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SPBCIAL BULLETIN No. 1

THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE
RURAL LIFE DEPARTMENT

FARM SHOP WORK

IN PENNSYLVANIA

STATE COLLEGE, CENTRE CO., PENNA.

GIFT OF

FARM SHOP WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA

A study of repair and construction work as car-
ried on by farmers, and as practiced in the vo-
cational agricultural schools of Pennsylvania.

By

F. THEODORE STRUCK

II

rHHPEXN

SYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE

Sb7

? FOREWORD

W ith the growth of vocational agriculture in the secondary
schools there has developed, especially within the last few years, a
widespread interest in the problem of the farm shop. State super-
\ isors of agriculture, and men in charge of teacher training work
in agricultural education are zealous in giving impetus to the move-
ment. It is recognized, in the first place, that there arc a multipli-
city of aims or pur])oses in the minds of teachers giving this work.
\\ hat teachers of farm shop work need most to do at this time is to
anal}ze the subject matter used into its significant elements. This
analysis should be made on the basis of relevance to the promotion
of a better and more productive agriculture. We ought to know
in terms of the region we serve, what kinds of work are most fre-
quently performed, and distinction needs to be made between con-
struction work on the one hand as distinguished from repair work
on the other.

The following study was made by Professor F. Theodore
."Struck, and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the Ph.D. degree at Columbia University. It represents results
obtained in large part through a surxey made through the pupils
])ursuing vocational agriculture in every community of the State of
Pennsylvania in which vocational agricultural education was given.
The object of these local surveys was to find out the exact nature
and extent of the kinds of agriculture carried on, and to see what
specific kinds of repair and construction work are performed by the
successful farmers of these regions. This was desired in order that
there might be available a fact basis for determining essential and
significant elements that need to be covered in teaching farm shop
work.

It is felt that this study is of considerable value to teachers and
su])ervisors of farm shop work in Pennsylvania. The Department
of Rural Life of The Pennsylvania State College is publishing it
with the hope that it may i)rovc of interest and value to teachers of
farm sho]) work, to those concerned with the training of agricul-
tural teachers, and to supervisors and administrators of agricultural
education in the several states.

W. S. TAYLOR

PREFACE

Grateful acknowledgement is due the teachers
and principals in the schools of Pennsylvania giving
w^ork in vocational agriculture, for their cooperation
and assistance in making this study possible. Thanks
are due my associates at The Pennsylvania State Col-
lege, and to Mr. L. H. Dennis, with whom many points
were discussed. Deepest appreciation is felt for the
encouragement and helpful criticism received from
Professor Bonser, Professor Dean, and Professor Sned-
den, of Teachers College, Columbia University, and
from Professor W. S. Taylor, of The Pennsylvania
State College.

CONTENTS

PART I.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT

Page

1. Organization of vocational agricultural education in Pennsylvania 7

2. Certain preliminary assumptions regarding needs for vocational

education 8

3. Reason for the study 9

4. Definition of farm shop work 9

3. Definition of the problem 9

6. Scope of the problem 11

7. Method of gathering data 11

8. The farms studied a selected group 12

9. Method of treatment 13

10. Classification 13

11. Size of farms 13

12. Type of agriculture 15

13. Farm enterprises are diversified 16

14. Age of farmers 17

»

CHAPTER II.

FINDINGS ON THE BASIS OF ALL FARMS STUDIED AS
ONE GROUP. (Group I).

1. Explanations 19

2. Construction work in wood 19

3. Repair work in wood 25

4. Construction work done for farmers by expert mechanics 33

5. Work in cement and concrete

Construction work 27

Repair work 29

Work done by mechanics 29

6. Work done in iron and steel 29

7. Saw filing 34

8. Taps and dies 34

9. Shoeing horses 34

CHAPTER III.

FINDINGS WHEN INFORMATION SECURED WAS GROUPED

ACCORDING TO THE AGE OF THE FARMERS. (Groupe II).

1. Work in wood

Construction work 35

Repair work 40

Interpretation of Group II 40

CHAPTER IV.

FINDINGS ON THE BASIS OF TYPE OF AGRICULTURE
PURSUED. (Group III).

I 1. Presentation and interpretation of facts found in Group III 42

>*

PART II.
CHAPTER II.

THE TEACHING FORCE AND FARM SHOP CONDITIONS.

Page

1. The teaching force 47

Experience in shop work 47

Experience in teaching farm shop work 51

Where teachers were trained 52

Tenure 53

2. Farm shop product 54

3. Cost of material in shop work 56

4. Shop work and related subjects 57

5. Aim or purpose of farm shop work as stated by supervisors of

agriculture 59

6. Separate or combined shops 60

7. Equipment for farm shop work 60

CHAPTER VI.
DEDUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS.

1. What should be the aim or purpose of teaching farm shop work

as a part of vocational agricultural education? 65

2. Kinds of work that should be undertaken 65

3. Materials that should be used 66

4. Size of work undertaken 66

5. Educational considerations conditioning the kind of work to

be given 67

6. Standards of workmanship 67

7. The kind of shop that is desirable 68

8. Equipment 6S

9. Arrangement of shop equipment 69

10. Method in farm shop work 70

Organization on the project basis 71

Boys who do not live on farms 72

11. Mechanical drawing as related to farm shop work 72

Aim or purpose in teaching drawing 72

Method in teaching drawing • 74

Medium to use 74

APPENDIX

I. Table 34. A suggested minimum list of equipment for farm shop work

based on a class unit of 12 pupils. (It is assumed that all equip-
ment is in one shop, so that separate complete units corresponding
to the size of the class are not needed i.

1. Equipment for work in wood 75

2. Equ-pment for work in iron and steel 76

3. Equipment for pipe fitting 77

4. Equipment for work in cement 77

5. Equipment for soldering and bal)biting 77

6. Equipment for mechanical drawing 77

7. Equipment for work in leather 77

8. General 78

II. Table 35. A suggestive list of shop projects grouped according to sul)-

ject matter divisions used in teaching vocational agriculture 78

III. Table 36. A selected Ijibliography for farm shop work 79

1. Addresses of publishers 82

2. Addresses of agricultural colleges and experiment stations 83

PART I.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Organization of Vocational Agricultural Education in Penn-
sylvania.— Public vocational agricultural education in Pennsylvania
is organized somewhat differently from the way it is in other states
of the Union. In 1913 Mr. L. H. Dennis, State Director of Voca-
tional Education, visited the various kinds of schools in the states
that led in agricultural education. As a result of his study he or-
ganized the "Rural Community \*ocational Schools" of Pennsyl-
vania. These schools differ from the County High Schools of Mas-
sachusetts and \\'isconsin, and from the Congressional District
Schools of Alabama and (jeorgia in that the rural community vo
cational school is established where it may serve a rural community
rather than have its sphere defined by arbiti;ary geographical lines.

Since the rural community vocational schools were designed
]>ecially to meet the needs of 'farm boys and girls it was decided
that the underlying purpose of the instruction oft'ered should be to
])re])are for a more productive agriculture and happier rural living.
The schools are of high school grade, although boys and girls over
14 years of age may pursue vocational agriculture or vocational
home-making without having com]deted the eighth grade. These
vocational courses are required of all pupils for the first two years.
After that they may continue the vocational work for two more
years, or may elect college i)reparatory work. In the vocational
courses half of the time is spent in vocational work and half in
general education and in related subjects.

