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BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY —BULLETIN NO, 94.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief.of Bureau.

FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS
IN WESTERN OREGON AND
WESTERN WASHINGTON.

BY

BYRON HUNTER,

ASSISTANT AGRICULTURIST, FARM MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATIONS.

IssuED AuausT 25, 1906.

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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

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BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway.
Pathologist and Physiologist, and Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods.

PATHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge.
Diseases of Fruits, Merton B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge.

PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Plant Breeding, Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge.

Plant Life History, Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge.

Soil Bacteriology and Water Purification, Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in Charge.

Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, Orator F. Cook, Bionomist
in Charge.

Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations and Tea Culture Investigations, Rodney H.
True, Physiologist in Charge. :

Physical Laboratory, Lyman J. Briggs, Physicist in Charge.

TAXONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS.

Economic Collections, Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge.

AGRONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS.

Farm Management, William J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

Grain Investigations, Mark A. Carleton, Cerealist in Charge.

Arlington Haperimental Farm, Lee €. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge.
Sugar Beet Investigations, Charles O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge.
Western Agricultural Extension, Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge.
Dry Land Agriculture, E. Channing Chilcott, Expert in Charge.

HORTICULTURAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Pomological Collections, Gustavus B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge.

BN CIOS LIONS in Pomology, William A. Taylor and G. Harold Powell, Pomologists
in arge.

Experimental Gardens and Grounds, Edward M. Byrnes, Superintendent.

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION INVESTIGATIONS.

Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, Adrian J. Pieters and David Fairchild, in
Charge.
Seed Laboratory, Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge.

SPECIAL LABORATORIES, GARDENS, AND FARMS.

Mississippi Valley Laboratory, St. Louis, MWo., Hermann von Schrenk, Expert in Charge.
Subtropical Laboratory and Gardens, Miami, Fla... Ernst A. Bessey, Pathologist in Charge.
Plant Introduction Gardens, Chico, Cal., Palemon H. Dorsett, Pathologist in Charge.
Cotton Culture Farms, Seaman A. Knapp, Lake Charles, La., Special Agent in Charge.

Editor, J. EB. Rockwell.
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones.

FARM MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATIONS.
W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge.

Scientific Staff.—F. G. Allison, Harmon Benton, D. A. Brodie, L. E. Carrier, J. S. Cates,
J. S. Cotton, M. A. Crosby. L. G. Dodge, E. J. Glasson, David Griffiths, Byron Hunter,
Cc. K. McClelland, H. B. McClure, R. A. Oakley, W. A. Peck, C. E. Quinn, S. M. Tracy,
C. W. Warburton, J. A. Warren, J. M. Westgate.

3
94

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. DeparTMEeNT OF AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Piant Inpustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, |
Washington, D. C., May 19, 1906.

Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 94 of the series of this Bureau, the accom-
panying manuscript, entitled “ Farm Practice with Forage Crops in
Western Oregon and Western Washington.”

This paper was prepared by Mr. Byron Hunter, Assistant Agri-
culturist, under the direction of the Agriculturist in charge of Farm
Management Investigations and in cooperation with the State agri-
cultural experiment stations of Oregon and Washington. Provision
has been made for publication by these two experiment stations.

Respectfully, 7
B. T. GALLowAy,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James WILson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

4
94

CON EN IES:

fina Gx: clu G E510 Tae ag a ese ee ee eee Wk tee PS ec
Description ofp hese cl One eae ee ee aS wae ee it Ns aes
SFSU 2a 100 ek al ta Oe we eh thy pe nee ere a eee ee eae cero. a Pies CT a See ee Ah:
Conditions governing stage at which hay should be cut ___________. __-
6 ease ee Ley ee ee ene Greeti i SLE Fe see
1 ELE? COPE ONS aspect BANS 5) Ra ce ei na rg

HB CCG] OW. pitas ue ae Mee ees ee NE et ey ano CaF) Pe oS i
MGEN OAS Oe SOWA Omit nto. tere a cere ae aay Se ne Aes
ADIN SISO CARO a Os sae a Spee eae eee

NIST SESS MOR ETS 2 ss OT IS RS NS sect nner dace a

Womnmon eye be Ween ee acer ork ei ete ere eee Ls oo EE
NCES) EWOYG IS) COE SONG a AOS eS a Spe
SOTA eee eee heen eae eee Seer ala MEM TOR Coy te rah wees 9 4 5 dc ts
MI Mi aye GTO Dig year Sint Seer epee) we eee See ye hee rt) ee

- The seed crop. See ely Se ee NR eg i oR ose SENS oa, NC (es Ea
array .c iG lien Se epee Rn ten Fe es in a Oa | Re aoe Lees OS

TERAYSNG 1) SYSeS SS iss Seg Se 2 as ag ge en oe pe me pa ed eee ean ar et

PAC lifien lifter acer, WER eh Ee Ie hae Dy gD te Mai Ce et Aes Uap a ee oaskeg Te EUS
Met hodsiole sowie ses ee incr, ce ee ie ae eS et Ly DES Seen
Heme ull iG om erp epee sae Sh pe) MERA ee ee Se Se

Peta Ot iw ene meee Rtn eR eter cor eS ee el ahed Sal oka eh Ue Mens Oe Sire

fn ee Bylo ha sSe Spe et Ss eee ae ee Oe fe ae a

CO) ric Tas aT SS peer ae ea peta Ss See A

GAG Opes GUC meee te he ee et ee eS LY

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Mhousamdsheaded' kales— ==. =82_ 22 22 Le - ee ee Bee

SE MICEIO CSEOLISO Wald Oe ee nae ee emer a ee A Pa ee

ee Git Caen eae ner eee ee enn En ose Pee eT SE

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IBYOVO IF CIRO) OS SS a ee ee
NOUN ARC Orem reOd IN) RChODSHs Meme otet tease ee
Seeding timber burns and burnt slashings _____-____-_--.----------- Se ee

94

Let USER AON

TEXT FIGURES.

Hie: 1; A common method of cutting tangled velch esses axe ee
2. A field of thousand-headed kale on Martins Island, near Kalama,
Wash: is 0055S a8 te ee ee ae eee ee ee

3. A ‘‘scuffle’’ hoe devised and used by W. J. Langdon, Sumner,
‘Wash-,-in thinning and weeding r00t Crops 2-5 ee

4. A *‘ scuffle’ hoe similar in principle to that shown in figure 3,
devised by A. B. Leckenby, Seattle, Wash ______.------.--------

6
94

Pace.

B. P. I.—215.

FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN
WESTERN OREGON AND WESTERN
WASHINGTON.

INTRODUCTION.

Although the average methods in farm practice in any region are
usually far below the highest possibilities, men are to be found here
and there who have worked out the problems of crop production and
utilization in a satisfactory manner and who stand out as the most
successful farmers in their respective communities. By studying the
methods of a large number of such men it is possible to acquire a
large amount of valuable information that would require years of
patient labor to glean from personal experience. During the three
vears the writer has had charge of forage plant investigations in
the Pacific Northwest, considerable time has been spent in the Wil-
lamette Valley and the region of Puget Sound studying the methods
of the farmers most successful in growing and handling forage crops.
Jn addition to the information obtained in this detailed study, much
has been gleaned during thirty years’ residence in the Pacific North-
west, including nine years’ residence in the Willamette Valley. This
bulletin is a result of this study, and the material herein contained,
except as noted in the text, is based almost entirely upon the infor-
mation obtained in this manner.

For the benefit of the readers of this bulletin not familiar with the
condition under which the crops discussed are grown a brief descrip-
uon of the region is given. Although much has been published
regarding the superiority of legumes over other plants as soil reno-
vators and food for farm animals, there are many into whose hands
this bulletin is likely to fall who do not understand the importance
of this group of plants. For this reason a paragraph is given upon
the nature of these plants and the methods of their inoculation.
For similar reasons the principles underlying haymaking and the

use of hay caps are discussed.

7
94

8 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION.

What is said in these pages is applicable to all that region west
of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon and Washington as far south
as the upper portion of the Willamette Valley. With the exception
of some of the mountainous areas the winters are mild. The summer
months are comparatively dry. the nights are cool, and dews are
frequent and heavy. The annual rainfall varies from about 20 inches
in a small area where the Strait of San Juan de Fuca joins Puget
Sound to more than 100 inches at several points along the Pacific
coast. The main body of agricultural land about Puget Sound has
an annual rainfall of 30 to 60 inches: that of the Willamette Valley
40 to 50 inches.

The average rainfall of this region for six years is shown in the
following table:

Average monthly and annual rainfall at points in the States of Oregon and

Washington.
Oregon. Washington.
Month. . | ;

ae Albany. Salem. ele Seattle. Bene

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
JANGATY <2. soscono eee eee 7. 04 5.48 6.15 $.25 3.93 3. 34
Hebriary see eee eee ee 6.38 6. 22 A417 7.08 ADT 2.69
WVizir Gla or eS ee eee eo eee SET 5.06 4.61 splky 3.26 2-72
Apr 220 eS es es Sere eee ae 3.25 2.41 4.07 4.32 2.38 2. 64
Ts Fe 5 Peep RO ne Pig See DE A NS Ege 2.04 LAG 3.42 3. 06 2.03 2.52
SUNG Ss TE Fee en eee ee 1.15 7. 1.47 2.09 | 1.87 2. 02
Cay os Se ONS TIS. cee ee ee eee D3 | Di 28 5D | . 82 1.14
AGS TSE Se So ne ae ee eee $1 | 82 .65 .68 68 1.43
pepiember =.) 2 ee 8 ee 1.97 | 1.85 1.94 2.91 2.15 2.26
October: =< | 2 Se ee eee 3.39 2.29 | 3. 62 4 2A 3.05 2.51
November. -2 522. 2:2 2a eee 10.13 7.44 8.18 10.98 | 5.77 4.93
Wecemper oe ee ee ee 4.47 6.17 6. 62 7.92 | Rots 3.85

Wearlys 22. te. see Bees ee 46.87 40.52 45.15 d7.25— 30.62 | 32.05

Tt will be seen that the rainfall is hght during summer, heaviest
during winter, and quite well distributed throughout the remainder
of the year. With its mild winters and abundant rainfall the region
as a whole is exceedingly well adapted to forage plant production.
Grasses remain green during the entire year, while the clovers,
vetches, root crops, rape, and kale, with proper care, all yield abund-
antly.

