable eflfecls of mild lime, or calca- reous manures in general. The same substance, (quick lime) will at different periods act as two kinds of manure, entirely different in their modes of operation ; and, on the other hand, many sub- stances having different names, (as old burnt lime, chalk, shells, limestone, leached ashes, and marl,) all have different proportions of the same calcareous ingredient, and ought to be considered as the same manure. Yet most writers class these manures under different heads, without knowing the sameness of their predominating qualities ; and many absurd practices owe their origin and continuance to the same error in our practical men. Thus the industrious farmers of Long Island have long used, as a manure, leach- ed ashes, brought hundreds of miles by water : they have even sometimes stripped the soap fac- tories in Petersburg, paying five or eight cents the bushel, besides the expense of so long a trans- portation. Yet, whatever benefit was obtained from this manure, they might have found as well in the fossil shells which I believe lie beneath the surface of all Long Island, and which, even if carried the same distance, might be applied at less than half the cost of an equal value of ashes. Your remarks show that we agree in this view — and that you correctly consider our calcareous manures as substantially the same, though your practice maybe confined to calcined limestone, as mine has been to fossil shells. I now proceed to answer your particular inqui- ries. You ask my '' opinion as to the utility of lime as a manure in general ; to what crops and THE t ARMEKS' RilGlSTEK. 39 in what mode it is most advantageously applied ; and whether there is reason to believe that it would be adapted to limestone soil like ours, ori- ginally rich, but in many places much worn by cultivation?" 1 never was in Fiederick, anJ know but little of its soils, except that they gene- rally differ from those on which my practice has been tried, and wiih which [ am best acquainted. Your own judgment can best determine when any practice which may be profitable here, will also be advisable in your situation ; and for that pur- pose, it will be necessary (or me to slate concisely my view ol" ihe means by which lime acts, and the different effocis produced, referring you (or the reasons on which they rest to my essay in vol. 3, American Farmer. The principal action of both sand and clay is mechanical, and therelbre large proportions are required to produce perceptible effects as manures. But from the presence or abs'nce of a very small proportion of lime in soils, important results are produced, because in common cases lime acts che- mically, and not mechanically. Clay has but little power, and sand none, in holding vegetable or ani- mal manures: but lime combines with them strong- ly, fixes them in the soil, and yields them solely to the growing crop. Hence, withoutlime, nosoil can be long otherwise than barren. Though most soils are more or less deficient, none capable ol supporting vegetation can be entirely destitute of lime in some form. This property of lime, oi combining with and fixing manures, may be ad- vantageously used on every soil which nature has not made abundantly calcareous : but this benefit must necessarily be gradual, never quickly per- ceptible, nor can it be expected at all, unless on soils under meliorating culture, which will allow more to return to the earth than is taken off'. The next most important effect of lime is that of neutralizing acids. Lime is never furnished by na- ture pure, as it attracts acids so strongly as always to be combined with some one or other — and most generally with carbonic, the weakest and most abundant of all, and with it torms mild lime, or cal- careous earth. This acid is driven off by strong heat, leaving the lime then pure, (or caustic,) or it will readily yield its place to any stronger acid which may be brought in contact. Thus, if a bit of chalk or limestone be thrown into diluted aqua fortis, the strong acid seizes on the lime, the weak- er escapes in air bubbles, and (if enough lime is used) the acidity and other qualities oC the aqua fortis are entirely destroyed. Such a process takes place in most of oursoils when lime is applied, and probably may in some of yours. Decaying vege- tables or other causes produce acids, which either combine with lime and form useful manures, or if all Ihe lime has been already taken up, poison both crop and land. The mark of an acid soil is a vigo- rous growth of pine, whortleberry or sheep-sorrel. When enough lime (whether mild or caustic) is applied to a soil of this kind, the poisonous acid is destroyed, one cause of barrenness removed, and the first crop maybe increased from 50 to even 200 per cent, belbre any other effect of limecomes into action. There are several other minor benefits from lime, with a detail of which I shall not trouble you; for if my opinions are well founded, the two properties of fixing raanuree and neutralizing acids are nifficient to ibow that lime (and nothing else but lime) will enable us to make durable and pro- fitable improvements on such soils as are naturally poor. Since the publication of my early experience of marl, (as we improperly call the bed ol fossil shells.) my opinion has suHered no change or abatement as to the value of that manure. I have extended the improvement over my farm as fast as possible, and generally wiih great benefit, though sometimes to loss. Not (earine any irijury, I applied in most cases froiu 500 to 800 heape(J bushels of shell marl per acre, about one third of which, on an average, was pure calcareous earth — and the crops of the present and preceding year have given proof that I was too lavish in the application. Several oCmy neighbors (bund equal injury Irom smaller dressings, but on land not secured from ffrazing, or more severely cropped than mine. Where equal quantities were put on, the injury on my land was in proportion to the poverty or sandiness of the soil, or the deficiency of vegetable matter : under opposite circumstan- ces, no injury was produced even where 1000 to 1200 bushels had been laid on. The remedy (or this error then is apparent — and where too much mild lime has been given, the soil is made more able to retam and profit bv the vegetable matter which is then wanting. No soils have yet suffer- ed in this way except such as were before acid, which induces the belief that the salt of lime (formed with the vegetable acid) causes this disease — and unless enough dead vegetable mat- ter be present lor this salt to act on, that it will injure the growing crop. Though I have lost some crop, and much labor, by these heavy dress- ings, the result has not discouraged me; it only shows the manure to be much stronger than I thought, and that less will be sufficient to produce either benefit or injury. Candor requires the statement of loss from marling, which however could not have occurred either to my neighbors or myself, if the advice I Ibrmerly gave had been at- tended to, vi.-j. : to apply the manure in small quantities, and repeat it as might be found neces- sary; and not to use it at all, if exhausting cultiva- tion was to be continued. No first crop after marling has suffered by this disease, (and its marks are too evident to be overlooked :) and when it has occurred in the second rotation, it never reduced the crop so low as the product of the land in its previous state. Another fact is wot-thy of observation : on spots where wheat of this and last year's crop was almost destroyed by overliming, clover stood and grew so well, that it promises to draw off the excess of the salt of lime, or otherwise to furnish enough vegetable matter to balance and cure the evil. Of This, however, my experience is as yet too limited to be consider- ed as furnishing conclusive evidence. When not diseased, the crops of the second rotation have been always as good, and sometimi s much better, than the first crops after the fossil shells were applied. This increase was looked (or, and promised, before liicts had proved this effijct of lime. My later experiments with first dress- ings give results similar to those already publish- ed. But the most satisfactory proof 1 can offer you of the value of calcareous manures, is a state- ment of my crops of wheat, which having been generally ray only article for sale, and always the most important, as much as possible was raised, 40 llli: FAKMEKS' REGISTER Hnd the average product niny (airly he supposed to mark vvilh tolfrahle accuracy ihc increase of ienility in the larm. The last crop I expected would have been at least 2000 bushels, and ihiil it lell short wad en- tirely Giving to lheunexani|iipd injury caus-ed thia season by rust. As ii was, my loss was less than on any oiher farm in the lower country iliat 1 have lieard of, as but It-w made hall' a crop, and many did not save eiioujrh for seed. This difference was mostly owiuir to the manure 1 had u^:ed, as lime hastens the ripening of all crops, and a Itjvv days difference in the rijieniiig ol' a field of wheat may either cause its destruciiun by rusi, or insure its safety. None of my limed land brDuglil wheat until 1820, and the followini.' table shows tliai but little average increase of product had taken place before. Years. Acres. I'roduct. Average. 1813 1814 1815 145 110 78 810 550 520 ri 85 5 ) Average per acre (or 3 y years — 5^ 1816 1817 1818 104 79 63 132 119 160 896 595 450 8tVt 74 2 7 9 > Second average — 8 1819 1820 1821 1015 1020 1049 1627 1475 1850 7 ni °l I 9 6tVo > Third average — 7^ 1822 1823 1824 154 139 194 Ql 0 4 > Fourth average— 10^ 1825 195 1452 7 37 Some of the after increase is certainly due to other kinds of improvement ; but I have no doubt that (Lill three-fourths of the whole was caused by the use of calcareous manures, on land rested two years in four, and not grazed. During the first six years, only about half my corn land was put in wheat, the other half being so poor that even our overseers admitted that seed would there be thrown away. You must observe, therefore, that it was the richest half of each shift that averaged from 5^ to 8 bushels. During the last term, all the land before left out, has been in wheat, which makes the increase of average product greater than would appear from the table. Even the higheot rate of product above stated, may be thought contemptible by a iiarmer on your fine wheat lands : but through our poor and sandy country, the average does not exceed 5 bushels for the land actually put under wheat, and it would not be 3, if all the corn land was sowed. Yet the time will arrive, when by means of our calcareous manures, this novv barren region, will show the fields the most highly improved above their natural state, and more profitable farming, than any portion of Virginia. Your doubt whether lime will suit limestone soils, arises from the supposed similar constitution of soil and manure. I have not much personal knowledge of limestone lands, but have always supposed them, as you describe yours, "originally rich," and have attributed that richness to their being manured by nature with lime. It follows, from the supposition, that the value of lime as a ' manure will he lessened in proportion to the natu- ral supply ; that sometimes it maybe useless or even hurtlul, (as when the soil will effervesce with any strong acid,) and in no case can it be aa beneficial as on our pine and whortleberry lands, which are entirely destitute of calcareous earth, and nearly so of lime in any other (orm. But it does not (bllow that lime may not be advanta- geously applied to most limestone soils, though to what extent and profit, experience can only show ; for it IS a remarkable (iter, that but lew of those in this state con'ain any portion of calcareous earth, (carbonate of lime,) though they are evidently aff'eded by the limestone vvilh which they are mixed, or in contact with. To the question, what has become of the caicareous earth which the soil must have derived (rom the rock, 1 an- swer, that it siill remains in the soil in another form : the lime being combined with the acid furnished by the d(!Compasing vegetable matter, which being abundant enougli to take up all the lime applied by nature, shows that more might be beneficially applied. I cultivate more than 100 acres ot land, naturally containing a slight mixture oT shells, and which, in this respec, as well as in natural fertility, I suppose is nearly similar to your limestone soils ; here the effect of calcareous manures, in the first crop, is scarcely perceptible, though I confide in the benefit increas- ing with time, and accordingly shall marl the re- mainder of this soil, as soon as I can finish what \s less favored by nature, and where greater im- provement has been derived. But others have met with more; pleasing results. Your friend, Benj. Harrison, (bund great benefit from fossil shells, which he carried across the river from my shore, and applied to some acres of the naturally rich land at Berkeley. The extensive improve- men's made with oyster shell lime, by George E. Harrison, at Brandon, are mostly on land natu- rally rich, and not more destitute of lime than you will find most of your limestone soils. When 1 speak of limestone soils, I mean to con- fine the term to such as are so intermixed with limestone, or lying so near it, that the soil musl necessarily have been furnished with some of its component pans from the stone. If my theoreti- cal opiniotla are correct, every such soil should be naturally rich, durable, and, when worn by cultivation, easy to restore by rest or manure, compared to poor natural soils. If you know any exceptions to this rule, if any real limestone soil is poor (without being made so by such evident causes as wetness, excess of rock, &c.) I would gladly be informed of the facts, as they would (iirnish the only known contradiction to the opi- nion belbre stated, that a proper proportion of calca- reous earth will make all soils capable of becom- ing and continuing rich. But if Frederick is like Augusta and the adjoining counties which 1 have visited, you have soils enough, which, though (by courtesy) called limestone, are not better entitled to that name than the pine lands of the lower counties. By most persons, the term Ztmesfone is applied, not only to any land that shows a few detached masses of that rock, but also to where- ver there are limestone springs, or under which a body of limestone lies, though forty feet beneath the surface. If the soil could be made calcareoua by 80 distant a aubstratufn, then the whole tide- water diatrict would be so, as a body of fo«wl THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 41 Shells lies under the whole extern, and generally much nearer the surlace. Much ol this land ap- peared to me very poor, and I think would be as much improved by lime as' any ol ours. You ask, " to what crops, or in what mode, is lime most advantageously appl.ed ?" My Ibssil shells produce the most immediate effect when laid on the sod belbre ploughing, and corn, or some other horse-hoed crop, is first raised, to mix the manure well with the soil. But when convenient, I prefer laying it on alier ploughing, as it is belter intermixed in the course of cultivation, and the danger of its being buried too deep is avoided. Caustic lime is usually applied to the surface ol ploughed land, and slightly covered by repeated harrowings ; and it is evident that this mode ol covering must convert the quick to mild lime, before its solvent powers can reach the more deeply buried vegetable matter. Until I began on cotton this year, I have made no field crops except corn and wheat, to which calcareous manures are equally beneficial. Clover is much more in>proved than either by lime, and without it, (applied by nature or art,) it is in vain to attempt raising clover to any extent, in this part of the state. Several years ago, 1 tbrmed the opinion, that on land made calcareous, gypsum would act, though of no effect before ; and though not confirmed, the opinion has gained strength (rom my experiments and observations, and however opposed some (acts are, the greater weight of evidence is decidedly in its favor. The acidity ol our soils, I think, will serve to account for the general want of effect from gypsum, and the supposed change of results after first applying lime ; but it would be premature to ofi'er the explanation of a lact which, however important it may be, is yet of doubtful existence. You are aware that gypsum has seldom any effect below the falls, and that most of the opposite results are on the rich river lands, of all, the_;most exposed to the " salt exhalations," which have idly been supposed to cause this remarkable and general defect in our lands. You state the general objection to liming in Frederick to be, first, the belief that your soils are already sufficiently calcareous, and secondly, the cost of fuel. I have belbre ofifered you reasons for my belief that your soils generally are not even slightly calcareous, and on the most accurate examination, 1 do not think you will find a twentieth part of even your limestone soils to contain the smallest proportion of calcareous earth. The expense of burning I cannot estimate even on the practice of neighbor- ing farmers, of whom I have in vain made inquiries. But even if your fuel should be rather more dear than on James river, you would obtain the material lor lime at far less cost. Oyster shells, taken from vessels off" the landing places, cost 62/. cents per hogshead, (yielding 14 bushels of lime,) while you would quarry the rock on the farm, or perhaps the field, where the lime was to be spread. But 1 doubt whether burning will be necessary in every case where you may manure with lime ; as its solvent power is seldom used or wanted, it will serve as well mild as causiic, if it can be broken down fine enough without heat. Limestone gravel is used to great profit in Ireland, and perhaps may be found in our limestone country ; and from my own limited observation, I know that Eubstitutes (or it may be obtained in various places, if they should be found to suit as well in their ^ Vol.. X.— 6 ! quantity, as in their richness. With a view to I answering your inquiries, I paid attention to the j subject during my late visit to the mountams, and j would have examined many supposed materiala for manure, but fbr the want of the necessary I tests j as it was, 1 brought home, and have ana- I lyzed, eight or ten specimens of rock, which from I .heir softness and supposed abundance, seemed to promise calcareous manure of some value, with- out the cost of burning. Of these, one, frequently seen in the roads, is like limestone in color, but more like slate in soilness, and easily broken into thin layers, and what is exposed to the eye migbt be pounded to gravel without much labor. A specimen of this, taken about midway between Waynesborough and Staunton, contained 46.100 of calcareous earth j another, taken near Lexing- ton, on the road to the Natural Bridge, contained 80.100. The stone which covers a considerable portion of the Arsenal lot has 84.100, and though much harder than, the others, is so soft as to be considered of no value for common purposes, and can be quarried and broken down with a pickaxe. A stone which is very abundant about the Salt Sulphur Springs, is so hard, in the earth, as to yield onfy to the force of gunpowder, yet crum- bles to small gravel after a lew weeks' exposure to 'he air. This contains only 17.100, and is too poor to pay the expense of blasting, but would be worth using, if already exposed to the air. These specimens were selected almost by chance, and even if some judgment had been exercised, it would require many more examinations to prove the strength or worth of any large bodies of such substances ; and they are mentioned only to show that such manures may be found, and are worth your seeking. Another calcareous rock is /bund in limestone streams, which is richer than my best shell-marl, and nearly as soil : I mean that depo- siie of limestone water, to which the name ohnarl is as incorrectly applied in the upper country, as here to our Ibssil shells. This is nearly pure calcareous earth, and so far as its quantity will go it must be a very cheap as well as rich manure. In these rocks I should expect to find resources lor the improvement of land ; but at the same time that I offer them to your notice, I am sensi- ble that the very descriptions given most proba- bly show how little I am acquainted with the substances recommended. It may be objected that calcareous manures, the particles of which being as coarse as gravel and not very soil, would not be reduced in the soil, and v,?ould consequently remain nearly worthless. Cer- tainly the most minute division is best, and there- Ibre 100 bushels of burnt lime, may be expected to exert as much power on the first crop, as 200 bush- els iu a coarser state ; and it may be admitted fur- ther, that particles of limestone, or shells, would lor many years defy the decomposing powers of air, moisture and frost, which are commonly sup- posed the only agents for producing this effect. But however hard and insoluble these small frag- ments majrseem, I believe a soil that requires lime, will completely dissolve all of moderate size in a few years. Such at least, is the invariable effect found, when a once acid soil is ploughed up for the second rotation, after applying the foisil shells, unless they were of the largest or hardest kinds, or the dressing unnecessarily heavy. Ano- ther fact will prove that this solvent action ia pecu- liar to such soils as 1 have called acid. On our 42 rUE FARMERS' REGISTER. river lands, spots may be seen whitened with thin ] bits oi' muscle shells, which have been exp ised at or near the surface for thousands of years, and to the action of the plough lor the last century ; yet muscle shells, which on those places appear so indestructible, are thinner, sofier, and, from the animal matter they contain, more easy lo crumble tlmn the fossil sea shells which are used for ma- nure. The acidity, or something equivalent to aci- dity, in the one soil, asd the absence of it in the other, will serve to account for the very different effects produced. Yours, &c. E. RUFFIN. MAKAGEMENT AND BREEDS OF HOGS IN MIDDLESEX, MASSACHUSETTS. From tlie Fourth Report of the Agriculture of Massachusetts. We Wave been compelled, however, in ihi;?, as in many other cases, to witness the capricioueness of public favor ; and to adopt, with the variaiion of only a letter, the familiar proverb, and say in thii case, that "every hog must have his day." The popularity of the Berkshire swine is on the wane. It is objected to them by many farmers that they are not large enough, though they are easily made to reach, at fourteen months eld, 300 or 350 lbs. ; and luriher, that they do not cut u|* well ; and that the lat on their backs and sides is not thick enough, especially for packing down (or fishermen, who would be glad to have their pork all fat, and whom I have geen spread their un- cooked salted fat pork, as landsmen spread butter, on their bread. The former objection is not made by all per- sons, as many would prefer (or their tables the pork of a hog weighing 300 lbs. to that of hogs weighing 600 lbs. of which 1 have seen many in our market. With respect to the latter objection, I was half disposed at first to consider it as mere caprice, but that E. Phinney, ofLexingion, a farmer in this matter " not unknown to fame," — and another most respectable farmer of Franklin county, admit that there is some truth in it ; and they, as well as many others, prefer a cross to the pure blood. The impression is becoming general, and the butchers in Quincy market are unanimous in their unfavorable opinion of the Berkshire hogs. They admit that their hams and shoulders are good for bacon ; but their backs, where they most require it, have no depth of fatness, and ihey are there(bre unsuitable for salting. They are good breeders and nurses. They may be kept, therefore, to much advantage where the object is to raise roasting pigs for the market. This is sometimes quite profitable where a sow has two litters a year. A roast pig, only weaned by the knife, has from time immemorial been deemed a most luxurious dish. So it is likely to continue to be. Charles Lamb says that the Chinese never knew the lusciousness of a roasted pig until an accidental fire occurred which destroyed a pig-sty with its inhabitants. In pulling the bodies of these poor creatures burnt to a crisp from the fire, some of the skin or flesh adhered lo the fingers of the Chinese, and in put- their hands by chance to their mouths, they for the first time in their lives inhaled the odor and tasted tke deliciousness of the roasted skin. ARer that, the accidental burning of pig-sties became 80 common that the civil authorities were compel- led lo interpose. It is but just, however, to the Berkshires to say, that the unlavorable impression in regard to ihem, though geneial, is not universal. An intelligent and very exact farmer at Braintree, B. V, French, has Ibund them to answer his expectations. Up- on recently killing a number, he was well satisfied with iheir appearance, and is of opinion that much of the prejudice which exists against them belongs properly to the impure but not to the ge- nuine race. The introduction of the Chinese hogs inljo this country and into England seems to have been the foundation of all the extraordinary improvements which have taken place in this race of animals — improvements which, within less than half a cen- tury, have doubtless enriched the state of Massa- chusetts many hundreds of thousands of dollars, and the country by millions. The eflects of this cross with other swine have been to give fineness of bone, plumpness and fulness of form, extraordi- nary thriftiness, and quietness of demeanor. The old race of hogs seemed to be of the wolf species in temper as well as condiiion, and were the per- sonificaiion of ugliness and rapaciiy. The first introduction of one of these animals into a seclud- ed part of Scotland, within the last century, is matter of comparaiively modern history. Having got loose Irom his sty, he appeared to the terrified imaginations of these simj)le people as the arch- fiend himself) and crowds hovered together through lear — the parish schoolmaster being at their head with an open Bible, to endeavor to lay this evil spirit ! The animal now, in liis improved condition, is regarded as one of the larmer's best friends ; he eats what nothing else will eat ; he is a general scavenger; and an excellent composter of manure. His own manure is one of the most enriching substances which can be supplied to the soil, though not one of the most lasting in its ef- fects ; and his flesh is ihe most frequent dish upon the farmer's table. This county may boast of great improvements in their swine. A Mr. Mac- kay, of Boston, owning a farm in Weston, obtain- ed fi:om abroad, some yeais since, a valuable hog, whose natural good qualities by good manage- ment he greatly improved. Some of this breed of swine have been most remarkable for thrift and weight. Besides this, a hog called the Mocho hog, long, round and thrifty, whose pedigree is not known, has been introduced here. Some of the best hogs which I have seen have been from an admixture of these ihree bloods. Mr. Phin- ney emphatically approves this cross; and the weight of his swine when killed, of some of which I subjoin an account, establishes the sound- ness of his judgment. In 1840, Mr. Phinney sent the following hogs to market : Feb. 6. Feb. 15. Feb. 17. Ibe. lbs. lbs. mos. old 1 weighed 407 1 w'd 469 1 w'd 763 20 2 " 414 2 " 367 2 " 591 15 3 " 413 3 " 362 3 " 476 15 4 " 305 4 " 331 4 " 430 12 5 " 364 5 " 475 12 6 " 366 6 " 465 12 7 «' 4.30 12 8 " 464 12 In 1841, the subjoined is a list of fi.Qeen Berk- shire and Mackay hogs from the same farm : THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 43 February 22, 1841. lbs. IbB. lbs. 1 weighed 738 1 weighed 528 1 weighed 487 2 " 655 2 •' 523 2 " 480 3 " 579 3 " 517 3 ^' 476 4 " 574 4 " 503 4 " 441 5 «' 656 5 " 501 5 " 400 The grass-led hogs, which I have before men- tioned, are regaining iheir popularity. They have been, to a degree, crossed and intermixed wiih various valuable breeds in the interior, and are now preferred to all others in the Brighton marlu-t. With good care and keeping, at fifteen and eighteen months old they are easily carried lo 500 and 600 pounds. Of lour, laited by Stephen Morse, of Marlbo- rough, the current season, the weight was as lol- lows : 539 lbs., 530, 506, 459— averaging 508^ lbs. each. These hogs were put into the sty in' Sep- tember, 1840, vveighmg between 70 and 80 lbs. each, and were killed in October, 1841. They were kept mainly upon boiled potatoes the firs winter, and since that, upon the slops of the dairy, skim milk, butter milk, whey and Indian meal. Some ol the best hogs which I have ever seen have been fatted at the slaughtering establishment of Jesse Bird, in VVatertovvn. He keeps his swine about six months. He purchases the grass breed above mentioned, preferring hogs with a small head, round and lull body, though not deep belly, and with lull shoulders and broad backs. They are taken in, weighing from 170 to 200 lbs., kepi in the slaughter-yard lor a time, and previous lo killing, are led upon potatoes and Indian meaJ cooked, and are brought to weigh Irom 450 to 600 pounds. At the slaughtering establishments in the vi- ciniiy of ihe capital, large amounts ol' pork are supported and latied upon the ott'al. Sometimes this is cooked (or the swine ; in other cases it is given in its raw state, so that without any trouble- some change in ihe way of preparation, the hogs eat the cattle and then men eat the hogs. It is easy, but not agreeable lo imagine in such cases what ihe pork may be. The richness of animal food becomes thus a little too much coneenirated even lor the epicurean palate ; and lew persons knowingly would have the courage to touch such food when coming directly from the slaughter-yard, excepting some, who are cannibals by nature, and by some accident have been misplaced in a civi- lized country. It answers very well lor shipping pork, for no questions of taste are ever held over a barrel ofprovision either on a slave plantation or at sea. It is ascertained, however, that in fatting ewine, some portion of animal food and pot liquor is highly conducive to thrift. In the best establish- ments, the hogs, some time beliaie being slaugh- tered, are put upon vegetable Ibod, potatees, Indian meal, &c.j so that the rankness of the pork is taken away. E. Phinney's swine establishment, at Lexing- ton is among the most extensive in the county. His number of fattening swine averages about 100, with 50 store hogs, and they are killed in Fe- bruary and March, when from 10 to 18 months old, being of the lall and winter liners of the pre- vious year. His pens are well arranged ; seldom occupied by more than three or four in a pen. They have a manure yard attached to each pen, into which bog-mud and liner are thrown lor their manufacture and com4)ounding, and they have always a dry and comfortable bed. They are led regularly three times a day. I shall subjoin an account given by himself of his mode of raanage- ment, w;jich the fiirmers will read with interest. * * * # # " An inquiry is often made as to the best time of killing, or at wheat age it is most profitable to slaughter them. On a large farm where much gieen herbage is produced and where the value of the manure is taken into the account, the pio-s killed at the age of 15 and 16 months, give t^e greatest profit. When ii is intended to kill them at this age, they may be kept on more ordinary and cheaper food lor the first 10 or 12 months, or lill within 4 or 5 months of the time of killing. The manure they make and the extra weight of pork more than pay the expense incurred in keep- ing them the longer time ; but the spring pigs which are to be killed the ensuing winter and spring, must be kept upon the best of Ibod from the time they are taken from the sow until they are slaughtered. " The older class of pigs for the first 10 or 12 months are kept principally upon brewers' grains, with a small quantity ol Indian or barley meal, or rice, ruia-baga, sugar-beet, &c., and in the sea- soji of clover, peas, oats, cornstalks, weeds, &c., they are cut green and thrown into the pens ; the next 4 or 5 months before killing they have aa much Indian meal, barley meal or rice, with an equal quantity of potatoes, apples or pumpkins, as they will eat, the whole being well cooked and salted, and given to them about blood warm. During the season of fattening, an ear or two of hard corn is every day given to each pig. This small quantity they will digest well, and of course there is no waste. Shelled corn, soaked in water made as salt as the water of the ocean for 48 hours, wiih a quart of wood ashes added to eaeh bushel and given to them occasionally in small quantities, greatly promotes their health and growth. Their health and appetite is also greatly promoted by throwing a handful of charcoal once or twice a week into each of their pens. Their principal food should, however, be cooked tho- roughly and nicely. From long practice and repeated experiments, 1 am convinced that two dollars' worth of material well cooked, will make as much pork as three dollars' worth of t,he same material given in a raw state. " Pigs when first taken from the sow should be treated with great care, to prevent them from scouring and becoming stinted ; when either of these happen, it will require many days and sometimes weeks lo put ihem again into a healthy growing condition. When first deprived of the maternal food, a little new or skim milk, boiled and slightly salted and given to them often and in small quantities, will prevent scouring and greatly promote Iheir growth. If intended for killing at the age of 9 or 10 months, they should be full fed all the time and kept as fat as possible. - If, on the other hand, they are intended for killing at the age of 15 or 18 months, they should not be full- fed, nor be made very fat for the first 10 or 12 months. " To satisfy myself of the benefit of this course, I took 6 ol my best pigs 8 weeks old, all of the same litter, and shut them in (wo pens three in each. Three of these I led very high and kept them as fat ail the time as they could be made. The other three were fed sparingl^i, upon ooar"' 44 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. food, but kept in a healihy, growing condition, till within 4 or 6 montha of the fin:ie of killing, when they were tied as high as ihe oihere. They were all slaughtered at the same time, being ihen 16 months old. At the age of 9 monlhs the full-fed pigs were much the heavieei, but at the time ol killing, the pigs led sparingly, for the first 10 or 12 monlhs, weigned, upon an average, filiy pounds each more than the others. Besides this addi- tional weight oCpork, the three " lean kine'"' added ranch more than the others to my manure heap. These resulis would seem very obvious to any nrie who has noiiced the habits of the animal, fn consequence of short f(:eding, ihey were much more active and industrious in the manufacture of compost, and this activity at the i^ame lime caused the muscles to enlarge find the frame to spread, while the very fat pigs became inactive, and like indolent bipeds, ihey neither worked for their own benefit nor lor that of others. "For the purpose of increasing my manure heap, my pens are kept constantly supplied with peat or swamp mud, about three hundred loads of which are annually thrown into my stiff. This, v?iih the manure from my horse stable, which is daily thrown in, and the weeds and coarse herbage which are gathered from the farm, give me about 500 cart loads of manure in a year. " On regular and systematic feeding and clean and dry bedding, the success of raising and fat- tening swine very much depends. A faithful feeder, also, who has some skill and taste and withal a little pride of voca'ion, is indispensable." Of all articles ever given to fatting swine In- dian tneal is, without doubt, the most nutritious. Mr. Phinney, it seems, has by actual trial settled a much vexed question, whether hogs should be forced by full feeding when young, or at first be only kept well in a g^rowing stale. He found it belter, when designed to be kept more than a year, to let the young animal, by sufficient but not excessive feeding, have time to develope him- self and acquire a natural size, rather than, by filling him to repletion, to bring on a premaiure state of fatness, which seemed to check Ihe growth. To young pigs, milk, whey and butter- milk are the best of all feed ; but where cows are kept for the purpose of supplying the market with milk, the piga will be of course regarded as very poor customers. "The milkman will not call." There is however, as 1 have shown before, under some circumstances, a mistake in this matter. The establishment of J. P. Gushing, Water- town, for keeping and fatting swine, is upon a large scale, and is exceedingly well contrived for his situation. It consists of a long one-story building, with separate pens on one side extendmg the whole length, each designed for four swine, with an open yard and a lodging and eating room to each besides some lying-in apartments.* A commodious passage-way runs the whole length o( it, with the troughs projecting into the passage- way, and a shutter for the troughs so contrived * The length of this building, including the cook= ing-place, is 252 feet, width 12 feet, and height the same. There are twenty pens, each 12 feet by 8, and a yard of 12 feet attached to each pen. The number of hogs that can be accommodated depends upon their sizes— from three to six, say an average of four of 300 weight each. There were fatted flfty-two hogs last season, weighing, dressed, 15,573 lbs. that the trough is easily cleaned at any lime, and the food of the hogs is placed before them with- out adtnitting that which, in the usual slovenly mode of feeding, is but too common, an uncivil interference on their part before all is ready. Some contrivance as offeciual as this for another class of animals would be quite useful at some of our pub- lic hoitid and steamboat?, and save us from the severe remarks of those foreign travellers who have little sympathy with our customary despatch of business, and seem to look upon us as a nation of fire-eaters. The cooking apparatus is at one end. Had economy of room and ease of feeding been stu- died, the building might have been double the width, with pens on each side. In England, they are sometimes made circular with the cooking apparatus in iho centre and the feeding troughs all within the circle; but in such cases there must be much waste of room. JNlr. Cushing's barracka are lengthwise of his catde-yard, so that the ma- nure from Ihe pens of his swine is thrown imme- diately into the yard, and any litter or muck easi- ly supplied in the same way. His store hogs, too, at pleasure may be turned into ihe catlle-yard with the advice given in -^sop's fable by the dying father to his sons, " that there is a treasure buried in the field which ihey would find by ' digging for it." The swine however do not much need the advice. They are natural philosophers and go by instinct into deep investigations. Some of them should always be kept in barn-yards and cellars. They are of great use in turning up and mixing the manure ; and in yards where cattle are fed upon grain, and the sweepings of ihe barn floors are thrown out, they take care that nothing is lost. I have known a considerable number of store hogs kept in a thrifty condition upon that only which they obtained in a yard where a proportional number of beef cattle were stall-fed. The philosophy of reciprocal uses, which is apparent in every department of nature, though it frequently presents itself in a form of- fensive to a fastidious taste, is to a reflecting mind always instructive on the wonderful economy of the divine providence. A very large hog establishment in ihis county is to be found in West Cambridge on the farm of Abner Pierce. He keeps in his enclosure about 500 hogs. They are supported upon the city svvill or refuse. No hogs are allowed to be kept in Boston but by special and extraordinary per- mission ; and among the excellent municipal re- gulations, ihe refuse vegetables, meat, garbage, and oHal of the houses are required to be kept by each householder in a box or barrel which is emp- tied once a week or oftener by the city scavengers. This, being taken into the covered city cans, is delivered at Mr. Pierce's establishment, about five miles from the city, dailj' — he paying there- for to the city 4000 dollars per year on a contract for five years. His hogs, when I visited him, were in an en- closure of about fourteen acres, partly covered with trees and bordering on one of the beautiful ponds in that vicinity, a picturesque situation most certainly, for animals making such humble pretensions to taste and sentiment. If nothing else, however, in the summer monlhs they enjoy, as much as their belters, the luxury of a refresh- ing bath and quiet repose under the shade, both essentially conducive to their health and thrift. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 45 He has had no general disease among them, | though occasionally a case of the "blind staggers." He considers this troublesome disease as proceed- ing wholly from indigestion; and he finds no difficulty in its cure, by procuring an immediate evacuaiion. For this purpose he gives a dose consisting of hall' a pint of lamp oil, and half a pint of molasses, strongly charged with pounded brimstone. This remedy is important to be known, as the disease is not uncommon among swine, and often proves fatal. This disease can hardly be considered local, though the " blind staggers" in years gone by, has been known to prevail in some localities near at least one of these ponds among a class of animals, who assume to be of a higher rank, but who occasionally pollute these beautiful regions by a resort to them for pur(,u)ses of dissipation ; but a simple and perfect preven- tive is at last found (or this disease, (so much more humiliating and dreadl'ul in its eH'ecis on ihem,) if they can be induced to take it, in " total abstinence." Mr. Pierce's hogs are purchased ; he raises none. He buys them at a weight of 100 to 150 lbs. Their average weight when killed, is from 250 to 300 lbs. He has a killing twice a year, though many of his hogs are kept a year. The Bupply ol refuse from the city, is sufficient, ex- cepting at certain seasons of the year, when some meal and corn are given. They fatten in the yard without extra feed, excepting as above. At killing, the sitins (that is the small entrails) are sold at 10 cents a set; the harslet at 8 cents; which pay fully the expenses of dressing. The remainder is cooked for the swine, alter saving and selling what can be used by the soapmaker. The manure made in their beds where they are Uttered, is sold readily at four dollars per cord and in quick demand. The average sales of manure are not less than one thousand dollars. In the enclosure there are extensive plank platforms on which the garbage is spread when brought from the city. The right of cleaning the tables, after the hogs have filled themselves, is purchased by several neighboring farmers at ^2 50 per day. Much of the refuse thus obtained is spread upon their grass lands, or ploughed in on their cultivated grounds, or placed round their apple trees, and in every case with the greatest advantage. If not used immediately it is put into a compost heap and covered with mould. Some farmers who obtain it use much of it for feeding their own swine. One farmer stated to me that he had purchased the right of obtaining it two days in a week. He kept the last year fourteen hogs entirely upon these gleanings. The gain upon these hoga in live weight from 1st Oc- tober to 1st April, when he sold them on foot, was 2800 lbs. Other farmers have been equally successful in this economical process. The average gain of the hogs at this establish- ment is rated at a pound per day, live weight. A large amount of bones are brought out in the carts, and these find a ready sale at the bone-mill for manure. The question of profit in keeping and fattening swine has been much discussed, and so much de- pends on circumstances of age, breed, food, length of time kept, and price in the market, that the question must remain open. Mr. Phinney gives it as his opinion that with Indian corn at one dol- lar per bushel and potatoes at 33 cents, and the price of pork 12 cents, they may be fatted to a profit. In his experience, he says, four quarts of Indian or barley meal with an equal quantity of apples, pumpkins, potatoes or roots cooked, will give two pounds of pork. A small example of fatting swine in Medway, Norfolk county, which came under my notice, seems worth recording, because an exact account of their cost was kept. The owner was a me- chanic and bought every article of their leed, not even keepinj^ a cow. llis two hogs when killed weighed, one 420 Ibe— one 382 lbs., and pork .was ilien worth 12 cents per lb. Value when dressed $96 24 cts. They were killed at 14 months old. They were bought in November and killed in the December of the next year. They were kept in the sty the whole time ; were fed three times a day with weeds, corn and pota- toes. The potatoes were boiled and the Indian meal mixed with them into a mash. They were lied exclusively on corn one week belbre being k lied, 'i'hey did as well in winter as in summer. Salt was frequently given to them in their swill. The price of corn bought for them was 117 cents to 186 cenis, or an average of 130 cents per bush- el. Potatoes were 30 cts. per bushel. The whole cost of the hogs when fatted was ^62 including the price of purchase, or 7.8 cts. per lb. 1 shall here subjoin some careful experiments made by myself a tew years since in relation to this subject. They were given to some portion of the public at the time, in another form ; but they may here reach many by whom they have not been seen, and to whom they may be inte- resting. Experiment 1. Two hogs about one year old ; one of them a barrow in very good condition ; the other a barrow recently gelded and in ordinary condition, were put up to be fed exclusively upon Indian hasty pudding or Indian meal boiled with water. We began feeding them the first of March, 1831, and weighed them again on the nineteenth of the same month. In the eighteen days they consumed six bushels of Indian meal. They were oflered cold water to drink but did not in- cline to take any. The result — No. 1 weighed on Isl March, - 233 lbs. " " 19th " - - 269 gain 36 No. 2 (recently gelded) weighed on 1st March 190 - » « 16th " 247 gain 57 The gain of the two was 93 lbs. in 18 days. The quantity of meal consumed by them was 10 quarts per day to the two. We allow 30 quarts to a bushel deducting two lor grinding. The price of corn at the time was 70 cents per bushel. The expense of the increased weight is 4.5 cents per lb. March 21, 1831, Killed the hog mentioned first in the foregoing experiment. Live weight 273 lbs. Weight when dressed 215 lbs. Loss in offal, loose fat included, 58 lbs. or a little more than one fifth. Experiment 2. No. 2 mentioned above weighed on 23d March, - 253 lbs. do. on 30th April, - 312 In 38 days, gain, 59 lbs. 46 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. No. 3, a shoat purchased from a drove weighed i on 28th March, - 100 lbs. do. on 30lh April, - 151 Gain in 33 days, - . - .51 lbs. This is a (raciion over 1 lb. Soz, per day each, I'.earlj 1 lb. 9 oz. in ihis case iheir food was exclusively boiled potatoes mashed with Indian meal. The exact amount consumed not ascertained, but led as Ireely as they would bear. Experiment 3. The two last-named hogs were for the next 20 days put upon Indian hasty pud- ding exclusively, with the following result : No. 2 weighed on 30th April, - 312 lbs. " " 20th May, - 382 Gain in 20 days, - - 70 lbs. No. 3 weighed on 30ih April, - 151 " " 20th May, - 185 Gain in 20 days, - - 34 lbs. The two in the above named 20 days, consumed 4^ bushels ot meal, cooked as above. Meal 78 cents per bushel. Gain oT the two, 104 lbs. in 20 days. Experiment 4. Sundry swine purchased from a drove, and led with meal and potatoes, washed and mashed — 28ih March, 1831. 19th May, 1831. lbs. lbs. lbs. No. 1 weighed 97, 165, gain in 52 days 68 2 " 134, 182, '« " 48 3 " 100, 186, «' " 86 The two following, raised on the larm, and fed as above — 25ih Aprd, 1831. 19th Muy, 1831. lbs. Ibe. lbs. No. 4 weighed 151 206, gain in 24 days, 55 5 " 140 165, " " " 25 Experiment 5. In this case it was not intended to Ibrce their thrift, but to keep the swine in an improving condition. They were shoats of the last autumn, and were of a good breed. Tuesday, 3d April, 1833. Put up four shoats, and began leeding them with Indian hasiy pud- ding. 3d April. 22d April, 25th June. No. 1 176 lbs. 2021bs. gain 25 264lbs.gain 62 2 119 153 " .34 226 " 73 3 150 170 " 20 218 " 48 [Total 1831 bs. 4 121 145 " 24 Killed May 30. From 3d April, to 22d April, the above swine consumed seven bushels and one peck of Indian meal. From 22(1 April, to 25th June, seven bush- els of Indian meal, cooked as above. One of the above. No. 4, was killed on 30th May; being absent, the live weight was not as- certained. On the 25th June, the three remaining hogs were weighed, and in the 63 days from 22d April to 25th June, they had gained in that time 183 lbs. as above. After 30th May, when one of them was killed, one peck ol meal made into hasty pudding with a small allowance of the waste of the kitchen for a part of that time, lasted them three days, that is 22;25 or less than a quart, say | of a quart per day to each. At first we employed half a bushel of Indian meal to make a kettle of hasty pudding; but we soon found that a peck of meal by being boiled sufficiently would make the same ketlle nearly full of hasty pudding and of sufficient consistency. The ketlle was a common-sized five-pail ketlle, set in brick work in the house ; and it was re- markable that the peck of meal produced nearly the same quantiiy of pudding, that we obtained from the half bushel, which showed the import- ance of inducing (he meal to take up all the wa- ter it could be made to absorb. The price of Indian corn was at that time 75 cents per bushel — 30 quarts of meal to a bushel deducting the toll. The amount of meal consum- ed in the whole time from 3d April to 25th June was 14^ bushels — the cost SIO 69»— the total gain, making no allowance for the gain of No. 4, from 22d April to30ih May, which was not ascertain- ed, was 287 lbs. The siain of No. 1, 2 and 3, from 22d April to 25ih June was 183 lbs. in 63 days ; and tallowing one peck to serve (he three hogs for three days, required 5\ bushels, the cost of which was $3 94. The live weight could not be estimated at less (han 4 cents per lb. when pork was at market 6 cents. The value of (he 183 lbs. (herefore was equal to $7 32, or at 5 rents to $9 15 cents. The gain of the swine for the first 19 days, from 3d to 22d April, was : No. 1, 26 lbs. or 1.368 per day. " 2, 34 " or 1.789 " '< 3, 20 " or 1.052 " " 4, 24 " or 1.263 " The gain from 22d April to 25th June, 63 days, was : No. 1, 62 lbs. or 0.984 per day. " 2, 73 " or 1.158 " •' 3, 48 '•' or 0.761 " The difference of daily gain in the two periods was attributable to the diminished quantity of meal. The question then arises, whether the first mode of leeding was as economical as the second. In the first 19 days, 7 lbs. 1 peck consumed, gave 104 lbs. gain. In the next 63 days, 5 lbs. 1 peck consumed, gave 183 lbs. gain. Had the first gain been in proportion to the second gain in reference to the meal consumed, the 7^ bushels which gave 104 lbs. shouPd have given 252 5-7 lbs. This great disparity can be explained only in the more economical prepara- tion of the meal, by which a peck, taking up aa much water as it would contain, gave a kettle nearly full of pudding, when half a bushel of meal imperfectly prepared, gave little more. This seems to demonstrate the great advantage of cooked food, both as it respects its increase of bulk and the improvement of its nutritive proper- ties. Whether it would apply to those substances, whose bulk is not increased by cooking equally as to Indian meal and the like, is a matter which ex- periments only can determine. Such are some few trials in reference to the feeding and fattening of swine, which I have made, or information of which I have obtained from other sources, which may at least lead the inquisitive farmer to further experiments and inquiries, on a subject of great importance to his interest. The inferences to be made from them I shall leave to others. The results, as will be observed, are not uniform. The thrift of ani- ' raals must depend on various other circumstances rHE FARMERS' REGISTER. 47 besides the kinds or ihe quantity of (bod given them. Much depends on the breed, as every farmer luiovvs ; much on ihe health of the aniin;il ; something on tlie season of the year. 1 tailed in attempting to (atten several swine in one case, though tiaey were careluliy attended and various kmdsof leed were tried, and the failure was to- tally inexplicable until they were slaughtered, when the intestines were lound corroded with worms, resembling those Ibund in the human stomach, and this, I have no doubt prevented their thrift. The same lact has occurred in another instance, and with the same result. I failed in attempting to fatten some other swine, who had been driven a considerable distance and exposed, probably not even hall" led on the road, to severe cold and storms. Some of them were Irost-bitteii in their limbs ; and though attended and fed in the most carelul manner they made no progress for months. In an experiment recently made, ol giving swine raw meal mixed with waier, I have Ibund a falling off in their gain of nearly one half, compared with giving their Ibod cooked, such as boiled potatoes and carrots, mixed with meal while hot ; the result being in a sty conlaininj; a number of swine, as 279 to 500. In respect to confinement or Ireedom, various opinions are en- tertained. The Shakers at Canterbury, N. H., deem it indispensable to the thriving of their swine that they should have access to water to wallow or to wash themselves in ; and that they by no means do so well without it. On this point 1 have had no trial further than to satisly myself that fatting hogs are sometimes injured by being suffered to root in the earth. With respect to the age at which it is advan- tageous to put up swine to fatten, I have only to remark, that it is with swine as with other ani- mals, there are some breeds which come much 'sooner to maturity than others. A successliji larmer in Saratoga county, N. Y., says that March pigs, killed about Christmas, are the most profitable for pork. Four pigs of what is called the grass breed, were slaughtered at Greenfield, N. Y., which weighed 348 lbs., 318 lbs., 310 lbs. and 306 lbs. at nine months and seventeen days old. On this point, I present a letter with which 1 was honored by the late John Lowell, whose authority in the agricultural community is justly estimated. ''Dear sir: — I have been prevented answer- ing your inquiries as to my experience in raising old or young pigs. 1 may say that I have fully and clearly ascertained, Irom a trial of 20 years, that young pigs of from 25 to 30 lbs. will give nearly double, in some remarkable case three times as many lbs. as shoats of 6 months weigh- ing from 100 to 150. I have taken two pigs of 100 lbs. each, age six months, and never was able between May and November, to get them above 180, rarely above 170. 1 have taken three " 3 pigs of 90 wt. or 30 wt. each, will give ordinarily 510 lbs. less original wt. 90 olten not more than 60. gain 420 lbs. 2 pigs of 100 wt. each, will give or- dinarily 340 lbs. less original wt..200 gain 140 " But the 3 pigs of 90 will not consuine lor the first 3 months halt so much is the 2 ol 100 each, and I have kepi a 4ih and sold it in August tor quarter pork. "There is nothing new or remarkable, in ihecje lact?. It is the law ol' the whole animal creation. It is true of the call and of man. The child of 7 lbs. quadruples its weight in 12 n)onths; and the calf of 60 wt. if fine and well led will weigh 600 wt. at the end of the year, and (if a female) will not double the last weight at any age. " P. S. I', should be remarked that the weight at purchase is live weight, and at sale dead or net weight, because in truth, to the owner this is the true moile ot considering the subject. No doubt my sort of Ibod is peculiarly favorable to young ani- mals, it consisting in very liberal allowance of milk. If the older pigs were at once put on Indi- an meal they would attain to 250 lbs. at a year old, but the cost of the meal at 70 cts. per bushel would amount to 9 dollars, and if the first cost, 5 dollars 50 cents, be added, and the pig sold at 6 cents, there would be but 2 dollars gain on 2 pigs of 100 lbs. each ; while 3 small pigs without meal fed on miik would give 24 dollars in the same time. I do not mean to give minute details but general views. As an important qualification of the tbregoing statement it should be added, that shoals of 6 months bought out of droves have usually been stinted in their growth, and ani- mals like trees, recover slowly after a check. I presume if shoats were taken from a careful and iiberafowner the difierence would be less. But as a general law it may be safely affirmed, that weight for weight at the purchase, Ihe younger the animal the greater the positive, and the far greater the net gain. At least such is my own experience and belief." The preceding diets and experiments encourage the belief that hogs may be raised and fattened by the farmer to advantage, where corn is worth about 70 cents per bushel, and his pork will bring him 6 cents per lb. Success must greatly depend on skill, care, selection, and good management. The best swine that I have ever found have been in dairy countries, for there cannot be a doubt that milk and whey for every animal are among the most nutritious of aliments. Indian meal proba- bly ranks next, though many farmers prefer a mixture of provender, such a* corn, oats, rye, or barley ; but I believe in all cases cooked food will have a decided advantage over that which is giv- pigs of about 30 lbs. each, and on the same food en in a raw state : an advantage more than equi which I gave to the two, they would weigh from valent to the labor and expense of its preparation. 170 to 180 each in the same period ; — nay I have Potatoes are a valuable article o'.' fbod, but tlie taken pigs of 200, and never could get them to weigh more than 300 in 7 months on my food. The way I ascertain the quantity of fbod is, tiiat 1 never give any thing but the produce of my dairy, and the refuse of the garden, peaches, ap- ples, and cabbage, which are uniform generally. pork is not so good as that fattened upon corn. Carrots are more nutritious than potatoes. Corn given in a raw slate or on the ear is a most wastellil management. Swine ought to be kept on every farm in suffici- ent numbers to consume all the uUul and waste of 48 THE fAUMEKS' REUISTEK. ilje dairy and kitchen. Il, beyond iliis, a breed cat) be obtained, whioli will arrive ai eaily maturi- ly, and wliicli can be advanta<^eously grass-led or kepi at a small expense and in an improving con- dition through the summer ; and being put up to (atten early in autumn and forced as much as |)ossibie so as to be sent to market early in the winter, the farmer will ordinarily find a liur profit in this branch of husbandry. A great advantage i3 (bund in the keeping of swine I'rom the valua- ble returns of manure, both in quantity and quality, which are obtained from ihem, where care is taken to supply them vviili raw materials for the manuliiciure. Too much care cannot be bestow- ed in the selection of the breed and the general health of the animal when put up to feed ; and it is strongly recommended lo every carelul larmer occasionally lo wei<:h the animal and measure the liied, that lie may ascertain seasonably on which side the balance of debt or credit is likely to fall. Nothing is more prejudicial to good husbandry than mere guesses and random conjectures ; and though the result of our operations may not meet either our wishes or expectalions, an intelligent mind will be always anxious as far as practicable to know precisely how far they correspond with or disappoint ihem. The profit of fatting pork with us has become much more questionable since such vast amounts of salted pork and hams are brought into our mar- kets from Ohio and the far western states, through the great and constantly increasing facili- ties of transportation. It is judged that much more than a year's supply is now on hand in the city of New York, and the new has not begun to come in. This must essentially afllect our markets. But it is to be considered that to a certain extent our own pork here will always be preferred ; and that fresh pork, the lean pieces, will always be wanted in our market, vvith which the western pork canr not at present come into competition, though altet the experience of the last five years, it might be almost rashness to say that our markets may not yet be supplied with roasting pigs and fresh spare- ribs fi-om Cincinnati. Then again there is on every (arm a certain amount of refuse and ofl!'al, which may be profitably given to hogs, and would otherwise be lost. There is another circumstance, which must go to the credit of our swine. Ma- nure in Middlesex county is every where valued at least at 4 dollars per'cord on the farm. A hog duly supplied with the raw material, lor a hog cannot, more than an Israelite, make bricks with- out straw, will make three cords of valuable ma- nure in a year. A sow well kept likewise may raise a litter of pigs, and may be fitted lor ihe market in the same year. These circumstances may encourage us to think that, in spite of west- ern competition, a certain amount of pork may be profitably fatted among us every year. It is com- paratively a recent discovery that apples are as good for fatting swine as potatoes. This opinion has been expressed to me by many farmers in this county. Apples may be cultivated to an indefi- nite extent and at a email expense. We ma/ easily avail ourselves of this advantage. The opinion of many of these farmers is, that they are better given raw than cooked. This point will, I hope, be made matter of experiment. The fat- ting of hogs, however, is subject to so many contingences, that under present circumstances, excepting where extraordinary supplies of food are easily obtained, upon a large scale, it can be safely undertaken only with extreme caution and care. Many, who have undertaken it, have been unsuccessful. ERRATUM.— \oI. IX. p. 679, 4tli line from foot of 2d column, for " enormously," read '' numerously." CONTENTS OF THE FARMERS REGISTER, NO. I. VOL. X. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. The Board of Agriculture and its designed ac tion The importance of alkalies in soils . Grasses and grass culture of France Cure of mange in dogs .... Experiment of fattening hogs Notice of the Fourth Report of the Agricul tural Survey of Massachusetts An essay on the making, the preserving, and the applying of manures SELECTIONS. Maidstone Farmers' Club Crop of corn stalks .... Report on orchards .... Exhibition of grapes to the London Horticuitu ral Society ...... To keep skippers from bacon . Papers on cheat and spelt, or darnel Grass and hay in Franklin county, Massachu sett3 ....... On the question of topping and stripping corn Harvesting the crop .... Page 1 4 10 12 12 12 34 13 14 Relative merits of Berkshires and Woburns — Banter from Mr. Mahard to Dr. Martin Potatoes, gapes in chickens, tetter, mosquitoes Constitution of the United States Agricultural Society Virginia salt mine Relative weight of grain and cob of Indian corn Broom corn Manures. Stable, cow and hog yards. Human excrement ...... Compost manure, principally of peat or swamp mud ^or muck) Saltpetre as manure White hogs Butter The age of cattle as shown by their teeth Berkshires Agriculture versus commerce .... Hints on poisons ....•• Cockroaches • On lime as manure, and calcareous formations of the mountain region .... Management and breeds of hogs in Middlesex, Massachusetts Page 15 17 19 21 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 38 38 42 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. Vol. X. FEBRUARY 28, 1842. No. 2. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. ON THli! PRESERVATION OF MANURE. From the London Farmers' Magazine. Sir, — You will be aware ihat the objects of^ manure are to restore (o the soil those euhsiances necessary (o the growth of plants, which are removed in the crops. Though this perhaps is not the only point to be considered when treating on manures, it is evidently one of the utmost im- portance. -The mechanical influence of the soils is no doubt great, but iis consideration peculiarly belongs to the cultivator. In the present letter, I shall endeavor to draw your attention to those manures which are calculated to increase the nutritious properties of the cereal grains, and those grasses which are the indirect means of giving food to man. The substances removed by crops from the soil must be restored ; some plants remove one class of salts, some another ; but all those which are fitted to the support of animal life take from the soil the nitrogen contained in it. For all plants cultivated for the use of man contain nitrogen, and in proportion to the quantity of this element so are the nutritious qualities of the Ibod. The nuiriiious parts of wheat and all grain are in ftct exactly of the same composition as flesh and blood. The following is a statement of the numbers : In gluten, the nutri- In blood, tious part of wheat. Carbon, - - - 54.603 54 56 Hydrogen, - - - 7.-S02 6.90 Nitrogen, - - - 15.59 15,72 Oxvgen, sulphur, phosphorus, 22.286 22.82* This ehows that nitrogen is a very important constituent in the food of man. To ill preservation in manure I shall now take the liberty of calling your attention. Nitrogen is supplied to plants in a wild state from the atmosphere f — in a cultivated state from the soil and atmosphere. In manuring lands then we rettirn to them the nitrogen which has been taken from them in the crops, and we always return it to them in the form of some compound of ammonia. The goodness of manure, or its fitness to restore the nitrogen to the soil, consists in the quantity of ammonia, which is composed of nitrogen and hydrogen, including those sub- stances containing nitrogen which sooner or later will be converted into ammonia or hartshorn by the putrefactive process. Let us now consider the state of a heap of manure, consisting of animal excrements, liqtiid and solid, which contain large quantities of nitro- gen in the form of ammonia ; let us consider, 1 "say, this heap of manure lying exposed to the influence of the weather during a hot summer. The nitrogenized parte are gradually converted into ammonia, and the greater part of this am- monia is volatilized and carried into the aimo- fiphere. We cannot have failed to remark the * Annalen der Ohemie und Pharmacie, xxxix. 149. t Liebig, Affr. Chem. Vol. X.— 7 smell of this body when passing by a heap of manure in a hot day, even though we be at a considerable distance (i-om the spot where the manure is deposited ; to taint so large a quantity of air with its smell, would require a largequantity olammonia ; and what passes into the atmosphere is comparatively lost to the agriculturist, or it does him no more good than his neighbors, for it is carried down by the rain and spread equally over the country. Ammonia or hartshorn possesses the properties in common with all alkalies of uniting with acids, and forming with them in most cases compounds of sparing volatility. All aluminous minerals and those containing peroxide of iron possess also the power of condensing the volatile alkali in such a manner that it is not carried away and lost by every gust of wind Ihat passes over the dunghill. Alumina and peroxide of irop are in fact very near!}' allied, and possess the properly of com- bining with ammonia in common, one being isomeric with the other. Ammonia, the active part of manures, may be rendered fixed, it has been said, by acids, and you will allow me to point out the practicability of this plan in the first instance. Iniimiethat has undergone putrefaction, am- monia exists as carbonate, phosphate, lactate, &c. ; the first of these sails is continually evaporating, and amm.onia is set free from all the other salts by adding lime, which is a practice too common. Let us now suppose a manure consisting of these salts mixed with organic matter, to be watered with a weak solution of sulphuric acid (oil of viiriol) ; the salts of ammonia are decomposed and a sulphate formed — this sulphate is quite fixed. The composition of this sulphate of ammonia is per cent, ammonia 39.48, sulphuric acid 60.52. For every 60 pounds of sulphuric acid employed (and it costs but a penny a pound), 39.48 pounds of ammonia are fixed in the manure, and may be kept for any period of time without loss. We shall see the advantage of this method of proceeding by following the annexed calculation : — 100 pounds of hay contain one pound of nitro- gen, and every hundred parts of ammonia contain S2.5A per cent, of the same element. For every hundred pounds, then, of ammonia, conveyed to the soil in this manner, there will be produced, supposing all the nitrogen to be assimilated in the proportion to form hay, 82,000 pounds of hay. Calculating the advantages at a much less rate than the above, the profit in nitrogenizedjparta that will be produced will amply repay the agricul- turist for the trifling outlay in sulphuric acid. In- deed, no opportunity of preserving the ammonia produced by animals should be neglected ; a few pounds of sulphuric acid being mixed in a diluted state with the manure would be of immense advantage. Throwing down sulphuric acid in all places whern excrementiiious matter collectF, would be a never (iailing source of nitrogen, con- taining manure laid up in a safe form ready /or use. The absurd practice of using lime for re- moving those smells caused by ammonia cannot be loo much deprecated, as lime immediately eel 50 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. free all the ammonia which the manure contains, and it is lost. Tiie manure preserved by eulpliuric acid should be thrown in the soil with gypsum, and would be a never failing source ol nitrogen. The same good results will arise, though in a less degree, Jrom the use of burnt clay and other aluminous minerals; but from tlieir property oC forming in- soluble compounds wi'h ammonia, and uniting wiih no other bases, they are more adapted lo the immediate a|;plication to the soil, than lor being mixed with manure. Another advantage which sulphuric acid possesses is, that it converts all the lime that may happen lo be in the soil into gy|> Gum, which -id a sulphate of lime. T. G. T. Ph. D. ON THE COMPARATIVE FEEDING PR0FEI5TIES OP MANGEL, WURZEL AND SWEIJISII Tt'R- NIPS. Jiy the Right Hon. Earl Spencer. From ttie Journal of tlieSojal Agricultural Society of J^ngland. My dear sir, — You expressed a wish that I should again publish the results of an ex[)eriii)eni which I made filieen or sixteen years ago on the comparative leeding properties ol Swedi h turnips and mangel-wurzel, it was published in the ' Farmer's Journal' of that day, but I believe it is now very bttle if at all remembered ; and I agree with you in thinking that it may be more interesting now, when men's minds are more turned lo this sort of investigations. The mode of ascertaining the nutritious pro- perties of diflerent liinds of vegetable Ibod by chemical analysis, which was adopted by Sinclair and otlier sciemific men, gives a reasonable pro- bability of their relative value; but we know so little of the processes of nature in converting food into the flesh of the animal that consumes it, that tliis mode has never appeared to me quite Batislactory. Alihough, therefore, I believed that mangel-wurzel contained more saccharine matter than Swedish turnips, and ought consequently to be the more nourisliing root of the two, I deter- mined to try practically whether an ox led upon mangel-wurzel increased in weight moie than one led upon Swedish turnips, in proportion to the quantity of each consumed. In order to have rendered my experiment perfectly accurate, 1 ought to have ascertained the weight of hay con- Bumed by each beast during the progress of the trial, but I did not do this, although f am pretty confident that the quantity consumed by each was nearly the same. 1 selected two steers, tole- rably and at least equally well-bred : No. 1, calv- ed JMarch 29, 1823, and No. 2, calved May G of the same year; and on the 24th of December, 1825, I put No. 1 to Swedisli turnips, and No, 2 to mangel-wurzel. I ascertained their weiglit by measurement, and both of them measured tlie eame, viz. 4 ft. 10 in. in length by 6 li. 5 in. in girlh, making them to weigh 668 lbs. each. On the 23d of January, No. 1 had consumed 1624 lbs. of Swedish turnips, and measured 4 li. 10 in. in length by 6 ft. 7 in. in girlh, making him to weigh 703 lbs., and to have increased in weight 86 lbs., or at the rate of 48^ lbs. for every ton of Swedish turnips consumed. No. 2 had consumed 1843 lbs. of mang.il-vvuizel, and measured 4 ft. 10 iu. in length by 6 I't. 8 in. in girth, making him to vveigh 721 Jbs., and to have increased in weight 53 lbs., or at the rate ol 65^- lbs. lor every ton ol mangel-wurzel consumed. Tnis ditlerence, however, might have arisen from No. 2 having a greater propensity to fi;ed than No. 1 ; 1 ihereloie now put No. 1 to mangel- wurzel, and No. 2 lo Swedish turnips. On the 20ih oi February, No. 1 had consumed 1884 lbs. ul mangel-wuizel, and measured 4 ft. 11 in. in length by 6 li. 8 m. in girih, making him to weigh 734 lbs., and to have increased iu weight this month 31 lbs., or at the rate of 36^ lbs. lor every ton of mangel-wurzel consumed. No. 2 had consumed labO lbs. ol Swedish turnips, and mea- Kuied 4 fi. 11 in. in l.ngth by 6 It. 8 in. in girth, making him to weigh also 734 lbs., and to have increased in weight during this month 13 lbs., or at ihe rule of 15^- lbs. lor every ton of Swedish lutnips consumed. 1 then put both to mangel- wurzel, and divided the food equally between them. On the 19ih of JMarch, they had each consumed 1792 lbs. of mangel-wurzel; No. 1 measured 5 ft. in length by 6 fi. 10 in. in girth, making him to vveigh 784 lbs., and to have in- creased in weight 50 lbs. : No. 2 measured 5 It. in iength by 6 ft. 9 in. in girth, making him to weigh 765 lbs., and to have increased in weight 31 lbs. It would appear, therefore, as if the propensity loleed of No. 1 was greater than thai of No. 2 in the proportion of 50 to 31 ; but notwithstand- ing this, in the first month, when No. 1 was upon Swedish turnips, and No. 2 upon mangel-wurzel, No. 2 beat No 1 in the proportion abuve stated ol' eSg to 48^. It appears as if there could be no great inaccuracy in estimating the relative weiglit of the animals, as soon alter the experiment was concluded I sold No. 1 to a butcher in the country lor 24/. 3s., and No. 2 at Smithfield lor 24Z. It will be for practical men to decide upon the value of this trial ; what appears to me to be the most conclusive pari of it is, ihat No. 2, who had during the first month, when he was feeding upon mangel-wurzel, increased in girth 3 in,, in the next month, when his tbod was changed to Swe- dish turnip--, did not increase in girth at all, and when in the third month he was feeding again upon mangel-wurzel he again began to increase in girlh, because it is very well known that, if an animal is changed from more to less nutritious lood, the probable consequence will be that his o-rovvth will be slopped. The results appeared to me so decisive, that I have not tried the experi- ment with the eame accuracy since ; but I did try the following year the li^eding a cow alter- nately on Swedish turnips and mangel-wurzel, and though I have not by me the details of the trial, I remember that the result confiimed the experiment of the previous year. Believe me, my dear sir, yours most truly, Spencer. Philip Pusey, Esq. M. P. WORM IN THE KIDNEY OF SWINE. From the Democratic (Me.) Clarion. Mr. Editor .