\ ocational agricultural education is also given in Pennsylvania
in high school de])artments of agriculture as is the case in New
York and other states. In Pennsylvania there is little difference in
the quality and character of the agricultural education given in the
rural community vocational schools and in agricultural departments
in general high schools. In the latter schools the work, however,
is optional to boys. Agricultural education in both kinds of schools
is organized under the Federal \'ocational Education Act of 1917,
as administered bv the Federal Board for A'ocational Education

acting through the State Board for \ ocational Education. The
schools meet the requirements of the Act, and receive state and
federal aid. This makes it possible to give to rural children the
kind and quality of education that is adapted to the needs of rural
life.

The Federal Vocational Education Act, through the standards
that it sets up, and by means of the supervision that it provides is
greatly improving the quality and character of secondary agricul-
tural education.

Certain Preliminary Assumptions Regarding Needs for Voca-
tional Education.— :\Iodern educational theory postulates that there
be tangible relationships between school work and the future ac-
tivities of pupils. Vocational education is a means to that end. It
is recognized as essential to economic production, and as an effec-
tive means of insuring against an unskilled and uneducated prole-
tariat which menaces our social and political institutions.

Vocational agricultural education is the birthright of every
American boy who wishes to become a farmer.

A STUDY OF FARM SHOP WORK IN
PENNSYLVANIA

CHAPTER I.

Reason for the Study. — Far-reaching changes have taken place
within the last two decades in the methods employed, and in tools
and machinery used in agriculture. The wide introduction of power
driven machinery, of factory and shop made ''parts", such as drop
forgings, pipe iittings, hardware and plumbers' supplies, have re-
sulted in much change in the nature of farm shop work, so that
there is need for determining the validity of certain practices domi-
nant in the past, in order to determine whether or not they should
be included in modern programs for vocational agricultural educa-
tion.

It is commonly accepted by leaders of vocational education
that it is most essential to teach those i>hases, or elements of given
vocations that have proved to be of demonstrable value (including
-ocial and civic values), to the adult, successful followers of the
vocations and to society at large. With this thought in mind this
study seeks to establish certain facts ])ertinent to a restricted field
of vocational agricultural education — namely to farm shop work.

The study is undertaken at the joint request of the Agricul-
tural Division of the State Bureau of Vocational Education, Harris-
burg, and the Department of Rural Life of The Pennsylvania State
College.

Definition of Farm Shop Work. — The term "farm shop work"
is taken to mean rei)air and construction work in various materials
of construction performed by farmers in pursuit of their vocation.
The work is done with the aid of hand tools and appliances, as dis-
tinguished from machinery. Some of this work is performed in
sheds or repair shops during inclement weather, or at slack seasons
when work with crops or animals is not urgent ; the remainder of it
is performed anywhere on the farm where the need arises.

Definition of the Problem. — Education in farm shop work in
Pennsylvania, as in other of our states, is passing through a stage
of transition. The little school training received by the teachers
who pioneered in the work was usually received in manual training

classes, with the result that the exercise method, conventional
manual training equipment, and related methods and ideals were
largely carried over into the new field. In order to enable a pos-
sible closer correlation and adaptation between farm shop work as
practiced by successful farmers and education in farm shop work
as given in the vocational agricultural schools and departments al-
ready mentioned, this study has been undertaken.

In Part I, the attem])t has been made to find out:

1. What kinds of construction work do farmers perform in
wood, concrete and in iron and steel ?

2. What kinds of repair work do farmers ])erform in the
same materials?

3. What kinds of construction work in the materials men-
tioned do farmers leave to expert mechanics such as
carpenters, concrete workers and blacksmiths.

4. What kinds of repair work in the same materials do

farmers leave to expert mechanics?

Part II consists of a presentation of conditions as they exist
in the schools with which this study is concerned. It covers a
study of the teaching force and a discussion, based on the facts
found in the study, and on ])ersonal observation, and interviews of
various phases of farm sho]) work as a part of a vocational agricul-
tural education program.

Scope of the Problem. — The data for Part I of the study were
secured from 400 farmers who are distributed in thirty of the thirty-
three communities of the state in which rural community vocational
schools, and vocational agricultural de])artments in high schools,
were in operation during the school year of 1918-1919. Figure 1
shows the location of these schools, that twenty-three are rural
community vocational schools, and that the remaining ten are agri-
cultural departments in high schools. The communities not in-
cluded in Part I of the study are at Waynesburg, Blain and Xew-
town Square. Data were not secured here because of illness of
the agricultural teachers.

Facts presented in the second part of the study were obtained
from :

a. The thirty-three supervisors of agriculture. These
supervisors are the teachers of agriculture, being so

10

called because they supervise the home ])roject work
which every i)upil is required to carry. Detailed infor-
mation about the supervisors is given later.

b. A second source of information was that of personal
obser\ation and discussion at the schools, supplement-
ed in many cases by S])ecial conferences and by cor-
respondence.

Method of Gathering Data. — It was deemed advisable to secure
the data desired from the farmers through the pupils in the schools
concerned. In order to accomplish this, personal visits were made
to all of the schools. These visits were made in the course of two
months, at the rate of 4 or 5 schools i)er week. In two cases slight-
ly less than half a day was spent in the schools ; in two other cases
two days were spent in the schools ; in the remainder the time spent
varied from a half to a w^hole day. Owing to the topography of
the state, and to distances traveled, it w^as not feasible to visit more
than five schools per week. During the visits, printed question-
naires were distributed among the pupils, and were then carefully
explained to both teachers and pu])ils. Pu])ils were asked, provid-
ed they lived on farms, to take the questionnaires to their fathers
or to friends in case the latter were farmers. The pupils were fur-
thermore asked to exi)lain the questionnaires to whoever was to
fill them out and to render assistance where it seemed advisable in
the mechanics of scoring the questionnaires. Upon being filled out,
the latter were in all cases first returned to the res])ective schools,
in order that they serve as a basis for discussion, and for action in
connection with the educational work affected. Later the question-
naires were sent to the writer.

In order to find out more about farming conditions than could
be revealed through the question blanks sent out through the
pu])ils, and by visiting the schools, personal visits were made to a
number of farms selected at random. In addition, the supervisors
of agriculture were asked to give their ratings and classifications of
the farms studied through the ])upils.

The Farms Studied a Selected Group. — Figure 1 shows that
as regards location, the communities selected for study form, for
practical ])urposes, a random distribution. On the other hand an
effort was made to secure returns from the "fair" and "good" farms

11

of the respective communities rather than from the "poor" ones, as
the prevailing practice on poor or unsuccessful farms has little bear-
ing on the question of what kind of work the schools should pre-
pare for.

Table 1 shows that almost 94 per cent of the farms come within
the classifications of "good" and "fair". In arriving at the classifi-
cations, the supervisors were advised to use reasonable standards of

Vocational. Agricu l.t urai-

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judgment. The financial success of the farmer was taken to be the
best single criterion in arriving at these judgments, though general
appearance, up-keep of the farm and the character and extent of
home conveniences were not overlooked. In view of the fact that
the supervisors of agriculture have had unusual experience and edu-
cation in the field of agriculture, and since each man rated only
the farms in the community in which he lives and works, it is felt
that the classification is as reliable as are individual expert judg-
ments in that particular thing.

12

Method of Treatment. — The information secured from the
farmers was grouped in three distinct ways:

1. In view^ of the fact that over 70 per cent of the farming
in the state is of the general farming type, it was
thought advisable to group all of the data secured in
the hrst classification, namely on the basis of all farms
studied. It is believed that the facts brought out in
this classification closely fit conditions in the entire
state. It may be argued that poultry raising is quite
different from dairying, but the former, as a distinct
type of agriculture, is found on only half of one per
cent of the farms.