In Oregon the Willamette Valley constitutes the major portion of
the agricultural land of the region studied. When first brought into
cultivation the valley soil was friable, easily tilled, and productive.
For years the cereals were practically the only crops grown, and
much of the land at the present time is still producing these crops
exclusively. The average yield of wheat on such land at the present
time is said to be as low as 10 or 12 bushels per acre. Formerly it

was much higher. The growing of cereal crops year after year has
94

ig)

HAYMAKING. 8)

depleted the soil of much of its humus and rendered it heavy, lifeless,
and difficult to work. Appleations of barnyard manure and the
growing of leguminous crops bring the soil back to its proper texture
and fertility, and since dairying and live-stock production have be-
come such important industries in the valley much of the land is
being rapidly restored to its former productiveness.

Western Washington is largely covered with a dense growth of
evergreen timber and underbrush. The prairie land is limited and
much of it is gravelly and of little agricultural value. Most of the
agricultural land was formerly timbered, and it has shown itself
eminently adapted to the production of forage crops and various
kinds of fruit. Clover has been one of the leading crops for years,
and little of the land has been subjected to the exclusive production
of cereal crops. As might be expected, therefore, most of the farm
land of western Washington is still in a very productive condition.

HAYMAKING.

To make hay of prime quality west of the Cascade Mountains is
often a difficult matter. Most of the hay crops, if allowed to mature
naturally, are ready to cut during the month of June, whue the late
spring rains are usually not over until the 1st of July. Thus, hay-
making would naturally occur at a time when good weather can not
always be relied upon. Even when the weather is fair the nights
are cool and dews are frequent and heavy. This difficulty is often
partially overcome by pasturing the meadows in the spring until
ubout the Ist of May to retard the development of the crop, so that
haymaking will occur after the late spring rains are over.

CONDITIONS GOVERNING STAGE AT WHICH HAY SHOULD BE CUT. ©

There are several factors to be considered in determining the proper
stage at which a crop should be cut for hay. Chemists tell us that
hay made from young growing plants is more digestible and contains
more protein per pound than hay made from more mature plants.
If hay is cut early the percentage of protein is greater; if cut later,
the percentage of protein is less, but the yield of dry matter in pounds
is materially increased. As an illustration of this, see the table giv-
ing the amount of dry matter in corn at different stages of develop-
ment, page 29. The protein content of hay made from the true
grasses, such as timothy or orchard grass, is always low, and the gain
in protein per pound from cutting such hay early is always more
than counterbalanced by the loss in dry matter. On the other hand,
hay made from some of the leguminous plants is said to be too rich
for certain classes of animals. Men who have had considerable
experience in feeding vetch and alfalfa hay generally agree in saying

31697—_No, 94—06 2

10 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

that either is too strong a feed for horses, especially if cut very green.
For this reason hay made from leguminous crops is frequently cut
much riper if for horses than when intended for other animals.

Laxative feeding stuffs are undesirable for horses, but not for cows.
Green hay is laxative-in character, while hay cut in a more mature
condition has an opposite tendency. The stage at which hay should
be cut, therefore, will depend upon the class of animals for which it
is intended.

The number of times a meadow is to be cut during a season is an-
other factor in the time for cutting hay that must not be overlooked.
If there is to be but one cutting, the greatest yield will be secured
by allowmg the crop to become quite well matured before it is cut.
When two cuttings are to be made, farmers who have tried the experi-
ment find that the greatest yield is secured by cutting the first crop
while it is still green and growing and before the dry season has begun.
The ordinary hay plants are not inclined to continue their growth
after the first cutting if allowed to stand until their seed is pretty
well formed. <A delay of only a few days in cutting the first crop
of the season often seriously affects the growth of the second.

A statement of the time for cutting will be found under the special
discussion of each crop.

CURING HAY.

The best hay is made without rain and with the least possible amount of
sunshine. If it were possible to cure hay in the shade, the quality would be
much better. The curing of hay is a process of drying and of fermentation.
Hot sun tends to stop fermentations which produce hay of good quality.¢

From what is said above it is evident that hay should remain in
the swath only until dry enough to be raked evenly into windrows;
that most of the curing should take place in the cock rather than in
the swath or windrow; and that, just as quickly as it is safe to do so,
it should be placed in the stack or mow. With fair weather and hot
sun, hght crops may be raked soon after mowing, often in two or
three hours. Heavier crops, especially when green, require more
time. When the growth is heavy the swath is often packed so closely
to the ground from its own weight and the pressure of the wheels of
the mower that the use of the tedder is necessary to dry it out evenly.

West of the Cascade Mountains hay 1s generally put up in per-
manent cocks, where it remains for a week or ten days. If it is to
remain in the field but a short time some farmers cure it quickly by
first putting it into small, flat cocks. In about twenty-four hours
these are turned over, allowed to air, and three or four of them are
then made into one permanent cock. At what stage hay should be
stacked is a question upon which there are many opinions. A com-

aW. J. Spillman, in “ Farm Grasses of the United States,”
94

THE SILO. iL

mon rule with many farmers is to stack when juice can not be twisted
out of a wisp of hay taken from the middle of the cock.

As stated, the common practice in this region is to let hay remain
in the field for about a week; in fact, a very large majority of farm-
ers think good hay can be made in no other way under the chmatic
conditions west of the Cascade Mountains. There are some success-
ful men, however, who put up hay by what has been termed the
“rapid process.” With good haying weather the method is about as
follows: The grass is cut in the afternoon. Being unwilted, the first
night’s dew does not injure it. If the crop is heavy the tedder is
started the next morning as soon as the dew has dried off, and the
hay is gone over as many times as possible during the day. Just
before evening it 1s raked and cockeds The hay then stands in the
field for two nights and a day and until the dew is off the second day.
The cocks are then scattered and aired, especially the bottom portions
of them, and the hay is hauled to the mow during the day. It thus
requires three days from cutting to hauling. The hay is scattered
evenly in the mow so that it may all settle alike and exclude as much
air as possible, and is salted at the rate of 10 pounds per ton. At
night the barn is tightly closed to keep out damp air.

HAY CAPS.

When the price of hay is high, it is quite probable that hay caps
can be used profitably in making hay west of the Cascade Mountains.
The use of caps would prevent the outside of the cocks from becom-
ing too dry, and would thus add to the total weight of cured hay.
The quality of the hay would be greatly improved, for it would be
practically uniform throughout. The use of caps would also greatly
increase the certainty of saving the crop. A farmer in Georgia has
used hay caps for ten years. He thinks they materially increase both
the quality and the quantity of his hay. Unfortunately there are at
present no hay caps on the market. However, they may be made of
hght canvas or any strong cotton cloth in sizes to suit. Caps 44 to
5 feet square, with pegs or weights attached to hold them in place
when in use, ought to give satisfactory service. A coat of oil should
be applied to one side of the cloth. The caps should always be dried
after being used, for they will mold if piled up wet.

THE SILO.

That the silo should have a very general use in western Oregon
and western Washington, not only for the preservation of corn but
for many other crops as well, ought to be apparent from an under-
standing of the climatic conditions of the regicn. As previously
stated, most of the hay crops are ready to cut during the month of

94

12 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

June, while spring rains frequently continue until about the 1st of
July. (See table giving the distribution of rainfall on page 8.) It
will thus be seen that haymaking ordinarily occurs at a time when
good weather can not always be relied upon. If meadows are pas:
tured during the spring to retard the development of the crop, so
that haymaking will occur after the late spring rains are over, the
yield of the second crop is usually much lighter, since its growth is
confined entirely to the dry season. By the use of the silo, on the
other hand, the first crop may be cut for ensilage early in June, even
though the weather be unfavorable for haymaking. If cut at this
time, while the plants are still growing vigorously, a good second
crop will usually mature for hay early in August—the best haying
season of the year. A light third crop can be used for pasture or cut
for ensilage late in the fall. It is evident, therefore, that the use of
the silo will practically insure the saving of the first crop, increase
the total yield per acre, and cause the second crop to mature at a
time when good haying weather can usually be relied upon.

That all kinds of ensilage should be finely cut may be desirable,
but we must not get the idea that it is essential. For years ensilage
of the finest quality has been made in western Oregon and western
Washington out of whole clover and grass (timothy, English rye-
grass, etc.). In making ensilage of this kind, however, there are two
essentials—an air-tight silo and great care in filling it.

Farmers who use the silo as indicated above agree that the first
crop of grass and clover should be cut for ensilage from the Ist to
the 15th of June, for the earlier the first crop is cut the greater will
be the yield of the second.

Difficulty is usually experienced in raking up freshly cut green
grass with an ordinary hayrake. Some farmers avoid this difficulty
by cutting witha self-raking reaper or a mower witha buncher attach-
ment. These bunches are then thrown on a wagon by hand. Others
eut with an ordinary mower and load from the swath with a hay
loader. The heavy green grass often bends the teeth on the elevator
bars of the loader. The teeth may be reenforced by nailing blocks
of wood on the elevator bars just back of the teeth.

In filling the silo the material must be evenly spread and thoroughly
tramped, so that all of the air possible will be excluded. If this is
not done much of the ensilage will spoil. Two principal methods
were found in use by farmers in filling silos. In the first the freshly
cut grass is dropped directly into the silo with a hayfork. Two men
in the silo spread the material and tramp it thoroughly, especially
around the edges. The center of the silo where the loads from the
fork fall requires but httle tramping. The second method is to drop
the material upon a platform at the top of the silo by means of hay

94

NATURE OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 1133

slings or a hayfork. A man upon the platform throws the material
into the silo, placing it as best he can. Another man spreads it
evenly in the silo and tramps it thoroughly. This is perhaps the
safest method, for there is less chance to shght the work. For a few
days after the silo has been filled, the settling of the material will
allow the addition of two or three loads each day, each load being
thoroughly tramped when added. When the filling is completed the
top is covered about 1 foot deep with marsh grass or other waste
material that will pack closely and exclude the air. This is wetted
thoroughly and tramped daily for several days, using about 2 bar-
rels of water at each wetting. The writer has seen ensilage of excel-
lent quality made from whole grass in this way. He has also seen
ensilage made by dropping the material into the silo without spread-
ing and tramping that was practically a total loss.