—I am induced to send you the fol- lowing statement, not so much from the importance THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 51 of thia particular case, as from its being a link in the greut chain of leslimony in favor of a more humane and improved treatment of diseased swine. In Oct. last, I observed that a thrifty young shoal of mine was weaU in tiie back : he grew wor^-e lor several days, until he could ec;;rcely move about, or even get up. At this stage of dis- ease, 1 commenced leeding him with coin, boiled soil in strong lie, with the addition of a handlul of charcoal. This leed was continued four or five days, at wliich time the hog had to all appearances become as well as ever, and so continues to this time. J. D. Hill. No. 3d Range, near Bi?igham. OF THE PKESERVATIOK OF RACES BY SEED. From Lindley's Horticulture. The manner of preserving the domesticated races of plants by the ordinary means ol propaga- tion, such as cuttings, layf.rs, grails, and so on, has already been explamed ; there are, however, some other topics connected with this important sulject which require to be touched upon. Propagation by division is inapplicable to annuals or biennials, or at least can be practised upon only a very limited scale, and Ibrsuch plants llie gardener has to trust to seeds alone. l>ul il is an axiom m vtgctable physiology that seeds repro- duce the species only, while buds (that is, propa- gation by division) will multiply the variety ; and this is undoubedly true as a general rule. Bulihe skill and care of the gardener often enable him 10 perpetuate by seed the many races of cultivat- ed annuals, varieties of the same species, impiov- ed and altered by centuries of domealication, wiih as much certainty as if he were operating with cut- tings. In a well managed larm we see ihe various breeds of turnips and corn preserving each its own peculiar character unchanged year after year, and yet they must all be propagated by eeed . alone ; and m gardens the varieties are innume- rable i)i' peas, lettuces, cabbages, radishes, &c., whose purity is maintained by the same means. The manner in which this is effected is ol the first importance to be understood. Although it is the general nature of a seed to perpetuate the species only to which it belongs, and it cannot ihereJore be relied upon, in ordinary cases, to renew a particular variety of the epecius, yet there is always a visible tendency in it to pro- duce a seedling more like its parent than any other form of the species. Suppose, ior example, the seed of a Ribsion pippin apple were sown ; il untainted by intermixture with other varieties, it would produce an apple tree whose fruit would be large, sweet, and agreeable to eat, and nut small, sour, and uneatable, like the wilding apple or crab. The object of the gardener is to fix this tendency, and he does il by means not unlike those employed in the preservation of the races of domesticated animals, namely, by " breeding in and in," as the phrase is. An example of ihis will be more instructive than a dissertation. The radish has, when wild, a long pallid root ; among many seedlings one was remarked with roots shorter and rounder, and more succulent than !he remainder ; this was a " spori" to which all plants are sulject. Had that radish been left among its companions, and the seed saved Irom them all indiflcrently, the tendency would have disappeared (or thai time; but its companions were all eradicated, and the belter one produced its seed m solitude. The crop of young plants obtained li-om this radish was, lor the most part, composed of individuals of the wild lorm, but several preserved the same qualities as the parent, and some, perhaps one only, in a higher degree: in this one, then, the tendency was beginning to fix. Again were all eradicated, except the last- mentioned individual, whose seeds were carefully preserved lor the succeeding crop ; and, by a constant repetition of this practice lor many years, at last the habit to produce a round and succulent root became so fixed, that ail the radishes assum- ed ihe same apjjearance and quality, and there were none left to draft or "rogue." Every va- riety of annual crop, not still in its wild stale, must have gone through this process of fixing ; and thus the vaiieties ol earliness, lateness, and productiveness, color, lorm, and flavor, observable in garden plants, have been secured lor our en- joyment. But to fix a new habit in annual plants is not the only care ol the cultivator, whose patience and skill would be ill employed if it could not be preserved. If a plant has some tendency to vary lom its original condition, it lias much more to revert to its wild stale ; and there can be no doubt ihat, if the arts of cuhivalion were abandoned lor only a very few years, all the annual varieties ol our gardens would disappear, and be replaced by a lew original wild forms. For the means of preserving the races of plants I ure, the means vary according to the nature of the vciriely. As far as concerns early and late varieties, it olten happens that, as in peas, the tendency in such plants to advance or retard their season of ripening was originally connected with the soil or climate in which they grew. A plant which lor years is cultivated in a warm dry soil, where il ripens in loriy days, will acquire habits of great excitability ; and, when sown in another soil, will, lor a season or so, retain its habit of rapid maturity : and the reverse will happen to an annual from a cold wet soil. But, as the latter will gradually become excitable and precocious, if sown Tor a succession of seasons in a dry warm soil, so will the Ibrmer lose those habits and become late and less excitable. Hence, the best seedsmen always take care that iheir early varieties of annuals are procured from warmer and drier lands than those on which they are to be sown ; our earhest peas, lor example, are obtained Irom France, and the next in time of ripening from the hot dry fields of Kent, the Suffolk coast, and similar'pituation?. Thus, also, the barieygrownon sandy soils, in the warmest parts of Englarid, is always lound by the Scotch farmer, when intro- duced into his country, to ripen on his cold hills earlier than his crops of the same kind do, when he uses the seeds of plants which have passed through several successive generations in his cold- er climate ; and Mr. Knight Ibund Ihat the crops of wheal on some veiy high and cold ground, which he cultivated, ripened much earlier when he obtained his seed-corn from a very warm dis- trict and gravelly soil, which lies a few miles die- I tant, (han^when he employed the seed of his vi- 52 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. cinity. It would seem as if this were in some . way connected with the mere size of a seed, the i enaallesl eeeda of a given variety producing plants capable of fructifying quicker than those of a much larger Size. VVe have, at present, but lit- tle inlbimation upon this subject ; but there are some most curious experiments relative to ii by Messrs. Edwards and Colin, who tbund that, although winter wheat cannot, in France, be made to shoot into ear, if sown in the spring, j jirovided the largest grains of the variety are em- ployed, yet that, il the smallest grains are picked | out, some will ear like spring wheat .(see Aiinahs des Sciences Naturales, v. 1.) Out of 530 grains of winter wheal, sown on the 23d ot April, and weighing 7 ounces 52 grains, not one pushed into ear, they tillered abunduntly, but the iillers were excessively stunted, and concealed among the lul'ts of leaves ; in short, they lormed nothing but turf: on the other hand, of 530 other grains, weighing 3 ounces 56 grains, and sown on the same day, 60 pushed in ear. It would seem as if many of our most esteemed garden plants were the result of debility, and that ihe succulence, the sweetness, or the excessive size, which render them so well suited for lood, were only marks of unhealthiness. At least, it is almost necessary to assume this to be the case, in order to account lor the efficacy of one of the modes of maintaining races genuine. It is per- fectly well known, that, il' such an annual as a turnip ia transplanted shortly belbre ii runs to seed, the characters ol' its variety will remain more strongly marked, and have far less tendency to vary, than if, all other circumstances remaining the same, the seed is saved without the process ol transplantation having been observed. Now, the only effect of transplanting, at the season immedi- ately preceding the Ibrmation of a flower- stak, would seem to be thai of checking the luxuriance of the individual operated on ; or, upon the above assumption, of increasing its debility of constitu- tion. And the same explanation appears applica- ble to a strange cusiom mentioned by Mr. Ingle- dew as being practised in the Dekkan, to prevent the rapid deterioration, in that climate, of tl^e car- rot, the radish, and the parsnip, the favorite table vegetables ot the inhabitants. He stales that the Indian gardeners, in the first place, prepare a com- post of buffaloes' dung, swine's dung, and red maiden earth, mixed with water till they have the consistence of paste, and scented with a small quantity of assalcetida, the latter of which seems to be perfectly useless. *' The vegetables for this operation are drawn, when wanted, from the beds, when they have at- tained about one third of their natural growih, and those plants are chosen which are the most succulent and luxuriant ; the tops are removed, leaving a few inches from their origin in the crown upwards ; and a little of the inferior ex- tremity, or taproot, is cut straight off likewise, allowing nearly the whole of the edible pan to remain, from the bottom of which to within about an inch of the crown, are made two incisions across each other entirely through the body of the vegetable, dividing it into quarters nearly to the upper end. They are then dipped into the compost until they are well covered by it, both externally and internally, and are immediately placed in beds, previously, prepared for their re- ception, at the distance of fifteen or sixteen inches from each other, and so deep in the ground that the u(>per extrerniiics only ajipear in eight. They are alierwanis regularly watered ; and when they take root, and fresh tops have made some advance ingrowth, they require but liitle attention. The tope speedily become large, and grow into strong and luxuriani stalks, the blossoms acquire a size larger than ordinary, and the seed they produce is likewise large and vigorous, and superabundant in quantity. Innumerable roots are thrown out from the incised edges ol these plants ; they con- sequently receive a greater abundance of nourish- ment, which occasions their luxuriant growth, causes them to yield not only a more than ordi- nary crop of seed, but also ot a superior quality." (^Hort. Trans. ^ v. 517.) The operation is per- formed at tlie beginning of the dry season. Besides " ruguing out" (i. e. eradicating) all individuals having the slightest appearance of degeneracy from among the plants intended for seed, care must be taken that the croj) is so far from any other of a similar kind as to incur no risk of being spoiled by the intermixture of its pollen. This substance is conveyed to considera- ble distances by wind and insects ; and it is scarce- ly possible to be secure li^om its influence, if simi- lar crops are cultivated within some miles of each other ; whence we find certain villages, in differ- ent pans of Europe, celebrated lor the purity of the seed of particular varieties ; this usually hap- pens in consequence of the villagers cultivating that variety and no other, as happens at Castel- naudary with beet, at Altringham with the carrot, and in Norfolk with different kinds of turnip. It is, however, to be observed, that the deterio- ration of seed by bastardizing happens to a greater extent to single plants than to large masses of them ; and it seldom happens that good seed can be saved in a garden, or near gardens, Irom a sin- gle individual. Solitary specimens of the turnip, the cauliflower, and such plants, have been fre- quently selected on account of their perfect cha- racters, and been carefLilly planted in gardens for a stock of seed, but their produce has as frequent- ly been of the worst desciipiion, bearing no re- semblance to the parent. In such cases as these, it would seem as if beea and other insects were attracted from all quarters by the gay colors, or odor, of such isolated individuals, and, arriving from a hundred flowers which ihey had previously visited, bring with them so many sources of contamination. When, however, the aciion of other flowers can be prevented, as in the melon and other unisexual plants, by " setting," the largesi, heal- thiest, and most cultivated varieties will yield seed of the purest and finest quality. The tendency of Persian melons to degenerate in this country was remarked soon alter their introduction ; and, for a long time, it was thought impossible to preserve them for many generations. Mr. Knight, in hia numberless experiments upon this fruit, found that to be the case ; lor his fruit, at one time, became less in bulk and weight, and deteriorated in taste and flavor. But when he came to consider that " every large and excellent variety of melon must necessarily have been the production of high culture and abundant food, and that a continuance of the same measures which raised it to its highly improved state must be necessary to prevent its THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 53 receding, in successive generations, Ironi ihati irue sprou.s, which ilie exienl ol my garden allovv- excellence," the cause ol' lus Persian melons de-' lerioraling became apparent ; and he tound that by bringing the cuhivalion ot the pianls lo a slate ol great perlection, he succeeded cotnpieiely in rendering the original qualiiy hereditary, as lonti as those precautions were observed. No man was more successlul in the cultivation of the melon than Mr. Knight ; and it is in the memory oi many persons, that the quality of his sweet melons of Isjiahan has very rarely been equalled. The peculiar niethuds thai he adojiled appear lo have been the compleie and most careful preservation of the leaves Ironi iiijury of whatever kind, the lull exposure of their surliice to light, and the aug- luentaiion of the ordinary vvarinih ol a melon bed by availing himself of the heat reflecied from brick tiles with which liis bed was paved. To such an extent was hie care of the leaves carried, that he would not allow even the watering to be periormed " over-head," but he caused his gar- dener to pour water, from a vessel of proper con- struction, upon the brick tiles between the leaves, without touching them. (See various papers upon the melon nW-h^ Horticultural Transactiuna, and especially that in vol. vii. [). 584.) VVhil. , however, such are the general principles upon which ihe preservation of the peculiar quali- ties of ihe many races of cultivated annuals necessarily depends, it must be con'e.-sed thai, ed me eaeiiy to do. Ihe second towing brought iheai back a good deal lo their true character ; the plants yielaed small cabbages regularly at each axil, but not generally full or cumpacl, and ihey did not shoot a second time, as liie iiue sort does. 1 again suHered these lo run lo seeU, using the same precaution of keeping them by them- selves. 1 sowed the seed, and this lime ihe plants were Ibundtohave entirely recovered their original habits, their head, and rich produce." {IJort. Trans., lii. 197.) 1 must conless, however, iluii, although the passage merits quotation, lor the sake 01 exciting aiienlion lo the subject, it appears to niH very doubllul wheihcrlhe case has ueen fully, if correctly, stated. UPON THE 31AKING OF CIDER. From tlie London Farmers' Magazine. The production of good cider must depend upon the description ol fruit ol which it is made, ihe sea- son and stale of the aj pies when they are crushed, and the management of the juice whilst it is ler- menting. It will iherelore be proper lo consider the subject under these three heads separately : — The kind of apple which makes the best cider. — The acid wiiicn gives the peculiar quick and sharp according'to report, there are circumstances upon I feeling upon the palate in good cider, having been which science can throw no light, and which, if ' first noticed m the apple, although it exists in true, must depend upon conditions as yet unsus |)ecied lo exist. Of this cf.ss is the following, respecting the Brussels sprouts cabbage, given upon the authority of M. Van JVlons. " Much has been said of the disposition of this plant to degenerate. In the soil of Biufsels it remains true, and I have lately observed it to do the same at Louvain ; but al Malines, which is the same distance irom Brussels as Louvain, and where the greatest attention is paid to the growth of vegetables, it deviates from its proper character, alter the first sowing : yet it does not seem thai any particular soil or aspect is esseniial to the plant, for it grows equally well and true at Brus- sels, in the gardens ol the town, where the soil is sandy and mixed with a black moist loam, as in the fields, where a compact white clay predomi- nates. The progress of deterioration at Malines was most rapid ; the plants raised from seed ol the true sort, which I had sent there, produced the sprouts in little bunches or rosettes, in their true form ; seeds of those being saved, they gave many other fruits, has been termed the malic acid. It may not be loo much lo say, that it is the due cumbinalion of this acid vviih saccharine mailer, namely, the sugar of the apple, properly lermeni- ed, which are the obji^cis to be aimed at in the manulaclure of cider. In the selection of the liuii, will depend the proportion ol malic acid contained in the liquor. The crab has a much greater quantity of this acid than the cultivated fruit ; and generally speaking, in proportion as we obtain sweetness by culture, we deprive the apple of iu malic acid. Hence, it follows that some delicious table fruils will not make good cider: this rule, however, is not invariable, as the golden pippin and some other fine apples appear to contain the proper admixture of acid and sweetness which is desirable in the liquor. Mr. Knight recommends that the different sorts of fruit be kept separate, and considers that only those apples which are yellow or mixed with red make good cider, and that the fruit of which the flesh or rind is green arc very inferior ; he recommends that the apples pianls in which the sprouts did not lorm into lillle should be perlecily ripe, even mellow, but never cabbages, but were expanded ; nor did they shoot | decayed, before they are crushed. There was a again at the axils of the stem. The plants raised Irom ihc seed of these last mentioned only pro- duced lateral shoots with weak pendent leaves, and tops similar lo the shoots, so that in three genera- tions the entire character of the original was lost. From a plant in the state last described, seed was saved at my request, and sent back to me. I had it sown by iuelf, and carefully watched the plants in their growth ; I was not long in discovering that they retained the same characier of degeneration they had assumed at Malines, and preserved it throughout the whole course of their growtli, yielding pendulous leaves with long petioles, and having no disposition to cabbage. I suffered these plants to run to seed at a great distance from my curious manuscript wrilten by Dr. John Beale, a fellow of the Royal Society in 1657, upon the sub- ject, from which the lollowing are extracts : — " Crabs and wild pears, such as grow in the wildest and most barren clilis, and on hills, make the rich- est, strongest, ihe most pleasant, and lasting wines that England yet yields, or is ever likely to yield. I have so well proved it already by so many hun- dred experiments in Herefordshire, that wise men tell me that these parts of England are some hundred thousand pounds sterling the belter lor tl)e knowledge of it." He mentions of ihese kinds of austere fruit, the Bromsbury crab, the Barland pear, and intimates " that though ihc discovery of them was then but lately made, jel 54 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. they had gotien a great r<'|)uiaiion." He adds, " ihe soli crab and white or red liorse-pear excel llieiu and all oiliers known or t;poken ol in oiher couniries. Ol' ihe red lu)rse-[)ear ol Ft-lion or Longland, he says, '■ thai i( has a |)leasaiu niae- cuHne rigor, especially in dry grounds, and has a peculiar propeny lo overcome all Liasii;." Ol ihe quality ol the Iruii he obseives, " such is ihe ellecl whicli ihe austerity has on ihe mouth on itislmg the hquor, that the rusiics declare it is as il the rool were filed away ; and that neniier man nor beast care to touch one ol' these pears, tho igh ever so ripe." O. the pear called Ininy winter pear, which grows about Rotf, m lh:il county, he observi s, " that il is ol no use but lor cider ; that if a thiei steal it, he would incur a t-peedy vengeance, il being a lurious [lurger; but being joined willi well- chosen crabs, and reset ved to a due maturity, be- comes richer than good French wine ; but it drunk belbre the time, it stupefies the rool of the mouth, assaults the brain, and puro;es more violenily than ■a Gdlenisi." Ol' the quality of the liquor he says, " according as ii is managed, it proves strong Rhe- nish, barrack, yea, pleastint Ciuiary, sugared ol ilsell, or as rough as the flerccsi Greek wine, open- ing, or binding, hoiding one, two. liiree, or moie years, so thai no morlalcan yet say atwlial age it is past the best. This we can say, that we iiave kept it until il burn as quickly as sack, draws the flame like Naphilia, and lires thesiomach like aqua vita?."' Thus tliere a|)pearc a great difference betiveei:i the opinions of the two men who probably paid more attention to the subject than any other ; and the question naturally arises, is the cider and perry of Stie county as good or better than il used to be, alter greateratieniion liaving been paid ^o the orchards? 1 am decidedly of opinion thai it is inferior; and il | was this impression which caused me to venture to { call your al-ention to the subject. If such be the j case, it is a great object to ascertain what lias caused the deterioration in the liquor. 1 believe | that it is lor want of a due proporiion of the pecu- liar acid which is lound in ttie greatest quantity in the wild I'ruit ; and beg to sugsest whether it wo;dd not be worth while to try back, and mix a certain quantity of crabs v/ith the fruit belbre it is crushed. We have many of us tasted, and all heard ol, the Slire and Hagloe crab cider, both of which were so celebrated lor their rich quality ; and these fruits differed little Irom wild apples, his known that the juice of crabs, if kept long enough, will make excellent vinegar ; every housewile knows that, however sour ihe liquor may be at first, it will not answer for pickling, but that if kept a sulTuient lime, there is no betier lor the purpose. It cannot be supposed that one acid is changed into another without passing through an intermediate stage, and this must be the malic acid, having been converted into sugar, which it appears in the ripening of li'uit it has a natural tendency to do. The ofiject in making cider of such fruit, is to prevent the sugar when Ibrmed passing on to the acetous fermenta- tion. A singular circumstance occurred at Bay- eham : a hoi^shead was filled wiih crab juice, intending lo keep it till il became vinegar ; bin the cask was tapped by mistake, and supposed to be cider until it was all drunk, which in fact it was. Crab juice ferments much more slowly than the juice of the apple, propably owing to there not being enough sugar already formed in the liquor : but I am of opinion that if some of the heading from a cask of cider in a stale of fermentation were added to the crab juice, it would ferment as readily, and clear itself as soon, as the juice of the ap[)le. Owing lo the slowness of its lermenia- tion, il lakes a great deal of time to convert the juice of crabs into vinegar j but it is lound that it', alter crushing them, the must be put into a cask lor some dajs, till it hea's considerably, and that if the liquor alierwards be ground with this must and pressed again, it will pass into vinegar imme- diately. I iherelbrc s:rongiy recommend a mix- ture of the most austere and hardest apples which can f)e procured with the soft and mellow Iruit before ii is crushed. 7%e best time of the year for making cider. — It has been belbre ot)servi.'d that Mr. Kmghl recom- mends the fruit to be pertir'ctly ripe, even mellow, belbre il is crushed ; and this can only happen late in ihe autumn. As il is known to be more diffi- cult lo manage the lern)eniaiion of the liquor in warm weather, il is usual lo deler making cider till November and December ; if, however, the liquor can be put into a coid ct-liar after the first fermeniaiion is over, I am of opinion ihal it might be commenced earlier. The juice of unripe fruit feiments more quickly than of that which is ripe, and contains more malic acid. Where there is the convenience of a s^ood underground cellar, il-.e difierence of temperature betweeu ihat and the oui ward air is greater in moderately warm weather than in November; so that if ti.e liquor were fermented under sheds, as iVlr. Knight recom- mends (and his insi ructions as to the manage- ment ol the cider whilst lermeniing are excellent,) and as soon as fine, removed into the cold cellar, the change of temperature would be greater at the end of September than in November; and this would probably tend greatly lo prevent the liquor liirmenting again. If the new cider cannot be re- moved from the warmih of the atmosphere, tiiere can be no question that it is belter lo deler the making til! the weather becomes cool. Ferme Illation of the juice. — The researches of scientific men, although very elaborate, have done very little in throwing light upon the nature of fermentation ; it appears lo partake in a measure of ihe vital principle ; of the phenomena attend- ing which, we know nothing. Many cuiious and interesting facts have been discovered during the investigation, but none of which appear likely to be of much use in the making of cider. There are three kinds of fermentation, or rather, there are some products which pass regularly through three staijes of fermentation, viz., the vinous, the acetous, and the putrescent. Oi her substances pass at once to one or other of the latter stages; guni and water turning to vinegar without fonning any spirit, and meat at once putrefying. It is not desirable that the vinous fermentation should be complete in the manufacture of cider, in which case all the sugar of ihe apple would be converted into spirit ; this never does happen without a por- tion of vineijar being also formed, the acetous lier- mentation iioing on jointly with the vinous, as, when cider frets a great deal it may be very strong, but is comparatively of little value, having lost all its richness and become sour. The vinous fer- mentation stops naturally before it has run its course, and it is the object of the maker to avail himself of this property in the liquor, and to en- deavor lo prevent any secondary fermenlation THE FiVRMERS' REGISTER. 55 talcing place ; the number of schemes which have i been suggested to prevent which, showing that il j id the most imporlanl point lo Le aiiendtd lo in j the manufaciure of good cider. 1 am ol opinion ! that the 100 gallon cask is much better ihan j larger, and that the liquor is not only more easily i managed, but n)ore hkeiy to be good ; it may bo ! that cider in large casks becomes siionger, but iioi j 60 Irequenily rich, as in singe hogshuads. Al- i though it may not be ap|)areni, lermentuiion ! commences as soon as the juice is txi)resseil Iroin ! the Iruit ; and the sooner Uie cask is fided and allowed to remain quiet, the more regui-ir and certain will be the process. What should we think ol a brewer who, whilst his beer was work- ing, brewed anoiher quantity, and added ilie raw wort lo the first '? Yet ihis is constanily dune in fiding a large cask with cider ; or even worse, lor the apple juice is added cold, whereas the wort might be mixed wiih the beer whilst warm, ii would be greatly beller to kee|) the iKjiior in open tubs till enough be obtained to (ill the cask, and then put il together at once. Ill miy be allowed to suggest an expehmeni, there is one use to which I should be very glad to see a large cask applied ; that is, to fi I it partly with fresh must, and the remainder with boiling water ; ihe proba- ble result would be a very pleasant and useiul liquor. Tempera'ure has much to do with ler- mentation, and it would be of advantage to have two cellars, one much colder than the other. 11 the liquor, upon pitching fine, were racked into a clean cask, and put into a cold cellar, there would be much less risk ol' its*lermenling again. I should recommend no other liqior to be added to it ; but in order to prevent ullage, ihat it should be racked into a smaller cask ; the less air ad mil led the better, and il'ihe cask be sound and iron bound, it may be better to close it altogether at this time. The application of cold will check lermenlation immediately. I have seen liquor in a state o/ Jroih, boiling out ol a large j ir, suddenly reduced to a state olq'iiescence by pumping upon the side ot' the jar. This fact induced me to cause an ex- periment to be tried atGayion during a very bad season for cider making, the weather being very warm: a cask of juice was rolled irom the mill into a biook of cold water, and sunk by stones attached to it ; it remained in that position li:l nearly Christmas, and was so much better than any other made there that year, that Mr. New- man obtained double the price for that hogshead he did lor any of the rest. Perlect stillness is very desirable, as motion is found to excite the acetous fermentation. A bottle of wine, attached to the sail of a windmill in motion was, after three days, converted into vinegar, although closely corked. When a second fermentation does take place in cider, there is very little hope of its being rich and good. In such case 1 should recommend its being drawn out into tubs, exposed to the cold as much as possible, and after being thus flattened put back into the cask, at the same time well stir- ring up the whites of fifieen or twenty eggs pre- viously mixed up with a portion of the liquor ; if this succeed in fining it, which probably it will, it may then be racked into a clean cask, and closed as much as possible from the air. Ii is probable that a great deal of mischief is caused by some principle of fermentation remaining in the cask ; this might be prevented by well scalding before the casks are fi led ; or what I think would be better, by washing out the casks with clear lime water : — out; large piece of lime put into a hogs- head of water, and allowed to settle, would an- swer the purpose. Some brimstone matches burned in the cask would have a great tendency to prevent lernientation. I shall not say much Ujwn the mode of crushing the apples and press- ing out the juice, having liad su little practical experience, but I hive always thought that if the Iruli were crushed between wooden rollers, and allowed to drain before being put under ilie stone, that the proress would be much expedited, as the apples sometimes roll belbre the stone a long time before they are broken. In Ireland they use a press lormed by a lever, v/hicli might be made at le*s expense than with a screw, and be more (juickly worked : it is impossible tlie pressure can be too light at first, and it should be increased gradually as the liquor runs hoin the must. Two sets of bags, allowiiiijf one to drain fir si;me time without pressure, would tie an undoubted advan- tage. Kdward Pkichaed. Ross. MAKING DIPPED CAKDLKS. From Ihe Journal of Commerce. The season of the year has arrived for fiamilies in the country to make up their supply of candles lor the year, and as much trouble and extra labor is occasioned by want of skill, I will, in order to enable peo[)le to obviate this, give some brief di- rections lor dipping candles. The tallow, when melted, should be ladled info a wooden vessel of convenient width and depth, which has been previously heated by filling it with boiling waier for an hour or more. Fill the vessel within an inch of (he top with melted tal- low, and keep it that height by adding hot tallow or hot water. By this means the candles will be kept of a full size at the top, and not taper off to a point, as is olten seen with country candles. The tallow, when used (or dipprrig candles, should not be loo hot. A temperature that will allow the finger to be dipped in without burning, is sufficiently hot, and at this lemperalure the candles will take on the tallow very last. The wicks should be lowered into the melted tallow gradually, and should he lilted out of the tallow so slowly that when the bottom of the candles are clear from the surface of the melted tallow, no lallow will run of! them. When the candles are raised quick out of the melted tallow, the tallow will run of!' the candles in a stream, whereas if the candles are raised out slowly, not a particle of tallow will (all from the candles. A \q\\ trials will satisly any person in this matter. If the tallow is boiling hot, the wick will not take on the tallow to any considerable extent. When candles are raised out of the tallow rapidly, the candles will be large at the bottom, and the tallow will extend below the wick, so that when burnt in the candlestick a piece of the candle will have no wick in it ; and therelbre, lor burning, will be useless. Where persons have no suitable wooden vessel, an iron vessel will answer lor a dipping vessel. When tallow has been thoroughly melt- ed over the fire, should it be dirty or impure, throw into it, while hot, a small quantity of finely 56 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. powdered alum, and in a short lime a ecum will be seen rising lo the surlace, in appearance like dirly I'roili. Skim this ofl as it rises. This ecum will rise lor hall an hour or more. These direc- tions are [)laia and easil}' complied with, and one trial will be saiislactory. Persons, by Ibllowing llieee directions, will save more ihan one hall Ihe usual labor ol making candles, besides having betier canJIt-s. I speak Irom atiundant experience, and iherelore wiih lull confidence. E. M. KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS (GREiiKSWAUD, POA I'HATENSIS.) From the Nashville (Tennessee) Agriculturist. The best time lor sowing is as soon as you get ready alter October, but il' you sow belore the middle of March, you may expect a goud siand, particularly il' the season is wet. Land.— Old fields, wliere the sun can exert ail his powers, produce blue grass in the greatest abundance, and always of the best quality. The past fall we visited Mark K. Cockrill's I'arm, and saw old fields on which Ibrmer occupants were threatened with starvation, yielded the richest grass. It was remarkable that his mareii and sucking colts, on these pastures, vviihout grain, were latter, it possible, than we ever saw " the noble animal" on other treatment. But inasmuch as cultivated grounds are generally used lor other purposes, the beginner is inlormed that woodland, particularly where the limber is not too loose, will produce good grass. Preparation. — If you intend old land (or pas- ture, break up the fields, and sow them in oats in February. Then put ten lbs. of blue grass seed, a half a gallon of red clover seed, and if a little timothy or orchard grass be sprinkled on so much the better. The clover, limoihy and orchard grass will give a quick pasture and afl'ord protec- tion to the blue grass lill it gets a strong hold, alter which no other grass can contend with it. If woodland is lo be sown, take oH' the logs, brush, leaves, &c., and if the undergrowth could be taken out, it would be much betier. After the land is cleaned, harrow il well, then sow your grass seed at the rate of ten or twelve pounds to (he acre, but if you put on fifteen or twenty pounds, you will scarcely ever regret il. The rains will sufTiciently cover the seed to insure ve- getation. ON GUANO.* By James F. W. Johnston, F. R. S , Stc, Hon. Mem. of the Royal English Agricultural Society. From tlie Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England- Of the natural occurrence of Guano. — Gua" no, according to Humboldt, is the European * Perhaps some readers may deem the subject of this article, however curious as a matter of history and of natural science, of no practical value, and therefore not worth the space it will here occupy. But the subject is not only one of interest as a very remarkable, and until now unexplained, fact in na- pronunciation of the word " huanu," which in the language of the Incas means dung or manure. The substance long kiioivn by this name occurs at various points along the coast oi' Peru, be- tween ihe 13th and 21st degrees ofsouih latitude, both on the main land and on the numerous islands and rocks which are sprinkled along this pan of ihe shores of South America. It lorms irregular and liniiied deposites, which at limes attain a depth of 50 or GO (eel (Humboldt,) and are excavated like mines of iron ochre. It is not known to exist in any quantity north of 13° or south of 21° ; though the flocks of cormorants, flamingoes, cranes and other sea-/bwl (from the droppings of which it has been derived,) appear to be ecjually numerous along both ihe more southerly coast of Aiacama and the more north- erly shores o( Arequipa. Mr. VVinterteldt. who appears to have more recently visited the west coasi of South America, has published the following additional informa- tion ill Belfs Weekly Messenger of the 11th of September, 1841 : — " There are three vaiielies of guano — the red, the dark-gray, and the white. The first two are met with in the isles of Chincha near Pisco, at tural history, but the circumstances, as now explained, throw important lights on agricultural science. That the excrement of sea-birds, a substance among the most putrescent, and consequently elsewhere of fleet- ing existence, should have remained in mass for ages, and in the torrid zone, was of itself sufficiently re- markable. And the fact had been of enough impor- tance to be recorded in history, because of the im- mense value of the manure, and the great use made of it, by water transportation, by the ignorant .abori- ginal inhabitants of Peru, and by their Spanish con- querers and their indolent descendants. Added to these facts, the deposites of excrements were so enor- mously thick and extensive, as almost to amount to the importance of a geological formation. It now appears that the absence of moisture (from rain) prevents putrefaction, in a great degree ; and this most remarkable, because vast effect, of a well- known law of fermentation, will serve to show to farmers, in all regions, that without moisture their ma- nure loses nothing by the sun and air. The great richness of guano, and its value as manure, after all the actual waste of its most volatile parts for centuries, shows strongly the great value of ammonia, no matter from which of the many sources it may be obtained; and the importance of preventing its waste from all manures which evolve it during putrefaction. And in addition to these general theoretical truths, of va- rious and extensive application in practical agricul- ture, it ma]/ be that the products of this immense mine of manure in the Pacific ocean, may hereafter be brought to benefit American, as it has already done British agriculture. This may be still the more strongly counted on, now that it is ascertained that the most recent guano is far more rich than the ancient, which is what has been mostly exported heretofore,— Ed. F. R. THE FAKMERS' KEGISTER. 57 Iquique, and on the hill of Pica. The y myseil'. which gave me only 7 per cent, ol" pure an)monia. Tlieeame is true ol the uric acid, which in my eperimen did rioi amount to 1 per ceni.f In ihese refeults a cenain laiiiude must be allowed for ne- cessary differences, since ihe older the deposiie, the less rich must the guano be in uiic acid and ammonia. 6. An important ingredient in the guano 's the phosphate of liuie, and as this substance is nei- ther volatile, so as to rise into the air, nor soluble, 60 as to be washed out by the rains, it is obvious that the older the depnsi e and the less volatile matter it contains, the richer it is likely to be in this earthy phosphate. Supposing each specimen free from sand, &c., the analysis o! Klaproih gives 14.7 per cent., and that of Vauquelin 15 per cent., while the bone-earih in the third ana- lysis is slated at 30^ per cent. In two portions which 1 examined, the phos- phate of lime amounted in the one to 29, and in the other to nearly 43 per cent, of the guano sup- posed to be free from sand. In regard to this sub- stance, therelore, the guano is no less variable in composilion than in regard to its oiher consti- tuents.! 7. When cold water is poured upon guano a large portion of soluble matter is talcen up, con- sisting chiefly of common salt and of various salts of ammonia, with a very little ol'the urate olsoda, lime and magnesia. Aher careful washing with water and drying at 160°, one portion leli 40 and another 35 per cent, of insoluble residue, consist- ing of phosphate and oxalate of lime with some urate and other animal matters. It is these solu- ble salts which act most immediately and most powerfully when the guano is applied to the growing crop. The earthy constituents, though ot' great importance to the ultimate growth and health of the plant, begin to manifest their in- fluence at a later period. 8. I have not thought it necessary to determine with accuracy the relative proportions of the oxa- • Fifteen per cent, of pure ammonia are equal to 60 of bicarbonate of ammonia, 45 of sal ammoniac, or 40 of oxalate of ammonia. As much of the ammo- nia in guano exists in the state of bicarbonate, I doubt if any of the specimens which come to this country can ever contain so much as 15 per cent, of pure ammonia. t One hundred grains of guano distilled with dilute caustic potash, and the ammonia received into dilute muriatic acid, yielded, on evaporation at 212°, 21.5 grs. of sal ammoniac, equal to about 7 grs. of ammo- nia. The uric acid was separated by boiling in dilute caustic potash, and precipitating by dilute sulphurie acid. X Boussingault, after describing the astonishingly fertilizing action ol the guano on the plains of Peru (Annales de Chim.et de Phys., Ixv. p. 319,) says that it consists of urate, oxalate, phosphate, and car- bonate of ammonia and some earthy salts. This dis- tinguished philosopher, to whom modern agriculture owes so much, inclines to the hypothesis " that the fariUity of the soil can be increased only by the addition of substances containing nili-ogen." (ibid. Ixvii. p. 16,) and therefore pays less regard to the earthy matters which may be added to the soil. We are indebted to Sprengel for illustrating the important influence of inorganic substances in nourishing and promoting the growth of all living vegetables. lie and carbonic acids, or of the several salts of ammonia, in a substance so variable in its consti- tution. In the only specimen in which I sought Ibr it I delected no eensible quantity of poiash. It is true that Fourcroy and Vauquelin Ibund 5^ percent, of sulphate ol potash, but this can only be considered as accidentally preseiii in the speci- men they examined, since it is not easy to under- stand how potash should be more abundant than soda in the excrements of eea-lbwl, living almost entirely upon the fish of the Pacific Ocean. 9. Finally, the variable con^liiuiion ol Ihe gu- ano brought to this country, and now ofl'ered /or sale in England, will a[ipear by the (ollowing ge- neral results of the analysis of two small fiortions taken at random from a box coniaininsi about 20 pounds' weight. The first contained 8 per cent, and the sicond only 1 15 per cent, of sand. 1. per cent. Water, sabs of ammonia, and organic matter expelled by a red Ileal - 23 5 Sulphate ol soda - . . . 1-8 Common salt, with a little phosphate of soda 803 Phosphate of lime, with a little phos- phate of magnesia and carbonate of lime* _ - . . . 44-4 Ammonia . . - - - Uric acid ..... Water cind carbonic and oxalic acids, &c. expelled by a red heat Common salt, with a little sulphate and phospliaiK of soda Phosphate of lime, &c. 100 per cent. 70 0-8 61-6 114 29 8 100 On ihe cause of ihe fertilizing action of gu- ano.— Though so variable in composition, howe- ver, the nature of the substances it appears al- ways to contain enables us to explain why it ex- erts so marked an efiect on the growth of plants, as well as to answer one or two oiher questions — in regard, for example, to tlie duration of its ac- tion in leriilizing the land — and to the cause of its accumulation on t iC coast of Peru. 1. The most important and most active ingre- dient contained in the decomposed guano import- ed into this country is the ammonia. This sub- Biance, there is reason to believe, acts in a most energetic manner upon vegetation in every cli- mate— it is one of the most useful ingredients * The results above given indicate the proportions of the alkaline and earthy salts as they existed in the ash that was left when the guano was heated to red- ness in the air. The chemical reader will understand that very different numbers would have been obtained had the soluble salts been separated from the insoluble before either of them was heated to redness. This arises from the circumstance that, when the crude gu- ano is heated, the phosphate of ammonia and oxalate of lime are simultaneously decomposed, and phosphate of lime is formed, whereas, were the phosphate of ammonia previously removed by washing, the oxalate of ammonia would, by the burning, beconverted only into carbonate. With a view to a merely economical object it did not appear to me necessary to enter into a rigorous examination of the relative proportions of the several salts of ammonia present in such variable quantities in ihe guano. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 61 in our (arm-yard manures, and ihou^li writers j diHer in opinion as to ihe amount oriiiHuoncc ac- tually ami coiisianily exercised hy iliis compouiul on ilie general vegetation of the globe* they all agree in altribuiinj^ lo il a very bf-iielici.il aciiou on growins plants in general, when a[iplied to them in a'sufficien'ly diluted state. In propor- tion, ilien, to the quantity ol' ammonia it coniains will the value ol the guano t)e im-reased, and hence one reason why the more recent varieiies ehould he accounted the hest, and should bring the hijzhe&t price in liie market. 2. Next to ihe ammonia, or perhaps equal to it in value, though in the t pecimens I examined very much less in quantity, ts the, uric acid. 'I'his substance, as il dtcompo^-es, izives rise among other products to tiie formation and evolution oi ammonia in consideralile quantity. Under the most I'avorable conditions 100 of pure uiic i'.cid might yield 40 oT pure ammonia. In nature, Jiowever, these conditions probably never occur, 60 that during its decomposition, numerous other products containing nilrojien are lormed (prue-ic acid among the rest,) wiiich it is unnecessary here to specify. We know little liiat is certain in regard to the action of these products on the growth of plants, but the well known eHect of liquid manure, which in a state of li?rmenialion contains the most of them, leads to the beliel that they are filled to promote vegetation. The fresh guano is more valuable, chiefly be- cause it contains more of this uric acid in an un- decomposed stale. We have no analyses of the recent droppings of any of the birds which fre- quent the shores of Peru ; they would probably be found to difier in some degree, not only wiili the species of bird, but also with the kind of fishes on which at different seasons of the year they were lound to prey. We possess analyses, however, of the excretions of other birds which hve chiefly upon fish, from which we are enabled to form an opinion as to what the recent guano is likely to be. Thus Dr. Wollaston found Ihose of the gannet, (Pelicanus bassanus,) when dry, to contain little else but uric acid, while in those o( the Bea-eagle, Coindet found — Solid Excretions. Ammonia - 92 Uric acid 84 65 Phosphate of lime 613 100 Liquid Excretions dried. Uric acid - . - - . .59 Earthy and alkaline phosphates, sulphates and chlorides - - .' - .41 100 If we compare the first of these results of Co- indet with the constitution of ihe guano as it is imported into England, we cannot fail to be struck with the degree oi' decomposition which the latter must have undergone— supposing it to have ori- ginally resembled the solid excretions of the sea- eagle. The quantity of phosphate of lime in the • The prevailing views on this subject, and the reasons on which they are founded, are explained in my ' Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geolo- gy,'part i. p. 248. latter, 6-13 per cent., is unusually large for the ex- crement ol a bird ; but if we suppose the recent gu ino in Its dry slate to have contained quite as much, il would rptjuire 500 lbs. of the lailer to give ihe quaniiiy of phosphate (29 3 lbs.) con- tained in 100 lbs. of a (juality such as the one por- tion i examined, and 700 pounds lo yield the quiiniiiy ol phosphate (44 4 lbs.) contained in the other. In o:licr words, Iroiii 1 5 to 1 7 only of ol ihe original urgani animal matier remains in the guaiio, as ii is imported into England, li pro- bably reiaiiis even less, sinc^ i* has unquestiona- bly absorbed from the air a considerable portion of muisiure not supposed lo be present m the drop- pings when recent and carel'ully dried. it is easy lo see therelore why the recent guano should bring so much higher a price on the coast of Peru ; why the!. of guano may contain as much bone earth as 100 lbs. of bones ;* and in the same proportion will its action on the lanil, compared with that of bones, be permanent — in eo far as this ingredient is concerned. The fact is of great practical importance. Ni- trate of soda, so much used of late and so deserv- ing of more extensive trial, may be washed out of the soil where the earthy part of the guano would remain ; it may cease to exert a marked influence after a single crop, where it is scarcely possible that the phosphates of the guano should cease to act ; and it may fail to bring to maturity crops of corn or to fill the ripened ear, when the guano would supply to the grain, among o!her sub- stances, the earthy phosphates also, which the eeed contains as a necessary constituent. While then the ammonia of the guano pro- motes the early growth, its phosphates supply to the ripening plant the materials which are indis- pensable to its perfect developement. The ni- trates a!so, like ammonia, aid in a remarkable de- gree the growth of the plant in its earlier stages ; but, except the potash or soda which the nitrate may contain, it can supply to the maturing vege- table none of the inorganic substances it is known to require. Unless these are present in sufficient tpiiuiiiiy in the soil, the healthy appearance of the young plant, whether imparled to it by the agency of ammonia or by that of nitrate of soda, cannot be safely trusted to as an index of the weight of corn we are lo reap, when the time of harvest comes. 4. The presence of common salt in the guano need not surprise us. It is no doubt derived from the sea, partly through the medium of the birds themselves, and partly from the evaporation of the salt spray, continually driven upon the coasts • Four cwt. of guano as much as 7 bushels of bones, Bupposing the guano to contain about 35 per cent, of phosphate of hme, which is less than the mean of the specimens I examined. by the winds. It is variable in quantity, as we should expect from a knowledge of its origin. The beneficial effect of common salt when applied to the land has been frequently recognized in many localities and upon many soils. It no doubt aid(5 the other ingredients of the guano in producing its full effect upon the living vegetable. The important influence of guano, therefore, on the vegetation equally of England and of America, seems to depend upon two circumstan- ces— 1st, on its containing a well-tempered mix- ture of a great number of those substances which the plant requires lor its perfect growth and de- velopement ; and — 2J, on this admixture includ- ing a considerable proportion of a substance (am- monia) which in a remarkable degree hastens the growth of the young plant, as well as of another (phosphate of lime) which is necessary to its healthy and perfect maturity. In the arid plains of Peru, where dews are rare and rain scarcely ever falls, we can easily appre- ciate the value of a substance which shall make the young plant as it were rush up when a favo- rable day of moisture comes, shall facilitate its rapid afier-growth, and shall supply the materials necessary to its perfect maturity ere the burning sun and parching winds have time to scorch and wither it. Uselul as it is likely to prove in our climate, therefore, the beneficial effects of guano may never be so striking in these latitudes as they have long appeared on the shores of Peru. The cause, of its accumulation on the coast of Peru. — Connected with this last observation is the explanation of the accumulation of the guano on the coast of Peru. I have already stated that, according to Humboldt, it is met with only be- tween the loth and 21si degrees of south latitude, though the sea-lbwl are equally plentiful both to the north and 10 the south of these parallels. The explanation of this apparent anomaly is to bo found in the climate of t.hispart of South America. Nearly the whole of the land along this coast, between the Cordilleras and the sea, is one conti- nued desert. " I have always," says Mr. Darwin,* '• applied the terms barren and sterile to the plains of Patagonia, yet the vegetauon there can boast of spiny bushes and some tufts of grass, which is absolute fi^rtility to any thing that can be seen here,'' (the neighborhood ol Copiapo.) '• In Pe- ru real deserts occur over wide tracts of country." " It has almost become a proverb that rain never falls in the lower part of Peru." " That much rain does not fall is very certain, for the houses are covered only with flat roofs made of hardened mud ; and on the mole (at C allao) ship-loads of wheat were piled up, and are thus left for weeks without any shelter."! "The town of Iquique contains about 1000 inhabitants, and stands on a little plain of sand at the fool of a great wall of rock 2000 feet in height, which here forms the coast: the whole is utterly desert. A light shower of rain falls only once in very many years ; and hence the ravines are filled with detritus, and the mountain sides covered by piles of fine white sand, even a thou- sand feet high."J It is the dryness of the c'imate then which has permitted the guano to accumulate on these coasts. When we reach a region in which from • Researches in Geology and Nat. History, p. 428. t Ibid. p. 446. t Ibid. 442. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 63 local causes the dews are heavier and (he rains more frequent the accumulation ceases. Cold water, we have seen,- dissolves at least three- fifths of the guano in the state in which it reaches us. A single day of English rain would dissolve out and cany into the sea a considerable poriion of one of the largest accumulations; a single year of English weather would cause many ol' them entirely to disappear. When the recent guano fails it gradually dries and undergoes a partial decomposition. When it is again moistened by an unusual dew, or by an accession of spray driven by the wind, it again sutlers a further partial decomposition, till at length it has given oH, as the ancient red guano appears to have done, from five-sixihs to nine- tenths of all the organic matter it originally con- tained. Mr. Winterleldt states that this ancient guano is lound buried beneath layers oC sand ; and Iquique is mentioned as one of the spois where the guano occurs. Ai this place, accord- ing to Mr. Darwin, the drift-sand climbs up the mountain-sides in great piles to the height of even a thousand feet. This, doubtless, is the sand beneath which the old droppings of the sea- fowl have been gradually buried ; and to this ancient superficial covering it may be owini'', that the bqried masses still retain so much of their original organic matter. Even in that dry climate the lime would at length arrive when the guano, long exposed to the agency of atmospheric causes, would retain only its earthy and non-vola- tile saline ingredients. ( To be continued.) THE FALSE PRETENCES OF THE BANKS OF PREPARING TO PAY SPECIE, AGAIN EX- POSED. From tlie Bank Reformer. In the pamphlet on the " Abuses of the Bank- ing System," and also at page 3 of the Bank Reformer, there were presented general state- ments, copied and digested from the official re- ports of the banks of Virginia, which showed, as clearly as facts and figures couW show, the truth of what we had been continually settinff forth, to wit : that the banks were not preparing to re sume specie paymeiUs— nor even approaching the state of readiness to pay, by the only possible means of getting ready, which are, reducing their loans and circulation, and increasing their specie. The reports of the three principal banks of Vir- ginia, and their branches, showins their condition on July 1, 1841, (published at'page 3 of the Bank Reformer) showed that their condition was worse then than 6 monihs before. And the re- ports of January 1, 1842, just published, show that their condition, in comparative amounts of means and liabilities, continues much wjorse than on January 1, 1841, after another year of suspension, and o\' pretending to prepeire to pay specie. The table below embraces only the three principal banks of Virginia and their branches. The re- ports of the small western banks have not been yet published. It is presumed however that <"®".e "o*v presented, make at least as good an exhibit aa the smaller banks, not here erhbraced. H ^ 133 X > > o ?o 3 w ^ ^ ;5 n ^ o -=3 Q Ui ts td < W ^ !> ^ Q 2 § i^ > K3 >f^ Ox <-l O "^ K) > 1 GTS 00 ^ y, 1 CO o H~ Id "o Ol ^ •v{ o OJ Ol 05 00 00 o 00 o »(X o CT) CO 00 T' G lO Ol Ol ^ OT "i^ o ■co % > o K) OT ^ JO C5 jO (__J D OT "i^ ■^ - 5 Ol o ^-l ^^ o en lO CO 00 o 00 00 CO JO n D3 o *^ CD a p as ►j CO - K) „ o e *^ a rfi- i3 00 5 •^ j^ o o OT O >— o. ■^ ~>«>- ^ o-^S "•^^ 1_ 53 n C5 ^ oo 5 o > ^ > t3 n o S 0> en en tfl ^ g H n M •o V\ a ^ o CO ■ eg Oi hU H- t. lO o o > ^ 00 o ? J s o a OX 00 05 Ch K5 --^ CO 2! a ►f^ 05 JO H QO rf^ *- , . o Is ■^ ^•^ ■* ■g o» to t— » l..l^ OT (J5 oo o 00 •0 n >^ lO o JO ■— CO to 5 H to o lO pj ^i s -^g J-l ^ o 00 c 05 Q Cl O o,g "^ s oo 3 Ll > CO &: 13 CO ra lO 6 M »-.* 05 CO i;^ Ol *^ ro N3 <-> --1 lo ■^ > O ID CO ai 5'^ Ol GO 00 00 "os •* 03 ^o 00 __^ o o OT 00 o 0-1 )^ »p>. 3 O H W o o CO t-l 6:) JO ^ 05 ■^ > OT to 05 o 5 K) 05 p . {-5 "hx ■Jo 1—* ^* • o OT ^J JO o o 05 0 OD ^ ^ CJ - 3 ?! 00 o >— 5". ~-! t^ o w_ OO o o o 00 E" si 00 2 OS (? Oi w oo w ^5 u PI w OJ ^ o ■ o ■ ■05 ' CO o o ^ 1 H > 133 r P^ Ui ffi 0 :^ :^, Q H K t?a 0 0 S ^ P* > ?3 'q > U^ H ill- 0 PI 0 ^' 0 fC 0 2 *a CD ?3 0 0 Q :^ S 0 UJ CO 0 <— ( 0 > t33 t: ^ >; CO • :3 p 3 ^ ^ Dj ;::; 0 s 00 ixl (iq *. -* a. ~ < c ^ ^ _Cfl 0 H 0 :2^ «_| H-. 0 t> > 5" .^'^ 0* - JO 00 s D rf- H Cb i^ ?3 01 m CO 0 td n > i^ P^ 0 •^ <1 ja Q 2: t> ^ H M 0 ffi > r;^ 0 t?3 64 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. The proportion ofcirculation to coin, in the said banks, in 1841 and 1842 : J,x\>. 1, 1841. Jan. 1, 1842. Bank of Virginia, $:3.10 lo $1 coin. §3 38 to §1 Farmers' BMiik, 3.34 to 1 " §.50 to 1 Ex.-hange Bank 2.53 lo 1 " 2 90 lo 1 From the above etaiements, made from official reported, il therelbre appears that the ihree great banks ol the state have, during 1841. (on an ave- rage,) Increased fhftk outstanding debts ^667.462 56 /ncreased iheir circulation, 3S0.983 33 /)ecreasec/ their specie, 27. 581 23 Nothing can possitiiy more plainly show, than these and earlier comparaiive siaternems which we have before publisiied from the offici;il reporis ol" the banks made by their own officers, the in- conceivable lolly and siuridity of those persons who yet continue to believe that the extending the times ol indulgence to suspended banks will have any effect in causing the banks to prepare to pay ej)ecie. Such stupidity in believers cun only be equalled by the unblushing falsehood and knave- ry of those who knowing thefalsehood and a^srxr- dtject. I doubt not that in some instances, when Brother Jonaihan was hard run for a genuine pig, and strongly tempted by the S10 jingling in his hearing, he was prevailed on, just this one time,\o send a [low] grade pig. In other instances, when there has been honesty enough to send the genuine, the inferior have been se- lected (or this purpose, whilst the best have been kept at home. These are the cases, sir, which you so justly and severely reprehend. But in the rnidsl of all these spurious coins, there is certainly some genuine racial ; and this is all that is con- tended for by your humble servant, J. 11. TURKKR. QUERtES IN REGARD TO PREVALENT DIS- EASES PRODUCED BV LOCAL CAUSES. The following queries were drawn up at first for the consideration of the Board of Agriculture. But I hey were not offered by the writer, because he- deemed it injudicious, at the outset, that the subjects of inquiry should be more extensive than those actually adopted by the Board. But (here is no subject, not strictly belonging to prac- tical husbandry, which has a closer relation to the interests of agriculturists, through a large part of Virginia, than the investigation of the sources of malaria, and its effects, and, by ascertaining facts, to discover any means for the prevention or mitiga- tion of this scourge and destroyer. To invite at- tention to the investigation, and the furnishing of accurately observed facts, these queries are here submitted in their original form, to serve merely as suggestions. Nearly all men of observation and experience who reside in lower and middle Virginia, though knowing nothing of medical science, have by observation learned facts which would throw some light on this dark subject; and still more could be done by country physicians possessing also equal means for observation. Any accurate facts furnished on this sul'ject we would gladly publish ; and whether lew or many, they will, according to their extent, form useful mate- rials for future and more extended labors of the Board of Agriculture. We have long been con- vinced, and have staled the grounds of the con- viction, that much of the production of the baleful eflfecis of malaria may be prevented by a proper system of agriculture, aided and enforced by legis- lative enactments and strict police ; and that such a system would be profitable of itself directly, and ten-fold more profitable indirectly, as serving to THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 69 lessen the losses and pain and unhappiness pro- duced by disease and death. — Ed. F. R. 1. Is your region or neighborhood subjected to autumnal fevers, (the eH'ecte of malaria,) or any other diseases produced by local causes— andj to what extent and degree, in general? 2. What are the supposed local causes or parti- cular sources oC malaria, and their comparaiive injurious power— aa rapid rivers and smaller streams sometimes overflowing the bordering low-lands, tide- water marshes, salt or li-eph, swamps, mill-ponds, and the passage oC floods Irom mill-ponds, at uncertain and irregular times, orer salt tide marshes'? 3. Have diseases from such causes increased or diminished in frequency or virulence within any certain past time, and if so, to what circumstances are the changes ascribed 1 4. Can the lessening or removal of malaria and its effects be effected by the action of the residpnt>', either operating alone, or necessarily requirint); new legislation, or general police, in regard to drainage, mill-ponds, removal of nuisances. Sic"? 5. In illustration, and as proof, state particulaily any known facts, and ihe authority on which tliey rest, which serve to confirm the opinions expressed in answer to the preceding queries. RECEIPT FOR MAKING SOAP. From tlie Massacliusetts Plongliman. Mr. Buckminster : — I am not quite satisfied with your explanation and recipe lor making Boft soap. This article is a compound of potash and tallow, or grease, which union is formed in conformity with the laws of chemical affinity, and in diH'erent proportions. Whenever they are brought together in these proportions, so that their respective particles come into uniform con- tact, unless some counteracting substance is min- gled with them, the union is inevitable and its result good soap. In order that these particles may be brought into complete and uniform con- tact, agitation with water is necessary. The quantity of water required, depends on the quality of soap you wish to produce. A bar- rel of soap may be three-fourths water. With this quantity and the proper proportions of potash and grease, it will be very good soap. It is how- ever more commonly seven-eighths water, and sometimes reduced much more, and then, of course, it is very inferior in quality, not that it will not do its office, and do it as well, but it does less. If this process be so simple and its result eo inevitable, your correspondent wishes to know why any person who attempts it has " bad luck" and fails. There are several causes of this. A very common one is that either the potash or grease is in excess. The former ought always to be so to some ex- tent, to make the soap effective for cleansing whatever it may be applied to. That part of the potash which is in excess is always ready to combine with any substance which is brought into contact with it, for which it has an affinity. For animal fat of all kinds this affinity is very strong, and more or less so for all kinds of animal matter, as washwomen, who have used that whicJi has loo much uncombined pota&h, have often found out by its effect upon iheir hands. Cloth made of wool, or part wool,- will be ruined by ii — the otfiiiiiy of potvish and wool being such, that a very good soft soap can be made of them. On the other hand, if the grease ia in excess the soap is good lor nothing ; the alkali in the compound being already surcharged with grease, has no power lor removing dirt, siains, &c. — while the uncombined yrease defiles whatever it is applied to. As belore remarked, for the ordi- nary purposes, lor whirh this kind of soap is wanted, the potash Fhould be in excess?. If it is too much so, however, the soap, as the saying is, " will not come" — nor will it if the grease is so in the elightest degree. If either of these causes is operating to prevent its "coming," the best way to ascertain ii ii:! by touching the soap to the longui^. If the [XJlnsh pri'dominates to an extent sufficient to prevent the soap from coming into work, its effect upon that organ will be rather severe. If the potash is not left at all, more lie must be added. But, as I have belore intimated, there are ©iher causes of failure besides these two. A very small portion of common, or any other kind of salt, or ol any kind of acid, will prevent the combination desired. The Ibrmer unites with the water, Ibrme a brine and settles to the bottom, and on being permitted to cool, will leave a great- er or less thickness at the top of an inferior kind of hard soap; according to the greater or less amount of grease used. Acid will unite with the potash — make a brine of the water which will settle to the bottom, and if there is enough of it in leave the clear grease at the top. There is generally some salt in family grease unless it has been boiled upon water. Sulphate of lime or magnesia is in some wells so abundant as lo render it impossible to make good soft soap with the water. The sulphuric acid of these sub- stances having a stronger affinity for potash than lor these, leaves the latter, unites with the former, and forms a salt called sulphate of potash, which being dissolved in the water forms a brine and settles to the bottom. Again, carbonic acid, (a gas,) which is con- stantly floating in the air, has a strong affinity for potash, and when united with it forms a salt (pearl-ash) which will prevent soft soap from "coming." This union is constantly going on with the potash, even before it is leached from the ashes, so that if they are very old, so much of this kind of salt is formed that unless it is in some way removed, soap cannot be made of the lie. For the same reason old potash, which is on the outside of the lump, where the air has come into contact with it, will be pretty sure to disap- point the expectation of the soapmaker. This difficulty, which always occurs to a greater or less extent, must be removed, and lor this purpose (not, as you seem to intimate, for "its strength") lime is used, it having a stronger affinity for car- bonic acid than potash has. Consequently when they are brought into contact, the acid leaves the potash — combines with the lime and forms an insoluble substance called carbonate of lime, and is simply pulverized limestone. There are other difficulties in the way of making this kind of soap in Boston and vicinity. Coal ashes produce no potash. The same is the fact with turf or peat 70 THK FARMEUS' REGISTER. ashea. Nor have the ashes of rotten and decay- ed wood any o( ihis substance in ihem, while that which has been soai more labor to cultivate an acre of ground pro- ducing sixty bushels of corn than would be re- quired to cultivate the same acre afier it has been so reduced in fertility as to produce only Ihirtj' bushels. Now if the agriculturist who raises thirty bushels of corn per acre is barely paid for the labor expended in raising it, it is evident that the additional thirty bushels which it would have produced if the soil had not been suffered to di- minish in fertility, would have been clear gain. The same would be equally true of hemp, to- bacco, and every other crop, except the small additional labor of harvesting the increased crop and preparing it for market after it has been brought to maturity. As land can be much more easily kept in good heart and fertile condition than it can be restored after it has been deteriorated, a discreet farmer will always resort to the easier method, especially as it is by far the most profitable one. If we take from land all or nearly all that it produces, and restore nothing, we gradually ab- stract from it those nourishing principles, which are essential to the growth of plants; and when the work of destruction has been carried to a certain extent, there will no longer remain in the soil a sufficient quantity of nourishing ingredi- ents to produce a crop sufficient to pay (or its cultivation. If a beneficent Providence had not made provision for a supply to a considerable ex- tent of those elementary principles which consti- tute in various states of combination, the appro- priate food of plants over and above what is fur- nished by the soil, our best lands under a bad state of cultivation would long since have been reduced to a state of complete sterility. In a state of nature every thing is restored to the soil which is drawn from it by the growth of plants, and hence it continually increases in fer- tility. To preserve the fertility of land while in a state of cultivation, it i? only necessary to re- store to the soil such a proportion of the .'ertiliz- ing ingredients as will, tocjcther with those fur- nished from the atmosphere, be equivalent to the sum of those drawn from the soil by the grovving crops. 72 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. The office of (he soil is, " 1. To receive and digest the food designed lor the growing plant. 2. T'o serve as a niediun) lor conveying to the spongiolels 'or rnoniiis oC ilie plants tlie water holding in solution the diflerenl substances which pass into and nourish them ; and, 3. To serve as a basis for fixing the roots of the plants, and maintaining them in an upright position."* The following are the most imporiani elemen- tary principles, which, in various states of com- bination enter into the composition of vegetable matter, and (urnieh the appropriate food lor grow- ing plan's ; oxygen, liydrogen, nitroiren and car- bon, togeihcr vviili a email portion of ihe dikHlies 5ind oxides of various metals. Su lar as these elementary principles are supplied from other sources than the soil in whicli crops are grown, the waste occasioned by their removal is replen- itflied. Plants po?sess the power of decomposing water,! and appropriating its elements by assimi- lation as food; an(i as water is composed of hy- drogen and oxygen, it Ibllovvs that two ofihe (ore- going elements are derived in larL^e quantities from the atmosphere through the mediunj o( rain, snow and dews. Liebig, in various parts of his able work on or- ganic chemistry, has shown that plants derive from the atmosphere, by the absorbing power of their leaves, a large and regular supply of carbon in the form of carbonic acid. He adds that dur- ing the heat of summer, (a plant) derives its car- bon exclusively Irom the atmosphere. "| Here then we have the source whence is de- rived in large quantities three of the principal ele- ments, which in various stales ol' combination as- sist in furnishing food lor growing crops. Nitro- gen is known to be essential to the healthy and vigorous growth of plants. This element exists in large quantities in all animal substances, and also to a considerable extent in decaying vegeta- ble matters, but much of it escapes in the form of ammonia during the process of decomposition. It was difficult until recently to account for the manner in which the loss (sustained by soils while in cultivation) .of this indispensable ingre- dient of fertility, is replenished. Liebig has shown in a very satisfactory manner that ammonia (com- posed of three parts, by weight, of hydrogen, and 14 parts nitrogen) is combined with rain wa- ter and snow in small quantities, and hence the loss of nitrogen sustained by the removal of crops from the soil on which they grew is, in a limited degree, restored by the falling of rain and snow. Thus nitrogen, to some extent, is also supplied by the atmosphere to growing plants ; but as this Bupply is not so abundant as that of the other ele- ments, the utmost care should be used by the cul- tivators of the soil to keep their lands well supplied with this indispensable ingredient of fertility, by taking nothing from the land but what is necessa- ry, by restoring in the form ofmanure every thing that can be restored, and by cultivating clover and other ameliorating crops which take but little from the soil, while they add to it all the fertilizing in- gredients which they derive from the atmosphere. When these circumstances are duly considered we * Farmers' Companion, p, 50. t Liebifj's Organic Chemistry, 122. X Liebia;",<: OrgJUiic Chemistry, p. 106. 51 and 55. Sec also p. may readily account for the length of time during which a soil may be cultivated in the worst possi- ble manner, without entirely exhausting it. A continued effort is made by nature to replenish the earth with those lertilizing ingredients which have been inconsiderately wasted by the improvidence of man, without any effectual effort on his part to restore even the small ftroportion of those ingre- dients which would furnish a full supply of food for future crops. When a beneficent Providence has done so much towards restoring the elementary principles consiiluting the (bod of plants, which, to a certain extent, must be consumed by the growing crops, a stioiig encouragement is held out to the indus- trious farmer to do his part also. In looking around he beholds every where the evidence that when all is restored to the earth which grew upon it, a continued increase of fertility results. This is a sure indication that a beneficent Providence intended that Ihe earth should never become ste- rile by cultivation — it plainly points out to man that he too should restore to the soil that portion of its products for which he has no use. He should continually bear in mind that Ihe aids, provided by a bountiful Creator, were only intended to supply the unavoidable loss of nourishing ingredients or food (or plants, occasioned by the necessity of taking (iom the soil a portion of the growing crops for consumption, and which cannot, therefore, be fiilly restored. While, therefore, the prudent farmer may confidently rely upon these aids in preserving the (eriilit}' of his soil, he will recollect that he must also do his part. He may take for consumption the fruits of the earth for'both man and beast, and yet give back to it enough to keep up its original fertility, by restoring only a reason- able proportion of that |)art ol its product which remains after consuming all that is of any value for food for himself and provender Ibr his stock. Next to oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitro- gen, the alkalies, potash and soda, constitute the most important ingredients, in the food of plants. These were Ibrmerly considered as simple sub- stances, but were ascertained, by Sir Humphry Davj;^, to be metallic bases, combined with oxygen. Tliey are therefore real oxides. They are capa- ble of combining with a great variety of sub- stances ; and, in various states of combination, form an indispensable food for plants of almost every kind. Hence if these substances were en- tirely extracted from the earth, it could no longer produce a vigorous growth of those plants which require a supply of these alkalies as a part of their food. Liebig has shown, that these alkalies exist in a state of combination with water, in small pro- portions, and that where they have been extract- ed from the soil by growing plants, they may be restored by irrigation, and by rain.* Sea water also contains these alkalies in small quantities, and Liebig informs us that " the roots of plants are constantly engaged in collecting from the rain those alkalies, which formed part of the sea- water, and also those of the water of springs, which penetrates the soil." That, " without alkalies and alkaline bases most plants could not exist. "t The alkaline earths, lime and magnesia, are * Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 159, 160. t Sec fill (her on (his subject, p^l96 to 200. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 73 necessary to the vigorous growth of some of the most valuable agricuUural products. These eartlid exist in great abundance, in some soils, but in others are very deficient, particularly in lime. This defi- ciency is, in some degree, supplied from the atmo- sphere. Liebig informs us that " by the continual evaporation of the sea, its salts are spread over the whole face of the earth ; and being subse- quently carried down by the rain, I'urnieh to the vegetation those salts necessary to its existence. This is the origin of the salts found in the ashes of plants, in those cases where the soil could not have yielded them."