2. The data secured was next grouped on the basis of the
ages of the farmers giving the information in order to
show a possible relationship between age and the kind
or variety of repair and construction work performed.

3. The information was grouped according to the type of
farming pursued, in order to see if this has a material
influence on the kind or variety of repair and construc-
tion work undertaken by farmers.

Classification. — In presenting the data secured from the farm-
ers, the following distinctions have been made:

1. Construction work in a given material is taken to mean
"making" work. It also includes repair work when
performed on the objects originally constructed by
farmers as it is assumed, that with a possible few ex-
ceptions, more skill is required to make an object than
to repair it.

2. Repair work includes only the repair work done on
objects not made by farmers. It will be kept in mind
that the actual amount of repair w^ork done is greater
than shown in this classification as explained in the
preceding paragraph.

3. Work done by expert mechanics is that work which
farmers leave to men who follow vocations such as
that of carpenter, concrete worker and blacksmith.

Size of Farms. — Information about the size of farms becomes
significant especially when considered in connection with the type

13

of agriculture pursued. A truck farm or an apple orchard of forty
acres may require more labor and yield a larger income than a

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Table 1

Showing how the Supervisors of Agriculture rate 369 out of the 400 farms
studied.

Rating Number of farms Per cent

Good 196 53.1

Fair 150 40.7

Poor 23 6.2

Table 2
SIZE OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA

A.

Farms

Investigated

1
B.

Farms reported

in U. S. Census

Acres

Mid Value

Frequency Per 1000

Frequency

Per 1000

Less than

3

1.5

1

2.74

972

4.43

3-9

6.5

/

19.18

19130

87.24

10-19

15

11

30.14

18556

84.62

20-49

35

72

197.26

39721

181.13

50-99

75

121

331.51

65687

199.53

100-174

137.5

128

350.68

55518

253.16

175-259

217.5

23

63.01

14096

64.28

260-499

330

2

548

4816

21.95

500-999

750

632

2.89

1.000 or

over

167

.76

Total

365

219,295

M

edi

an

87.8

Acres

Median 73.8 Acres

wheat ranch of ten times that area. Table 2 shows that most of
the farms studied range in size between 50 and 175 acres, and that
the median size is 87.8 acres. The same table also shows how these
farms compare in size with all of the farms of the state as reported
in the U. S. Census Report of 1910. It will be noted that there are
proportionately less very small farms, and fewer very large farms
in the group studied than exist in the state at large. In other
words, the group selected is more central in its tendency as regards
size, than the group embracing all of the farms of the state. Figure
2 shows the same facts graphically. The object in presenting the
facts regarding the size of the farms is that it may favor accurate
description in this report of the farms studied.

Type of Agriculture. — The major part 70.1 per cent to be ex--
act — of the agriculture on the farms considered is general in type.
The term "general" means that the income is derived from growing
the usual animals and field cro])s of the region. By referring to

15

Figure 1 it will be noticed that the central and south central parts
of the state do not possess many vocational agricultural schools.
The farming in these sections is very probably more general there
than in the rest of the state owing to soil, topography, climate and
distance to large markets. Professor Warren* says that "if we ex-
cept the cotton farms, probably over 95 per cent of the United

Table 3

Showing how the Supervisors of Agriculture classified 365 of the 400 farms
studied, as to type of farming.

Classification Number of farms Per cent

General 256 70.1

Dairy 81 22.2

Truck 16 4.4

Fruit 9 2.5

' Poultry 2 .5

Stock 1 .3

Table 4

Showing the major farm enterprisest, as reported by the Supervisors of
Agriculture, on 369 of the 400 farms studied.

terprise

Number

Per cent.

Stock

112

30.3

No Major

77

20.9

Dairy

71

19.2

Crops

63

17.2

Truck

18

4.9

Fruit

17

4.6

Poultry

5

1.3

Flowers

1

.3

Sundry

5

1.3

States derive most of their income from a combination of crops
and animals — general farming".

Table 3 shows that the only other type of farm largely repre-
sented, is the dairy type, whereas truck, fruit and poultry farms oc-
cur in negligible quantities. In studying these facts in relationship
to agricultural education, it must be kept in mind that practically
all Pennsylvania farmers keep in the neighborhood of fifty hens,,
produce their own milk and butter, and grow their own vegetables.

Farm Enterprises are Diversified. — As may be expected in a
state in which general farming is predominant the major enterprises
are diversified in nature. The facts shown in Table 4 confirm the
validity of the practice obtaining in the vocational agricultural

*Warren, G. F., Farm Manaj^ement, page 10").

tThose from which 40% or more of the income was derived.

16

hools of the state in respect to subject matter selected. The be-
ginning is made through a study of soils in relationship to field
crops. Practically all farming requires a knowledge of soils and
field crops. Since the various types of farming have much in com-
mon in theory and practice, it is customary to approach this com-
mon subject matter through a study of the prevailing type of agri-
culture.

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Age of Farmers. — It is interesting to note that the farmers who
operate the more successful farms (classified as "good" and "fair")
are not youthful as a class. Figure 3 shows that half of them are
between 44 and 53 years of age. This, in connection with facts
'ater presented in Table 21 bear out the wide sjiread belief that
agriculture is one of the broadest of vocations due to the large num-
ber of elements it has in common with life. The latter table shows
that the older farmers do about twice as many kinds of repair and
construction work as the younger farmers. This is no doubt due
in part to the fact that certain pieces of work, such as repairing or
building a hog house, or a watering trough, is performed only oc-
casionally, and so two or even five years of farm experience will
not give opportunity to do all kinds of work incidental to farming.

It may be argued that the younger farmers hire more of their

repair and construction work done than do the older men, but this
conclusion is not in harmony with the facts shown in Figure 4. The
facts found point out that agriculture is a dynamic and energizing
vocation that affords much opportunity for individual growth and
development.

18

CHAPTER II.

Group I

Explanations. — The reasons for grouping- the data secured from
farmers in three classifications have already been given. In order
to make the results found in (iroup I comparable with the others,
values have been reduced to a percentage basis.

No time limit such as "during the last year" was indicated. In
all cases, in this and in the other groups, the tables represent work
performed at any time in the vocational life of the individuals con-
cerned.

It may be observed that Cjroup I deals with 400 cases, where-
as Table 2, giving the size of farms contains 365, and Figure 3, show-
ing the age of the farmers who supplied the information, deals with
but 361 cases. This is due to the fact that not all farmers would
give their age and that the size of the farms was not, in all cases,
known to the supervisors of agriculture who su])i)lied this ])articular
information.

Construction Work in Wood. — The first table in Group I
(Table 5), shows how many farmers per thousand have done cer-
tain kinds of construction work in wood. The list is quite different
from the kind of work often advocated as a preparation for repair
and construction work on farms. Xear the top of the list are many
kinds of work that the large majority of teachers of farm shop
work never attempted to teach. This may be due in a large meas-
ure to the following reasons:

1. Traditional manual training ideals have influenced
shop work in agriculture.

2. Text and reference books reflect the same tendencies
to a greater or less degree.

3. 1\'achers have thought too much in terms of work that
can be i)erformed entirely within the school ])lant.