THE NATURE OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.

Plants that produce their seed in two-valved pods, such as peas,
beans, vetch, and alfalfa, are called legumes. The value of this
family of plants as soil renovators has long been recognized, but in
just what way they are capable of restoring fertility to the soil has
not been understood until recent years. If the roots of a leguminous
plant be carefully removed from the soil little lumps, called nodules
or tubercles, will usually be found upon them. These nodules vary
mn size with different legumes and may be found alone or in clusters.
On the roots of red clover they are about twice as large as the seed
of that plant. The nodules are caused by bacteria that are parasitic
in the roots.

By the aid of the bacteria Hving in the nodules, leguminous plants
are enabled to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. Since nitrogen con-
stitutes approximately four-fifths of the atmosphere this family of
plants has an inexhaustible supply of this important plant-food ele-
ment. Other plants can not assimilate the nitrogen of the atmos-
phere; they can obtain it only from decaying organic matter: and
from commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen. Chemical analyses
show the tisues of leguminous plants to be very rich in nitrogen;
hence the value of these plants when plowed under as green manure.
The roots of a clover crop ordinarily contain more nitrogen than the
whole crop removes from the soil. As these roots decay, the plant
food in them becomes available for other plants. Nitrogen is usually
the first element of plant food that needs renewing; hence the great
value of leguminous plants as soil renovators.

Generally speaking, the nodules of each kind of legume are caused
by certain kinds of bacteria. Thus there is one kind for alfalfa,
another for red clover, another for common vetch, and so on. At

94

14 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

any rate the nodule-forming bacteria of red clover, for example,
have become so accustomed to that plant that they are of little or
no value in forming nodules on the roots of most other legumes. If
nodule-forming bacteria are not in the soil no nodules will be formed;
the failure of leguminous crops is often due to this cause. These
bacteria may be artificially supplied in two ways, namely, by means
of pure cultures of the bacteria and by transferring soil from one
field to another. For further information regarding these two meth-
ods, see page 24. See also Farmers’ Bulletin No. 240, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. :

FORAGE CROPS.

In the pages that follow, only those crops are discussed that have
an important place in the agriculture of the region. What is said
regarding methods of seeding, culture, and feeding these crops is
based almost entirely upon the farm practice of the region.

RED CLOVER.

Considering the region as a whole, red clover (777¢folium pratense)
is easily the leading forage plant west of the Cascade Mountains. It
thrives best on rich, well-drained upland soils. Many of the low
lands that are too wet and cold for red clover become adapted to it
when properly drained. If allowed to develop naturally, this crop
matures for hay early in June. Rains are not infrequent at this
season of the year, and it is a common practice to pasture red clover
in the spring until about the first of May to retard the development
of the crop, so that haymaking will occur during good weather.
Red clover begins to grow in the early spring and, unless the soil is
very poor and the summer very dry, remains green and furnishes
excellent pasture until early in December.

Generally speaking, red clover reaches its highest development on
the coast and the region about Puget Sound, where, under favorable
conditions, it may be cut three times during the year. To give three
crops it must be grown on rich lands and must not be pastured in
the early spring. The first crop should be cut for hay or ensilage
early in June, the second for hay in August, and the third for ensi-
lage late in the fall. In the Willamette Valley difficulty is often
experienced in getting red clover established, especially on land that
has produced cereal crops exclusively for years. This difficulty 1s
probably due to the methods of seeding, the dry summers, the poor
texture of the soil, the lack of available nitrogen, and possibly the
lack of nodule-forming bacteria. Red clover also frequently runs
out ina short time. It is believed by farmers that this is due to the
ravages of the clover root borer. In spite of these difficulties, how-

ir |

SOWING RED CLOVER. 15

ever, red clover is one of the leading forage plants of the Willamette
Valley. It is not unreasonable to assume that these hindrances to the
growth of red clover are largely responsible for the important place
that common vetch occupies in the agriculture of western Oregon.

In the Willamette Valley it is a common practice to apply land
plaster to clover in the spring, during March and April. From 40
to 60 pounds per acre apphed on the surface of the ground in the
early spring are said to double the yield of both hay and seed. Land
plaster has the same effect when applied to other leguminous crops
in this region, but it is essential that it be apphed early enough to
receive an abundance of rain.

METHODS OF SOWING.

There are many methods in use for sowing red clover in western
Oregon and western Washington, some of which are given below:

(1) Clover with early-sown winter wheat.—From 8 to 12 pounds
of clover seed per acre are sown in the early fall with winter wheat
on land that has been summer fallowed or from which an early culti-
vated crop has been removed. The seed is usually sown broadcast
and covered with a harrow. If the clover fails to catch it can be
sown again in the spring, about the 1st of March.

(2) Clover with late-sown winter wheat.—Early in the spring,
about the 1st of March, when the ground is heaving shghtly from
alternate thawing and freezing, from 8 to 10 pounds of clover seed
per acre are sown broadcast on late-sown winter wheat. If the
ground is dry enough when the clover seed is sown it may be covered
with a harrow.

(3) Clover with spring oats or wheat.—With this method a good
seed bed is essential. The land should be plowed deep in the late
fall or winter, and as soon as in good working condition in the spring
it should be cultivated until it is in perfect tilth. If the soil is
inclined to run together it may be necessary to replow in the spring.
Instead of plowing in the fall or winter it may be done in the early
spring and the seed bed prepared immediately. After drilling in
a full crop of oats or wheat, from 10 to 12 pounds of clover seed per
acre are sown and covered with a harrow. In western Washington
this is the usual method, with the exception that either timothy,
English rye-grass, or orchard grass is usually sown with the grain
and clover. On wet. land alsike clover often forms a part of the
mixture.

(4) Clover alone—When clover is sown alone in the spring the
land is plowed early and worked down fine. About the Ist of May
it is again thoroughly cultivated to kill weeds and prepare the seed
bed. From 10 to 12 pounds of clover seed per acre are then sown

94 .

16 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

and covered by harrowing. The clover may be pastured during the
first season, but should not be cropped too closely during the driest
part of the summer. This is becoming quite a popular method in the
Willamette Valley and very satisfactory stands are secured, but the
use of the land is almost lost the first year.

Clover may be sown alone also in the late summer or early autumn.
Although this method is seldom used it is probably one of the most
satisfactory ways of sowing clover west of the Cascade Mountains.
If sown with grain in the fall, clover does not make a crop the next
year, but if sown alone in the late summer a full crop is secured the
next summer. It is essential, however, that the seeding ke done
early, for if sown in the late fall it is hable to be winterkilled. Only
crops, then, that can be removed early should precede clover sown in
this way.

(5) Clover with rape.—Sowing clover with rape is a very success-
ful and popular method with many farmers who are engaged in
raising sheep and goats. With the land prepared as indicated for
sowing clover alone in the spring, from 10 to 12 pounds of clover
seed and from 2 to 4 pounds of rape seed per acre are sown broadcast
about the 1st of May and covered with a harrow. If the ground is
rough and cloddy, it should be finished with a roller. If this mix-
ture is sown on a thoroughly pulverized and compact seed bed, the
rape develops rapidly and furnishes excellent pasture for sheep,
goats, calves, or swine in from six to eight weeks. The tramping of
the animals while feeding during the summer, principally on the
rape, forms a dust mulch on the surface of the ground. In this way
soil moisture is retained for the use of the clover during the dry sum-
mer season. If a hay crop is desired the second season, the rape is
killed by pasturing it closely with sheep during the late fall or win-
ter. Sheep eat off the crowns of the plants close to the ground and
the rape then dies. If the rape is not killed it will go to seed the next
summer, and the stalks will give some trouble in the hay. If the
clover is not cropped too closely the first summer, this method gives
an excellent stand.

Failures occur frequently, especially in the Willamette Valley,
when clover is sown by any one of the first three methods described.
With rich, moist soil of good texture and with frequent rains during
the summer these methods are usually successful. But with soils
that are inclined to puddle and dry out quickly—soils that have pro-
duced grain crops exclusively for a number of years—they often give
poor results. Under such conditions the grain shades the clover too
much, and robs it of the moisture necessary to carry it through the
first summer. |

94

ALSIKE CLOVER. 17

THE SEED CROP.

Since the first crop of clover is seldom used for seed it is cut for
hay or ensilage about the 1st of June to enable the second crop to
make a good growth before the dry season begins. Instead of cutting
the first crop for hay or ensilage, clover is sometimes pastured until
late in May, and the first crop is then used for seed. By mowing the
first crop, however, the second one comes on more evenly than when
the first is pastured.

When the heads of the seed crop are pretty well dried and are dark-
brown in color the clover is cut with a self-raking reaper, or with a
mower with a buncher attachment. Bunches of the size of an ordi-
nary wheat bundle are dropped in rows. When the heads are dry
enough to powder when rubbed in the hands five or six bunches are
thrown together by hand or bunched with a hayrake in the morning
when damp with dew. The thrashing is done when possible with a
clover huller, and the clover is hauled to the machine in tight-
bottomed racks in order that the shattered seed may not be lost.

ALSIKE CLOVER.

Alsike clover (7vifolium hybridum) has a much wider range of
adaptability in western Oregon and western Washington than red
clover. It thrives not only on soil adapted to the latter—upland
clays and well-drained soils—but also on lowland clays, alluvial
bottoms, and many soils too wet and cold to grow red clover. Its
stems are much finer and more recumbent than those of red clover,
and its leaves are not so numerous. The yield of the first crop is
very satisfactory, but it 1s disposed to make but little growth after
a crop has fully matured for hay. If cut early, however, it is said
to make a very satisfactory second growth. A delay of only a few
days in the time of cutting the first crop. makes a very marked
difference in the growth of the second.