* Besides a small quantiiy of sulphate of lime, there is contained in sea- water, according to Liebig, 1.12400 of its weight of carbonate of lime. Thus it is seen we are indebted to the atmo- sphere not only for oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, but also (or potash, soda, and the alka- line earths — lime and magnesia. The importance of these will be further noticed, when 1 come to remark upon manures. The means of preserving the fertility of the soil, and renovating that which has been partially exhaused are, 1. A judicious rotation of crops. 2. The saving and applying of manures. 3. A liberal cultivation of such crops as receive their chief nourishment from the atmosphere. 4. Good tillage. As a distinct premium has been offered for the best essay on the rotation of crops best suited to Kentucky, I do not propose, in this essay, to say any thing on that branch of the subject. The saving and applying of manures is very important to a good system of husbandry. And great care should be taken to preserve eo much of the product of the farm, as is left unconsumed by man and beast in suitable situations, to be used at the proper time, for that purpose. The necessity (or suitable application of ma- nure, to cultivated lands, is very evident when we reflect, that some of the most important ingredi- ents which serve as food (or plants, such as nitrogen, potash and soda, are furnished but sparingly from the atmosphere. These ingredi- ents are all found in niiinures ; and by properly saving and applying them, the farmer is enabled to make up tlie deficiency of the supply from the atmosphere. Manures contain also other useful ingredients, which, perhaps, can be derived from no other source. A question of great importance, and one which seems not yet to be fully settled, is what is the best manner of preserving manure till the proper period of applying it to the land in cullivaiion, and in what condition should it be applied, whe- ther alter complete decompoeilion has taken place, or when only partially decomposed or in the state in which it came from the earth? Liebig, in his able work on organic chemistry, in its a|)plicalion to agriculture and physiology, has shown that ammonia is a very important ingredient, in the nourishment of all agricultural products. * Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 166. AccordiDg to Marcet, sea-water contains in 1000 parts : 26.660 chloride of sodium. 4.660 sulphate of soda. 1.232 chloride of potassium. 5.1.52 chloride of mag- nesium. 1.5 sulphate of lime. - Vol. X.— 10 During the decomposition of manures, a large quantiiy of ammonia is formed, but being a gase- ous substance the whole passes off, and is entirely lost. I(j thereiore, long manure is exposed in heaps to the etiects of heat and moisture, fermen- tation ensues, and tlie consequent formation of ammonia, which passes off in the form of gas, and nothing is left, as he inlbrms us, but "a mere carbonaceous residue of decayed plants." An idea of the loss eutained by manure, exposed to heat and moisture, may be proved by the fact stated by Liebig, "that with every pound of ammonia which evaporates, a loss of sixty pounds of corn (wheal) is sustained." To prevent this loss Liebig recommends "that the floors of our stables, flora time to lime, be strewed with coiximon gyp- sum, (sulphate of lime,) the ammonia (he says) enters into combination with the sulphuric acid, and the carbonic acid with the lime, forming compounds which are not volatile, and conse- quently destitute of smell.* Growing plants receive large supplies of oxy- gen and hydrogen (the component parts of water) Irora rains and dews. They are also supplied abundantly with carbon, in the form of carbonic acid, by means of the absorbing power of their leaves. But a full supply of nitrogen and tho alkalies is likewise essential to their vigorous growth. These are more sparingly supplied from the atmosphere, and hence the importance of additional supplies. Putrescent manures abound in nitrogen, but this important element of vegeta- ble (bod, during the process of putrefaction, nearly all e-capes (if no measures are taken to fix it) in the form ol ammonia. Liebig has shown, tliat this may be done by a proper application of gypsum to stable manure before the ferraenlating process commences.! A similar application of gypsum to manure, saved in feeding pens, cew yards, &c., would, no doubt, have a most beneficial efiect, but it must be re- membered, I hat ammonia is readily absorbed by water, and consequently large portions of it may be lost, where the manure is so exposed as to be- come satured with that fluid. Every precaution, consistently with a due regard to economy, should be used to prevent this. Placing the manure under sheds, and intermingling with it a due pro- portion of gypsum, would be the most effectual way to guard againi the loss of ammonia. But in general this would be attended with too much expense. The next best method ie to so place the manure, preparatory to its undergoing fer- mentation, as not to subject it to the drainage of I he adjacent grounds, or the dripping of wafer from the roots of stables, cow sheds, &c. The former object can be attained by a judicious selec- tion of suitable ground for (ceding yards, and by cutting diiches where necessary, to carry off the water. The latter may be secured by erecting stables, sheds, &c., so as to have the manure thrown out at the gable end, where there can be no dripping from the root; Where stables or sheds have been already erected upon a different plan, the drippings (i'om the roof may be carried oH' by leading troughs. These precautions would leave the manure subject only to the effects of rain falling immediately upon it. To guard agains-t this, the manure should be kept in cora- Liebig's Organic Cliemistry, 239. t lb. 239. 74 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. pact heaps, so as to expose as little surface as pos- sible to the falling rain; to this end the manure collected in cow yards, leeding pens, &c., should occasionally be thrown inio heaps in the Ibrm of a stack, mingling therewith, during the process, a due proportion of gypsum. A siiil I'uriher pre- caution might be used, by removing the manure, as soon as it is in a fit condiiion, to the fields for which it is destined, and there spread. This would check any remaining disposition to fer- ment, and the falling rains would carry the ammonia down into the soil, with which it would combine, and thus all danger of further loss, to any considerable extent, would be avoid- ed. From what has been said, it will be seen that manure is liable to great loss during the pro- cess of fermentation, unless the utmost care is used to prevent the escape of ammonia. If ma- nure is suffered to undergo complete decomposi- tion, there wiil be a considerable saving of labor in hauling and spreading, and much less diffii'uity in ploughing the ground on which it is distributed, but there will be more or less loss of some of the most valuable ingredients of the manure. If the proper precautions are used to prevent the escape of ammonia, perhaps upon the whole, it will be Ibund most advantageous id suffer the manure to undergo at least a partial decomposition, before it is removed to the fields for which it is intended. But, notwithstanding every precauiion that can be used in preserving and applying putrescent ma- nures, some loss will be sustained. Ammonia readily enters into combination with carbonic acid, forming a volatile compound, and is itself, while in a gaseous form, wi'.h all its volatile compounds, exiremely soluble in water.* And hence every particle of water evaporating from a dung heap will carry with it ammonia and car- bonic acid, unless they shall have been converted into a salt, which is not volatile. Alumina (clay) exercises an indirect influence on vegetation, by its power of attracting and retaining water and ammonia. ''t Liebig informs us, that " a part only of the carbonate of ammonia which is con- veyed by rain to the soil is received by plants, because a certain part of it is volatilized witii the vapor of water." But if the soil c'ontains a due proportion of gypsum, or when deficient in this respect, if it should be supplied from time to time with gypsum, " the carbonate of ammonia, contained in rain water,' (and of course that which is carried down into the soil by rains, fiill- ingon putrescent manures) " is decomposed by gypsum, in precisely the same manner as id the manufacture of sal-ammoniac. Soluble sulphate of ammonia -and carbonate of lime are formed ; and this salt of ammonia, possessing no vola- tility, is consequently retained in tlie soil. All the gypsum gradually disappears, but its action upon the carbonate of ammonia continues as long as a trace of it exi8ls."J It will be observed li-om the reasoning of Liebig, that the ammonia which the soil receives during the decomposition of long manure, which may be left or spread on the ground, is also liable to sustain a loss by combin- ing with watef and passing off" in the form of Tapor. But as in this case, the process of fer- mentation is very slow, the carbonate of ammonia • Liebig's Organic Ghemistry, p. 130. \ lb. 191. $Ib. 141, 142. will have more time to combine with the soil, and the roots of plants are constantly engaged in absorbing it. During slow fermentation there is probably but little loss ofcarbonate of ammonia, even when gypsum is not present, and when pre- sent none at all. So far, therefore, as the products of the soil, which are not useluMbr the consumption of man or beast, can be left o:i the ground, that will be the most economical application of manure. In this mode of applying ii, the labor of transporting and distributing it will be saved, and much less loss will be sustained by evajioration than where the decomposition is rapid, and no gypsum used. Thus it will be advantageous to leave upon the ground as much of the stubble of wheat., rye, &c., as can be left consistently with an economical saving of the grain. With the same view corn stalks may be left on the ground and ploughed in. Tlie straw of rye and oats, fed off' to stock, and .of the second crop of clover when liill}' ripe, will also be of great advantage to the soil. All these will undergo slow ftjrmentation, and if not frutl'er- ed to be washed away by heavy rains from roll- ing lands, will add much curbonaie of ammonia and some poiaeh to ilie soil. Liebig informs us, that "ammonia, evolved (rom manure, is imbibed by the soil, either in solution in water, or in the gaseous (brm, and plants thus receive a larger supply of nitrogen than is afforded them by the atmosphere."* Indian corn, as well as rye and oais, is sometimes fed off by turning slock in the field. In this mode of ftjeding the whole product of the soil is restored, and the land must necessa- rily be enriched, in proportion to the quanliiy of nourishing ingredien's, which the growing crop received from ihe atmosphere, (always a large proportion,) with such abatement only as will be equal to the loss of ammonia, sustained by evapo- ration. In the remarks I have hitherto made on ma- nures, 1 have not referred to one species, which Liebig considers of very great value, I allude to human excrements. This subject is treated very much at large, in the work to which I have so often referred, but it would extend this essay to too great a length to go fully into an examination of this very important ingredient. A few extracts will be, sufficient to show its importance. At p. 242 he remarks, " that if we admit that the liquid and solid excrements of man, amount on an average to Ij^ lbs. daily, (5-4 lb. urine and ^ lb. Itcces,) and that both taken together con- tain 3 per cent, of nitrogen, then in one year they will amount to 547 lbs. which contain 16.41 lbs. of nitroiren, a quantity sufficient to yield the ni- trogen of 800 lbs. of wheat, rye, oats, or of 900 lbs. of barley." " This (he observes) is much more than is necessary to add to an acre of land, in order to obtain with the assistance of nitrogen absorbed from the atmosphere, the richest possible crop every year. Every town and farm might thus supply itself with the manure, which besides containing the most nitrogen, contains also the most phosphates ; and If an alternation of crops were adopted, they would be most abundant. By using at the same time, bones and the lixiviated ashes of wood, the excrements of animals might * Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 141. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 7$ be completely dispensed with." At page 216 he says "ihiU with every pound of" urine a pound ol wheat might be produced." At page 241-2 he slates that liquid animal ex- crements, such as the urine with which ilie solid excremenis are imprognaied, contain the greai- est part of ihuir ammonia in the stale of salts, in a I'orm, Iherelbre, in which it has completely lost its volatility ; when presented in tliis condition, not the smallest portion of ammonia is lost to j)!anis, it is all dissolved by water and imbibed by their roots." I will quote but one more passage which goes to show ihe great superiority of human niai'ure over that of other animals. "In respect to the occurred in the vicinity of Gottingen. A pro- prietor of land, "in order to obtain°potash, plant- ed his whole land with wormwood, the ashes of which are well known to contain a large portion of the carbonate of that alkali. The consequence ivas that he rendered his land quite incapable of bearing grain lor many years, in consequence of having entirely deprived the soil of its pot- ash."* ' Licbig says, " it is (he greatest possible mia- lfike to suppose that the temporary diminution of leriility in soil is owing to the loss of humus; it is the mere consequence of the exhaustion of the alkalies."! He states a variety of facta to corro- borate this opinion. When we reflect that the quantity of nitrogen contained in excrements, 100 principal ingredient, hjrnished by humus to the parts of the urine of a healthy man are equal to growing plants, is carbon in the form of carbonic 1300 parts of the fresh dung oi' a horse, accordinif acid, and that plants derive a very abundant sup- to the analysis of j^iaeair and Marcet, and to 600 pl^' of this element, after the formation of their parts of those of a cow." leaves Irom the atmosphere, by means of their Ashes o( wood and vegetable substances from which potash is derived, is also a very important manure. "Most plants, perhaps all of them contain organic acids of very different composition and properties, all of which are in combination with bases, such as potash, soda, lime or magne- sia."* Without alkaline base.-', Liebig says, "most plants could not exist." And it is a re- markable fact that where there is a want of the usual alkaline base in a soil, suitable to a particu- lar plant, another alkaline base will be substitut- absorbing power, we cannot but regard the opi- nion that the diminution of fertility in soils is more owing (0 the loss of alkalies than humus, as at least very plausible. Liebig is of opinion that the great diminution in the lertility of the soil in Virginia, since its first settlement, is owing to the exhaustion of its alkalies. He estimates that " from every acre of this land, there were re- moved in the space of one hundred years 1200 lbs. of alkalies in leaves, grain and straw ; it became unfruitful iherelbre because it was deprived of ed.f This (act shows the indispensable necessity j every particle of alkali which had been reduced of an alkaline base in all plants. If further pioolj to a soluble state ; and because that which was weie wanting the fact that all trees and plants ' rendered soluble again in the space of one year, contain more or less of the alkaline bases would j was not sufficient to satisfy the demands of the be perfectly satisfactory. Some trees require i plants."! much less alkali than others. Thus pines and j Silicate of potash is an ingredient of iodispen- fir trees require a much smaller quantity of the | sable necessity to the vigorous growth of the alkaline bases than other species. And consa- small grains, and of all plants of the grass kind. quently the former thrive well on a soil where the latter could not exist. f One hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15.5 parts of ashes ; the same quantity of the dry stalks of barley S.54 parts ; and of oats straw only 4.42. The ashes of all these are of the same composition. "§ The liicts here stated, prove that wheat is much more ex- hausting of this particular manure than barley or oats. Of such great value are ashes esteemed in Germany, that they are transported, as Liebig informs us, " from the distance of 18 or 24 miles." They are particularly valuable to meadows, as these are constantly drained ol their potash by the annual removal of the crops of hay — a crop con- taining a large portion of that ingredient. It is obvious that if a soil contain only a limited quantity of potash, it must in time be entirely ex- hausted, if the growing crops are annually remov- ed, and no part of the product is restored, unless a supply is derived from some other si^urce. The atmosphere furnishes a small quantity, but by no means sufficient to replenish the waste oc- casioned by the growing crops, and hence the necessity of making up the deficiency by the ap- plication of ashes and other manures, containing potash. Lie|;)ig relates an extraordinary instance of the effects of depriving a soil of its potash, which • Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 148. fib- 149. t lb. 198. § lb. 199. Ashes is the source whence it is derived, and hence the importance of saving and applying this manure to our cultivated land, and particularly to that which is appropriated to meadows and rais- ing of wheat. Ashes which have not been lixi- viated are of the greatest value, aa a manure, but after having undergone that process, they still contain silicate of potash, and salts of phospho- ric acid, and consequently are of great impor- tance as a succor to all plants of the grass kind. J Phosphoric acid is also a very important ingre- dient, particularly for the small grains. It is found in the ashes of all plants, " and always in combi- nation with alkalies and alkaline earths." " The seeds of corn (wheat) could not be formed with- out the phosphate of magnesia, which is one of their invariable constituents. "§ I cannot quit this subject without recommending to every agriculturist, a diligent study of Liebig's very able work an agricultural chemistry, and particularly that part of it which treats of manures, and the means of preserving the fertility of soils. Although the manuring of lands, if proper care be taken in collecting, preserving and distri- buting them, will do much towards preserving their Ibrlility, and renovating such as have been deteriorated by bad husbandry, yet other means can be resorted fo, with great advantage in has- * Liebig's Organic ehemistry, 161. Jib. 228, § lb. 200, 20). t lb. 196. 76 THE FARMERS' REGISTER tening the process, A judicious system of grass- ing our lands which can be accomplished with but little labor, will always be tound very useful, and must enter largely into our Byeteai of agri- culture. Red clover, there can be no doubt, is the best adapted to this purpose. In consequence of its thick growth, and its numerous and broad leaves, it IS well suited to draw nourishment from the atmosphere ; and doee) so, [crhaps, in a greater degree than any other graas, except other s|)e- cies of the trilblium. Red clover is one of the tribe ot leguminous plants, which '' are remarka- ble on account ol ihesinall quantity of alkalies or salts in general, which they contain."* The medicago sativa (lucerne) according to Liebig contains less than one per cent. (0.83) and red clover probably does not contain mote. Hence one great advantage in the cultivation of this crop will be that it requires to sustain its growth but a very small portion of alkali, while it will absorb Irom the atmosphere not only that ingredi- ent, but also nitrogen in the Ibrni of ammonia, and will thus add to the soil two very important ingredients that enter into the constituents of the food of plants. When we take into consideration, that nitrogen and the alkalies are indispensably necessary to the growth of plants, and that these substances are very sparingly supplied from the atmosphere, we will perceive the great impor- tance of the slover crop in restoring and preserv- ing the lertility of soils. Besides, this crop will I'urnish fine pasturage in the early part of the year, when other grasses are too shot for that purpose. After being fed oft' by stock, whose manure is left on the ground, it produces a luxu- riant second crop, which may either be fed oli in the fall, or left as a coat of manure upon the ground. This may be repeated two or three years in succession, as circumstances may require. The last crop, when fully ripe, shoald be ploughed under in the lall of the year, and will thus I'urnish a coat of manure for ihe succeeding crop. II ploughed under when green, the operation will necessarily have to take place during warm weather, and consequently a rapid decomposition and escape of ammonia would ensue. This should always be avoided. Blue grass is also valuable in restoring the fer- tility of land, but the process is more slow, and should only be resorted to in lands intended for cultivation, where they can be conveniently left in grass some eight or ten years. Rye is a crop that exhausts but moderately when the grain is reaped ; and when fed off by stock upon the ground on which it grew, is a ra- pid restorer of soil which has not been much ex- hausted. It is attended with the advantage of producing two crops Irom a single sowing, the second always springing from the seed left on the ground by the grazing stock. The liberal cultivation of grasses and rye — to be led off by stock — cou[iled with a judicious ro- tation of crops, will undoubtedly have a powerful effect in restoring the partially exhausted lands ol Kentucky, but a judicious system of manuring, as recommended in ihis essay, would greatly add to the rapidity of the process, and should by no means be neglected, especially when lands have *Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 204. been considerably deteriorated by bad husbandry. Little need be said to show the necessity of good tillage in any tolerable system of agricul- ture. If land be carelessly cultivated, weeds not only draw liom the growing crops a portion of the nourishment, which ought to have gone to their sustenance, but they also tend to diminish its fertility. Besides, air is essentially necessary to the growth of plants, so nmch so that Liebig informs us that " without oxygen, neither seeds nor roots can he developed." If ihe soil be kept light, and finely pulverized, it greatly increases Its capacity for absorbing air and moisture. And as " plants during their lile constantly possess the power of absorbing by their roots, moisture, and along with it, air and carbonic acid,"* it fol- lows, that '' by loosening the soil which surrounds young plants, we liivor ihe access of air, and the formation of carbonic acid ; and on the other hand, the quantity ol' their food is diminished by every difficulty which opposes the renewal of air."t Thus, by a carelul and diligent cultivation of land, the crop is liirnished more abundantly with its appropriate Ibod, is kept free from the con- taminating iijfluence ol' weeds, is lurnished with a due quantity of air, and is not obstructed in its growth by the baked earth with which careless cultivation leaves it hampered. And in addition to the advantages resulting to land, the diligent husbandman is rewarded with a greatly increased crop, and the prospect of being relieved from much labor in future, by exterminating all nox- ious weeds from his arable grounds. Liebig afRims that " the agriculture of China is the most perfect in the world," and there no weeds are suffered to grow. h\ by any, it should be thought 1 have been too minute in describing the elementary pririciples constituting the food ol plants, I rest my justifica- tion in the opinion expressed by Liebig, that " any great improvement in that most important of all arts (agriculture) is inconceivable without a deep- er and more perlect acquaintance with the sub- stances which nourish plants, and with the sources, whence they are derived. "| The judgment of Liebig will doubtless be a sufficient apology, unless we are content to be still subject to the reproach that " agriculture has hitherto never sought aid from chemical principles, based on the knowledge of those substances which plants extract from the soil on which they grow, and of tliose restored to the soil by means of manure. "§ A. Beatty. BERKSHIRE HOGS. From tlie Fanners' Cabinet. An article in the last Cabinet, under the caption of Berkshires, and containing bo very unfair a judgment on the merits of that invaluable breed, over the signature of R. S. B., Northampton county, together with the severe strictures of G. H. D., whore the Berkshire mania, so called, is classed with the humbugs of the day, seem to make it proper for their friends, if they have any * Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 83. \ lb. 106. lib. 62. § lb. 207-8. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 77 left, to protest against their being thus unceremo- niously killed ott without benefit of clergy. In- deed, at this time, when, with the versaiiliiy pe- culiar to American character, the agriculiura! press is teeming with anti-Berkshire essays, con- demning, in louder tones than ever were uttered in its favor, the whole breed, as a Merino sheep, multicaulis humbug, it mig^l seem almost pre- gumptuous, even in one who has tried them, to endeavor to stem the torrent. Ii seems unlbrtu- nate that, on the introduction of any ihmg new, either in agriculture, science, or the arts, in the thermometer ofpublic o[)iiiion, the mercury, starl- ing at zero, must rush up immediately and rapidly throughout its whole range, and all the way back to the starting point, and even below it helbre it finally attains its proper siaie ol'quiescence. Par- ticularly on the introduction of a new breed of ani- mals, we seize on them with great avidity from the mere novelty, invest thein with exiravagam and supernatural qualities, proclaim the wonderful things ihey are to do, and when at last they liili short of these calculations, the whole affair is pro- nounced a " Merino, multicaulis humbug." From being placed in the first instance lar above their merits, they are next placed lar below them. This, in the United Slates, is always the moiJiis operandi of introducing new breeds of slock to farmers, who, alter passing through the high lever stage of heavy profits, and down again to the cold or collapse, at last finally settle in a medium temperature, and give to the new breed whatever is its just value. To this process Berksliires must submit. R. S. B., in the communication relerred to, does not make the true issue. He says one ol his neighbors put up two Berkehires and two common hogs in a stable to feed, and that the common ones outweighed the others. This is very probable, but does not prove the main point, that the Berkshire^, did not return the greatest weight for the quantity of food consumed, Berk- shire breeders do not contend that generally they attain such great weights as other hogs, but that a given amount of food will make a greater quantity of pork ; that if it does not feed such large hogs, it will lieed a greater number. I have so lully satisfied myself of this point, that, although owning some very fine ones of' the Chester county breed, 1 have killed them ofl^, and intend keeping nothing but the thorough-bred Berkshire. At about 12 months old they will weigh from 200 to 260 Ihs., being ready for slaughter at any period of their growth, and requiring at last but a lew days' feeding upon corn to harden the meat. The shape of the true Berkshire is perfect, Ibrming tlie beau ideal of a perfect animal ; the bone fine, the head and all the ofial parts very small, the most valuable parts, the hams and shoulders, full, round and large. Occasionally it is admitted tliat they have not sufficient depth, but this is only an ex- ception. Where it occurs, the owner must rem.e- dy it by careflil selection. This cannot be made a valid objection, for there is no breed, however pure and perfect, of any animals, but that some- thing must depend on the judgment and talent of the breeder to keep so, and to remedy any occa- sional or inherent defect. Something approach- ing the barrel form must of necessity accompany the quality of easy feeding. In regard to size, the farmers here who feed a few every fall lor P'^'iadelphia market, besides what is wanted for home consumption, find that a hog weighing from 150 to 250 lbs. is the most saleable and brings the best price. The Berkshires make just the weight wanted for family use. Whether in Northampton county, where grain is lower than l)ere, they can- not afford to waste it on large consumers, which will carry to market greater weight and size, is for him to say. Another characierisiic of the Berkshire is the superior quality of the meat. In this at least ihvi ^ is no mistake. Berkshire hams are well known in Philadelphia lor their superior flavor and richness. 'I'liey are lemarkabl}' free from far, and are no less known by their handsome rotund shape, than by their tender and juicy qua- lities. A slice ol Berkshire ham, properly cured, is a daiuty morsel appreciated by a connoisseur. Another recon niendaiicn is the great lecundity of the breed, producing from 8 to 15 at a litter, and ihe (act ol iheir being most excellent nurses. By a most unaceouniab e mistake, R. S. B. objects to them on this very head, and says ihcy are not prolific, that lour of his neighbor's sows had but one each, and that generally they have but lour or five. 1 have raised Berkshires lor several years, have sold numbers of them, noi only in this neigh- borhood, but to gentlemen at a disiance, and as (ar as my experience and observation go, would say ihey are not more noied lor their black color than lor their succccs in salely rearing a full ave- rage number. The true question then at is.=iie, at least in this section of country, is, ichnt breed of hogs will return the greatest weight for the quan- tity of food consumed. Here lies the profit more than in the individual weight. A email, well-made animal may bring more money to the larmer, than one ol twice hie siz ■, from the dil- li?rence in the liatieiiing property. It is generally admitied that very large animals are not profita- ble. They may do to grace the columns of a paper, and gratily those who have a penchant that way, witlioui regard to ihe expensive process, but they will not suit the common liirmer. 1 once was seized with ihis desire to leed a large hog; I purchased of a breed well known (or attaining immense weights, but was completely cured. It weighed between five and six hundred, and consumed as much (ood as I am since satisfied would have fatiened double the weight of Berk- shires. It is a satisfaction to ihe early friends of the Berkshires, to observe that public opinion in respect to them has passed through the collapse state ; that wherever the pure breed exists, preju- dices even against color are rapidly dying away ; and tha' they are slowly but surely creeping into favor, and earning the emphaiic appellation of the farmer's hog. One thing undoubtedly which has retarded and still retards their reputation is the vast number which, since they were first in- troduced, have been palmed off as genuine Berkshires, having very little iC any of that blood. The cause of this is to be found in the high prices at which they were sold, $30 and ^40 per pair, and the absurd rule for testing purity, that they must be precisely of a certain shade of color, having so many while feet, and so many white hairs in the tail ; thus inviting imposture, and inducing persons, wherever they could obtain these marks, which often appertain to a half or three-quarter blood, as well as to the full blood, to pass them for genuine Berkshires. A cross 78 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. for the purposes of specu'ation has, no doubt otien been lounded on very inlerior stock. The true Berkshirea have thus been made to bear not only their own burdens, but have been charg- ed wiih the sins of a whole herd of worthless nioni^rels. However breeds may be denoted by ceriain external marks, eiiher ol color or shape, no rule tor all cases can be invariably established : there will occasionally be exceptions. Durban) rows generally run into liijht colors, and it is more absurd to say that Berkshire pigs are or are not pure on account of their feet or tail, than to condemn a Durham cow which happened to be of a red color, or had a dark nose. P. M. East Bradford, Chester Co., Pa. MURRAIN IN CATTLE. From the Farineis' Cabinet. We have sad accounts from England respect- ing the faial disease which is carrying oH' their catile by hundreds, and think that Mr. A. B. Allen did wisely in abstaining lor the present from bringing over any horned cattle. It is said the veterinary surgeons term the disease the bloody murrain, and consider it infectious : now I know not how ihis can be, for amongst ihe very many cases that I have witnessed, 1 have never been able to convince myself of that fact. It is true that to a casual observer it may have the apjiear- ance of being so, for the cattle in a large pas- ture; or even in a whole parish or hundred, will oftentimes be aitackcd by it, and the disorder will spread abro.id like a contagious fi'.ver, but 1 have no doubt the evil arises from a disordered state of the digestive organs, brought on by an unwhole- some state of the atmosphere, or by feeding on unhealthy pastures, those low, cold and damp meadows, infested by aquatic plan's, which, being taken imo the stomach, become pnirid and indi- gestible ; and thus that noisome and putrid dis- ease is engendered. For I have known one half the catile upon a certain farm to be carried off by it, while not a single case has occurred on the immediately adjoining estate, but on the next farm again to that, the whole herd has been swept away ; and just so have I observed the produce of their pasture lands to vary from dry, eweet and healthy herbage, to that which is long, moist, sour and unwholesome. And 1 am incli- ned to believe that the murrain in cattle, like the botts in horses, may be considered an effect, ra- ther than a cause, both disorders arising, perhaps, from an unhealthy stale of digestion, by which is engendered a disease, which, although it must be termed epidemic, might not be by any means inleclious ; indeed I well remember a dairy of fine cows which was thinned to less than one- half its original number, where the individuals were attacked by the disease on bemg confined to their winter quarters, the occupants of stalls 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, &c., being carried oH', while the intermediate numbers escaped uninjured, and remained in perfect health. But to many persons it will no doubt seem strange to consider the origin of two disorders, so very different in their appearance, symptoms and effects, as the botts and murrain, as arising Irom the same cause, namely, indigestion, but as I conceive that thny are engendered by a disordered state of the stomach caused by sour and unwhole- some (bod, and that they might both be cured, or which is better, he prevented, by timely adminis- tration of a medicine, 'alkaline in its nature, I believe that reason will bear me out in the conclu- sion lo which I am partly led by perusing an article on this subject in the Cabinet, vol. 4, p. 177, wiiere it is said — quoting Irom the American Farmer — " Some years since 1 purchased ahorse, but he had the appearance of laboring under disease ; I commenced a course of treatment which 1 had before pursuer! in cases similar to appearance, but without effect ; I was therefore induced to try the use of lime, as I was confident he was filled with botts, (or he had discharged several ; I therefore commenced by giving him a table-spoonlul of slacked lime three times a week in bran mashes. Alter pursuing this course near two weeks, the botts began to pass away in qunntities, varying from ten to twenty, which he would expel (rora his intestines during the night; in the mean time his appetite began to improve, and in six weeks he was one of the finest geldings 1 ever saw ; from that day to this I have ki'pt up the use of lime amongst my horses with decided benefit; and as an evidence of its good effects, I have not lost a horse since I began to use it. And lime is a certain preventive in keeping cattle (rom taking the murrain. As an evidence of this (act, I have used it among my cattle three times a week, mixed with salt, for three or (bur years, and in that time I have not lost a single animal by this disease; but in the mean lime some of my neighbors have lost nearly all the cattle they owned. But I will give a stronger case than even the one above mentioned. One of my neighbors who lost all his cattle, had a friend living within two hundred yards o( him, who had several cattle which ran daily with those that died, and his cattle all escaped— he informed me that he made it an invariable rule to give his cattle salt and lime every morning. I have, therefore, no doubt but salt and lime are a sure and inlallible remedy for botts in horses and murrain in cattle." And I am reminded of a circumstance by a friend, who has often before mentioned it ; he had two fields of pasture near his house — on one of these he spread lime upon the turf to the amount of more than 200 bushels per acre, but as the other field lay immediately below his cattle-yard, from whence he had formed drains to carry the water over its surface in the most complete man- ner, he determined to let thateuflice for a dress- ing ; and the effect of the highly impregnated water from the yard was a growth of grass truly astonishing. Both fields were kept in pasture, and when the stock had eaten one of them down, they were removed to the other, and so changed regularly about ; but the effect of the different crops on the appearance of the stock, horses and cattle, is not to be expressed, for while feeding on the limed land their coajs were close, shining and healthy, and their spirits light and cheerful, even when they were compelled to labor hard to obtain a bellyful ; but when turned into the watered grass, six inches or more in height, a difference for the worse could be perceived in 24 hours, and every day after they lost condition amidst the I greatest abundancej with coats rough and staring, THE FARxMERS' REGISTER. 79 lax in the bowels and flaccid, wiiii distended paunches, dejected countenances, and sluggish in their movements ; they soon exhibited a deprecia- tion in value to the amount ofaboul half their for- mer worth. But the transition to health and vigor and good looks was quite as sudden and apjiarent on a return to the limed land ; lor again in 24 hours, or by the time the food had passed through the system, a change, particularly in their air and carriage, was very perceptible. My friend adds, he never had an instance of the murrain or boits while his stock (ed on these pas- tures, but is satisfied he should have h:id boih, but for the change to the limed land; lor while feeding on the v^'atered pasture, the stock hud always the appearance of a predisposition lo that state of derangement of the digestive system, by which he has no doubt these diseases are engendered. In conclusion, I would ask, is it not quite f;iir to draw the following deduction from what has been said, namely, that all dairy pastures ought to be heavily limed, it being the most natural thing in tlie world to suppose that a proper secretion of luilk, the best and most wholesome, depends very much on 'he nature ol the Ibod with which the animals are fed 7 and must not the butler from a cow that is in health and spirits be of better fla- vor, color and consistence, than that from one that is lax, washy and weak, from feeding on watery, acid and soft herbage? and will not this account lor much of the disgustingly rancid, ill- flavored and ill-looking butter which we so often find in the market? My friend above quoted, and who is now at my elbow, answers " Yes ; for while my cows lied on the watered meadow, the butter was scarcely eatable — white, soft and ill- flavored, but it was sweet, firm and fine-flavor- ed when they were confined to the limed land." Ergo, lime your pastures, and allow your stock as much salt as they will consume daily, for I am convinced 'that lime and salt are a remedy for " bolls in horses," as well as the " murrain in cattle." ViK. REMARKS UPON KNGLISH CATTLE, AND A COMPARISON OF THEM WITH AMERICAN. From the Kentucky Farmer. It has become a matter of great importance to the American stock-breeders, to know now whe- ther they can make any further improvements in their domestic animals, and if so, how, when and where. It would require too long an essay to be read before thia society, to attempt to go over the whole circle of British domestic animals. I shall, therefore, in this paper, after an incidental paragraph, confine my remarks to neat stock alone, which at present probably most interests Kentucky. I was not only at the annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, but present also at that of Yorkshire, which was much superior in its show over the former, in horses, short horns, long wool sheep, and swine. I also privately ex- amined the stock of many of the most distinguish- ed breeders in Great Britain, and am (ree to de- clare, that, a few South Devon sheep excepted, we want scarce any thing more from abroad lor years. Our roadsters and horses of all work, are siiperior to those of Kngland, in shape, action and endurance — our cattle nearly as good. With fine wool sheep she has nothing to compare with us, and our splendid herds of swine, improved by the late importations, are now made quite equal to any. Short-horns. — Just before leaving for England last s[)ring, 1 took a cartful survey of Ohio and New York, and since my return have gone again over much of the same ground, together with the addition of a part of Kentucky ; and this second look has only the. more fully confirmed me in the judsmient that I formed while abroad, that, the best of one breeder's herd alone excepted, the short-horns of America, are quite equal to those of Great Britain. I therelbre do hope, till the choicest of these can be had at a reasonable rate, that our money liiay not be wasted abroad in the pride of further importations — more especially during these hard times, and under the conside- ration of the little thai Euiope is taking of our agricultural products in return. Sliorl-horns bred here can now be purchased tlirougliout the coun- try, of as good a (juality as abroad, lor half the money that it would cost to get them from there. Let us appreciate then what we already possess, foster, cultivate and spread it— _/ree ourselves from ed and fatten callle for market. His enrich- ing his exhausted lands by top-dressing presents the most successful, as well as extensive practice, Hy is sure lo be very injurious lo corn-field IV heat. The best safeguard agriinst this insect is to enrich the land and thereby to cause the wheHt to out-grow the depredations of the fly. Belbre mf.rlmg, all the eHbris made to enrich by in that novel and as yet much doubted mode of: pubescent manures availed but liiile. Though applying putrescent manures. The [)raciice of | all these light low-grounds were supposed to have the graziers in that part of the country is to ma- I been oric/inally rich, larm-yard manure served to nure by littering and feeding in lots, changed as ' do but little good, and the effects were very fleet- often as sufBciently covered, and also on "grass \ ing- Since marling [as on all other marled lands] land. Of course, the manure is necessarily ap plied to and remains on the surface, and its early benefits are given to the grass, and not only for that year but for as many after as the grass may continue good, or the general plan of cultivation may permit the field lo remain free from the precisely the reverse is the (act. Dr. Braxton is about to try lo have clover to succeed his corn crop, instead of wheal alter corn fas usual) and clover alier wheat. This would doubtless be a capital improvement, provided clo- ver can be produced with certainty after corn. In plough. But great as has been the improvement I answer lo my otjeciions sia'ed, o( the attempt be- thus made on land previously reduced very low i '"g made, (or several years, in experiments at by exhausting tillage, Gen. Steinbergen is fiil'y I Coggins Point, Dr. Braxton considers that ihe Pa- convinced of the truth, that the ability lo enrich | munkey land becomes, by the use of ils peculiar poor land by putrescent manures alone, depends marl, so lavorable to clover, that there will be no on Ihe land having been originally fertile. difficulty in having it alter corn. Aliep clover Gen. Steinbergen, without estimating red clover being once sown, and the land full of seed, it lower than its universally admitted ''degree of' takes possession of it whenever ii is without cul- value, thinks still more highly of greensward, i '"vation, as if the most natural product of the soil. [poa pratensis] ; and the superiority^ he claims He is opposed to liill or early winter ploughing of lor the latter is not only as furnishing more palata ble and nutritious (bod for cattle,^but also as a much richer green manure to the land producing it than clover. On describing to him how the sandy lands of lower Virginia, after marling, be- came sprinkled with greensward, he said it was then in the very stale when (to nurse this grass ploughing would cause much less seed to germi and obtain its rich benefits) tillage should be de layed as long as possible, and the land be sub- jected to grazing instead. He thinks that light land should be always grazed and trampled, at feast one year before ti'lage— and stiff land de- signed for tillage ishould never be grazed. Dr. Corhin Braxton cultivates the very sandy low-grounds of the Pamunkey, where he has made most extensive and profitable, as well as very remarkable improvements of product, by marling with the green-sand marl— which has both the fertilizing principles of green-sand and of calcareous matter combined. As his general re- sults, and also a general description of the Pamun- ihe land, when preparing (or corn. Ploughing in spring serves as well, and saves some alier-iillage, which the more consolidated early ploughed land would require ; and moreover, the early |)loughing is thickly covered by spring with young clover, all of which is killed by the first tillage. Later naie, and be therelore destroyed. The i<]a6tern Shore bean grows very kindly on these lands, after marling, and instead of being prized as an improver, is denounced by Dr. Brax- ton as a worthless weed, obstructing the. growth and lessening the product of clover, ihw great green crop (or manure, which he values far beyond all others as an improver. Dr. Braxton esteems the ruia baga turnip crop very highly, and deems the sugar bcel as compa- ratively worth very little. Besides the value of the ruta baga crop, for stock, when secured, he thinks its product almosi certain, on his land, with proper management. key lands, have been already published at length, I When on hia farm hi November, 18 10, I saw a 86 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. novel mode oC (bllowing ruta baga by wheat, or rather having both crops growing at once. On a rich part ol ihe clover land fallowed for wheat, ruta baga was platiied in rows 4 leet apart, and cultivated by ploughing and weeding. In October, when a fine growth of turnips was on this patch, (though no manure had been applied, except the green clover turned under,) wheat was sown here at the same time with the adjoining pan of the field, and the seed ploughed in, between the ruta baga rows. The roots were afierwards taken up, when grown and required for consumption. Dr. Braxton left home before the wheat was reaped ; but li-om its previous appearance, as well as his overseer's report, he thought the product not much lessened by the growth ol' turnips. OBSERVATIONS AND HOUGH KXPERIMENTS. 1841. For tlie Farmers' Register. 1. Gypsum. On March 26th, 21 bushels ol pulverized gypsum (French) sown at the rale ol a busiicl |)er acre on clover of second year's growth. Soil, originally acid and very poor; a light loam on sandy subsoil, well marled in 1824, since manured, and altojjeiher improved, from a product of 6 bushels of corn per acre to 25 or 30. The clover crop mean, and after June Ist, freely grazed. No benefit whatever perceived on a comparison with the adjoining clover not dressed withgypsuin on a soil exactly similar. 2. Green-sand. At the same time, in the same field, on similar soil, and on clover of same growth, one acre dressed with 40 bushels of green-sand earth (not calcareous,) from James river. Noetlect produced. 3. In March, eight acres of good loam, marled 10 years ago, product in corn supposed equal to 30 busheU, and in wheat after clover 18 or 20 bushels, were dressed with green-Band earth at the same rate, Two beds left out. Clover in its first year. No perceptible benefit. 4. Seed icheat. Having seen old seed wheat recommended, by several contributors lo the Register, of the crop of 1840, the grain of which was very good, a small quantity was kept in good order and careliilly guarded against all danger of heating, or other injury. This fall, 12 bushels sown in a field of unilorm and good quality, and immediately adjoining new seed ol same kind (purple straw.) The sowing of both kinds commenced and finished in the same day, and operations in every respect conducted exactly alike. Quantity to the acre the same (5^ pecks.) The old seed a little weevil-eaten, notwithstand- ing every care used in keeping it, but not enough BO to be much objectionable. The old seed longer germinating, and to this day, December 31st, looks decidedly inlerior to the wheat from new seed. 5. Top-dressing with farm yard manure, and with unprepared leaves. Eighteen acres of light sandy loam in clover of 2.1 year, very thin and very unpromising, was top-dres«ed in April, 1810, wiih rough and unrotted manure from the farm- pen, at the rate of 800 to 1000 bushels per acre. This land was marled in 1821, and (hough greatly improved, (for before its product was 8 to 10 bushels in corn, and perhaps 3 in wheat,) was still but of middling product, and before this ma- nuring, would not have brought more ihaci 18 or at most 20 bushels of corn per acre, or 6 bush- els of wheat alier corn. The last crop of wheat, cut in 1839, alter corn, was known to be only 42 bushels of wheat or 2^ bushels lo the acre. That crop however was very much damaged by chinch bug. The top-diessing was as coarse as any trodden litter could be, many corn-stalka merely mashed, but unbroken, constituted an average of the manure of the farm-pen, which was made ol the stalks and straw of the farm- pen trampled by the cattle, and covered over with the manure of the stables and hog-pens every lime ihey were cleaned out throughout the winter, which was about once a week. The hog-pena were principally littered with leaves from the woods. The effect of the top-dressing on the clover was almost immediately perceptible. In September the field was fallowed lor wheat, and in June of this year 283 bushels ol wheat were cut from it, equal to 16 bushels per acre. The soil is decidedly a corn soil, and too light lor wheal. But the most sinking and gratifying proof of improvement is the Irequent appearance of green-sward in many places, where it was not at all observed prior to this manuring. This valua- ble grass has generally made its appearance in spots in the different fields after marling, but this particular field was loo poor for its growth (so as lo be noticed) even afier marling, until it received this top-dressing. 6. In January, 1840, about 15 acres of light loam, with sandy subsoil, in cloverof second year's growth, top-dressed with 377 very large ox-cart loads of leaves, principally pine-beards raked to- gether in adjoining woods. The covering was so thick that at one time it was thought that the clover was in great danger of being smothered. It however came through and was decidedly benrflied, except in spots where ihe leaves were left loo thick. In the fall, the whole was fallow- ed for wheat. Crop 15 bushels per acre, and con- sidered a good yield for the land. Its product af- ter corn has usually been about 8. Part of this land was much infested with wire-grass. In get- ting in the wheat no means adopted to get rid of wire-grass, except to pick up and carry off the lit- tle that the harrows brought to the surface. And in fact this piece received one harrowing less than I usually gave to such virire-grass spots, on ac- count of a rain which interrupted the operations. This fall, 1841, in ploughing lor corn, noticed that very little wire-grass was left. Could the leaves have had any agency in killing the wire-grass, by shading or otherwise 1 Or did the mere exposure of the roots to the sun, as some maintain, effect itl Some credit is no doubt due to the latter cause, but the Ibrmer has a strong, and, may be, a stronger claim ; lor, in similar spots, fallowed without any application of leaves, I have never known a similar decrease of wire-grass. It may be well to mention that the above 15 acres were 10 or 12 years ago well marled — the soil, originally and previously to marling, acid. 7. Leaves ploughed under.— \n January, 1841, covered a stitl, intractable soil, previously and some years ago well marled, with leaves, which were ploughed under, and oats sown early in THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 87 March. No benefit to the oats whatever ; and when ploughing ihe land (or wheat this fall, the leaves were turned up very little decayed. K. RuFFiN, Jr. [The Foregoing statements were furnished upon our suggestion, and in regard to most of them in consequence of our seeing or otherwise knowing the general results, and deeming ihem the inoie worth notice, because ol our personal acquain- tance with the original condition and character of the land, which was the subject of our own early labors and improvement by marling. Though the written memoranda of the writer furnished the by-gone but recent facts nearly as here stated, etill, as accurate experimenting had not been at first designed, and still less any publication of results, it is not pretended that the statements ol quantities are entitled to (he respect due to the re suits of carefully and properly conducted expe- riments. We have another and more general reason for presenting these notes of observation to our readers. It is to show that by merely noting down, in the most concise and simple (brm, any results or facts observed deemed worth remember- ing, any practical cultivator might aid in furnish- ing a mass of interesting facts, or suggestions of subjects for inquiry and more careful experiment. There are hundreds of our readers, who never report any thing for publication, who might in any half hour, furnish some few such observa- tions, which, as /ac/s, and still more as having the authority of the name of the cbserver, would attract general attention, and convey much of useful suggestion, and induce imitation and co- operation in the pursuit of doubtful truths— all tending to cause the making of properly conduct- ed and accurately reported experiments. Will each one reader, who may acknowledge the value of such operation and results, do something to- wards producingthem?— Ed. F. R.] For the Fanners' Register. LIQUID MANURE. In the December number of the Register, I no- tice detailed a number of interesting and conclu- sive experiments, make by Mr. Milburn of York- shire, in the application of liquid manure. In the fall of 1840, alter cleaning out my standing farm- pen for the winter reception of my cattle, there was left in it a quantity of dark rich liquid, which 1 felt inclined to apply, to a neighboring field, then m young clover of first year's growth. With much the same primitive contrivance of pails and barrels placed in tumbril carts, as used by Mr. Milburn, I contrived, with much inconvenience, to get outmost of the liquid. It was spread very un- equally, and I cannot say at what rate. In many spots where the application was too heavy the clover was killed outright, but was succeeded the next spring by a most luxuriant growth of weeds. Generally, however, the clover was much benefit- ed. This fall the field was fallowed, and sown in wheat. On the part where the liquid manure was applied the wheat now exhibits a decided supe- riority. I have no sort of doubt of the highly en- riching quality ol'ihe liquid, and of the great an- nual loss sufiVred by our farmers when it is allow- ed to run off into the nearest gullies, or carefully drained off to the adjacent ravines, in order to ren- der the working of the manure more comfortable to the hands. It) every properly shaped farm-pen, each spring and fall, when it is cleaned out, there will always be (bund a large quantity of this valu- able liquid, which can be easily carried out by the simple contrivance recommended by Mr. Milburn. I think this single article, above referred to, is worth to every reader of the Register, who will adopt and act on its suggestions, more than the subscription to its wiiole series. Z. Jan. 6, 1842. From tlie American Farmer. Mr. Editor :—W\\\ you accept of a (isw hasty and indigested remarks on soils and their proper- ties of production ? Such as they are, they will be very much at your service ; but I must claim lor them the indulgence of yourself and readers, as they are written citrrente calamo, and without being transcribed or copied. In the American Farmer, No. 38, of the cur- rent volume, I observe that you have copied a short article (rom the Encyclopedia Britannica, concerning a very fruitful soil in the county of Caithness. — Such soils have been foimd, in the alluvial formation, in different parts of the globe — such is that of Ormiston, in East Lothian ; such is that of Somersetshire, in the low lands, near the opening of the river Parret into the British Channel ; some of the lands of East Florida, possess the same properties ; and to come nearer home, some o( the land of Spesutia Island, in Harford county, possesses the same inherent quality of production. Now as to the theory, by which this extraordi- nary fertility is explained, in order to form a rati- onal and correct one, we must take into view all the connecting circumstances. The soil described by the writer of the article under consideration, ia said to consist almost entirely of broken shells and fine mould, the latter in almost an impercepti- ble proportion — that from Ormiston afforded, by analysis, eleven parts in the hundred of mild calca- reous earth, twenty-five of siliceous sand, forty- five of finely divided clay, nine of animal and vegetable matter, and a small quantity of phos- phate of lime, to which latter its fertility is in a great measure attributed. The soil from the low lands of Somersetshire has been found to consist of only one ninth of siliceous sand, and eight nhiths of calcareous marl, with five parts in the hundred of vegetable matter ; and its fertility is attributed to its power of at- tracting principles of vegetable nourishment from, the atmosphere, and from water. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. Much of the secret of ferliliiy of soils consists in their power of atlraclion, &c., aa observed in the foregoing paragraph. All soils are not capa- ble of being rendered thus artificially fertile — much will depend on location, whether level or undulating — much on the structure of the sub-soil and its capacity of retaining moisture ; and where there is not an approximaiion to correct propor- tions, essential 'o leniliiy, the labor and expense of rendering liietn (i^rtile would not be counier- balanced by their productiveness. The altraciive or absorbent property of soils has probably not been sufficiently attended to — that lime, in some (brm, is essential to the fertility of soils, and to their power of absorbing nutriment from the atmosphere, all experience testifies ; and it is that portion of the soil which, next to vegeta- ble mould, is most subject to loss, as well by its af- fording an essential part of plants, as by being gradually washed away by rains, &c. In illus- tration of this hitter process of waste, I will men- tion a circumstance that has lately come within my observation. Last fall, in November, I had the roof of my kitchen covered with a thick wash of lime. A north-east storm came on before it got dry, and washed a considerable portion ol it off. A window was so situated as that the drop- pings from the eaves were driven against it — these droppings held the lime in solution, which was beautilully crystallized on the glass— this may serve to show that the calcareous part of soils is gradually wasting. Nearly all grains contain a portion of lime, some a large portion ; and they can obtain it in no other way than from the soil. From the foregoing observations it must be ap- parent, that in such cases where the soil does not originally contain a large portion ollime, it will be proper, occasionally, to renew the application ; and 1 am decidedly of opinion, that when it is in- tended to apply one hundred bushels to the acre it should be applied at three or four different dress- ings, at intervals of three or four years, as by this mode the greatest advantage will be obtained, at a given expense. Some plants, more than others, possess the power of attracting from the atmosphere the substances essential to their growth. The house- leek, (sempervivum,) is a remarkable instance of a plant possessing this power — such plants, it is presumed, contain but little lime. Nolonly plants, but some animals of a low grade ol organization, possess the power of attracting substances Ij-ora the surrounding elements, essential to their growth — the oyster is an instance of this— without the power ol locomotion, attached to a rock, the sperm of the oyster has the power, not only of attracting all its food from the surrounding elements, but of forming a calcareous shell lor its future habi- tation. But to return to a consideration of soils : it must be apparent that they should, in order to be fertile, be made to contain the food ol plants, and at the same lime be so constituted that they should pos- sess the power of attracting it from the atmosphere. Many of the articles that have been found to con- tribute greatly to the growth of plants, cost the farmer too much, and they are of too transitory a nature. Such are crushed bones, and poudrette ; substances, imparting astonishing leriiliiy lor one year, and where they aro within a reasonable dis- tance of transportation, will pay in one crop. It has been thought, and I should like to have the experiment fairly made, that ground oyster shells would answer nearly the same purpose of ground bones — oyster shells, though affording pure lime by calcination, differ, essentially in their proper- ties from lime-stone. They are composed of a carbonate and phospha'e of lime, and contain a portion of gelatine, or fibrine. It is hence conclud- ed that while they would, when ground, act almost as quick as crushed bones, they would be more durable, at one third, perhaps one fourth the expense. The most astonishing and negligent waste is attendant on the city of Baltimore, in permitting (or years the essential material for poudrette go to utter waste and loss. Many thousand dollars are thus annually lost (or the want of knowledge and enterprise. No speculation that could be entered upon at this time, would be so sure to reward Its undertakers as the manufacture of poudrette ia or near the city of Baltimore! Individuals have probably been deterred from entering upon it by the elaborate descriptions that have been given of the process, and the apparently large capital ne- cessary to carry it on, whereas nothing can be more simple than the process, and no business so sure of extensive profits that could be conducted at so small an expense. It is to be hoped that some enterprising agriculturist will take the hint and make a princely fortune by it. From the great difference of the causes that influence the productiveness of lands, it is obvious that all the favorable circumstances are rarely found to he united in any soil ; but by a due atten- tion to the component parts of soils, by chemical tests, by careful observation and experiment, we may generally be enabled by adding such parts as are deficient, to give fertility to those that are natu- rally sterile. It is to the earthy parts of a soil that we are to turn our first attention, and when these are formed in due proportions, its fertility may be considered as permanently established. The animal and vegetable portions are but tem- porary, and are exhausted by a given number of crops. Those soils must be considered best which contain the greatest store of those principles that constitute the food ofplants, permanently inherent in their quality — Calcareous soils, by their constant attraction (or carbon are of this class ; and if they at the same time contain animal and vegetable substances, are more eminently qualified lor this purpose by the supply of carbon and hydrogen which they af!ord. H. JVood Lawn, February 14, 1842. REMARKS ON A PRECEDING COMMUNICATION ON BERKSHIRE HOGS. We are so well pleased to have so judicious and practical a farmer as the Kev. J. H. Turner, for the first time a contributor to the Farmers' Register over his own signature, that we have no inclination to find fault with any thing he says, or to defend our editorial course from his strictures. But respect for himself forbids our passing over his remarks in silence. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 89 If it were not that our intelligent and highly esteeaied correspondent had so much mistaken our remarks, at page 17 of this volume, we should deem it sufficient to refer to those remarks for our defence against his charges. It is strange indeed that we may not dare to denounce humbuggeryj even where every inleiligent and candid observer will admit it exists, without being deemed an opposer and enemy of the really valuable improve- ment on which the humbug is built. We have re- peatedly, and especially in our remarks in ques- tion, admitted our belief in the Berlcshire hog being a valuable breed, and of course its in- troduction and diffusion being an important bene- fit to agriculture; and so far aa our interest is now connected with practical agriculture, we have acted on that belief, by beginning to raise Berkshires, though thereby supplanting another previously very highly prized breed. Neverthe- less, this favorable opinion is not incompatible with efhother, to wit, that this breed of hogs has been praised and puffed much more than it de- serves, and to subserve the self-interested views of salesmen ; that there has been a deal of puff- ing, falsehood, and deception, for this same end, and that too practised by some of the most noted breeders and salesmen ; and, in short, that there has been so much humbuggery practised in this respect, by those salesmen, that they, while filling their pockets at the expense of their dupes, have almost stifled the truth, and hid the real value of the breed, by the overlayings of falsehood. We know how much mankind dislike to be made to know that they are cheated ; and that he who cheats them will always fare better in their opi- nion than he who endeavors to expose the cheat. But while we expect, and are resigned to ihe fate of getting '' more kicks than coppers," or more curses than thanks, for our attempts to ex- pose humbug, it is inconceivable to us how such a man as Mr. Turner can so far misconstrue our course and its object, and consider us as; opposing true improvements of stock, or improvements of any branch of agriculture, because we oppose, and try (vainly) to expose, those who are per- petually using such real or alleged improvements to make dupes, and obtain ill-gotten gain for them- selves. When we have to seek for the true be- nefactors of agriculture, it will not be among the Bements and the Lossings, any moie than the 1 horburns, the Physicks, the Princes and the Morrises. Absence from home, when the letter of Mr. Tur- ner was put in type, prevented these remarks being placed at the close of his communication, as would have been more appropriate.— Ed. F. K Vol. X.-12 THE ADAPTATION OF PARTICULAR WHEATS TO PARTICULAR LOCALITIES. — PATENT MA- CHINES. For the Farmers' Register. In a late number of the Register, Mr, Carter suggested the benefit to be derived from the change of seed wheat. On a former occasion, I endeavored to draw attention to this subject, and finding that it has now attracted some notice, I shall give an account of the wheat most success- fully grown here. From my early recollection till the year 1798, when the Hessian fly first made its appearance in this district of country, the white Wasfiington was the general crop, lis destruc- tive ravages induced many farmers to try other va- rieties ; but it was soon found that this pestilent insect made little distinction. The late Col. Ed- ward Hays, of Talbot, who was much devoted to agriculture, and fond of experiments, for some years abandoned the growth of Washington wheat : he afterwards got seed of me ; and said, at a later period, he had tried many varieties, but had (bund none so valuable, and productive, as the Washington wheat. The grain is white, and makes the best family flour; the straw is soft, and both horses and cattle prefer it to any other wheat straw. It only grows well in salt-water districts. If carried into the interior it degenerates, loses its color, and becomes chaffy. For the last fifty years to which my recollection runs, this has been the principal crop on the farm where I now reside, till last year. About six years age, sup- posing that changing seed with a neighbor might be beneficial, I got a few bushels of the same sort of wheat. Though he was ignorant of it, his wheat contained a small portion of smut, which soon infected all my white wheats; and alter some fruitless attempts to clean it, I was under the necessity of abandoning its growth. Some of my neighbors, who have suffered in the same way, are now raising seed picked by hand, and as soon as I get pure seed, I shall sow it again. I have supposed this wheat would suit on some of the salt-water districts in Virginia. About thirty years ago, a wheat was introduced here, and is known by the name of the red chaff beard, I ap- prehend the same mentioned by Mr. Carter. It seems adapted to a variety of soils, and is more generally grocvn in this county than any other. It ripens early, though sown late ; and suffers less by the firost, especially on low, wet grounds. For these properties, it has been part of my crop for many years, though it sells at a much inferior price in the Baltimore market. When my white wheat was infected with smut, though this was thrashed by the same machine, cleaned with the same fan, and stored in the same granary, it did not contract the disease. An experienced farmer, .0 whom I mentioned this circumstance, informed me that his white and red wheat had been equally infected. A farmer always incurs risk by changing seed. When I abandoned the growth of Washington wheat, I purchased white flint from a gentleman in the neighborhood, who got the seed from New York in 1836, and had grown it exclusively on his farm. He had no suspicion of smut ; but upon careful examination, I found it to contain a small portion, and declined sowing it. I then procured Penneylvania white wheat, which han been lately 90 THE FARMERS' REGISTER introduced here : it does not ripen early, and I do not think produces equal to the Washington, or red chaff. 1 last summer saw some Chester county farmers in Washington, who stated that they grew there a wheat which they called the Mediterranean, which, though sown the last of August, would re- sist the Hessian fly. Dr. Darlington, a gentle- man of science and intelligence of West Chester, •confirmed their statement; and I purchased a few bushels, which I have eown for experiment. I have also sown a small quantity of white wheat which I procured from Ovvego county. It has a fine white grain, and much resembles our Wash- ington while wheat. From reading, and not from experience, I have been induced to think, that the change of seed wheat ie beneficial. The Scotch farmers often im- port seed from England, and Scotchmen generally understand their business. I cannot undertake to ■ay that the white Washington or red chafl' beard has degenerated on my lands ; on the contrary, when the season is favorable, 1 have found them equal in weight and product to what they were in my earliest recollection. iVJy theory is, that there are certain soils to which particular varieties of wheat are best adapted, and when this ia ascer- tained, it is always safest to rely on those varieties. If it be true that wheat adapted to a soil degene- rates from long sowing the same seed, raised from the same ground, 1 should prefer the same variety from a remote place. 1 have seen some beautiful parcels of wheat brought into this neighborhood, which very soon degenerated. Some years ago, Judge Thomas Buchanan sent me, from the high- lands of Washington county, some beautiful white wheat, from which I had formed high expecta- tions ; but it very soon degenerated, which I attri- buted to its not being suited to this soil. Upon the second introduction of red wlieat, after Mr. Carter had ceased to sow it for filleen years, he found it to produce well ; and when the product first diminished, it is probable if he had gotten seed of the same variety from a distance, he would have derived the same benefit. The adaptation of certain varieties of wheat to particular soils is proved by the Washington wheat growing in ealt-water districts, and degenerating when car- ried into the interior. Mr. Carter illustrates the necessity of the change of seed wheat by analogy to animals. It is now generally agreed that horses, cattle, sheep and hogs degenerate from long ex- clusive association. If from this cause a herd of Durhams had depreciated in value, I apprehend if one of the same herd was introduced when the connexion had been long broken, the cross would be as beneficial aa if made by a Devon. I am well satisfied that the while Washington and the red chaff wheat are best adapted to my lands, and though I am not sensible they have degenerated, I should be pleased to get seed of both or either from a distant region, for experiment. The community stands much indebted to Mr. Garnett, for his persevering efforts in the cause of agriculture ; and I am pleased to find that an agri- cultural convention has met in the city of Wash- ington, which has framed a constitution, and or- ganized a society; though, I much fear, it will languish for want of funds. Agriculture, though the paramount interest of the country, and ex- tending into every section, it seems is not so con- nected with the general welfare as to be entitled to the countenance of the general government. Per- haps one of the causes is, that no demands have been made. If I was a member of this society, 1 would bring the subject before them at their next meeting, to see if something could not be made out of this clause of the constitution. The manu- facturers, though (or the most part a sectional in- terest, placed themselves under its (bstering wings, where they would still have remained, but for the ardent and determined spirits of the south. I am not a latiiudinarian in construction ; but there are many problems in agriculture not solved, many discoveries not assayed, for want of means, and I think an appropriation to these objects would be more lor the general welfare, than sending ships on discovery lo unknown sea?, even if they should be so fortunate as to find an island within the Arctic circle. Among other new discoveries, the wheat drill was presented last year. The patentees are Pennsylvanians, from Chester county. They stated that, in their richest lands, one and a half bushel had been found sufficient seed ; on my im- proved grounds I generally sow two to the acre. I had a lew acres put in at llie rate they proposed, alternating spaces, with the plough, inflwhich I sowed two to the acre. The next harvest will test the accuracy of their statement. I kept the time of the work done by the drill, for two succes- sive hours, and found it would plant one acre to the hour, with two men and two horses, without fatigue to either. It deposites the wheat and covers it by the same operation ; and none can be found on the surface. The saving in labor and the saving of seed are no small considerations. I was much pleased with the woik done by the drill. It is somewhat complicated, and I have not sufficient information in mechanics to determine on its stability, and whether it can sustain the rough usage of rough hands. It appears to me that there is great defect in the patent law, and I think the subject not unworthy the consideration of the National Agricultural Society. The commissioner is directed to award a patent if the machine or composition of matter be new and useful. By examining and comparing a machine with the models in his office, he can determine if it be new ; h\x< he has not the science, experience, ability, and means of experiment, to determine on its utility ; which does not depend only on its apparent fitness (or the work intended to be performed, but its ability to sustain it in con- tinued practical operation. I do not speak from any personal knowledge of the master of patents, but it would be rare to find a man possessing all the requisite qualifications. The Patent Office ought to have attached to it a scientific practical chemist, and a scientific practical mechanic, (with salaries to command the best abilities,) who should be provided with full means lor experiment. In the departments under the general government, where the general welfare is concerned, no rea- sonable expense ought to be spared. Patent ma- chines and patent medicines have long been a gross imposition, and must so continue, until the Patent Office shall be put under better regulations. If the wheat drill had passed through the Patent Office under the inspection of men competent to decide on its usefulness and durability, though the price is ^100, 1 would purchase one for the next THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 91 season ; for I entertain no doubt but the saving of labor and seed in two crops would clear the cost. Wm. Carmichael. fVye, Queen ^iin's, 3Id., Feb. 17, 1842. ADDRESS TO THE AGRICUnTURAL SOCIETY OP MASON, CABELL AND KANAWHA. Bij Gen. P. H. Steinbergen, President. Gentlemen of the Agricultural Society : — Let me congratulate you that we have again assem- bled under the rules of our society. It affords evidence of continued zeal to the cause of our association, and furnishes at the same time an opportunity, highly pleasing, of friendly social intercourse among its members. Such meetings are well calculated to give life and animation to the prosecution of that great interest in which we are engaged. . By means of premiums to successful competitors, we can tempt the spirit of rivalry, and stimulate to increased exertion. The farmers of this nation are the sheet- anchor and support of every other great inter- est of society. On their broad shoulders rests the superstructure of national wealth and prospe- rity, and to their success or failure you may justly look, as to an unerring index, for the condition ol' the whole community. Hovy important then it is to us, that we should possess the lights of experi- ence, in order to guide our operations ! How im- portant that those operations should be con- ducted upon settled principles, drawn from well authenticated facts, suited to our local circum- stances. 