Farm Forestry

FARM FORESTRY

A TEXT BOOK

Dealing With the Wooded Parts of Southern F*rms

and the Problems Growing Out of Them,

For Use in Agricultural High

Schools and Colleges

BY
ALFRED AKERMAN, A. B., M. F.

ATHENS, GEORGIA, 1914

^

-^

To
DAVID BARROW

and

POPE SPRATLIN
Two Farmers Who Believe in Forestry

328404

FOREWORD.

More than half of the area of farm holdings in Georgia
is in woods; and more than half of the wooded area
of the State is in farm holdings. The future of the for-
ests of the State depends largely on the attitude of the
farmers towards the wooded parts of their holdings. With a
view to influencing their attitude, lectures on forestery were
begun many years ago at the State College of Agriculture at
Athens by Dr. H. C. White. These lectures were incidental
to the courses in agricultural chemistry, forestry being taken
up in its bearing on soil conservation. When I was elected
Professor of Forestry in 1906, Dr. White turned over this
work to me. The lectures have been extended into a course
of three months for the One- Year students and a course of
half a year for the Seniors. The following text is an outline
of these courses. My chief purpose in writing it is to save a
part of the time spent by the students in taking and copying
lecture notes. But the problems discussed should also be of
interest to those who are managing farms; and while some
of them may not find all of the suggestions practicable, in
the conditions existing on their farms, they will find that
a part of them are practicable, and as the market and other
conditions change with the industrial development of the
country, they will find that more of these suggestions can be
carried out.

The teachers in the District Agricultural Schools and
other rural schools may find the book helpful in connection
with their courses in farm management or nature study. I
would remind these that the text is not intended to be ex-
haustive, and that it is even more important than in some
other subjects to supplement the text with the teacher's own

knowledge and with as much first hand study as the students
can find the time for. It has been said that one of the needs
of our schools and colleges is thin text books; and if I have
succeeded in nothing else, I have at least succeeded in mak-
ing this one brief.

While the discussions refer to Georgia, the conditions are
about the same in some of the surrounding States; and the
discussions will apply to them.

Acknowledgement is made to the State College of Agri-
culture for the use of several photographs, and to the Board
of Entomology for the revision of the notes on insects.

PART I. PRODUCTION OF TIMBER :, • ; /.

CHAPTER I. TIMBER TREES
Sedlion 1. Roots, Stem and Foliage.

1. For the purpose of study a tree may be divided into
three parts;— roots, stem, and foliage.

2. The roots penetrate the soil and give the tree a base
to stand on. They also absorb water and other substances
which the tree needs in its life-processes. The absorbing
surface of the roots is increased by throwing out root-hairs.
These are not rootlets, but are outgrowths from the roots
and rootlets. They live for a few days and then die away:
others are thrown out as needed.

3. The stem and branches lift the foliage from the
ground and expose it to the light and air; and it is through
them that water and other substances (in solution) pass from
the roots to the foliage. The stem grows in diameter and
height by the addition of new wood. In most trees the old wood
can be distinguished from the new; and the age of the tree
can be found by counting the annual layers. The stem may
be likened to a set of cones, one fitting over the other. The
growth of the branches is like the stem; and as they
grow outward they become larger: when they die and are
broken off the wood closes over them. Branches make knots
in lumber, and the kind of knots influences the quality of the
lumber: they will be referred to again.

4. The foliage of a tree is its kitchen; for there is
where its food is prepared. Water and other substances
from the soil and carbon dioxide (C02) from the air are brok-
en up in the leaves in the presence of light, and are made
into compounds that are used by the tree in building up its

tissues. As. a result of .this process oxygen is freed and
passes off into the-air and carbon is locked up in the tree.
About 49 per cent of wood, dry weight, is carbon, most of
which is drawn from the carbon dioxide in the air. Its ores-
ence in the air is not apparent; and it seems a strange transfor-
mation from the invisible form to a bulky substance like wood.

5. There is another process going on in the foliage, and
that is respiration. Trees, in common with animals, breathe;
and as a result oxygen is taken from the air and carbon
dioxide is returned to it. This process is going on night and
day. The other process— the preparation of food— goes on
only in the presence of light; so trees give off an excess of
oxygen during the day and an excess of carbon dioxide at
night.

6. A large amount of water is passed off through the
foliage, especially when the air is warm and dry. The
quantity of water passed in this way from the soil into the
air is so great that it is doubtful whether forests in all con-
ditions conserve the moisture in the soil as well as some other
form of covering — a layer of pulverized soil, for example.
There is no reasonable doubt, however, that on mountain
slopes and hillsides where much of the falling water would
be lost but for the obstructions which a forest cover puts i?)
its way, that the balance is in favor of the forest.

7. The leaves are formed and placed for the work they
do. They are formed so that a vast amount of foliage is
carried even by a small tree; and they are arranged so as to
be exposed to the air and light. Oak leaves are in spirals,
so that a leaf does riot cut off the light from the one that
stands next below it on the twig. Ash leaves are in pairs,
each on the opposite side of the twig; and the pair next be-

3

low is at right angles to the pair above. The branches fol-
low the same arrangement as the leaves, and evidently for
the same purpose.

8. To gain an idea of the extent of the foliage on a tree
some of my students cut a shortleaf pine. It was 5.5 inches
in diameter and 30.3 feet high. The crown was 14.2 feet
long and 9.6 feet across. More than 45,000 needles were
counted and weighed: the rest were weighed and the num-
ber calculated by proportion. The total for the tree was
195,500 needles. More than 500 needles were measured and
the average length of the needles was found to be 3.33 inches.
The total length of the needles was 65,101,500 inches.
Placed end to end they would reach 10.27 miles. The tree
had not stood in full light and had a thinner crown than
many others. It is probable that the needles on five well-
stocked acres of pine timber would more than reach around
the world.

9. Summary;—

(a) Roots are for;—

(1) Position or anchorage,

(2) Absorption.

(b) Stem and branches are for;—

(1) Elevation and exposure of foliage,

(2) Communication between roots and foliage.

(c) Foliage is for;—

(1) Preparation of food,

(2) Respiration,

(3) Transpiration.

SECTION 2. Notes on Important Trees

10. The forest flora of Georgia is rich. The State em-
braces parts of the Southern Appalachian mountains, the
Piedmont Plateau, and the Coastal Plain ; and there are wide
variations of soil and climate. There are new soils fresh
from the decay of the rocks, and there are old soils that have
been modified by many agencies. The harsh climate of the
north slopes of the Appalachians is very different from that
of the Coastal Plain. These variations in the soil and climate
have given rise to a variety in the trees. About one-fourth
of the species of the United States are found in the forests
of Georgia.

11. The importance of a tree to the farm owner does
not depend wholly on its adaptability to farm uses. Its
abundance and general usefulness should also be taken into
account. Several have been included in the following list
which have no special usefulness on the farm; but they de-
serve consideration on account of their abundance or their
value on the general market

12. A convenient way of indicating the distribution of
trees is by referring them to the three larger physiographic
features of the State;— Mountains, Piedmont, and Coastal
Plain. The change from one of these regions to another is
not always abrupt; but the differences in the forest flora are
distinct enough to indicate the part of the State in which a
tree is found.

13. There is much confusion in the common names for
trees. In studying them with a class, the members of which
come from different parts of the State, a standard set of
names is necessary. The names, both common and botanic,

5

given below are taken from Sudworth's Checklist. The
botanic names are given only for reference.

14. The weights are from several sources. They are
given for dry wood. Air-seasoned wood is about 15 per cent
heavier than dry wood; and green wood is often twice as
heavy.

15. The following notes should be used in connection
with a study in the woods of bark, leaf, branching, bud,
flower, fruit, and seed. It was thought best not to give full
descriptions, the aim being to stress the things that are most
striking to the observer, and therefore of most use in identi-
fication.

16. The local uses of the different kinds of wood should
also be studied.

(a) The Conifers

17. Longleaf pine, PINUS PALUSTRIS.— The needles are
from 8 to 18 inches long, 3 in a cluster, in dense tufts at the
ends of the branches. The cones are from 6 to 10 inches
long and slightly curved. The seeds are about half an inch
long; they are provided with papery wings which help scat-
ter them away from the trees that bear them.

18. The wood weighs about 39 pounds to the cubic foot.
It is hard, tough, and durable in contact with the soil. It is
used for many purposes, from pig-pens to interior finish.
This and the Cuban pine are the chief sources of naval
stores.

19. It occurs in the Coastal Plain, in some places ex-
tending scatteringly into the Piedmont Plateau. In the
western part of the State it extends even into the Mountains.

20. Cuban pine, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA. — This is some-
times called slash pine. The needles are from 8 to 12 inches

6

long; and they occur 2 and 3 in a cluster. The cones are
from 3 to 6 inches long.

21. The wood is similar to that of longleaf pine, and it
is not distinguished from it on the market. It weighs about
40 pounds to the cubic foot.

22. It occurs in the Coastal Plain; but it does riot ex-
tend as far inland as the longleaf. It grows more rapidly
than the longleaf; and it has a better flow of resin; and
where it is practicable to make a choice between the two
it should be favored. The ways in which a tree may be fa-
vored will be discussed further on, in connection with repro-
duction and thinning.

23. Loblolly pine, PINUS TAEDA.— The needles are 6 to
9 inches long, occurring 3 in a cluster. The cones are from 3
to 5 inches long: they are closely attached to the stem.