Table 5 shows the actual, as well as the relative number of
times that certain construction work is done. If we compare with
it, the kinds of work usually described in text books, we find con-
siderable discrepancy, particularly in the relative order of imj^ort-

19

ance. For instance, thirteen farmers out of one hundred have
made a bench hook — very commonly advocated, and seventy-one
farmers per hundred built wire fence — a piece of work not common-

so ^ {O ^ n^

1 Wire fence

2 Nest for laying hens ,

3 Chicken coop

4 Milking Btool

5 Hest for setting hens

6 Ib.rn gate

7 Jockey stick

8 Hanmer handle

9 Feeding trough for ,
swine

10 Pig p«a

11 Rail fence ...

12 Horse manger .

13 Cattle manger

14 Board fence ..

15 Plank drag . . . .

16 Hog house . ... ,

17 Yard gate

IB Hatchet handle

19 Feeding trough for
svfine

33 Sledce handle .

21 Chicken feeder.

22 Poultry house .

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ly undertaken by schools. Many similar instances are apparent
in the table.

A conclusion that must be drawn is that farm shop work
should not be limited to the kinds of work that can be done within
the school house, with materials and tools there available.

20

Table 5

Showing kinds of construction work in wood performed by farmers on 400
Pennsylvania farms. When the same object was both constructed and re-
paired by a farmer it was listed as construction work.

Frequency per

Frequency per

Job

400 farms

1000 farms

1

Wire fence

284

710.

2.

Nest for laying hens

269

672.5

3.

Chicken coop

258

&45.

4.

Milking stool

257

642.5

5.

Nest for setting hens

256

640.

6.

Farm gate

245

612.5

7.

Jockey stick

207

517.5

8.

Hammer handle

205

512.5

9.

Feeding trough for chicks

181

4525

10.

Pig pen

178

445.

11.

Rail fence

173

432.5

12.

Horse manger

172

430.

13.

Cattle manger

170

425.

14.

Board fence

167

417.5

15.

Plank drag

164

410.

16.

Hog house

160

400.

17.

Yard gate

158

395.

18.

Hatchet handle

155

387 5

19.

Feeding trough for swine

152

380.

20.

Sledge handle

151

377.5

21.

Chicken feeder

147

367.5

22.

Poultry house

146

365.

23.

File handle

139

347.5

24.

Pick handle

138

345.

25.

Saw horse

138

345.

26.

Bins for grain

133

332 5

27.

-Mortar box

131

327 5

28.

Hay rack

128

320.

29.

Fruit ladder

128

320.

30.

Evener

124

310.

31.

Hand sled

123

307.5

32.

Horse drawn sled

119

297.5

33.

Tool box

117

2925

34.

Watering trough

116

290.

35.

Trellis for grapes

116

290.

36.

Saw buck

115

287.5

37.

Wagon box

115

287.5

38.

Wood picket fence

108

270.

39.

Bird house

103

257.5

40.

Corn crib

102

255.

41.

Wagon jack

99

2475

42.

Window screen

99

247.5

43

Privy

92

230.

44.

Wagon seat

92

230.

45.

Smoke house

91

227.5

46.

Flight of steps

91

227.5

47.

Dog house

90

225.

48.

Garden marker

89

222 5

49.

Ironing board

88

220

50

Crating

87

217.5

51.

Well covering

87

217.5

21

Table 5 (Continued

Frequency per

Frequency per

Job

400 farms

1000 farms

52.

Feeding trough for

stock

84

210.

53.

Land leveler

84

210.

54.

House ladder

80

200.

55.

Wheelbarow

79

197.5

56.

Potato marker

78

195.

57.

Trellis for tomatoes

78

195.

58.

Seed corn testing tray

76

190.

59.

Brush and currycom

lb cabinet

73

182.5

60.

Trellis for small vines

73

182.5

61.

Implement shed

72

180.

62.

Rabbit trap

72

180.

63.

Nail cabinet

71

177.5

64.

Wood shed

70

175.

65.

Door screen

69

172.5

66.

Road drag

68

170.

67.

Vise handle

67

167.5

68.

Feeding trough for sheep

63

157.5

69.

Rabbit coop

62

155.

70.

Step ladder

62

155.

71.

Batten door

61

152.5

72.

Roughage feed rack

for cattle

60

150.

73.

Miter box

59

147.5

74.

Bread board

57

142 5

75.

Ice house

55

137.5

76.

Wagon shed

53

132 5

77.

Planting stick

52

130.

78.

Bench hook

51

127.5

79.

Chicken brooder

45

112.5

80.

Grain bed

43

107.5

81.

Beehive

42

105.

82.

Kitchen stool

41

102.5

83.

Roughage feed rack

for swine

40

100.

84.

Kitchen sink

37

92 5

85.

Pigeon house

37

92.5

86.

Seed corn curing frame

37

92.5

87.

Tool carrier

37

92.5

88.

Saw clamp

35

87.5

89.

Sack holder

31

77.5

90.

Lawn or porch seat

30

75.

91.

Windlass

30

75.

92.

Fly trap

29

72 5

93.

Chicken crate

27

67 5

94.

Ensilage rack

27

67.5

95.

Kitchen table

27

67.5

96.

Wagon top

27

67.5

97.

Lumber rack

26

65.

98.

Clothes rack

26

65.

99.

Oats sprouter

26

65.

100.

Porch chair

25

62.5

101.

Egg tester

23

57 5

102.

Combination barn

22

55.

103.

Hive seat

22

55.

104.

Dairy barn

20

50.

105.

Horse barn

20

50.

106.

Kitchen cabinet

17

42.5

22

Table 5 (Continued'

Frequency per

Frequency per

Job

400 farms

1000 farms

107.

Seed corn tree

17

42.5

108.

Sewing horse

17

42.5

109.

Clothes line reel

16

40.

110.

Seed corn shed

15

37.5

111.

Trap nest

15

37.5

112.

Kitchen bin

14

35.

113.

Milk record sheet case

13

32.5

114.

Sheep barn

11

27.5

115.

Screw cabinet

10

25.

116.

Unloading chute for cattle

10

25.

117.

Cabinet for seeds

8

20.

118.

Fireless cooker

7

17.5

119.

Weight carrier

3

7.5

It is likewise evident from the very character of the work repre-
sented that it is highly important that both pupil and teacher re-
ceive their inspiration as to what to do from conditions found on
the boy's home farm. The teacher will need to be tactful and wise
in guiding his pupils' thoughts so that the latter will ])uri)ose to do
the kind of work that is of educational value, within his capacity
and related to the technical agriculture being studied at the time.

The Table shows that fireless cookers have been made by about
two per cent of the farmers. It makes a difference whether an ob-
ject such as this is comparatively new and unknown, or whether
it is like the flail, old and less and less in demand as time goes on ;
but this much may be said : the school ought first to teach how to
construct or repair such objects as have demonstrable value today
in the vocation of farming. Less than one per cent of the farmers
made a weight carrier. Perhaps they prefer to get rid of stones
by hitching their teams to stone-boats.

Figure 4 shows gra])hically to what extent farmers do certain
kinds of construction work in wood, and to what extent they leave
such work to carj)enters or other expert mechanics. The graph
shows conclusively that farmers do almost all of such work them-
selves, leaving little for expert mechanics to do. Xo doubt the
latter can do much of this work faster and better than can farmers,
but there are several factors that counterbalance this :

1. Mechanics expect to be paid for time and cost of
traveling to and from an out-of-town job. For small
jobs, this is especially uneconomical.

2. When mechanics arc brought to the farm, they must
be fed, and sometimes lodged — often an added burden
to the farmer's busy wife.

3. It is frequently impossible for farmers to secure the
service of good mechanics. The latter do not, as a
rule, like to go out-of-town for work lasting only a few
hours, and the majority likewise object to being away
from home at night. As good roads become more
frequent, this objection will have decreasing weight.