1 hope that several of you the past season have given your attention to this primary duty, and will report to this meeting such actual experiments as you have made, and believe con- ducive to our interest. If every member would pursue such a course, we could soon make a depository of useful inforaoation available alike to all. During the last summer some facts came under my own observation, that have pecu- liar and appropriate relations to the condition of our country. I had always supposed that the soil of this section of the state was deficient in calca- reous matter, but from some experiments lately made on my farm by Mr. Briggg, one of the assistants of Dr. Rogers the geologist of this state, he has completely satisfied me of the actual existence of lime, with various combinations, and in situations where I had never before suspected it to be. With a vial of muriatic acid in hand, we carefully examined the whole chain of rocks cropping out of the river hills bordering on the bottom ; and frequently applying the acid to such rocks as he indicated, they would rapidly loam, or effervesce^ showing to a certainty the actuni presence of lime. In some places we found the rocks combining nearly equal parts of lime and sand ; and the same vein or ledee, on pursuing it horizontally, would evidently change its character to ferruginous, indicating thereby combinations of iron. The very best specimen of calcareous earth we found, or that I believe our country produces, is on the bosom of some of our river hills. They are those red, naked barren-looking places generally spoken of here as *•' buffalo stamps.^^ There is one near my house, and on it much, fine, pure, limestone gravel ; the red earth freely effervesc- ing with acids, and apparently so highly calcare- ous as to produce no vegetation whatever. I must believe that the discovery of this calca- reous earth may be made of vast importance in the (iiture improvement of our soil. Its application to oursandj' land particularly, when in a sod of grass and previous to turning under for corn, would surely add greatly to its production. I shall, on the first proper occasion, try the effect on some of ray fields, and report to you hereafter the result. Further and more extended observations since iVlr. Brigga left the neighborhood have enabled me to trace several ledges of tolerably good lime- stone, (combined with sand as usual), at the dis- tance of two or three miles from the river. Find- ing such specimens thus located at different angles around us, 1 am now satisfied of the existence of sufficient calcareous matter in our soil for all the purposes of good husbandry and profitable farm- ing. It is the opinion of geologists, that the character of a soil is determined by the rocks that lie under- neath it, the soil being formed by the disintegration or decay of those rocks. If such is the fact, wa- ter percolating through them will carry off carbo- I nate of lime held in solution ; and that same cause j thus operating for ages over the rocks, must have ! incorporated considerable calcareous matter in the soil. You will have observed, that under those ranges of rocks so common to our creek and river I hills, you see the land is very .frequently as rich as our best river bottoms ; and to what other cause than the one before mentioned can we attribute the fertility that is known to exist in that particular situation? Our alluvial bottoms, formed originally by deposition from the river, and almost annually inundated, have naturally been manured by the deposite, containing more or less of every sub- stance over which the water should happen to have passed before reaching them. In this way we can readily account for the unsurpassed fertili- ty of the upper Kanawha bottoms. It has been the first receptacle for the wash from the limestone region above ; and the component parts of the soil formed by chemical combinations of the most fertilizing of all manures. If we are fully satisfied of only a small part of calcareous matter present, we can enrich our soil to any desirable extent by the application of vege- table substances ; and in what other way can they be more readily obtained, than by sowing clover and other grasses? It will always be in your pow- er to make a direct use of yoiar clover sod, by turning it under, with such other materials as your care and attention may have enabled you to save for that purpose ; or you may pursue with your grass the system of grazing cattle, making them the principal auxiliaries in enriching your estate. I had a good opportunity the last eummer of comparing the relative merits and advantages which different principles of farming produced in various parts of this country ; and as the result of my observation has added to my previous convic- tion of the utility, profit and advantage arising from grazing, as well as the vast y increased 9^ THE FARMERS' REGISTER. fertility and improvement of those farms on which if was judiciously practised, I will here state somewhat in detail euch consequences as 1 ob- served growing out of each system. My tour exieniied from the James river to the Potomac, in the Valley, and through a i»an of Loudoun county. It is well known that nearly all the Valley of this state is highly calcareous, based on limesione rock cropping out in many instances so as to ob- struct agricultural operations. To me, in some ioetaijces, it was matter oi' perlect astonishment, that with the materials ol" inexhaustible fertility lying in profusion around them, 1 observed some fields going to waste and profitless ruin, from the want of clover and other grasses sown upon them. I perceived that even there, where the land was cerlaiBly calcareous, if tliey failed to combine the vegetable matter, all iheir eflbrts at general improvement were given to the winds ; as they had added nothing to stimulate into active use the leriilizing properties of the lime. I saw, in various situations, huge mounds of calcareous tula, or travertine. This is deposited from water holding carbonate ol lime in solution, by means of carbonic acid. As the excess of the acid escapes, as it does generally at some fall or ripple, the lime is deposited in the Ibrm of an im- pure porous carbonate, frequently encrusting stones, leaves, and sometimes trees. Never, I be- lieve, has the hand of Providence placed any other substance of such utility to agricultural purposes, more readily at the command of the iarmer. It is easily calcined, and then used as lime ; or may be readily ground like plaster, and applied in large quantities on clover sod previous to turning under. In no instance where it exists in such abundance could I learn that it was used for any purpose whatever. I could wish, for the future welfare and future improvement of the spot ol my nativity, that Mr. RufRn, the editor of the Farmer's Register, would at some time extend his trips up into the Valley, and bring into active and general use this treasure, now neglected and unnoticed. It is thus, that often the treasures of our country lie dormant and unknown, from our not having proper agricultural surveys to bring thera to light, life, and usefulness. I found on every estate, where due attention was paid to grazing, and alternating their crops, evident improvement, particularly when aided by the grazing of cattle, long considered there as almost indispensable to the perfect manage- ment of their lands. In Loudoun, through their cattle, wheat, clover, and plaster, an impulse has been given to good farming, unequalled, I believe, by any county in the state. I there saw with pleasure, lands that I well knew thirty years ago, then poor, exhausted, gullied, and worn out, now perfectly reclaimed, and covered with cattle and most luxuriant crops of grass. I was satisfied, by comparing their oldest grazing farms with those more recently converted into them, that it was to that system mainly they were indebted for their high state of fertility. The use of plas- ter first gave them clover, that created ihe neces- sity of buying stock to consume it ; and the con- tinued repetition of the use of both has now pro- duced such consi'quences as evidently jusiily the wisdom of this practice. But little corn is raised ; wheat and cattle are staples of the best managed farms. Their oldest pastures are now well com- bined wiih green-sward, indicating increased fer- tility, it enables them to compete successfully as graziers with Bny other part of the state, and sell annually upwards of twelve thousand cattle. To that county I may justly appeal for full evi- dence of what may be realized by the use of clover and its concomitant advantages. We have seen her exhausted fields reclaimed and made productive, her people prosperous and increasing in wealth, number, and resources. Why should we not profit by her example 1 I have no doubt that we now possess a much finer natural soil than theirs, and containing more calcareous com- binations, the converting agent of vegetable mat- ter. X)ur rolling hills and alluvial bottoms present a noble field for continued improvement. They now invite the fostering care of good husbandry. Let us then take counsel from that experience of others which is before us. Let us pursue that course which will surely increase the fertility of our land, and careflilly avoid such a suicidal policy as would allow any part of our land to remain uncovered with clover or other grasses. In thus urging on you the propriety of sowing grass on all occasions as the first move in a course of regular improvements, 1 would remark that proper care and attention should always be given to other resources at your command as auxiliaries, to be applied when necessity and circumstances may indicate. Your cornstalks, straw, hay and barnyard manures have their appropriate place, and time of application, in a correct rotation of' crops. The weeds that annually spring up on everj' farm should be cut before they mature their seed. Nothing more exhausts your soil, and prevents the formation of a good sod. I will here warn you to beware of the blue thistle and ox-eye, two of the most foul and nox- ious weeds I know. They have topped the Alleghany on their march to the west, and high waters in a short time will assuredly float their seed among us. Declare a war of extermination against them at sight. Care and attention given in time can prevent their spreading, and hold them in subjection ; but if neglected they will take entire possession of whole fields, to the utier exclusion of every production. I have seen whole sections of the state so polluted with these weeds, as very materially to lessen the income and value of the land. The last season has very generally proved un- favorable to the maturity of wheat. In the Valley and in Loudoun, I was informed, that the early spring gave indications of a most abun- dant crop. At harvest I found those promising appearances blasted, and universal destruction occasioned in that county by the rust. Our crops this year have certainly excelled that fine wheat growing region. As I returned to the west, I observed a change commence at the North Mountain, and gradually improving to the Ohio. Some experiments were made last year by Mr. McMullin, a member of our society, with a view of ascprtaining the best period for seeding wheat. A part of his crop was sown on the first day of August, another part in September, and the balance in October. The product has THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 93 proved very different. The first sown entirely escaped the rust, the straw unusually bright and clear, the grain (iiU and plump, equal in quality to any produced in our best seasons — second time of sowing succeeded next — and the last materially injured by rust. This trial, however, 1 do not believe entirely decisive, because the last peculiar season has had great influence on the final result. Further experiments ought to be made and re- ported. It appears to me that the lime of sowing wlieat should be regulated to avoid, if possible. the two greatest evils by which our crops are endangered. 1 mean the fly and winter killing. Very early sown wheat will get firmly rooted be- fore winter, if it should escape the fly ; on the contrary, late sown is liiU as liable to receive in- jury by freezing out. 1 would look to the particular character of the soil to determine when is the correct time ol needing it, lor heavy clay land is more likely to be thrown up than light sandy soil ; sandy soil retaining less water. In comparing the several casualties attending our previous crop of wheat, 1 am induced to believe that the chances are most in favor ol the early sown producing the best crop. Make your land rich, and the fly can do no injury compared to the risk you will hazard in delay, from rust and winter killing. 1 expressed my sentiments so fully in my last communication on the growth and culture of the corn crop, that 1 will now say but little on that subject. I yet entertain the opinion that the best preparation that we can give to land, to produce the greatest yield, should be applied when it is in a grass sod, and previous to turning it over. Whatever efforts are then made to manure and enrich the soil, the benefits resulting thereli"om will be immediate and direct. 1 consider that deep ploughing at the same time is essential, and almost of equal importance to secure a suc- cessful crop. In no other way can we guard more effectually against the withering influence of our dry seasons, than by thus creating a depth ol mellow soil, which repels its effects by lessening evaporation. The advantages resulting from the growth of the root crops are now justly appreciated by those who have given most attention to their culture. Rising in importance in every section of the country where they have been tried, they are there considered an indispensable crop to every well conducted system of husbandry. They have proved admirable food for cows. I saw in a Philadelphia paper a publication, stating that the best lot of winter butter ever offered in that mar- ket was then exhibited, and had been made en- tirely from the sugar beet. Several members of this society have cultivated these crops with great success. To their experience I will refer you for practical information in regard to this culture. I would again recommend enclosing your wood land, and converting it to standing pastures, by cutting off' the small timber, and then thickly seed- ing it all with grass. My own experience con- vinces me of the great benefit resulting from adopting such a course. Those pastures that I have herelolbre made, improve under grazing, and certainly will repay the amount ol" labor ex- pended on their formation. I am so satisfied with the experiment, that I shall continue to in- crease them until all Tiy hill land is converted into profitable pastures. Other opinions, in aid and in confirmation of my own judgment, will induce me to persevere until iis final accomplish- ment. A gentleman who had carefully examin- ed our hill land, and the grass growing on it, ex- pressed his admiration at the prospect, and stated his firm belief of its capacity to rival Kentucky in good grazing. I have great confidence in his intelligence and opinion on that subject, as he is himself an adnnra^lle grazier, and well ac- quainted with Kentucky. There is nothing that gives more security, or adds a greater ornament to a farm' than good fencing, when judiciously arranged. The great convenience which we now have of getting rail timber, or other materials, for its construction, should induce every farmer to make substantial enclosures. How oiten have we seen ill-will created, and the peace, quiet, and harmony of neighbors disturbed, from the want of such ade- quate fencing as would give security to their crops. Very lew can bear with murh patience trespasses daily committed on their properly, without complaining ; and yet it most frequently happens, that they alone are in fault, through their own negligence and bad management, lor all the injury that they have received. The law, as it now exists, permits stock to run at large, and it is your firei duly to yourself and your neighbor, to guard against their depredations, by making such adequate fences as will secure your crops. I have sometimes observed, that through inat- tention and carelessness to the duties of good farming, briers have been permitled to grow up in fence corners, and not unfrequently to extend over whole fields. Such negligent conduct is justly reprehensible ; for surely il our land is of any value to us, it is worth our attention and pro- tection. Nothing i$ easier to keep under, or even to extirpate entirely from a field, than briers. Sow your land ihickly in grass, tread it with stock, apply the scythe when required, and avoid ploughing until you have a perfect sod. To light- en up the soil by the plough is to increase their growth. Their destruction is only effected by binding with grass. The exhibition of yesterday has satisfied me, that increased energy and activity has been alrea- dy given to the productions of the country by the operations of this society. The fine stock shown was creditable to their owners. The root, grass, and grain crops as abundant and productive as the season would justify. But it is in the depart- ment of female ingenuity and taste, that we are delighted to find the principal sources of the interest and pleasure belonging to our exhibition ; and to the ladies would I award the greatest praise, justly earned by their spirited exertions. The number, beauty, variety, and superior quality of all the articles presented by them for premiums, were objects of just admiration to all who saw them. We earnestly hope that they will continue their exertions, and we well know, that when aid- ed by the ladies, our cause will prosper 94 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. ROTATION OF CROPS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Much has been said and written on this eub- ject, and not without cause ; for ofall the matters which necessarily engage the mind oC the re- flecting Carmer, it would be dilficult to suggest one more important. Besides the ediior himseii; many successful farmers and able writers have expressed their views in liill on this subjeci throughout the whole eyries of tiie Farmers' Recrister ; for example, INlessrs. Carter, Selden, VVickham, Harrison, Roy, Tabb, Braxton and many others, whose names have only to be men- tioned at once to arrest attention and give weight to the views advanced by them respectively. These gentlemen live, nearly all of them, in grain- groxoing districts of old Virginia, are good agriculturists, by wiiich ! mean that they not only make good crops, but also yearly improve their lands, and yet they advocate different sys- tems of rotation of crops, varying in the number of years through which the rotation passes from two lo six. JNay more, the same gentleman has at different times on the same land advocated different systems — and still been successful. How is this"? Does it prove that rotation is a matter of no importance'? Not at all. It only proves that diflerent soils and different situations require different systems — that it would be the height of lolly to make all soils and all crops bend to one uniform system — and that even under a bad sys- tem, good management and good cultivation may and will produce satisfactory results. Let it be remembered however that the converse of this proposition is not always true. A good sys- tem will not always counterbalance bad cultiva- tion and bad management. While having an eye, and a close one too, to the most important, let not the farmer neglect the many smaller mat- ters, which in the aggregate may not the less affect immediate results. If so much has been written and ably written too, what need of more? perhaps the reader will ask. I readily answer, because the subject is important, and every fact, however apparently trifling, drawn from experience, connected with it, is important, and one or two facts i wish to com- municate, besides wishing to draw information and advice from others. In determining on every system of rotation, a few important points must be looked to. Is the principal business of the farm the raising of stock or growing of grain? If the latter, is the land best adapted to the growth of wheat or corn 1 Is the farm level or hilly ? Does the farmer enjoy great facility of getting his products lo market, or the reverse? And several other leading matters which will readily suggest themselves. It is not my object to discuss at this time the best rotation lor every possible variety of soil and circumstance, but to call attention to that which I consider best adapted to a grain -growing farm, situated on tide water, adapted better to the growth of corn, but capable of producing very good clover and wheat. Such generally is my farm, but it is necessary to state that it is very rolling, and that there are 60 acres of land very stiff and totally unfit for producing corn. In fixing on my rotation, I set apart these 60 acres to be divided into two fields to be fallowed alternately for wheat, and to be kept in wheat and clover as long as they remain clear of blue-grass and other pests. The re- mainder of my larm I could not so readily deter- mine on. When I received it, it had been culti- vated for some years on the four-shift sj^slem of Arator, fallowing however to a very small extent each year. The portion of the field not fallow- ed, by lying out so long, became excessively foul with eassali-as, locust, wire-grass, and innumera- ble pests of the vegetable kmgdom, so that pre- paring it for the next corn crop was an Herculean task. I soon found that would not do; that most of my yearly labor was expended in conquering a growth of pests only to be again repeated when the land came again into cultivation. But what to do? There was the rub. I knew that my land, with my indifferent management and limited means of manuring, could never stand the scourg- ing system pursued with such eminent success on the fine wheat soils of Westover and Shirley, and under the superior management of Messrs. Selden and Carter. I could not adopt the three- field rotation of corn, wheat and clover ; because my land was so hilly, that a hoe crop every third year would soon cover it with washes and gullies. Besides, I was fully convinced of the great improvement to be derived from sumBoer- fallowioL'', the importance of having some work of this kind for the horses to do at this otherwise idle season, and the great advantage of having one field ready when the 10th of October (my seed-time) came. I confess that having, as I mentioned above, 30 acres to fallow each year, I was about this time much tempted to yield to the arguments of iVlr. Harrison, Mr. Tabb and Mr. Roy, to whose interesting communications 1 would refer the reader, but was prevented by the hilliness and rolling nature of my land. I have no sort of doubt that the system which they so ably recommend is the one best adapted to most of lower Virginia, which is generally level and better fitted for corn than for wheat culture. The consideration that corn is a very certain, and wheat a very uncertain crop, deservedly had much weight. Being driven from the three and also from the four-field rotation, I next very naturally turned my attention to a five-field system. I was the more re- conciled to this, because about this time I heard that Mr. Harrison was thinking of abandoning his favorite three-field for the Ibur-field system, and that Messrs. Selden and Carter were medi- tating a change from their boasted Ibur-field rota- tion to one of five fields. These gentlemen are our Cokes and Blackstonee, in matters of agricul- ture, on lower James river, and I must be ex- cused for adducing them as authority so often. A five-field system was then the thing. The best arrangement for five fields of which I had heard was that pursued successfully by Mr. Wick- ham, viz., corn, wheat, clover, wheat, clover. But I learned from Mr. Harrison that under this arrangement my farm would become foul — one of the principal objects I had in view in abandoning my old system (Aralor's four-field.) A second objection was that the clover, on the authority of Mr. Selden, would most likely fail after the fallow crop of wheat. A third and very serious one was that if the crop of clover preceding the corn was closely grazed it would be rendering the earth close and compact, which was much to be re- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 95 gretted for corn, and would be bringing the three grain crops and one year oC grazing ail in close and rapid succession. On the other liand, not to graze would be to insure a fine crop of vegetable pests ; they in turn furnishing a nest to breed, and a harbor to protect, an equal number of animal ones. I shall revert to this system ; it has much to recommend it. " Kivanna," a writer in the 8ih volume of the Farmers' Register, considers it the beau-ideal of a system of rotation. By the way, if his eye falls on these desultory reinaiks, will he inform us whether his opinion is the result of actual observation and experience, or a deduction from theoretical principles? Dr. Brax- ton too recommends it as highly improving alter several years' experience. At this juncture there appeared in the volume of the Register for 1839, several essays (I judged) by the editor, in which he discussed the manuring and cleansing of lands by their own growth, and the application of the principles of the rotation of crops. A suggestion there met with made me hope that 1 could adopt the four-field and fallow rotation, with all its great benefits, without any detriment to the land ; which was, that by sow- ing peas broadcast amongst the corn at the time of'^laying it by, an excellent pea fallow might be had the same fall. Such a pea crop would not only be alternating the kinds of crop, but would be furnishing enriching matter to I he land for its improvement. I tried it ; but failed so completely on the first trial that I was never after induced to repeat it. Yet such practice is highly recom- mended, and Mr. Braxton, in his valuable article on rotation, in vol. viii., if I mistake not, says that he has practised sowing peas in this way, and with success. I also tried sowing buckwheat in the same way, but with no better result. All would not do. To the five-field rotation I was driven. Having thus unconditionally made up my mind to adopt five fields, 1 was anxious to adopt llie plan most improving, and which also would yield most immediate profit. I adopted a system suggested in one of tiie above mentioned essays, viz. : First year, corn. Second do. peas, fallowed in fall for wheat. Third do. wheat. Fourth, do. clover. Fifth do. wheat. And wishing to derive every benefit, 1 also adopted the recommendation of sowing the corn field in rye in the fall ; the rye to be turned under next spring while in flower for peas. I did not de- rive the slightest benefit from the rye. If the month of May happened to be dry, I found it very laborious ploughing the land in rye, even when other land did not appear very hard ; and 1 soon became convinced that if any benefit did accrue to the land from the rye, it was not sufficient to remunerate me for expense of seed and plough- ing. I have since seen, in one of Mr. Carter's papers, that he came to the same conclusion with regard to oats turned in for improvement, from an experiment actually made. I also subsiiiuled, when ill-supplied with seed-peas, buckwheat for the peas. But I never found any benefit from it. Nor ought it to have been expected. Both rye and buckwheat are narrow-leaved, fibrous- rooted, grain-producing plants, and no doubt must draw nearly as much from, as they can return toj the earth. My rotation now stands — 1st year corn, 2d peas, Sd wheat, 4th clover partially grazed, (late,) 5th wheat. About half of the coin land is put in • oats and sown in clover, leaving only half for peas and wheat. That put in oats of course remains two years in clover, and, with the help of a stand- ing pasture, supports the stock, till timeto glean the wheat fields, both of which are grazed moderately. In fact I have come to the conclusion, that light or corn land, like mine, to improve progressivehj, must be grazed. There might be faster improve- ment, lor a short time, without the hootj but it would sooner cease to progress. To my present plan there are strong objections, which I will briefly enumerate. Ist, the expense and labor of the additional |>loughingfbrpeas, when compared with the sowing of clover in the five- field rotation of Mr. Wickham. 2d, clover is not apt to succeed vpry well after the wheat on the pea fallow. Whether the peas render the land too porous, or whether the rank growth of wheat which succeeds a rank growth of peas smothers the clover, I am unable to say. A third objection is, that the oal field, being loliowed Ivvo years by clover, becomes very Ibul. And two years in clover are necessary to bring that portion into rotation with the other half of the field re- served Ibr wheat. I select for the oats the most rolling portion of the corn field, which is thereby subjected to one ploughing less in tlie rotation than the remainder of the field, and if it becumes more foul, my idea was that it would be less apt to wash ; and of the two, foulness or cullies, I greatly preferred the (brmer. But even in this I have been disappointed, for by this arrangement, it will at once be seen that the land intended Ibr oats lies throughout the winter without any vege- table cover, and of course in the worst state for the action of the rains. I believe that if I adopt- ed the five-field system, marked below No. II, and followed the corn by wheat on all the rolling parts and by oats in all the level parts, the whole to be sown in clover and fallowed the following fall twelve months, that it would not only be better, for guarding against washing, but also it would be a more cleansing system, so far at any rate as the oat land is concerned. I confess that I am now wavering between the two systems and have not yet come to a final deter- mination. If any brother farmer can aid me in my quandary he will receive my warmest thanks. I cannot do with less than five fields; and the question is shall I adhere to my present five field and (pea and clover) fallow rotation, or shall 1 adopt Mr. Wickham's system of five-fields, two of which are in clover. To compare them better I will place them in juxtaposition. /. Pea %• clover fields. II. Two clover fields. 1st year corn. 1. corn. 2d " half in peas, and 2. half in wheat and half in oats. half in oats. 3d " half in wheat & 3. clover, half in clover. 4. wheat. 4ih " clover. 5, clover grazed. 5th " wheat. I think both capital rotations, as free from objec- tions as any rotation contained in 5 years or less time can be, but they still have their objections, some of which I have stated above with regard to each one. Here I would only ask a single question. Would as much wheat be made on the 2d as on the 1st plan ? A reduction of the 96 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. profits of each to figures 1 am unable to give, never having tried one oC tht^m. 1 am avvare of a third scheme of a five-field rotation recommended and adopted by Mr. Carter. But in my humble judgment it is interior to either of the above ; and in this opinion I am supported by Mr, Braxton, and by a writer over the signa- ture of R. in vol. viii. | In the above remarks, I have frequently called | to my aid the authority of many of your ablest I correspondents, and in doing so it is hoped that I the o|)inions of none have been niiijrepresented- If | otherwise, I hope to be set right ; and cannot con- ' elude without remarking that if ihis communica- • tion has no other merit, it has at least ihat of| presenting in one view a long list of Virginia's noblest sons and benefactors. Benefactors, I say, for by regenerating her soil, ihey have done her more service, than the whole host of her politicans for the last forty years. M. February, 1842. ON THE FAUMIXG OF THE REV. JESSE II. TURNER. To tlie Editor of tlie Farmers' Register, It is a sort of adage that there are " secrets in all professions." i believe, however, that there is an exception to this as there is to most general rules. The profession of farming is an exception. By common consent, the experience of every farmer is common property with his brother farmers, and it is generally conceded that every farmer has a right to call on others for such infor- mation as he wishes, without the fear of refusal. With these remarks I would take the liberty of making an appeal (and I hope not in vain) to my old friend, the Kev. Jesse H. Turner. In a recent visit to his farm I was delighted at the neatness, order, system and high state of fertility which he had effected in a few years. But that which most of all is to be admired and is the best test of good farming, is that he makes his I farm very profitable. Now I hope Mr. Turner will excuse ihe call which I make upon him, and gratify me as wefl as do the public a service by giving a general detail of his eystem and ma- nagement. I hope he will give us a series of essays embracing his whole system, rotations, corn-culture, grass-culture, manuring, fallow, &c. W. J. DupuY. [We have, long ago as well as recently, made similar requests of Mr. Turner, and now heartily second this public call made on him by our corre- spondent. We know of no one whose practice has been more successful, or profitable, in his situ- ation, of a farmer near enough to a city to use bought manure. Siill, we think ihat he has so far missed one of the greatest means to aid and fix his other manuringa of his fields, in neglecting to apply lime. Without this, or some other calcare- ous manure, on a naturally poor soil, all putres- cent manures are but of transient effect, and are rapidly lost. Mr. Turner has made unquestiona- ble and very large agricultural profits, by continu- ally renewing large supplies of purchased putres- cent manures, added to his own farm supply. But if he had made his soil calcareous, it would render the other manures permanent, and also make the crops better and more certain, than can be done by any possible amount of putrescent ma- nure alone. While fully believing that both the enriching and the profits of Mr. Turner's farm have been very considerable and unusual, we must still also believe that there is yet wanting, in the use of lime, the " one thing needful," to ren- der his improvements permanent, and his farming far more perfect and profitable. — Ed. F. R.] CONTENTS OF THE FARMERS' REGISTER, NO. II. VOL. X. ORIGINAL, COMBIUNICATIONS. Page Remarks on the Agricultural Society of the United States, 65 Hints and observations, 66 Comments on articles on Berkshire hogs, - - 67 Queries in regard to prevalent diseases produced by local causes, 68 Scraps of farmers' conversations, - - - 83 Observations and rough experiments, 1841, - 86 Liquid manure, 87 Remarks on a preceding communication on Berk- shire hogs, 88 On the adaptation of particular wheats to particu- lar localities. — Patent machines - - - 89 Rotation of crops, ---... 94 On the farming of the Rev. J. H. Turner, - 96 SELECTIONS. On the preservation of manure, - - - - 49 On the comparative feeding properties of mangel wurzel and Swedish turnips, - - - - 50 Worm in the kidney of swine, - - . - 50 Of the preservation of races by seed, - . .51 Page Upon the making of cider, - - - - 53 Making dipped candles, 55 Kentucky blue grass, 56 On guano, 56 The false pretences of the banks of preparing to pay specie, again exposed, - - - - 63 Irish potatoes from seed, 64 Receipt for making soap, - - - - 69 Powder of slippery elm, 70 Driving cattle, 70 An essay on the system of agriculture best adapt- ed to Kentucky, 70 Berkshire hogs, 76 Murrain in cattle, 78 Remarks upon English cattle, and a comparison of them with American, - - - - 79 Manuring with salt marsh grass and mud, on the Sea Islands of South Carolina, - - - 81 Extracts from the sixth agricultural meeting at the State House, 82 On soils, 87 Address to the Agricultural Society of Mason, Cabell and Kanawha, - -- - - - 89 THE FARMERS ' REGISTER. Vol. X. MARCH 31,- 4842. No. 3. EDMUND RUFPIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. SANDY POINT ESTATE. — NO. V. To the Editor oftlie Farmers' Register. Sandy Point, ISth Februarij, 1812. The following commuiiiication will preserit a fjeneral summary of tlie farming operations, on this estate (or the year 1841, (exclusive of those which may have been noted in (brmer numbers,) and would have been ,Q)rwarded to you ere now, had not a protracted indisposition and other causes induced delay. The 1st of January, 1841, found us with a very considerable proporiion of the corn crop of 1840 yet out in the field, being prevented from hauling ofi' the land sown in wheat, by the continued wet weather, and consequent soft state of the ground ; nor was all got in till the 15ih of February, when the last loads were got up, all in good and safe condition. Fallowing operations for the corn crop of this year (1841) were fully two-thirds executed prior to the 15th of December preceding, and it proved fortunate that we were so far in advance, lor the unprecedented wet winter eil'ectually put a stop to all such operations. Nor were we again able to resume fallowing earlier than the 22d of February. The general condition of the ground then being wet and heavy, wc were only enabled to plough on drier portions of corn ground, and that, intended for oats. At intervals, during the last week of February and 1st day of March, 24 bushels of clover seed were sown amongst wheat ; the ground in good condition (or receiving the seed, which was sown without receivingeilher a subsequent harrowing or rolling, and has generally succeeded vvelf One gallon of seed was sown pe_r acre, and from the apparent abundance of plants has proved to have been an abundant supply. Not more than 30 acres of the land thus sown in clover had been rendered calcareous by a preceding application of lime or marl. The larger proporiion was sown on a neutral soil, a portion of which might be consi- dered rich ; but much the greater part of only me- dium quality as to fertility, and a few acres of a lighter soil, decidedly poor. On this latter the stand of plants, as was anticipated, is very sparse, on ihe other and larger portion of neutral soil, the general stand is pretty good, though greatly infe- rior to that sown on land of an exactly similar na- ture, and which had received the benefit o( a dressing of either lime or marl, on which the plants are not only thickly set, but now present a luxuriant appearance. Oat sowing was commenced on the 2d of March, but, in consequence of delays from fie- (|uent rains, was not completed until the 30th of the month. On corn nrround of the piecediiiii year there were sown 220 bushels, and 113 on a weed and clover fallow, intended for ploughing under at the proper season, as a preparatory green manuring for wheat. The result ,of this crop was extremely indifferent. Oats suffered (i-om drou-ht; stra;v was generally very shon : and the grain Vol. X.-13 was also indiflerent — the whole being little short of an entire failure. The seed originally was.tiot ()ure, being a mixture of the common and ruffle oats, not so from choice, but Irom carelessness in storing past seed, or by some other means allow- ing them to become mixed. The sowing of them in this mixed condition, lor two or more years, re- sulted in both varieties becoming degenerate and unprofitable, so much so as to induce an entire change of seed, and that to the common in pre- (crence to the rullle oat. Fallowing of corn land was completed on Ihe 2d of April, and even at that late season with difficulty ; a wetter, or more Iiarassing season for general farm operations I have never encountered. Planting of corn was begun on the drier and lighter portions of ground on the 27th of April, and, including some delays from rains, was finish- ed on the fourth of May. The extent of ground planted, as stated in a former communication, be- ing about 603 acres. The whole had been care- fully fallowed'by three-horse ploughs. The larger proportion of the several fields being of good soil, the growth of clover and weeds was generally heavy. About 130 acres of the whole had received a dressing of lime or marl, the greater proportion of th© latter immediately before planting. A small portion had been limed some years previous. After fallowing, the wliole was well and finely harrowed, ami where judged necessary was re- iallowed, and again harrou^ed. All being thu^ considered in good condition for receivng the seed, so far as being. in good tilth could be beneficial. Where not liable to be injured by surface or other water, the corn watj planted iu checks, and culti- vated in both ways; but where liable to become wel, particularly in sliffer bottoms, or suflicienlly sloping to be washed by heavy rains, drill planting was adopted. Markers previously passed over the fields, laying ofl' or marking the rows; the seed (iirrows were then opened by one-horse mould-board ploughs, the planters following after at a convenient distance, dropping the corn and filighlly covering it with the,lbot,-and heavy har- lows following alter and finishing the operation. By this mode, in good weather and free from in- terruption, our average planting per day is equal to 150 acres, and the fields are left in neat and good condit'on. The harrowing of the land after corn planting I consider a very desirable object ; the surface of the ground is left in the cleanest and best possible condition, and if properly exe- cuted is little inferior to a course ol ploughing; find it also proves the best deft;nce against the at- tacks of crows that I have yet known. A small portion of bottom land was left without the har- row passing over alter planting. On this spot the rrowe picked up nearly every hill ; but where har- rowed very lew hillb were missing Irom this cause. With the exception of some of the stifier bottoms of Ihe best portion of the fields the general crop started well. On about 125 acres the cut-worm un- fortunately soon commenced its ravages, and on which it was with (ha greatest possible difficulty that corn could &t all be got to stand. Much cf this 98 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. land was, subsequent to its original and also first replanting, twice ploughed up entirely, and replant- ed ; and then recourse had to be had to setting out plants from other portions ol'the fields. Alter this pest had in some measure desisted from its inroads, the bud-worm commenced operations, and likewise did no little damage ; so much so that on the 22d of July, when the culture of the corn crop terminated, these portions of the fields did not afford the prospect of yielding any crop. Rains occurring early in August did much to give it a start, when it improved much more rapidly than I could have anticipated. The results, however, though belter than expected, were little if any over one third of a crop, and that from the richest portions of the fields, with this exception, a heavy one. It must be admitted, it is considered that the general return will prove a fair average crop, but which cannot as yet be accurately ascertained. The course of culture pursued in this crop of corn was first throwing a furrow from each side of the corn with one-horse mould-board ploughs, and breaking the balks with trowel hoes. The second and cross ploughing was altogether with trowel hoes, the small, or as it is here designated the X trowel hoes, going next to the corn. Weeding hoes following after this ploughing as speedily as possible. Corn, with the exception of ditch banks and rich headlands, thinned to one stalk to a hill. The ploughs having finished the second plough- ing, one-horse mould-board ploughs again run on each side of the corn, throwing the furrow-slice to the plants, the trowel hoes again in the balks. This course also finished, the whole is again gone over with the trowel hoes — seldom completed be- fore wheat harvest interrupts ; after which all grassy and foul spots receive another stirring wiih trowel hoes, followed also by the weeding hoes. Thus the larger proportion o! the crop received five ploughinge, perlbrmed as carefully as possi- ble ; and when laid by, the fields were in clean and good condition. On the 5th of June one half of the barrel of poudrette which you kindly presented for experi- ment was applied immediately after the first hoe- ing (received too late lor an earlier application) to a portion of the corn-field, where no mar! or lime had been applied, selecting each alternate tivo rows of fifty hills each. A portion of these rows had a quarter of a pint of poudrette applied to each hill, and another portion had half a pint applied in a similar manner; and on June 15ih, the re- maining half of the barrel was applied on a por- tion of the field recently marled, selecting each alternate two rows as above, giving to each hill half a pint ; and alter careful observation through- out the season, I could not discover that any be- nefit resulted from the application in either case. Was the application properly madel Very little of the blade fodder was pulled from this crop of corn, probably not more than 12,000 lbs,, having been able, at the proper .season, to cure a considerable portion of good clover hay, which, with the aid of cut and salted shucks for our horses and mules during the long winter nights, and on which they do well, will be suffi- cient for our consumption. Top fodder was cut from off little more than one third of the crop at a eeason sufficiently advanced not seriously to injure the corn. On the 14(h and 15th of June, 68 btlshels of black-eyed peas were sown on a principally weed fallow ; covering ploughed under of good growth generally, and in some places heavj'. These were sown broadcast, and covered by one-horse ploughs, intended as a preparatory green manur- ing for wheat. The subsequent growth of peaa proved lo be good, causing considerable difficulty in ploughing them under. The results of this mode of manuring on the now growing v/heat crop are looked forward lo with considerable inte- rest. On the 22d and some following days of July, a crop of oats on adjoining land was also ploughed under as a preparatory manuring for wheat. Crop of oats, unless on headlands of ditch margins, very indifferent ; the second or vo- lunteer growth, however, proved excellent, and was again ploughed under at the time of sowing the wheat. The soil on which both oats and peas were thus sown and treated was uniform ; and to a portion of both, side by side, marl was applied in the month of September, a favorable opportunity will thus be presented of testing the comparative value of oats and peas as a green manuring. Fallowing clover lay for wheat was begun on the 25th of July, and finished on the 20ih of September, amounting in all, pea and oat fallow inclusive, to as nearly as can be judged not less than 525 acres. The whole performed with three- horse ploughs. On some portions of the fields thus fallowed occasional difficulties were experienced from the ground becoming hard and dry ; but not to any injurious extent. The whole having been perlbrmed generally well, and being care- fully levelled by heavy harrows, was left in good condition' for receiving the seed ; sowing of which wns commenced on fiillowcd land on the 1st of October. Rain occurred on the evening ot the 2d, and but slight progress was made until the 6th, when weather and ground both became more favorable for this important operation. An- other delay occurred from the same cause from the lOlh to the 14th, from which time the wea- ther continued remarkably favorable for wheat sowing, until its completion on the 8th of Novem- ber. On fallowed land there was sown 918|: bushels of red or purple straw wheat, and on corn land 68 bushels of purple straw, 553^ bushels of white Turkey, and 5 bushels of rock wheat, the whole being equal to 1545 bushels. All of the wheat was covered with two-horse mould-board ploughs, both on fallow and corn land. The heavy growth of grass on much of the latter ren- dered ploughing difficult and tedious. Heavy harrows followed once or oliener, and these again by hand- hoes. Water furrows were carefully opened,- and the whole lett in as good condition (or the wheat as could be obtained. The time oc- cupied in sowing and covering was equal lo 26 days, or an average per day of 59^^ bushels. The drought which prevailed until the middle of November caused ihe late sown wheat to vege- tate slowly in many places ; and had also an evi- dent unliivorabie tendency on the earliest sown and most forward wheat, causing much of it to as- sume a yellow or rather red appearance. So far as could be observed there was no fall attack of ihe Hessian fly. Up lo this date, the unusually mild - weallier which has prevailed during this winter has caused young wheat to be generally very for- ward, particularly on fallowed land. I have never THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 99 before seen it look better in the month of April ; and from this cause I greatly fear that a succeed- ing season of severe frost might have on it a most injurious if not ruinous tendency. Wheat sown on corn land is much less forwan!, generally how- ever presenting an appearance not unpromising. Of putrescent manures there wore during ilie season, chiefly in the early spring months, 2.599 loads hauled out : 245 loads of the finest or most rotted manure were applied on corn land in the spring; the residue mostly cow-pen and stable manure, only partially decomp'sed, was applied aa a top-dressing on clover inieiided for wheal /allow. Every season's practice of this mode of applica'ion strengthens my opinion of its being the best and most profitable. The average quantity applied to an acre was 18 loads; each load such as is usually hauled out by six oxen on large carle. Ofcalcareous manures there were 41,959 bush- els of marl applied during the year. One-third of lliat quantity was applied in the spring pre- vious to planting corn; the other two-thirds at intervals during the summer and fall months, on clover, pea and oat fallows, intended for wheat ; the average quantity per acre being 170 bushels of marl containing 60 per cent, of lime. In all about 246 acres have been marled during the year, in addition to which 350 hogsheads of shells were burned in the spring and applied to land after- wards planted in corn, at the rate of from 90 to 120 bushels of lime per acre. A 20-acre lot had one half of it a dressing of lime at the rate ol 120 bushels per acre, and the other half a dressing of marl at the rale ol 200 bushels per acre, of same quality as above stated. A single corn row formed the dividing line between the two applications. The soil was of unilorm texture and quality. The progress of the growth of the corn on both was narrowly watched during the season ; little if any difference could be discover- ed. The crop on both was good, and if any differ- ence did exist, I would say that it was in favor of the marl. Other individuals who had seen the crop expressed the same opinion. The entire 20 acres on which these applications were made are now in wheat, which crop may perhaps more directly test the relative value of the two ap- plications. In former communications I have noticed the happy effects which had regularly attended each application of lime or marl on this estate, and will now only observe farther, that time and more exten- sive applications strengthen the favorable opinions heretolbre expressed. The end of the year again found us with a considerable portion of corn still exposed in the fields sown in wheat. Not less than 525 to 550 acres of land have been lallowed tovv-ards crops of 1842, of chiefly clover and vveed lay ; and altogether operations are generally in a favorable state of forwardness, of which and their results more may be said in a subsequent communFcation. A. NicoL. THE CUT WORM. From the American Farmer. Mr. Editor— Th\s is the popular name of a gruh or worm, very destructive to corn, cabbage plants, potatoes, clover, &c. I have in vain searched through all the volumes of the " Ameri- can Farmer," and other agricultural journals for a history of this insect. It has by some been iniimaied that a 6Zac/c 6i/.g, about an inch in length, of a quick and lively motion, was the parent of the cut- worm ; but nothing like a rational history of its changes and habits has ever been given, eo far as I have been able to ascertain. A very slight knowledge of entomology would be suffi- cient to convince any one that a " blaQk bug''' would not be the parent of a larva of the cater- pillar kind, such as is the cut-worm. We are then to seek among the genus papilla or phalaena for its parent. It is somewhat remarkable that the history of an insect so destructive to the principal crop of the farmer as is the cut- worm should be so shrouded in darkness or veiled in obscurity. Having suffer- ed myself, and having long witnessed the suffer- ings of others, by the ravages of this destructive insect, I have for some years past made its his- tory a subject of study and observation ; and if I shall be so fortunate as to cast such light upon it as shall be useful to the agricultural community, lor which I have a high regard, I shall consider myself amply rewarded. In the year 1838, I had a short conversation with E. P. Roberts, esq., then editor of the " Farmer and Gardener," on this subject, and in- formed him that I was prosecuting some inquiries on tJie history of the cut- worm ; at his request [ promised him, when they were completed, to com- municate them for that journal. Until last year they were not satisfiactorily accomplished. On the 20ih of July, 1841, I took from the root of a cabbage plant a full grown cut-worm, and put it into a glass jar with a little fresh earth, so that 1 might observe the changes it underwent. On the 30th it had become a chrysalis of a brown maho- gany color, and on the 15tli of August it under- went the last metamorphosis and become a moth, of a grayish hue, and of about one inch in length. These operations and changes were carelully noted in my farming and gardening diary, from which the above extract is made. Being then possestjed of the parent motrh, I was enabled to fix on the order, genus and species of the insect ; which are the following: Phalaena— ?»odo- lulely necessary to collfct the water, liom which it is drawn otl hy means uf croejs drains. We will now suppose that every thinj? is prepared as Blated above, the water drawn ott, the land bed- ded and in fine tilth: the next thing is to sow the see'ds. The best lime lor this, as I think, is (rom the middle olSeptember to the middle ol Oc(ober.4 For this purpose a careful hand ought to be em- ployed, who will scatter the seeds evenly ami equally over the whole surljjce, giving to each spot its due proportion. A calm time must there- lore be selected, (or il' there be much wind, m^ny ofthe seeds will be waited away, and the even- ness of the crop destroyed. I have already staled that I prelier a mixture of timothy and herds-grass seed, and I have given the proportions. Of this mixture, I consider a h \lf bushel as suflicient on good and well-prepared land, and if the land is not good and well-prepared, even twenty bushels nor any other quantity is enough. And whilst upon the subject of sowing, allow me to say, thai two quarts ol clover seed, or a bushel of orchard grass or Peruvian oat, is about the proper quanti- ty to the acre. I take it !'or granted, that no one will understand me as advising to sow clover in the fall. These seeds are usually sown with small grain, with wheat or rye in February, or with oats in early spring. The seeds being now sown, other important parts ofthe work remain to be done. The first is to pass a heavy roller over the whole, then to clean out the water furrows and the drains, and lastly, ii possible, to give your meadow a top-dressing of good manure. But some one will say, if I am to have all this trouble and expense, then the hay crop will be like the Indian's gun, "cost more than it comes to." Bat let us try this a little. 1 think ihe hay crop the very cheapest we can raise. The outlay, 1 acknowledge, is very heavy ; but it ought to be recollected that we are laying the /oundation not for one crop only, but for at least three, and 6r>me- times as many as six. But we will content our- selves with the lowest number. Now to procure these three crops, we plough and harrow three times, and we roll an3 manure once. But in get- ting three crops of wheat, how often do we have to plough and harrow"? At least sfx times, and each crop ought to have its rolling, ai^d would be much better if it had its manuring. Three grass crops, thereibre, are produced with one half the labor and with one third the expense in manuring. But let us try it in comparison with the corn crop. And if any one gets a corn crop, including the preparation of the land, with less than four ploughings and two harrowings, besides oiher work with the hoe and culiivatof, then he has a mode of doing business of which I confess my- self ignorant. To get three crops of corn, there- fore, we must plough twelve times, and harrow six times, besides doing other labor. Which, then, is the most laborious crop 1 But in a discussion of this kind, other things are involved besides the actual atnount of labor ; for if the increased labor produces a proportion- able increase of profit, then things remain just where they were. If I labor more I get more for it ; and if I labor less, my profits are propor- tionably curtailed. Let us test this matter also. An acre of land, such as 1 have described, will ordinarily prockice 3000 lbs. of hay, oltener more liian less, but we will fix on that as our standard. An acre in wheal scarcely ever exceeds 20 bush- els, generally fidls below it ; and an acre in corn generally falls short of 8 barrels. But we will fix on these two numbers as the standard. Hay in my neighborhood and in the vicinity of market towns generally is worth §1 per 100 lbs. ; wheat in the same circumstances is worth ^1 15 per bushel, and corn §3 per barrel. If either be re- mote Irom market, the profit is diminished in proportion to the expense of transportation. Ac- cording to this, the acre in grass, with its three cro|)s, will produce i^OO; the acre in wheat, with its ihiee crops, will produce ^69 j and the acre m corn $72. But here is an imporiant fact to lake into the estimate, that the $69 lor wheat has cost me twice ihe an^iount in labor, or the $72 lOr corn four times the amount of fabor, as the $90 tor hay did. The result is that less labor has produced the most money. Ought any one then to be alarmed in putting down his lands in grass ? But there is another important item which ought to cQme into this calculation: which crop, coniinued for three years, is least injurious to land I Now I will not assume, as many others have done, that the cultivation of the grasses, so lar Irom being injurious, is actually beneficial to the land. I will admit that grass, with every tlaino* else when the product is removed, is an ex- hauster. But I believe that it has never yet en- tered into any man's head that grass exhausts as much, or any thing like as much, as corn or wheat. If then grass, wiih one half or one fourth the labor, will produce much more money, and at the same lime exhaust the land much less, then, as an act of sound economy, 1 must stick to the grass. But I am tired of writing, and I doubt not Ihe reader is tired also ; but I fijel that this treatise would be unpardonahly incomplete were I to say nothing as lo the proper time and mode of har- vesting the grass crop. This is a raatterof much more importance than farmers are generally aware ol ; lor on it depends the flavor, the nutri- ment, and therelore the whole value of the crop. And here I shall perhaps advance some things which maybe controverted by others. My ob- servation may come in conflict with theirs. But all I have to ask is, " give me a fair trial before you hang me." 1 say then, in general, that our grasses are allowed to stand too long in the fiekl before they are cut, and that they are allowed to remain there too long before they are carried to the mow. The proper time to mow the clover is when the blossoms begin to change from the red to the brown stale. The stems and leaves have then come to ILill maturity, containing all their sugary and other nutriiious properties, and the after pro- cess is merely employed in ripening the seed. Unless harvested now, the stems lose their juices and become liard, and the probability is, that in curing, most ofthe blossoms and many ofthe leaves will drop off, and instead ol" that sweet, fragrant substance, which alone deserves the name of clover hay, you will have only a parcel of dry, black sticks. The other grasses ought all to be mowed as soon as they have dropped iheir bloom. Indeed, when the crop is a large one, 124 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. a beginning ought to be made wliilsl they are yet in bloonj ; lor, unless the Ibrce is a'large one, and ihe eeason favorable, some will be advanced too lar before it lalls under the scylhe. As a generul rule, no grass ought to be mowed whilst it is wet. Even a dew will injure it. and a shower ol' rain much more ; nor ought it. if possi- ble to prevent it, ever to gel wet alter it is mowed. The best [ilan is, to siir the grass as liitle ae possible, in good weather, there is no need ol disturbing the swaths, but let them lie lor a ievs hours, uniil the lop is wilted, tht-n throw them into the wind-row, taking care in doing so to bring the bottom to the top, and it is surprising how Boon the whole mass will be cured. 1 have seve- ral limes had grass cut in the morning and be- lore night it was under the shelter. In bad wea- ther, this is a diiricult crop to manage. In ihi-s event, ail that we can, do is by shocking to protect it li-om the wet as far as possible. My rule is to have as liitle in the field as possible. When therefore we begin the harvest, as soon as any portion is fit to put away, it is immediately depo- sited under the shelter, and after this we cut only as last as we can take care of it. Il therefore a rainy season should occur, no large. amount is in the field, and no great loss can ensue. In good weather the process is a simple and beautilul one. A certain number of hands are employed in mowing. These are followed by another set who wind-row the grass, or pile it up as soon as cured ; and these are succeeded by a third set, who carry it to the stack or shelter. Thus the whole pro- cess of cutting, curing and storing away, goes on at the same time. But the quantity cut should always be regulated by our means to take care of it. EXTRACTS FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE WENTHAM (KKG.) FARMERS' CLUB.* At the following meeting, the subject was, "On the application ofnitrate of soda, and its eflecis as a manure." The member introducing it, related the following experiment he had made as applied to wheat : — "JMarch the 12th, 1840.— Sowed nitrate of soda at half a cvvt. per acre on about half a field — missed two Btetches, then sowed the remainder of the field with a cwt. per acre. On the 23d of May, the land sown with the halfcwt. only was again sown with half a cv^rt. per acre more, excepting one sletch, still leaving the twosteichcs wiihoulany ; in * The papers from which the following extracts are made offer an excellent example to all agricultural societies. The report of proceedings is but the sub- stance of farmers' conversations. Such verbal discus- sions, conducted with due preparation and order, by the members of any agricultural society, or farmers' club, and the results reported, would alone serve to change even one of the most useless bodies of the kind to the most interesting and useful. We have of- ten, and in vain, urged the commencement in Virginia of this easy and agreeable plan of collecting and dif- fusing the opinions and experience of fariner-s,— Ed. F. R. a lew days a great difference was perceptible, both in color and slrengthof the wheat between the land sown with nitrate and that not sown ; and there was also an evident difference in the sletch sown with half a cwt. only, being much paler in color, and not so strong in plant as the land sown with the cwt. per acre — and so continued till harvest. At harvest, measured one-third of an acre from the two stelches left unsown, and the same qv/an- ■tity from two sown stetches adjoining ; each crop was harvested and thrashed separately, and the result was, an increase at the rate of five bushelci and seven pints of wheat, and two and a half cvvt. of straw per acre on the nitrated part above that not nitrated. This experiment was made on light land, a pea stubble mucked lor Ihe wheat, which lost the color very much in ihe dry moiiih of April, and became very weak in plant previous to the nitrate being applied, but improved very rapidly afterwards." He had also applied it to barley and oats, without receiving much benefit, and is ol opinion that apply- ing it to land ola deep staple and already in a good state, likely to be injurious, by producing too lux- uriant a growth of straw, and tending to injure the quality ol the grain without increasing the quantity. In corroboration ol this, another member related an experiment he had made on a good mixed soil lor wheat, in which the crop on the land not sown with nitrate exceeded that which was sown by six bushels per acre, the land all treated alike previ- ously ; there was also less straw, (a circumstance not easily accounted lor) and the wheat not so good in quality on the nitrated part of the field. Several other statements were made, in which its application had been attended with success, on lands varying from a poor light soil to a strong clay ; in an experiment on the former description ol land, the increase was at the rate of sixteen per cent., and in another, on a clay soil, an in- crease of about fourteen per cent, was obtained — the straw on the nitrated part was also six inches longer than where not nitrated. Instances of its successful application to clover layers, and also to grass lands were stated ; in the latter case, stock were found allerwards to eat down the coarse places where it had been applied. The Ibllowing resolution was adopted : — Resolved — " That on lands to which it is applica- ble, nitrate of soda has the effect of stimulating the plafit, by which means more straw and an increased quantity of corn have almost inva- riably been obtained. From the statements made, the wheat crop appears to derive most benefit ; but on rich soils, and those in a high state of cultivation, its application has been found injurious to the quality of the grain, and the quantity not increased. Il is there- fore the opinion of the meeting that strong clay and light soils are the most adapted for its use.'" * * * » " The proper a|)pIication of farm-yard manure, with regard to those crops to which il can be most beneficially applied," was the next subject which engaged atleniion. The member introducing it, alter observing the great importance attending a judicious use of animal manures, and that much would at all limes depend on the nature of the soil to which il was applied, contended, that on strong and mixed soil lands it was most essential to apply manure extenf=ively (or the root and bean crops 3 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 125 and as regards the latter, this eystem had the efleci of benefiting the Ibllovvingcrop of wheat on lands of that description. On light soils, it was considered decidedly prelerable to be applied im- mediately to the wheat crop, and only a small por- tion for roots, as it was believed on such lands a heavy manuring for wheal was in some measure beneficial to the succeeding crop of turnips. Manuring young layers* was often hazardous, and not reconunended as a system riesirahle (o he adopted to any extent, except on good lands, as when applied on lijj;hter soils it was frequently Ibund to be productive of little or no benefit in a dry summer. One member who preferred carrying his manure for wheat, considered it desirable to be applied im- mediately after the hay crop is carted, as manurmg thus early tended materially to strengthen the Hag, but an objection (of much importance to a flock farm) was raised to this practice, as sheep would not readily eat the herbage ailerwards. On this subject the meeting came to the following resolution : — Resolved — " Although no fixed plan can be laid down as to which are the most suitable crops for applying farm-yard manure,-a great deal always depending on seasons and the nature of the soil ; but from the remarks made, however, the meeting is of opinion that on good mixed soil and heavy lands it is highly desirable to manure well lor the root and bean crops ; but that on lighter soils, and where it is not considered right to manure extensively for roots, most benefit will arise by applying it immediately to the wheal crop rather than to maiden layers, which latter system the meeting does not consider it desirable to adopt, except on lands of good quality and kind for clover.'"! * * # # The following meeting was engaged in a dis- cussion on '• subsoil ploughing with regard toils utility and practical effects." This subject, as recommended in the report of the preceding year, now came under the notice of the club, lor recon- • Recently sown grass-lands. — Ed. F. R. t While presenting this opinion of practical farm- ers, we must protest against its soundness, at least for this country. Experience and observation have con- curred with reasoning to convince us that it is better to apply manure as top-dressing to grass (clover) than to grain crops, and the more so as it is the less rotted or reduced. And though knowing but little of root culture, we should deem it far better to give to roots, and all succulent crops, manure in proper condition for their use, than the same to the grain crops ; the latter kind being, in general, the last on the farm to which we would advise the applying the farm-yard manure, if the application to grass and to roots, vines or pea crops, were as convenient. Manure increases the stalk and leaf, and the tuberous roots of plants more than their seeds ; and therefore should be given espe- cially to those crops of which it. is desired to increase the general bulk, and not to those of which the seeds alone are the important or sole object of product. — Ed. F.R. sideration. The member who brought it forward observed, that the opinion he entertained at the liarmer discussion of the question was not confirra- eii by the practical results he had witnessed during the eighteen months which had elapsed since this suiijeci was before the club, as where he had used the subsoil plough the crops were not improved, neither had the deep-rooted weeds been eradicated as he had anticipated ; the only benefit he had derived, wa.s by ireiiiiiii: rid of the eurlace water suoner, Irom ilie easier access given it lo escape to the drains. Another member, occupying mixed soil and very light land, had subsoiled his »-n!ire farm as it came !br fallow, leaving a small portion in each field unsubsoiled, but without perceiving any decided advantage, excepting that where he has subsoiled there id less labor in ploughing than be- fore. Other instances were given, where the subsoil [jlouijh liad been used, without any bene- ficial effects be ng perceptible ; one case only was mentioned in which it had proved ol any advan- tage ; on a piece of pasiuie land recently brought into cultivation, and previously drained and sub- soiled, it had been attended wiih success, although it was inferred that the draining as well as the subsoiling tended to produce this result. The disappointment of members was general, as it was believed to be of no use where the subsoil is of a sterile nature, but requiring a greater quantity of manure to render it productive, lully proving that on lands where it has answered, a belter soil was in some measure brought into action than before. The following resolution was ultimately passed, still leaving the question open for any light which may eventually be thrown upon it. Resolved — " As faras the experimei^is have gone in this neighborhood, no pecuniary advantage has resulted fiom the use ol the subsoil plough ; at the same time, the meeting does not consider itself possessed of sufficient information to come lo a satislaclory decision on the subject." " The breed of cattle best adapted for grazing purposes," was a subject occupying the attention of the club in September. The member introduc- ing it having had many years' experience in graz- ing Scotch, Devon, and short-horn bullocks, at one lime was in the habit of grazing the Tormer kind, but considers the beasts now obtained from Scot- land lo be generally of an inferior description ; they must also be bought at a higher rale than others. A well-bred Devon is a good beast for grazing, but he prefers the short-horn breed to either of the above kinds, as he has generally ibund them to make more growth, and also to possess superior fattening properties. The con- sumption of food by a short-horn was undoubtedly greater than that of a Scot, but the increase ob- tained in size and weight by ihe former fully com- pensated for the extra Ibod consumed. In a trial made by another member between these two breeds, it was ascertained that the short-horna consumed five bushels of turnips per day, and the Scots but three ; the short-horns, however, graz- ed decidedly the fattest, so that there was but little difference in the end. Herelbrds were noticed aa possessing much disposition to fatten, but of these there was not sufficient experience to judge, as they are not much grazed in this neighborhood. The meeting adopted the following resolution ; — 126 THE FARMERS' REGISTER, Resolved — " That the ehort-horn breed of cattle is the most approved lor grazing purposes, Iroin the circuiiifiiances of their making more growth, and also possei?sing greater laitening properties than the other kinds ; and although Ibund to consume more lood, tiiis lias gene- rally been compensated lor by tlieir lattening in a shorter [leriod." The Ibllovvmg meeting was engaged in a discus- sion on " The hreed ol sheep best adapted to this disiric!, combining weight and quality ol" tieece with aptiiude to lailen." The member bringing this subject belbre the club contended that, Ibr all purposes, the pure Southdown breed was in every respect to be prelerred. As regards a cross, that between the Down and Leicester was undoubtedly the best, but not equal to the pure breed of ihe former. The quality ol the tnuiion ol Down sheep was superior to that ol any other breed (the Nor- Iblk excepted), and generally obtained the highest price in Smithfield market ; he believed they would make a better return to the grazier, and instanced a case ol' Downs and hall-bred Leicesters having been bought from the same flock and kept toge- ther ; the Downs beating the Leicester considera- bly. He thought there had not been that atten- tion paid to the improvement of the breed ol Souihdowns which there had been to that ol' the improved Leicesters. Crosses between the Nor- folk and Southdown, and between the Norlblk and Leicester, were also noticed, but not considered equal to the pure Southdown, requiring longer time to fatten, and when lat not so saleable as the latter. The Down wool was equal in quality to any other, and if kept well, will clip nearly as much as a cross-bred sheep. On the other hand, it was contended that there was no breed olshet p, Ibr grazing purposes, better suited to this district, particularly where early ma- turity is an object, than the first cross between the Southdown ewe and the Leicester tup, and as both breeds possessed great ai)tiiudeto fatten, (the Lei- cester in the greater detrree), the stock obtained from such a cross could not be inleriorto either pa- rents. There were some sheep called hall-bred Leicesters, but partaking of several crosses, whose fattening properties were greatly inlisrior to those of the first cross, neither is the mutton so good in quality. It was also argued that Downs rpf]uire more time, and although it was allowed they pos- sessed more harddiood than hall-bred sheep, and can be kept to more advantage in greater quanti- ties, still they would never produce so much weight of wool ; and as sheep in this neighbor- hood are generally returned at from twelve to fif- teen momhsold, and many are often sold in the wool, there were none so suited for these purposes as the latter breed. An animated discussion took place on this subject, occupying this and part of a subsequent evening, which ended in the adoption of the following resolution : — Resolved — " That for the purposes ofa breeding flock, the pure Southdown is the best ; and that for grazing and where early maturity is an object, the first cross between the pure Southdown and pure Leicester is the most desirable, as possessing more aptitude to fatten, and producing greater weight of fleece; but where a large quantity are kept and a longer lime allowed for fattening, there is no better descripiion of sheep than the pure Southdown." # # # [From Isle of TTianet Farmers^ Club.