24. The wood is lighter in weight than the longleaf.
Cuban, and shortleaf pines, running about 32 pounds to the
cubic foot. Its coarse grain tends to unfit it for finishing.
It does not last long in contact with the soil, and this unfits
it for posts. But it does as well as the other pines for sleep-
ers, studding and rafters; and it costs less. Its lack of
durability in contact with the soil may be overcome by treat-
ing it with creosote which the porous wood readily absorbs.

25. It occurs in the Coastal Plain a-nd the Piedmont
Plateau. It reproduces abundantly and grows rapidly. It
often comes up in dense stands in abandoned fields, and for
this reason it is sometimes called Old Field Pine. On ac-
count of its rapid growth and ability to absorb preservatives
it is destined to play an important role in the forestry of the
Piedmont Plateau. Where it competes with the shortleaf,
and there is a choice, the loblolly should be favored.

7

26. Shortleaf pine, PINUS ECHINATA.— The needles are
from 3 to 5 inches long; they occur 2 and 3 in a cluster.
The cones are 1 and a ha'f to 2 and a half inches long, and
occur on short stalks.

27. The wood weighs about 35 pounds to the cubic foot.
Like the longleaf, it is usad for many purposes, although for
most purposes it is inferior to it.

28. The shortleaf occurs in all parts of the State.

29. The pines have long, straight stems that are adapt-
ed to sawing: into lumber. Their wood is easily worked with
saw, plane, and chisel. It has considerable strength, and in
most cases a pleasing grain. Its weight is less than most
of the hardwoods, and this lessens tha cost of handling
it. The combination of good qualities found in the pines
make them the most useful of all timber trees. The four
spoken of above are the most important in Georgia; but
six others occur in the State, and some of them have local
importance.

30. Bald cypress, TAXODIUM DISTICHUM.— The leaves
are from one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, and oc-
cur in two ranks along the slender branches. There is a
form with foliage appressed to the branches; but the other
form is the more common. Unlike most of the conifers, to
which family it belongs, the cypress sheds its foliage in win-
ter, which gives the tree a bald appearance, hence the name
Bald Cypress. Although classed with the cone-bearers, the
resemblance of the fruits to cones is not apparent unless ex-
amined closely; they are about one inch through and nearly
round.

31. The wood weighs 29 pounds to the cubic foot. It
is easily worked; and it lasts well in contact with the soil.

8

It is used for ties, posts, poles, water tanks, tubs, and
shingles.

32. The cypress occurs along rivers and in swamps in
the Coastal Plain. It has been said that the cypress is not
reproducing itself, and that it will disappear when the pres-
ent stands are cut. This statement, like many others
that are made about the reproduction of trees, is not borne
out by the facts. All through its range there are seedlings
and saplings in abundance wherever the fires have not run
through the swamps and bays during dry weather and de-
stroyed the reproduction.

33. Red juniper, JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA.— The leaves
are bluish-green, about a sixteenth of an inch long, and us-
ually appressed to the twigs. The fruit resembles a berry;
it is pale green at first and dark bluish-green at maturity,
from one-fourth to one-third of an inch in diameter. The
bark is dark brown, tinged with red; and it separates into
stringy scales. The heartwood is dull red, the sapwood nearly
white.

34. The wood weighs 31 pounds to the cubic foot. It
works easily, and it is durable in contact with the ground.
It makes good posts, poles, and bridge sills. It is excellent
for chests and closets; for the odor of the wood tends to keep
away moths

35. It occurs throughout the State, preferring lime-
stone formations, but growing on a variety of soils. In
many parts of the State it is known under the name of Red
Cedar.

(b) Broadleaf Trees

36. Black walnut, JUGLANS NIGRA.— The leaves are
compound, from 12 to 24 inches long, with 15 to 23 lance-

9

shaped leaflets. The fruits are borne singly or in pairs;
they are roundish, and yellow-green in color, turning black
after they are dropped. The winter buds are covered with a
buff colored nap; the lateral ones are often superposed, two
or three in the axil of the leaf. Twigs when broken give
out a characteristic odor, which helps in identifying the tree.
The bark is dark brown and divided into ridges.

37. The wood weighs about 38 pounds to the cubic foot.
It is a rich, dark brown; it has a pleasing grain; it works
easily; and it takes a high polish. These qualities fit it for
furniture and interior finish. It brings the highest prices of
any of the North American woods. The nuts are used for
food.

38. The black walnut occurs on bottoms and rich hill-
sides throughout the state. It grows rapidly. Since knots
and burls are not regarded as a defect in walnut, it may be
grown in open places where it branches profusely and still
produce valuable timber. It is therefore recommended as a
shade tree for yards, roadways, and pastures.

39. Mockernut, HICORIA ALBA.— The leaves are com-
pound, 8 to 12 inches long, with 5 to 7 lance-shaped leaflets.
The midribs are covered with brown hairs. The foliage is fra-
grant. The fruit is one and a fourth to 2 inches long. The
nut has 4 prominent ridges; it has thick walls arid a small
kernel.

40. The wood weighs about 53 pounds to the cubic foot.
It is hard, strong, and tough; and these qualities fit it for
spokes, axle trees, ax handles, whip-staffs, and the like. It
makes excellent fuel.

41. The mockernut occurs throughout the State.

42. There are several other hickories in Georgia.

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Among them may be mentioned the pignut, the bitternut,
the shagbark, and the shellbark.

43. The pecan is also a hickory. It is not a native of
Georgia; but it has been introduced on a large scale on ac-
count of of its nuts. It is inferior to many of the hickories as
a timber tree.

44. Black willow, SALIX NIGRA. —The leaves are lance-
shaped, about 4 inches long and half an inch wide, with fine
teeth along the margins. The flowers are in catkins, about
2 inches long.

45. The wood weighs about 28 pounds to the cubic foot.
It is easily worked, but is not strong or durable. Willow
rods are used to make baskets, wicker ware, and rustic fur-
niture.

46. The willow occurs throughout Georgia on wet soils
along water courses. It may be used, like cottonwood, to
stop washing along ditches, creeks, and rivers.

47. Cottonwood, PoPULUS DELTOIDEA.— The leaves are
about 4 inches long and 3 inches wide, somewhat triangular
in shape. The buds are about half an inch long: they con-
tain a sweet-scented resin. The fruits are borne in catkins,
and are covered with a cotton-like substance, hence the
name.

48. The cottonwood weighs about 24 pounds to the cu-
bic foot. It is soft, does not last in contact with the soil,
and is apt to warp in seasoning.

49. It occurs throughout the State on the banks of
streams. It grows rapidly and is easily propagated. Like
the willow it may be used to orevent washing along the
banks of streams.

50. Beech, FAGUS ATROPUNICEA. -The leaves suggest

11

those of the chestnut. They are 2 and a fourth to 5 inches long
and 1 to 3 inches wide, with coarse teeth along the margins.
The winter buds are one-half to an inch long, slender, dark
brown and shiney. The fruit is a small burr, about three-
fourths of an inch long, on a stalk of the same length. The
nut is small, about the size of a chinquapin but triangular in
shape.

51. Beech wood weighs about 43 pounds to the cubic
foot. It is hard and strong but not durable in contact with
the ground. It makes beautiful and durable flooring. It is
also used for furniture. Like most of the heavy woods it
makes good fuel. The mast is relished by swine, and it is
said to impart an excellent flavor to the meat.

52. Beech occurs scatteringly all over Georgia, usually on
rich moist slopes or bottom lands. It endures partial shade;
and when forestry is developed to the extent that it has
been developed in other countries, this ability to endure
shade may be used to grow a crop of beech under stands of
thin-topped kinds that do not cast a dense shade.

53. Chestnut, CASTANEA DENTATA.— The leaves are ob-
long lance-shaped, with coarse teeth, corresponding to the
ends of the veins. They are 6 to 9 inches long and 2 to 3
inches wide. The male flowers are in catkins, 6 to 8 inches
long when grown. The fruit is a spiney burr.

54. Chestnut wood weighs about 28 pounds to the cubic
foot. It is easily split. It lasts well in contact with the
ground. It is used for posts, vine-yard stakes, and bridge
sills. The durability of the wood in contact with the ground
is due to the presence of tannic acid. The extraction of
acid from chestnut for tanning purposes has become a con-
siderable industry in recent years.

12

55. The nuts are superior in flavor to the foreign ches-
nuts, although they are smaller. Some of the mountain far-
mers make a practice of gathering chestnuts to be sold in
Afchens, Gainesville, Atlanta, and other Middle Georgia
cities, where they bring about $3 a bushel.

56. The chestnut occurs abundantly in the Mountains
and scatteringly in the Piedmont. It is said that in former
times it was more abundant in the Piedmont than at present;
and its decrease has been explained by insect and fungous
attacks. It is probable that the importance of insect and fun-
gous attacks has been over-stressed. The insects and fungi
have no doubt done their part of the destructive work; but
they are not the only agents at work. The wood is in de-
mand, even in small sizes; and this has led to severe cutting.
The nuts are eaten by men and other animals; this hinders
a plentiful reproduction. It is not fire-resistant. When all
of these things are considered, there is no wonder that the
chestnut is not so abundant as it was.

57. In the New England and Middle States a fungous
disease known as the chestnut bark disease, has done great
harm to the chestnut forests for the last few years. It is to
be hoped that it will run its course before it reaches the
South. It is unwise, however, to take alarm at an outbreak
of one of these diseases, except to observe such precautions
as one may to prevent an outbreak or to curb its spread.
By referring to the chapters on caring for the stand it will
be seen that the preventive measures are simple and consist
mostly in keeping out fires and in thinning the stands at in-
tervals to keep them in a healthy, thrifty, resistant condi-
tion.