Alsike clover makes a very good quality of hay and is well suited
to sow with timothy, since these two crops mature at the same time.
It is a perennial, stands grazing well, and seems to be much less
susceptible to the attacks of the clover root borer than is red clover.
Since alsike clover is so nearly the equal of red clover in nearly every
way it should be given a thorough trial in all localities west of the
Cascade Mountains where red clover may have failed.

From what has been said it is evident that alsike clover is eminently
adapted for sowing on land that is too cold and wet for red clover,
in mixtures for permanent pastures, and on forest burns and burnt
slashings that are to be used for pasture for several years.

The seed of alsike clover is quite small and 5 or 6 pounds per acre
will be found sufficient when it is sown alone. With this exception,

31697—No. 94—06——3

18 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

all that has been said regarding the seeding of red clover applies
equally well to alsike clover.

COMMON VETCH.

The common vetch (Vicza sativa) is perfectly adapted to condi-
tions west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon and Washington and
thrives even on very poor soil. It has been grown in the Willamette
Valley for many years, and is rapidly replacing red clover in many
localities. It is an annual legume of great value as a nitrogen
gatherer, as a green manure, and as a soiling, hay, and pasture plant.
It is also a very valuable cover crop in orchards when sown in the
early fall. It makes excellent ensilage, and dairy cattle prefer the
hay to that of red clover. The yield of cured hay is from 14 to 4
tons per acre. A seed crop yields from 15 to 30 bushels per acre, the
yield depending quite largely upon the efficiency with which the seed
is saved. A bushel of clean seed weighs a little more than 60 pounds.

METHODS OF SOWING.

Common vetch stands the winters admirably in western Oregon
and western Washington, and is sown in the autumn from the last
of August to the last of November. It is sown also in the early
spring, but fall seeding usually gives the largest yields. The stems
of this vetch are not strong, and heavy crops are inclined to flatten
out on the ground. When in this fallen condition it soon begins to
mold and is very difficult to harvest. To furnish support for it and
keep it up off the ground a bushel of oats, wheat, or rye, and a bushel
of vetch per acre are usually sown together. Oat hay, especially for
dairy purposes, is usually preferred to that of wheat or rye, and for
this reason oats are usually sown with vetch, winter oats being sown
in the fall and spring oats in the spring. It is a common practice
with vetch growers to sow winter oats and vetch broadcast in the
early fall on land that has raised a spring crop and to cover the seed
with a disk harrow. If the land is loose and easily worked, this
method gives good results, but like most other crops vetch gives much
better yields if sown on a well-prepared seed bed. If the ground is
packed, or if the seeding is done in the spring, the land is usually
plowed and a good seed bed prepared.

SOILING.

Sown with rye the last of August or early in September, common
vetch should be ready for soiling, 1. e., feeding green, from April 15
to May 1: sown with winter oats or wheat October 1,-it should be
ready about May 1: sown with winter oats or wheat in the late fall.
it should be ready about June 1: sown with oats in February, it

94

VETCH HAY. 19

should be ready about June 15. When cut in the early spring for
soiling a second crop may be cut or pastured, or the land may be
plowed and planted to some other crop.

THE HAY CROP.

Since fall-sown vetch matures for hay in June and rains are not
infrequent at this season of the year it is quite a common practice
to pasture it in the early spring—March and April—to keep the
growth from becoming so heavy that it will fall before it is cut and
to retard its development so that haymaking will occur after the
rains are over. If the crop is heavy and falls during bad weather
it is best to make ensilage of it immediately.

When the seeds are just appearing in the first pods is usually con-
sidered the best time to cut vetch for hay. Some cut it earlier than
this, while others allow the first seeds to become pretty well matured.
If the crop is not too heavy it may be handled in the ordinary way,
but it should be put into cocks before the leaves are dry enough to
be broken off during the handling. When very heavy it falls more
or less, and usually in some prevailing direction. When in this
fallen condition the rear of the sickle bar of the mower is usually
raised and the guards tilted down. Sometimes a man follows the
mower with a strong pitchfork and when the vetch clogs he sticks
the tines of the fork into the ground just behind the sickle bar and
pulls the vetch loose. | a

Others cut vetch in but one direction, the opposite way from that
“in which it is leaning, driving the mower back idle each trip. Men
with forks throw each swath out as it is cut, so that the mower can
get through without the vetch clogging on the sickle bar. Another
way is to cut a swath and with forks roll it on the uncut vetch; cut
another swath and roll the two cut swaths on the uncut vetch; cut
again and roll out the three cut swaths. This process forms wind-
rows of three swaths each. (See fig. 1.)

With the vetch fallen in one prevailing direction, others cut one
way only, driving the mower in such manner that the fallen vetch
will point forward and away from the direction driven at an angle
of about 45°. A little experience will enable one to determine the
proper angle. When the cutting of a swath is finished the sickle
bar is raised and the mower thrown out of gear and driven back on
the swath just cut to mash it down and make a path for the shoe of
the sickle bar with the wheel of the mower. With the rear of the
sickle bar raised, the guards tilted down, the vetch lying in the
direction indicated, and the last cut swath lapping up on the uncut
vetch and mashed down by driving the empty mower back over it,
the inner wheel of the mower, as the next swath is being cut, runs

o4

290 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

upon the swath just cut and holds it so that the shoe of the sickle bar
slips over with little or no clogging. In this way the swath upon
which the wheels of the mower are running is cut in two again and
another clean swath is also cut at the same time. Cutting each swath
in two twice makes the handling of the hay much easier. After being
cut the hay may be cured and handled in the usual way.

THE SEED CROP.

It is very difficult to separate the seeds of wheat or rye from vetch
seed, while those of oats and vetch can be separated reasonably well.
For a seed crop that 1s intended for market, therefore, oats and vetch

Fic. 1.—A common method of cutting tangled vetch. The first swath cutis rolled on the uncut
vetch; after the mower passes again, the double swath is rolled on the uncut vetch; when the
mower has cut under this, the triple swath is rolled outward.

are usually sown together in the early fall—about a bushel of each
per acre. In the spring they are usually pastured until April to keep
the growth from becoming so rank that it will fall. The vetch then
matures in July. The seed matures very unevenly; the pods burst
epen when overripe and exposed to the sun, and much of the seed
may be lost in this way. The best seed is always produced in the
lower pods and the seed crop is usually cut when these pods are
turning brown and before they have begun to drop their seed.

If the crop stands up well and is not too heavy it is cut with a
binder and shocked immediately. From 12 to 15 bundles are put
in the bottom of the shock and other bundles built on top of this

94

VETCH SEED. Dat

again, letting the butts of the upper bundles come down to the bands
of the lower ones. Other bundles are built on top of this again,
covering all of the seed pods possible. This prevents the shattering
of a great deal of seed, for the pods dry evenly and gradually when
not exposed to the sun.

If strictly pure seed is desired, vetch 1s sometimes sown alone at
the rate of 100 to 120 pounds per acre. When thick it stands up rea-
sonably well. If the seed crop is too heavy to bind, it is cut with a
mower. With pitchforks the first cut swath is rolled on the uncut
vetch; another swath is then cut and the two cut swaths rolled on
the uncut vetch. When the third swath is cut the three cut swaths
are rolled out. This forms windrows of three swaths each. It is
then placed in large cocks immediately and allowed to dry with as
httle exposure to the sun as is possible. This method of cutting and
cocking largely prevents the loss of seed from shattering. If cut
and raked in the usual way the wheels of the mower, the wheels of
the rake, and the tramping of the horses burst many of the ripe pods.
As soon as the vetch is dry it should be thrashed without delay with
an ordinary thrashing machine, hauling it to the machine in racks
with tight bottoms or with canvas spread over the racks to catch the-
shattered seed. In thrashing, the concaves are removed and blanks
having no teeth used instead. The motion of the cylinder is slowed
down and plenty of wind turned on. ‘The use of hay caps in curing
_vetch for seed would greatly increase the yield, especially when it is
cut with a mower. The pods on the surface of the cocks become dry
end burst before the centers of the cocks have time to cure. In this
way a great deal of seed is lost. The caps would protect the pods on
the surface of the cock from the direct rays of the sun and permit
the whole cock to dry more evenly. (See the discussion of hay caps
on p. 11.)

In growing a seed crop of vetch considerable seed is lost on the
ground by the bursting of the pods. If this fallen vetch seed is
plowed under, much of it will be covered too deeply to germinate.
The amount of oil in the seed is such that it may then lie in the
ground for years without decaying, and will grow when turned up
near the surface by subsequent plowing. In this way it may become
a pest in wheat that is grown for market. Land that has grown a
seed crop of vetch may be prepared for wheat as follows: Sow oats
and vetch broadcast in the fall, without plowing, and cover the seed
with a disk harrow. Cut the oats and vetch for hay the next season
and pasture the second growth close enough to prevent any seed from
maturing. Grow a cultivated crop the next year. The land should
then be ready for winter wheat.

94

22 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.
PEARL VETCH.

Pearl vetch (Vicia sativa alba) has been grown in the Willamette
Valley for a number of years, but is comparatively unknown except in
the vicinity of New Era, Oreg. It is so much lke the common vetch
(Vicia sativa) that they can not be distinguished except by the color
of the seed. The common vetch has a dark-colored, mottled seed,
while the seed of pearl vetch is a light salmon color, with a pearly
luster. The uses and values of these two plants seem to be identical.
with the exception that the seed of pearl vetch, it is claimed, is a good
table vegetable, being used particularly in making soup. Its seed
probably also makes better feed when chopped. What has been said
regarding the uses, culture, and handling of the common vetch applies
calle oll to pearl vetch.

FIELD PEAS.