} A discussion took place respecting turnips, when the general opinion expressed was, " That matiurmg immediately be ore the seed is sown, will produce a belter crop than dunging the land m the winter ; and tliat drilling Swede turnip seed at len lurroivs to the rod, and other turnips at twelve or thirteen I'urrows, is the preferable meihod." The subject for discussion on theSih of January was, " The best time Ibr cropping the land." There were only teven members present, one of whom slated, " That to his knowledge some barley sown in January, was better when har- vested than that sown in March, the same year." Another staled, " That he knew barley sown in February, belter than that sown in April." The Ibllowing resolution was unanimously agreed to :— " That all spring corn shall be sown as early as possible, provided that the ground is in a proper state 10 receive it." * * * At (he meeting on the 9ih of March, on the subject of '' making manure," it was contended by some members, " That it is best to allow the animals that are fatting to go loose in the farm- yard." It was also contended, "That it is a good plan to keep a sufficient number of bullocks tied up fatting, and have others loose in the yard, ready to take the place ol' the fat on«s as they go off." The Ibllowing resolution was agreed to : — " That it is the opinion of this Club, that to make the most and best manure in the yard, is to I'eed beasts vviih Swede turnips and oil cake, with cut hay and straw, about a quarter part of the latter, to exclude as much superfluous water as possible, allowing the animals to run loose." FACTS ON FOOD AND MANURE. From Sqiiarey's Treatise on Agricultural Chemistry. " It lias been before staled that every part of a plant contains nitrogen as vvell as carbon ; but, as an invariable rule, the seed of all plants con- tains a tuuch larger quantity of nitrogen than the leaves and sialks, and a leaser quantity of carbon, and inversely, the leaves and stalks contain a much greater quantity of carbon, and a lesser quantity of niirogen. Now when a horse is fed on grass, his food consists almost entirely of carbon ; and the result is, that wi.en he has a sufficient supply he gets fat — that is, that panicles of oily, fatty matter are deposited on the muscles under the skin ; but, as it is well known, a horse in this condition is quite unequal to any work, and the least exertion reduces his bulk. But when the same horse, under other circumstances, is fed on corn, his Ibod consists principally of niirogen ; and athough ho may, never, under this keep, get as fat as under the other, still the increase he does acquire will be pure muscle, or, as it is technically called, sound flesh ; and on this keep he can per- form infinitely more work with less fatigue than on (ood containing no nitrogen. " A more complete instance could not be ad- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 127 duced to show that animals as well as plants can only assimilate ihalf'ood which is presented them ; in the first case, carbonaceous matters being the Ibod of the horse, carbon is deposited in the shape of fat ; in the latter, when more nitro RIVER. To ihe Editor of the F.irmers' Register. I have this day received Irom Gen. Williamson, ihe contiacior under the Uniied Sinles lor opening the rait on Red river, a letter dated the 19th inst., saying that the obstructions were removed, and that the steamer Soutli Western had on thai day passed through oti her way to Fulton, a flourish- ing town some two hundred miles above the rait, an'd thai the Harrisburg steamer, with a barge in tow, was in eight, and would be very soon also through. It is part of the contract under which the river has been opened, that it shall be kept open lor five years, alter which time the stream will be so wide as to enable it to pass its lioaling drift wood, and take the same care of iiself as other rivers. At present the river is so lessened in width by accu- mulations of alluvial soil on the sides, from the lodgment of its drilt timber, that it will take the current some time to wash out a space equal to the size ol the river either above or below these obstructions; and it is during this time, and lor this o^ject, that the contract is continued (or some years, so as to assist the current, where it may Irom time to time show that if is needed, in widen- ing its bed. When this is eftected, it is but rea- sonable to expect that the river will keep itself open within the raft region, as it has always done for 500 miles above it, and as it now does below it. The town of Shreeveport was built some years ago above one hundred miles within the re- moved raft, and the ri^er has kept itself clear to that place. It is now removed for fifty miles above that place into the unobstructed river, and where it is 200 yards wide, and that for several hundred miles above. The opening of this great river, which may now be deemed certain, will give an inlet for brisk trade to steam bonis, in a fiassage of five days Irom New Orleans, into unquestionably one of the finest cotton countries of the United States, whe- I ther we regard climate or leriiliiy of soil. I The lands immediately on the river are natur- ally dry, light, and easy of cultivation, and yield on an average of years "irom 1500 to 2000 pounds of seed cotton to the acre, and under favorable circumstances on particular acres has yielded more than 3000 pounds, and in corn as high as 75 bushels. ■ In corn it yields from 40 to 60 bushels to the acre. These lands are all owned by pur- chase from the government, or claimed by settlers with a view to a purchase when they shall be brought into market. There are large bodies of good oak and hickory upland, running parallel with the river and con- venient to it, that can be had at government price, and are now in the market lor entry. The produce is various, from 600 to 1200 pounds of seed cotton to the acre, but Irom 600 to 800 pounds cotton, or 20 bushels of corn, may be about a general ave- rage. These lands are easy to clear, and free, light and easy to cultivate, and the country generally well watered and pretty healthy. This country ie worthy a vistt from the planter, (which can be comfortably and cheaply made,) as it is perhaps the only pan of the I'nited States, taking into consideraiion price and feiiility, that will enable him to make reasonable profits on the present price of cotton, which, it is to be feared, is neither accidental nor temporary. Mobile, March 12, 1842. CONTENTS OF THE FARMERS' REGISTER, KO. HI. VOL. X. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. Notes on Sandy Point estate, No. 5, Remarks and inquiries on manures. Rotation of crops, An essay on ^-rass culture, - - - - The farm and farming of the Rev. J. H. Turner, No. 1, - Remarks on the opposite opinions of magncsian hme, - Minutes of agricultural facts, - - - - Remarks on the making, preserving and apply- ing of manures, An act concerning the Board of Agriculture, Successful culture of silk in 1841, Un the causes of deterioration of wheat in Vir- ginia, -------- On the cultivation of the corn crop, Removal of the obstructions in Red river, ♦ SELECTIONS. The cut worm, To kill lice on cows, horses or hogs. Of the improvement of races. Clover and timothy — manure, - - - On guano— concluded, The culture of sugar. Proper treatment for cattle newly brought to the south, Page 97 100 114 120 127 134 135 136 138 139 140 142 143 99 100 101 103 104 106 108 rage Facts in hog feeding 108 Sheep-killing dogs, 109 Black the worst color for painting wood work in the open air, 110 Eighth agricultural meeting at the State House, 110 Particular results of farming in Massachusetts, 111 Indian corn for fodder, . . - . - 113 Habits of the curculio, and means for its de- struction, 114 The advantages of the climate of the United States over that of England, - - - 115 Address to the Agricultural Society of Mason, Kanawha and Cabell, ... - 116 List of premiums awarded by the Mason, Cabell and Kanawha Society, - - - - 119 Silk culture in East Tennessee, ... 119 Extracts from the proceedings of the Wentham (Eng.) Farmers' Club, ... - 124 Fact on food and manure, .... 126 Origin of paper money, .... 130 Paper money reform, ..... 130 Accidental experiment. Results of top-dress- ing on clover, ..---- 130 The potato, 131 Magnesian lime, 131, 132 Sugar beet, - 133 ! Remarks on seeds and seedsmen. Sowing seeds, causes of failure, &c. Painting houses, - 138 143 THE FARMERS ' REGISTER. Vol. X. APRIL 30, 1842. No. 4. EDMUND R U F F I N, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. ASHES AS MANURE. From llie Now England Fanner. The Ibllowiug w from " the Transactions ol'tlie Society lor Promoting Agriculture in the Slate of Connecticut" : — " What experiments have been made with ashes 7 On vvliat soils, lor wiiat crops, and for what grasses 1 What success has attended the use 1 Are leached or unleached ashes niosi beneficial as a manure? Do they equally suit upon the same soils, and lor the same crops i In what quantities are ihey to be used ?" Mr. Aiwater, of Wulllngford. I have made use ofleached ashes, as manure for crops and grasses, and find it excellent for both upon dry land. When my grass fails, I plough up my land, and the ashes serve again as manure lor a crop, and afterwards lor grass. But ashes have not benefited my wet land, that was unfit to plough ; for though they in most instances introduce clover, yet the land will £oon be covered with moss, when it is rendered unfit lor any thing, and if it cannot be recovered from the moss by ploughing, it is injured instead of being benefited. Mr. Tomlinson, of MUford. We have found leached ashes to be excellent manure for flax. Mr. Parsons, of Durham. I have used unleach- ed ashes for many years, as manure /or Indian corn. I put a handful round each hill, soon after the first hoeing, and have much benefited my crop by this method, having frequently omitted some hills, for the purpose ol ascertaining the benefit derived from the ashes. I have always found myself richly repaid both lor the manure and fur my labor. The greatest advantage has accrued when a rain has ibllowed shortly after my apply- ing the ashes. Mr. Noah Fuwier, of Guilford. I have fl)und, from experience, that leached ashes is a very bene ficial manure for wheat and rye. It appears to me lo be a great preventive of blasts. Mr. Andrew Hull, Jr., of Cheshire. I have re- ceived great benefit from leached ashes as manure for wheat and rye. But I have not Ibund thai it prevented blasts. Mr. Holcomb, of Simsbury. I have made uoe of unleached ashes, as manure, for Indian corn, nnd have derived great benefit from it on dry land. Whenever I have used it for corn, where the land was wet and heavy, it has been of no advantage to the crop at all. 3lr. Wadsioorth, of Durham. One of my neigh- bors planted a field with Indian corn, and applied unleached ashes to thirty-six hills. During the first part of the season, the corn on which the ash- es was put appeared much better than that in the other part of the field, to which no ashes was ap- plied. When the corn was gathered, the tiiiriy-six hills, to which ashes was applied and thiriy-six adjoining hills which had none were measured, and those which had no ashes were Ibund to be (hi' most productive and to have the superiority over those on which ashes was put. This was on heavy Vol.. X.-19 land. The same neighbor made the experiment on light dry land. A part of his crop of corn was ashe^ and a part was not. Here the ashed com much exceeded the other. Mr. Eli Bronson, of fVaterburij. In June, 1792, I ploughed a grass field, of alightfeandy soil, where much old wood was burned. The ground was very dry. Afier harvest, I ploughed this lallovv again. The drought continued more severe than was perhaps ever known in the memory of man. I observed that all the spots where logs were burn- ed were much more moist than any where else. Tnis circumstance particularly attracted my atten- tion, as 1 had been taught that ashes were of a hot, droughty nature, suited only to wet land. in 1795, I planted a wheat stubble, which was new land and sandy soil, which had been thoroughly burned when tilled lor wheat. Part of the corn was dressed with a handful of ashes to a hill, at the first hoeing ; here, for the first time, within my knowledge, ashes liiiled of pro- ducing any beneficial elFect. Soon afterward;^ I planted a tough sward, part of which was a.shed in quantity as above. The part dressed with ashes grew remarkably, while the other appeared languid and pale, as if grub- eaten, until the second hoeing, alter wliich it be- gan to recover and to thrive better ; but it finally produced not more than half as much as the part to which ashes was applied. From the experiments of myself and my neigh- bors, I formed the conclusion that not only on new land, which has been recently burned, but also on land which has been kept mellow by tillage for one or (wo past seasons, and where little or no un dissolved vegetable substance remains, no visible benefit accrues ; of which the following liicts may be considered as farther illustration. In 179G, I planted corn after rye, the land cloddy and full of stubble ; one end of it was very tough, and was planted with potatoes; a lew hills of the potatoes, and most of the corn were ashed ; some of the corn was dressed wilh gypsum — all was benefited, but the potatoes much the mosl. In 1797, I again planted cori> on cloddy land, encumbered with stubble. I carted on barn-yard manure, not well rotted. I ashed a part, by which the crop was enhanced at least one third. In 179S, I tallowed a lot, much exhausted by- ploughing. It was a dry loam, with tender sward. Carted on barn yard manure, ten loads to the acre, and ploughed it four times. I sowed half an acre wilh wheat, and strewed over the half acre a small load of leached ashes, and eight or ten bushels of unleached ashes. The wheat at fir«it grew sur- prisingly, and though it did not hold out according to its first appearance, it yielded eleven bushels. In 1799, I planted corn on buckwheat stubble, loamy soil— I ashed a pari of it when coming up, and omilled one row. At first there was an appa- rent advantace, but by hilling time it could scarce- ly be discerned, except at one end. where it was somewhat cloddy, and there it might be perceived at harvest time. The other part I dressed with 146 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. gypsum, leaving one row as before : the success was the same as with the ashes. The same year I planted a piece of sward land, loamy soil, and dressed the corn with ashes, omit- ting one row, as in the other field ; began to hoe the corn seven days alter the ashes was applied, when the hill in the unashed row, which we cross- ed in hoeing, was every where noticed from being yellow, while the other was a lively green. Alter the second hoeing, a second dressing of ashes was applied on part of the lot, but without eileci, even on part of that row, which was omitted in the first dressing. About hilling lime, the unashed row began to recover ; but finally yielded at har- vest, little if any more than half as much as the adjoining rows. The same year, I observed the like good etlect on corn, both from ashes and Irom gypsum, on tough sward, and on cloddy land, as applied by n)y neighbors, in sundry instances. I have often found ashes, both leached and un- leached, to be very beneficial to grass on dry land, but nol on wet. I have never lound ihciu useful on my garden. Frum my experience and observation, 1 con- clude that ashes is best applied on dry grass land, or on land newly ploughed up, or where shades have lately been taken ofi, or where grass turf or other vegetable substances remain undissolved : in each of which oases, there is contained in the soil food lor plants, unprepared for vegetation. To effect, therefore, a speedy preparation, ashes is an impor- tant application. VVhelher ashes do, in liict, prevent worms, or destroy them when corn is eaten by them, I have not been able to ascertain ; though they have been olten supposed so to do, when no evil of the kind has existed. I have ofleu, when corn has appear- ed languid and yellow, as if eaten by worms, taken up whole hills and carefully examined both the roots and the earlh, without discovering any signs of worms. In these cases, I have deemed the unpreparedncss of the soil to be the only evil. Ashes is then a sure remedy. i3ut if the land be well tilled, the weather be warm, and there be frequent showers, it will be well prepared, without ashes, by hilling time or sooner ; but the corn will not recover the injury it has sustained lor want ol earlier preparation. Hence it Ibllows, that ashes on ploughed land should be applied as soon as ve- getation begins. It is best to apply leached ashes as soon as corn is planted, while a team and cart may pass without injury to the hills. But whether unleached ashes can salely be applied before the corn is sprouted, is a question I am unable to solve. The usual quantity of unleached ashes for a hill of corn is about a gill : but it is worthy of being observed, that where a greater or even a less quantity has been applied, the effect has been much the same. The eflects of ashes and gyp- sum, 80 far as the application of the two has fallen within my notice, appear to be much the same. TO MARK IIUXS LAY PKU PKTU ALLY. From the Cultlvaior. I never allow cocks lo run with my hens, except .when i want to raise chickens. Hens will lay eggs perpetually, if treated in the following man- ner. Keep no roosters [cock*] ; give the hens fresh meat, chopped fine like sausage-meat, once a day, a very small portion, say half an ounce a day to each hen, during winter, or from the time insects disappear in the fall, till they appear again in the spring. Never allow any eggs to remain in the nest, Ibr what is called nest eggs. When the roosters do not run with the hens, and no nest eggs are left in the nest, the hens will not cease laying after the produciion ol' twelve or fifteen eggs, as I hey always do when roosters and nest eggs are allowed ; but continue laying perpetu- ally. My hens always lay all winter, and each from seventy-five lo one hundred eggs in succes- sion. There being nothing to excite the animal passions, they never attempt to set. If the above plan were generally followed, eggs would be just as plenty in winter as in summer. The only rea- son why hens do not lay in winter as freely as in summer, is the want of animal food, which ihey get in sumn)cr in abundance in the form of m- secls. The reason tliey stop laying and go to selling, alter laying a brood of eggs, is the con- tinual excitement of the animal passions by the males. 1 have lor several winters reduced my theory to practice, and proved its entire correct- ness. It must be observed, that the presence of the male is not necessary Ibr the production of eggs, as they are formed whether the male be present or not. Of course such eggs will not produce chickens. When chickens are wanted, roosters must of course run with the hens. B. From the Maine Cultivator- GRAIN— PRACTICAL HINTS, &C. Norridgewock, March 5, 1842. Messrs. Editors — I am apprehensive that my communications will become tedious lo many of your readers, on account of the minuteness of my details ; but if those to whom they prove so, will reflect a moment, they will be convinced that wri- ters on agricullure are apt to go into the opposite extreme, and only write on general principles or siriking lacls ; taking it for granted that every one is already sufficiently acquainted with the minute details, which is fiir from being true. Few of your readers but can recollect some simple labor-saving observation, in your useful paper, which has been of more value to them than one year's subscription. With ihese convictions I shall continue to speak of things no otherwise important, than having con- venience and saving of labor to recommend them. I object to mixing grass seed with grain, to save labor in sowing, as much of it would be covered too deep by the harrow and treading ol horses or oxen. After sowing my wheat or other grains they are harrowed twice — grass seed sowed, and then roiled smooth. On sandy loam, half a peck of clover and the same of timothy or herdsgrass, is a good quantity. In clayey loams two quarts of clover and eight of iicrdsgrass is about right — varying the proportions according to the soils — in very wet and bog-land soils, the clover should be omitted and a hall bushel of red top and a peck of herdsgrass sowed to the acre. As a general THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 147 thing we sow too little grass seed. Tiie conse- quence is, a poor liiih is left nal, ehould project horizon- tally far enough to allow full play to the tin. Thus attached, the slightest breeze gives motion to the tin, and conscrpjenily causes a n-flection, so sud- den as to efleciually frighten ott crows, or other birds addicted to picking up the corn. Three years successful use uf such scare- croios, paUiy us in recommending them to our brethren. From llic Keiitueliy Fanner. FOUeiKG PRUIT TUEES TO BEAR. Greenup Co., Ky., March 3, 1842. jDeur sir — Having addressed you an epistle o fortnight ago, I did not at that time intend to write you again until I saw your comments upon the project proposed in that letter, but being under the conviction that I could not write too much for the good hoaest-heartcd yeomanry of the land, provided I keep in the limits of valuable informa- tion, I have, by the idea of facilitating the labor of the producing man in some measure, been prompted to address you at this time, the main object of which is to apf)rise the agriculiural community of a novel mode of raising apples. I do not wish to be understood that it is novel with all, for it has been practised in Europe )br many years, by the farmers in Geiinany in particular, who probably are the inventors ; but I mean that it is novel to me, and if not to all, in my knowledge is at least not practised by them. The steps to be taken by the farmer to force his fruit tree to bear, as it is termed, are of a very eimple nature and can necessarily be executed by any person who turns his hand to it without the aid of a practical operator, further than a descrip- tion of the process. 1 hope, therefore, that my agricultural friends will not deem the description which 1 am about to give of the process to force trees to bear unnecessarily minute. With a sharp knile (the blade of a penknilii is the best) make a cut in the bark of the branch which is meant to be forced to bear, and not more than eight or nine inches (rom the place where it is connected with the stem, or if it is a small branch or shoot, near where it is joined to the large bough, (three inches or less,) the cut is to go round the branch, or to encircle if, and penetrate to the wood. Care must be taken not to cut the wood, which would neccesarily cause detriment to the branch or shoot operated upon. A quarter of an inch or nearly from the first cut make a second in the same way round the branch or shoot, so that both encircling the branch or shoot, a ring is formed thereoa a quarter of an inch broad be- tween the two cuts. The bark between these tvi'o cuts is now taken clean away with the small blade of a penknife, down to the wood, removing even the fine inner bark, which immediately lies upon the wood, so that no connexion whatever re- mains between the two parts of the bark, but the bare and naked wood apji^ars white and smooth ; but this bark ring, to compel the tree to bear, must be made at the time when the buds arc strongly swelling, just before breaking out into blossom. In the same year of this operation a callus is formed at the edges of the ring on both sides, and the connexion of the bark that had been in- terrupted is restored again without any detri- ment to the tree or branch operated upon, in whifii tlie artificial wound soon again grows over. By this simple (though artificial) means of forc- ing every fruit tree with a certainty to bear, the most important advantage will be obtained by those who watch the time nature is ripe lor it. Three years ago (the time when 1 was first in- Ibrmfd of lhi.s singular way of forcing trees to bear,) I made an experiment on an apple tree= Being somewhat cautious of h urn buggery 1 con- fined the experiment to one branch of the tree, which was about a fourth part of the whole top of it. 1 did not notice it until JVIay. 1 had par- tially ibrgotten it, as I had but little faith in its having any cllecl toward making the tree bear, and called by rather to see if the limb which I had cut was not dead than to observe any thing else ; buL to my astonishment I found the limb which I had expected to find dead in a vigorous state of file, with as much young fruit on it, appa- rently, as all the rest of the tree. On examining the young liuit, I fbund that on the branch vvhicli I had cut to be sound and firm, while that on the other parts of Ihe tree were dwindled and very much decreased. I expected at first that it waa owing to the cut which I had made on the branch, but I satisfied myself by examining other trees which 1 found to be in the same way, and which 1 found shortly afterwards to be falling off. In September, when I gathered the apples, I Ibund thai the branch of the tree which 1 had made the experiment on, had five bushels on it, and the rest of the tree had not above one bushel on it, and that was inlerior li-uit. I would therefore re- commend that larmers who have orchards would try the experiment. It would be well for thera to be particular in the operation at first for fear of damaging the tree. William R. Thompson. AN ESSAY ON THE BEST SYSTEM OF ROTA- TION OF CROPS, (hogs,) pork BEING THE CHIEF SURPLUS OF THE FARM. From tlie Keutucky Farmer. The first rotation on a pork farm is corn, rye fed down to hogs, clover (seed sown on rye) two years. This rotation will improve the ground very fast. In consequence of the probable injury that would be likely to be done to the corn crop by the worms, when following clover, that crop should be broken up in the fall or winter season, Ihe sod being turned over in the fall of the second year the frost of winter will effectually destroy the cut worms. The advantages of this rotation will be to fiir- nish a succession of food suitable for tlie hogs, at the same time enriching the soil. Without a proper supply of corn the raising of pork would be a poor business in Kentucky ; and a proper supply of corn cannot be easily raised THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 149 except upon fertile land ; and the lertiiiiy oC the land cannot be kept up vvilhout making a proper return to the soil lor the corn lakca oil. All tluo will be done by this rotation. The corn in this rotation is the only exhausting crop. This exhaustion is more than supplied by ihe ferliliziiig properiies ol' the rye and the clo- ver. All thai IS j)roduccd ol boih rye and clovci is returned to the ground, except so much as is retained by the hogs to make Hesh and lai, and this waste is more than replaced by supplies drawn from the atmosphere. The corn supplies food to finish ladening, and a part ol' this may be led in the held ivliere it grew, thus adding to the lertility ol the soil. Where the corn is thus led, rye may be sown in the field a few days before the hogs are taken out; and they in gathering corn will put the rye well into Ihe ground. But I preler ploughing it in, alter the hugs are taken out ol the held. Il the ground should break up cloddy the roller and the harrow should be both used ; but if there should not be many clods the harrow alone will be sufficient to level the field. The importance ol" a level surlace will be seen when the ground is in clover, and when it comes to be ploughed the next time. The rye will afford tlie hogs early spring graz- ing and push them forward very fast with the ad- dition of a little corn. This early spring grazing is very beneficial to hogs, besides being a great saving of more costly Ibod. The rye will keep them until one of the clover fields is ready to re- ceive them, which may be about the 20ih of April. After they are put into the clover, if ihe weather should be cold, so that there will probably be frost, it would be well to take the hogs out of the clu- ver field, and keep them cut, until the frost is oil the next morning. Frost does not hurt clover that is not disturbed at this time of year j but every branch and leaf that is touched whilst the frost is on It, dies down to the place where it was in- jured. In this way I once had ten acres of clo- ver nearly destroyed one morning, by one hun- dred hogs passing through ana leeding on it, whilst Ifozen. My other clover lots were not at all injured by the Irost as they had no stock upon them that morning. The clover will alibrd the hogs good grazing unhl the rye is ready lor them, which will be about the first of July. When the hogs are first put into the rye, some should be cut and got out and put in the paths which are made by the hogs, that the young ones may learn to eat it, which they do not always learn readily, unless they are put in the way of knowing what it is. Now when the hogs are taken off'; one of the clover fields may be saved for seed. The rye will last the hogs, (if there is enough of it,) uniil corn is sufficiently advanced to commence feed- ing them with the new crop. And this is one of the excellencies of rye, that it will keep in the field longer than any of your small grains. If there should not be enough rye, the hogs will go into the clover fields again, and now, they would pay well for having a little corn thrown to them every day. The clover seed should be sown upon the rye about the lOih of April. A bushel should be put upon ten acres and as evenly distributed as [>os- eible. A box ten or twelve leet long, made ol very light materials and having divisions every loot, with holes in each division, sows clover seed inure evenly than it can well be done by hand. Alter the field has been once set in clover, the seed should be allowed to ripen the fall it is in- tended to plough it up ; which will furnish a suffi- ciency ol' seed to keep up the rotation without ouwiug again, il seed iii the chart is used there should be a bushel per acre. In ihis rotation two bushels of rye should be put to the acre. This quantity will supply more grazing than would be hud from less seed, and will also aUord a better crop, by supplying enough to make up lor the roots that may he killed by the hogs rooting them out of the ground. Hogs root in grazing rye much less than would be expected. Tnen I lie rotation upon the hog farm will be corn, rye, each one year; clover two years. Hut even on this Jarni I shall recommend ano- ther rotation. The lanuly will want flour, and wheat cannot be raised in a rotation with rj'o without considerable mixiure with the rye. Then here the rotation should be wheat, corn, wheat, clover ploughed in the second year lor wheat again. Upon these fields the manure from the stables may be hauled the year it is in corn, and the ashes and chip manure the year it is in clo- ver. The spent ashes is a most excellent top dressing to clover. Or the spent ashes may be used as a top-dressing for the wheat crop, or ap- plied to the growing corn crop. When the Itirtiliiy of the soil is sufficiently ad- vanced ; two crojis of corn, iwo crops of rye and two years in clover, may be the rotation. And in very rich land the rotation lor several years to- gether may be corn and rye alone. Froai many years trial of this rotation of corn and rye, 1 cannot perceive that the soil has been at all injured in its productiveness. I have raised a crop of corn which was cut up in the usual way, arsdihe field sowed in rye, which was eat down with hogs. This affords a large coat of straw to be ploughed under, and keeps the ground in a loose, mellow, rich condition. Moreover the corn crop in this rotation is easily worked. Oais may be substituted for the rye in some of the fields in this rotation. The large Tartary or Poland oat when fed down to hogs leaves as much straw on the ground as rye. Oats bring hogs forward faster than rye, and afford more grain to the acre : these are advantages in favor of the oat. But the oat does not stand up aa well as the rye, is soon injured when it falls, sprouis the first rain after it is on the ground and must therefore be led off' very shortly after it is ripe. If oats are raised in considerable quantities for hogs it would be best lo cut and get out a large portion of the crop for them, and only allow the hogs to go into one of the fields that was not too large for them to eat up before it would spoil. Even where rye was the principal small grain raised, it would be advantageous to have one field of oats of such a size that it might be con- sumed when ripe without waste. Where oats has been raised, rye will grow well the next year, il the oats are ploughed under and allowed to come up before the rye is sowed. If the rye is sown on the top of the ground and ploughed under with the oats the first time of ploughing, eo many of the oats will come up as to partially smother Ihe rye and do it much injury. 150 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. In my trials clover has not succeeded well when sown with the large Poland oat. in conse- quence of the oat i^rowing so thick as to smother the clover. Barley Trom its productiveness and its agreeing well wiih hogs mighi be occasionally sown in one oJ the fields m |)lact; ol rye.* Hogs make much manure where they are fat- tened, and (if they are not I'aliened in a field) their manure bhould be hauled out to be applied to the corn crop. It will be perceived that 1 have not included the very popular root crops in my rotation upon a farm where poik is the surplus; and I yive ilie Ibllowing reasons lor rejecting ihem. They are too uncertain. The turnip is the most uncertain of all our crops. So uncertain, that a good crop cannot be raised more than one year in tour. The beet, carrot and parsnip have generally been tolerably certain crops, until last season, when the whole oi ihem were destroyed by the blisier Ily and the grass-hopper. Even it they were certain they require loo much labor ai a season when it can- not be spared from the corn crop, Irish potatoes, though li-ee from the last objection, is not from the first. The whole crops were destroyed by the blister fly, (cantharis viiala,; last year. The only root that I would recommend for its productiveness, profit and certainty upon the pork larm, is the artichoke (helianlhus tuberosum,) which is easily raised and very much relished by hogs. The apple orchard is a proper place (or planting them. The hogs that are not intended lor market may be kept upon them most of the winter; they afford abundance oT Ibod and the rooting of the hogs in the lall and winter would destroy many of those insects that are so injurious to an apple orchard. In parts ot the country where mast is plenty the artichoke would be very valuable to be used those years that the mast liiils. Should the arti- chokes not be heeded they receive no injury from being left in the ground, as they will continue to grow and increase, and may be saved until Irom the failure of the mast they may be wanted. Samuel JD. Martin. THE FARIH AND FARMING OF THE REV. J. H. TURNER — NO II. For llie Farmers' Register, In a former communication, when treating of a sound economy, that most indispensable appen- dage to good management, in the hurry of writ- ing, I omitted an illustration which I will now supply. I intended to state, that I keep no over- * Last year 1 sowed a small piece of millet, which produced at the rate of 60 bushels to the acre. I tried some hogs that were in a pen, and they readily ate the heads ot it. If this article should succeed equal to my expectations, it will be a valuable article in our rotations upon the hog farm, taking the place of the rye and producing more than double the acreable pro- duct. Some, left in the field for the purpose, was found to stand up well and retain its seed in a sound state the whole summer and fall. It produced not only more grain but more straw than any of the small grains that we are using for hogs, and has the advantage that it can be gathered by hogs with less labor than any other grain that we raise for them. I seer. I once had one, but he, though a very honest and respectable man, gave me more trouble than all the negroes put together, 1 constantly had to do the very things which 1 paid him to do. It is a very rare thing that the hired man has any eyes except lor ins own interest. Accordingly, I had to tee every thing, and tell the overseer about it, and direct him to do it ; and this gave me more trouble than to do it myself. These overseers, besides, are generally very expensive things. In addition to their wages, their lamilies, if they have any, must be support- ed. An extra horse must be furnished lor the man to ride, and an extra cook for the lady, and an extra cow lor the family ; and when these, together with the multitude of other nameless 'extras, are taken into the account, the aggregate becomes very Ibrniidable in the catalogue of ex- penses. Accordingly, it is no uncommon thing ior the overseer to become rich much faster than the employer. Indeed I have several limes known hiin to acquire a handsome (briune, when the employer lost one. On large estates, it may be necessary in some instances to have an over- seer, but in ordinary cases, I do think it would be better to repose the necessary confidence in a faithful servant, and thus invest him with the authority and responsibility of a head man. On small liarms there is no doubt on this subject. Connected with this, I will, with the risk of " bringing an old house over my head," say, that the farmers' wife ought in ordinary cases to dis- pense with her housekeeper. Whilst her hus- band is his ov.'n manager in his proper depart- ment, she ought to make her influence lelt in all the departments of her proper sphere. Instead iherelbre of paying another woman to carry her keys, to lock and unlock the meat house, to visit the kitchen or dairy, or to superintend the poultry establishment, she ought to do these things her- self Nor let any active healthy woman (and these are the very women lor larmers' wives) teel that in undertaking these things she will en- cumber herself with over much serving. It is true that these duties, if faithfully perlbrmed, will make it necessary for her to slay pretty much at home ; bui then industry, connected with early rising, and especially a tact lor business, will make the whole comparatively easy. I once knew a woman who had a remarkably kind and aflectionate husband, but he was an easy " good lor nothing" sort of a creature — would sit in the house all day, kiss his wife and caress his children, but would do almost nothing in the way of business. This good man's affairs, as may be supposed, regularly became more and more disordered. His estate, which was at first an ample one, got into ruin, and a heavy debt added greatly to their difficulties. In this state of things, this good man, but bad manager, died. The aflectionate widow was almost overwhelm- ed with sorrow. Here she was left with an estate in disorder, with a family dependent upon her for a support, and with a large debt for which she had to provide, and all this in the very midst of aflliction and bad health. At length, when her grief had exhausted itself, she rallied her ener- gies, and showed what she really was. A com- bination of circumstances now called her true character into action. She mounted her horse, and rode over her farm j the broken down fences THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 151 were repaired, order was called out of confusion, and with the aid of a head man alone, the estate was, in a lew years, completely relieved from its oppressive debt. This good lady, thoufrh now far advanced in iile, enjoys better healih and spirits than she did in her more yoiithtul days, and all is to be ascribed to her enterprise and in- dustry. Should these remarks meet the eye oCthis good old lady, I hope she will excuse them. I submit them, not to render her conspicuous, but simply to show what industry and good manage- ment, even in a delicate female, can ett'ect. As another matter of economy, I will mention, that in the various appendages and fixtures of my larm I made it a point, that whatever I trot should be of the very best order, and that without re- gard to the original cost. As an instance of this, 1 will state, that the cheapest cow I ever owned, cost me when delivered ,^93. And in purchasing my fine hogs some time ago, I got some as low as !$30, but among them, there was one for which I paid at least 0120, and this is decidedly my cheapest hog. And here I will take the lihcriy to remark, that farmers very often commit a capital blunder in this important thing. They often suppose that the cheapest things are those which cost the least money ; whereas the cheapest are those which yield the greatest profit on the amount expended, and at the same time contribute most to our con- venience and gratification. Perhaps there is no instance in which this mistake is more frequently and strikingly displayed than in the purchase of land. In this important matter, farmers seem often to lose the laculiy of looking ahead, and fix their eye only on the present expenditure. The essential points, feriiliiy, facilities for improvement, and convenience to a good and steady market, together with other things which make land really valuable, are all lost sight of, or are all merged in the sole consideration of a cheap purchase. A little good land in the neighborhood of a good market is worth more, in my opinion, than all the lands of the moon and of the seven stars put to- gether. My predecessor, as I have been informed, lived on my present farm as long as he could. My old friend, John Carter, has several times told me that his last crop of corn consisted of stalks not larger than his fingers, and he verily believes that it did not yield a peck to the acre. And as I have had occasion several times to make public mention of this gentleman, I will lell the reader who and what he is. Mr. Carter is a plain man, without education, and has sense enough to make no pre- tensions to it ; is a man ol close, constant and ac- curate observation, always experimeniing, and would certainly long since have ruined himself, but that he deals in this dangerous article in a snriall way. In this way he has stored his mind with an exhaustiess variety of facts, which his great kindness prompts him to communicate (or the information of all. His sole fault is, that he is too prone to draw general conclusions from particular cases. But to return from this digres- sion. My predecessor being thus starved out here, followed the great multitude to the west, where I doubt not he found better land, but I do doubt if he found more substantial means of im- proving his condition. This land being thus abandoned, remained for a long lime (a small part excepted) in what is called the old field stale. Some of it, it is true, had strength enough to put up a sweetbrier, a persimmon, a young pine, or a cedar bush ; but large portions of it were so destitute of cover, that the straggling cattle, in their wanderings, merely passed over it, without stopping to take more than a bite or two. In the mean time, I was busily looking out in the neighborhood of Richmond lor a small farm, wiih the view of making it my own. I saw many, but for reasons which it is not necessary to detail, I could not or did not cibtain them. At length my eye rested on this forlorn spot. It was in market, and not- withstanding the almost hopelessness of its aspect, I resolved on a pupchase. In ihe midst of the many discouragements with which it was sur- rounded, there were however some redeeming circumstances, wliich went a great way towards reconciling me to it. lis position, /or instance, was in that direction from the ciiy in which im- provement was making the most rapid progress. It was situated on a good and level road, so that access to it would at all times be easy. Its sur- fiice was neither so hilly as lo subject it to wash- ing, nor so level as to retain large quantities of stagnant waters. Besides, when I came to exa- mine the land itsell, it was not so desperate as its first appearance indicated. Ii is true that a con- siderable portion was low, lying along boih sides of three branches which passed through it, nearly the whole of which was a cold, tenacious pipe clay. But the remainder, which was lar the greater proportion, was a light silicious soil, firmly imbedded on a strong red clay foundation. These then are the materials on which I com- menced my operations. In (he details, I have perhaps been too particular, but I thought it ne- cessary to be thus minute, that the reader might have a distinct view of the whole subject. And now the absorbing question with me was, how I could most speedily, and at the same time eco- nomically, bring these desolate lands into a state of profitable cultivation. To plant or sow them in their present state was a folly of which even a tyro would not be suiliy. In this emergency, I had almost no assistance except my own re- flections, aided by the little experience I had ac- quired in my very early youth. At that time (15 years ago) Liebig had not written his 'Organic Chemistry,' in which he sets forth the great value of ammonia. I had never even heard or thought of humus, nor guano, nor poudrette, nor urate, nor bone dust, nor any other of the " multum in parvd'^ manures of which the books treat at the present day. If the editor's invaluable ' Essay on Calcareous Manures' was then in existence, I had not seen it. But in the midst of my want of information as to other and better means of im- proving lands, I was satisfied of the great and certain efficacy of rich putrescent manures. This was then my resource, and I availed myself of it with all the means in my power. In the begin- ning, as might naturally be supposed, I made many mistakes in the use of this article. For instance, I used it in the drill, when I ought to have applied it broadcaif, and I immediately co- vered it with the plough, whereas I am now con- vinced that I ought to have left it on the surface. But amidst my blunders, I conceived the idea of making all the manure I could at home, and then 152 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. of adding to it all in my power lioni town ; and ihis I atii sure was no mistake. Tlie reader is now in possession of llie cliiel material by wliicii I have brouylil niy I'arm lo its present I'erlility. Tlic quaniiiy used al^tirst was about 50 carl loads of 25 bushels each lo llie acre. This materially iniprovetl the land, as the crops clearly indicated. But I cuukl plainly perceive that there was an evident lalliri;ines3 of their constituents, and then go home. Now as we can expect no re'brmalion in the banks until the legislature compels it, no more can we expect any reformation in the legislature until the people arise in their majesty and demand it. It is (or this purpose, that I, an aggrieved sufferer, have performed the painful task of writ- ing the above. Located as I am, near the legis- ture and the banks, I see a great raanj' evils which lall not under the observation of the moFe distant larmers. I have waited so long, that my patience is now exhausted, ibr a more competent person to lake this matter in hand. As no one has eomc forward, 1 have reluctantly resolved to apply the trumpet ol alarm to my own lips. I havi! condescended to no personalities, I have sought no man's disgrace, 1 have sought for re- formation, and relbrmation 1 will have. It is pro- bable that i shall not stop here ; but through our agricultural societies and agricultural papers, shall continue to sound the alarm uniil there go up one universal shout — reformat ion ! reformation ! At the beginning of this paper, I begged for quarters whilst I took a short excursion on my liivoriie pony, economy ; but the jade has proved herself of much better wind and bottom than I had any idea of. She even ran away with me. I have now come fairly to the end ol' my course ; whether with safe bones remaii.s yet to be seen. And now Ibr the matter in hand. In my course of cropping I aim at no wheat nor tobacco. My farm is loo small lor the former, and the latter I consider too troublesome to be remunerating. In attempting these crops I should moreover meet with competition fioni all the J'armers within filly miles or more of my market. In determining on a main crop, therefore, it has been an object with me, lo fix on that one in which I cuuld most nearly enjoy a monopoly. And as hay is a bulky article, compared with its weight and price, so much so that it will not bear transportation to any considerable distance, 1 have raide that my chief crop. All my farming ope- rations are therelbre subservient to the cultivation of the grass crop. In looking back to the lime when I commenced farming, I think it a little remarkable that, with- out any previous experience to guide me, I should fix on the very crop whii-h, upon trial Ibr fifteen years, I am still convinced was the very best (br me to cultivate. I had observed that but little hay was brought to market from the neigh- borhood, and that most of that little was of very inferior quality. Mr. Porter and others, who were then in the habit of keeping large numbers of horses (or the stage and other purposes, de- pended almost entirely upon the north (br their eupplii's of hay. This was a matter of necessity with them, for the country supplied perhaps not one twentieth part of what was needed. Ob- serving this, I concluded that if 1 could succeed in raising hay of a good quality, I should have no difficulty in finding u market (br it. Nor in this THE i'ARMEKS' KEGISTEK. 167 have 1 been disappointed. I have never in any instance failed in disposing ol'my whole crop, and generally at lair remunerating prices. Even ai this lime, when every body is complaining of the scarcity of money, hay commands a more ready and a belter price than almost, any other article. Some of my neighbors have expressed to mc the apprehension thai the market would soon be overstocked with this article, and that therelore the price must go down. I entertain no euch ap- prehension. The first effect arising from the in- creased quantity at home will be to arrest the im- portation irom abroad. At present there is still coming a considerable quantity Irom the norih. As long as this ie the case, 1 have no fear that good hay will be a drug upon my hands, indeed, 1 am pleased to see ttiai. vigorous eliorls are now making greatly to increase this crop ; and I hope the time is just at hand, when, in addiiion to uur neighborhood supplies, we shall see large quan- tities borne to market on our canal and rail-road. It is quite lime tha Virginia should assert her own proper independence. She has been dependent long enough, and far too long, upon Llie noith ibr her hay, and upon the west lor her pork. But the main point remains yet to be touched : what is the value of this crop? 1 answer, that I know no crop which upon the whole requires less labor, is more certain, and at the same lime yields a fairer compensation. 'J'he chinch bug and Hessian fly, which prey upon our corn and wheat, never touch this crop ; nor is it subject to the de- predations of any oiher destructive insect. Give it rich land, well prepared, and a moderate degree of moisture, and this is all that it a^-ks. Ii; there- fore, it be subject to lewer casualiies, and when produced commands a Ikir and ready markei, 1 must pronounce it a good crop. But besides these recommendations, there is another, which in my opinion greatly enhances its value, and that is that I regard it as less exhausting than most ol our other crops. I pretend not that this, in com- mon with all oiher crops that are removed from the land, is not an exhauster; but then it ought to be recollected, that other crops, such as corn, wheat, oats, &c., when removed, make no effort 10 recruit themselves. They leave the land, wiih the exception of a little s ubble, entirely naked. This is not the case wiih the grasses ; for besides the stubble, they begin imrnedialely to renew themselves, and continue doing so until arrested by severe frosts j so that the aftermath, especially in clover, is often equal to the first crop. This second crop falling, as it does, and ro:ling on the ground, must coniribu e materially towards re- pairing the exhaustion ol the first crop. And this, in my opinion, is ihe true reason why grass exhausts less than other crops. In this view of the subject, I am greatly strengthened by Liebig, and other celebrated writers on the subject of agriculture. They say, and I think with much plausibility, that the very best manure for any particular species of vegetation is that which is derived from itself Leaves, for instance, is the best manure for forest trees, and wheal straw for growing wheat. II this be the case, tlien tiie second grass crop, containing as it does the mate- rials of the first, must be a valuable manure for Itself; and this, I ihink, is a strong argument for banishing cattle and all oiher depredators from our fields. But more of this hereafter. As to my mode of cultivating grass, and the peculiar grasses which 1 prefer, there appeared in the last (February) number of the Farmers' Regisier, an essay on grass culture, which, were it i;oi that It coniain.'S signs ol' evuleul hasie, I tshould be disposed to adopt as my ovvn. Indeed I will refer to ii, as unlolding pretty fully my views and prelerences on the subject. 1 think it therelore unne.cessdiy to add anoilier word on this poini. But besides grass, which 1 regard as my main crop, 1 also cultivate corn and oats, and of late [ lidve turned my aiteniion considerably to the beet and turuij) crops. All these, however, are |irincipally lor liome consumption. If I have any surjilus, that o! course goes with the grass to maikel. There is one exception to the latter re- ir,Liik, and that is the corn. 1 never sell, directly, an ear of corn ; for by it I sup|)ort another crop, which, till betier advised, I must think a j)rofita- bie one : 1 mean my hog crop. And liere, without entering into the minutia ol detail, I will merely stale, thai according lo the best estimate I can Ibrm, the matter stands thus — when corn sells at GO cents the bushel, and pork at !*;6 the 100 lbs. (wliich i consider us a fair average lor both,) by turning the loinier into ihe latter, 1 gel 90 cents the bushel lor my com. O. course when corn is dearer, or pork is cheaper, my profits are propor- lionably less. But at the usual average jirice, I consider my sell as getting 50 per cent, more lor my corn. 1 ought also to state, that in arriving at this result, 1 iidve to be studiously attentive lo other ciicumstances, such as a thrifty breed of hogs, the care that is taken of them, and the con- stant economy oi their leeding Now when any larmer can make up his mind to he personaUij at- tentive to these things, I hesitate not lo say that he will find his hog crop yielding him a fair pro- fit. It is true thai the last season was a peculiarly discouraging one. i nciver knew pork so cheap, and the probatjiiity is that it will be many years before it is as cheap again. It is to be feared liial many farmers who hud engaged in raising pork will be induced to abandon it. This, let me tell them, is the direct mode to raise the article; so that when they are compelled to buy, they will liave to pay heavily for it. For my own part, 1 am not at all discouiaged. I have just effected the spring sale of my shoats and pigs, and the profit has been nearly or quite equal to any former occasion. For a fine young Berkshire boar, just eight months old, I received ^55. But 1 am again trespassing on the reader's pa- tience. 1 must, however, before concluding, ob- serve that my usual rotation (if I have any at all) is tivo consecutive years in corn, this Ibllowed with oate, and the three next years in grass. This of course takes up six years, and then com- mences the same routine again. I have no doubt that, at first sight, strong objections will be made to this course, especially as three grain crops are made immediately to succeed each other. But I beg the reader to suspend his condemnation, until I inform him that i have another rotation, and that is a rotation o^manuring, and this I consider of more importance than any rotation of cropping whatever. On this hacknied subject of rotation I have a theory which is perhaps peculiar to my- self, and which, when announced, will probably call fiirih the animadversions of some who are 158 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. wedded to iheir own favorite opinions. But leaf- less ol' this Ibrmidable consequence, I hereby in- form the reader, that I shall still proceed in my own candid way, assuring him, that all I aim at is the truth. But as my paper is already a long one, and 1 have an increasingly strong objection to long communications as well as long speeches, I will deler till my next what i have luriher to say on Ihissubjeci. J. 11- Turner. ON GAYTING CLOVER. From the London Farmers' Magazine. Sir, — Properly securing the clover crop and other artificial grasses is a very important agri- cultural operation, particularly to those larmers who may reside iti a humid climate. Ol)oerving what I consider very erroneous opinions abroad respecting the best method to be employed lor iie proper security, 1 would respect;ully ofl'er a (ew brief remarks on a short practice in this operation. On leaving a clay land larm a lew years ago, in an exposed and arid situation, where there was no difficulty in ordinarily lavorable seasons in securing these crops in liiir condition, and remov- ing to a turnip soil, producing hnavy crops of seeds, in a close siiuation and moist atmosphere, the seasons also being very wet and unfavorable, 1 had for the first three years a very great waste in this description of hay. The fourth year (1839) I had a beautiful crop of red clover, with a liitle rye-grass ; and being again a very unfavorable season, I was determined lotaUc every precaution to secure it without injury. I was advised to gayte or ruckle it (an operation which I will pre- sently describe), as is sometimes practised by the best farmers in this neighborhood, and I believe in some parts of this riding of Yorkshire very ge- nerally. The work is performed chiefly by women, after the crop has been severed and laid a day or two to dry on the top : the operator be- ginning at that end ol the swathe which was firs' cut, proceeds to roll ii up by the hands till a suffi- cient sized sheaf is formed ; then pulling from the top end a small band, which is tied round the top partof the sheafso high as to admit the bottom part being spread out and firmly placed on the ground, in which direction it is left as perpendi- cular as may be, which concludes the operation. The gaytes should be placed in a straight line be- tween the swathes, which gives it a neat appear- ance, a well as being placed on ihi driest ground. If possible, it is belter done when the grass is dry on the top, but in precarious seasons I would not hesitate to put it togeiher wet, as it will take flir less harm in this way than being left on the ground. The mowers should lay the swathes as straight as possible, which greatly facilitates the operation. The advantages attending this method are, first, it requires no more labor till it is fit to carry, ex- cept, perhaps, an occasional righting up, and at the time of carting a woman or boy to pitch it into heaps for loading, the rakers following ; secondly, it effectually secures all the leaves and seeds, scarcely a particle being lost, as happens in wet seasons by repeatedly turning it ; and thirdly, there is no season, however wet, in which it will not retain its quality ; so much so, indeed, that in 1839 my seeds stood in gaytes for three weeks of almost incessant rain, yet they were at last secured so green and fine, it would have been difficult to say, when using them, they had been at all exposed. It is also the cheapest method, aa a woman or strong lad will do an acre a day com- pletely, even if the crop be large. From theiepori of the Farmers' Magazine, the members ol the Framlingham Farmers' Club will discuss this question again on the 24ih May, and if any one of them will give this method only a partial trial, I ;hink he will recommend it to his neighbors as worthy an extended practice, being the most economical, and securing both quality and quantity. Should you deem these remarks worthy a place in the Farmers' Magazine, I should be obliged by their insertion. I am. Sir, your most obedient servant, Anti-Haycock. Hall Garth Farm, ICildah, Jan. 26, 1842. FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO OX^R RESOURCES IN MANURE. STERCORIZED BARK FOR NI- TROGEN AND PHOSPHATES. From the Cornwall Royal Gazette. Sir, — Independent of theoretical or chemical considerations, plain reasoning will indicate that the excrements of animals should return to the soil the refuse of their Ibod ; and consequently that as cattle dung is an excellent manure for grass, so night soil should be the most appropriate for corn. And [he fad long known and acted upon by the Chinese and Belgians, is becoming more and more appreciated and employed in this country, though its value is yet imperfectly understood. It appears from Liebig, that the annual evacuations of' one man (l|lb, per day liquid and solid— 5471bs.) are sufficient manure lor an acre of wheat, and that every pound ol' mine is equivalent to a pound of wheat, estimating the produce per acre at four quarters, (not too high for fair situations thus manured,) and the annual consumptions at one quarter per man (an over estimate) : it results, that the excretions of one individual will supply manure lor the consumption of four ; so much o.^ the nourishment of the corn is derived from the air. And hence some estimate may be formed of the great increase of produce to be obtained by due attention to the preservation of this article, now drained to waste in such profusion into rivers and the sea. And even in the modes of preserving and using it, by the aid of lime, much of its am- monia is wasted ; and it has before been shown, that to the ammonia the corn owes its nitrogen, the element on which we have most to depend for improvement, both in quality and quantity. Lime should no more be mixed with night soil, than with gas liquor ; on the contrary, the matters added to absorb the liquid, should have an acid tendency. Gypsum does very well by double decomposition. Peat earth is acidulous enough to fix the ammo- nia, where at hand ; but in large towns, this earth often requires pretty distant carriage. Refuse bark is, however, generally produced in populous place?, and is an incumbrance to the tanner, from which he is obliged to contrive various methods for relieving himself; amongst the rest burning, to the great annoyance and suffering of the neighbor- hood. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 159 But tanners' refuse bark has also enough acidu- lous quality to fix ihe ammonia in night soils ; and being so generally at hand in populous towns may be employed for the purpose extensively. Three parts of tanners' bark to one of night- Boil (urine included, which is as valuable as any part) will make a stronger manure than siable- dung ; and with this further advantage, that ihe etable-dung requires to be rotted, to reduce the long straws, and kill the undigested seeds it con- tains ; whilst the bark being already short, and the night-soil containing no seeds, it may be carted to the field at once ; thus saving ihe heavy waste in rotting. In the tan-yard, the bark may be slercorized, by having a privy or two, and suitable corners for the work-people, all made to drain upon the heap ; calculating say 1 lb. of evacuations liquid and solid from each individual, per day. and proportioning the bark to it ; what is above that quantity being disposed of to o'her persons, for the same purposed All the hide wool and glue washings and house drainings should run into the same, which should be rooled over, to keep off the rain, but with open sides to encourase evaporation of the moisture. All the asijes of fires, whether of the works or house, should be added, to help the absorpti-on, and destroy the smell ; and by this fmeans a tanner employing25 hands may turn out 25 x Shark, and say X 2 for ashes and drains ; 25 x 75 x 50=: ISOlbs. ofmanure per day, richer than stable dung, much better for corn, and losing noihin" in rottin'^fr as not required. ° ° In other places, as private gardens, school grounds, &c., the bark may be procured from the tanner, and added to the privy sink, in rather larger proportions, reckoning the evacuations at IJIb. per entire day of 24 hours. Much less bark will do, say half as much as the night-soil, mak- ing up the quantity with garden mould ; but the bark is so much additional vegetable matter, at little cost. It may be thrown in, a load at a time, lor the excrement to (all upon ; but the ashes should be added daily, so as to lie on the top, and absorb the smell. A long and large trunk should rise from the sink, to encourage evaporation and carry up also the smell still remaining ; for al- though much subdued by ashes, it cannot be alto- gether destroyed without careful mixture not practicable for such a purpose. In this manner large quantities may be collected. Peat earth will do instead of bark, as above stated, with the precaution not to throw it in in co- hesive lumps, which will not absorb, but as dry and crumbly as practicable. The ashes are enuallv uselul in either case. J. Prideaux. From the Kentucliy Fanner. AN ESSAY ON THE IMPORTANCE AND PROPER MANNER OF REARING SHEEP, SUITED TO THE CONDITION OF KENTUCKY. By Dr. Samuel D. Martin, Clarke county, Kxj. To prove the importance of the sheep, it is only necessary to state that all the men in the *^^*^ .^""^ dressed in the productions of their wool half the year, and the preparation of this cioinmg gives employment to a large portion of the women several months every year. The amount of domestic manufactures in Clarke coun- ty alone, (which are principally of wool,) amount annually lo ^129,000. Beside their wool they furnish meat that is particularly wholesome and nutritious. They are also very serviceable in clearing a farm of weeds and bushes, as they feed upon a greater variety of herbage than any oilier ani- mal. Their manure is very valuable and is more evenly distributed by them over the ground they are fed upon than by any other stock, and has the advantage of having no seeds in it to fill the g;round with noxious weeds. It is believed there would be as great profits realized from sheep on our highest priced land as upon any other stock, and the land would be more rapidly brought into the highest possible stafe of feriiliiy. Upon such land I have found sheep to be sut)ject to \tT^. few diseases, and very /produc- tive. The males should be kept in separate lots until the middle of October, when one male should be admitted to every fifiy females. This will bring the lambs from the middle of March to the first of April. There should be ten acres of rye sowed for every hundred sheep, and the sheep should be turned upon this rye when their Iambs are two or three weeks old, this will produce a plentilul supply of milk and enable the ewe to raise a strong and vigorous lamb. For want of something°green for the ewes many lambs are lost. The lamb should be castrated at three or four weeks old, and it is also customary to shorten their tail to one or two inches. At three months old the lambs should all be separated Irom the old sheep and kept in a lot by ihcmselves. li^ weaning them at this age they learn to eat and become fat against the lall, and go through the next winter much better than those that are allowed to run all the season with their dams. The grazing of the rye will also give the blue grass* a good start in the spi ing and upon this good start in the spring depends the value of the blue grass crop. A piece of blue grass that is allowed to show its seed stems before there is any sto.k turned upon it will produce twice as much pas- turage as a like piece that has stock turned upon it as soon as they can get a little grass ofl' it ia the spring. The rye will last the sheep until the blue grass is ready to receive them, and after be- ing upon the blue grass about a month they may be put upon the clover fields where they will find plentiful pasturage until the stubble fields are ready to receive them. These will afford them a plen- tiful supply of weeds and the different grasses lor some time, when they may again be trans- ferred to the clover fields. All this lime we are keeping them as much off the blue grass pasture as possible. Now when the stubble fields and clo- ver fields are exhausted the sheep should again be turned into one of the blue grass pastures, where they will find a great quantity of Ibod col- lected for them which will last ihein throu'^h the winter. ° Sheep are healihy and keep fat upon this blue * Green-sward, Poa-pratensis.— Er. F. R. 160 THK FAllMEUS' REGISTER. grass and will want no leeJiiig duiing the winler, unless there should come a heavy enow upon which a crusl should be /brmed. If that should be the case they utiould hav.i a regular supply of hay, fodder or oals until the snow is sulhciently broken to get at the grass again. By having se- veral such blue gracs pastures and translerring the sheep Iroui one to anoilier their health will be promoted and an abundant supply ol' winter Ibod be obtained, ll" sheep are turned early in the spring upon a luxuriant clover lot, especially in wet weather, they are liable to be hoven, which Jrequenlly proved laial. On which account it is besi not to turn them upon the clover bel'ure the first of June, and even then they should not be turned uj)on it when very hungry. Alter the first of June if proper care is talcen when ihe sheep are put into the clover fields there is very liiile danger of ils hurling theui. All that hus been said in relation to sheep upon our best lands is applicable to the lands of an in- ferior quality, siiil we should have to vary our treatmen*. in bome paiiiculais. A large portion of the soil of Kentucky that v.ill not produce fme blue grass will produce abundant crops of timothy and clover. We should here have to make some greater provisions for wintering the sheep. Upon some such land orchard grass (Dactyiis glome- rata) succeeds well ; and this will also afford a tol- erable winter supply of Ibod ami a very early spring supply. But here we ntust depend princi- pally upon clover and timothy hay, corn stock fodder, oats, and such roots and vegetables as we can raise. Among the roots I would enumerate the turnip, parsnip, carrot, sugar beet, mangel wurlzel, Irish potato and artichoke. The turnip is an excellent root from its pro- ductivenes and adaptation to winter feeding of sheep, but is too uncertain a crop to be depended upon in this state. The parsnip is a much more certain crop and the improved varieties are very productive and are easily kept through the win- ter requiring no care nor protection from the cold. The carrot is also easily cultivated and produc- tive. Some of the varieties require to be pro- tected in the winter, others do not. Sugar beet is a tolerable certain crop and easily cultivated, so is the mangel wurlzel ; they both require pro- tection and are easily injured by frost. The Irish potato is so well known that I need say nothing more about it. The artichoke {Hdicanthiis iuberosimi) is the most productive ol' all the roots that ever 1 have cultivated ; all the stock that I have tried is Ibnd of them ; they require no care, staying in the ground from year to year without injury, and are easily cultivated. I plant tliem in drills four feet apart and two feet asunder in the drills, and work them as 1 would corn, being careful not to plough deep the last time of ploughing. Among the vegetables for winter feeding of sheep, pmnpkins and cabbages are both excellent. The pumpkins may be stored away for early use in a cellar or root house or even in a fodder stack. And cabbage may be kept ail the winter in a fod- der stack, or even in a barn slightly covered with shucks or straw. But it is principally on our inferior and moun- tain lands that sheep husbandry ^vvill be found peculiarly advcniageous. There are in the bounds of Kentucky many thousands of acres of land that can be purchased at prices from five to iwetity cents an acre. Some of these mountain lands are rich and all of iheiii calculated to alford abundant pasturage of tiie most appropriate k'nd fbr sheep. To make this land available, one or two acres should be fenced in and the timber inside and Ibr some little way out all killed, the sheep should be brought up and penned in this every night. By penning five hundred or a thousand sheep in thia way in this pen fbr a month the land will be made very rich, anJ a week belbre they are taken out the pen should be sowed with grass seed. 1 sh juld preler mixing timothy, blue grass, orchard grass and red clover seed for this purpose. While the sheep are occupying the first pen another should be prepared for their reception the next monih. In this way a pen of one or two acres will be prepared and sown in grass every month. Means should be prepared also fbr wintering these sheej). There are glades in most of our mountain land tliat have green grass in them all the winter ; there is also a large quaniiiy of winter lern, which, with oats, should be raised Ibr the purpose, which will assist in wintering and keeping the sheep healihy. Wiih the assistance of a good shep- herd's dog, one man can easily herd and attend to two thousand sheep. These mountain lands are covered in the spring and summer with a profusion of pea vine, which will afibrd ample provision (or the sheep ; and when it fails, if the seed is put there they will be covered with clover and other grasses. There are still a few wolves in the mountains, but they are scarce and easily killed in the fol- lowing manner. Procure an old horse and kill him on some unfrequented ridge (wolves gene- rally travel on the ridges) and stick holes in his flesh all over Ids body and put two or three grains of strychnine in each hole. The horse should be killed in the beginning of winter, as he will not decay during cold weather, and the wolves are also scarce of Ibod during winter. The pens that have been sowed with grass will produce a fine crop of hay for the second year, and this added to a crop of oats raised for the pur- pose will afibrd the sheep suflicient food for the second winter. The roots and vegetables men- tioned before may also be brought into requisition here ; and in good weather the sheep will receive much benefit from being driven every day to the clady valley or to those places where winter fern is abundant. The fencing and penning, and sow- ing of grass seed should be continued through the secoiid year, and alter the second winter those pens will afford sufficient hay to winter the sheep with very little assistance from other sources. The greatest enemy the sheep have is the dog. I was pleased with a law of some of the eastern stales upon this subject. They have a tax upon dogs ; and whenever sheep are killed by them, the loss is repaired from this fund. The shelter Ibr sheep in those mountainous re- gions is generally very extensive. From Mil- ler's creek in Esiill county, as far up the river as I have ever travelled, which has probably been fifty miles higher, it would be difficult to find a place where there was not in two or three miles shelter for many thousand sheep under project- ing rocks, and in large open-moulhed caves, such as sheep would readily enter. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 161 Shnep should have a regular supply of salt at all times. Where hay is cut /or siieep (or any other stork) it should.be salted, as it is n)uch more convenient to give thetii salt in the vvinler in this way. The kind of sheep raised must depend upon circumstances. Where the chiel' demand is lor mullon, some of ihe larger kinds ol' sli^ep may be most valuable, ns (he Bakevvell or Colswold. This will be especially ihe case where pasiurage is very abundant, for ihese large sheep require pastures. J3ut where the object is chiefly vvool, the Merino or a cross of the Mcriijo and Saxony will be found most profitable. The larger sheep will do better in our rich level lands than in moun- tainous regions. It might have been supposed that a cross of the Southdown upon our Merino flocks would be very advantageous. And such a cross has been strongly recommended in Ken- lucky. But this has not been the result, in the trials that have been made in Eugland. It is said in the Complete Grazier, page 230, that the pro- duce of this cross had " lender constitutions, slow feeding, bad shape, and deficiency in the num- ber of lambs. This new breed has therefore been generally given up in Sussex, and also in Wiltshire, where it has been extensively tried." The wool of the Southdown was consideiably improved. The following account of the difTerenl breeds of England is taken from Judge Beaity's Prize JKssay upon the Agriculture of Kentucky, pub- lished in the 4ih vol. Ky. Farmer, page 300 : " England is quite as celebrated for her breeds of sheep as of cattle. They may be divided into the long and short woolled kinds. 