58. White oak, QUERCUS ALBA. —The leaves are deeply

13

divided into rounded lobes. They are green above and pale on
the under surface. The acorns are chestnut brown, about a
fourth of an inch long, enclosed bv a cup for about a fourth
of their length. The bark is a light grey, and broken into
scales.

59. White oak weighs about 50 pounds to the cubic
foot. It is strong, tough, and durable; and it has a pleasing
grain. It is used for ties, posts, wagon tongues, spokes,
cotton baskets, fuel, furniture, and interior finish. The
white oak is one of the best all-round farm timbers; and in
spite of its slow growth it deserves favorable consideration.

60. The white oak occurs throughout the State.

61. There are several oaks in Georgia which are closely
related to the white oak. Among them may be mentioned
the post oak, the cow oak, the chestnut oak, and the live
oak. The oaks that belong to the white oak group usually
have lighter-colored bark than the black oaks, no bristle
points on their leaf lobes, and mature their acorns in one sea-
son. The wood is tougher and lasts longer in contact with
the ground than the black oaks.

62. Red oak, QUERCUS RUBRA.— The leaves are divided
into pointed lobes. The acorns are broad at the base, three-
fourths to 1 and a fourth inches long, one-half to 1 inch
wide, borne in a shallow cup. The bark breaks into long
ridges that sometimes suggest chestnut bark.

63. The wood weighs about 46 pounds to the cubic foot.
It is brittle as compared with white oak, and it is not so dur-
able in contact with the ground. It is used for furniture,
interior finish, and firewood.

64. The red oak occurs in the Mountains and the Pied-
mont.

14

65. The red oak is taken as an illustration of the blacl
oak group. Of the others belonging to this group the Span
ish, scarlet, yellow, water, and willow oaks may be mention
ed. The black oaks have dark bark, bristle points on th
lobes of their leaves, and take two years to mature thei
acorns. For use about the farm the black oaks are inferio
to the white oaks.

66. Red mulberry, MORUS RUBRA.— The leaves an
ovate, pointed at the apex and heart shaped at the base
coarsely serrate, 3 to 5 inches long and 2 and a half to <
inches broad, dark green above and lighter green on the un
der surface; sometimes lobed. The winter buds are ovate
about a fourth of an inch long, with chestnut-brown scales
The fruit when ripe is black, sweet, and juicy, and about ]
and a quarter inches long. When the bark is broken a milkj
juice appears; and this with the peculiar smell of the broker
bark, aids in its identification.

67. The wood weighs about 37 pounds to the cubic foot.
It is durable in contact with the ground, and is used foi
fence posts.

68. The red mulberry occurs scatteringly on good soils
throughout the State.

69. Tulip-tree, LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA.— The flow-
er resembles a tulip. The winter buds are about half an
inch long, with dark red, leathery coverings. The tendency
to form a clean, central shaft is stronger in this tree than in
many of the broadleaf trees. This aids in distinguishing it
in the woods; and it increases its value as a timber tree.

70. The wood weighs about 26 pounds to the cubic foot.
The heart is light yellow, often tinged with green; the sap-
wood is creamy white. On exposure to the air the wood

15

takes on a brownish hue. It is easily worked. It is used
for boxes, wagon bodies, and interior finish. It does not
last in contact with the ground; but it makes a durable
shingle.

71. The tulip-tree is widely distributed over the State,
usually on deep, rich, moist soils. It grows rapidly and at-
tains very large dimensions. It has been claimed for it that
it is the largest tree east of the Mississippi. It is often
called Yellow Poplar, probably with reference to the color of
the wood.

72. Sweet gum, LIQUIDAMBAR STYRACIFLUA.— The
leaves are palmately lobed, light green in summer, turning
crimson in autumn. The branches have corky wings, re-
sembling those of the wing elm. The seeds are borne in
heads about an inch in diameter, which remain on the tree
through the winter. When the bark is broken a balsam is
exuded, which gives the tree the name of sweet gum.

73. The wood weighs 36 pounds to the cubic foot. It is
rather hard to season and must be carefully stacked to pre-
vent warping. It is used for wooden-ware and furniture.
As other woods become scarcer the demand for sweet gum is
increasing.

74. It occurs throughout the State on rich bottom lands.
It is sometimes sold on the lumber yards under the name of
Red Gum.

75. Sycamore, PLATANUS OCCIDENT ALIS.— The outer
bark sheds, leaving smooth green or white trunk and limbs.
The fruits are balls, about 1 inch in diameter. The seeds
are very small and are provided with tufts of hair which fa-
cilitate their distribution by the wind.

76. The wood weighs 36 pounds to the cubic foot. It

16

has a pleasing grain, but is rather hard to work. It is used
for wooden-ware and interior finish. Like the sweet gum it
is more in demand as the supply of more popular woods de-
creases.

77. The sycamore occurs throughout the State on deep,
moist soils. It attains very large dimensions, and disputes
with the tulip-tree the honor of being the largest tree in the
eastern United States.

78. Black cherry, PRUNUS SEROTINA.— The leaves are
oblong-lanceolate, resembling those of the peach which be-
longs to the same genus. The fruit is about a third of an
inch in diameter, black when ripe, occurring in racemes.
The bark has a bitter taste.

79. The wood weighs 36 pounds to the cubic foot. The
heart wood is a beautiful reddish brown and it takes a high
poli3h. It is used for furniture and interior finish. The
fruit is used to small extent in flavoring drinks; and both the
fruit and bark are used in medicinal preparations.

80. The black cherry occurs all over the state on deep,
rich soils.

81. Honey locust, GLEDITSIA TRIACANTHOS. — This tree
is known by its compound leaves, the leaflets of which are
smaller than those of the yellow locust; by large, branched
thorns; and by its dark brown fruits, 12 to 18 inches long.

82. The wood weighs 42 pounds to the cubic foot. It is
hard, strong, and durable. It is used for fence posts. The
fruits have some value as stock food.

83. This tree does not appear to be native anywhere in
Georgia; but it has been widely introduced.

84. Yellow locust, ROBINIA PSEUDACACIA. —The leaves
are compound, 8 to 14 inches long, with 15 to 21 leaflets.

17

The large white, sweet-scented flowers which come in May
are of the familiar pea-blossom shape. The fruit is a pod 3
to 4 inches long and a half inch wide. The small branches
have short curved prickles, unlike the long thorns of the
honey locust.

85. The wood weighs 45 pounds to the cubic foot. It is
yellowish-brown in color, hard, and durable in contact with
the ground. It makes good fence posts.

86. The yellow locust appears to be native only in the
Mountains; but it has been widely planted in other parts of
the State. Unfortunately it is often attacked by borers
when planted outside of its natural range.

87. Red maple, ACER RUBRUM.— This tree is known by
its opposite branches and the reddish color of its twigs, buds,
and keys.

88. The wood weighs 39 pounds to the cubic foot. It is
used for wooden-ware, furniture, and fuel.

89. The red maple occurs throughout the Stace, com-
monly on wet soil along streams and in swamps.

90. The silver maple and the sugar maple also occur in
the State. They are used for the same purposes as the red
maple where they occur in sufficient quantities to be used.

91. Basswood, TILIA AMERICANA. — The flowers are sus-
pended from peculiar, modified leaves. The leaves aid in
the distribution of the seed.

92. The wood weighs 28 pounds to the cubic foot. It is
easily worked; it has no taste or odor. These properties
make it an an excellent material for wooden-ware, bee gums,
boxes, and wagon bodies.

93. The range of the basswood has not been worked
out. It is known to occur in the northern part of the State,

18

and other species of the genus occur in other parts. These
other species have similar properties and uses to the one
described.

94. Black gum, NYSSA SYLVATICA.— The leaves vary in
shape, but are generally lance-shaped, 2 to 5 inches long,
1 to 3 inches wide, dark green, turning crimson in au-
tumn. The fruits occur 1 to 3 in a cluster: they are about .
half an inch long, dark blue; the clusters are on stalks about

1 inch long.

95. The wood weighs 40 pounds to the cubic foot. It
does not splinter and for this reason makes a good floor for a
warehouse, storeroom, or barn where it is subjected to rough
usage. It also makes good rollers for moving heavy objects.

96. The black gum and related species are found
throughout the State, commonly on moist or wet soils, along
water courses or in swamps. The fruit of one species, the
Sour Tupelo or Ogeechee Lime, is used for preserves.

97. Persimmon, DIOSPYROS VIRGINIANA.— The leaves
are dark green and shiney on the upper surface, paler below,
4 to 6 inches long and 2 to 3 inches wide. The fruit is from
1 to 1 and a half inches in diameter, orange colored.

98. The wood weighs 49 pounds to the cubic foot. It is
hard and strong, and is used for tool handles, shuttles, and
fuel. The fruits are used to a small extent for food and in
making persimmon beer.

99. The persimmon occurs throughout the State. It
often comes up along the edges of the woods and in fence
corners.

100. White ash, FRAXINUS AMERICANA.— The leaves are
compound, 8 to 12 inches long, with 5 to 7 lance-shaped leaf-
lets. The branching habit is opposite. The seed is provided

Fig III. An uneven-aged stand from which the larger trees should be culled- Par. 164

19

with a wing that aids in its distribution.

101. The wood weighs 39 pounds to the cubic foot. It
is used for tool handles, wagon tongues, and furniture. For
such a purpose as a wagon tongue it is superior to hickory;
for it has sufficient strength, greater stiffness, and less
weight. It is an excellent farm timber.