4. The farmer can do much repair and construction work
at times when crops and animals do not need his at-
tention, or when the weather is unfavorable for other
work.

The educational value of Figure 4 lies primarily in the fact
that it shows how many farmers per hundred do the kinds of work
described, and how that compares j^roportionately with similar
w^ork left to carpenters or other mechanics.

Table 6

Showing kinds of repair work in wood occurring 50 or more times per 1000
farms, as found on 400 Pennsylvania farms.

Job

1.

Door screen

2.

Wheelbarrow

3.

Rail fence

4.

Window screen

5.

Horse manger

6.

Cattle manger

7.

Bins for grain

S.

Wire fence

9.

Wagon box

10.

Horse barn

11.

Combination barn

12.

Hog house

13.

Dairy barn

14.

Board fence

15.

Farm gate

16.

Corn crib

17.

Pig pen

18.

Poultry house

19.

Horse drawn sled

20.

Fruit ladder

21.

Wagon bed

22.

Hay rack

23.

Wood picket fence

24.

Yard gate

Frequency per

Frequency per

400 farms

1000 farms

94

235.

93

232.5

74

185.

74

185.

73

182.5

73

182.5

69

1725

68

170.

65

167.5

64

160.

60

150.

59

147.5

54

135.

53

132.5

52

130.

51

127.5

46

115.

45

112 5

45

112.5

44

110.

44

110.

43

107.5

40

100.

40

100.

24

Table 6 {Continued;

Frequency per

Frequency per

Job

400 farms

1000 farms

25.

Wagon seat

39

97^

26.

Privy

38

95.

27.

Chicken coop

37

92.5

28.

Step ladder

37

92.5

29.

Nest for laying hens

36

90.

30.

Batten door

34

85.

31.

Hammer handle

34

85.

32.

Pick handle

34

85.

33.

Implement shed

34

85.

34.

Kitchen table

33

82.5

35.

Nest for setting hens

33

82.5

36.

Hatchet handle

31

77.5

37.

Smoke house

31

77.5

38.

Oats sprouter

30

75.

39.

Jockey stick

30

75.

40.

Kitchen sink

30

75.

41

Sledge handle

30

75.

42.

Wood shed

29

72.5

43.

Milking stool

28

70.

44.

Watering trough

28

70.

45.

Flight of steps

27

67.5

46.

Wagon top

27

67.5

47.

Hand sled

26

65.

48.

Chicken crate

25

62.5

49.

File handle

24

60.

50.

Well covering

22

55.

51.

Ice house

21

52.5

52.

Potato marker

21

52.5

53.

House ladder

20

50.

54.

Land leveler

20

50.

55.

Mortar box

20

50.

The above table covers 58 out of 122 jobs reported on. Those not listed
occur less than 50 times per 1000 farms. The table covers only such repair
work as was performed on objects not originally built by the farmers. Repair
work on objects built by farmers is included in Table 5.

The graph shows, furthermore, the necessity of teaching cer-
tain things that are not at present a part of the school program.
Just what these things are, varies from school to school.

Repair Work in Wood. — In interpreting Table 6 it must be
kept in mind that the table covers only such repair work as was
performed on objects not originally built by farmers. This ac-
counts for the lower frequency shown for repair work as compared
with construction work in the same material. As the results stand,
they argue in favor of teaching considerable construction work —
as much as is i)racticable considering that repair and construction
work must always be regarded as a minor in agriculture. If, on the
other hand, the relative frequency of repair work as such, were

25

greater than that of construction work, then it wouhl mean that
farm boys ought to be taught to re])air work as distinguished from
constructing the same.

Construction Work in Wood Done for Farmers by Expert Me-
chanics.— As might be expected, barns, poultry houses and cabinet
work are largely found at the top of the list given in Table 7. That
certain work rather generally done by farmers is also found in this
table, is ])robably due to the fact that there are always some farm-
ers who, because of lack of experience or for other reasons, hire
such work done.

Table 7

Construction work done in wood for farmers by expert mechanics who
follow such work as a vocation, as found on 400 Pennsylvania farms.

Frequency per

Frequency per

Job

400 farms

1000 farms

1.

Combination barn

77

192.5

2.

Kitchen sink

61

152.5

3.

Poultry house

53

132.5

4.

Dairy barn

49

122.5

5.

Horse barn

39

97.5

6.

Kitchen cabinet

36

90.

7.

Door screen

35

87.5

8.

Kitchen table

35

87.5

9.

Privy

34

85.

10.

Hog house

33

82.5

11.

Implement shed

32

80.

12.

Jockey stick

32

80.

13.

Pig pen

30

75.

14.

Window screen

30

75.

15.

Wheelbarrow

30

75.

16.

Corn crib

29

72.5

17.

Cattle manger

29

72.5

18.

Woodshed

23

65.

19.

Step ladder

25

62.5

20.

I»-on-ng board

24

60.

21.

Horse manger

24

60.

22.

Wagon box

23

57.5

23.

Smoke house

22

55.

24.

Kitchen bin

22

55.

25.

Flight of steps

21

52.5

26.

Wagon bed

21

52.5

27.

Wagon jack

20

50.

28.

Horse drawn sled

20

50.

29.

Bread board

19

47.5

30.

Bins for grain

19

47.5

31.

Wagon top

19

47.5

32.

Pick handle

18

45.

33.

Sheep barn

17

42.5

34.

Fruit ladder

17

42.5

35.

Saw filing

17

42.5

36.

Clothes rack

16

40.

26

Table 7 (Continued)

Frequency per

Frequency per

Job

400

farms

1000 farms

37.

Wagon seat

16

40.

38.

Lawn or porch seat

16

40.

39.

Chicken coop

15

37.5

40.

Hammer handle

15

37.5

41.

Hay rack

15

37.5

42.

Farm gate

13

32.5

43.

House ladder

13

32.5

44.

Chicken brooder

12

30.

45.

Ice house

12

30.

46.

Kitchen stool

12

30.

47.

Sledge handle

11

27.5

48.

Hatchet handle

11

27.5

49.

Yard gate

11

27.5

50.

Porch chair

11

27.5

51.

Hand sled

11

27.5

52

Vise handle

10

25.

53.

Miter box

10

25.

54.

Saw buck

10

25.

The above table shows the kinds of work that were done 25 or more times
in 1000 cases. It covers 54 out of 122 kinds of work reported.

Work in Cement and Concrete

Construction Work. — The Portland Cement Association and
similar organizations, the e.xtension dei)artments of state colleges,
the Ignited States Bureau of Agriculture, farm pa])ers and other
agencies by means of literature, lantern slides, moving pictures
and demonstrations, have shown farmers the possibilities of the
building material — concrete — that largely aided the Romans in be-
coming the greatest builders of their age.

Plgure 5 shows gra])hically to what extent farmers in Penn-
sylvania are using the material. Almost a third of them use it
in floor work and in building foundations. The Figure also shows
that out of nineteen objects or things listed only two are more
frequently done by mechanics than by the farmers themselves.
These are cisterns and silos. This is ])robably due to the circular
form work involved in their construction.

Under i)ioneer farming conditions, there was not the same need
for a permanent building material that there is today when the
design of farm structures has been greatly standardized, and when
the size of farms and the location of farmsteads is more stable. In
considering whether or not concrete should be used in i)reference
to some other material, one must consider initial cost along with the

27

cost of up-keep and permanence. The initial cost will vary largely
according to the price of sand and gravel or crushed rock used as
aggregate for the mixture.