01' the former, the most noted are the following, and they stand in point of sine in the order named : 1, Teeswaier wethers, weighing per qr. at 2 years old, 30 lbs. 2, Lincoln, " 25 3, Dartmoor or Bampton, " • 25 4, Colswold, " 24 5, New Leicester, " 22 6, Romney Marsh, « 22 " These bear fleeces from eight to eleven pounds in the yolk. The Lincolns bear the heaviest. The Teeswaier, Cots wold and Dartmoor wethers average nine pounds each, and the New Leices- ter and Romney Marsh eight poilnds. These breeds all bear very coarse wool, which foriy years ago sold in England at lOd. sterling (20 cents.) Of the short woolled kindd of native sheep, the most noted are the Ryelands and Southdowns. Southdown wethers average at 2 years old, 18 lbs. per quarter ; the Ryelands only 14 lbs. at 3| years old. They are a small race of sheep, but bear finer fleeces than any of the native sheep of England. The South- downs are the next finest. Their wool at the period above-mentioned was worth two shillings and four pence, sterling, {56 cents,) and their fleeces average about three pounds. " The Teeswaier are the largest sheep in England, and are prevalent " in the rich, fine, fertile, enclosed land on the banks of the Tees, in Yorkshire." Tliey are supposed to have sprung^ from the Lincolns, being an improve- ment of that stock, as regards size, with little alleration to the quality of the wool. They Vol. X.-21 are said to be a breed calculated for warm, rich pastures, where they are kept in small lots, in small CHclosuree, and supported with food in severe winter seasons." " The Lincolns of the improved breed are said to be " among Ihe best, if not actually ihe best long woolled sheep in England." The fla- vor of the Lincoln mutton is superior to that of the Dishley, and is a great favorite at Smith- field. Their wool is fi-om ten to eighteen inches long, but very coarse, being only "fit for combing. " The New Leicester or Dishley (Bakewell) is an improved breed of sheep, which, accord- ing to Mr. Culley, "is readily distinguished from the other long woolled sorts, by having fine live- ly eyes, clean heads, without horns, straight, broad, flat backs, round or barrel shaped bodies, fine small bones, thin pells, and a disposition lo make fat at an early age." Mr. Culley adds his testimony in favor of the " superiority in the fine- ness of the grain and flavor of the mutton, to that of the other sheep of the long woolled kind." But upon this point other authors do not concur. The author of the ' Treatise upon Live Stock,' says the New Leicester mutton is the most fine by grain of all Ihe large long woolled species, but of a flavor bordering on the insipid.''^ Mr. Livingston, in his admirable Essay on Sheep, speaking of Mr. Bake- well's improvement of the Dishley stock, says, he was of opinion " that fat upon the rump and ribs was more important than tallow, and accordingly he produced sheep on which it is there found five or six inches thick. He further remarks that " his sheep are, on that account, less valuable to the epicure than to the laborer, with whom they, in some sort, supply the place of pork." Th& wool of this sheep is the shortest and finest of combing wools, ihe length of the staple being six or seven inches." The late Mr. Robert Bakewell originated this improved vari quickly to maturity, the wethers " being seldom kept longer than two years old, and often led at eighteen months--." They are also " capnble of travelling well and of resisting the eflecls of exposure lo cold." The celebrated Mr. Coke, now Lord Leicester, ia said to have ihe best and finest Souilidowns in England." I have extracted the above from Judge Bi-aity, but as the author from whom he quotes spoke of the Soulhdowns of hi-! diiy, i thought it proper to give the opinions of some later writers upon iliesa sheep, and shall then proceed with my quotation. At present Mr. Eilmau o! Glynd is "said to have ihe finesi Soulhdowns in England." The fol- lowing exiract is taken from Blacklock's Treatise on Sheep, writien in England in 1838 and repub- lished in the United Siates in 1841. Ou page 20, Amcriciin edition, i\e says ; " 77/e Soulhdown, like the Ryeland, are, from the delicacy of tlieir constitution, unadapted lor bleak situations, but suffi really hardy and active lor a low country ; their average weight is frooi 15 lbs. to 18 lbs. a quarter; that of the fleece, which is very short and fine, being li-ora 2| lbs. to 3 lbs. They are without horns, have gray faces and legs, a neck low sel and sniall, and a breast neither wide nor deep ; their mutton is fine in the grain and of excellent flavor, having been brought to great peredion by Mr. Ellman of Glynd, and other intelligent breeders. They are mostly found in Sussex, on dry chalky downs pro- ducing short fine herbage, and arrive early at maturity ; in which respect they are equal lo the Cheviot; ihough inferior lo them in quantity of tallow. Formerly they would not take on liit un- til four years old ; now they are always at mar- ket when aboui 2 years of age, and many are killed before that period." From the above quotation it appears that the Southdown sheep of the present day have " deli- cate constitutions" and are not calculated for " bleak situations," but are well suited lor a low country. Neither Southdown, Bakewell or New Leicester, nor Cost wold would suit our moun- tain land.^. The Merino, and their crosses upon our native sheep, would be Ibund to suit our mountains best. These Southdowns formerly were slow in com- ing to maturity, requiring four years ; what means have been resorted to Ibr producing their early maturity in the present race we are not informed. Whether it was the introduction of some foreign blood or judicious selection and breeding we know not. It appears that, whatever the means may have been, the constitution has been so much in- jured that they are not now the same hardy sheep they were forty years ago. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 163 A comparison of the mution of the Souilulown with the Merino, in the only case that lias come to my knowledge, has resulted in favor of the Me- rino, and the Merino wool in England brings double the price of the Southdown. In the United States the difference in the price of the wool 13 not so great, the Merino bring worth about for- ty or fifiy per cent. most. The quantity of woo! yielded by ilie Merino is also greater than the Southdown, whilst the quamily of mutton pro dnced by the Southdown is greatest. I have no practical experience of either Soiilh- (lovvng, New Leicester or Cosiwdid, but believe the Merino, with iheir crosses upon our naiive eheep, will be Ibund a iiardier race ihan eiher ol the foregoinir, and whilst the relative prices con- tinue any thing like ihey are at present, it will be much more profiiableto invest nuncy in them, than in either of the others, I shall now resume my quotation from Judge Beatty. An English wiiier, comparing the Souihd'iwns and Norlblks (a very noied breed of the fine vvoolled son) sajs " in short, the leading charac- teristics of the high and full bred Norlblk and Southdown sheep seem, upon romparison, to be chiefly these, the wool of both is Ibund to be of (he fitst clothing quality, but ihe larger quantity is produced by the Southdowns ; the mulion of both is equally delicious. But ihe quiet, genile South- downs, in the pasture, tnu-?! be o[)po.?ed to the vvi'd, impatient ramblings of the Norlolk, whose con- stant exercise not onl^ excites continual appetite, but at the same lime oceasions a considerable waste in the pasture, by Heading down and un- necessarily spoiling a great deal of Ibod they do not eat." fi is further remarked, that " ihe hardinejs of the Southdowns, enduring wet and cold lodging and a greater degree of abstinence and Uitigue than the Norlblk, in the fold, is a superiority of much moment, and only to be equalled by anoiher which they possess, in a very superior degree, which ia thai of doing well upon coarse and sour pastures." It is added '< ihat the S luihdowns, compared with the Norlblk, are equally good turnip sheep ; and lor every possible purpose, whether lor their flesh, lor i heir wool, for breed- ing, (or folding or lor the butcher, they demand a less supply o( food and of an inferior quality to that which, in every siiualion, would ap- pear indispensable to the well doing of the Nor- Iblks." The foregoing statements and fids present a very favorable view of the Southdown varieiy of sheep. But their meniis are siill more strongly sustained by a course of experiments, made by the Earl of Egremont lo test the relative v.ilue ol the New Leicester, Southdown, Romney M irsh, and some half bloods, being a cross of the New Leicester and Southdowns. It would occupy too much space lo give the whole course of his ex- periments in detail, but the following is the sub- stance of them. In the month of August he put in the same enclosure, weiher lambs of the preceding spring, as follows : 17 Southdowns, 19 New Leicester?, 12 half bloods, a cross of the New Leicester and Southdown, and 7 Romney Marsh. They were all kept alike till June of the Ibliow- ing-year, when 12 of the Southdowns and all the half bloods were Ibund in marketable condition ; and the former were sold at 340, and the latter at 330, sterling. None of the New Leicesters or Romney Marshes were in marketable condition. This experiment shows the superiority of the Southdowns and half bloods, where it is desirable to sell at an early age.* A part of each kind was kept over for further experiments, and ii was Ibund that between June and the 7ih of September, (ten weeks,) the Southdowns had gained 13 per cent., the New Leicester 21 per cent., the half bloods 13 per cent., and the Romney Marshes 14 per cent. Here was a gain of 8 per cent, by the New Lei- cester, and 1 per cent, by tlie Romney Marshes, over the half bloods and Southdowns, This is naturally to be accounted for so far as rela'es to the Southdowns, from the circumstance of the two sorts, which had gained, being of a larger breed than the Southdowns, It will be recol- lected that the New Leicester wethers at two years old weigh 22 pounds to the quarter, the Rom- ney Marshes 25, and the Southdowns only 18. They were now, (7ih September,) about one and a half years old, and consequently it was to have been expected that the larger breeds, which had fallen back during the winter, should increase more rapidly during the summer, than the smaller ones, in order to attain their appropriate weight at two years old. They were weighed again the 1st of December following, when the Souihdowns had lost 3 per cent., the new Leicesters 2 per cent,, the half bloods 4 per cent,, the Romney Marshes had gained one third of 1 per cent. All the sorts, ii will be observed, must have continued to gain Ibr some lime after the 7th of September, and the larger breeds, for the reasons here stated, must have gained more rapidly than the smaller ones, lill winter set in. At this period all would begin to lose, and the loss exhibited above was not the whole loss. What had been gained between the * This experiment shows that the Southdown sheep bear starvation better than the New Leicester, but is not at all decisive of their earlier maturity under different treatment. Had the sheep been kept so as to prevent them from losing flesh in the winter and sold as soon as they were in condition in the spring, the result would probably have been very different. We find during the time that they had plenty to eat, from June to September, that the New Leicester gained 21 per cent., while the Southdowns gained 13 per cent. Here it is likely the gain is much greater in the New Leicester than meets the eye. We are told that the New Leicesters are of a larger breed than the Southdowns, of course any per cent, upon a large animal, is much more than the same per cent, upon a small one. Blaclc- lock gives the average weight of the New Leicester at 18 to 26 lbs. per quarter, and their wool at 6 to 8 per fleece. The Southdown is averaged by him from 15 to 18 lbs. per quarter, and their fleece from 2J to 3 Jbs. From the above it appears the New Leicester has 22 lbs. most mutton, and his wool at 20 cents, and the Southdowns 25 cents, which is about the market price of the two, the New Leicester fleece will be found to be worth about double the Southdown in Kentucky, where coarse wools bear relatively a higher price than fine. For mutton 1 have no doubt that the Costwold and New Leicester, will both make a better cross with the Merino, than the Southdown; For wool I think nei- ther of them should be used as a cross unless it be de- sirable to make coarser wool, when the cross with the New Leicester will be found to give double the quan- tity. S. D. M. 164 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 7ih September and the period at which they be- gan to fail off, should have been added. If these circumstances be taken in'o consideration, this experiment would be very liivorable lo ihn South- downs ; but the next experiment is still more de- cisive in their lavor. They were weighed again the first of March following, when it was found the Southdowne had lost, between the 1st of December and 1st of March, lour per cent., the New Leicesters 14 per cent., the half bloods 10 per cent., and the Roniney Marshes 5 per cent. During the second as well as duririj; the first winter, the Soutlidowns exhibited a deriiled advantage over the New Luicesters. The Rom- ney Marshes, it will be seen, stand upon almost as good ground as the Southdown, and did much bet- ter than the New Leicesters. The nest experiment shows that from the Isl of Dec. to June. lOih, the Souihdowns gained 13 per cent., the. New Leicesters 9 per cent., the. half bloods, 9 per cent., and the Romney Marshes 17 percent. Here again tite advantage is decided- ly in favor of the Southdovvns and Ron)ney Marshes. The experiment was continued throush the third summer, when, as might be expected, the New Leicesters again look the lead ; and ns the result of the whole experiment it is stated " that the profit for two years and two monih=5 leed, adding the value of the wool, was SJ.anda fraction per week for the Romney Marshes, and from 4d. lo 7^d. for the New L'^icesters, from the time of their being lambed. The former pnri of the ex- periment had shown that the Southdown? and half bloods, at the age of 64 weeks, gave 7d. per week profi'.* Thus it appears by a cour?e of experiments ful- ly and fairly made, by the Enrl of E^rcmont, that the Southdovvns, even for ihe purposes ol mutton, are decidedly more profitable than the New Leicesters. And this result follows with- out allowing any thing for the increased quantity o//<)06^ consunsed by the New Leicesters, or lor the superiority of the mutton of the Souihdowns. It is a well established general principle, that (he larger the animal ihe more tbod they will require. Here ihe Southdowns, ihe smaller animal, upon the same kind of keep, gave 7f/. profit per week, at the age of 64 weeks, whilst the New Leices- * This experiment would have looked a little more hke it had been fairly made if the weights of the Southdowns had been f>;iven when they were sold, and the weights of the New Leicester fhe seventh of Sep- tember when they were ready for market. Rut to keep animals that were fat in the fall of the year, and let them t'all off in Ihe winter and theri compare their ffain per week with those sold the summer beibrc, looks like any thing: but fairness. If the sheep had been kept in 2;rowing order all the lime, this experiment would no doubt have exhibited a very different result ; and the question would not have been which kind would bear starvation best, but which would give most gain for feed consumed. There ap- pears to be something unfair in taking forgrantcd what is not proved, " that the larger the animal fhe more food they will require." It may be " a well establish- ed general principle," when applied to animals of the same family, but even then there will be found excep- tions, but when applied to animals of different families, it should never be taken for granted, but should be proved before an argument can be based upon it. S. D. M. ters at the age of 113 weeks, gave a profit of only 4d. to 4.}(/. per week. The wool of the South- downs is also more valuable. Those of a good quality wdl averai'e crosses to produce as fine wool fi-om the mixed breed as from the pure s'ock. Thus a cross upon Kyeland ewes, bearincr wool worth 3s will produce a breed bearing wool worth 3s. 7d and each subsequent cross will add 7d. to the value o( the wool, so that after the fifth cross, the off- spring will bear wool worth as much as the Span- ish, that IS 6s. per pound, provided the rams and ewes are of Ibe finest quality at the commencement of the cross. This shows the error of the opinion, that the new Leicester, or any other of the coarse long woolled sheep, will furnish a good cross for the Merino race. Next to the Ryelande, Southdown ewes of the finest quality furnish the best cro^s of any of the native sheep of Great Britain. The United States not having com- menced manufacturing fine wool, at the'' period when the Merinoes were introduced into England had not the same inducement to make an^eff'ort to nntunliz- that valuable race. But not long af- terwards. Chancellor Livingston, our embassa- dor at the court of France, studying to promote the interests of his country, by all the means in his power, turned his attention to this subject, and in the year 1802, selected " two pair of the finest Merinoes he could," from the improved flocks of France, " and sent tbem over under the care of one of his own servants, intending to follow them by others."* These, says Mr. Livingston, "were the first couples ever imported into the United Slates," Shortly after this period, Col. Humphreys, of Connecticut, introduced directly from Spain, a considerable number of this valuable race. These importations laid the foundation of the Merino breed of sheep, which are now so numerous in ihe United States. Thpy were first introduced into Kentucky by Mr. Seth Adams, in the year 1809. A small proportion only of his flock were of the full bloods, the balance being the produce of a cross upon the native sheep of the country. Shortly afterwards, Mr. Prentice, Mr. Lewis Sanders, and other spirited gentlemen, intro- duced a number of the pure blooded Merinoes. In Ihe year 1829, the Hon. Henry Clay imported from ihe western part of Pennsylvania, a flock of fifty full bloods, hrina a selection from one of Ihe best in Washinaton county. These and other importations have laid the foundation of the Merino flocks in Kentucky, and nothins is now wantincr. but sufficient attention and skill, in the management of our sheep husbandry, to secure to us a full participation of the great advantages which must accrue to the United States from The rearing of fine woolled sheep." "The poliiical contests of the day and the self- ish views of ambitious aspirants, may for a time depress the interests of agriculture and ofsheep husbandry in particular, but it is impossible, that this can continue to be the case for any great length of time. When we look at our present population and take into consideration the well established fact, that it increases in a ratio of 33i per cent, every ten years ; that our exports except in a single article (cotton) instead of increasing in a ratio with our population, is continually di"^ minishing, whon we see the results of our pre- sent system, (depending upon foreigners to manu- faciure for us what we could so easily manufac- ture for ourselves) a system encouraged and pro- moted by the legislature of the national govern- ment ; to the periodical reversions in trade of the most alarming and distrcpsing character, arising in a great degree, from too extensive' reliance upon foreigners to supply us wUh clothinsr, blan- kets, and other necessaries. * * * When we shall learn wisdom from experience, we shall be compelled (though perhaps not until after long and severe suffering) to do as all wise nations liave done before ue, protect our agricultural interest * Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p, 9. 166 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. by givinuf protection to those who manufacture the raxo products of our agriculture. When this pe- riod shall arrive, our J\leriiiO flocks, as well as those ofolher races will be Ibuncl to be ol immense value and of great importance to the general in- lerests oC the coumry. Wool to the amount ol ivvo hundred millions ol'pounds would be produced, (if due cncouraL^ement shall be atlorded,) before our population shall iuive reached thiity millions, wiiicli will happen within the next twenty years, and in ten years thereatier it will probably have reached forty millions.'"* What vast results, ihen, are to spring from a proper attention to sheep hus- bandry! How immensely will the wealth and comfort ol' our citizens be promoted and the fer- tility of the soil increased by rearing and feeding 66,000,000 of sheep ! But the direct advantages resulting from sheep husbandry will not be all. Other agricultural pursuits will be greatly pro- moled, first, by diveriing a portion of agricultur- al industry irom those branches which have been pushed to too great an excess ; and secondly, by the new market that will be furnished ibr agri- cultural products, by ihe numerous class of indi- viduals who will be employed in manufacturing the immense quantity of wool, which the United Slates are capable ol growing. Too much atten- tion cannot be given to this important subject. Fine wool, as well as that ol a medium quality, (such as wili be produced by Southdowns and .a Merino cross upon thai valuable stock,) and the product of our native stock will all beobji^cts ol much importance. And when (he maiiufjcture of worsted etuH goods shall be extensively in'ro- duced, combing wool will also be in great de- mand. Sheep husbandry is important Ibr three pirr- poses, 1 wool ; 2 mutton and tallow ; 3 as a means ol manuring and lt>,riilizing our soil. 1 have suffi- ciently treated of the two first ; the third is too important to be passed over in silence. 1 have heretofore suggested that much manure may be saved by Ibldi^ng sheep of nights. It is doubtful, however, whether the injury to the health of sheep will not be too serious tojustily that prac- tice, in warm weather ; but in cool frosty weather foldiuii sheep of nights may be salely resorted to. But whenever the practice of folding, Ibr a length of lime, in the same place, is pursued, the pen should he kept well littered with straw, [or leaves,] as well Ibr the comlbrl of the sheep as with a view of increasing the quantity of ma- nure. It will be most convenient to have the sheep fold adjoining a shelter under which the racks and troughs are placed. The shelter should be entirely open on one side, with a south or south- *" The Albany Cultivator estimates the number of sheep in the wool growing states of the north at 15,000,000." This estimate I consider greatly too low. The single county of Washington, Pennsylvania, has 1,000,000. The balance of this note is a table showing the in- crease of our population from 1790 to be 33 1-3 per cent, for every ten years. This table I deem it unnecessary now to copy. The census that has been taken since our author wrote proves the correctness of his calcula- tion. The population of the United States is now 17,068,180. The population of Kentucky 16 776,923. S.D. M. enstern exposure, and enclosed on Ihe opposite side ; with a suitable building at each end, one (or hay and the other forroots for winter and early spring (ceding until the pastures are suflicienlly advanced.* It would he most convenient to have the sheepfold and house adjoining a meadow, on which the sheep should besuffeied to range dur- ing the day. 'I'his will be beneficial to the health of the sheep, and their manure will be saved, and distributed without the expense of hauling. With a view of the like saving of manure during the part of the year in which the sheep are not folded of nights, they should be suffered to range, as far as circumstances will admit, upon grounds intended for future cultivation. In England it is a common practice to feed off their turnip crop to sheep, upon the ground upon which it grew. This is clone by enclosing a small space with hurdles, into which the sheep arc put and continued until they consume all the tur- nips growing within the enclosure ; another space is then enclosed and fed off and so on in succes- sion until all are consumed. This is (bund to be a very convenient practice in England, as it saves labor, both in feeding and distributing the ma- nure, and miyht be adopted here with great ad- vantage, if, upon experiment, it shall be found that the ruta bagat will succeed well in our soil and climate and is sufficiently hardy to stand our winters. A species of cabbage, that is sufficiently hardy to stand the winter in Enoland, is Irequenily fed ott' In sheep, uf)on the ground upon which it grew, in the same manner as turnips, and it would be worthy of inquiry and exfieriment whether cab- bRgps snitabh^ to our climate and soil could not be raised to advantage for feeding sheep, during the short period we cannot furnish them with grass or while the grass is covered with snow. It is probable that the sugar beet will be found to be a more valuable crop in our dry soils than, any description of turnips. J * If the blue grass pastures have been permitted < grow the latter part of the season, they will aff'o d green food nil the winter, and upon this and pasture of green rye, the sheep will do better and be more hea ihy than fed in any other way. These pastures are good all the winter. The sheep should be turned of. them the 1st of Maich to give them an opportunity of pro- ducing a good crop of grass. The lye fields, will now support them until the 25th of April, when they can be turned again upon the blue grass pastures. M. t The rula baga succeeds but poorly upon my farm. I have raised many crops, and although I have drilled them very early as well as late, and worked them well, I have never raised a crop that were at all to compare with the accounts I have seen of this root. I thought for a few years that the fault might be in my seed, and procured seed from a great variety of seed stores, yet the result was the same. The ruta ba- ga grows mostly above ground, and will not stand our winters without protection. We have a large turnip that grows mostly under ground that will stand our winters well. Early sown in May has done best with the ruta baga. J The sugar beet is much more productive than the ruta baga, and until last year was a very certain crop. Mine were injured the season before last, but were en- tirely destroj'ed last year by a dark-striped blistering fly (Cantharis vitata) generally called the potato fly. Those flies or rather bugs destroyed my potatoes, car- : rots, parsnips, beets, and cabbage. If these bugs should THE FAKMERS' REGISTER. 167 The latter are so subject to be destroyed by insects when they first come up ; and are so lia- ble to be injured by drought, as to render them too uncertain to be relied upon as a crop for win- ter food for slock. The beet crop is much less subject to injury from intecls, and will probably be found more productive. One of the great recommendations of sheep husbandry is that it can be carried on extensive- ly with less labor than any other branch of farm- ing producing the same profits. If blue grass pastures are saved for them, and the quantity of rye before recommended he sown, they wi I not require feeding more than ten days upon an ave- rage in a year, and this feeding may be done with oats, hay, or corn-stalk Ibdder. Where there is a deficiency of blue grass, other means must he resorted to for the purpose of supplying ihem wiili winter food. Rye holds a place with me next lo blue grass ; but it is not expected that rye will produce (bod for a large flock of sheep all v/inter, I would then recommend that oats, clover hny^ timo'hy hny, and hay from any other grass that the farm will produce be provided in' sufRi'ient quantity to winter them, and afier this raise as" many roots as you can. In the mountainous regions where caves are plenty the best place lo keep those roots that re- quire protection is in one of those caves. Hoots will not freez '. thirty yards from the entrance of any of those caves unless the mouth is very wide and high ; and ifthat should be the case put them in a liiiie farther. Roots keep well buiied in the ground, about fifty bushels in a place. They should be laid on the surface and piled up as high as they can be, and have leaves or straw put over them, and be covered by throwing on a foot of earth. A stick two inches in diameter should besiuck in the lop of the pile and after the dirt is put on, iread ihe dirt around tlie stick, and pull it out, and have a little bundle of straw large enough to fill the hole, and put it in it. The^straw or leaves will prevent the roots fi-om getting dirty, but they will keep equally as well without. In England rape is very much used for the purpose ofleed- ing sheep and enriching the land. It supplies a rich and very fattening food for sheep the latter part of summer and in Ihe fall. It is particular- ly serviceable in fattening those that are for sale, and preparing those that are kept, for passing better through the winter. An acre of good rape will last one humired sheep ten days. "Ex- periments should be made (or the purpose of as- cerlaininsr whether rape be suitable for our soil and climate. If it should succeed with us, it would be particularly valuable in enablinf^ us 'o save our blue grass pastures for winter use. It is generally sown on the poorest ground, which it speedily enriches. But it will grow better upon rich ground. A few acres are fenced off for them at a time. The climate of Kentucky is particularly cono-c- nia! to sheep. When they can have green food'^all winter, they are subject lo scarcely any disease- When confined and led upon dry Ibod ihey are not so healihy, and great loss of lambs is sustain- ed by those who have nothing green lor iheir sheep during the suckling season. Sheep bear confinement worse than any other of our domes- tic animals. Althoutzh I have said above that where blue grass pastures can be obtained that sheep will not require more than ten days leed during the winter, yet I would recommend that provision be provided lor feeding them two months. E ich sheep will eat about two pounds of hay a day. I would recommend that ihe hay tor the sheep be stacked in ihe meadow where it was cut. in ihe foilovviiig manner. Plant a emooih pole (rom 6 lo 10 inches in diameter firmly in the grouml, and around this midie your stack of hay, l)egii;ning findl and swelling very much to the middle and ihen tapering aijain to the top. As before ob- served salt should be sprinkled on whilst building ihe stack. When the ground is covered wiih snow so that the sheep cannot get jirase, they should be turned inio the meadow which should mIso have water in it. A spring yhou'd be includ- ed in the meadow, if possible, as it would afford ihc'm a con.-?iant Rii[)p!y of water, wiihoul break- itig the ice, which accufuulnies so fast upon our pooils and streams, that alihough it mny be bro- ken three times a day, still, in ex!reme cold wea- liicr, the stock will suffer lor want of water. I would recomni.erid tliat shelters be formed in the ineaiiow in the lollowing way. Build a (ignce by placing each rail upon the other at right angles, so as to (brn) pens thus : continue as abundant as they were the last season they will cause tlie sugar beet to be a very uncertain or la- Donous crop to raise. I killed them off mine three times, and each time my beets began again to put out leaves and grow, but they Z^rl-^^T "i '"'='' numbers as to cause me utterly to ae»pau-of exterminating them. M. these pens should be covered wiih cornstalks fod- der, straw or whatever is most convenient. On the back part Ihey should have cornstalk (odder stacked against them, which should be protected froin the sheep by a fence run around, if ihe shelter is not made in a division fi-nce, vvliich will genera'ly be most convenient. The fodder stacked against the back of the pens may be fed a\yay lo other stock late in Ihe spring when it will be no longer needed at the pens. The pens that are not open to the sheep ((or it will be perceived upon this plan they will have access to only half the pens) mny be aleo covered and will serve to keep pumpkins and cabbage covered with straw for the winter use of the sheep. It will be perceived that I recommend tempo- rary shelters instead of permanent ones. For which I give the following reasons : My system contemplates a rotation of crops, and this mea- dow will in a few years be cultivated in other crops ; and another meadow with another set of temporary shelters be brought into requisition. The manure ihat accumulates about the pens will be easily spread over the meadow, or over the adjoining corn-fields. The straw used for covering the pumpkins and cabbage may be thrown into the pens (or a litter as Ihey are fed away. But above all, this plan will prevent the sheep from being crowded in large numbers in one pen, which is sure to injure their health. Clover makes the best hay for sheep, but it re- 168 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. quires mcTre care iu elaclcing out than uilicr hay. ClovtT Slacks should 1)6 io|>jjei) oil wiih siraiv or liujolhy or blue, yrubb [my iii ilic ioliovving way. As soon us llie mack is ouili up lo the imtliJie, Biraw or some other luiy should be placed ail louiid ihe outside as you proceed iu builiiiiig, lor a looi Jroai the outside, and all the centre filled wiih clover hay ; this should be continued until the last course, vvliich sliould be eniiiely ol' straw or some oiher htiy. A bmcIc built in this way will present on the outside, ironi the middle up, the appearance ol being composed ol' siravv or other hay, and will turn the rains ofi' the stack. Clover hay will permit the rains to run through it, unless thus jjioiecicd. Clover also suits bet- ter in a pro|)er rotation ujjon a larm tiian most other grasses, yielding a large crop of hay the year alter the ground has been in small gram, and enriching the ground very last. This sub- ject properly Lielongd to the treatise upon ihebest rotation of crops ; so lor the present I will say no iDore upon the subject. As the selection ol males is an important matter in the rearing ol' sheep and the chiel" in- sirumenl whereby the Hoclc is to be impro\ed, 1 Will give the lollowing description oi' a good ram, laUen hom Culley's Treatise on Live Siocic: " His head should be fine and small ; nosiriU wide and expanded ; eyes prominent and rather bold and daring ; ears thin ; h,s collar lull Irom his breast and shoulders, but tapering all the way lo where the neck and head join, which should be very fine and graceful, Ueiii'g perkctly Jree liom any coarse leather hanging down ;* the shoulders broad and lull, which must at the same time join so easy to the collar Ibrward and chine backward, as to leave not the least ho. low in ei- ther place ; the mutton upon his arm or Ibieleg must come quite to the knee; his legs upright, with a clean fine bone, being equally clear from superfluous skin and coarse hairy wool, from the knee downwards ; the breast broad and well for- ward, which will keej) his forelegs ai a proper wideness ; his girth, or chest, full and deep, and instead of a hollow behind the shoulders, that part by some called the forelock should be quite full ; the back and loins broad, liit, and straight, Irom which the ribs must rise with a fine circular arch; his belly straight ; the quarters long and lull, with the mutton quite down to the hough, which should neither stand in nor out ; his twist (i. e.^ ihejunciion on the inside the thigh) deep, wide, and full, which, with the broad breast, will keep his forelegs open and upright ; the whole body covered with a thin pell, and that with a fine, bright and soft wool.'' Besides the above characteristics, it is of the utmost importance that the wool be of the quality desired. And he should be pure blooded ol his kind. In the mountainous regions, if large flocks should be kepi, the shepherd should be almost constantly wiih the sheej). in enclosed laiuls a very cfl'ectual guard against dogs is two or three cows with young calves, in the same lot with the * The Merino sheep have much loose skin hanging down under their necks and throats. This is a charac- teristic mark of the breed, yet much may be done to get rid of (his leather by selecting those rams that have the least of it. 6heep.~ It' a dog comes into such a pasture, the sheep will ruri to ihe cows, anJ they will be rea- dy to figiii lor ihcn calves, and will immediately chase ilie dogs oat of the enclosure. 1 have lo^t no shce|) wim dogs when I have kept them with cows and their young calves. There ii> at least lour mdlions of acres of moun- tain lauds wiihin the boundary oi Kentucky, and it would be a very moderate calculation to say that those mountains would supjjort one sheep to the i:cre now, and as they become improved, two or more would find support there. Four millions of sheep would require a population to attend to them 01 loriy thousand persons, sujiposing that every man, woman and child could attend to one hundred each, and would afljrd an income of one hundred dollars lor each member ol the /amily, calculating the wool at one dollar per fleece, be- side the increase of (he flock. it would retiuire 30,000 persons to manufac- ture ihis wool (if done by hand) into coarse cloth, and a much larger number to make fine cloth. Thus those mountains would easily be made to sustain four millions of sheep, which would give wages of !j?100 each to seventy thousand inhabi- tants. In Spain and some other countries the wool is washed after the sheep have been shorn. In England, Ireland, Silesia, Saxony, and in the, northern pans ol tiie United States the wool is washed upon the sheep. The lollowing is Baron Shultz's account of the Swedish manner : " Belbre shearing, ihe wool is almost universally washed upon the sheep. Some persons wash the sheep in the open sea, or in running water, but this is never so clean as when the sheep are first washed in a laige tub, with one part clear lie, two parts lukewarm water, with a small quantity of uiine ; and thenin another tub, with less lie in the water ; after which the sheep are washed, laying them always on their backs, with their. heads up, in a tub of clean water ; and lastly there is pouied on the sheep standing on the ground a sulKcient quantity of water, which is as much as possible squeezed out of the wool." Alier the sheep are washed they are driven into a clean green pasture, where they remain until they are dry." In Silesia the method usually practised simply consists in making the sheep crop a running stream after obliging them to plunge in, from a pretty high bridge. In Saxony they are made to cross a brook or river ; the next morning they are again made to cross the river, in which they are dipped that the fleece may be unilormly penei rated ; after which they are stroked or pressed down with the hands, beginning at the head and proceeding thence to their extremities. After the sheep are dry they are sheared, and the " improved method consists in cutting circu- larly round the body of the animal, the beauty of which is, in consequence of this, believed lo be increased, while the work is more uniftrmily and closely executed. The shearer holds the sheep under him, either with his knee or left arm, and clips the woo! wiih spring shears, which he can manage with (ine hand, and thus perlbrms the operation without assistance, unless the sheep are unusually strong and restive. The entire fleece is stripped at once and rolled up together, and the THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 169 qualities are afterwards assorted by the wool sta- pler." Before the shearing is commenced the sheep should have all the coarse and kempy wool from the hipa, legs, pale and forehead sheared off and kept apart from '.he other wool. Further, great care should be taken in shearing not to give the wool a second cut, as it materially injures and wastes the wool. During the whole process of shearing care should be taken that the sheep be not injured by clipping the skin. The fleece should then be laid on the side that was next the sheep, the sides and belly part turn- ed in, and beginning behind should be carefully rolled to the shoulders, wlien the wool of the fore- part should be rolled back to meet the roll from behind, and should be secured by tying it with twine. Sheep of the long woolled tribes have been shorn twice in the season, but the experiments have not been attended with any advantage. And ehorl woolled sheep of the JVlerino breed (which breed does not shed their wool) have been allowed to wear their fleeces several years. Experiments of this kind were made at the French national farm of Rambouillet, from 1804 lo 1814, which proved that fleeces worn from three to five years were su- perior in staple and produced a larger sum than those that were annually shorn. This was also the case in an experiment lately made by Lord Western, whose Merino wether with a fleece of three years' growth produced thirty-two pounds of wool twelve inches long and of beautiful and fine quality. Lord Western proposed to show a (Merino we- ther against any other breed, on condition that size should not pass for merit ; and Mr. Hicks took it up, and produced a Southdown wether supposed to weight 160 lbs., and the judge decided in favor of the Merino. The butcher (Mr. Barwell, of Witham) who purchased the Merino, says, (in a letter to Lord Western,) " the carcass of this sheep, inside and out, was as good as I ever had ; and in point ol color the Merinoes carry generally a brighter red and white than any other breed.* A writer in the western Farmer and Garden- er over the signature of " Umbra," who writes like a man of sense and observation, (but whose opinions and observations are not entitled to as much weight as if his name had been given,) says that the cross of the Southdown with the Merino and with the Leicesters have each proved lail- ures.t A letter from Mr. Twyman, an English gen- tleman, says, that he has completely succeeded in combining the good qualities of the Southdown and Leicester, the wool being as long as the lat- ter but much finer and closer like the former. One hundred which were shorn at thirteen and a half months old, produced, on an average, nine and a half pounds of wool each. The sheep were sold directly after being sheared at three guineas each, and two shillings per lb. was re- fused for the wool. The importation of wool into England m 1827, (the only year that I have the entire amount,) * Farmer's Cabinet, Vol. 5, p3g«= 377, taken from English Farmer's Magazine. t Page 261^ Vol. 2. Vol. X.— 22 amounted to 29,122,447 lbs. Since that time the amount imported has increased very much. England, that is not twice as large as Ken- tucky, produced in the year 1800, 77,964,760 Ibi. of wool, and in 1828, 92,280,480 lbs.» What England has done Kentucky can do. S. D. Martiw. FARMING AT WKSTOVEU. By the Editor. In the latter part of March, in company with two very young farmers, I visited Mr. John A. Selden, of Westover, and passed the greater part of the day in walking over that highly improved and beautifully cultivated farm, and conversing with its proprietor. Such a visit, to any one who has either agricultural taste or pursuits, cannot fail to bring both pleasure and profitable instruction. Something of what we saw, and what was said, principally by Mr. Selden in answer to inquiries, will be here stated. Notwithstanding its great amount of annual product, Westover is quite a small farm, compar- ed to the lands of most cultivators in eastern Virginia, even in middling circumstances. The original tract gives but four fields of 100 acres each ; and the farm proper now is no larger. — There is some back land since purchased, and as yet unimproved, kept for wood and pasture ; and also 100 acres of arable land on the river, still more lately bought, and then generally poor, and which is yet but partly improved, and has as yet added but little to the general product of the farm. * The number of sheep in the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1828, was 44,100,000. Supposing that each of these sheep produced one dollar's worth ol wool, it woidd be about $75 each for every white man, wo- man and child in Kentuckjs giving to every one in cities their shares. There was exported from England in 1828, $29,898, 505 worth of the single article of spun and wove woollen i^oods, besides many articles in which it formed a constituent part ; for instance hats to the amount of $159,485. In 1839, Australia produced 20,128,774 lbs. of wool, where 22 years before there had been produced in that country only 345 lbs. 100 years ago in Ireland there were 1,500,000 persons engaged in manvifacturing wool, and their wages amounted annually to about $58,687, 000. About 1830 the number of persons engaged in the manufacture of wool in England was 480,000 to 500,000 and their average wages were from $96, to $100 each. The value of the raw material was about $30,000,000, and the manufactured articles $90,000, 000. In 1835 there was imported from England into the United States, $13,000,000 worth of woollen goods. If this bad been made at home it would have given employment to 130,000 persons at wages of $100 each. About 1770 machinery which enabled (in 1800) one man to do as much work as had been done by three be- fore, was first introduced. For further information upon sheep, permit me to re- fer to the society's* treatise upon sheep and Blacklock's treatise written in England in 1838, and just published in the United States in 1841. ♦ The (English) Sociefr for the Diffusion c\f Useful Knowledge. ' S. D. M. 170 THE FARMERS REGISTER. The addition of this 100 acres permitted Mr. Sel- den to plan the adding a fiHh field and crop, to his belbre well known four-field rotation. But subse- quent circumstances required him to abandon or postpone the intention of that change, belbre it was commenced; and now, as before, his rotation is the Ibur-field, of three grain crops and one of clover, which has become so celebrated by its successful practice at Curies' Neck, Shirley, and VVestover, and which has been so ably advocated by the published opinions and arguments, as well as the successful practice, of Mr. Hill Carter and Mr. Selden. The latter seems to have returned from his meditated partial abandonment, to his " old love" of the four-shift rotation, with even in- creased ardor and confidence. And though I have heretofore objected to this rotation, as loo scourg- ing, and as contrary to the sound principles of ro- tation (in the three consecutive grain crops,) and though still holding to these opinions, as to lands in general ; still it must be admitted, if the ques- tion is to be judged of by practical results, that it i*i scarcely possible to imagine a better rotation for combining profit and improvement, than Mr. Sel- den's, on his good land, and with his good man- agement. The rotation (as has often been s'aied in this publication) is Ist, wheat en clover (allowj 2d, corn ;3d, wheal (and oats,) with clover sown, and 4th clover, to be turned in by a deep and well executed ploughing in August and September, then to recommence the course with wheal again. The designed alteration was to introduce a green manure crop of broad-cast field (or Indian) peas the year after corn, to be turned in for wheat ; making the rotation, 1st, wheat, 2d corn, 3d, peas, 4th, wheat, and 5th, clover. And this, on light- er or fouler lands than Webtover, I still deem a much preferable rotation. At this season of the year, of course, there is nothing to be seen of crops, except young wheat and young clover. The oats werejust being sown, and the land for corn not yet harrowed lor plant- ing, but remaining as left by the deep and ex- cellent ploughing done early in the winter. But even at this early season, the fields of both clover and wheat were beautiful. The wheat following corn, (which was on the richest field,) promised better than any 1 had before seen in that always objectionable succession ; indeed, if judged by the growth only, I should have supposed it to be fal- low wheat. That however on clover lay, was of course much belter. There are five kinds ofwheat growing, and it was remarkable to see such different manner of growth of different kinds, exhibited so early. One object of having so many kinds was to compare their characters and products ; and aa it is hoped that the results will be noted and reported hereaf- ter by Mr. Selden himself, no more will be here said of the difference of present appearance, or of what he supposes of their qualities. The bulk of the crop is of the Turkey wheat, a kind which he began to raise from a very small slock, 19 or 20 years ago, and which he has continued lo prefer, and sow, ever since. He uses great care in fan- ning his seed wheat, to get rid of all the lighterand smaller grains. This he deems essential to the preserving of a good slock ; but wiih this care used, he does not believe in any wheat degenera- ting by»being continually sown on the same farm. In this, he and his neighbor, Mr. Hill Carter, hold opposite opinions, as stated in a recent communi- cation by the latter to the Farmers' Register. The clover field was completely covered with green, and nothing but clover to be seen. The remarkable cleanness of the land, and the entire possession that each desired crop has of all the ground given to it, is one of the most striking be- nefits of his rotation. Mr. Selden however thinks that one cleansing, or tilled crop, in each rotation, is essential to pre- serve cleann' ss, and to obtain a well set crop of clover; though the rotation with clover fallow ia more cleansing than without it, even though the one hoed cross (corn) should recur as often, or of- tener, as in the three-shift rotation. In proof of the latter opinion, he adduced the fact that wire- grass, which was very troublesome on some parts of his fields, when he commenced his rotation, has been very much diminished, and almost subdued by the present rotation, without any other special care or labor directed to eradicate that pest. He showed me a striking proof of the truth of the opinion, that it is essential to the having of a well- set and clean clover field, that it should be preced- ed by the hoed or cleansing crop as recently aa in his present rotation. Jn his field which is else- where thickly covered by clover, there is scarcely any to be seen on a part bounded by an exact line. The only difference of treatment was, that this part, by some previous difl^erence of cultivation, or change of arrangement of the fields, had remain- ed at rest the year after wheat, instead of being in corn with the balance of the field. During that year of rest it was pretty well covered by a growth of volunteer clover (none being sown on the wheat preceding corn,) and was fallowed and put in wheat with the corn-land of the balance of the field. All alike was sown in clover on the wheat the next February, (1841 ;) and the result is, that while all the balance of the field of wheat after corn, is completely set in clover, this part has scarcely any clover fjfanding. Mr. Selden thinks that the best time to sow clover seed is as strictly limited in duration, as the best time to sow wheat ; and that that time is generally the last week in February. If sown much earlier, and a warm spell occurs, the seed is apt to sprout, and the plants be killed by suc- ceedinc severe cold. If sown much later, and the season be not very favorable, much of the seed may not sprout at all, in time, or the growth be in danger from the summer's drought. But of course it is not possible to come always with- in this best and short time, and never when sow- ing after oate — which was going on then — the oat seeding not being finished (March 25th,) and which (contrary to general opinion,) Mr. Selden thought not at all too late for the best prospect of that crop. The clover seed was easily and ascu- rately sown from a seed- box, the advantage of which plan is so great and manifest, that it is strange that any fijrmer who sees the process can fail to follow the example. The beds being 11 feet wide, the box is made 10 fijet long to suit, and is about 4 inches deep, and 3 in width ; it is open at top like a trough, and is divided into 10 equal compartments, by cross partilions. In the bottom at every distance of 6 inches, there is bored a hole, (say half an inch in diameter,) each of which is covered by a card or piece of paste- board, through which is burnt, by a heated wire, a hole about the THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 171 eighth of an inch in diameter. The size of the holes of course must be fixed at first by trial of tiie rate of seeding. But when onco fixed, and the same borer kept for use, there is no more trouble in regulating the rate. 'JMie seeding is very regu- lar, and equal. A gallon to the acre is the most that is ever given —and eomeiimes only 3 quarts, and found an ample allowance. The manner of using this box is for the sower to carry it hori- zontally across and in (iont of the middle of his body, supported by a leather strap over his shoul- ders, and the box kept evenly poised by his hands. He walks at ordinary rate along the middle of each bed, and at every step ehilis the box a few inches, first to one side and then to the -other. The box is made of light plank only a quarter of an inrh thick ; and, with seed in every compart- ment, the weight is not considerable, and the la- bor light enough. As no skill is requisite, any laborer, at first trial, can sow with perlect accura- cy. I had deemed my plan ofsowing, by ihrov/- ing the seeds against a board, (described in a former volume,) to be a very valuable improve- ment upon the usual mode of casting the seed. But the sowing box is better. And this is an example of how long a simple implement or pro- cess may remain almost in disuse, merely because it is not seen in actual operation. This sowing box is pictured and described in Bordley's Hus- bandry, where I saw it more than thirty years ago, (lor it was one of the books read lor amuse- ment in my boyhood,) and wh'ch I have never since heard of being used, until seen now. There is another machine described in that same book, for gathering clover seed, by a comb-edged box on wheels, or barrow, drawn by a horse. I went once to the shop of Jabez Parker to order such a machine to be made, but was discouraged and prevented by learning that he had made but lor one order, and that one a long time belore. — Hence, 1 concluded, as of the sowing box, and as most larmers are very apt to conclude oi'new im- plements known only by description, that it would certainly have been more in use, if not attended by some insuperable objection. On the other hand, the most taking recommendation of any new implement, is that many other farmers have already bought it. Thus, hundreds, (including myself with many much belter farmers, whose names alone seduced me into the scrape,) former- ly bought Clark's thrashing machine, the most unmitigated cheat of a machine of which I ever heard ; as to no purchaser was it worth a cent. Ifagricultural societies were worth any thing, one of their most useful operations would be to cause to be tried as well as exhibited, all new or improv- ed implements, by having the trial executed by a judicious farmer, and causing to be published his report of the result. Such practical and disinter- ested trials of implements would bring into use all that deserve it ; whereas, the mere exhibition of new implements and machines at the show ol an agricultural society, is rather calculated to aid the success and progress of humbug and decep- tion. There was one practice seen, and which seem- ed by the results to justily Mr. Selden's approba- tion, which I would otherwise have thought cer- tainly wrong, and have always acted and advised otherwise. This is, the not cleaning out the vva- ler-furrovvs between the beds, but on the contrary rather working so in preparing for and covering the seed wheat, as partially to fill up and level the existing furrows. I had always supposed that any land requiring beds and water-furrows, for better drainage, would require that the furrows should be kept open and clean. And also, sup- posing that any plants growing therein would perish with wet, oral least be liseble and produce poorly, it was inferred that it was even better for economy to have a deep, narrow water- furrovir, open and clear of all plants, that the shoulders of the furrows, or outsides of the beds, might be belter raised, and safer from wetness. Mr. Selden how- ever, thinks diflerently, and says that both the wheal and clover grow as well, generally, in the furrows as on the beds, excepting from the great- er depth of soil and greater fertility of the crowns of the ridges. Even this difference does not pre- vent the heads of whear, when grown, appearing nearly level. On spots particularly subject to wet, only, he has the water furrows kept deep and open. It is certain that at the time of viewing, the wheal in the furrows where not opened seem- ed none the worse for being so low. It may yet be questioned whether land whose texture and surface will permit such treatment, though a clay loam, and nearly level, as is this farm, might not be cultivated level, or without beds, safely, and yield as well. Mr. Selden thinks that even if this were so, it is more economical of labor in plough- ing to have beds. One of the gains which he counts upon, is the space left unbroken and cov- ered by the meeting on the old water-furrow of the two first fnrrow-slices thrown, in reversing the beds, when turning in the clover lay for the next crop of wheat. The space so covered by the large ploughs used, must be at least two fieet in the bed of eleven feet. However contrary to rea- son, as some might suppose, Mr. Selden, and most other good farmers hold with " Arator" that there is no disadvantage in leaving this covered strip unbroken. The so leaving it, certainly makes much neater and easier ploughing, and in a great- er degree than the mere saving the labor of ploughing two more furrows. Upon inquiring of Mr. Selden what were his views as to applying manure on the surface, he said that he carried out manure, and so applied it without the fear of loss, at any time of the year, v/hen he? had it to dispose of; and the labor was convenient. He preferred, however, to plough under the unrolled farm-yard manure that was to be used for the corn crop. He was then hauling out wheat straw li-om the stack, and spreading it on the clover field at the rate of about 18 or 20 large ox-cart-loads to the acre. This quantity, when spread, was so thick that I should have tear- ed it would smother much of the clover ; but was lold there was no danger of (hat result. But though this top-dressing will be no doubt highly beneficial to the clover and still more to the wheat of next year, I ihink it would have been far bet- ter if applied last summer or autumn, or early in winter. However, it could not be earlier here, as the carts have been hauling out the straw (of a crop of 50j0 bushels of wheat made last year,) as long and as often as the limited force, and the other heavy demands for labor permitted. One of the younger farmers present, who would not pre- sume t-o compare either farming knowledge or prac- tical operations in any respect with Mr. Selden, 172 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. had used straw to considerable extent in like noan- ner, but much earlier, and therelbre as he deenoed more profitably. This was last summer, and on- ly on the galled and poorer spots of his reaped wheat field, sown in clover the precedini; spring. The clover on such places already is better grown than on the immediately surrounding and better ground. As much as convenient of this straw was carried out to the field as thrown out (rem the thrashing machine, in return loads of the carts bringing in wheat from the field. This saved nearly all the cost ofcarriage ; and the carts were loaded (carelessly and but partially) with less la- bor than would have been required to put the same straw on the stacl<. Besides, if the loaders in the field had any spare tim.e between the de- parture of one cart and the arrival of another, they could be profitably employed in spreading the return loads of stravv. To this /afe application of straw, by Mr. Sel- den, which could not be helped, I must add one other fault in his management which he might and ought to have avoided, as he has been through- out a regular reader of the Farmers' Register, where he might find more correct views on this head. Having recently bought a vessel load ol slacked but still caustic stone lime, he had 500 bushels of it spread over the litler in his cattle yard. The action of the quick-lime on the dung and other most putrescent parts of the manure will necessarily be injurious, and more or less de- structive of the enriching principles. Mr. Selden uses lime largely, and to great be- nefit. He applies it in the manner described in vol. i., as then practised by the late Fielding Lewis of Weyanoke, about 72 bushels to the acre. Oyster shells cost 62 1-2 cents the hogshead of 18 bushels. Latterly, slacked stone lime is brought by vessels from New England, loaded in bulk, which may be bought for 10 or 11 cents on con- tract. It has been sold here as low as 9 cents. Ii is cheaper, Mr. Selden thinks, than using wa- ter-borne marl ; which is gratifying to learn, as all farms on tide- water may be as cheaply suppli- ed with lime, whereas but few (requiring it) can obtain marl by water carriage. Mr. Selden never fails to find satisfactory benefit from his liming. He has not yet quite dressed all his arable land. As soon as gone over once, he intends to begin a second application in smaller quantities. * Gypsum is sown regularly on every clover crop, and generally, though not always, with good effect. From failing liarmerly, Mr. Selden was induced to believe that it was less effective if eown before the severe frosts were over ; and therefore always delays the application until after that danger is passed. In this opinion, he must be mistaken. Though clover is greatly improved by the lim- ing, yet it stood well on all the farm even before lime was applied. That, and the effectiveness of gypsum also m advance of the liming, would alone suffice to prove to me that the soil was originally rich, ''neutral," and of admirable constituiion, even if its appearance and texture did not teach the same. Mr. Selden is of opinion that the growth of oats is more exhausting than wheat ; but deenjs the crop essential to farm economy, in the greater cheapness of feeding horses by using part oats, with the staw, instead of wirti all corn and corn fodder. His regular mode and measure of feeding his work mules are as follows for each one : nriorn- ing, two quarts of corn alone; noon, one quart of corn and half a bushel of cut oats ; night, one quart of corn and a bushel of cut oats. On this allowance, if it be certainly and regularly given, Mr. S. considers that mules cannot fail to keep in good order, while doing good work. It is very certain that the ploughing teams of Mr. S. are kept in good order ; and all who know the rota- tion and manner of tdlage at Westover, know that unusually heavy ploughing labors are per- formed. No corn fodder gathered, or hay made or used. For the usual business of pulling of corn fodder'there is no time or labor to spare ; and none is pulled, except a little for the sheep; and the clover is given as manure to the land it grows on, instead of being mown lor hay. Thirty acres of the richest part of the land in corn the preceding year are annually put in oats, and the crop is an ample supply for the 12 working mules and 3 horses kept on the estate. As the oats grow on the richest land, oFcourse there is so much the more of straw in proportion to the grain, and the chopped stuff is much poorer than is usual of oats from poor land. Most persons may find advantage in compar- ing practically and accurately, the above mode of feeding with their own, or that which is usual where plentiful or sufficient feeding is intended to be allowed. This allowance is, lor each mule or horse, from 6 to'lO ears of corn, (selected at the discretion of the ploughman, who of course picks the largest size,) thrice a day, and as much corn fodder in the rack as the animal will eat, and more for his waste. The readers of the Farmers' Register may re- member that Mr. Selden, in his first communica- tion, vol. i., lamented his not being able to make more use of oxen, owing to the I'act of his cat- tle being so subject to die of distemper. Upon in- quiring coQcerning that matter, I learned that there had been no case of that strange disease on his farm for some years. He attributes his ex- emption, (and thinks that the same means of pre- vention will serve every where,) to the use of a mixture of salt, sulphur and tar, kept constantly in troughs for the cattle to lick at will, through summer and autumn. I have heard from ano- ther experienced and observant farmer, the asser- tion of the like confidence in that preventive medicine. This distemper is a most mysterious disease ; and it is much to be regretted that so lew of the remarkable facts of its prevalence and disappearance have been made public. During the time that its frequent occurrence at Westover was a serious obstacle to the lull use of oxen, and eince to this time, on the Coggins' Point farm, im- mediately across the river from Westover, there has not been a known case of that disease in 29 years. Nor have I known of a certain case in the neighboring part of Prince George county during that time ; though such may possibly have occurred, and even on my own farm formerly, without the true character of the disease being suspected. Indeed, while the distemper has been most destructive elsewhere, it is not understood to have existed in that neighborhood since about 1780, when, in the course of two summers, more than half the cattle of the county, and especial- ly the fattest, died of distemper, This I have THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 173 heard from William Weeks, an intelligent observ- er, and now the oldest man living in that neigh- borhood. Mr. Selden's oxen now (raised on the farm) are much finer animals than are often met with in eastern Virginia. He sold two pairs not long since to be worked at (he Navy Yard, Poris- mouth, for $100 ihe pair, which ie about double the usual price of what are called very good oxen. Those we saw at work would prove that his cat- tle fare well, and likewise that the cause ofthe dis- temper is not (as some suppose) to be Ibuiid in clover, or other good grass, being plentiful, and the cattle being lat. The Hessian fly, so destructive to wheat else- where and generally, is not Ibund to be any im- portant cause of diminution to the crops at West- over. If sown in good time, (say commencing the 10th ol October,) and the land is good and well prepared, the vigor of the grovvih will be sufficient protection against the attacks ol the fly. Mr. Selden does not doubt but that these insects are numerous in his wheat, and does not suppose that their depredations are harmless. But at least they show such little effect, as never alone to have prevented the making a good crop from good land, other circumstances being not unfavorable. In my own practice, I have found no such ex- emption from this infliction. But my land was not only much less fit to bear heavy crops of wheat, and my cultivation far less perfect than here, but also, the wheat fields were not grazed and glean- ed after harvest by slock, and therefore all the wasted grains grew to furnish food for an inter- mediate brood of Hessian fly. And if there are successive broods of the fly, this must be a very efficient means to nourish and increase them. I am now convinced of my error in adhering so en- tirely and so long to the non-grazing system. Besides the benefits that I would count on to the Block from gleaning the wheat fields after harvest, and the preventing the growth of volunteer wheat to sustain a new brood of Hessian fly, Mr. Sel- den thinks that the partial grazing of ihe field, or rather the trampling which accompanies it, is essential to the best success of the clover sown on the wheat. And if the grazing after harvest is beneficial, for this reason, on the stiff' loam ol Westover, it must be much more necessary and desirable on soil too light to be well adapted to wheat. OIL AND STEARINE FROM LARD, &C. Published by the National Agricultural Society. [The following communication on the subject of oil and slearine, has, on request, been trans- mitted to the Commissioner of Patents, and will be read with interest.] Stearic acid, or stearine, as it is improperly called, is the solid constituent of fatty substances, such as oil, tallow, lard, &c., and which can be separated in a crystalline form by saponification with alkaline matter and abstraction of the alkali by an acid. By this process fats are convertible into the stearic, margaric, and oleic acids combin- ed, to separate which alcohol is used, which holds the two latter in solution alter having dropped the Btearie acid in crystals. Pure stearic acid is prepared thus : boil together in the proper equivalent proporiions a solution of an alkali, say potash with tallow ; by this process a soap is formed ; ol this soap dissolve one part in six parts of hot water, then add to the solution 40 or 60 pans of cold water, and set ihe whole where the temperature is about 52° Fahrenheit. The bistearaie and bi-margnraie of potash, pearly in appearance, fall to the bottom, which are to be separated by and washed upon a filter. An ad- ditional quantity of these salts is afforded by eva- porating the filtered liquor, saturating with an acid the alkali left free by the precipitation of the above sails, and then adding water. By a re- petition of this operation, il conducted carefully, the solution ia freed from all of these solid acids, leaving ihere'bre noihing but ihe oleic. After having washed these bi-salte, digest them in twenty-four times their weight of boiling alcohol of specific gravity 0.820, upon cooling the bi- siearate precipiiatep, while the greater part of the bi-margarate and the remainder of the oleale is held in solution. By rediesolving in alcohol as before, the whole ofthe bi-margarate is got rid of, leaving the bi-stearaie alone, the purity of which can be tested by decomposing a small portion in water at the boiling lemperaiure with hydrochloric acid, letting it cool, washing the stearic acid ob- tained, and exposing it to a heat, which, il pure, will not melt in water under 158° Fahrenheit; should it fuse at a lower temperature, it is to be inferred that there is more or less margaric acid present, to get rid of which repeat the solution in alcohol in the mode as directed before. We then have pure bi-stearate potash. From this we separate the stearic acid, by decomposing it in boiling water with hydrochloric acid. The stearic acid which falls down, is to be washed by melting in waler, cooled, dried and dissolved in boiling alcohol, firom which crystals will fail dur- ing refrigeration. Thus obtained, the stearine contains combined water, from which it is difficult to separate it. In June, 1825, a patent was granted in Eng- land to Mr. Gay Lussac for making these candles, but owing to their comparatively great cost, they could no*, although superior to other kinds, be in- troduced into general use. Lately, however, the great objection has been obviated by the many improvements which have been made in the modus operandi of manufacturing these candles. The subs'itution of lime for potash in saponifying, is one of the most important ; and to such per- fection has the process now been brought, that the London block, containing only 3 per cent, of wax, and from which these candles are made, bears so handsome an appearance, and is of so good a quality, as to render it difficult to distin- guish it fi-om the most refined product of the bee. The followine is the process by which these candles are made on a large scale, both in Eng- land and France : Tallow, lard, or any fat, is boiled with quick- lime and water in a large vat, by means of per- forated steam pipes distributed over its bottom. After several hours' active boiling, the combina- tion becomes sufficiently complete. The stearate thus formed is allowed to cool until it becomes a concrete mass ; it is then to be dug out, trans- ferred to a suitable vessel, and decomposed by a sufficient quantity of sulphuric acid. This de- 174 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. composition of the soap, eaya ihe patentee, should be made in a large quantity of water, kept well stirred durmg the operation, and warmed by steam introduced ui any convenient way. When the mixture lias stood sufficiently \oi\s, the acid of (he I'at or tallow will rise to the surface, and the water being drawn off, will carry the alkaline or saline matters with it, but il ihe acids or tallow should retain any portion of the salts, repealed portions of fresh water must be added to it, and ihe whole well agitated until the acids have be- come entirely freed from aUialine matter. 'J'he washed nux'.ure of the three acids, stearic, margaric, and oleic, is next drawn oft' into tin or other suitable pans, and allowed to cool, and then reduced to thin shreds by a tallow cutter — an in- strument used by all tallow chandlers. The next step is to encase the crushed mass in canvass or carga bags, and then submit it lo the action of a powerful hydraulic or the stearic cold process, a machine made lor the purpose. By this means a large quantity of the oleic acid is expelled, carrying with it some little of the mar- garic. The cakes, alter considerable pressure, are then taken out, and again subjected to the action of steam and water; after which the supernatant stearic acid is run oft' into pans and cooled. The cakes are then reduced to a coarse mealy powder by a rotary rasping machine, put into strong canvass bags, and submitted to the joint action of steam and pressure in a hydraulic press of appropriate construction, called Mau- delay'fi stearine cold press. By these means the stearic acid is entirely heed from oleic acid. It is then subjected to a final cleansing in a tub with steam, melted and cooled in clean vessels. These cooled masses, owing to their crystalline texture, .are unfit lo be made into candles, it is therefore necessary to crush them into powder, and fuse along with it in a plated copper pan a sufficient quantity of arsenious acid. The stearine is now ready to be moulded into candles. The wick lo be used in the manufacture of these improved candles is to be made of cotton yarn, twisted rather hard, and laid in the same manner as wire is sometimes coiled round the bass strings of musical instruments. For this purpose straight rods or wires are to be procured, of suitable lengths and diameters, according to the intended size of the candle about to be made ; and these wires having been covered with cotton, coiled around them as described, are to be inserted in the candle moulds as the common wicks are ; and when the candle is made, and perlectly hard, the wire is to be withdrawn, leaving a hollow cylindrical aperture entirely through the middle of the candle. C. MORFIT. Philadelphia, February 16, 1842, Mode of manufacturing Elaine and Stearine from JL,ard, Sj-c. : Patented by John //. Smith, 122 Front Smith street, New York city. To all whom it may concern : Be it known that I, John H. Smith, of the city of Brooklyn, in tlie county ol' Kings, and state of New York, have invented a new and useful improvement in the manner of separating from each other the elaine and stearine which are contained in lard, by means of which improved process the operation is much facilitated, and the products are obtained in a high degree of purity ; and 1 do hereby de- clare ihat the Ibllowing is a full and exact de- scription thereof: The first process to be performed upon the lard is that of boiling, which may be effected either by the direct application of fire to the kettle, or by means of steam ; when the latter is employed, I cause a steam tube to descend from a steam boiler into the vessel containing the lard ; this tube may descend to the bottom of the vessel, and be coiled round on the said bottom so as to present a large healing surlace to the lard, provision be- ing made for carrying oft the water and waste steam in a manner well known ; but 1 usually perforate this tube with numerous small holes along the whole of that portion of il which is submersed below the lard, thus allowing the whole of the steam to pass into and through the lard. 