102. The white ash is found throughout the State, com-
monly on moist soil. The red, green, and water ashes are
also found in the State. The white ash was selected to rep-
resent the genus.

103. Hardy Catalpa, CATALPA SPECIOSA. -The leaves
are heart-shaped, 10 to 12 inches long and 7 to 8 inches wide,
opposite or in whorles of three. The showy flowers are in
panicles. The fruits are in pods, 8 to 20 inches long.

104. The wood weighs 26 pounds to the cubic foot. It
is very durable in contact with the ground. Its principal use
is for fence posts.

105. 'The hardy Catalpa is not native in Georgia; but its
introduction on a large scale is often advocated. It is claim-
ed for it that it is easily propagated, grows rapidly, and lasts
well in contact with the ground. These claims are conceded.
But on the other hand, it requires skill and care in handling
to make it form straight trunks. The shoots die back from
the ends each year; and the new growth is from the sides;
this tends to make a crooked trunk. It requires a deep, rich,
moist soil to make a rapid growth. There are small patches
of ground that would grow Catalpa to advantage that are
not needed for other crops; but speaking generally, the soil
that is needed by Catalpa is the soil that ought to be in field
crops. And there are many native trees that can be used
for the same purpose, which are not as hard to care for and

which are not so exacting as to soil. When these things are
taken into consideration, it would seem the part of wisdom
to be cautious about introducing Catalpa on a large scale.
To plant a little as an experiment would do no harm; but to
plant it as a business proposition would be a mistake.

106. The common Catalpa is native in Georgia; but it
has the same defects as the Hardy Catalpa and the addition-
al one of being a slower, smaller growth. It is used locally
for fence posts.

107. Eucalypts. — The introduction of the Eucalypts
from Australia is sometimes spoken of. They have been
grown successfully in California, but only in those parts
where there is little or no frost; and there is scarcely any
chance of growing them in any part of Georgia. Even in
California there is reason to believe that the rate of growth
has been exaggerated; and the State and United States for-
esters have found it advisable to warn the public against too
great expectations from Eucalyptus plantations.

108. Reference literature. — "Manual of the Trees of
North America, " Sargent.

"Checklist of the Forest Trees of the United States/'
Sudworth.

109. Topics for further study,—

(a) Formation of knots,

(b) Branching habits,

(c) Arrangement of leaves,

(d) Outlines of leaves,

(e) Identification by winter buds,

(f) Identification by bark,

(g) Identification by grain.

CHAPTER II. REPRODUCTION

110. If an oak is cut down, it sprouts again from the
stump. If a willow switch falls onto moist ground it takes
root and grows. If a pine seed falls on a favorable spot, it
germinates and starts a new tree. These ways that trees
have of reproducing themselves, — by sprouts, by cuttings,
and by seed, — may be used in securing a stand, the way se-
lected depending partly on the kind of tree and partly on the
purpose for which it is to be grown.

Sedlion 1. Sprouts

111. Of the kinds discussed in the last chapter, the
walnut, hickory, willow, cottonwood, beech, chestnut, oaks,
mulberry, tulip-tree, sweet gum, sycamore, cherry, locusts,
maple, basswood, black gum, persimmon, ash, and Catalpa
sprout from the stump; and stands of these kinds may be
reproduced simply by cutting down the old stands, making
the stumps as low as practicable.

112. Sprouts grow rapidly for a few years, but the
growth falls off later on. They are more apt to die in the
top— to form stag-heads — than trees of seedling origin; and
they are more subject to decay at the base.

113. Reproduction by sprouts cannot be carried on in-
definitely without a thinning out of the stand; for some of
the stumps lose the power of sprouting vigorously. Unless
there is a sprinkling of seedlings from time to time to take
the place of the stumps that are lost, the stand deteriorates.

114. Reproduction by sprouts does well enough for
some purposes, such as the production of stakes, posts, poles,
and firewood; but is not recommended where a good quality
of saw-timber is desired. And generally the production of

22

saw timber should he the aim of the owner; for plenty of
stakes, posts, poles, and firewood can be gotten from limbs,
tops, and thinnings. When thrifty sprout reproduction
occurs it should be taken care of; but seedling reproduction
should be favored where there is a chance to give it the
advantage.

Sedlion 2. Cuttings

115. The willow and cottonwood are easily propagated
by cuttings, and this method is preferable for these two
kinds. They are rarely wanted except to protect the banks
of a ditch or stream. For this purpose make cuttings about
18 inches long and stick them in the ground along the bank
in two rows, 4 feet apart and 4 feet in the row, the cuttings
in the second row being opposite the spaces in the first row.
One or two of the top buds should be left above the ground.
A damp day in late winter is the best time for the work.

Sedlion 3. Seed

116. The pine, cypress, and juniper do not sprout and
must be reproduced by seed; and seedling reproduction of
most of the kinds that* do sprout is preferable. Seedling re-
production may be secured by encouraging the production of
seed and giving it the proper conditions for germination and
growth; or it may be secured by sowing and planting, or by
a combination of the natural methods with sowing and
planting.

117. The ways in which seeds are scattered is interest-
ing. The pine seed is provided with a wing: the weight of the
kernel is arranged so that the seed whirls around as it de-
scends through tha air; this delays the fall and gives the
seed a chance to sail out on the wind. The ash, tuiip-trer-%
and sweet gum have a similar device. Acorns, walnuts, and

23

hickories are too heavy to be carried by the wind, but their
weight and shape are such that if they strike a limb in fall-
ing, they will bounce a considerable distance and roll along
the ground. The birds and squirrels, although they destroy
many seeds, also aid in scattering them. The design in Na-
ture seems to be to get the seeds scattered away from the
parent tree. The thoroughness with which this design is
carried out is remarkable. In the fall of 1910 the tulip-tree
carpels were counted on 7 plots in Clarke county. These
plots were some 60 feet from a tulip- tree: but when an aver-
age was struck, it was found that the carpels ran 2,062,783
to the acre; and since each carpel contains 2 seeds, the seeds
had been scattered at the rate of 4,125,566 to the acre. And
even at a distance of 600 feet from a tree, they ran between
100,000 and 200,000 to the acre.

118. The thoroughness with which seeds are scattered
is further illustrated by the dense stands of pine and other
trees that came up in abandoned fields during and after the
Civil War.

119. Here at the South the forest will nearly always
maintain itself and come again when cut down, if given a
chance. It is only necessary to keep the fires from burning
up the seeds and killing the seedlings. The problem of re-
production by seed resolves itself into the problem of pro-
tection from fire.

120. It may happen, however, that natural seeding is
deficient on small areas or that the owner wants a particular
kind of tree. In such cases sowing or planting must be re-
sorted to.

121. When artificial reproduction must be used, it is
better to sow the longleaf and Cuban pines, walnut, hickory,

24

oaks, and locust in seed-spots where they are to grow than
to start them in a seed-bed and transplant them later on.
These kinds tend to form a long tap-root which renders their
removal from the seed-bed to the permanent site laborious
and expensive. It is, therefore, better to sow them in seed-
spots.

122. Seed-spots are made by working the soil lightly
with a hoe or mattock over a spot about a foot across. The
seeds are sown 3 to 4 to the spot and covered about twice
their depth. The spots should be about 6 feet apart each
way. A convenient way to secure uniformity is to set tall
stakes as guides for the rows, moving them at each turn
across the patch. The distance in the row may be paced.
On slopes the distance in the row may be shortened to 4 feet,
and the distance between rows may be increased to 9 feet,
the rows following around the slope like cotton rows in a
terraced field. This method affords more of a barrier to
washing, and it gives the same amount of space, 36 square
feet to each tree.

123. The best season to sow seed-spots is in the fall.
This does away with the trouble of keeping the seeds over
winter. Fail spots should be reseeded the following fall.

124 Sowing in seed- spots costs very little. The labor
of preparing the spots and sowing should not exceed $1.50
an acre. A good hand can prepare and sow from three-
fourths to an acre a day. The cost of the seeds depends on
the kind, but it is generally small For instance, a pound of
yellow locust seed may be bought for 40 cents and it will sow
5 acres.

125. Such trees as the shortleaf and loblolly pines, the
beech, chestnut, tulip-tree, basswood, ash, and Catalpa may

25

be sown in seed-spots, but the surer way is to sow them in
a seed-bed and transfer them to the permanent site as seed-
lings of one or two year's growth. A seed-bed may be made
in any light, mellow soil, such as a vegetable garden. The
soil should be thoroughly worked, as for vegetables. The
seeds should be sown in drills, some 2 or 3 feet apart, and
lacking the thickness of a seed of touching in the drill. They
should be covered to twice their depth.

126. As in sowing seed-spots, the trouble of keeping
the seed over winter is avoided, if the sowing is done in the
fall; and the germination is usually better for seeds sown in
the fall than in the spring.

127. The seed-bed should be kept mellow and free from
weeds. Light working with a plow or hoe, followed by pul-
verizing with a rake is the best cultivation. Baking and
drying should be prevented, and lath screens are often used
for this purpose; out they are an additional expense and they
interfere with working the beds. The experience of the
writer has led him to abandon the screens and rely wholly
on pulverizing with a rake, or the "dust mulch" as it is
called, to keep the moisture near the surface.

128. In seasons of drouth it mav be advisable to irri-
gate. If this is done, the ground should be thoroughly wet;
and it should be worked when dry enough, as after a rain.
A thorough wetting followed by a working will do
good; but frequent sprinklings may do more harm than good.