Showing proportion of farmers who construct certain kinds of concrete work, and those
who have the same work done by expert mechanics who follow such work as a vocation.

"ZZZZZZZZZA Cc>/;j/ri/c//o/7 kvarA

DaA7 jecc/rea^ /n?/7f 4^/^ flf/Z7jyya/f/if 7^r/7f^.

A conclusion of educational value to be drawn from the facts
shown in Figure 5 and in Table 8, is that cement and concrete work
deserves a place among the materials used in teaching farm shop

28

work. A material that is used by thirty-one per cent of the farmers
-lioukl not be overlooked on our program for vocational agricul-
tural education.

Table 8

Kinds of construction work in concrete occuring 37.5 or more times per

1000 farms, as found on 400 Pennsylvania farms. The work listed represents
that done by farmers.

Frequency per Frequency per

Job 400 farms 1000 farms

1. Floor 164 310.

2. Foundation lOS 270.

3. Walk S8 220.

4. Cellar 68 170.

5. Steps 6S 170.

6. Watering trough 5t 135.

7. Gutter 47 117.5
S. Cistern 47 117.5
9. Fence post 35 90

10. Milk house 33 90 _

11. Garage 35 87.5

12. Retaining wall 29 72 5

13. Culvert 20 50.

14. Hitching post 19 47.5

15. Silo 18 45.

16. Footing 17 42.5

17. Bridge 16 40.
IS. Ice house 15 37.5
19. Reservoir 15 37.5

The above table includes 19 cases having the greatest frequency out of 29
kinds of work reported on.

Table 9

Kinds of repair work in concrete, occurring 15 or more times per 1000
farms.

The list represents repair work done by farmers, and does not include re-
pair work done on jobs originally constructed by farmers.

Job

1.

Cellar

2.

Floor

3.

Foundation

4.

Steps

5.

Walk

6.

Silo

7.

Cistern

8.

Fence post

9.

Gutter

10.

Hitching post

11.

Retaining wall

12.

Dam

13.

Footing

14.

Watering trough

requency per

Frequency per

400 farms

1000 farms

19

47.5

18

45.

16

40.

13

32.5

12

30.

12

30.

10

25.

10

25.

8

20.

7

17.5

7

17.5

7

17.5

6

15.

6

15.

The above table includes 14 out of 2S kinds of work reported on.

29

Repair Work in Concrete. — A glance at Table 9 reveals that
there is little repair work done in concrete. This is no doubt large-
ly due to the permanance of the material as well as to the fact that
it is not used as frequently as is wood. For purposes of agricultural
education, the field of construction work in concrete is more prom-
ising than that of repair work.

Table 10

Kinds of construction work in concrete, occurring 27.5 or more times per
1000 farms, as found on 400 Pennsylvania farms. The work done is that done
by expert mechanics who follow such work as a vocation.

Job

1.

Cellar

2.

Cistern

3.

Walk

4.

Floor

5.

Silo

7.

Watering trough

8.

Foundation

9.

Milk house

10.

Reservoir

11.

Garage

12.

Bridge

18.

Ice house

14.

Retaining wall

requency per

Frequency per

400 farms

1000 farms

52

130.

49

122.5

41

102 5

37

92.5

35

87.5

2S

70.

25

62.5

22

55.

20

50.

19

47.5

13

32.5

13

32.5

11

27.5

The above table covers 14 out of 29 kinds of work reported on.

Work Done by Mechanics. — The kinds of work mechanics per-
form in concrete for farmers, (Table 10) is similar to that under-
taken by the latter. The significant thing brought out is that farm-
ers do most of such work themselves. The fact that equi])ment for
work with cement is inexpensive is an added reason why it should
not be overlooked in agricultural education.

Work in Iron and Steel

Much has been said for and against the ]^ractice of requiring
agricultural students to take forge work as a part of their secondary
education. In Pennsylvania, on the 400 farms studied, fourteen
farmers per hundred have forges on their farms and, of that four-
teen, thirteen do welding and tempering. (See Figure 6). The
following diagram. Figure 7, shows how many farmers per hundred
construct the twenty-one objects listed and how many re])air such
work, but do not make it. In the latter group, the clevis, punch,
cold chisel and tongs are most prominent relatively.

30

NUMSEJ^ Of F>4^M^^^ ^^/^ h^CJA/OK^JD

/o /s

2S fiO 3S 40 ^S jp

'/4</e/

^^ 0<//- Of /OO Fj(4/^/I^£.7^5 FXlf C^05^-Ca.

5A^I^5.

4S

43 " ''

ao

y // /^

/3 -

'^ ^' ///l/VD 3>7AK5.

20

'' a^£ T/^P3 /WD D/es,

/s

\/4

3

r/ ff

T^A/n^/^ sr^£/^

/RON ^ND 5TEEL

question
farm :

followinj; arc some of the variable factors entering into the
of whether or not a farmer ought to have a forge on his

1. Distance to a reHable blacksmith

(a) Is the latter there the year around?

(b) Are his charges reasonable?

2. Character of roads and available means of transporta-
tion.

3. Amount and character of work to be done.

4. Mechanical ability of the farmer.

31

With so many variable factors to consider, it is unwise to
maike positive assertions of a specific nature without a careful and
detailed study and analysis of conditions obtained in given locali-
ties. It may be said in general that aside from vocational values,

Olain link

Gate hook

Chain hook

Singletrao hook,

Clevis

Ring

Staple

8 Punch

9 Gate hinge

10 Arneas hook. . . ,

11 Hasp

12 Oonplete bolt. .

13 Bolt head

14 Oold chisel

15 Wrench

16 Angle brace

17 Swirel

18 Bolt nut

19 Eye bolt

20 long

2-1 Angle iron

ZZZ2

ZZZ

2ZZ2

^ 4 S 6 Z 8 9

•rzzL

zzz

:zz2Z2z

7TT

•Zl

^Z

ZZZ

zzz

zzz:

zzz

7777

zzzzzzzz

rzZZ.

7777

'2ZZ.

ZZZZ.

ZZZ

TTTiTT-r

■ZZZ

ZZZ

"ZZZ

zzz:

zz

zzz

ZZZl

777T<

ZZZL

ZZZ

7777

;/ //:

ZZZ

ZZZZ

ZZZ

ZZZ

rz

zzz

zzz

zzz

zzz

zzz

zzz:

> ///:

zz:

zzz

zzz

ZZZZ

zzz

Z2:z

DOA'f BY /^^.^ff/^5. ^^/^//^

/^ /f/yj^Z/f/Z) 36^7 A/or 3uur or

experience in forge practice has considerable value from the stand-
point of general education in that it makes possible first hand, in-
timate acquaintance with tools and materials important in provid-
ing food and shelter for the human race. The work should natur-
ally lead to a better understanding of characteristics peculiar to
iron and steel, and should give appreciation for structural design.

32

Table 11

Construction work in iron and
sylvania farms. This table includes
constructed by farmers.

steel performed by farmers on 400 Penn-
repair work on objects that were originally

Job

1

Chain link

_'

Gate hook

;i

Chain hook

\

Singletree hook

o

Clevis

6

Ring

"■

Staple

s

Punch

9

Gate hinge

10

Harness hook

11

Hasp

12

Complete bolt

13

Bolt head

14

Cold chisel

15

Wrench

16

Angle brace

17

Swivel

IS

Bolt nut

19

Eye bolt

20

Tong

21

Angle iron

farms.