'I'o operate with advantage, Ihe vessel in which the boiling is effected should be of consi- derable capacity, holding say from ten to a hun- dred barrels. The length of lime required lor boil- ing will vary much, according to the quality of the lard ; that which is fresh may not require to be boiled for more than four or five hours, whilst that which has been long kept may require twelve hours. It is of great importance lo the perfecting of the separation of the stearine and elaine, that the boiling should be continued for a considerable period as above indicated. JVly most important improvement in the within described process, consists in the employment of alcohol, which 1 mixed with the lard in the kettle, or boiler, at the commencement of the operation. When the lard has become sufficiently fluid, I gradually pour and stir into it about one gallon of alcohol lo every eighty gallons of lard, taking care lo incorporate the two as intimalely as possi- ble ; and this has the effect of causing a very perlecl separation of the stearine and elaine from each other by the spontaneous granulation of the former, which lakes place when the boiled lard is allowed to cool in a stale of rest. I sometimes combine camphor with the alcohol, dissolving about one fourth of a pound in each gallon of alcohol, which not only gives an agreeable odor to the products, but appears to co-operate with the alcohol to effect the object in view ; the cam- phor, however, is not an essential ingredient, and may be omitted. Spirit of lower proof than alcohol may be* used, but not with equal benefit. After the boiling of the lard with the alcohol has been continued for a sufficient length of time, the fire is withdrawn, or the supply of steam cut off", and Ihe mass is allowed to cool sufficiently to admit, of its being laded, or drawn off into hogs- heads, or other suitable coolers, where it is to be left at perfect rest until it has cooled down, and acquired the ordinary temperature of the atmo- sphere ; as the cooling proceeds, the granulation consequent upon the separation of the stearine and elaine will lake place and become perfect. The material is then to be put into bags, and pressed moderately, under a press of any suitable kind, which will cause the elaine to flow out in a state of great puriiy, there not being contained within it any appreciable portion of the stearine; this pressure is to be continued until the stearine is as dry as it can be made in this way. The masses of the solid material thus obtain- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 175 1 ON THE DIFFERENT SCHEMES OF ROTATION ed are to be remelted, and in this siate to be poured into boxes or pans, of a capacity of ten or twelve gallons, and allowed to Ibrra lumps which ! To the Editor of the Farmers' Register .h.T'''?^'^^'''''?' '''^" ,'^^'" removed Irom [ In your February number there is a very in- he vessels and piled or stacked up lor a week or i teresling paper, over the si^^naiure oi N Z the ten davs. more or rsr. i ih. rnnm nnn,^;^;..„ ;, I ,...•._. ^„,- .'._':_ . ^c; .iQuaime oi ix., on itie ten days, more or less, the room containiug it should be at a temperature of nearly 80°, which will cause a sweating or oozing Irom the blocks, and they will improve in quality ; the blocks are then to be rolled into cloths or put into bags, and these placed between plates, and submitted to very heavy pressure by means of a hydraulic press. Alter this pressure it is brought again into the (brm oi' blocks, and these are to be cut up by means of revolving, or other knives, or cutlers • the pieces thus obtained are to be put into ba<^s' and subjected to the action of hot water, or ''ol steam, in a press, until it becomes hard enough to be manufactured into candles, or put up for other purposes to which it may be desired to an- ply it ' TK^ „ CI-.. tnai wioiicu lU lIDIHOVe niS U Pn.pH .""^' l''^i^''^'"S It to the action of ry, to experiment Ibr hims heated water, or of steam, is to place the ba on navigable water, or very contiguous to market. Having dwelt much longer on this part of the subject than 1 had intended, we will now pass on to the five-field rotation, which is more particu- larly the subject of inquiry of your correspondent N., and the only one I intended at first to touch upon in this communication. N. says he has " unconditionally made up his mind to adopt the five-field rotation," and therefore, if I had the disposition, it would be useless to attempt to di- vert him from it ; but in this I have no wish ; as from some years' experience I can highly retom- mend it, as at least a profitable and improving rotation. I will not say it is preffrable to any other, or to the six-field rotation ; but I know that in a few years a farm may be made to double its production. But to proceed more directly to an- swer his queries respecting the choice of'the two methods pursued by himseU; and that of Mr. Wickham, or tht= common five-field rotation as pursued by most persons who have adopted that Vol. X.~23 number of fields, I unhesitatingly answer, afler some experience with both, that 1 prefer the lat- ter, or Mr. Wickham's plan. I have tried the pea fallow two years afier corn, both by cultivating them and sowing broad-cast, the latter moderate- ly, and very thick ; but it all would not do, the crab grass, {Digitaria sanguinatis,) took posses- sion, and the most indifferent wheat in the field was on the pea land, and no clover followed. In 00- case 1 sowed the clover seed, and in the other there ought to have been plenty of seed in the land ; but in neither case was there any product. Again, another, and I think a more important ob- jection to N.'s rotation is, there is no time or space for grazing, which with N. I hgld to be in- dispensable on all lands that I hpve yet seen cul- tivated ; superadded to thia, are the objections urged by N. himself— the expense and labor of the pea fallow. Now, as regards the objection urged by Mr. Harrison to the five-field rotation, that it would become too (bul, I can answer experi- mentally, to what probably was advanced by him as an opinion, there is no danger, 1 can assure him of his land not becoming too foul under that system, but the reverse is the fact, that it is decid- edly more cleansing than the old three-field, as the summer fallow is far more effectual in rooting out the briers, shrubs, &c. than winter grubbing and grazing. The filth year I have found suf- ficiently cleansing for all good farming purposes, indeed I think you will find it much more so than the five- field rotation, embracing the pea fallow. The second objection, as suggested by Mr. Selden, I think you will also find a speculative one, as i never sow clover on fallow wheat, and so far I have always had a good crop. But you must understand me, though, all this time as speaking of marled land, as I suppose he was, as our lands without calcareous matter are in the general too poor lor good larming in any way. To the third objection, that of rendering the land too close and compact, by trampling the year before corn, I would say, it will not I think be found to bold good upon trial, as 1 think, upon such land as N. describes his to be. He will make a decidedly better crop, by grazing than upon a foul field. From some experience in both of the five-field rotations, I should decidedly prefer the No. 2 of N., or Mr. Wickham's. There are two, and only two objections to the five-field rotation that I am aware of, and they might not be applicable to all farms or situations, as to mine ; the first is, that of small grain crops following the corn, and the next is, that with me one fifth did not give me pasture enough to ena- ble me to keep stock sufficient for the use of the frtrm ; and if we are to waste as much land in a piny old field, to be called a standing pasture, we had as well m.ake a sixth field, and bring it in regular rotation of cultivation. This latter rotation I think, on lands adapted to wheat, and not immediately available to navigation or to market, is decidedly the preferable rotation of any of the Ibregoint^. If I adopt the eix-field system, I would say 1st, corn, 2J, clover sown afier corn, 3d, wheat, 4th, clover, 5th, clover, the two last to be grazed buf not two heavily, 6th, wheat. By this system one field might be manured an- nually, and so the whole farm once in six years. As to the quantity of land cultivated, it would be the same with the olS or Arator four-field systemj 178 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. except that there would be one-eixth, instead of one-lbunh in corn, and two-sixilis in small grain instead ofone-lburth, making three-Fixihs or one- half in cultivation, as in the other. Now locality, nature ot soil, &c., must determine every larmer as to the rotation best adapted to his situation and circumstances. But I have no doubt, that upon wheat land the six-field rotation will be (uund most profitable, and upon all 1 have no doubt most improving. I am a decided friend to grass and stock. Without the one, we cannot have the other. With good grass we can have good stock with which we can enrich our lands, and give plenty and comfort to all its inhabitants, whether of the bipftd or quadruped race ; and in a little while I know by experience that the net return of the long will be better than the short rotation. Having now, Mr. Editor, answered as lar as my exjicrience goes all the queries of your cor- respondent N., and I dare say by this time you are heartily tired of my prosing, I will subsciibe myself, your friend — and a FRIEND TO LENGTHENED ROTATIONS. jfpril 9th, 1842. [If our correspondent had not chosen to with- hold his name, he would have been known to be, B8 we believe, a personal acquaintance and friend oi all the individuals whose names he has men- tioned, and one who has visited most il not all the farms particularly referred to. But still we think that he is mistaken in regard to some of the cir- cumstances which he supposes to exist, and es- pecially as to the abundance of the means of fertilization possessed or available. But we will not undertake to make the corrections which ap- pear to be needed, lest, for want of proper infor- mation, we might also err, and in more important matters. It is threfore left to the farmers named, all of whom have been our much valued corre- spondents on this general subject, to correct any mistakes deemed in any way important, into which our present correspondent may have fallen. In respect to the scheme of having clover to follow corn, it would undoubtedly be an improve- ment of the highest value, if the crop can be ren- dered at all certain. But, judging from our own experiments of several years' continuance, (as reported formerly in the Farmers' Register,) and which were made in the anxious hope and san- guine expectation of successful results, we greatly fear that this admirable plan of rotation cannot be realized, even on marled lands. But still we are far from desiring to discourage farther and lull trials — and shall rejoice in learning that the dif- ficulties and disappointments, to which we were formerly subjected, were not insuperable, and may be ot)viated by more care and better know- ledge.—Ed. F. R. OPINIONS OF NORTHERN FARMERS CONCERN- ING LIME. From the Massachusetts Ploughman. About the year 1836 or '7, I prepared a com- post consisting of 12 loads of peat muck, 4 casks quick lime, and eight loads long manure. On the 20th of June I turned over about three-fourths of an acre of green sward and manured in the hill with the above compos', and planted with pota- toes. A more luxuriant growth of vines I never saw, which I atiribiited to the manure, but have since given the credit to the gieen crop of grass turned in. Owing to dry weather and early frost the crop of potatoes was rather small. However, I considered the theory on the use of lime well established, not only by the result of my experi- ment, but I had most of the agricultural papers on my side. The next spring I purchased 50 casks of lime which I used in nearly half as many different ways, the last of which was to place about a dozen loads of lime and peat muck com- post around ilie roots of some apple trees, to pre- vent the grass Irom growing, which succeeded lo admiration, and this I am convinced is the only benefit I have ever derived Irom the use of lime as a manure. This is the only eseenijal humbufT that agricultural writers who are better versed in theory than in practice have ever fastened upon my shoulders, and probably will be the last (or some time to come, (or my confidence in what they say is almost eniirelj' lost. [We congratulate "A Highland Farmer" that he has escaped with so little loss as the expense of 64 casks of lime and the labor of applyinnr it to his fields. The idea of destroying the whole grass crop un- der his apple trees by spreading on lime is not bad. Lime will kill the sward, ihe canker worms, and the manure with which it irf mixed — it is much more certain to kill than to assist the growth of vegetation ; and if it were not too costly we would recommend it to be spread on thistles, bushes, &c., which are to be destroyed. In regard to the theories on farming, published by those who have no experience in the business, we are inclined to think that lime will have no efl'ect on them. Their authors have wallowed in lime till their coats are as while as their hands — and still they crawl about and show signs of life, crying lime! lime! They wonder that farmers are so stupid as to doubt the value of lime ; yet the only evidence they can adduce in its favor, on our New England soilff, is (rom theorists who have made no actual trials of it. Ever since we first commenced the publication of the Cultivator we have plainly expressed our own views in regard to lime, and we have called on those who might difier from us to exhibit their evidence in its favor. But we receive no evidence. We have opinions as thick as cranberries, but no evidence that can be relied on to show the superior merits of lime in agriculture. Beginners in farming who have no ideas of their own must copy what others have written — they are ambitious of making a noise about some- thing or other and they may as well rant about lime as to bawl in favor of Durham cattle which they are driving about the country for sale.] — Editor of Ploughman. [The first of the foregoing paragraphs is an ex- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 179 tract from a comraunicaiion lo a late number of the Maesachusetis Ploughman, and the balance is ihe comment thereupon, by the editor, who is also understcod to be a praclical and experietifed farmer. ' The liming farmers on James river might adduco their large experience, and a large part of their present increased productions and profits, as proofs of directly the opposite of the opinions above stated. We had before learned that liming in Massachusetts had been attended with but little profit — (or what reason we had too Jitlle knowledge of existing circumstances to pretend to determine. But we would not have expected, from any degree of such ill success, whatever, in recent and limited trials of a new practice, so sweeping and general a condemnation of lime as manure, and eo dogmatical and entire a denial oferooJ efi'ectp, which eo many thousands of practical and prosperous improvers have be- lieved in and asserted. It would have been much more like philosophical inquiry, and more likely to be conducive to the profit of the inquirers, to search, by investigation and experiments, for the peculiar circumstances, whatever they may be, which (according to facts stated above) have pre- vented liming in JVlassachusetis having the {rood efiects undoubtedly produced by limmg elsewhere. —Ed. F. R] remarks on th e present condition and operation of the banks of virginia, AND THEIR PROSPECTS. We had designed to state generally the result of the latest legislative action on the banks oi Vir- ginia ; but that action was not completed unt'l just before the rising of the egislature, and too late for the last number of the Farmers' Register. We shall now give a general and cursory view of the existing condition of things connected with our fraudulent banking system and its ope- rations; which condition will probably remain until new legislation shall vary it, or until the grow- ing distrust of bank solvency, and growing popu- lar indignation and execration, phall operate to close the banks, and put an end, for a lime, to the whole system of legalized falsehood, fraud, and villany. It is not worth while to state particularly what is the purport of the existing banking laws of Virginia, as fixed by the latest act. Indeed, we doubt whether a single member who voted for the last law has any correct or definite opinion of Ihe actual measure of obligation, or of penalty for violation of obligation, now imposed on the banks J or whether any two lawyers, if consulted, and advising deliberately, would agree in opinion thereon. The presidents of the banks in Rich- mond, it is generally understood, have written the new provisions of indulgence of most or all the bank relief laws that have been enacted since 1837 ; and at any rate, whether from the restrictions being thus cunningly devised /or the purpose of being total'y inoperative, while seeming to threaten avvlLiI penalties on bank failures and frauds, or whether the stupidity of legislators has alone served to reach this same desired result — it is cer- tain that all legal penalties on the banks are, by various obstacles, rendered totally unavailable to the injured and cheated individuals who would dare to seek legal remedy for their wrongs, and for the (rautis practised on the whole community. The legislature of Virginia, during its whole course of collusion with and thorough support of fraudulent banks and fraudulent banking, has not ventured directly to violate the constitution so lar as to forbid individual creditors lo co'lect debts from the banks in any and every legal mode to which other debtors are subjected. But, in practice, (he same end is as completely reached. For when ilie claim for justice is so beset with difficulties and delays, that to obtain the benefits would cost the creditor more than he would lose by (he dishonesty and discredit of his debtor, (the bank thus legalized to swindle,) it follows ofcourse that he will continue to submit to be cheated by the debtor, rather ihiin pay double as much to obtain legal redress as his loss so incurred. The action of the Cincinnati mob, more than the voice of reason or the demands of honesty, caused the legislature of Ohio to compel the banks of that state to resume specie payments forthwith. The distant but plainly audible mut- terings of popular discontent and indignation acted power ully to produce the similar unlooked for events which have since been consummated, of resumption of payments by the banks (or such as did not avow bankruptcy) of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Thus then the sole excuse for continued suspension in Virginia, (which had been relied on solely because it was thought im- possible to cease to serve,) was completely taken away. A little time before, it was the universal cry of all the bankiies, from the wise, patriotic, moral and religious leaders and wire-pullers, down lo their lowest and basest tools and mouth- pieces, that " the banks of Virginia certainly ought to resume payment, and could safely re- sume, as soon as those of Pennsylvania and Mary- land should resume — but not before." Well ! in- stead pr e^spen^iQn being continued ia these 180 THE FAKMERS* REGISTER. almost bankrupt elates, as all ihese bankite ar- guers or asserlors counted on, for five years more at least, (as assured by the previous law of Penn- sylvania,) resumption was suddenly and unexpect- edly required and ejiforced ; and, as we predicted, not a word more was said byourbankiie orators and editors about reeumplion in Pennsylvania and Maryland bein^ the only requisite lor resumption in Virginia. The lie and the I'raud had served its purpose up to that time — and the high digniiariee who had used i', and their most slavish and basest tools who had been continually proclaiming this alleged sole excuse and reason for suspension, quietly dropped it and made no more mention of it than if it had never been used at all to ward off resumption of payments. In the bill then before the legislature there was a provision that in case the banks of Philadelphia and Baltimore should resume payment, the banks of Virginia should also be compelled to resume within 60 days there- after. This provision was very well while no such contingency was deemed possible ; and would have served admirably to keep up the de- lusion, and give countenance to the bank falsehood and fraud founded on the suspension of northern banks. But while the bill was yet in progress, the legislatures of these two states actually passed their laws to compel their banks to resume — and our legislature therefore ox once struck out the provision founded thereon. It could no longer serve its designed purpose of deceiving the public. The recent bank relief laws require the banks to resume payment on the first day of next No- vember. But, unless other extraneous circum- stances shall before that time arise to enforce the requisition, there will be no real resumption then but only such pretended and falsely asserted re- sumption and continuation of specie payments, as existed in February and March, 1841. The branch bank system of Virginia, (which alone would serve to render any banks irresponsible, and therefore corrupt and dishonest,) of itself will suffice to protect the banks from paying any thing worth notice for a month, or for several months. And within one month the legislature will be in session, and ready to grant any desired relief to the banks, and continued indulgence to suspension. Long before November shall arrive, as formerly, the notes of the different branches will be so exchanged that it will be very rare to see any bank note in circulation near the branch where only it promises to be payable. The Wytheville notes will be issued in Norfolk, and Norfolk notes in Clarksburg, &c. The banks will claim not to pay deposiles except in " current funds," which terra means the worst bank notes that the bank may choose to receive at that time and for that purpose ; and though this impudent pretension and claim has no legal validity whatever, still in practice it will be maintained by the banks. Still further, the merchants are the drawers of nearly all the checks presented — and they will draw them only for " current funds." With these several strong means of protection against paying their honest debts, the banks could keep of! any considerable practical resumption of pay- ments, as well as they now avoid paying their notes for one and two dollars, which are now by law payable in specie, and which they take care to issue far away from the place of payment. So it is, and we grieve to admit it — that the banking system of Virginia, as permitted and sanctioned by the legislature, is now more de- graded in regard to honesty, and in reputation, than any we know o<' in all the Atlantic and most of even the western states. And there remains no hope for relief^ either in the banks' forbearance to continue their frauds, or in the legislature en- forcing sufficient penalties to prevent bank frauds. And full and sufficient causes of this deplorable prostration of the character of this once noble and universally honored commonwealth, are to be found in the existing partnership of banks and state in the trade of fraud, and the enormous in- debtedness of the body of bank directors and also of members of the legislature to the banks. The reports of the bank committees recently made to both houses of the legislature sufficiently expose these astounding and deplorable truths. From these reports appear the following im- portant and curious facts ; and for more full proof of all, and of more than we have time to charge, we refer to the two reports, and earnestly wish that they could be read by every honest citizen : That 55 members of the last General Assembly of Virginia were then debtors to banks, in the gross sum of ^111,675 : That the bank directors (so far as reported, and the reports not being complete,) were indebted to the banks, as principals and endorsers, individual- ly or as members of commercial firms, ^2,321,080, or nearly one fourth of all the capital of all the banks in the state. The directors of the lately established Ex- change Bank deserve especial notice and applause, (considering that they are such new hands at the liusiness,) lor their expertness in getting the lion's share of the spoils. The reports to the legisla- ture show the following amount of loans and liabilities : Capital of the Exchange Bank and its branches, . - . . ^1,782,037 Loans to and liabilities of its directors 734,930 Or more than two- fifths of the whole capital. • THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 181 Capital ol the Peiersburg Branch of Exchange Bank - - - #475,000 Loans to and liabilities of i(s directors $219,606 Or nearly one half of the capital. But the crack operators are ceriaiiily the direc- tors of ihe little Branch (Exchange) Bmik at Clarksville. Capital stock, nominally $200,000, but paid in only - - - $175,000 Loans to and liabilities of its 7 di- rectors, ... - $233,914 Or more than its whole capital by $58,914 This we take to be the ne plus ultra of what are considered honest banking operations, for the accommodation and profit of bank directors. Let it be observed that a director mitrht be in- debted to half a dozen banks, and no doubt many are indebted to several, and yet no more of his indebtedness appears in this report, than his debt to the particular cfiice in which lie is a director. We have known one single family and business connexion to have members as directors in almost every bank and branch in eastern Virginia. As most directors serve, and value their places, merely to borrow as much money ae possible, it follows of course that they will ex- change such friendly favors liberally; and each one who is greedy of large loans will seek them from as many different banks as possible. Thus, independent of all other particular influence, growing out of family and business connexion, a bank director has a general claim and influence, superior to other borrowers, in every bank and branch besides his own. It further appears from the staii^iical facte of these reports, as drawn from the banks, (and which is precisely such as reason and general truths would have caused to be inferred,) that very lew directors have any interest in the banks as stockholders, beyond the exact amount that the law requires them to own, to make them eligible to the appointment. This amount is 5 shares — and it is amusing to see in the report how general- ly each director's stock is of that precise amount. If a single share were enough for that purpose, there would have been as generally no more held. Bank directors are generally well enough inform- ed to know that banking, (as they conduct it) is a very bad business for the stockholders— and is valuable only to the borrowers. They therefore, for much their greater number, take care to have as little as possible of the stockholding interest, and as much as possible of the borrowing inter- est in the business. In this town of Petersburg, these truths, (as well as other things important to directors' interest,) would seem lo be especially well understood. For of the 21 directors of the 3 branch banks, 1 director, who owns the largest amount, has only - - - 25 shares 2 . _ . own, each, 15 1 10 1 7 1 6 and the other 14 - - - osharesonly. The officers (from presidents down to runners included) of the Virginia Bank and its branches, are indebted to them, $36,367, and the officers of the Farmers' Bank and branches, $42,787. This is another powerful influence operating against resumption. The charter of the Exchange Bank prohibited this class of debts, and therefore there are none such there to report. At pages 63 and 64 of this volume, we presented abstracts from the latest official reports of the three principal banks of Virginia, showing some remarkable evidei.ces of the treachery of all these institutions, and the falsehood of the prefeneion that they were using the indulgence of suspe^ision of payments to prepare for meeting payment. In the previous year of suspension, and of asserted and pretended preparation to pay specie at its close, (as required by the then law, and believed in by the duped people,) it appeared from those reports that the proportion of notes in circulation, to coin ia the banks, had been increased as follows : January 1, 18-Jl. January 1, 1842. Bank of Va. $3.10 to $1 coin 3.38 to $1. Farmers' Bank 3.34 lo 1 3.50 to 1. Exchange Bank 3.53 to 1 2.90 to 1. And taking a general average, these three in- stitutions had, during that year (1841,) Increased their outstanding debts, $667,462,56 Increased their circulation, 380.983,33 Decreased their specie, 27,581,23 Making total increase of liabilities, or of greater inability to pay specie, $1,076,027,12 When we first prepared that abstract, the re- ports of the small western banks had not been published. Their statements are embraced in the later report of the senate, and they vary the above average a little, but not materially. That report also differs from the above, in com- paring the time of April, 1841, (date of com- mencement of the last avowed suspension,) with January 1, 1842, or less than the nine last months of "preparation to resume payments;" and the general results are, that all the banks of (he state, in that time, had 182 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. $343,016 - 859,165 $1,202,181 260628 Increased iheir discounts, Increased iheir circulation, Increased their specie, - Which deducted, leaves of general in- creased liabilities, or increased inabi- lity to resume payments, - - $940,553 We could defy any banUite to produce, from all the annals of the commercial world, between the early times of the South Sea Bubble and of Law's Mississippi Scheme, and the present and recent time of non-paying banks in America, evidence of such gross (raud, and treachery to trust and to every obligation of law and honesty, as the above statement shows, conducted as this has been by men of the highest respectability, and moreover deemed honorable, patriotic, moral, and many of them also siraitly religious ! ! ! Many other facts stated in these reports, though of less importance, deserve to be noticed, as mat- ters of curiosity, or of shameless abuse. The cost of all the banking houses in Virginia, amounts to $495,495. When sold hereafter, all these bankrupt palaces will scarcely bring the fifth part of their cost. All their business might have been transacted in apartments costing much less than one fifth. The salaries of all the officers of the banks of Virginia, amount to more than $200,000 a year, or nearly as much as would have paid the legiti- mate and proper expense of the civil govern- ment of the commonwealth, before the common- wealth had become involved in the trade of bank- ing and in debt. The amount due from the northern banks (of other states,) to those of Virginia is $207,922, and the Virginia banks owe to northern banks, $411,287. The bad debts at the Virginia bank at Richmond, as reported by the di- rectors ----- $178,818 And the doubtful - - - 62,982 And as reported by the stockholders as bad - - - - - 220,000 And as doubtful - - - 97,000 (N either including defalcations, or totally worth- less stocks, we presume.) But besides this table, there is another reported by the bank of Virginia, showing the "amount upon which no interest has been paid for the last 12 months," to be $630,551. When interest has not been paid on a bank debt for a year, there is generally not much to be expected of the princi- pal. The Farmers' Bank reports a like item, amounting to $249, 014. Some partial light is thrown upon the groea abuse of long continued "accommodation''^ loans. The Virginia Bank and branches, exclusive of those at Lynchburg, Norfolk, Danville and Charleetovvn, which made no report, " owing to misunderstanding the question,^^ have debts which have been due More than 10 years, - - - $305,470 Between 5 and 10, - - - 458,018 Between 1 and 5, - - - - 447,031 Of the Farmers' Bank, there are answers to the question on this head, li"om only the two bran- ches of Fredericksburg and Winchester. We presume that the president of the mother bank at Richmond also " did not understand the ques- tion," and that the branch presidents at Peters- burg, Norlblk and elsewhere, were no more acute than their superior in Richmond. To show how much self-interest may sometimes blunt as well as sharpen intellect, we will copy from the report this puzzling question which so many presidents (" learned in the law," too,) and direc- tors could not understand. It stands first in the list addressed to all the banks, and is as follows : " What amount of debt is due to each bank and branch thereof, which was originally contracted more than ten years past? What amount was contracted more [ban five and less than ten years past? And what amount contracted more than one year and less than_^tje years past ?" One more statistical fact will be mentioned, and which only is not derived from the bank re- ports. It is that the last known sale of Virginia Bank stock, was at $45 the share of $100 par. We pretend not to argue with, or to instruct any person who is interested in sustaining the banks in Iheir course of fraud ; nor any of the many true and honest men whose understandings have been so clouded by bank delusions as to believe that the system is honest and beneficial in its present operation. But, of those who admit the evils and the vices of the banking system of Virginia, and sincerely desire to have them re- formed, and who have vainly counted on and waited for those persons having power to reform these institutions, we would ask, what possible orround can there be for such hope from bank of- ficers and directors and from legislators, acting as they have done now for five years, and under influences which still exis*? We entertain no expectation of either voluntary or legally coerced reformation. Nevertheless, we have full confi- dence that either the reformation or the destruc- tion of the fraudulent system will come, and soon. The banks are taking their full swing of allowed THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 183 iniquity. Their directors and users foolishly believe that that is all which is neeHed to sustain them. But they will find their mistake. The growing de- preciation of the notes, the s'ill faster growing dis- credit and distrust of the banks themselves, the dai- ly growing abhorrence of the whole frandiilenr pr- per money system, and of the conduct of it in Vir- ginia in particular, will all concur to demand and enforce resumption before the laws will in good faith. And as we believe that bona fide payments cannot be resumed and .maintained by banks so crippled, and so deservedly discredited as those of Virginia are and will be, the forced attempt at resumption will most likely produce a final sus- pension, which will be then called by the true name for all bank suspensions — that is ba-kruptcy. If we are mistaken in the degree of peril of such results to the banks, or as to the time, we cannot be mistaken in this opinion, that the longer they postpone resumption, the greater will be the dan- ger of undisguised bankruptcy from the attemp*. Banks of circulation, if paying, cannot stand ex- cept when sustained by public confidence — and the banks of Virginia have so acted as to forfeit all claim to trust and confidence. And now, when all the evils of the previous full sway of the fraudulent paper system are about to be brought upon the whole community — evils which we predicted long ago, and vainly tried to warn the agricultural community against — the cry is raised by the bankites, and will be sounded and echoed much louder yet, that the movements for bank resumption, and the action of opposers of the frauds of 'the banks, have caused the present and still growing distress. It would be as just and true a charge if all the wretchedness of feeling, prostration of powers, and acknowledged ruin, of a newly sobered drunkard were to be ascribed, not to his intoxicat- ing draughts, or to his having been drunk daily for 10 years before, but to his finally forced slate of abstinence and sobriety. It is very true, that no improvident debtor can pay his debts without inconvenience or privation — and we have never deemed as a light matter the enormous load of bank debt on the people. But debtors who will not prepare for the inevitable approaching, though distant day of payment, until forced, are gene- rally such as would suffer the less by being thus forced to pay early rather than late. Those earlier debtors who have remained in debt to the banks during the whole past five years of sus- pension, and are not yet prepared to pay, never will be prepared. They are ruined already, or their ruin is inevitable, from their own impru- dence ; and no greater extension of indulgence can possibly save them. And those who have first contracted standing debts to the banks, during the tirrre of suspension, have been therein no less imprudent, are not the less hspeless, and have no claim whatever that the public should remain under all the burdens and evils of a debased pa- per currency, until these new and fully warned debtors shall voluntarily retrace their false steps. If there had been a^y real effort made, eiiher by the solvent debtors of the banks to pay iheir debts, or of the banks to prevent new debts and liabilities being made, the improper excess of debts might have been paid, and all impediments to resumption of bank payments would have been removed, and bank payments honestly and truly resumed, three years ago, and without any serious loss or inconvenience to the country — indeed very far less than has been suffered since, by the con- tinuance of the fraudulent operation of non-pay- ing banks. If great and general pecuniary dis- tress be now pressing on the people in general, as well as on banks and their debtors, and if the pressure should cause ever so much decline in the selling prices of property, it will not be caused (as alleged by the bank organs) by measures for bank resumption, .but because of the long con- tinued delay of resumption, and the total failure to prepare for resumption both by the banks, and their improvident and reckless debtors. These deductions are so plain that they require merely to be announced to obtain the assent of unpre- judiced persons. But if any such reader should still believe the current assertion, that it is bank reform, and not past bank abuses (as we use the term,) that causes disireyed for these celebrated southern meads is perhaps the most clear and swift flowing of all the English rivers: issuing from ihp chalk formation, it is equally copious and transparent. Some of the chief advantage?, therefore, of irri- gation may evidently be derived from almost any descripiion of water ; for it is proved by the good eff'ecis produced by the brilliant chalk-vvaters of the south o!' England, and the still greater fertiliz- ing eflects of those surcharged with organic matter, as in ihe Craigintinny meadows near Edinburgh, that there is no water loo bright or THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 195 too full of impurities, to be useless for the pur- noses of irri^mion. 1 propose in this paper to inves'igale the chemi- cal pro leriies ol' river waier, and of the eHecis produced t.y it in irricration, adding a few rernarks upon the practice of the best and most slullnl cnhivatorsol' ihe water-meadows oi the south o, England. . . ^ . 1, Wiih regard to the composition ol river water, there have heen several chemical examina- tions :' that ol the Thames was analyzed by Dr. Bostock, who found, in 10,000 parts alter most ol iis mechanically suspended matters had subsided, about li pans of loreign substances, viz.— Part?. Organic matters . - - 0.07 Carbonate of lime - - - 1.53 Sulphate of lime - - - 0-15 Muriate of soda ... 0.02 In an equal quantity of the waters of the Clyde, Dr. Thomson found 1^ part ol' solid substances, namely, — Parts. Common salt - - - 0.369 Muriate of magnesia - - 0.305 Sulphate of soda - - - 0.114 Carbonate of lime - - - 0.394 Silica 0.118 The water of the Itchen in Hampshire is one ol the most celebrated of all the southern streams, for the use of Ihe irrigator. I (ound in 10,000 pans of its water, about 2| parts of solid matter, viz : — Parts. Organic matter . - - 0.02 Carbonate o( lime . - - 1,89 Sulphate of lime - - - 0.72 Muriate of soda - - - 0.01 From an examination of the substances found in these streams and they afiord a pretty correct view of the contents ol mo:~t others, the larmer will see that they all yield ingredients which are the food or natural constituents of the grasses. Thus, sulphate and carbonate of lime are Ibund in most of them, and there is no river water which does not contain, in some proportion or other, or- ganic matter. To ascertain, therefore, whether pure water was alone able to effect all tlie magic ef- iects of irrigation, it was necessary to employ other water than that of rivers, lakes, or even springs. Pure water, as obtained by distillation, there- fore, has been tried as a supporter of vegetation, but it waslound totally inad_equale to the support of plants, — they merely vegetated lor a time, but they could not, by any means, be made to perlect their BPeds. In this conclusion, the experiments of Dr. Thomson, and of MM. Saussure and Hassen- I'ratz, entirely agree. Pure water, therelore, not- withstanding the dreams ol the Greek philosophers, and the celebrated deceptive experiments of Van Helmont with his willow tree, is not able to sup- port the growth of the grasses. Van Helmoni's tree, when he planted it in anearthern pot, weigh- ed five pounds; the earth previously dried in an oven, weished 200 pounds; after five years it weighed 164 lbs., although it had been watered during that time with only rain and distilled water, and the earth had lost only two ounces in weight. Hence, said Van Helmont and his disci- ples, water is the sole food of plants. Bergman, in 1773, first pointed out the source of error. He showed, from the experiments of Margraft", that the rain-waler contained a suflioieni quantity of earth to account for tl,e increased weight in the willow, every pint of rain-water containing one crrain of earth. Then, again, the earthen vessel (which was sunk in the earth) would in this expe- riment transmit its moisture impregnated with ail kinds of soluble substances. And yet, it has been shown, that impure water, such as that from a sewer or Irom a dunghill, is alone sufficient to sus- tain vegetation. This was clearly evidenced in the experiments of M. Lampadius ; for he found, that plants placed in a pure earth, such as silica or alumina, although they would not grow when watered with pure water only, yet, when watered wiih the liquid drainage of a dunghill, they flourished very luxuriantly, and this fact has been also proved in another way. It has been shown by chemical analysis, that the quantify of solid or earthy matters absorbed by plants, is in exact pro- portion to the impurity of the water with which they are nourislied. Thus, equal quantities of some plants of beaor, led by distilled water, yielded Parts. Of solid matters or ashes - - - 3.9 Those led by rain-water - - - 7.5 Those grown in garden mould - - 12.0 These facts strongly confirm the conclusions of some of the most sagacious cultivators, that the chief advantages of irrigations are attributable to the foreign substances with which the water is charged,°although, as [ have elsewhere observed, almost every farmer has a mode of accounting lor the highly lertilizing effects of irrigation— one thinks it cools the land, another that iT keeps ilie crrass warm in winter. And this was Davy's opi- nion. He thought that a winter flooding protected the grass Irom the injurious efi'ects of I'rosf. He says, " Water is ofgreater specific gravity at 42 deg. that at 32 deg.— the Ireezing point ; and hence, in a meadow irrigated in winter, the water immediately in contact with the grass is rarely below 40 deg., a degree of temperature not at all prejudicial to the living organs of plants. In 1804, in the monih of March, I examined the tempera- ture in a water meadow near Hungerford in Berk- shire, by a very delicate thermometer. Tiie tem- perature of the air at seven in the morning, was 43 des- In general, those waters which breed the best fish are the best fitted for watering meadows, but most of the benefits of irrigation may be de- rived from any kind of water." Such were "the opinions of Davy as to the fer- tilizing properties of water. It is to be regretted that the opportunities for agricultural observations of this great chemical philosopher were so Cew, for his valuable remarks were always cautiously made. He appears, however, as I have remarked elsewhere, never to have steadily investigated the chemical composition of river-water with regard to its uses in irrigation, and, in consequence, knew little of the value of some of its impurities to ve- getation. Thus, if the river water contains gyp- sum (sulphate of lime,) which it certainly does — if the water is hard, it must, under ordinary cir- cumstances, on this account alone be highly fer- tilizing to meadows, since all grasses contain this salt in very sensible proportions ; for, calculating that one part of sulphate of lime is contained io 196 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. every two thouBanJ parts of river water, and that every square yard of dry meadow soil absorbs only eight gallons of water (and this is a very moderate allowance, for many soils will absorb three or four times that quantity,) then it will be found that, by every flooding, more than one hundred weight and a half of gypsum per acre is diffused through the soil in the water, a quantity equal to that generally adopted by those who spread gyp- eura on their clover crops, lucerne, and sainfoin, aa a manure, cither in the state of powder, or as it exists in ashes. And if we apply the same cal- culation to tile organic substances ever more or less contained in flood waters, and allow only 20 parts of animal and vegetable remains 1o be pre- sent in a thousand parts of river water, then we shall find, taking the same data, that every soak- ing with such water will add to the meadow near- ly two tons per acre of animal and vegetable mat- ters, which, allowing in the case of water mea- dows, five floodings per annum, is equal to a yearly application of ten tons of organic matter. The quantity of foreign substances present in river water, although commonly less, yet very often exceeds what 1 have thus calculated to ex- ist in it, I have found it impossible, however, to give, from analysis, the amount which, under or- dinary circumstances, is present m river waters, with any tolerable accuracy, since the proportion not only varies at different seasons of the year, but a considerable proportion of the merely mechani- cally suspended matters subside, when the speci- men water is suffered to rest. In my conclusions with regard to the theory of irrigation, I have found many excellent practical farmers concur. Thus, Mr. Simmons of St. Croix, near Winches- ter, considers that the great benefit of winter flood- ing lor meadows is derived, in the first place, from the deposits made by the muddy waters on the grass ; and, secondly, from the wimer covering with water preventing the ill eflects to the grass of sudden transitions in the temperature of ihe atmo- sphere. This gentleman is perfectly aware of the value of the addition ol the city drainage of Win- chester to the fertilizing qualities of the Itchen river water, and of its superiority lor irrigation after it has flowed past the city, having water mea- dows both above and below the town ; and he finds that if the water has been once used for irriga- tion, that then its fertilizing properties are so ma- teriafly reduced, that it is of little value for again passing over the meadows ; and so convinced is he of this fact by long experience, that, having in this way long enjoyed the exclusive and valuable use of a branch of the waters of the Itchen for some grass land, a neighbor higher up the stream fol- lowed his example, constructing some water-mea- dows, and using the water before it arrived at those of my informant, who, in consequence, found the water so deteriorated in quality (though not sen- sibly diminished in quantity), that he had once ihoughtof disputing the right with his more up- land neighbor. The experience of other irriga- tors tends to the same conclusion. In the best managed water meadows of Hampshire the farmer does not procure annually more than three crops of grass ; yet in situations where a richer water is employed, as near Edinburgh, four or five are readily obtained. It is evident, therefore, that the chemical properties of water have a much greater influence in irrigation than is commonly believed. The quality of the wafer, therefore, employed for the purposes of irrigation, is of the first import- ance to be well understood by the farmer ; and al- though many more modern discussions have taken place upon the subject, yet the definition which the great Lord Bacon gave in his Natural History, of the advantages of " JNleadow Watering," has never been excelled — " that it acts not only by supplying useful moisture to the grass, but like- wise by carrying nourishment dissolved in the water." This nourishment is, generally speaking, composed almost entirely of the animal and vege- table matters mechanically suspended or chemi- cally dissolved in the water ; the fouler the water the more fertilizing are its effects. The objection which has been sometimes urged to this explana- tion, by instancing the prejudicial effects of some very thick muddy waters (as those of the Humber) on meadow lands, is very erroneous ; lor, in those cases, the mud deposited on the grass did not con- sist of animal or vegetable matters, but of fine earthy particles, such as clay or chalk, eubstances ol which the alluvial soil, on which the same flood waters had lor ages occasionally deposited their earths, was in lact entirely composed, and to which, in consequence, any farther supply was almost useless, the earthy slime merely covering the grass with mud, without adding a single fer- tilizing ingredient not already abounding in the soil. If, however, the soil is naturally deficient in any of the earthy ingredients contained in the water, then even such flood waters are ever found most fertilizing. "The agency of water in the process of vegeta- tion," says Mr. Stephens, " has not till of late been distinctly perceived. Dr. Hales has shown that, m the summer months, a sunflower, weighing three pounds avoirdupois, and regularly watered every day, passed through it or perspired twenty- two ounces each day, that is, half its weight. Dr. Woodward found that, in the space of seventy- seven days, a plant of common spearmint increas- ed seventeen grains in weight, and yet had no other food than pure rain water ; but then he found that it increased more in weight when it lived in spring water, and still more when its food was Thames water." (Practical Irrigator, p. 2.) And when speaking of the fact, that some irriga- tors think clear spring water equal to any, he adds (p. 24), " I would recommend to those who are of the same opinion, to inspect the irrigated mea- dows which are watered by the washings of the city of JEdinburgh, where, I trust, they will find the superiority of muddy water to that of clear spring water most strikingly manifested." Edinburgh has many advantages over the most of her sister cities ; the large supply of excellent spring water is one of the greatest blessings to her numerous inhabitants, both in respect to house- hold purposes and keeping the streets clean, as well as irrigating the extensive meadows situated below the town, by the rich stuff' which it carries along in a state of semi-solution, where the art of man, with the common sewer water, has made sand hillocks produce riches far superior to any- thing of the kind in the kingdom, or in any other country. By this water, about two hundred acres ofgrass land, for the most part laid into catch-work mea- dows, are irrigated ; whereof one hundred and thirty belong to W. H. Miller, Esq., of Craigin- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 197 tinny, and the remainder, to the Earls ofHadding- ton and Moray, and other proprietors. The mea- dows belonging to these noblemen, and part ol the Craiginiinny meadows, or what is called the old meadows, containing about filly acres, have been irrigated for nearly a century. They are by far the most valuable, on account of tlie long ami continual accumulation of the rich sediment Iclt by the water J indeed (he water is so very rich, that the tenants of the meadows lying nearest the town have found it advisable to carry the common sewer water through deep ponds, into which the water deposits part of the superfluous manure be- fore it runs over the ground. Although the Ibr- mation of these meadows is irregular, and the management very imperlect, the effects of the water are astonishing ; ihey produce crops ol'grass not to be equalled, being cut from (bur to six times a year, and the grass given green to milch cows. The grass is let every year by public sale, in small patches of a quarter of an acre and upwards, and generally brings from 2-il. to 301. per acre per annum. In 1826, pan of the Earl of Moray's meadow fetched 571. per acre per annum. About forty acres of theCraigintinny lands were formed into catch-work water meadow before ihe year 1800, which comprises what is called Fillie- side Bank old meadows, and is generally let at from 201. to 301. per acre per annum. In the spring of 1821, thirty acres of waste land, called the Freegate Whins, and ten acres of poor sandy soil, were levelled and formed into irrigated mea- dow, at an expense of 1000^ The pasture of the Freegate Whins was let, previously to this im- provement, for 401. per annum, and the ten acres for 60/. They now bring from 15/. to 20/. per acre per annum, but may be much improved by judi- ciously laying out 200/. more in better levelling that part next the sea, and carrying a larger sup- ply of water to it, which might be easily done without prejudice to the other meadows. This, perhaps, is one of the most beneficial agri- cultural improvements ever undertaken ; for the whole of the Freegate Whins is composed of no- thing but sand, deposited from lime to time by the action of the waves of the sea. Never was 1000/, more happily spent in agriculture ; it not only re- quired a common sewer to bring about this great change, but a resolution in the proprietor to launch out his capital on an experiment upon a soil of such a nature. Since the making of the Freegate Whins into water meadows, Mr, Miller has levelled and formed Ibrty acres more of his arable land into irrigated meadow, worth, before the foimation, 9/, per acre per annum. It will only require a few years belbre these meadows will be as productive as the former ; lor it is evident that the longer water is suflered to run over the surface of grass land the greater quantity of lertiliziug substance will be collected ; therelbre, as the wafer is so very superior in quality to all other water, a speedy return for the capital laid out may be expected. The expense of keeping these meadows in repair is ftom 10s. to 15j, per acre per annum, which is more than double the expense of keeping water meadows in repair in general. It by no means, however, Ibllows, as a necessary result of any contemplated improvement in irriga- tion, that the water should previously undergo a chemical examination. There are many other modes by which the farmer can form a pretty cor- rect conclusion as to the fertilizing properties of the water he proposes to employ. The surest proofs, says Mr. JKxter, of the good quality of water (and the observations of this gen- tleman v.'ill be readily confirmed by the irrigators ul the souilitiiii counties,) as a manure, are the verdure of ihe margin of its streams, and the growth of strong cresses in the stream itself; and wherever these appearances are found, though the water be perfectly transparent, the occupier of the soil through which it ffows may depend, in gene- ral, of having a treasure, if he is attentive to it ; but ihai this is not invariably the case, and that there are instances where a good water will not improve the herbage of certain soils, is proved by the Ibllowing account (and there are several other cases with vvliich I am acquainted) of the mea- dows of Mr, Orchard, of Stoke Abbey, Devon, These two meadows are situated on the side of a hill, their aspect nearly south — the superstratum a fine rich loam, from eight to ten inches deep, on a substratum of strong 5ellow clay. No diffe- rence whatever can be seen by the naked eye, in either the upper mould or the substratum, or in the herbage growing on the surface of them ; except that, in the lower part of one, a few rushes appear, in consequence of some small springs which rise near them, but the water from them is not sufficient to render any part of the land poachy. At the head of the two meadows is a large pond, formed by the collecting of some small runs of spring water rising near it, and which is also im- proved by the wash of a small farm-yard adjoin- ing, which, of course, must add to its efiicacy as a manure. When this water is thrown over one of the meadows, it produces the richest herbage in abundance, and this field is regularly mowed lor hay; on the other meadow, though repeatedly tried, it produces no good whatever. (Ann. of Agr. vol. XXX. p. 206.) This result is attributable to the superior tena- cious, retentive quality of the substratum of the lower field, or of some chemical difference in the composition of the soil ; and although alaiost any description of soil is adapted to the formation of water meadows, those of a heavy clay description are generally the most unsuitable, those of a light or peaty kind are better, and those with a sandy or very absorbent gravel substratum still more so. There are some of the most celebrated water mea- dows on the banks of the Kennet of this descrip- tion, and many of the best on the banks of the Wiltshire Avon have a mass of broken, porous flints for a subsoil. Those near Edinburgh, irri- gated by the city drainage, rest upon the sands thrown up by the sea. It is evident, therefore, that it is as important an object in the construction of these meadows to secure a ready and rapid exit for the flood-waters, as to procure, in the first instance, a copious and fertilizing supply. The farmer is generally well aware of the inju- rious effects to his meadows of suffering the water to remain too long on them. He watches, there- fore, with much care, for the first indications of fermentation having commenced, which isevinced by the rising of a mass of scum to the surface of the wafer — putrefaction is now beginning in the turfi and he knows very well that if Ihe water is not speedily removed, that his grass will be either 198 THE FARMERS' REGISTER materially injured, or entirely destroyed ; he has- tens, iherelore, to open his water-courses. There are some soils in the vicinity ol' Standen in Berk- shire, however, of eo porous a quality, they need not any drains to empty ilie water-courses ; and, in fact, in many instances, the farmer does not even require them: after a few hours all the water is absorbed by the soil ; and yet these lands, with hardly six inches of mould above the gravel, are amon^rst the ricliest of water-meadows; the roots of the grasses penetrate readily into the gravel, and the earliest and sweetest grasses are produced on them. Almost any description of grass will flourish under proper management in water meadows. Those whose soils consist of peat resting on sand or on sandy loam, with a substratum of chalk or gravel, generally produce the meadow foxtail (^Alopecurus pratensis,) the brome-grass (^ro??ius arvensis,) and the meadow- fescue (Festucapra- tensis,) on the tops and sides of the ridges. The furrows and sides of the drains are usually tenant- ed by the creeping-bent, the hard (eseue, the rough stalked meadow grass, and the woolly soft grass. In those water meadows, whose soil con- Bisis of a sandy loam on a clay subsoil, the chief grasses are commonly the creeping-rooted soft grass, crested dog's-tail, the meadow barle)', and the sweet-scented vernal grass. But some grasses change their appearance in a very remarkable degree, when exposed under favorable circum- stances to the influence of the flood waters. This fact is strikingly exemplified in the case of two small meadows situated at Orcheston, six miles from Amesbury in Wiltshire, denominated from their great produce, "the long grass meads." *' These," says Davis, " contain together only two acres and a half, and the crop they produce is so immense, that the tithe hay oflhem was once sold for five guineas." Much discussion took place amongst the Wiltshire (armers, as to the nature of the crop of these meads, before it was at last shown that the greatest part of their herbage consisted of nothing else than the black couch, or couchy-beni, the jigrostis stolonifera, one ol' the worst of the grasses or weeds which haunt the poor, ill-cultivated arable soils. It is a very general, as well as correct conclu- sion of the English farmers, that the grass and hay of water-meadows is not so nutritious as that of the permanent pasture lands. The difference, however, is not so great as is commonly supposed. The late Mr. George Sinclair determinated this experimentally, and he is no mean authority with regard to all that relates to the grasses. He obtained from the rye grass (^Lolium pe- renne,^ at the time of flowering, taken from a water meadow that had been fed off with sheep till the end of April, of nutritive matter, seventy- two grains; and from the same weight of this grass, taken from a rich old pasture, which had been shut up for hay about the same time, ninety- two grains. From the same grass from the mea- dow, that had not been depastured in the spring, one hundred grains. And from tlie same grass, from the pasture which had not been led off, one hundred and twenty grains. All the grasses, in fact, where their growth is forced by the applica- tion of either liquid or solid manures, are found to contain nutritive matter in diminished quantities —this, loo, was determiaed by Sinclair. From four ounces of a very rankly luxuriant patch of rye-grass, on which a large portion of cow dung had been deposited, he obtained of nutritive mat- ter, seventy-two grains. From the same quantity of the same grass, growing on the soil which surrounded this luxuriant patch, he obtained one hundred and twenty-two grains. And in a second trial, the same species ofgrass, on a soil entirely destitute of manure, afforded, of nutritive matter, ninety-five grains. On the same soil, excessively manured, the grass afforded only filly grains. In these experiments, the plants were of the same age, and were examined at the saaie stage of their growth. (Hortus Gram. 384.) With regard to the construction and manage- ment of water meadows, there are many practical works of the highest authority to which the farm- er has ready access, and, in the following ob- servations, therefore, I shall merely very briefly paraphrase (he accounts given by Mr. Davis and others, of the practice of irrigation in the southern counties. In this, hovvever, even since the time that Davis wrote, Ih^re has been a great and steady improvement. The land is belter levelled, the slopes more evenly preserved, the water-way, aqueducts, and hatches, better constructed, and in many of the more recent improvements in the valley of the Itchefi in Hampshire, the eliding- water doora are regulated by a cogged wheel turned with a moveable winch, so as to render them safe from alteration during the absence of the meadow-keeper. The management of the Wiltshire and Hamp- shire water-meadows, as well as it can be briefly described, is as follows : — In the autumn, the after-grass is eaten off' quite bare, when the manager of the mead (provincially the drowner) begins to clean out the main drain, and the main carriage, and to " right up the works," that is, to make good ail the carriages and drains which the cattle have trodden in, so as to have one tier or pitch of work ready for drowning. This is im- mediately put under water, whilst the drowner is preparing the next pitch. In the flowing meadows this work ought to be done, if possible, early enough in the autumn to have the whole meadow ready to catch the first floods after Michaelmas ; the water, being the first washing of the arable land on the sides of the chalk hills, as well as the dirt from roads, is then thick and good ; and this remark as to the supe- rior richness of the flood waters, is one that is commonly made in Berkshire and other parts of England. The length of the autumtjal watering cannot be precisely stated, as much depends upon situations and circumstances; but if water can be commanded in abundance, the custom is lo give meadows a " thorough good soaking at first," perhaps for a fortnight or three weeks, with an intermisifion of two or three days during that pe- riod : and continue for the space of two Ibrtnights, allowing an interval of a week between them. The works are then made as dry as possible, to encourage the growth of the grass. This first soaking is to make the land sink and pitch close together, a circumstance of great consequence, not only to the quantity, but to (he quality of the grass, and particularly to encourage the shooting of new roots, which the grass is continually form- ing, to support the forced growth above. THE FARMERS' REGISTER. ]99 While the grass grows freely, a fresh waterino: is not wauled : but as soon as it flags, i he water must be repealed for a llnv d;iys at a time, always keeping lliis (undamental rule in view, " to make the meadows as dry as possible after every water- ing, and to take off the water ihe moment any ecum appears upon the land, which shows that ii has already had water enough." Some meadows that require the water for three weeks in October, and ihe two Ibllowing monihs, will not, perhaps, bear it one week in February or March, and sometimes scarcely two days in April and May. Ill ihe catch-meadowe, which are watered by springs, the great object is, to keep the works very dry between the intervals of watering ; and as such Bituaiions are seldom afiljcled by floods, and iiene- rally have loo little water, it is necessary to make the most of ihe water, by catching and rousing it as olten as possible; and as the upper works ol every pitch will be liable to get more water than those lower down, a longer time should be given to the latter, so as to make them as equal as pos- sible. (Davis' Agriculture of Wiltshire, p. 125-7.) In Berkshire ihey first flood their water-mea- dows about Michaelmas ; these are situated prin- cipally on the banks of the Kennet. The first flooding ihey deem the richest in quality : this they keep on the land for about four days, then they dry ihem (or about a fortnight, and after that the water is let on for three or lour days more ; those meadows which are the most readily dried are the most productive. There are none more so, in (act, than those which have a porous, gravelly, or broken flint bottom, from which the flood-water readily escapes, almost without drains. They be- gin to feed their meadows with sheep about the 6'h of April, and continue feeding till about ihe 21st of May, when the meadows are again flooded for a crop of hay; the land is then flooded and dri>d alternately for three days until hay-lime. The number of acres of land in Wiltshire under this kind of management has been computed, and with a tolerable degree of accuracy, to be between filleen and twenty thousand. Some considerable additions, however, have been made to the water- meadows of the district since this calculation was made. (Dvivis' Wills., p. 122.) x\bout the same nu iber of acres are (ormed into water meadows in Berkshire, and a still larger number in Hampshire. No one has aitended more care- fully to his water meadows than Lord Western, on some of those situated on ihe London clay Ibr- mation in ihe Bhckwaier Valley in Essex, a soil of all others, perhaps, from its tenacity, the least adapted lo iheir successful formation, and his tes- timony is very important— " There is an old adage," saya bis lordship, " that water is the best servant in agriculture, and the worst master. Water has in itself intrinsic value, distilled throush chalk, lime, or marl, it acquires a portion ol their qualities, thoush preserving the most perlieci transparency, and, coming down in torren'e and floods, it carries along Ihe finer particles of earih and manure from the mountains, or higher grounds, into the valleys ; hence, of course, it is that the valleys derive their (erliliiy, and ihe value j ol the meadow has been originally cre;ited by an accumulation of wealih from the hills." (On j the Improvement of Grass-lands, pp. 5, 14, 23.) " In deeceoding the Jura mountains, which di- ! vide France from Switzerland, the very first pas- lure you find on the descent evinces the value placed on the mountain floods by the inhabitants of those districts ; and, accordingly, every stream is sedulously directed and conducted over ihe pas- tures in a most skiKiil manner. The very wash- ing of the roads in hasty rains is also attended to, and applied to the same purposes." This system of catching the uncertain flood-waiers is known amongst farmers by the name of catch-work, and ihoiiah highly valuable, yet ihey deem it infinitely less important to them than irrigation, which is waterintr (generally five or six limes a-year) from a certain and ever-accessihie head of water, as a river, &c. And yet Lord Western's test mony is decisive in favor of even one catch-flooding; for he observes, when speaking of ihe expense of con- structing the requisite little channels to disperse the flood-waters over the grass — " In many cases it will he trifling, in some cases considerable ; but when the farmer reflects that one winter's flooding will do more in man5% I may say in most cases, than ihirly loads an acre of the best roiien dung manure that can be laid upon his grass lands, he can hardly shrink (rom some considerable expen- diture." If, then, the effects even of a catch-flood- ing with water are so great, how infinitely supe- rior are the advantages capable of being derived from a regular constant supply of the enriching foul waters, like those issuing from Ihe drains of a large city, which is even now most successfully employed near Edinburgh, but worse than wasted in the case of London. Whatever may be the value, in an agricultural point of view, of the solid contents of the London sewers, yet, lo me, the absolutely liquid portion, lor the purposes of irri- gaiion, appear at least equally important. There is no agricultural question, therefore, of more consequence in a national point of view, than that of the improvement of the soil by the practice of irrigaiion ; (or, in its prosecution, all the rich organic and other matters difl'used through the rivers, which would otherwise be carried into the sea, are saved to agriculture. This is not, therelbre a question like that attending most other modes of fertilizing ihe soil, merely transposing manure from one field or district lo another: but it is the absolute recovery, as it were, from the ocean, of a mass of finely divided enriching sub- stances, constnn;ly draining from the land. It is the effectual diversion of a stream which is ever steadily impoverishing all cultivated soils, and whicii unnoticed, and in too many instances deemed worthless, gliding into the ocean, is al- most the only drawback to the steadily increasing fertility of our country. From the Genesee Farmer. Josiah Bordwell, of South Hadley, Mass., has four acres of pasture ground, and applies to it an- nuall}' one thousand pounds of j/ypsum. The same application, and at the same rate, has been made 35 years in succession. On ihis lot he pas- tures annually one large yoke of oxen, one horse, two cows, and some years three cows. Prior to the use of plaster, Mr. B. says it required at least 200 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. six acres of this land to afford as much feed as he has obtained Trom one acre, by using piaster. He has also a piece of mowing ground which contains lour acres. Two crops of hay are taken from it regularly. On this grournl he uses plaster of Paris freely, and applies a top-dressing of ma- nure. His annual product of hay is fully sixteen tons. For tlie Farmers' Register. ADDRESS ON THE FOnMATION OF THE AGRI- CULTURAL SOCIETY OF ESSEX. At a meeting of the farmers and planters of JEssex, convened at Tappahannock, on the 28ih March, 1842, for the purpose of forming an Agri- cultural Society, the lollowing address was deli- vered by their countryman, James M. Garnett. Friends and brother farmers : — Few things have happened to me, for a long time past, which have gratified me more, than to find so many of you desirous to establish an agricultural society, and to be the individual invited by yourselves, to address you on the occasion. To be thus honored is, of itself, a circumstance which, I con- lees, has given me much pleasure. But 1 assure you with perfect sincerity, that my highest gra- tification arises (rom the reflection, that although our good old county has done many good things in her day, none I believe has ever rendered her BO much real, substantial service, as she will almost certainly derive from the association which I earnestly hope you have all come prepared to establish. In every part of our own coun- try where similar societies have been formed, and well managed, their good effects have soon become manifest to the most careless observer; and the experience of all foreign countries has borne ample testimony to the same (acts. Still, we Virginians have not appeared generally well disposed to avail ourselves of these associations, however strong and conclusive their benefits appear, to all who will give them an attentive consideration. In fact, the members of our class every where, but especially in our own state, have always appeared to me less inclined than any others to combine into societies, and co- operate for their mutual benefit ; and yet, none surely require it more. For our legislatures have always acted towards us, as if we alone could never be in need of that aid, which has scarcely ever been sought from them by any other class with- out being granted. Hence the greater necessity of striving by co-operation to help ourselves if we will persist in neglecting to use the means — always in our power — of obtaining legislative aid. These means are as perfectly simple, as they would be efficacious. We have only to substitute real in- stead of pretended friends lor our legislators, and the work would be speedily accomplished. But in the absence of all effective legislation in our favor, and whilst we fail to seek it as we might, there are no means which appear tome so well calculated to supply the want of it as agricultural societies. They greatly accelerate the ai-(|uisi- tion of that knowledge of our proli.