129. The length of time that the seedlings remain in
the seed-bed depends on their rate of growth. Some of them
like the tulip-tree, are large enough to move in one year;
but others, like the shortleaf pine, require two years to
reach a convenient size.

26

130. The roots of seedlings should not be allowed to
dry out in moving them from the seed-bed to the permanent
site. To prevent drying the roots should be dipped in a pud-
dle immediately upon being taken from the ground. A pud-
dle is made by stirring soil into a tub until a thin mud is
formed. The puddle should be stirred again before each
bundle of seedlings is dipped. When the seedlings are pud-
dled they are placed in a bucket or basket and covered with
a damp cloth or some damp leaves. They are then ready to
be taken to the permanent site.

131. When a hole of convenient size has been opened
with a mattock, a plant is taken from the basket and held in
place with one hand while the soil is drawn about the roots
with the other. Care should be taken not to get any sod or
leaves next the roots. When the soil has been drawn about
the roots, it is firmly packed with the heel, to get it in close
contact with the roots. The soil is settled against the roots
of fruit, shade, and ornamental trees by the use of water;
but in forest planting the use of water is impractical, and
packing with the heel is used instead.

132. As in making seed-spots, the planting may be
made uniform by using stakes to guide on. The distance
recommended is also the same, 6 by 6 feet, or 4 by 9,

133. Seedlings may be removed from the seed-bed from
November to April. February is the best time; for they are
then not exposed to the severe cold of winter and they have
time to become adjusted to their new surroundings before
the hot, dry weather sets in.

134. Topics for further study.—

(a) Effect of high stumps on soroutin^,

(b) Age to which sprouting power is retained,

27

(c) Relative sprouting power of different kinds,

(d) Nature's methods of dissemination,

(e) Germination percentages,

(f ) Effect of forest fires on seeds,

(g) Effect of forest fires on seedlings.

CHAPTER III. PROTECTION

135. Stands of trees have enemies. Among these are
fungi, insects, and fires.

Sedtion 1. Fungi

136. Sometimes low forms of plant life, called fungi,
grow on the inside of trees and feed on their wood, causing
decay. Unless these plants bear fruit we may not know of
their presence. Their fruiting bodies are sometimes called
toad stools or frog stools. One common form is small at the
top and grows larger from year to year by the addition of a
layer at the bottom. If the under side of one of these is exam-
ined it will he found to be full of small holes, from which the
spores of the fungus are discharged. The spores are blown
about in the air; and if one finds lodgment in a knot-hole or
other place where the bark is broken, it may develop and
grow into the tree. Fungi may also spread through the
ground by filaments from an infested tree reaching the roots
or butt of another tree.

137. Little may be done towards protecting a stand
from fungous diseases; because in our present stage of de-
velopment the timber crop is not valuable enough to allow
the expenditure that an active campaign against fungi would
involve. The most that may be done is to keep the timber
in a thrifty, healthy condition by the prevention of fires and
the removal of diseased trees.

Section 2 Insects

138. The wood, inner bark, and the foliage of trees are
attacked by insects. The small, shot-like holes sometimes
seen in red oak wood are the result of insect attack on the
wood; they are the passages out by an insect, and they de-

29

tract from the usefulness of the wood.

139. The pine bark beetle is an example of the insects
that attack the inner bark. It makes galleries in the inner
bark, which may girdle the tree and cause its death. In the
adult stage this insect is about three-eights of an inch long;
it is brown in color, sometimes nearly black. It can fly for
some distance, and spreads from place to place in this way.
Summer cutting in pine woods should be avoided as far as
practicable, because the odor of the resin attracts the bee-
tles to the neighborhood and often starts an outbreak that it
is hard to check. Sometimes a tree is struck by lightning,
the beetles are attracted to it, and they spread to surround-
ing trees. Its spread may be controlled by cutting and re-
moving the trees while the insects are in them. Their pres-
ence is shown by the fading of the foliage. To do any good
they must be removed before the beetles are gone, that is
before the foliage has turned brown. The infested trees
should be cut during December, January, and February. If
the trees are large enough for saw-logs, they should be saw-
ed at once, or be barked at once to expose the insects. If
they are used as firewood, they should be used before the
spring weather comes on, or some of the insects may escape.
The larger limbs, if not used as firewood, and the smaller
brush should be piled around the stumps and burned.

140. The insects that prey on the foliage are also inju-
rious. If the foliage of pine trees is destroyed, they will
die. The broad-leaf trees are hardier; and they will stand
two or three defoliations before they succumb. But a les-
ening of the foliage, although it may not result in the death
of the tree, retards its growth, lowers its vitality, and les-
sens its resistance to future insect or fungous attacks.

30

141. Aside from the measures which may be taken to
prevent the spread of the pine bark beetle, there is little
that the owner can do to combat the attacks of insects. He
can, however, do something by way of prevention. If the
stands are kept in a thrifty, healthy condition, they are less
liable to attack than if allowed to become unthrifty; and the
removal of tops, dead, and dying trees, if practicable, is
recommended, for they furnish a breeding ground for
insects.

Sedtion 3. Fires

142. Fire is the worst enemy of the forest. It destroys
the seeds that are lying in the litter ready to germinate. It
kills the seedlings and saplings that would form future
stands. It sometimes kills the larger trees; or if it does not
kill, it injures them; the roots that are near the surface are
scorched; and the bark is killed in patches about the bases
of the trees. Even when these patches are healed over they
leave bad places in the lumber that lower its quality and value.
Often several feet of the b©ttom logs in burned woods must
be cut off and thrown away because of old fire scars.

143. The litter and humus are burned up and the soil is
impoverished. This retards the growth of the trees, and it
lowers their vitality, so that they are more liable to the at-
tacks of fungi and insects.

144. Forest fires are sometimes followed by an increas-
ed proportion of scrub oak, sumuch, and other inferior or
worthless trees; and it may take years for the more useful
trees to crowd out this undesirable growth.

145. Some farmers say that they cannot protect their
woodlands from fire. Speaking generally, these are the ones
that have not tried. Woods can be protected from fire.

31

The protection cannot be made absolute, just as the protec-
tion of town property is not absolute. In spite of the most
stringent building regulations and trained fire departments,
fires continue to occur in town. But the risk to town prop-
erty has been reduced to a very small quantity; in some
cases it is calculated to be less than three chances out of a
thousand. In places where an effort has been made to pro-
tect woods from fire, it has been found that the risk can be
reduced to a smaller quantity than in the case of town prop-
erty; in some cases it is calculated to be less than one chance
in a thousand.

146. The protection of farm woodlands from fire is a sim-
ple matter. It is a common practice when working in the
woods in cold weather to build a fire to warm the hands and
feet by. The fire should be placed where it will not spread;
and it should be put out before leaving. When a field ad-
joining the woods is brushed out, the brush should be piled
far enough away to prevent setting the woods afire when it
is burned. When a field is burned off to prepare for plowing,
if it adjoins the woods, a few furrows should be run between
it and the woods before the fire is set. All tenants and
hands on the place should be made to turn out and help fight
a fire in the woods should one by any chance get started.
This will tend to make them careful in handling fire.

147. Where woods join the woods or fields of a neigh-
bor or lie along a railroad, it is a good plan to separate them
by a fire line. A fire line is a strip about 20 feet wide from
which the dry brush, litter, and grass have been removed.
It is made by raking paths about 3 feet broad on either side
of the proposed line and burning the area between the paths.
The burning should be done when the wind is low and when

32

there is enough moisture in the woods to render easy the con-
trol of the fire. Conditions are so varying that it is hard to
arrive at an average cost of making a fire line. With inex-
perienced hands and unfavorable conditions the cost may
amount to $20 a mile; with experienced hands and favorable
conditions it should not exceed $10 a mile. They should be
burned off each year. There is usually a good deal of brush
and a good many snags in the way of raking the paths the
first time; so that the cost is less after the first burning. In
the fall, when most of the leaves are down but not yet very
dry, is the best time of year to burn a fire line. A fire line
may not stop all fires; but it stops ordinary fires, and it
checks even the most severe ones long enough to get them
under control.

148. It is the practice in some parts of the State to
burn off the woods to improve the pasturage. It is doubt-
ful whether this improves the pasturage in the long run.
Some farmers claim that woods that are not burned over
have more grass in them; and they have quit burning them.
Even granting that burning does improve the pasturage,
when the injury to the woods is reckoned in, it makes an ex-
pensive improvement. The cost is hard to estimate exactly;
but the indications are that it would be cheaper to seed
down a piece of land to good grasses than to burn the woods
for the sake of the wild pasture that follows in the wake of
a forest fire.

149. The pine woods in South Georgia are burned to
protect the turpentine boxes. If the cup and gutter system
of turpentining is used there are no boxes to protect, and
the main reason for burning is done away with. Even
where the boxes are used the same amount of money spent

33

on fire lines and patrol would give protection.

150. This question of forest fires is not wholly an indi-
vidual question. It is partly a community question; for the
rights of many persons are involved. If an owner sets his
woods afire the fire may spread to neighboring woods, or it
may burn up his neighbor's fences, fodder stacks, and build-
ings. Fire is in a class with poisons and explosives; and if
it is used, it should be used carefully and with reference to
the rights of others.

151. Topics for further study; —

(a) Relation between broken places in the bark
and fungous attack,

(b) Part played by birds in insect suppression,

(c) Effect of forest fires on the bases of mature
trees,

(d) Effect of fires on turpentine boxes,

(e) Effect of fires on the composition of stands,

(f) Destruction of birds nests and young birds
by fires.