Field peas (Pisum arvense) are well adapted to the conditions of
western Oregon and western Washington. They do well on a large
variety of soils, but are especially adapted to clay soils and alluvial
bottoms. They are grown for grain, hay, ensilage, and soiling.
Peas are nutritious, and the hay and ensilage are eaten with relish by
most kinds of stock. When grown for hay about 2 bushels of peas
and 2 bushels of oats per acre are sown together as early in the
spring as the condition of the ground will permit. When sown at
the same time the oats often choke out the peas. This may be largely
avoided by sowing the peas first, preferably with a drill, since the
seed is difficult to cover, and when they have sprouts on them about
“ inches long drill in the oats. This will give the peas the start
and they will hold their own much better. If sown broadcast they
should be well covered with a disk harrow. Peas should be cut for
hay when the seeds in the first pods are just ready for table use.
Sown in the early spring they mature for hay from the Ist to the 15th
of July. The yield is from 14 to 4 tons of hay per acre. When har-
vested for seed the yield is usually from 25 to 30 bushels per acre.
Peas are often sown alone and harvested when mature by swine
turned into the field.

The pea weevil often does considerable damage to the pea crop,
especially when grown for seed. When sown late, peas suffer much
inore from the ravages of this pest than they do when sown early.
Since they stand considerable frost they should be sown as early in
the spring as the season will permit. Of late years peas fail in some
localities from other causes than the weevil. They assume a pale,
sickly appearance and the yield and quality of the hay are very unsat-
isfactory. In localities where this happens common vetch and pearl

94

ALFALFA. 23

vetch should be grown instead of peas, for they are sure crops and
are equal or even superior to peas in practically every way as a forage
plant.

ALFALFA.

At the present time the growing of alfalfa (J/edicago sativa) west
of the Cascade Mountains is only in the experimental stage. Small
areas are to be found in various places, some of which are doing
reasonably well. Most of these have not been planted long enough
and have not been studied sufficiently to justify definite conclusions as
to the future usefulness of alfalfa in this region. There are many
localities with well-drained soils, however, in which it will unques-
tionably succeed if given proper treatment. In regions in which the
rainfall is as great as it 1s at certain seasons west of the Cascade
Mountains, alfalfa requires a loose, permeable subsoil, and seems to
thrive best on the sandy loams along the water courses. The best
alfalfa fields noticed were on the sandy alluvial soils on the Willamette
and Columbia rivers. The water table of land selected for alfalfa
should be at least 4 feet below the surface, and the land should not be
subject to overflow. Alfalfa will stand considerable flooding, pro-
vided the water is running, but it is usually destroyed if stationary
water covers it for a few days.

There are two important difficulties to be overcome in the successful
production of alfalfa in this region. In the first place bluegrass,
English rye-grass, Italian rye-grass, velvet grass, couch-grass, and
many other grasses and weeds have a strong tendency to crowd out the
alfalfa. This difficulty is largely overcome by eradicating these
plants, so far as possible, before the seeding is done. Thorough disking
and harrowing at a time when the alfalfa has made but little growth,
or just after cutting a crop of hay, tends to keep it vigorous and holds
the weeds and grasses in check. The disk harrow should be weighted
to make it cut deep and should be set about as straight as possible,
so as not to cut off the crowns of the alfalfa plants. Although these
grasses, when growing with alfalfa, actually decrease the total amount
of forage produced, they also decrease the danger of bloating when
the field is pastured by sheep, goats, or cattle. In fact, grasses are
frequently sown with alfalfa for this purpose. Secondly, the first and
last crops of alfalfa mature at seasons of the year when it is very difh-
cult to make hay on account of the damp weather. This objection is
obviated by using the first and third cuttings for ensilage, soiling, or

pasture.
METHODS OF SOWING.

This must be governed largely by local conditions. Land that is naturally
well drained or that is tiled at least 3 feet deep should be selected for this crop.
If barnyard manure is available, put on from 15 to 20 tons per acre in the fall

94

94 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

and plow it under 8 to 10 inches deep. In the spring, when the land is in good
working condition, cut it up thoroughly with a disk harrow and work it down
fine. Let it lie for a week or ten days; then give a good harrowing so as to
destroy all weeds. Sow about 15 pounds of clean seed per acre and cover with
a harrow. If the soil is inclined to be dry, finish with a roller. About the time
the seed is sown, put on 75 to 100 pounds of land plaster to the acre.a

INOCULATION.

The failure of alfalfa west of the Cascade Mountains is frequently
due to the lack of nodule-forming bacteria in the soil. If the land to
be sown has never grown alfalfa before, it is the safest plan to arti-
ficially introduce these organisms. This may be done in two ways:

(1) From 300 to 500 pounds of soil, the more the better, may be
hauled from a field that has recently produced alfalfa with nodules
on the roots, and scattered evenly over the surface of the new field.
This should be done just before the alfalfa seed is sown and the soil
should be thoroughly mixed with that of the new field by harrowing
or disking. It is quite expensive to inoculate large fields in this way
and there is always a possibility of transferring plant diseases from
one field to another.

Of scarcely less importance is the danger of disseminating noxious weeds
and insect pests through this plan of inoculating by means of natural soils.
Even though weeds may not have been serious in the first field, the great number
of dormant seeds requiring but a slight change in surroundings to produce ger-
mination is always a menace. If soil is to be used, however, whether obtained

from near-by fields or shipped long distances, the evidence should be clear that
the soil is free from the objections mentioned above.®

(2) Pure cultures of the proper bacteria may be used. The Bureau
of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture
has isolated the different organisms for the different legumes, is
growing them in pure cultures, and furnishes them to farmers whose
soil conditions seem to indicate that inoculation is necessary.

Those desiring inoculating material should write to Soil Bacteri-
ology Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.,
for an application blank. To avoid delays, requests should be on
file several weeks before the material is to be used.

Should weeds tend to crowd out the alfalfa during the first year,
they should be mown often enough to hold them in check. The cutter
bar of the mower should be set about 5 inches high in order that the
young alfalfa plants may not be cut too closely. If the crop mowed
would be sufficient when dry to make a third of a ton or more of hay
(and dried weeds) to the acre, which it usually will be in spots, it
should be removed from the field; if less than this it may be per-
mitted to lie where it is cut.

aDr. James Withycombe, in Bulletin 76, Oregon Experiment Station.
b Farmers’ Bulletin No. 240, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

94

TIMOTHY. 25

The leaves and stems of alfalfa sometimes turn yellow, and the
crop then assumes a very unthrifty appearance. When this condi-
tion begins to manifest itself the field should be cut immediately,
even though the growth be very small. This will tend to invigorate
the plants and keep them in a growing condition. If the growth is
sufficient the first season, it may be used for either hay or pasture,
but under no circumstances should it be closely pastured the first year.

In the moist climate west of the Cascade Mountains it frequently
happens that alfalfa sends up young shoots from the crown of the
plants before the first growth begins to bloom. When this occurs it
should be cut at once; otherwise the first crop soon begins to deterio-
rate and the second growth will be seriously stunted. In this region it
is very essential, therefore, to watch alfalfa closely and cut it as soon
as these young shoots begin to appear. |

Alfalfa is not a satisfactory pasture crop for cattle or sheep because
of its tendency to produce bloat in these animals when they are
allowed to graze on it, but for horses and hogs, particularly hogs,
there is no better pasture.

TIMOTHY.

Timothy (Phleum pratense) is the standard grass in Oregon and
Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. It is shallow rooted
and naturally adapted to moist lands. But the abundant rainfall of
this region, distributed as it is through so many months of the year,
makes it possible for it to succeed on practically all classes of soils
except the sands and gravels. There are individual farmers who like
other grasses better, but timothy is the one grass that is universally
known and grown. It has been the standard market hay so long and
has so many valuable characteristics that it will require years for any
other grass, even with superior qualities, to become as popular as tim-
othy in this region.

There are many reasons why timothy enjoys this popularity. It
has the best seed habits of any of our cultivated grasses. The seed is
usually cheap, has a very high percentage of germination when prop-
erly matured, is easily harvested, and retains its vitality remarkably
well. The hay is easily cured, stands handling well, and is relished
by all kinds of stock. Unlike many other grasses, a few days’ delay
in the time of cutting makes but little difference in the quality of the
hay—a very important point in a region where showers are not infre-
quent during the haying season.

West of the Cascade Mountains timothy is most frequently grown
with red clover. It is sometimes sown in the fall with winter wheat
and the clover added in the spring, during February or March, when
the ground is thawing and freezing. Another method is to prepare
the ground in the spring and sow the timothy and clover with or

94

26 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

without a nurse crop. Still another way is to sow the clover in the
spring with a nurse crop and in September, after the grain has been
harvested, sow the timothy on the stubble. When sown with a nurse
crop, timothy and clover are shaded too much, especially if the nurse
crop is allowed to mature for grain, and unsatisfactory stands are
often obtained in this way. Perhaps the most satisfactory way of
sowing both timothy and clover is to sow them without a nurse crop
in the late summer or early fall on land that is as free as possible
from weeds. (Good stands are secured in this way, and they give
excellent yields the first year. Timothy is two or three weeks Jater
than red clover, and when they are grown together for hay either the
timothy must be cut a little immature or the clover allowed to become
too ripe. For this reason some other grasses are better suited than
timothy for sowing with red clover. When sown alone from 6 to
10 pounds of timothy seed per acre are sufficient. For a seed crop
timothy yields much better when the stand is comparatively thin.
A much finer quality of hay is produced when it is thick. It is the
general rule to cut timothy for hay just at the end of the blooming
period. Cattle prefer the hay when cut at this stage, while horses
seem to relish it better if it is a little more mature.

THE RYE-GRASSES.

English rye-grass (Lolium. perenne) and Italian rye-grass (Lolium
italicum) are more popular on the Pacific coast west of the Cascade
Mountains than in any other part of the United States. The moist,
mild climate of this region is well adapted to their growth, and they
are very popular with the comparatively few farmers who grow them.