-Ksion which is but slowly gained by solitary eiudy and prac- tice, even where we are really zealous in the pursuit of it. They furnish a cure for thai seff- conceit, so highly injurious to such of our breth- ren, as believe themselves too wise to be taught; by placing them in a situation to be convinced — where the disease has not gone too far to be cured — that others know more than they do. They serve to excite that " esprit da corps,^^ which causes us to take a just pride in our pro- fieesion, and in which our class is so deficient. They draw closer those bonds of fraternity which should always unite us indissolubly together. They greatly promote social intercourse; and thereby tend powerlijily to mitigate, if not entirely to cure those animosities and bitter hatreds, with which party-spirit never fails to poison the hearts of all who give themselves up to its influence. In a word, agricultural societies are, so far as my experience enables me to judge, the sources of unal?oyed good to all who become zealous mem- bers thereof. And who can doubt it, that will reflect but for a moment on the nature and all pervading influence of that great cause, which it is the special object of agricultural societies to promote. A celebrated German agriculturist, whose late work on " Organic Chemistry in its application to Agriculture and Physiology" has become one of the text books in agriculturat science, has summed up in a single sentence the chief circumstances which render this cause so great, and of such vital interest to all mankind. His words are, "There is no profession which can be compared in importance with that of agri- culture; for to i7 belongs the production of food for man and animals ; on it depends the welfare and developement of the whole human species, the riches of states, and all commerce." This single sentence contains what might be expanded into volumes of illustration and praise ; but I con- fidently trust that all of my brother farmers who now hear me are sufficiently apprized of the es- sentiality of our profession to all the best interests of our country, not to require such a diffuse eulo- gium to recommend it farther to our special re- gard. If it were my sole object to endeavor to make you fall in love with your profession, I might paint for your imaginations only the pleasures of agriculture, the green meadows, the verdant lawns, and glowing landscapes of well cultivated, highly productive fields, with which an all boun- teous Providence hath enabled the cultivators of the soil to solace and regale both their animal and intellectual natures. Such an attempt would be both easy and delightful. But on the present occasion, I feel myself called on not only to ex- hibit some of the most striking advantages of agriculture to individuals and communities, to- gether with the most practical means of improv- ing it, but also to trace a warning chart of the shoals and quicksands, the rocks and barren wastes, that too frequently impede the progress of the husbandman, exhaust fits substance, and mar his happiness. This, although the most necessary, is by far the most irksome part of the duty, which I shall now attempt to perform. In my endeavor to execute it properly, should I be so fortunate as to suggest any hints which may prove practically uselul, I shall deem myself amply rewarded. In regard to the general advantages of agricul- ture, both to individuals and nations, no one pro- bably is so ignorant as to require much to be said THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 201 to him in the way of explanation. There are none, (or instance, but must know, that ilie yeo- manry of a country constitute the pay-ail -class ; that they furnish the means of subsistence, both in peace and war, lo all other classes ; that all taxes for the support of government, or any other public exigency, must ultimately cume out of the land, and be drawn from it by the labor, skill and industry of those who own and cultivate it. How vastly important then, how absolutely necessary is it, "that ihey should possess all the knowledtre of their prolession, both scientific and practical, which it is possible for them to acquire, since not only their own welfare, but that of every other class — nay, of the community itself of which they are members, vitally depends upon the extent ol this knowledge, and the persevering diligence with which it is applied to all the various brandies of husbandr}'. Yet, most strange to say, ours is a profession which multitudes of us appear to think may be practised successfully, as it were by instinct, tor many, very many take it up with- out the slightest previous study or experience, and take it in high dudgeon, even if the oldest farmers venture to question their qualifications. What renders this misconception the more sur- prising is, that it is never made in regard to the simplest of all trades and callings, that even cob- blers and tinkers are required to serve some ap- prenticeship, belore they undertake to act as master-workmen. But our farmers make no such preparation, no, not they; although theirs is a vocation, which if estimated by its national impor- tance, and the great variety of knowledge essen- tial to the attainment of excellence therein, must certainly rank among the highest in society. As lo the means of our improvement in hus- bandry, although some small capital in money, or its equivalent, is generally deemed necessary lo begin with, a capital in agricultural knowledge, eobriely, honesty, industry, and economy, is still more essential ; for without these, and a good stock of them too, it is folly for any man to expect to reach a high standing in his class. To do this, he must carefully shun all extravagance, he'must be just and (air in all his dealings, indefatigahly diligent in all his (arming operations, giving to each its due share of atteniion ; perfectly sober in his habits, that he may be always fit for business 8s well as an example of sobriety to all under his command ; and lo crown the whole he must ne- glect no means within his reach lo improve himself, both in the knowledge and practice of his profes- Bion. One of the most obvious of these means, especially (b: those who have no access to agri- cultural books, nor lime to study them, is to be- come a member of some well managed agricultu- ral society. All of these associations meet once or twice a year; and thus (ijrnish opportunities for each member lo learn, if he pleases, all thai may be known by the rest, within the limits of their particular society. Here, then, any indivi- dual member who seeks infbrmalion may acquire, in a day or two, more knowledge of his proles- sion than he would probably gain in some years, by relying entirely on his own practice at home, unaided either by books, or conversation with farmers more experienced than himself. More- over, his attendance on these meetings would be apt to inspire him with a more humble sense of his own agricultural knowledge, than most of ub Vol. X.-26 are apt to have who mix so little with our breth- ren as to have no op|)oriunity of comparing our own acquirements with Ihcirs. The neglect lo do this is almost as sure to infect our minds with an overweening notion of our own knowledge, as the neglect to till our fields is, to fill them vviih nox- ious and pestiferous weeds. In fact, without a considerable degree of humility, there can be no desire to learn, (or there is no consciousness of deficiency, no belief hardly in the possibility that others know more than we ourselves do. Another advantage in attending the meetings of an agricultural society is, that we are apt to feel a livelier interest in our vocation ; and to take a more enlarged view of its national impor- tance, than we would ever possess, if we willuily neglected, as too many of our brethren are apt to do. to look a little beyond our own thoughts for tlie means of improvement. To efiiect this most rapidly for our minds, Ireqaent interchanges of opinion relative to every thing connected with our profession is quite as necessary, as the fre- quent application of (ertilizing substances is to accomplish it (or our lands. And he who neglects to avail himself of this all important (act, well deserves to live and die under the (atal curse of thai ignorance, which self-conceit, and its con- stant companion, obstinacy, are sure to fix upon all who give themselves up to iheir influence. Most truly may it be said of any such man, " there is more hopes of a (bol than of him." I have said that one of the means of our im- provement in husbandry is, lo become an active member of some agricultural society. But much depends upon how this society is consliluied, and how it is managed. To enable it lo effect well the purposes lor which it was established, all who become members should determine, and perseveie in tliat determiniiiion, annually to do something more towards its support and improvement, than merely to pay pimciually their su(>scripiion, al- though this should ever be deemed an indispen- sable duty. Each cultivator of the soil, however poor he might be, may certainly do this ; for it does not require that a man should be rich to make and report accurate experiments on a small scale ; and such experiments have olien been known lo result in the most important discoveries. In fact, some of those which have been most beneficial to mankind have been made by men comparatively poor. Again, members who are not cuhivalors, but belong lo other profiessiona and callings, may aid the cause very much, by always attending the meetings of Iheir society, and exerting whatever influence ihey may pos- sess to render it popular. We are all more or less creatures of imitation, and generally prone to do what we see others do. Of course, if many unite zealously in any pursuit, especially if it be one (or the promotion of that greatest and most essential of all arts, the art of agriculiure, others will assuredly follow, some merely (or company sake, but numbers probably fi^om the laudable motive of bearing a part in 'he general efibrt to do good. Another means highly necessary lo the bene- ficent operation of agricultural societies is, to es- tablish and lo cherish correct opinions, as lo the nature and objects of the premiums which arc usually offered by them. These are to excite a greater degree of fair, honorable competition, in 202 THE FARMERS REGISTER. the various branches oC husbandry than would probably arise without them ; not, however, for the special benefit oflhe individuals who may en- gage in it, but more effectually to promote and improve the particular branch, wherein the com- petition is produced. This should always be borne in mind by the competitors, and they should al- ways deem it highly dishonorable to become, what an old menr,ber of our Fredericksburg Ag- ricultural Society has most aptly called ''prize fighters,''^ that is, men who compete (or those premiums solely for the sake of the paltry gain, and who almost always withdraw, it disappoint- ed in their eordid objects. 11' they do not take this step, which at once displays the baseness of their motives, they may always be known by the gross abuse which they never fail to utter agamst the committees that have decided against them. This is an evil to which all agricultural societies, that give premiums are constantly exposed ; and there is none from which they should labor more to free themselves. But nothing, 1 believe, would do it, unless perhaps it were made a part ol the constitution of every society to expel a member for accusing any committee of partiality, in ful- filling a duty which they can have no possible motive to abuse. On the contrary, they have every inducement which can operate upon men in such situations to discharge this duty faith- fully, since they cannot possibly gain any thing by violating it. Possibly the disgrace of expul- sion might deter these "prize-fighters" from indulging their ribaldry, when disappointed in ob- taining a premium, although such a remedy is at least doubtful ; for the men who would be most apt to offend in this way, have generally loo little sense of honor and justice, to regard what a truly honorable man would consider a disgrace. The only thing which they really dread is either corporal or some other punishment that would take money out of their pockets. No agricultu- ral society can ever derive the smallest benefit from them, and none should ever be admitted, if their characters could possibly be known before- hand. I have said more, perhaps, on this subject, than some of you niay think there was any necessity for saying. But if you Ibrm a society, as I sin- cerely hope you will, your members will be pe- culiarly fortunale, indeed, if they do not soon find among them some such disturbers of their peace and prosperity r.s I have described. Let the foregoing remarks suflice to show how we may iaiprove in our profession, by becoming members of some agricultural society. But this alone will be far, very far from making us good farmers and planters. We must not only learn all we can from our brother members, and be always ready to adopt iheir practices, whenever we see good reason to believe that ihey are bet- ter than our own, but we should dread, as we would poison, that pride and pertinacity of opinion which all our brethren arc so apt to contraci, who neither study their profession as a science, nor seek any other means to improve in its practice, than such as their own unaided thoughts may possibly suggest. This entire self-dependence lor an increase of knowledge, soon swells into a degree of preposterous, arrogant self-conceit, which as efiiectually shuts the mind against the access of all truth, all improvement, as a good cork shuts a bottle from the admission of air. With hearts and intellects properly prepared for the acquisition of knowledge, by a proper distrust in our own acquirements, and a desire to increase them, both of which will be augmented by asso- ciating with men better inlbrrned than ourselves, we shall certainly be led to seek, not only this source of improvement in our profession, but we shall resort also to agricultural books. Some of these, in the form of periodical papers, have now become so cheap, that every man who is not actually a pauper may easily furnish him- self with at least one of ihem. as the cheapest costs only a dollar a year, although a single paper will often be found to be worth many dollars to him who will read it attentively. This remark 1 have very often heard, and from men too who were once silly enough to laugh at every thing in print, on the subject of husbandry, until they became thoroughly convinced of their own folly and obstinacy, in neglecting to ascertain for them- selves, what agricultural books and papers really were. They then discovered that they were pre- cisely the same with oral communications on the same subjects. The only difference being, that the first IS the experience of farmers recorded in print, and the latter the experience, often of the same fiirmers, imparted by word of^nouth. The lacts, communicated in either way, must be exactly of the same value, as must also be all the speculations, either oral or printed, which may be blended vviih them ; and stupid, indeed, beyond measure, must he be, who could not so distin- guish between them, as to derive benefit from the facts, if worthy of regard, and avoid injury from the speculations, if they were either inconclu- sive or utterly visionary. This matter is now so generally and well understood, that the indi- vidual who ventures to sneer and scoff at what he is pleased to call " book-farming," will rarely fail to be thought a vain, conceited ignoramus, however he may escape being called so to his fiice. He can no longer thus disguise his own ignorance and aversion to learning, nor pass him- self off, even among his most illiterate brethren, for a farmer of superior knowledge and skill in his prolession ; but must go for what he really is, an arroganr, opinionative boaster, utterly too lazy to study, too self-conceited to believe others better informed than himsell, and far too proud to confess ii, even if forced to see and to feel his own inferiority. I have said the more on this topic, because I verily believe that an overweening con- fidence in our own knowledge is the besetting sin of our clas.^, owing to so lew of us ever study- ing our profession as a science, to the solitary lives we generally lead, and to our consequent igno- rance of the daily improvements which are con- stantly making in all the various branches of husbandry. Of these we must keep ourselves well inlbrrned, either by reading or frequent in- terchange of opinions, on all subjects connected with our prolession, but both are best ; or we must be content to suffer all the penalties and de- privations of our wilful ignorance. Another method of improving in our husbandry is one which liew, very ihw pursue, although it really seems to me demonstrable that it would greatly contribute, not only to our knowledge, but to our wealth, it is, to lay out whatever clear profit, (if any,) which we can make from our THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 203 farms, in augmenting their fertility, rather than in adding to iheir size. Any man, who will take the trouble (o make the calculation, may very soon •convince himself of ihis lidcf, so hii^hly important to all agricultural improvement. For instance, is it not perfectly plain, that if we increase our crops merely by increasing the surface cultivated, we must add a proportionate increase of labor and other means to make them, and of course have our expenditures and income relatively the same as belbre? We therefore gain no additional clear profit, although we gain not a little additional trouble in managing this increased labor. Yet al- most every farmer, who has it in his power, conti- nues to add negro to negro and acre to acre, when- ever an opportunity offers ; and thus not only fails to augment his own net income in the small- est degree, but actually contributes, by his per- petual buying up more and more land, without improving what he already owns, to depopulate the neighborhood in which he lives. In this way it has happened that in many parts of Virginia a single proprietor will now own many thousands of acres, which half a century ago, or within a shorter period, were divided into^ several distinct farms, each of which sufficed for the comfortable support of a diiferenl family, who might still have been living on them in abundance, if the money, time and labor, which it cost them to move and to form other far distant settlements, had been judiciously expended in improving the homes of their ancestors, and the lands which gave them birth. No man can doubt this, who knows, half as well as I do, how capable these lands are of being so improved as to yield even ten or twelve times their present average product. For it is a fact within my own knowledge, that many of our Virginia farms formerly produced per acre crops which exceeded what they now yield full as much as I have stated, whilst others v^hich were almost barren, when I first knew them, hav- ing fallenin to the hands of impro-ving proprietors, instead of the land-skinners who pre'viously own- ed them, are now producing ten, fifteen, and even twenty-fold as much as they did in the hands of those deadly enemies to all agricultural improve- ment. It may be prejudice, but I confess I have always considered such men among the very worst members of society ; for, although they in- crease for a time the means of human subsist- enccj it is solely for their own exclusive benefit, without the slightest regard for the general wel- fare or their own posterity; and under an abso- lute certamty of ultimately impoverishing their own state, by destroying the productiveness of her soil to the utmost extent of their power. To this deplorable situation they have reduced thou- sands upon thousands of acres of our once fertile soil. But with a knowledge of its capacity for improvement which most of its present owners possess, what should hinder them from reetorinc/ these lands to their former slate, or to one still more productive, since many of them are now known to contain in their marl deposits the na- tural means of effecting this restoration ? The only obstacle in regard to these farms is, either tnat sheer laziness in their proprietors, causeththeslugsard to be continually sayino- himself, «' yei a little sleep, a little slumber, a li folding of the hands to sleep,'' or else it is an in- veterate habit of putting off from day to day which 3 to itle what they wish and mean to do ; a habit, by the way, which is utterly incompatible with every thing like good farming. Procrastination has been called "the thief of time;'' but it is infinitely worse : it is the slow but deadly poisoner both of mental and bodily energy, rendering the best resolutions entirely abortive, and the greatest physical powers nearly as useless to us as if we did not possess them. Our population, computed by the square mile, and compared with that of the northern and eastern states, falls very far short of theirs, al- though we have greatly the advantage of them both in soil and climate. Do any of you wish to know the reason'? It is simply because they have been constantly and most industriously la- boring to improve their lands, whilst we (with few exceptions) have been as constantly treating ours in a way that could not well have been worse, if we had actually been laboring with might and main to wear them out. I will not say that such was the design of our treatment ; but the effect has certainly been the same as if malice prepense had instigated all our proceed- ings. No state pride, no attachment to the places of our nativity, no affection for kindred and friends, no devotion to agriculture, as the great source both of individual and national prosperity, has had any such influence over us, aa to save our good old Mother Virginia from the almost hope- less impoverishment to which a vast portion of her soil has been reduced by the neglect, the abuse, and constantly exhausting culture of her improvi- dent, reckless children. The deplorable conse- quence of this has been, that multitudes of them seem so disheartened by the prospect before them, as almost to have lost the power of making the necessary exertion to better their condition, al- though there are now very few neighborhoods, and no counties which do not afford some highly laudable examples demonstrative of what rapid improvement may be made of our exhausted soils, simply by persevering industry and labor, judi- ciously applied to the various processes by which worn out lands may be restored to a highly pro- ductive condition. There are no soils eo poor as not to furnish to Iheir owners more or less of such j materials as may be easily converted into manure; for such are all substances that will rot. More- over, a very large portion if not the greater part of our lands below the head of tide-water, abound with marl, that has never failed to restore land to fertility, wherever it has been judiciously applied. On farms destitute of marl, the numerous sub- stances convertible into manure, aided by lime, plaster of Paris and red clover, will soon efiect the object, and that too without any great outlay of cash, if we could only content ourselves with a small, gradual beginning. But our great misfor- tune is, that very few of us, even among those who have least property, have yet learned to practise upon the good old Scotch proverb— " 3Iany a little makes a mickle.'' Hence it hap- pens with such persons, that because they cannot command money and labor enough to make, as it were, by a hop, skip, and jump, all the improve- ments they wish, they will not attempt to make any ; but go on from bad to worse, until emigra- tion presents itself as the only remedy for an evii which seems incurable, merely because no effort has been made to cure ii. How long such num- 204 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. bers of our brethren will continue lo labor under j can deny. For instance, the farmer'' s thrift de- and to eufter (rotn an infatuation «o deplorable, so paralyzinnr, Gou only knows ; but eo long as tliey do, a man might as well preach to eo many deaf adders, with the expeclaiian tf doing them any cood. They seem infinilely lo preler lounging away their time at any place of public resort, where such dronish idlers as themselves are mosi apt to congrcgaie. There, perhaps, iheyinier- change very profound condolences about "the hard times," without ihe least apparent conscious- ness of their own participaiioii iu creaiing them ; or, should a tippling shop be at hand, iheir fiivor- ile occupation generally is lo settle the affairs of the nation therein, and ever and anon to wash down their patrioiic efiusions with copious liba- tions of whisky and brandy lo some poliiical idol. In the mean while their farms are left in a great measure to lake care of themselves, and lo regain fprtiliiy, if that be possible, by almost tolal neglect. Happy for our country, and most happy for suclj persons themselves would it be, if by any means they.could be cured of their sell-deslruclive habits, end converted into industrious, frugal, persevering farmers. The whole appearance of our own Blate, as well as of many others, would soon be changed by it ; we should cease to hear ol' any farm being deserted from iis supposed incapacity to support its owners ; and it would not be long before our good old Virginia would begin to look and to feel something like what she once was in her most prosperous days. There is still another important change essen- tial to our improvements in husbandry, which all of our liirmers who have young sons are deeply concerned in making. It is, to abandon the pre- posterous practice of crowding nearly all of them into the professions of law and physic, instead of trying to make good farmers of them ; than which there is no more honorable vocation, nor any one that has so many considerations to recommend it 10 our regard. Ask any man whom you please, if he does not feel certain ihat we have an over- Block both of doctors and lawyers, and he will certainly answer yes. But still we are constantly adding to the number, as if there was really no other honest pursuit by which they could make a living. In the whole compass of supposition, there is (at least in my opinion) but one which will reconcile this practice to common sense ; and I hardly think we shall find any gentleman of either profession willing to admit it to be true. It is, that to mu'iiply lawyers and doctors is to in- crease sickness, diseases, and liligalion. If add- ing to the Ibrmer would diminish the number of the latter, as it certainly would, provided the doctors and lawyers were all masters of their profession, and strictly honest as well as con- scientious, then, assuredly, any addition lo the number of either must unavoidably lessen the total amount of income to be divided among them all ; and consequently ought lo prevent any considerate parent from devoting his son to the study of either law or medicine, at least so long as both professions continue to be so overstocked as they are and have been for many years past. The following brief illustration of the difference between the sources of income, upon which law- yers, doctors and farmers necessarily depend, must place this matter in a point of view, the juBtnesB and truth of which no man in his senses pends upon ihe thrift and the health of all other trades, proTessions, and callings, for all are hia customers, inasmuch as he produces the necessa- ries of life which all want, and must have, in pro- portion to their appctiies and means of buying. On ihe other hand, ihe laioyer''s thrift depends upon the number of dispuies and quarrels in re- gard to properly, of injuries to persons or charac- ter, and of frauds and crimes which may be com- mitted within the limits of his practice ; for, be it remembered, that none of these things are neces- sary incidenis to society, although of too frequent occurrence. And the doctor^s thrift depends on either the real or supposed unhealihiness of the persons among whom he lives. If few or none are litigious, few or none slanderous, few or none perpetrators of fraud or crime, the lawyer is in some danger of starving, instead of growing rich; whilst the physician is in quite as bad a predicament, should there be Htile or no sickness, few or no diseases. True it is, and most lamen- tably true, that such a condition of society cannot reasonably be anticipated ; but we may confi- dently cherish the hope of a nearer and nearer approximation to it, if the great, the vital causes of temperance and popular education continue to advance, and to gladden the hearts of all true lovers of their country, as we now have every reason to believe they will. And so sure as they do, just so sure will fewer instead of more doctors and lawyers become necessary. But the well being of every community will always require some of each profession, and I am one of the last men who would maintain a contrary opinion. I have too great an esteem, too sincere a regard for the worthy men of both classes, lo say any thing in disparagement of either good doctors or good lawyers, for I am happy to believe that many of them are among my best friends. All I wish is, lo remind my brothers farmers of the old proverb, that we may have too much, even of a good thing; and to beseech them to recollect, that in our own profession there is still more am- ple room lor more, many more recruits. In making this assertion, I am fully sustained by the facts which our late census has disclosed in regard to our own state. But at present, I will refer only to those which more immediately concern our own comparatively small county. According to the authority which I have consult- ed, Essex contains only 2S0 square miles, or 168,000 acres. By the last census, our whole populaiion in this county amounts to no more than 11,309 persons. Now supposing that three- fourths ol I his number are engaged in agriculture, and that only two-thirds ol them are capable of labor, which seems lo me a fair estimate, as none under ten and over seventy years of age ought to be counted, we shall have no more than 20 and a small fraction, who can properly be called agricullurisip, to every square mile, which is a little over three to every hundred acres! This, I think, am.ounts to a demonstration, that we shall be in no danger whatever, lor many, many years to come, of being overstocked with farmers and cultivators of the soil. Nay more, it proves most clearly, that if we consult the interest of Virginia husbandry, and the great national inter- ests partly dependent thereon, we shall use all the fair means in our power, to induce our sons THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 205 to devote themselves to agriculture, in preference to any other profession. One of the most obvious of these means is, to improve our own Ivnowloiijie of it, both by study and practice; for then we ehail have the great adviintage of athiressinir their underslandinffs, by the all powerful aiit^ncy of example, as well as by that oCprecppt. When a parent heariiiy work.s by bo'h, seldom indeed will he I'ail to succeed with his child in any thinjf ; for among ail the admirable lessons of wisdom, which we derive from that great store-house ol soul-saving knowledge, the Holy Scriptures, there is not one of more practical utility, not one of more vital importance, than that which incul- cates upon parems the absolute necessity of first doing as they would wish their children to do, belbre they have any right to expect good con- duct from them. By the same divine authority, we are assured, that if we will bring up our child- ren in the way in which they should go, they will not depart from it. If, therelbre, any of my brother farmers who now hear me, desire that their sons should follow their own prol'ession, as I certainly think they ought, these sons should be brought up to it, educated for it, and taught to love it. The very effort to do this, will benefit yourselves lull as much as it will benefit them; (or ihere is nothing wliich will operaie so effec- tually,«io make us sensible of our own want of instruciion in any particular branch of knowledge, as the attempt to instruct others therein. This will soon expose to us our own sell-conceit, without a consciousness of which, notfiing can ever in- spire us wiih an efficient desire to seek more im- fbrmation in regard to our proli^ssion, inasmuch as we Ibolishly imagine ourselves already possessed of all that we need have. Should any of my hearers be in this self-com- placent, opinionative condition, a condition so de- lectable to the individual himself, but so truly re- diculous to all others who behold it, I beseech him to try earnestly, if it be but for a single day, the experiment of teaching one of his sons the principles and practice of agriculture. And if this one effort did not so far open his eyes to his own ignorance, as to cure him effectually of all over- weening confidence in his own knowledge of his profession, I should not hesitate to affirm of that man, that he was doomed to live and die, without any farther acquaintance with husbandry than he then possessed. To expect him to improve would be quite as hopeless a thing, as to look (or it in one who was entirely destitute of all the fa- culties which render man an improveable crea- ture. Before I conclude, permit me to make one or two other suggestions which I deem very impor- tant to the successlLiI operation of an agricultural society. The first is to make every member, as far as practicable, a working member, instead of what is generally called " a sleeping partner."' To do this, the best meihod, I think, is one lately Euggesied by Mr. RufRn, editor of that excellent paper, "The l^'armers' Regisier." He recommends that the constitution of every agricultural society should require each member, who is a farmer, to make annually and report the results of at least three experiments, on a scale suited to his means, in regard to some disputed questions in agriculture ; that at least half the funds of the society be offered in premiums -for the best of these experi- ments ; and that a fine of one dollar he imposed lor every one that each fiirmer lails to make. This would keep all the members on the alert; and would certainly elicit, every years, some use- ful inlormation which might be beneficial to all. JVJy ne.Kl suijgesiion is, that in every case where premiums are oH'ered, it should never be Ibrgolten, that the sole purpose which they ought to aim at accompli. con- vince us of the superiority of urine as a manure :* 100 parts of wheat manured with Gluten. Starch. Human urine (dried) yielded - 35.1 39.1 Bullock's blood (dried) - - 34.2 41.3 Human fsces (dried) - - 33.1 41.4 Sheep's dung - - - 22.9 42.8 Pigeon's dung - - - -12.2 63.2 Cow's dung . - - - 12.0 63.3 Vegetable Humus - - - 9.6 65.9 The same soil not manured - 9.2 66.7 * Analysis of Hermbstoodt, quoted by Professor Dauberry. 220 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. We have elsewhere endeavored to show, ihat al! excrement partakes of the nature of the food ; that if (bod, consisting almost wholly of niirosen, is consumed, that such excrement will principally consist of the nitroi^en not required to supply the waste of the body. Thnt if lood principally consisis of subsiances in which carbon predomi- nates, that the matter voided as excrement nei- ther is nor can be so rich in nitrogen as in the preceding case : the rule holds good through- out all creation; and therefore, as man is a car- nivorous animal, and lives in great measure on the flesh of animals, a substance almost entirely composed of niirogen, human urine is much richer in this substance, nitrogen, than in animals living exclusively on vegetables. The analysis of these matters accordingly proves that human urine contains /bur times more fertilizing matter than the urine of horses, cows, and sheep. In all the remarks then that follow, we must be considered as speaking of human urine ; but the eame arguments will apply to the urine of all ani- mals, only in lesser proportion. And it must be again repeated that the liquid excrement of all animals is infinitely to be pre- ferred as a fertilizer to the solid excrement, the urine in all cases containing all the soluble salts which are thrown off from the body as waste matter; such as the ammoniacal salts, the phos- phates or soda, potash, and magnesia, the sub- Blancea which are now recognized as constituting the ingredients of all kinds of grain, and which are essential both to their growth and develope- ment, and for supplying the nutritive matter of the grain. Berzelius gives, as the contents of one thou- sand parts of human urine in his elaborate ana- lysis of the fluids, Parts. Urea 30 Lactate of ammonia and animal matter 17| Uric acid 1 Sulphate of potash - - - - 3| Sulphate of soda - - - - 3| Phosphate of soda - - - - 3 Phosphate of ammonia - - - 1| Chloride of sodium - - - - 4^ Muriate of ammonia - - - ^h Phosphate of magnesia and lime - l" Water, mucus, and silex - - - 933 " If from the above analysis, we take the urea, lactate of ammonia, uric ac'd, the phosphate and muriate of ammonia, one per cent, ol" solid matter remains, consisting of ammoniacal salts, which must possess the same action, whether they are brought on a field dissolved in water or urine," Hence the powerful influence of urine must con- sist in its ammoniacal salts. Now, when urine is allowed spontaneously to putrely, one portion of the ammonia unites with the lactic acid to form lactate of ammonia, and another becomes volatile in the state of carbonate of ammonia. The formation'of this carbonate of ammonia en tirely alters the state of the urine, rendering it an alkali, instead of an acid, which it is in its natural Btate ; and this explains why putrefied urine is to be preferred as a manure to urine in its Iresh state. Now the great object is to fix this carbonate of ammonia, or at all events the ammonia, in the soil. If the urine is applied as a manure in this state, that is, with the lactate and carbonate of am- monia in solution ; the latter salt, from being vo- laiile, will evaporate with the watery parts of the fluid ; and the loss which would accrue from this mode of using it, would amount to nearly one-half of the weight of the urine employed. So that, if by any means we can fix the ammonia, that is, de- prive it of ils power to fly otf' with the evapora- tion of the watery parts of the urine, we shall in- crease ils action twolold. This object may be eflected in a variety of ways. If a field is strewed with Iresh burnt gypsum (sulphate of lime) and then the putrefied urine be applied on its surface, the gypsum will absorb and decompose the carbo- nate ot ammonia, and the carbonic acid gas thus disengaged, will unite with the lime to lorm car- bonate of lime, and the sulphuric acid of the lime will unite vvuh the ammonia to Ibrm sulphate of ammonia and this salt will remain in the soil and not be volatili:;ed. But a simpler way still is to mix the gypsum with the putrefied urme, and thus efl'ect the double decomposition above described belbre distributing it on the soil. The quantity necessary will of course depend on the quantity of carbonate of ammonia the urine may contain, and this not only varies with every stage of puireliiction, but depends also on the way in which it has been kept ; and again on tlie qua- lity of the urine itsell^ no very definite quantity Iherelbre can be named. But an easy way of knowing how much gypsum to put to a certain quantity of urine is to add it constantly at inter- vals of a liivv hours (taking care to stir the mix- ture well occasionally) as long as any volatile smell, similar to hartshorn, escapes, the absence of which will be a sure test that the ammonia has lost its volatile property, and has become, to use a chemical and expressive term, fixed. Chloride of lime may be used for tlie like pur- pose, but being more expensive than the gypsum, it would not of course be resorted to. Dried peat, tanners' bark, sawdust, turf and other similar substances, may be also used for this purpose, but the gypsum is decidedly preferable. Sulphuric acid, '.he oil of vitriol of commerce, may also be advantageously used io fix this salt, and to do so, nothing more is necessary than to mix a sufficient quantity of this acid with the putrefied urine, until almost all efl'ervescence ceases, keeping it well stirred during the whole of the time, and taking care not to add an excess of acid. In this case the ammonia unites at once with the sulphuric acid, to form the sulphate of ammonia ; and the carbon being disengaged, es- capes in the state of a gas. Oiher means might be used to effect the same results as we have here demonstrated ; but it ia needless to specify them, as those we have alrea- dy detailed combine great facility as well as ex- treme cheapness. Having thus specified tlie change that takes place in the state of urine, the best manner for converting the ammonia for the purpose of agri- culture, we shall suggest the best means of prac- tically using this manure on a (arm. The first thing necessary is to procure a supply of ur^e. But if due care is used to save all that is now wasted, no farm need be in want of it. The supply being obtained, it should be placed in large casks or tanks under cover, until the vo- THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 221 latile smell of the ammonia indicates that decom- position has taken place. When this occurs, it may be either poured over a heap ol' compost, consisting of coal aslies, charcoal or gypsum, in any proportions that are the most conveniently obtained, and then allowed to dry by Irequenily turning the heap. Care being taken, tliat if any volatile smell occurs, during this process of drying, that more sypsuin be at once added. The volatile ammonia will in this operation be absorbed by the gypsum, and converted into a sulphate of am- monia, and other parts will be absorbed in the gaseous state by the charcoal and the ashes ; but all Will at once be yielded up to the first moisture that may come in contact with the heap; and therelbre, it may be very properly classed amongst those leriilizers which act as a stimulus to the plant. We would, therelore, reasoning I'rom ana- logy, suggest the use of this dried compost, as an excellent substitute for bones in the drill in sowing turnips. And we are further confirmed in this opinion, from the fact, that the new manure, the urate, only lately introduced, and which is pre- sumed to be prepared somewhat in this way, has been found to answer admirably lor the purpose intended. The addition, however, of a phosphate ol lime, would increase its value in this respect, and render it undoubtedly more valuable than bones lor this purpose. Another compost heap, which would answer ad- mirably lor any purpose almost lor which a ma- nure can be required, that is, either as a stimulant lor turnips, as a pabulum for wheat, or white crops — or, again, as a top-dressing lor either of the above, or lor grass — may be readily formed by mixing long stable litter, in which decay has al- ready commenced, with the burnt ashes of vege- tables or wood, in somewhat indefinite portions ; taking care, however, that the litter should pre- dominate, and then pouring over the heap daily a portion of the putrid urine, and stirring the mass well up together. In this heap the ammonia of the urine would be decomposed ; but the nitrogen, the vivifying principle of the ammonia, would unite with the alkaline matter, the soda or potash of the burnt vegetable ashes, to form nitrate of potash or soda: the hydrogen, the other constituent^ of ammonia, being given off. Alter what has already been said about the uti- lity of these salts as fertilizers, it will be needless to add more here, than earnestly to recommend every agriculturist to adopt these simple means lor the production of two manures, which in value to the larmer cannot be surpassed— both lor the faci- lity and economy with which they may be pre- pared, and which would by their lerthlizing pro- perties confer a benefit not only on the farmer, but on the community at large. It may be urged as an objection, that in many localities, far distant from towns and cities, this rnanure could not be obtained in sufficient quan- tities to supply the place of other substances more readily obtained. To this objection we Would beg to suggest, that if ever a demand for this article exists, means will be taken to secure a supply; and, that in such a case as above sup- posed, the farmer's wagon would be enabled to load back from the town or market where their produce must eventually be consumed, with this matter. And further, they may commence with the supply that is always to be had to some extent on their own liirrae, and thus verily the results here predicted. We will only add, that the urine of one man, taken at its lowest calculation, will produce in one year, a suflicient supply of nitrogen Ibr the Ibr- niation of 8L)U pounds of wheal, oi 900 pounds of barley ; a fact of sufiicienl importance, it is hoped, to induce a trial at least— and this trial iairly made, we have no doubt of the result. Indeed, if all the human excrement, now worse than wasted, were applied to the purposes of agri- culture, animal manure might be entirely dispens- ed with. But if we look at the subject on an ex- tended scale, and see the thousands of acres now barely cultivated ai all, but all of which only re- quire manure to be applied to them, to enable them to yield abundant crops ; and if we reflect on the benefits all must derive from such an in- crease to the real wealth of the country, as the cultivation of these lands would induce; and fur- ther, that the increased means thus afforded, would as certainly induce an increased population, which again in their turn, acting fully up to this system, would again prove another source of wealth and strength to the community — we may be enabled to esiimate in some slight measure, the order and arrangement that exists in nature, Ibr the support of all her creatures; and that it is the neglect of those means, vvhich providence in iis wisdom has placed at the s'ervice of man, and not any imperfection in the grand scheme of the creation, which has induced the impious beliel by some, that a redundant popula;ion may be a curse instead of a blessing. But to return more immediately to our subject. Enough has been said to show that ample means exist lor bringing all the waste lands gradually into cultivation; that we haye the power, if we have the inclination, to do so. And the circum- stances of an increase, and rapidly increasing po- pulation, may compel a much moie attentive con- sideration, than this subject has hitherto received, and one which eventually must lead to the benefit of all classes concerned. So much for human urine. The urine of ani- mals, as previously stated, from the nature of their Ibod, contains much less nitrogen than that of man ; but is equally, and in many cases, much more rich in the saline properties it contains, such as the phosphates of magnesia, and the salts of potash and soda. They are, therefore, bj'- no means to be neglected, and indeed all the remarks appended to the subject of human urine apply here only with lesser lorce. We would, however, recommend, that all stables, farm-yards, sheds and other places where cattle are kept, should be so arranged, as for the urine to be saved, and applied in the manner we have before described. Connected with this subject it may here be stated, that the strong volatile smell, vvhich is al- most overpowering, when entering a close con- fined stable, where many horses have been shut up lor the night, arises entirely from the volatiliz- ing of ammonia in the urine, A very simple, and at the same time a very pro- fitable way, of correcting this injurious atmo- sphere, is to strew the stable with gypsum, which would absorb the ammonia at once as it is formed, and prevent the presence of this gas in the atmo- sphere. Such an arrangement, besides being pro- 222 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. fitable, as one eource of accumulating ammonia, would also act beneficially on the horses eo con- fined, as there can be no doubt, that breathing euch an atmosphere consiantly lor some hours to- gether, induces a highly excited temperament, which leads to, or at all events very much in- creases, any local inflammatory action, and ren- ders the cure ol' such a malady both difficult and uncertain. These remarks, however, do not go to the length of suggesting the use of gypsum as a cure /or such a stable, it is only a means of absorbing the obnoxious principle and turning it to account ; but ventilation, to a considerable extent, is the only cure and the best. Of. the relative value of human urine, when compared with other animal matters, it is calcu- lated by JMacaire, that 100 parts of human urine are equal, in their fertilizing power, to 1300 parts of the fresh dung of the horse, or 600 of those of the cow. Nothing more therefore can be said in lavor of this manure ; it must now be left to those who have the means of applying and testing its real value. In speaking of nitrogen we have fully explained how ammonia acts as the pabulum of plants, but we will here again shortly repeat it. Ammonia is composed of nitrogen and hydro- gen. Now, when the ammonia, in a slate of so- lution, is absorbed, by the spongelels of the roots, decomposition takes place, the nitrogen is assimi- lated to form the gluten of the seed, and the hy- drogen either unites with carbon, to lorm the essential or fixed oil of the plant, or is evaporated through the leaves as useless matter. That such is the effect of ammonia or nitrogen, applied under any circumstances, in which the Bait is soluble, can be easily demonstrated, by ap- plying it to any crop, when it will speedily assume a dark green color and luxuriant appearance, which is the peculiar effect ol' the nitrogen alone, and which is forcibly illustrated in the dark green circles, popularly called fairy rings, which exist on the downs, and which owe their dark color en- tirely to the mushroom or fungus spawn, existing under the surface, and which spawn consists al- most wholly of nitrogen, and communicates its properly to the grass growing above. The specific action of nitrogen also, by endow- ing the plant with greater energy, enables it to assimilate more carbon Irom the atmosphere, and thus the addition of this manure, which is in every respect an essential to plants, gives it a greater power of assimilating another substance of almost equal importance as itself. In concluding our notice of this manure we can only repeat that the liquid and solid excrement of man used togeiher, and prepared in the way we have described, forms from its combination of ammonial salts, with the phosphates of magnesia and soda, the most valuable compound that can be devised, and its extensive use will confer a double benefit to the larmer and to the public, as well by the removal of matter, which is now only considered as a nuisanse, as by increasing the produce of the soil. PRUKING FRUIT TREES. From the Maine Cultivator. Those who have fruit trees that require trim- ming, would do well to attend to it now. It has been clearly ascertained, I think, that the practice of pruning apple, pear, and other fruit trees at this season of the year, is much more judicious than that of pruning in the fall or winter. Per- haps there may be some whose experience would seem to point to the opposite course ; and it may even be, that in certain instances, the results have been far less favorable than was anticipated. But as a general thing, I think there can be no doubt, that wounds, caused by the excision of limbs, heal much more rapidly, and are lar less detrimental to the health of the tree than those inflicted at any other time. The rationale of this theory will be obvious to every one who reflects upon the subject, and need not here be explained at length. Those who have fruit trees infected with the wart, or black excrescences which have of late proved so fatal to our best fruit trees, in many sections of New England, especially the cherry and damson, would do well to look to them. There is now no ground to doubt the origin of this disease. It is caused, indubitably, by the minute perforations occasioned by vernal operations of a certain fly which seeks the soft'and yielding bark as a nidus for their future young. The larva of this insect being deposited in the cuticle, lies there irritating the delicate vessels, and thus occasions the exudation of the sap which originates the disease. I remember having seen an able article some years since in the Yan- kee Farmer upon this subject, from the Hon. Rufus M'lntire of Parsonsfield, in which it was recommended, that all limbs infected with this disease be immediately cut out. The writer re- presented that he had thus entirely overcome it, and that no doubt need be entertained as to its efficiencj', or fears for the tree. There are few subjects connected with the fai'ming art on which more has been said and written, thnn upon this. And yet there are thou- sands whose trees are now sufTerinsr, and who are endeavoring to regain their regeneration by the application of remedies ; the legitimate effects of which are decidedly adverse to the securement of their aim. W. Windham, /Ipril, 1842. The opinion of our correspondent, that this is the season of the year for general pruning, al- though of ancient date, is nevertheless a good deal questioned hereabouts. Except in grafting or heading tJowh, which ought to be done " about now," good orchardists are getting in the way, and we think judiciously, of pruning in the longest days in the year, say in June, or July. Wounds in trees, caused either by the excision of limbs, or in the bark, heal up more readily in June or July, according to our observation, than they do, if inflicted during the flow of the sap: and the sooner this is eftected after (he excision, the better it must be for the tree. He who has a proper regard for the thrifty growth and life of trees, will avoid doing any thing to prevent the annual formation of the viscid substance which covers the tree beneath the bark, as this layer THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 223 is indispensable to their vigor and health. This substance is formed in the spring or early summer, by the free and regular circulation of the sap, and to trim trees befow; this layer is formed is thought to be very deleterious to their growth. — Ed. Maine Cultivator. LIMB. From Sinclair's Husbandry. There is perhaps no country in Europe, where caicined lime is used to so great an extent, and in suTjh quantities, as in the more improved and im- proving districts of Scotland. This may be part- ly owing to the total absence of chalk, which abounds in so many parts of England, and which renders calcined lime less necessary there ; but it is principally to be attributed to the great benefit that has been derived from its use. In bringing in new or maiden soils, the use of lime is found to be so essential, that Utile good could be done without it. Its first application, in particular, gives a degree of permanent fertility to the soil, which can be imparted by no other manure. Its effects, indeed, are hardly to be credited, but their cor- rectness cannot be disputed. Maiden soils, in Laramermuir, of a tolerable quality, will, with the force of sheeps' dung, or other animal manures, produce a middling crop of oats, or rye ; but the richest animal dung does not enable them to bring any other grain to maturity. Peas, barley, o^r wheat, will set out with every appearance of suc- cess ; but when the peas are in bloom, and the other grains are putting forth the ear, they pro- ceed no farther, and dwindle away in fruitless abortion*. The same soils, after getting a suffi- cient quantity of lime, will produce eve°y species of grain, and in good seasons bring them to ma- turity, in all future times, always supposing the ground to be under proper culture, and the cltmale adapted to the crop. This fact proves, that oats and rye require less calcareous matter than what is necessary for other grains ; that" lime acts as an alterative, as well as an active medicine, and that the defects in the constitution of the soil are cured, even after the stimulant and fertilizing effects o! the lime have long ceased to operate. Lime is also peculiarly beneficial in improving muirish soils, by making them produce good°herbage, where nothing but heath and other unpalatable grasses grew formerly. The expense of this article in Aberdeenshire is stated to be enormous, very little of it being produced in that country ; yet hrae is there considered to be absolutely ne- cessary, and, indeed, the foundation of all sub- stantial improvements.! It is supposed, however, not to be so useful on the sea-shore, as in the more Marl, although containing calcareous matter, is not so effective. It will produce oats, barley, and early peas in abundance, and in some situations will also produce wheat, when the season is favorable ; but wheat crops cannot be depended upon from marl alone. t Communication from Mr. Barclay, Mill of Knockleith. It is observed, that lime has sometimes been withheld both from low lands after fallow, and from hilly lands after turnips ; but in all these cases, with an evident loss to the occupant, by a decrease ot produce throughout the whole course. inland districts, from the soil being perhaps mixed with sea-shells. The importance of lime aa a manure is strik- ingly exemplified by the following information from Mr. Walker of Mellendean : He entered into the possession of that farm twenty-five years ago, and then gave the whole farm, (with the ex- ception of a few acres of the richest soil in differ- ent fields, which had 'for ages been manured aa infield,) a good dose of lime. From the newly- limed land, his returns were folly equal to his ex- pectations, and greatly superior to those from the richest spots that had received no lime. Beincr very desirous to ascertain how long the limed land would maintain its superiority, he kept both the limed and unlimed under the same management in every respect, during his first lease of twenty- one years ; and he can affirm, that at the end of that period, his crops upon the limed land were equally good, and as much superior to those of the unlimed land, as they were at the commence- ment thereof. Having got a new lease of that liirm, he proposes laying lime upon every spot of ground that was not limed formerly, being convin- ced that he has been a considerable loser by hia experiment. How long therefore the effects of lime may last, he will not take upon himself to foresee ; but he can safely say, that ther£ is land upon his brother's property at Wooden, that was limed by his farther upwards of thirty years ago, where the effects of the lime, upon every crop, are still as apparent as when it was first laid on the land. It is proposed, in discussing this subject, very shortly to explain the following particulars : 1. The soils to which lime is applicable ; 2, The dis- tance from which it has been carried ; 3. The quantity used ; 4. The best mode of slacking ; 5. The common modes of application ; 6. The plan of top-dressing the surface ; 7. The price 5 8. The use of pounded limestone ; and, 9. The causes which may occasion its failure. 1. This manure is certainly well calculated for clay lands. Some recommend laying on a certain quantity of it, to the amount of 20 bolls of shells, or 120 bushels, to the Scotch, or 96 to the English acre, and as hot as possible, every time the Tand is fallowed. This plan, however, is objected to from respectable authority ; and it is contended, that so small a quantity of lime shells is quite un- fit for stimulating any kind of soil, except where it is of a dry muirish nature, and not formerly limed. To lime land every time it is in fallow, seems unnecessary, more especially if a sufficient quantity were applied in the first instance.* From 60 to 70 barley bolls per Scotch acre, or from 390 to 420 bushels joer Scotch, that is. from 288 to 356 bushels/jer English acre, are quantities frequently given in East Lothian. In regard to loams, if they are in good condition, and in good heart, perhaps liming once in the course of two rotations will be sufficient. t It is a rule, however, in re- gard to the application of lime, and other calcare- * Mr. John Shirreff remarks, that to specify a quan- tity for all lands is impossible, so much depends upon the depth and quality of the soil ; also on the quantity of calcareous matter, either previously applied, or originally in the soil. t Communication from Georere Paterson, Esq. of Castle-Huntly. 224 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. ous manures, that they should only be applied to land in a dry state, and well drained. 2. It is astonishing the distance from which lime is carried in some parts of Scotland. Mr. Blackie of Holydean, in Roxburghshire, drives it tweniy- two miles, and the carriage, when hired is 7s. 6c/. per boll of shells. In the parish of Moffat, where ol late considerable improvements have been car- ried on, and corn, turnips, 'and clover, raised in great perfection, 1000 feet above the level of the sea, the lime is carried from Douglas, at twenty- seven and thirty miles distance. It is sometimes carried on the borders, but in no great quantity, about thirty, or even thirty-two miles;* and in Aberdeenshire, it is driven that distance inland, afier being imported from Sunderland. 3. The quantity used varies much. It is evident that strong deep soils require a greater quantity than those which are light and shallow. Barorj Hepburn is of opinion, that it should be applied (requently, and in small quantities at a time, especially on gravelly-bottomed loams, which are apt to become too open and pliable by an over dose of lime ; by following this practice, he hnds his crops wonderfully improved, both in regard to quantity and quality. Mr. Robertson ot Lady- kirk states, that he has never seen lime used in too great a quantity, if the land is judiciously cropped ; if otherwise, it will ultimately hurt the soil. He has laid on no less a quantity than 100 bolls of shells, 4 Winchester bushels each, per English acre, and frequently with much success. On'clry fresh land a less quantity will do. Mr. Blackie of Holydean considers 16 bolls ot shells, on such land, a sufficient dressing. Dr. Coventry is of opinion, that in general, about 6 tons ol un- elacked or newly-burnt lime, of ninety or ninety- five percent, of purity, may be sufficient lor the statute acre of land that has never been limed ; but if the lime be impure, a greater proportion will be requisite. Several intelligent farmers are of opinion, that not less than 60 or 70 bolls ol lime Bhells per acre, should be laid on a strong clay soil, and that this quantity, with judicious cropping, will be sufficient for a lease of 19 or 21 years. The information transmitted to me by Mr. Walker of Mellendean upon this subject, is ol peculiar importance, as he has limed perhaps more land than any individual in the whole island, and in the course of thirty years has tried va- rious experiments in regard to the quantity that should be applied per acre. On newly broken-up land from old turf, he has laid on ffom 20 and 25 to 40 and 45 bolls of shells, of 4 Winchester bushels each, per English acre. On light and thin Coutfield) soils, the crop on that part of the held that was limed at the rate of 20 and 25 bolls per acre, was as rough, and appeared equally good, with the crop on the land that had received 40 bolls per acre; but when it came to be thrashed out, the grain was found very inferior in quantity, and still more so in quality. Upon clay soils, the effects of the lime, where a small quantity was laid, were hardly discernible ; while that part ol the field that received 40 and 45 bolls produced aii abundant crop. Finding the produce of the land that was limed with a small quantity so very in- ferior, he laid on, (when tlie land came to be re-fallowed), 20 or 25 bolls more, the efiecls ol * Communication from Mr. Walker of Mellendean which were never perceptible. He is therefore decidedly of opinion, that every kind of soil should have a good dose at once, in which case he considers no repetition to be necessary for a long time after ; but if repeated at all, the second lim- ing should be considerably greater than the first, which seems to be the general opinion of the Scotch liirmers. As to repea'ed liming in small quantities Mr. Walker is convinced, that whatever is laid out in that way, after the first dose, is so much money thrown away. He can give no slrontrer proof, of his conviction in that respect, than his practice upon the fiirm of Rutherford, He entered to that (arm in June 1808, and since that time he has gone over about eight hundrid and fifty acres ; and though a great part of it con- sists ol a light dry soil, and the lime has to be car- ried twenty-four or twenty-five miles, consequent- ly at a o-reat expense, yet on no part of the farm has he Taid less than 40 bolls, of shells, or 240 Winchester bushels per Enfflieh acre, and oa many places fully 50 bolls. Nothing, in his opi-_ nion, assimilates the produce of outfield, to that o( infield land so much, as a good dose of lime laid on at once. The consequence of this liming has been, the most productive crops, of every descrip- tion, to be seen in all that neighborhood. Mr. Aitchison of Clements Wells also has found'that lime answers every purpose he could wish, in promoting the improvement of his estate in Peebles-shire, where the climate is cold and moist. H3 began to improve that property m 1806 and in October 1811 he had laid on it, 10 386 bolls, or 62,316 Winchester bustiels. Hia ridWs are 18 feet broad ; and according to the quantity he wishes to put on per acre, his overseer hag the following table to conduct the opera- tion. ,. u . ■ (. If it is proposed to lay on 25 bolls per acre, betwixt each heap, of one firlot each, there ougln to be a distance of - - - " SOgleet. If 30 bolls, - - - " " S* 35 do. - - - " iq 40 do. -.•--"'?? 45 do. - - - - ^ - _V . ,, And in the same proportion as high as 50 bolls. He never puts on less than 25 bolls, or 150 bush- els of shells, per Scotch, (130 bushels per English acre), and on heavy land he has gone the length of70 bolls. The day the lime comes to the held, a man follows the carts, and covers it up immedi- ately with earth, by which, generally in a lew days, it is reduced to powder. When in that state, it is spread on the land. After trying several other methods, this was found to be the best. The improvement efiected by lime on that proper- ty has been very great. , , . ,-„ 4 The slacking of lime completely is a most ira- nortant operation. The common mode is, to lay t in heaps from the kiln upon the ground intended to be limed; but this, although the most expedi- tious, is by no means the most advantageous me- thod. In the first place, if the lime is not all of the same quality, (which is seldom the case,) the best lime commonly dissolves first, and the inferior Quality continues unslacked ; so that it must either be spread in that state, or the good lime must be allowed to receive too much moisture, or again to ?e-absorb its fixed air, both of which shou d be nrevented. The best mode of slacking, is to lay down the shells in a heap near to water, and by THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 225 once turning and watering the whole mass, it is reduced to a complete powder ; in which state ii should be applied to the soil, and ploughed in irarnediatelj/ with a shallow furrow, when there is no doubt but it will mix more inlin:iately with the soil, than by the former method.* This plan, however, is attended with an additional expense of considerable magnitude. The necessity of slacking calcined lime, as soon after it is burnt as possible, is obvious. II any sudden rain should (all, it would be converted into mortar ; no art can then separate it, and mix it equally witli the soil ; nor would double the quantity have the same good effect. Even after it has been reduced to powder, if any rain should happen to fall, or if by any means it receive too much moisture, while it lies thin spread on the surface of the field, it will partly be formed into hard insoluble cakes, and may remain in that state for years, without mixing with or being of the least benefit to the soil. In the course of re- peated ploughings, Mr. Patterson of Casile- Huntly has observed pieces of hard lime come up, as insoluble as if they had been pieces of an old building. Considering these circuraetances, I was much pleased (o find, that a mode had been discovered by Mr. Niel Ballingal in Fife, which obviates these difficulties. His plan is, to lay the calcined lime down on any thick head-ridge of good earth, within the field where it is to be applied, and the instant it is so, two irien are ready to make up a compost of the lime-shells and earth ; three cart- loads of earth to one cart of shells, raised to a ridge long and narrow, five feet high, that rain may not enter if. The moisture in the earth slacks or reduces the lime to a powder; it swells to a considerable bulk, and then all cracks and openings are closed with a spade, and a little more earth put over the whole. In this way, he has had it frequently mixed up for six months, and in one particular instance fifteen months, be- fore it was carted away ; and yet when carried on to the land and spread, the whole mass put on the appearance of white lime, flying with the wind, as if newly (iom the kiln. This mode he means always to follow, being certain of iis ad- vantage. It can be mixed as intimately with the soil as if new from the kiln, and he has had crops from it, in this way, superior to an equal quantity of hot limej both tried without dung. The ap- plication commonly is to the summer-fallow : he has also applied it to pasture, quite hot, and in compost as above described, and found both an- swer well: but the time of application was July, and he soon found, that it ought to lie at least one year or more before the field was ploughed. Mr. Ballingal having used from 500 to 1000 bolls per annum, (or several years, his experience may be confidently relied on. He remarks, that lime, if exposed to rain, or even to frost, and * Communication from Mr. Ronnie of Kinblethmont. t This is an important fact, it being generally sup- posed that when inserted in the form of hot lime, in a state of perfect powder, its effects are greater and more immediate than in any other way. By Mr. Ballingal's plan, the lime can be carried to the field in autumn, or even in winter, which, though an old practice, could not be done with equal safety, as under the proposed system. Vol. X.— 29 slacked like mortar, loses half its effect ; no care can (hen mix it intimately with the soil. His land is wet, and often when the lime is driven unfit for carting upon the field, nor are the ridges prepared lor spreading the lime ; without having fallen up- on such a plan, therefore, he could never have used lime to equal advantage. He adds, that an intelligent neighbor of his, brings his lime from the kiln, lays it in small heaps, about a firlot of shells in each heap, or /bur heaps ;)er boll, on (he fallow ; covers these instantly with earth, which slacks the lime, and when it is completely so, he spreads it in powder, quite hot, on the fallows, and ploughs it in with a light furrow. This saves labor and expense. He never uses water in slacking lime, and the effects of his practice are very good ; the earth, or rather the moisture in it, slacks the lime most completely, and no wa- ter is necessary.* This is an excellent practice, and very common in many counties : and many intelligent farmers prefer it (o the other plan, which they think would be attended with too much expense to be generally imitated. At the same lihie, an intimate mixture with the soil is of the utmost importance in the application of lime ; any plan that contributes to that object me- rits attention. 4. Mr. Dudgeon, of Primrose-Hill, considers it to be the most advantageous mode of applying lime, to lay it on in a powdery state, upon ground vi^hen under summer-fallow, before the fallow receives the last furrow, and then to mix it inti- mately with the soil, by harrowing before it is ploughed in. In regard to liming fallows, Mr. Rennie of Phantassie observes, that it is the most profitable mode of application, if it is laid on at a proper season. He has been in the practice, for these ten years past, o( laying lime on his fallows, Irom the 1st of April to "the 1st of October, and always found, that the first laid on produced (he beet crops, which he ascribes to its being more minutely mixed with the soil, by the more nume- rous ploughings and harrowings, and of course the fermentation more complete, than what is laid on late in the season : June and July, there- fore, are to be preferred, so that the lime may be completely mixed with the soil before the crop is sown ; and as it is both a valuable and ex- pensive manure, too much attention cannot be given it. Applying lime to green crops is attended with more difliculty. From observation and practice, Mr. Rennie recommends that, for a crop of tur- !)ips, lime should be laid on so early in the spring as to admit of two, if not three ploughings, and as many harrowings, after it is laid on, so as both to mix it properly with (he soil, and also to let it have time to cool in (he land, otherwise it will be verv apt to cause the loss of the turnip crop. Mr, Park of Windy-Mains is accustomed to lay lime on the land intended for turnips, immedi- * A correspondent contends that lime is best laid on the land in small heaps, and immediately covered with earth, which in a damp or moist season slacks or falls it ; but he frequently puts on water from a water-cart, which slacks it directly, and it is immediately spread in that quick state, harrowed, and ploughed in, when it mixes most intimately with the soil. Lime should be in powder, and the land in a powder-like state, when it is laid on. 226 THE FARMERS' REGISTER, ately after harvest, when the land haa got the first furrow. He first makes a pnir of harrows go backward and forward on each ridge to smooth it, then lays down the shells in huts about 60 or 80 bolls per acre Scotch ; as soon as it is powderfid, he spreads the huts, and harrows the field, and lets it remain till May, when it may be prepared for receiving the dung. Mr. Brodie of Garvald, who has long paid pe- culiar and successful attention to the management of lime, adopts the following plan in applying lime to his turnip land. After the ground intended lor turnips has got a winter and a spring furrow, the lime is laid on, and well harrowed in : it then gets another furrow before making up the drills, and is again well harrowed, for the double purpose of getting the lime intimately mixed with the soil, and taking out any quickens, or other weeds, by which the field is infested. The turnips are sown in drills, both as being better for the turnip crop than when sown broadcast, and the lands are got belter cleaned, either from annual or perennial weeds. It is reckoned an advantage, to have the lime got forward during the former summer, pre- vious to its being laid on for turnips ; for on a tur- nip farm, there is so much spring labor, that it is hardly possible to drive any considerable quantity of lime, from any distance, at that season of the year. When it ia new from the kiln, it is so hot, that it is apt to dry up the moisture necessary for bringing the turnips into leaf; in this case, the lime ought to be laid on a piece of very dry ground, in large heaps, and thrown up to a con- siderable thickness, which will make it in a fine state for laying on in the spring, that is, neither in a wet, or in a very hot state. In regard to green crops. Mr. Paterson of Cas- tle-Huntly thinks it better to lay on the lime after the green crop, rather than before it, so as it may be well mixed with the soil, before it comes in contact with potatoes or other roots, it being apt to burn and blister their skins, and to spoil iheir appearance, if it does no more mischief^ Some farmers, however, have put lime upon the ground after it is planted with potatoes, and harrowed it in. But this practice cannot be recommended. The application of lime to grass, particularly on light or dry soils, and where the land has been long pastured, ia a most advantageous system, if it is soon after to be brought into culture; otherwise, being exposed to the atmosphere, with but little admixture with the soil, it cakes and hardens, and in some measure re-aseumes that unproductive quality, which it possessed, pre- viously to its being reduced to a caustic state. It may be applied alter the land has been a summer in pasture, or cut for hay ; but the ground should be made as bare as possible, otherwise it will be difficult to spread it equally over the sward or sur- face. The lime should be laid on in autumn, and the land should remain in grass lor another ■eason, till it ia absorbed. If intended to be ap- plied to old ley, either lay tlie lime on one year before cropping, letting it lie upon the surface, or lay it on about Martinmas, and let it lie on the surface till February, then plough it down, and 80W the ground when the weather is suitable. Suffering the ground to remain lor some years in grass, is certainly the best preparation lor lime, as it haa then fresh mould, and vegetable matter, to act upon. Mr. Culhbertson recommends, that no lirae should be laid on high ridges that are intended to be flattened ; the ridge should be brought to the same round in which it is intended to remain, be- fore that operation is accomplished, because, in performing it, there is a great risk of burying the lime. Mr. Barclay remarks, that when the ap- plication is made, the land should not be too wet ; and it is necessary, at all times, to have the lime brought to such order, as neither to fly otT with the wind, nor go into clods in thesf)reading. Mr. Brodie of Garvald observes, that some speculative agriculturists recommend liming upon the surface, to extirpate the heath, and improve the pasturage, without attempting to bring ground under the plough, as the soil and climate may be unfit for the raising of grain. If the lime is at any considerable distance, there is reason to sus- pect that this would not turn out a profiiable con- cern. At the distance of eight or ten miles, a good liming would not cost less than £10 or £12 the Scolch acre. It cannot be expected that this improvement, on such hills as those of Lam- mermuir, would even pay the interest of the mo- ney. Gentlemen proprietors may improve at this rate, but a tenant would be extremely imprudent, were he to throw away his capital, without a pros- pect of being repaid. It is surely better to lime land worth the improving, to bring it under the plough, and then to take a kw corn crops to re- fund the expense. The tenant is tnus reimbursed, and has an ameliorated pasture, as the reward of his industry and superior management. Though liming the surface, " to extirpate heath, and improve pasturage," may not be a profitable concern on old swards, it is proper to observe, that when land is broken up, merely for the sake of improving the pasturage, the best, and most economical mode is, to app'y lime to the surface, and to harrow it along with the grass seeds. A great extent of hilly pasture has thus been im- proved by Mr. Dawson, and others, in Rox- burghshire.* 6. Mr. Kerr, the intelligent reporter of the husbandry of Berwickshire, has transmitted to me the following calculation of the expense of liming. The lime he used was brought by sea to Eyemouth ; and the price, besides carriage, amounted to 2bd. per boll, in shells, each boll con- taining four Winchester bushels ; hence to lime an acre of land with 35 bolls, will cost about £3, 155., besides carriage and spreading, which, the distance being short, may amount to lOs. more, or £3, 5s, per acre ; and as this operation was usually repeated twice during a lease of nineteen years, liming, in his situation, may be considered as a yearly charge of lOs. per acre. How astonished would not many farmers be in other counties, when they hear that Scotch farm- ers subject themselves to an expense of lOs. per acre per avnitm, for lime alone, a sum not much inferior to the average rent of land in many Eng- lish counties. But the expense is well bestowed, were it only from the benefit thence to be derived in the cultivation of green crops of every descrip- lion. For though such crops can be raised by large quantities of dung, yet where calcareous * For a detailed account of this excellent method, as practised by Mr. Dawson, see the Farmers' Maga- zine for March, 1812, THE FARMERS' REGISTER. 227 substances are applied, as Mr. Brodie of Garvald has fbun