CHAPTER IV. THINNINGS

152. Thinning is the removal of some of the trees from
a stand for the benefit of the trees that remain. To under-
stand thinning it is necessary to review the development of
a stand. Suppose that a young stand is recently started,
and that the trees are 6 feet apart each way, or 1210 to the
acre. When the stand is about ten years old the side
branches of the trees will begin to touch, the ground will be
shaded; and the stand has become what the foresters call a
"closed stand/' As soon as the stand is closed the trees be-
gin to crowd one another. The crowding results in the
dying of the lower side limbs and in an increased height
growth. Some of the trees get ahead of the others, and be-
fore many years they become separated into classes. These
classes are called (1) dominant, (2) intermediate, (3) sup-
pressed, and (4) dead. The names indicate the condition of
the trees in the classes to which they are applied. By the
time the stand is fifty years old probably not more than 500
out of the original 1210 trees will be alive. The others have
been shaded to death by their stronger neighbors; and some
of thoso that are still alive will succumb within a few years.
If, as often occurs in natural seeding, there are several
thousand trees at the start the crowding will be greater and
Lhe results will be more marked.

153. A moderate crowding is beneficial to the stand.
It causes the trees to grow up tall and straight and to shed
their side limbs. Long, clean, straight logs that saw out
clear lumber are the result of crowded stands. On the other
hand, the struggle in a closed stand may become too fierce;
and it may react in a harmful way on the stand. The stems

35

may become so slender that they cannot stand upright, and
the tops may become so restricted that they no longer prop-
erly perform their functions. By the removal of some of
the trees the beneficial influences of the struggle may be re-
newed from time to time and the harmful effects may be
avoided. In other words, thinning prevents the stimulative
competition from becoming a destructive competition.

154. Thinnings are influenced by market conditions.
If there is a market for small material, a young stand may
be thinned earlier and the thinning may be repeated oftener
than when there is a market for onlv the larger trees.
A young stand may be thinned as soon as the material
to be removed has reached such a size that its sale will
pay for its removal; and it should not be thinned again
until the material to be removed has accumulated in suf-
ficient quantity to yield a profit, or at least to pay for
its removal. If this rule is followed, the improvement of
the stand which results from the thinning will be a net gain.
In some cases a thinning might be made even at a slight ex-
pense and still be profitable in the end; but it is safer to fol-
low the rule given above. Where it is practicable to thin in
this State, the application of the rule would mean a moderate
thinning when the stand is 25 or 30 years old and a repeti-
tion of it every 10 or 15 years thereafter until maturity is
reached. Farmers are in a better position to practice thin-
ning than some other classes of owners; because there is
nearlv always a demand on the the farm for firewood, posts,
poles, and other small material. Even where there is no
outside market for small material, thinnings may be prac-
ticed on the farm to the extent of the small material con-
sumed on the farm.

36

155. The classes into which trees become separated in
the course of their struggle with one another help to deter-
mine the trees to be removed. A moderate thinning in-
volves the removal of the intermediate trees that are in-
terfering with the development of the dominant trees.
The stand should not be opened up too much. If it is opened
too much and too much light is admitted, an undesirable un-
dergrowth of grass, weeds, briers, and shrubs may result,
or it may bring on reproduction before it is wanted. Kinds
that are liable to windfall, like the pine, should not be heav-
ily thinned, or windfall may occur. But while care should
be taken not to thin too heavily, the stand must be opened
up enough to influence its growth. The cover should be
broken, but it should not be broken to such an extent that it
will take more than 2 or 3 years for it to close again.

156. Whether the suppressed and dead trees should be
removed depends principally on whether they contain enough
wood to make their removal worth while. Some stimulation
may result from the removal of the suppressed trees; but
most of them are so far behind the dominant trees that their
presence or absence has little effect one way or another on
the development of the final stand. Yet it often pays to re-
move some of the suppressed and dead trees while the thin-
ning is in progress, although it would not pay to go into the
stand for the suppressed and dead trees alone, except in ex-
traordinary cases. And, on the general principle of cleaning
a stand of all the useless material which might invite disease or
increase the risk from fire, it is sometimes expedient to remove
dead and suppressed trees while thinning is going on and it
can be done without extra cost. If, on the other hand, the
cover composed of dominant and intermediate trees is not

37

enough to keep the ground sufficiently shaded, it is some-
times advisable to keep the suppressed trees or a portion of
them to shade the ground.

157. The proportion of the volume of the material re-
moved to the volume of the stand may serve as a check in
making thinnings. A moderate thinning would fall between
10 and 20 per cent of the volume of the stand. If, for ex-
ample, the stand runs about 30 cords to the acre, the amount
to be taken out would fall between 3 and 6 cords. If it falls
below 3 cords, the indication is that the thinning is too light
and that more should be taken. If it goes above 6 cords, it
indicates that the thinning is too heavy and that less should
be taken.

158. If the stand is composed of several kinds of trees,
there may be a choice among the kinds as well as among the
individuals of the same kind. The desirability of a kind de-
pends on its market value, its usefulness on the tarm, its
habit of growth, and its adaptability to the soil. In thin-
ning the more desirable kinds should be given the preference
over the less desirable, when it is possible to show a prefer-
ence. For example, a black jack and a white oak are stand-
ing side by side and one must be removed for the good of
the stand; the black jack should be removed and the white
oak should be left.

159. While thinning, strictly speaking, is the removal
of some trees for the betterment of the stand, it may be
combined with other work. When, for example, a stand is
uneven-aged, a thinning among the younger trees may go
hand in hand with harvesting the mature trees; and the cost
of each operation may be reduced by both being done at one
time. But for clearness of thinking the two operations

38

should be kept separate in mind, although they may be com-
bined in the woods.

160. Thinnings bring important results. They lessen
the danger from fungus and insect attack and from fire.
By taking out the inferior kinds of trees and giving the bet-
ter kinds a chance, they increase the proportion of the bet-
ter kinds. By keeping the rate of growth even, they pro-
duce an even grade of lumber. By keeping up the stimula-
tive competition they hasten the maturity of the final crop;
or to put it in other words, they increase the output in a
given period of time. And, by the removal of unsightly
trees and increasing the thrift of the stand, they improve
the appearance of the woods. This last may be of consider-
able importance if the grove happens to be near the farm
house.

161. The influence of thinning on growth is felt the
next growing season, when the trees begin to respond to the
increased amount of light. It is not making an improve-
ment that it will take a life-time to get the benefit of, as
many mistakenly suppose; it is making an improvement
which pays for itself and the benefit of which begins within
the year.

CHAPTER V. CUTTING MATURE TIMBER

162. In general it is better to cut the mature timber,
and also to thin, during the winter months; for timber cut in
the winter months seasons better than timber cut in the sum-
mer; and summer cutting in pine stands increases the liabil-
ity of attack by bark-beetles.

163. In felling large timber and cutting it into logs the
cross-cut saw is preferable to the ax. The saw saves the ax-
kerf and it saves time.

164. To cut the mature timber with reference to repro-
duction is not as important as in some other States. It was
pointed out in Chapter 2 that the exclusion of fires is the
most important factor in securing reproduction. However,
it is sometimes possible to aid reproduction through the con-
trol of cutting; and when this can be done without much ex-
tra cost, it should be done. For instance, in an uneven-aged
stand the mature trees may be thrown away from or to one
side of the clumps of younger growth. Some breakage is
unavoidable, but a little care will reduce it.

165. If the stand is even-aged it is better to cut clear
than to cull. The smaller trees have been stunted, and they
will not take on a thrifty growth when the larger trees are
removed, and they interfere with the young sprouts and
seedlings that come up under them. Seedling reproduction
of an even-aged stand may be favored by cutting soon after
a heavy seed-year of the kind that is most desired, or by
leaving 2 or 3 trees to the acre of the most desired kind to
act as seed trees.

166. The amount of timber that is cut from a forest
should be regulated so that the stock in the forest will not be

40

exhausted. One way of regulating the cut is by area. If
there are 250 acres in timber, and it takes about 60 years for
the trees to reach the required size, that is, to reach maturi-
ty, then about 4 and a quarter acres could be cut over each
year, or if more convenient the cut for 2 or 3 years could be
made in one year; but the area cut over should average about
4 and a quarter acres a year.

167. Another way to regulate the cut is by volume. On
a place in Middle Georgia the estimate shows a stock of
1,529,000 board feet, and as it takes about 60 years for the
trees to reach maturity, the amount which it is safe to cut
may be found by the formula;—

Stock

===== = annual cut; or

Rotation

1,529,000

= 50,966 feet.

30

2

Then it would be safe to cut about 50 thousand feet a year;
and if more convenient 2 or 3 years cutting, or 100,000 or
150,000, may be taken out in one year, provided that the
average is not more than 50,000 a year. The stand should
be estimated at intervals; and if the amount of timber is
greater or less, the cut will change correspondingly. If af-
ter 10 years, the stand mentioned above is estimated again;
and it is found to contain 1,200,000 feet, the cut should be
reduced to 40,000; if the new estimate is 2,000,000, the cut
may be increased to 66,000. It will be seen that the formula
is self corrective. The chances for mistakes are in deter-

41

mining the time that it takes to produce trees of cutting
size and in estimating the timber.

168. The age at which the trees reach the cutting size
can be gotten by counting the rings on the stumps of several
of the most important kinds that compose the stand. For
the tract used as an illustration above where the stand is
mostly loblolly pine, 60 years is long enough to allow for a
rotation. In the case of longleaf pine, it would hardly be
safe to allow less than 100. But it is best to consider each
tract separately, with reference to local conditions of market
and growth.