Stock seem to prefer them to all other grasses, and the herbage they —

produce is certainly of a very fine quality. The rye-grasses form a
close sod and stand cropping and tramping well, but they do not
yield so well as some other grasses. They mature early and are well
suited to sow with red clover. They are especially adapted to low,
moist soils, and when grown under favorable circumstances they may
be cut two or three times during a season. Italian rye-grass 1s prac-
tically an annual. The plants do not all die at the end of the first
year, but they amount to but little after the first season. Although
usually considered a perennial, English rye-grass is short-lived and
is very little better than Italian rye-grass in this respect. In Eng-
land, where these grasses occupy a similar position in agriculture to
that of timothy in the United States, it is a common practice to allow
seed to mature before they are cut for hay. In this way they reseed
themselves and last from year to year. It is claimed also that this is
a safe thing to do so far as the quality of the hay is concerned.
o4

MEADOW FESCUE. ote

The seed of these grasses is usually of good quality and germinates
well. It weighs from 14 to 20 pounds per bushel. It may be sown
in the spring, but early fall seeding gives the best results in this
region. When sown alone from 25 to 40 pounds of seed per acre
should give satisfactory stands. The rye-grasses sown with clover
make excellent silage.

ORCHARD GRASS.

Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) thrives remarkably well on all
tillable soils west of the Cascade Mountains, except those that are
very wet. It is the earliest grass to start to grow in the spring; it
revives quickly after it is cropped by stock or cut for hay, especially
if the soil is moist; it remains green during the summer and fall,
and is relished fairly well by all kinds of stock; it stands grazing
and tramping much better than timothy, and lasts for a number of
years when given proper care. It is, therefore, eminently adapted
for pasture purposes and should form an important part of every
permanent pasture mixture.

Orchard grass makes an excellent quality of hay if cut before or
just after the blooming period. If the cutting is delayed but a few
days beyond this period orchard grass has a strong tendency to
become woody, and the hay is then of poor quality. It ripens with
red clover, and under favorable circumstances it may be cut twice
during a season. It is, therefore, especially well fitted for sowing
with red clover when intended for hay. It grows in bunches and
does not make a smooth sod; for this reason it is seldom sown alone.
Orchard grass is a little early, and is often ready to cut before good
haying weather has begun. This fact and its tendency to become
woody immediately after blooming are the chief drawbacks to its
culture west of the Cascade Mountains. Its earliness is an advan-
tage, however, when it is used for ensilage or soiling.

The seed habits of orchard grass are very satisfactory, and the
yield is from 15 to 18 bushels of seed per acre. The seed weighs
from 14 to 18 pounds per bushel. When sown alone 20 to 25 pounds
of seed per acre will be sufficient. It is sown either in the fall or
spring. If sown in the early fall, without a nurse crop, it should
make an excellent crop the next year.

MEADOW FESCUE.

Although meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) is grown but little
west of the Cascade Mountains, it is highly prized by those who
know it. Like orchard grass, it is adapted to practically all of the
tillable soils of the region except those that are gravelly or very wet.
It is a perennial; lasts much better than timothy; is relished by all

94

28 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

kinds of stock; makes a good quality of hay; and, when once estab-
lished, stands tramping and grazing well. It does not begin to
grow so early in the spring as orchard grass, but remains green
during the summer and makes a good growth during the fall. It is
especially adapted to a place in meadow and pasture mixtures that
are to occupy the land for a number of years. One of the leading
dairymen of the Willamette Valley sows the following mixture in
the spring: Meadow fescue, 10 pounds; English rye-grass, 10 pounds;
timothy, 4 pounds; red clover, 4 pounds, and alsike clover, 2 pounds.
This mixture is used for hay for two years, and then for pasture
three years. Of the grasses in this mixture, meadow fescue is his
favorite.
Meadow fescue may be sown in the early fall or spring. When
sown alone, from 15 to 20 pounds per acre of the best seed should be
used. If the quality of the seed is doubtful, sow more. Kansas
farmers who grow their own seed sow only 12 to 15 pounds per acre.

VELVET GRASS.

The only part of the United States in which velvet grass occurs to an extent
worthy of notice is on the Pacific coast west of the Cascade Mountains, from
northern California to the Canadian line. In that section it is indifferently
called velvet grass and mesquite. The latter name should never be applied to
this grass, as it is used for several other very different grasses in the Southwest.

It is generally regarded as a pest on the Pacific coast, particularly on lands
that are very wet in winter and very dry in summer. This is especially the
case with both sandy and peaty soils on the coast. It is not utilized for feed
in many localities, but on the extensive areas of sandy land around the mouth
of the Columbia River and at one or two points inland it is the chief reliance,
both for hay and pasture. It yields ordinarily about half a ton of hay per acre.
The hay is remarkable for its lightness, a ton of it being much more bulky
than a like weight of other kinds of hay. Horses nearly starve before they
acquire a taste for velvet grass, but when the taste is once acquired they thrive
upon it remarkably well, showing that it is highly nutritious. The whole plant
is covered by a growth of wool-like hairs, from which fact the name is derived.
It is unworthy of attention except on the classes of soils above mentioned. On
these soils it drives out all other grasses.¢

Velvet grass (//olcus lanatus) 1s frequently a pest in meadows.
The seed matures very early, is hght, and shatters readily. When
clover, rye-grass, and timothy are ready to cut for hay the seed of
velvet grass is usually mature enough to germinate. The wind blows
the seed, and wherever the hay is hauled or handled the seed is scat-
tered. Ifa meadow that is infested with velvet grass is cut a little
early for either hay or ensilage, the seed can not be spread in this
way. Velvet grass gives no trouble in the second crop of clover.
Fence rows and waste places beside meadows should be mown early

aW. J. Spillman, in ** Farm Grasses of the United States.”
94

INDIAN CORN. 29

enough to prevent seed from maturing. If these precautions are
taken the grass can be prevented from becoming very troublesome.

To eradicate velvet grass cut it early, before the seed is ripe, generally from
the 10th to the 20th of June. About the 1st of July give it a thorough but shal-
low disking. Repeat the shallow disking every week until the 1st of August
and then spring-tooth and disk again. This shallow cultivation during the
driest season will kill the roots and leave the ground with a very fine mulch on
top and plenty of moisture in the subsoil. The land may then be reseeded to
clover or planted to any crop desired.¢

INDIAN CORN.

The climatic conditions of western Oregon and western Washing-
ton are not well adapted to the growing of corn (Zea mays). The
nights are too cool for its best development, and unless very early
varieties are grown difficulty is often experienced in bringing it to
maturity. Nevertheless corn fills an important place in the crop-
ping systems of this region, particularly on dairy farms; 1. e., for
ensilage and for feeding green during August, September, and Octo-
ber. While it may be impracticable to grow corn for the grain, it
is possible by selecting very early varieties and using seed grown
near by to grow a good quality of ensilage corn. The aim should
be to grow those varieties that reach as near maturity and yield as
much grain as possible. The large southern varieties produce very
little grain here, and are so immature when put into the silo at the
end of the season that too much acid develops. ;

The following table gives the quantity of water and dry matter
in corn at different stages of growth, as determined by the New York
(Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station:

Water and dry matter in corn at different periods after tasseling.

|

\Dry mat-

Date of : i Corn per} Water | a .

cutting. Stage of growth. acre. |per acre. bere

Tons. Tons. Tons.
aeuly?: 30) s|| Tuk eS C0 eee ss sae oes A Sos Sree See eee ees 9.0 8.2 0.8
SOAS Stes 9 By lS UTM sya STIL kc @ Gl eases er atc SENG oc ete SL OURS el Sie ce INE lode 12.9 11.3 16
Aticee Jie miKernelSawaiterye torcullmnill kes Seen ey ee a eee 16.3 14.0 2.3
Septaieieennelstodaz in oie sp = 2 ee ees olan ee a ee ee 16.1) 12.5 3.6
Sept. 23 | Ripe -_--__---- espe Py ae eRe na Cope at ag Anes aa i ae ea 14,2 10.2 4.0

This table is very interesting. The last column shows the dry
matter of corn at different stages of growth. Ripe corn yields five
times as much dry matter per acre as corn that is fully tasseled,
two and two-thirds times as much as corn fully silked, and nearly
one and three-fourths times as much as corn in the milk; hence,
the importance of growing corn for ensilage that will mature. The

2 Letter from W, H. Kaufman, Bellingham, Wash,
94

30 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

table also shows the great waste in feeding corn green instead of
letting it mature properly and making it into ensilage.

In order that ensilage may keep well, corn should be cut about the
time the kernels are well glazed and dented. If it is cut too green,
as stated, too much acid develops; if cut too ripe it does not settle
properly and the air is not sufficiently excluded to prevent spoiling.
The ripest corn should always be cut first and placed in the bottom
of the silo, because the great pressure near the bottom will tend to
exclude the air.

Tf planted on rich, mellow, well-drained land between the middle
of May and the first of June, corn should be ready for feeding green
from about the Ist to the 15th of August. As previously stated
early varieties should be planted, and seed grown west of the Cascade
Mountains succeeds better than eastern seed.

RAPE.

Rape (Brassica napus) has been grown in the Willamette Valley
with excellent results for twenty years. Its a succulent, nutritious
forage plant, admirably adapted to the moist, mild climate of the
Pacific coast. It stands considerable freezing, and is seldom winter-
killed west of the Cascade Mountains. It does best on deep, warm,
well-manured loamy soils. It succeeds well also on peaty soils, but is
not adapted to very light sandy or heavy clay soils. It isa heavy
feeder, and must not be expected to succeed on poor, worn-out land.

Rape is an excellent crop for pasture or soiling, 1. e., for cutting and
feeding green for hogs, sheep, goats, and poultry. Fed to dairy
cows it causes a large flow of milk, but to avoid tainting the milk
it should be fed immediately after milking, at the rate of 30 to 50
pounds per day, in two feeds. On account of danger of bloating,
sheep, goats, and cattle should never be turned on rape for the first
time when they are hungry, or when the rape is wet with dew or rain.
They should have plenty of something else to eat first, and plenty of
salt at all times. It is a good plan to give them access to hay or a
grass pasture to prevent overloading on rape. When sheep have
become accustomed to it they may be left on it continually with but
little danger.