Job

1

Clevis

2

Cold chisel

o

Chain link

i

Punch

o

Singletree hook

6

Chain hook

1

Gate hook

s

Staple

9

Gate hinge

10

Wrench

11

Harness hook

12

Hasp

13

Ring

14

Tong

15

Bolt head

16

Angle brace

17

Bolt nut

18

Plow share

19

Swivel

20

Twist drill

21

Complete bolt

22

Angle iron

23

Star drill

24

Eye bolt

Frequency per

Frequency per

400 farms

100 farms

23

7

23

7

25

6

24

6

23

6

23

6

23

6

21

5

19

5

18

5

18

5

16

4

15

4

15

4

14

4 ,

13

3

13

3

12

3

12

3

10

2

i

2

Table 12

performed by farmers

on 400 Pennsyh

by farmers'.

Frequency per

Frequency per

400 farms

100 farms

37

9

33

8

22

6

22

6

20

5

19

5

18

5

16

4

16

4

16

4

13

3

13

3

13

3

13

3

12

3

11

3

11

3

11

3

10

3

9

2

8

2

<

2

6

2

6

2

33

Saw Filing. — By referring to Figure 6 it is seen that half of
the farmers have filed cross-cut saws — meaning timber saws — and
that forty-eight per hundred file their own hand saws. In vjew of
the fact that a sharp saw will cut twice as fast as a dull one, and
that less efl"'ort is required to use the former, it would seem that
every farm boy ought to know how to file saws — or to "fit" saws
to use the terminology of mechanics. The fifty per cent of farmers
who do not file their saws probably would do so if they knew how.
It is poor policy to depend upon someone else for a thing of that
sort, as one may run his saw on a hidden nail, or otherwise dull it
in a few minutes.

Taps and Dies. — A small set of taps and dies will often save a
trip to town, or to a repair shop, for farmers. As farm machinery
of the more complex sort is much more common today than it was
two decades ago, it has become desirable that farmers know how to
use taps and dies. Figure 6 shows that at present one in every five
farmers uses them.

Shoeing Horses. — Nineteen per hundred farmers shoe horses.
This figure includes replacing and tightening. Occasionally farm-
ers who find it difficult to secure the services of good horse shocrs,
advocate that their sons be taught horse shoeing in the vocational
agricultural school. The absurdity of the request is a]:)parent to
all who realize how much skill and strength such work requires.

34

CHAPTER III.

Group II

Findings When Information Secured Was Grouped According
to the Age of the Farmers. — In order to see if there is a relation-
ship between age and the kind or variety of farm shop work under-
taken, the information secured was grouped according to the three
])rincii)al age grou])s represented, namely: 35 to 44 years, 45 to 54
years, and 55 to 64 years. The other age groups are too small to
lend themselves usefully to statistical treatment.

Construction Work in Wood. — When construction work per-
formed b}' farmers is classified on the basis of age, the results are as
shown in Tables 13, 14, and 15. In order that these results may
be viewefl comi)aratively, Table 16 has been arranged. If we call
the column headed "Age 35 to 44", Column 1, the one headed "Age
-15 to 54", Column 2, and the one headed "Age 55 to 65", Column 3,
it will be noticed that there is not a single item in column one that
i< not excelled in column three, and that there are but five items in
)lumn two that are larger than the corresponding ones in the third
column. Mewed as a whole, there is a steady increase in the kinds
of work done from the youngest group to that of 45 to 54 years of
a<^e and again from the latter to the older group.

Table 13

Showing the number

of farmers per hundred who perform certain con-

'^ ruction work in wood.

Data secured

from 89 farmers, 35 to 44 years of age.

Job Frequency-

per 100

Job Frequency per 100

1.

Wire fence

67

19.

Rail fence 33

2.

Nest for laying hens

65

20.

Tool box 33

3.

Chicken coop

60

21.

Saw buck 31

4

Farm gate

57

2^.

Bins for grain 30

.1.

Milking stool

57

23.

Evener 30

0.

Xest for setting hens

54

24.

Board fence 30

~

Hammer handle

47

25.

Screw cabinet 30

s.

Feeding trough for chicks

46

26.

Wagon box 30

9.

Horse manger

39

27.

Plank drag 29

10.

Sledge handle

39

28.

Feeding trough for swine 28

11.

Chicken feeder

37

29

Hay rack 27

12.

Hatchet handle

36

30.

Trellis for grapes 27

13.

Hog house

36

31.

File handle 26

14.

Pig pen

35

32.

Hand sled 26

lo.

Poultry house

34

33.

Jockey stick 25

16.

Yard gate

34

34.

Cattle manger 25

17.

Pick handle

34

35.

Wagon seat 25

l^.

Mortar box

33

35

Tabb

14

Showing the nu:

mber of farmers per huni

dred who perform certain (

con-

struction work in wood. Data secured from 15

i2 farmers, 45 to 54 years of

age.

Job

Frequency

per 100

Job Frequency per

100

1.

Wire fence

76

24.

Pick handle

37

2.

Chicken coop

73

25.

Horse manger

36

3.

Milking stool

73

26.

Fruit ladder

36

4.

Nest for laying hens

73

27.

Mortar box

35

5.

Farm gate

67

28.

Watering trough

35

6.

Nest for setting

hens

64

29.

Chicken crate

34

7.

Hammer handle

51

30.

Saw buck

34

8.

Rail fence

50

31.

Trellis for grapes

34

9.

Plank drag

50

32.

Bins for grain

33

10.

Board fence

48

33.

Tool box

33

11.

Feeding trough for chicks

47

34.

Jockey stick

32

12.

Yard gate

46

35.

Evener

32

13.

Poultry house

46

36.

Corn crib

31

14.

Hatchet handle

45

37.

Horse drawn sled

31

15.

File handle

43

38.

Hand sled

30

16.

Chicken feeder

41

39.

Wagon box

29

17.

Feeding trough

for swine

41

40.

Bird house

28

18.

Cattle manger

40

41.

Ironing board

27

19.

Hog house

40

42.

Wagon jack

27

20.

Sledge handle

40

43.

Land leveler

27

21.

Hay rack

40

44.

Wood picket fence

26

22.

Pig pen

40

45.

Smoke house

26

23.

Saw horse

39
Table

46.
15

Garden marker

25

Showing the number of farmers per h

undrc

d who perform certain construc-

tion work in wood.

Data secured from

71 farmers, 55 to 64 years of age.

Job

Frequency

per 100

Job Frequency per

100

1.

Wire fence

78

30.

Flight of steps

40

2.

Nest for laying hens

76

31.

Wagon box

38

3

Chicken coop

73

32.

Watering trough

38

4.

Nest for setting hens

73

33.

Window screen

37

5.

Farm gate

70

34.

Corn crib

35

6.

Milking stool

70

35.

Dog house

35

7.

Hammer handle

68

36.

Hay rack

35

8.

Pig pen

63

37.

Horse drawn sled

35

9.

Hatchet handle

59

38.

Tool box

35

10.

Rail fence

58

39.

Feeding trough for stock

35

11.

Board fence

58

40.

Wood picket fence

34

12.

Yard gate

52

41.

Smoke house

34

13.

Mortar box

•51

42.

Bird house

32

14.

Horse manger

49

43.

Saw buck

32

15.

Cattle manger

49

44.

Ironing board

30

16.

Plank drag

49

45.

Wagon seat

30

17.

Pick handle

48

46.

W^heel barrow

30

18.

File handle

48

47.

Well covering

30

19.

Saw horse

48

48.

Wagon jack

28

20.

Feedin-? trough for chicks

48

49.

Wood shed

28

21.

Bins for grain

46

50.