169. The stand in board feet may be obtained by esti-
mating the timber on several acres, striking an average, and
multiplying by the number of acres. The sample acres
should be carefully chosen to insure that they represent the
stand. The chances for mistakes are lessened if the sample
acres are in the shape of strips. A compass line may be fol-
lowed and the trees estimated for 33 feet on each side of the
line. This gives a slice 66 feet wide through the timber;
and when such a strip is 660 feet long, it represents an acre.
A pocket compass, a surveyor's chain, a note book, and a log
rule are needed for the work. The direction of the line is
found by the compass, then the chain is brought along this
line; the trees are estimated on each side of the chain. If
there is doubt as to whether to include a tree standing near
the edge of the strip, the distance, 33 feet, may be paced,
Practice soon does away with the necessity of pacing unless
the timber is very thick. When the trees have been estima-
ted on both sides of the chain, the direction is found again,
the chain is brought forward, and the process is repeated.
When the edge of the tract is reached an offset is made and

42

then a strip is run back parallel to the first, as indicated on
the diagram. If the long chain, 66-foot, is used, 10 chains
make an acre; if the short chain, 33-foot, is used, 20
chains make an acre.

170. There are several log rules in use. Most of them
were made with Northern conditions in view. The follow-
ing rule has been constructed for the purpose of getting a
rule adapted to the conditions found in the average small
mill in Georgia. It is based on the following suppositions;—
that the saw-kerf is a quarter of an inch; that the boards
are an inch thick, the smallest 3 inches wide and the largest
12; and that the logs are normally sound and straight. A
special allowance must be made for hollow and very crooked
logs. The height to which the logs will run is estimated.
A ten-foot pole set against the tree is a great help in estima-
ting heights; for it gives a point for comparison. After a
little practice the pole may be set aside. When the distance
from the ground to the point where the tree ceases to be
usable has been estimated and the height of the stump de-
ducted, the trunk is divided into logs. If, for instance, the
usable part of the tree is 33 feet long, it will make two
16-foot logs. The next step is to estimate the diameters of
the top ends of the logs. A steel square is helpful in esti-
mating diameters. Hold it in one hand at breast height
with the tongue and blade against the tree; then a lath or
straight stick held in the other hand laid against the tree
parallel to the tongue will indicate the diameter on the blade.
With the diameter at breastheight known, the diameter at
the tops of the logs can be estimated by comparison. In a
short time the eye becomes accustomed to estimating diam-
eters without the use of the square. The rule is for diame-

43

ters inside the bark, so an allowance must be made for bark.
An inch is enough allowance to make for most kinds of tim-
ber. Suppose in the case mentioned the top diameter 0f the
first log is 15 inches and the second is 13; then they should
be reduced to 14 and 12. The next step is to record the
logs in a note book in any convenient form. At the end of
the work in the woods the logs are scaled by the rule and the
totals run up.

IB

* IS 11 15

3 1

§ |g

I

Is Is li

a fa

'«« ' ^

I bS 1C I 00

5 IS 1^ IS Is |.

IIS 18

-^ Ita I be

S IS 15

-3. OS l-i

IS li

I li ll

I li ll

B IS

Length in feet.

5

O

to o <x>

Length in feet.

45

PART II. USE OF TIMBER

172. The discussion of our timber supply falls into two
main parts. One is the production of future crops, and this
has been discussed in Part I. The other is the preparation
and use of the crops on hand or which may be produced
hereafter; Part II deals with this second division of the sub-
ject.

CHAPTER I. SAW MILLS ON THE FARM

173. There are a great many farms in Georgia with
enough timber on them to make it practicable to have a saw
mill on them. It is desirable to have a saw mill on the farm
for several reasons. One reason is that it gives the farmer
control of the operation. He can make it fit the condition of
his timber. He can study his timber and cut it when it is
ripe. If he has the cutting and sawing done by contract, he
cannot have the same control. The work is done by men
who have no permanent interest in the place, whose only in-
terest is to get what they can out of it and go. In some cases
he has to cut timber before it is ripe; and in others he has to
let it deteoriate, because there is not enough of it to induce
a contractor to come.

174. Another reason why it is desirable to have a saw
mill on the farm is that it enables the farmer to keep his
hands and stock busy when it is hard to find anything for
them to do. There are many days in the year when it is wet
or unseasonable for work in the fields, which can be turned
to good account in the woods or at the saw mill.

175. Another reason is that it tends to build up the
place. Improvements and repairs are easier to make if the

46

material is at hand than when it must be hauled from a dis-
tance. It is also more often possible to get the kind of tim-
ber needed and in the right sizes.

176. The small No. 0, or Pony, saw mill is sometimes
recommended for farm use. It is cheap, and when properly
handled does satisfactory work with small and medium logs.
But the No. 1 mill can turn out more lumber in a day, is less
liable to get out of order, and can handle larger logs; so that
it may be cheaper in the end to get the No. 1 mill. The cost
of some of the articles varies with the different dealers, some
charging more for one article and less for another, but sen
outfit ©f standard make foots up nearly the same with all of
the dealers. The following is about the average cost;—

No. 1 mill $355

50-inch saw 75

Belts 45

Cant hooks and sundries 20

$ 495

177. A shingle mill is a useful adjunct to the saw mill,
since there is often a call for shingles to cover farm build-
ings. A shingle mill costs about $85.

178. The steam engine is better adapted to driving a
saw mill than the gasoline engine. The load is an irregular
one, and the steam engine accommodates itself more readily
to an irregular load. And it is simpler and easier to run.
For farm use the portable type, with engine on the boiler, is
best; for the engine is needed on different parts of the farm
to run gins, shredders, feed choppers, and syrup mills. A
15-horse power engine will pull a No. 1 mill satisfactorily.
It costs about $850.

179. The mill and engine should have a good roof over

47

them. As soon as the year's sawing is done all of the parts
that are likely to rust should be oiled or painted.

180. It hardly pays to put a saw mill on a farm unless
there are 40,000 feet to be cut each year; or to express it in
acres, unless there are about 250 acres of well stocked tim-
ber land. The writer knows a mill that is operated on a
place where there are only 150 acres of timber land; but the
neighbors bring in logs for custom sawing, so that really the
mill is fed from a much larger area. If there is less than
40,000 feet to be cut, interest, taxes, and depreciation eat up
the profits. With good management and 40,000 and over to
saw, the farm mill earns a neat profit.

CHAPTER II. PRESERVATIVES

Sedtion 1. Cause of Decay

181. At ordinary temperatures wood is a stable com-
pound. Unless it is acted on by some outside agency it will 1 ast
forever. When we speak of wood rotting we mean that it
has been attacked by a fungus. The fungi have no green
leaves and cannot draw their food from the soil and air as
trees and other plants with green leaves do. They must
feed on the tissues of other plants. It was pointed out at
Paragraph 136 that the fungi sometimes feed on standing
trees. They also feed on timber when it is cut.

Section 2. Conditions of Decay.

182. The fungi must have several conditions to live.
First of all the organism itself must be present, either in the
form of spores or fragments of a mature plant. An experi-
ment running over many years was made by the late Profes-
sor W. H. Brewer, of Yale, which proved that wood does not
rot no matter how favorable the other conditions are, pro-
vided the organism is not transplanted to it. The other con-
ditions are air, water, heat, and food — all of which must be
present in sufficient quantities or a fungus cannot live and
#row after it has been transplanted. Timbers that have
been buried where the air could not reach them have lasted
for centuries. Timbers used in dry places do not decay; the
so-called dry rot is in places where there is some moisture.
Timbers kept at low temperatures do not decay; and decay is
more rapid in warm climates than in cool climates. And
timbers which have been poisoned and rendered unfit for
food for the fungi do not decay.

49

Section 3. Prevention of Decay

183. Decay can be prevented by excluding one of the
conditions necessary for the life of the fungi. If they can
be kept from entering, or if the air or water can be excluded,
or if the tissues can be poisoned, the timber can be made to
last indefinitely. Most of the preservatives act in more than
one way. Paints, for instance, coat the surface of the wood,
and exclude the spores, air, and water, and they also con-
tain poisonous substances. One of the best and cheapest
preservatives is creosote. This, like paint, excludes the
spores, air, and water; and the carbolic acid which it con-
tains poisons the tissues of the wood.

184. Creosote is applied in different ways. One way is
to heat it and apply with a brush, like paint. This is a
cheap way; but it is not so effective as some of the others;
because the creosote does not go deeply into the wood. But
for shingles it is the most practicable; for if they are treated
in some other way before they are laid, they are apt to stick
together and become hard to handle and the creosote is hard
on the hands of the workmen. So it is best to lay the shin-
gles and then to apply the creosote with a brush, letting it flow
freely so that it will get into the cracks.

185. Another method used mostly for treating posts, is
known as the open-tank method. The posts are placed in a
tank of hot creosote; and after 2 hours the hot liquid is
drawn off and cold creosote is run in. The posts are left in
the cold liquid for 2 hours and then removed. The heating
expands the air in the posts and drives it out. When the
cold liquid is turned on the pressure of the air on the outside
drives the creosote into the vacua that have been created.
The objection to this method is that the outfit costs about

50

$50; and it would not pay except on a very large farm where
there is a great deal of fencing to be done.