Rape is grown and utilized west of the Cascade Mountains in sev-
eral different ways:

(1) When grown for early summer use, the largest yields and the
best results are secured by making a succession of plantings at inter-
vals of two or three weeks, beginning in the early spring as soon as
the ground can be put into perfect tilth. The ground should be well
manured and the seed planted in drills 24 to 36 inches apart at the
rate of about 2 pounds per acre. A common garden drill may be used

o4

RAPE. oll

in planting small areas, but for larger fields a grain drill, with some
of the feed hoppers closed to make the rows the desired distance apart,
answers the purpose best. As soon as the plants are sufficiently large
they should be cultivated often enough to control the weeds and keep
the soil in good tilth. The cultivation will retain the soil moisture
and tend to keep the plants growing vigorously. Unless cultivated
during the dry portion of summer, growth almost ceases until the
fall rains come. Rape grown in this way may be used either for
pasture or for soiling.

When rape is used for soiling purposes it should be cut at least 5
inches high, so that the plants will have a chance to grow again. In
from six to eight weeks after planting it should be large enough to
cut; by making a succession of plantings green, succulent feed should
be on hand throughout the summer. If rape is used for pasture, the
best results will be secured by having a number of small fields which
are pastured alternately. It may be fed in this way also by means of
movable fences. Rape should be from 12 to 14 inches high before it
is used for pasture, and hogs should be prevented from rooting while
in the field. When rape is removed by cutting or pasturing closely,
the evaporation of soil moisture is rapid, and it should be cultivated
as soon as possible if a second growth is desired. If sown in drills,
stock will walk between the rows while feeding, and much less will
be broken down and destroyed than if they were feeding upon rape
that was sown broadcast. <A larger yield is also secured by planting
rape in rows and cultivating it.

(2) Another favorite way of growing rape is to sow it broadcast at
intervals in the spring. The land is plowed and thoroughly worked
in the early spring, as soon as it 1s in good working condition, and
then allowed to he until the seeding is done. Just before each piece
is sown the ground is cultivated thoroughly again and from 3 to 4
pounds of seed sown and covered with a harrow or cultivator. In-
stead of sowing the seed broadcast it 1s sometimes planted with a
common grain drill. Rape sown the Ist of May should be ready for
pasture the Ist of July; if sown the Ist of June, it should be ready
for pasture by the Ist of August. Grown in this way rape makes
excellent pasture during the summer, fall, and early winter.

(3) Another method of raising rape that is popular with many
farmers, especially those who raise sheep or goats, is to grow it with
clover. The method of doing this has already been fully described
in the discussion of red clover (page 16).

(4) Rape is sometimes sown with oats in the spring on a thor-
oughly prepared seed bed. The oats are used for either hay or grain.
The rape grows but httle until the early fall rains come, after which
it is soon ready for pasture. From 2 to 4 pounds of rape seed per

acre are sufficient when sown in this way.
94

32 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

(5) From 3 to 4 pounds of rape seed per acre are also sown with
corn just before the last cultivation. The seed is then covered by
the cultivator and the rape comes on and makes good pasture as
soon as the corn is harvested. It may also be sown with potatoes.
but it does not succeed so well with them as with corn, for the digging
of the potatoes destroys much of the rape. Sown after early potatoes
are dug, it gives good pasture during the late fall and early winter.

THE SEED CROP.

Good rape seed is now produced in the Willamette Valley and the
region about Puget Sound, and there is no reason why farmers should
not produce their own seed. Rape is a biennial and does not produce
seed when sown in the spring until the second year. If sown in
September or October it matures seed the following June. Rape
may be cross-fertilized by kale, cauliflower, and other closely related
plants. It is believed to cross also with wild mustard and wild
turnips; hence none of these plants should be allowed to grow near
rape that 1s intended for seed.

For seed, rape should be sown alone, and.it is very desirable to
have in it drills in order to cultivate it and keep it free from the
plants mentioned. Rape that is planted in drills in the spring may
be used for soiling during the summer and fall, carried through the
winter, and used for a seed crop the second season. If sown entirely
for a seed crop, it may be planted in the fall—September or October—
after some early crop has been removed. To retard development of
the plants so that the seed will mature after the late spring rains are
over, it should be pastured or cut back about the last of April or the
first of May. If ripe rape gets wet the seed shatters very readily, and
the retardation of the development of the crop is often very necessary
in order to have good weather for harvesting the seed.

Rape should be cut for seed when the first seeds are turning brown.
It may be cut with a binder or a self-raking reaper. It should be
shocked in such manner that it will dry out quickly. Birds destroy
considerable of the seed; hence it should be thrashed as soon as dry.
If the crop is not too extensive a man with a team and sled may drive
from shock to shock and thrash it by hand. If a thrashing machine
is used, it should be hauled to the machine in tight-bottomed racks, or
canvas should be spread over the racks to catch the shattered seed.
It is said that a yield of 1,000 pounds of seed to the acre is not unusual
in the Willamette Valley.

Seed may be purchased of local seedsmen. When buying seed,
however, one should always call for Dwarf Essex rape. There are
a number of varieties of rape, some of which are annuals and are
grown only for bird seed, If these annuals are sown in the spring

94

THOUSAND-HEADED KALE. BS

they produce seed the same year and are lable to become serious
pests when once introduced. Complaint has been made that Dwarf
Essex rape becomes a weed, but it is easily controlled. It does not
produce seed until the second season, and if plowed under during the
fall, winter, or spring no seed can be produced.

THOUSAND-HEADED KALE.

Thousand-headed kale (Brassica oleracea) has been grown in the
Willamette Valley for 27 years. It attracted little attention among
the dairymen until recent years, but is now rapidly becoming a very
popular fall and winter soiling crop. It stands the mild winters

Fig. 2,_A field of thousand-headed kale on Martins Island, near Kalama, Wash, A valuable
winter soiling crop, available from October 1 to April 1.

west of the Cascade Mountains admirably and is hauled from the
field and fed as needed. It does not head up hke cabbage, and the
name “thousand-headed ” is given it on account of the numerous
branches the plants have when given plenty of room. It is very
much like rape, but the plants are much taller and the leaves are
longer and broader. <A field of this crop is shown in figure 2. It is
claimed that kale will yield 30 to 40 tons of green feed per acre
when grown under favorable conditions.

Kale is used for table greens, but its chief use on the Pacific coast
is for feeding green to dairy cows from October to April, for which
it is highly prized. It would undoubtedly be an excellent winter

94

34 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

feed also for hogs and poultry. It does best on well-manured. deep.
rich loams and sandy soils. The only objection to the use of kale is
the difficulty of getting it out of the field when the ground is wet and
muddy. For this reason well-drained land should be selected upon
which to plant this crop.

METHODS OF SOWING.

For fall and winter use, kale is usually sown in drills on well-
prepared and well-drained soil as soon after the 15th of March as
the season will permit. This furnishes plants for transplanting in
June and July. The land used for transplanting is well manured
and plowed two or three times between the Ist of March and the Ist
of: June. With the land in perfect tilth it is plowed again with a
12-inch plow about the Ist of June and the young kale plants
dropped into every third furrow about 24 to 3 feet apart. This
places about one plant on every square yard. The roots of the plants
are placed where the next furrow covers them, leaving the tops
uncovered. The plants that are plowed in during the day in this
way are rolled in the evening of the same day to pack the ground.
Two or three cultivations are all that can usually be given, for the
plants will soon touch in the row if they do well. Any plants that
fail to grow may be replaced by hand. Some growers prefer to
plant the seed in hills, and when the plants are large enough thin
them to one plant in a hill. Others put kale out just as cabbage is
usually transplanted, instead of plowing it in. The time of trans-
planting must be determined by the size of the plants and the condi-
tion of the land. If the land is wet and subject to overfiow the
transplanting may be delayed until during July. If the land is well
drained and the plants are large enough it may be done before the
1st of June. In transplanting, enough plants may be left for a stand
on the land where the seedlings are grown.

FEEDING.

As previously stated, kale stands in the field during the winter
and is hauled in and fed green as needed from about the Ist of
October to the Ist of April. If the growth is forced in the early
spring it can be fed much earlier than the Ist of October. To avoid
tainting the milk, kale is fed just after milking, at the rate of 25 to
50 pounds per day, in two feeds. Some let it wilt before feeding.
Enough may be hauled in at a time to last four or five days. It
should not be thrown into heaps and allowed to heat. Neither should
it be fed when frozen. On the approach of freezing weather a
supply sufficient to last several days may be placed in the barn.

To haul kale from the field during wet weather it is best to wear

a gum coat and gum boots. The plants can then be cut off at the sur-
94

ROOT CROPS. 35

face of the ground with an ax, thrown into piles, and loaded on a
wagon with a pitchfork without serious inconvenience to the worker.

Kale grows a great deal during the fall and winter, and much 1s
lost by feeding the whole plant in the early part of the feeding sea-
son. By using only the lower leaves it is possible to begin feeding
quite early without stopping the growth of the plants. With the
thumb and fingers of the hand extended, one can break off all of the
lower leaves of a large plant with three or four downward strokes
of the hand. This is not practicable, however, during damp weather,
for the leaves would be too wet to handle in this manner.

THE SEED CROP.

An excellent quality of kale seed is produced in the Willamette
Valley. Like rape, it is a biennial and does not produce seed until
the second year. Richard Scott, a dairyman of the Willamette
Valley, has grown kale for twenty-seven years. He produces seed
about as follows: There is considerable variation in the types of
individual plants. During the first year plants with many rather
narrow leaves that begin spreading from near the surface of the
ground are selected. This type of plant yields more and stands freez-
ing better than a plant the stem of which is bare for some distance
above the ground. These selected plants are transplanted in Febru-
ary in some isolated place to prevent cross-fertilization by undesirable
kale plants, rape, cauliflower, and other closely related plants. It is
believed that kale crosses with wild mustard and wild turnip; hence
none of these plants should be allowed to grow near kale that is
intended for seed. The seed crop is cut when the first seeds are turn-
ing brown. If the crop is small, it is usually thrashed by hand. A
large crop may be handled the same as a seed crop of rape. Birds
are fond of the seed, and for this reason it should remain in the field
only until dry. |

ROOT CROPS.