186. A method has been devised by the writer to meet
the needs of the small farmer. A simple galvanized iron
tube, 10 inches across and 5 feet long, is used. It can be
made by any tinner, at a cost of not more than $2. The one
shown in the cuts cost $1.50. The tube is leaned against a
bench or other support at a convenient slant, filled about
two-thirds full of creosote; and a small fire is built against
the bottom. A post is dipped into the tube and withdrawn
after 3 or 4 minutes. It is placed upright with the lower
end in a bucket to catch the creosote that drains off. An-
other post is placed in the tube, and the first is removed
from the bucket and placed on the pile. The cost of treating
posts for 3 feet at one end is from 2 to 3 cents. This meth-
od is not so effective as the open-tank treatment, but it is
more effective than the brush treatment, and it costs less
than either.

187. Timber should be seasoned before it is treated
with a preservative; and it is best to let it stand for some
weeks after treatment.

188. It hardly pays to treat timbers that are naturally
lasting, such as heart pine, white ©ak, mulberry, and locust.
But it does pay to treat the black oaks, loblolly pine and the
like. With only a brush treatment some loblolly pine posts
put in 4 years ago are still serviceable and will probably not
have to be taken out for 2 more years. Loblolly pine with-
out treatment lasts about 2 years. While definite information
is hard to get, the indications are that the loblolly pine,
which is cheap, easy to cut, light to handle, and easy to
drive staples into, can with the tube treatment be made to
last as long as white oak, which is expensive, hard to cut,
heavy to handle, and hard to drive staples into.

51

CHAPTER III. FIREWOOD

189. Firewood should come from limbs, tops, and the
trees taken out in thinnings for improvement. Trees that
are large enough to make saw-logs or that give promise of
growing into saw-logs should not be cut for firewood. The
wood used for fuel on the farm should be so much waste
saved, so much improvement made,<and not a drain on the
stands of timber.

190. To give the best results firewood should be cut and
stacked some months before it is used. Green wood burns
longer than dry wood, but a large part of the heat is spent
in driving off the moisture.

191. A great deal of the wood used for fuel is burned
in open fireplaces. Fireplaces have their advantages, one of
which is their cheerfulness; but as a means of heating a cold
room and keeping it at an even temperature they are inade-
quate. A large part of the heat goes up the chimney; and
this means a large consumption of fuel. There is no way to
regulate the heat; the room is very hot or very cold. And
there is risk of setting the house afire, since the fire is not
enclosed.

192. While not so cheerful, stoves consume less fuel,
can be regulated, and are not as liable to set the house afire.
No record of a test of the comparative efficiency of stoves
and fireplaces could be found; so a test was made in the win-
ters of 1911 and 1912. Wood was weighed out in equal piles.
The piles were burned alternately in the fireplace and in the
stove. In order to have the conditions the same, the same
room was used ; the fireplace was closed on alternate days
and the stove set up. The tests were carried on for 10 days,

52

so that variations of weather would be evened off as far as
possible. Thermometers were hung in the middle of the
room, near the wall farthest away from the chimney, and
on the outside of the house. The comparison was made by
recording the time that the temperature at the middle of the
room was kept above 65 degrees Fahrenheit. These tests
showed that the wood burned in the stove kept the room
above 65 degrees a little more than 13 times as long as the
wood burned in the open fireplace. With the same condi-
tions one cord of wood burned in a stove goes as far as 13
cords burned in an open fire-place. On some of the coldest
days when the warmth was needed most, the fireplace never
raised the temperature to 65 degrees.

193. The stove used was of the sheet-iron type. These
are easily fed and easily regulated. The large sizes cost
about $5.50, including pipe and floor mat. The writer has
some that have been in use for 6 years; and they can be
counted on to last for at least five years if oiled each
spring. Rusting during the summer months is harder on
them than use during the winter. If a stove is in a room
where a fire is kept going steadily, it soon pavs for itself and
then effects a considerable saving.

194. There is a belief that stoves are not as healthful as
fireplaces. Enquiries were made of physicians. They were
of the opinion that stoves are as healthful as fireplaces, pro-
vided ventilation is secured. In some respects they are more
healthful, for they consume less oxygen to produce a given
amount of heat and they keep the room at an evener temper-
ature and this is of considerable importance, especially
where there are small children.

53

PART III. PLAGE OF WOQDL A$DS :J»/; FARM
MANAGEMENT "

195. The length of time that it takes to grow a crop of
timber keeps many owners from practicing forestry. Al-
though they consider timber a profitable crop, they think of
the harvest as too far in the future to be of any interest to
them. This attitude comes from looking at only one side of
the question. It is true that it takes a long time, in some
cases more than a hundred years, to grow a crop of timber;
but it is also true that the average owner does not have to
start with the bare ground; he starts with a stand of timber,
some of which is mature and ready for the market; and with
very little or no curtailment of his immediate profits, he can
improve his stand so as to increase future profits. The con-
ditions are like those in a store that is partly stocked. The
store-keeper may improve the quality of his stock and
increase its size and continue to sell goods in the meantime.

196. The timber crop has its place in farm management.
Nearly every farmer needs lumber for bridges, fences, cribs,
and barns, and cord wood for fuel. If he produces this ma-
terial on the farm, he not only saves himself the inconven-
ience and expense of bringing it from a distance, but he
makes the profit involved in ks production.

197. There is a great deal of complaint about the scar-
city of labor on the farm. Indeed there is a movement to
import foreign laborers into some of the Southern States.
Such a movement can give only temporary relief. The final
solution must be sought for in other directions, and one of
these is provision for employment throughout the year.
Steady employment is one of the first conditions of getting

54

together and of Beeping; together a force of dependable la-
borers. Timber lands on a farm, especially if in connection
with a saw-mill, furnish employment when work in the fields
is at a standstill. There is least to do in the fields in the
winter and this is the best time to work in the woods; so
that one fits into the other. In this way timberlands are of
importance in farm management, not only because of the
material which they produce, but because they furnish a
means of keeping labor ready for work in the fields when a
perishable crop must be moved quickly or be lost.

198. According to the Federal census there are 26,392,-
000 acres in Georgia farm holdings. Of this area only
10,615,000 acres are reported to be in field crops. This leaves
15,777,000 acres in woodland and waste. There is very little
waste land; and most of what is called waste is capable of
producing timber crops. More than one-half of the average
farm in Georgia is covered by woods; and since the set-
tlement by our people has been going on for 182 years and
clearing has progressed no further than it has, it is not like-
ly that the wooded area will be greatly reduced for several
generations. The owners must pay taxes on this land and
they are out the interest on the investment. It is clearly to
their advantage to make this land as productive as the con-
ditions will permit. The practice of forestry is the means to
this end.

199. While the main effort of the farmer should be ex-
pended on his field crops and live stock, some part of it may
be profitably expended on his woodlands. Their place in
farm management is that of a useful adjunct to the farm.

INDEX

Absorption.. _ I Par. 9

Anchorage 9

Annual layers 3

Ash, green 102

Ash. red 102

Ash, water _ 102

Ash. white 102

Bark beetles 139

Basswood .. 91

Beech .__. 50

Branches, function of 3

Branches and knots 3

Catalpa, hardy 103

Catalpa, common 104

Checklist, Sudworth's 108

Cherry, black ^'78

Chestnut . 53

Clear cutting 165

Coastal plain 12

Cottonwood 47, 115

Creosote 183, 184, 185, 186

Cuttings 115

Cypress, bald 30

Decay 181, 182, 183

Dominant trees 152

Estimate of stand 169

Eucalypts 107

Fire.. 142

Fire lines 147

Fireplaces 191

Firewood . 189, 190

Foliage, extent of 8

Foliage, function of 4

Fungi, 136

Gum, black 94

Gum, sweet 72

Hickory, bitternut 42

Hickory, mockernut 39

Hickory, pecan 43

Hickory, pignut 42

Hickory, shagbark 42

Hickory, shellbark 42

Improvement thinnings 152

Insects 138

Intermediate trees 152

Juniper, red 33

Knots, formation of 3

Labor 197

Leaves, arrangement of 7

Locust, honey 81

Locust, yellow 84

Lime, Ogeechee 96

Log rule 171

Maple, red 87

Mature timber 162

Mockernut.. 39

Mountains 12

Mulberry, red 66

Oak, chestnut 61

Oak, cow 61

Oak, live 61

Oak, post 61

Oak, red 62

Oak, scarlet 65

Oak, Spanish 65

Oak, water 65

Oak, white 58

Oak, willow 65

Oak, yellow . 65

Pecan 43

Persimmon . 99

Piedmont plateau 12

Pine bark beetle 139

Pine, Cuban __ 20

Pine, loblolly 23

Pine, longleaf 17

Pine, shortleaf 26

Poplar, yellow 71

Preservatives 181. 182, 183

Protection ._ 135

Regulation of cut 166, 167

Reproduction 110, 111, 115, 116

Respiration 9

Roots, functions of - ._ 2

Root-hairs 2

Rootlets.. 2

Sargent's Manual ._ 108

Saw-mills 173, 174, 175, 176

Seed 116

Seed-bed 127

Seed-spots 122

Sprouts __ in

Steam engine __ 178

Stem, function of 3

Stoves 192, 193

Strip estimation 169

Sudworth's Checklist 13, 108

Suppressed trees 152

Thinnings 152

Transpiration 9

Tube method of creosoting 186

Tulip-tree 69

Tupelo %

Use of timber 172

Walnut, black 36

Willow, black 44, 115

To be had of the author at Greensboro,
Georgia, The price with paper backs is
60 cents, bound in board 80 cents.

JW&L,

*

u.c.

f*3373\-

328404

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