Since the soil requirements and the methods of culture of mangel-
wurzels (Beta vulgaris var. macrorhiza), carrots (Daucus carota),
and ruta-bagas (Brassica campestris) are very similar, they will be
treated collectively. Like rape and thousand-headed kale, they suc-
ceed best where the weather is moist and cool. Hence their eminent
adaptation to western Oregon and Washington. In this region the
yield of these crops is enormous, the ordinary yield being from 20 to
35 tons per acre, while reports of 45 or 50 tons are not infrequent.

Root crops usually succeed best on deep, moist, friable loam soils.
On clay land they grow too slowly, and the soil is also difficult to work.
Ordinarily, land for roots is heavily manured in the fall and then
plowed considerably deeper than for other crops. If the soil runs

94

|
{
H
:

36 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

together badly during the winter, 1t is replowed in the early spring.
Instead of the above procedure, the manure is sometimes spread dur-
ing the winter, the land plowed deep in the early spring, and a fine,
firm seed bed formed immediately by disking, harrowing, rolling,
planking, etc., as the conditions may require. . Between the prepara-
tion of the seed bed in the early spring and planting the seed during
April or early in May the land is cultivated sufficiently to keep the
weeds subdued. Just before planting the seed a thorough cultiva-
tion 1s given, finishing with a planker or clod masher. This destroys
the weeds, thoroughly pulverizes the soil, and leaves the surface
smooth and in good condition for planting.

Mangel-wurzels and ruta-bagas are usually grown in rows from 22
to 30 inches apart. When planted in continuous rows, enough seed
is used to insure a good stand.
When sown with a_hill-drop-
ping planter, the hills are from
8 to 15 inches apart and 4 or 5
seeds are dropped in each hill.
The rows of carrots are usually
18 inches apart and the hills 8
inches.

As soon as the plants can be
seen In the rows, the wheel hoe
is started. With the guards of
the hoe next to the row, the cul-
tivation is done as close to the
row as possible without cover-
ing or disturbing the plants too
Pre Oma Cubumoneiie delede nae wears much. Considerable hand weed-

W.J.Langdon, Sumner, Wash.,inthinningand ing and hoeing between the

Bae TOct hops: 2 Nery eneckve Maple hills and alone che eo meme

ally necessary. When the plants
are 3 or 4 inches high, they are thinned, leaving the most vigorous
plant in each hill. When sown in continuous rows, the thinning
is largely done with a hoe, striking across the row. Subsequent
cultivation should at least be sufficient to keep the weeds under
control. As much of it as possible is usually done with a horse cul-
tivator.

Instead of the common and wheel hoes for thinning and weeding,
some prefer to use a “scuffle” hoe. (See figs. 3 and 4.) When in
use, the blade of such hoes is in a horizontal position and is pushed
and pulled just under the surface of the ground. The blade shown
in figure 3 is diamond shaped, about 2 inches wide in the middle and
one-half inch wide at each end, and about 8 inches long. About an

o4

ROOT CROPS. 37

inch of the tip of one end is turned up at a right angle to form a
guard for working close to small plants. The blade of the hoe should
be sharp on both edges, so that it will cut each way when pushed and
pulled. In order to make it take hold properly, it may be necessary
to bend the edges of the blade down shghtly. To give the handle the
proper angle, the shank should be curved. It should flatten out into
a narrow, thin plate about 2 inches long and fasten to the blade by
means of two rivets. This hoe is not on the market, but may be made
by any blacksmith. An old saw makes excellent blades. The shank
should be made of Norway iron,
so that it may be bent to give the
handle the proper angle.

Ruta-bagas are sometimes sown
in drills in the early spring and
transplanted like cabbage. The
plants may be transplanted like
kale, as the land is plowed. The
roots of the plants are placed
where the next furrow will cover
them and the tops are left stick-
ing out. For this method of
transplanting, see the discussion
of kale.

About the 1st of November the
roots are topped, pulled, and
placed in narrow bins in the
barn. Upon the approach of
cold weather they are covered
with hay or straw. . The tops are
sometimes cut off with a sharp
hoe and the roots then dug with TS 4:-A, “sume”, hoe sinter In prince
a potato fork. More generally Leckenby, Seattle, Wash. The blade of
they are dug first, the worker Spiraea che Beg osmede froman
pulling on the top of the root
with one hand as he bears down upon the handle of the potato fork
with the other. The roots of two or three rows are laid together with
the tops one way. The tops are then cut off with a long-handled
knife. Some twist the tops off, claiming that the roots do not bleed
and wither so much as they do when the tops are cut off. Roots are
grown mostly for winter use and are fed up to the Ist of April.
They are generally sliced before being fed to dairy cattle. Some
dairymen feed them whole, claiming that cows can handle large roots
nicely and that, unless the slicing is carefully done, they do not choke
so frequently when feeding on whole roots as they do on sliced roots.

94

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38 FARM PRACTICE WITH FORAGE CROPS IN OREGON, ETC.

The flat or fall turnip (Brassica rapa) 1s also grown in: western
Oregon and Washington. Since it matures quickly, grows mostly
above ground, and has a flesh less firm than that of other roots it
does not keep well and is adapted only to fall and early winter use.
Its soft flesh and habit of growth above ground make it an admirable
root to be harvested by stock turned into the field. . It is usually sown
broadcast on clean land about the Ist of July. It may be sown also
in corn. If intended for winter use it should be gathered and put
into bins before becoming water-soaked from fall rains.

SOILING (GREEN FEEDING) CROPS.

The mild winter climate and abundant rainfall of western Oregon
and Washington make it almost an ideal region for the production
of soiling crops. By the judicious selection and planting of crops
green succulent food may be provided for the dairy cow during prac-
tically the entire year. That a much greater amount of feed can be
obtained from the same area of land by this system as compared with
pasturing is a fact well recognized by progressive dairymen. Much
of the tillable land of this region is now very valuable. As values
advance beyond the limit where farm land may profitably be used
for pasture and it becomes necessary for the small farmer to keep the
maxunum number of stock upon his few acres of tillable land, the
erowing of soiling crops becomes of vital importance.

Below is given a list of the crops that are used for this purpose.
The dates of planting and the approximate dates upon which these
crops may be used are also given. It must be understood, however,
that the variation in seasons prevents one from saying definitely when
a crop will be ready to use. For further information regarding these
crops the reader is referred to the discussion of each in the preceding
pages of this bulletin.

Dates for planting and using soiling crops in western Oregon and western

Washington.
Crops. When planted. When used.
IRON SVE Y AVON YTEL HG! OW Ses pa Came he ee asle Geeee September NtOnin eas aees April 1 to May 15.
Winter oatsiand vetch 2. -2.-2222.-2_\.=. Pep tem eens and October__| May 15 to July 1.
Waintermwheatiandyetches Wii iene a ee aadoOe ies Sa ele a! Do
VS CUCL ONT eps RR SE IE Le ish ES a a Me te Og Do.
WAUIitrerilitien yeni Seen etn Oysaled dees mune Mise ates Phe | Se ets pA ta a OR During June.
Oatslanidipeas ease tee ee ase Lei INS ewe? Sess oe Le aa Do.
Oatsian divietchiee ee tee ane meena [eee LG ane eet ati Se enor nue June 15 to July 15:
@Oatsiandspesys ms Nw Pease wea a ee! ANG Opi GMP dae erie et aA Ue During July.
LE YEETY 0) © Nea gleam ea yc ISI og cE Maya toe ac iater eveeenerc ewe Do
Oatsiandipeadsmeusce= 2. a5s— =e teeny mae ene aay ee CC SA Cee i AL an Duri ing August.
A RAW Of © etree tiene a hele ee ae Oo aes AE re JIU CY sper eae and ete ite ate paren Do
CDRo ner sta eee athe cehes Wek ap LE eee Ae Le ey eee May NOZtOe2 0 Ra eiee tenon ieee Duri ing August, Septem-
ber, and October.
MID otk a Hb 0 yy eee ees er UE ps ea pena: A et italy tle ae el eee ea A Late fall and ear ly winter.
Thousand-headed kale -----_-_----------- Maren 7 and transplanted) October 15 to April 1.
une 1.
Mangel-wurzels, carrots, andruta-bagas_| April____._..._.__-___-____- October 15 to April 1 (fed
from bins, pits, or root
houses).

94

SEEDING TIMBER BURNS AND BURNT SLASHINGS. 39

SEEDING TIMBER BURNS AND BURNT SLASHINGS.

As previously stated, dense forests of evergreen timber cover a
very large portion of western Oregon and western Washington. Dur-
ing the dry season of the year forest fires overrun large areas, killing
practically all vegetation, and leaving a loose blanket of ashes on the
surface of the ground. These burnt areas if left unmolested for a
few years usually produce a dense growth of young trees and brush
and are practically worthless for grazing purposes. In clearing land
it also frequently happens that the timber and brush are slashed and
burnt several years before the stumps are removed. By properly
seeding these burnt areas they may be made to produce excellent pas-
ture. Since the stumps are in the ground and there is therefore no
chance to cover the seed, the seeding should always be done in the fall
before the ashes have settled. The first rain that comes will then
cover the seed sufficiently to insure good germination.

Since there is little chance to improve or renew the stand on account
of the stumps and timber remaining on the land, only seed of those
plants should be sown that last a long time, stand close cropping, and
yet produce as much growth as possible. If the seed is sown in the
unsettled ashes as indicated, little difficulty will be experienced in
getting good stands of white clover, alsike clover, red clover, orchard
grass, meadow fescue, timothy, and English rye-grass. A mixture
of 1 pound of white clover, 3 pounds of alsike clover, 10 of orchard
grass, and 10 pounds of meadow fescue per acre should give satis-
factory results when sown in the unsettled ashes in the early fall.
Timothy will also do well for this purpose. Red clover and English
rye-grass are each short-lived and should form but a small portion of
the mixture, 1f sown at all. Timber burns that have been seeded
down in this way should be pastured pretty closely to keep down the
young trees and brush. Goats will help to do this better than any
other kind of animal. The success of seeding burnt areas in this way
has been thoroughly demonstrated in many parts of the region. It
is only a question of sowing the proper seed at the proper time.

O

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