Vise handle

27

22.

Hog house

45

51.

Garden marker

27

23.

S'ed^e handle

44

52.

Chicken crate

25

24.

Fruit ladder

44

53.

Evener

25

25.

Hand sled

44

54.

Implement shed

25

26.

Feeding trough for swine

44

55.

Jockey stick

25

27.

Poultry house

42

56.

Land leveler

25

28.

Privy

41

57.

Wagon bed

25

29.

Ch-cken feeder

40

36

Xable 16

Showing the number of farmers per hundred who perform certain con-
struction work in wood. Data secured from farmers grouped according to age.

, Frequency per 100

Job

Age 35-44

Age 45-54

Age 5

1.

Wire fence

67

76

78

2.

Nest for laying hens

65

73

76

■J

Chicken coop

60

73

73

1.

Xest for setting hens

54

64

73

■).

Farm gate

57

67

70

Milking stool

57

73

70

7.

Hammer handle

47

51

68

N.

Pig pen

35

40

63

9.

Hatchet handle

36

45

59

10.

Rail fence

33

50

58

11.

Board fence

30

48

58

12.

Yard gate

34

46

52

13.

Mortar box

33

35

51

14.

Horse manger

39

36

49

15.

Cattle manger

25

40

49

16.

Plank drag

29

50

49

17.

P-ck handle

34

37

48

-

File handle

26

43

48

Saw horse

27

39

48

2o!

Feeding trough for chicks

46

^7

48

21.

Bins for grain

27

33

46

22.

Hog house

36

40

45

23.

Sledge handle

39

40

44

24.

Fruit ladder

22

36

44

25.

Hand sled

32

30

44

26.

Feeding trough for swine

28

41

44

27.

Poultry house

34

46

42

28.

Privy

19

22

41

29.

Chicken feeder

37

41

40

30.

Flii^ht of steps

15

24

40

31.

Wagon box

30

29

3S

32.

Watering trough

22

35

3S

33.

\\'indow screen

24

24

37

34.

Corn crib

19

31

35

35.

Dog house

20

21

35

36.

Hay rack

27

40

35

37.

Horse drawn sled

24

31

35

38.

Tool box

33

33

35

39.

Feeding trough for stock

18

22

35

40.

Wood picket fence

16

26

34

41.

Smoke house

21

26

34

42.

Bird house

22

28

32

43.

Saw buck

31

34

32

44.

Ironing board

19

27

30

45.

Wagon seat

25

24

30

46.

Wheelbarrow-

15

21

30

47.

Well covering

18

22

30

37

48. Wagon jack

49. Wood shed

50. Vise handle

Totals

Table 16 ( Continued i

Job

Frequency per 100

Age 35-44 Age 45-54 Age 55-64

21 27 28

12 17 28

17 14 27

1531

19i;

2276

Note: There were 89 farmers 35 to 44 years of age, 152 farmers 45 to 54
years of age, and 71 farmers 55 to 64 years of age.

Table 17

Showing the number of farmers per hundred who perform certain repair
work in wood. Data secured from 89 farmers, 35 to 44 years of age.

Frequency per 100
14
14
14
12
12
12
12
11
10
10
10
10

Job

Frequency per 100

Job F

1.

Door screen

27

13.

Corn crib

2.

Wheelbarrow

22

14.

Hog house

3.

Rail fence

21

15.

Privy

4.

Wagon seat

21

16.

Dairy barn

5.

Wire fence

19

17.

Chicken coop

6.

Window screen

19

18.

Hay rack

7.

Horse manger

17

19.

Wagon box

8.

Horse barn

15

20.

Farm gate

9.

Board fence

15

21.

Kitchen table

10.

Cattle manger

15

22.

Step ladder

11.

Combination barn 14

23.

Poultry house

12.

Bins for grain

14
Table

24.
18

Wagon bed

Showing the number of farmers per hundred who perform certain repair
work in wood. Data secured from 152 farmers, 45 to 54 years of age.

Job Freque

:ncy per 100

Job Frequency per

100

1.

Horse manger

26

17.

Poultry house

12

2.

Door screen

24

18.

Wood picket fence

12

3.

Wheel barrow

24

19.

Batten door

11

4.

Bins for grain

23

20.

Implement shed

11

5.

Window screen

23

21.

Step ladder

11

6.

Cattle manger

22

22.

Pig pen

11

7.

Rail fence

20

23.

Chicken coop

10

8.

Horse barn

18

24.

Farm gate

10

9.

Wire fence

18

25.

Yard gate

10

10.

Hog house

18

26.

Horse drawn sled

10

11.

Wagon box

18

27.

Kitchen table

10

12.

Dairy barn

16

28.

Hatchet handle

10

13.

Combination barn

16

29.

Fruit ladder

10

14.

Wagon seat

15

30.

Wagon top

10

15.

Corn crib

12

31.

Wagon bed

10

16.

Board fence

12

38

Table 19

work in

Showing the number of farmers per hundred who perform certain repair
k in wood. Data secured from 71 farmers, 55 to 64 years of age.

Job Frequency

per 100

Job Frequency per

100

1.

Door screen

31

25.

Hay rack

14

2.

Horse manger

28

26.

Batten door

13

3.

Wheel barrow

27

27.

Jockey stick

13

4.

Wire fence

24

28.

Step ladder

13

5.

Farm gate

21

29.

Milking stool

13

6.

Cattle manger

21

30.

Nest for laying hens

13

7.

Fruit ladder

21

31.

Wagon seat

13

S.

Window screen

20

32.

Dairy barn

11

9.

Combination barn

20

33.

Horse barn

11

10.

Bins for grain

20

34.

Wood picket fence

11

11.

Rail fence

18

35.

Pick handle

11

12.

Pig pen

18

36.

File handle

11

13.

Corn crib

18

37.

Chicken crate

10

14.

Board fence

17

38.

Chicken coop

10

15.

Yard gate

17

39.

Chicken feeder

10

16.

Hammer handle

17

40.

Evener

10

17.

Hog house

17

41.

Wagon jack

10

18.

Horse drawn sled

17

42.

Potato marker

10

19.

Wagon bed

17

43.

Nest for setting hens

10

20.

Wagon box

17

44.

Plank drag

10

21.

Hatchet handle

16

45.

Porch chair

10

22.

Sledge handle

16

46.

Privy

10

23.

Poultry house

16

47.

Flight of steps

10

24.

Watering trough

16

48.

Hand sled

10

Table 20

Showing the number of farmers per hundred who perform certain repair
Vv'ork in wood. Data secured from farmers grouped according to age.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
IS.
19
20.

Job
Door screen
Horse manger
W'heelbarrow
Wire fence
Farm gate
Cattle manger
Fruit ladder
Window screen
Combination barn
Bins for grain
Rail fence
Pig pen
Corn crib
Board fence
Yard gate
Hammer handle
Hog house
Horse drawn sled
Wagon bed
Wagon bo.x
Hatchet handle
Sledge handle

Frequency per

100

35-44

Age 45-54

Age 55-64

27

24

31

17

26

28

22

24

27

19

18

24

11

10

21

15

22

21

9

10

21

19

23

20

14

16

20

14

23

20

21

20

18

9

11

18

14

12

18

15

12

17

6

10

17

6

9

17

14

18

17

6

10

17

10

10

17

12

IS

17

3

10

16

5

9

16

39

10

12

16

5

6

16

11

9

14

2

11

13

3

3

13

10

11

13

6

6

13

9

7

13

U\

410

549

4 yea

rs of age.

152

farmers 45 to 54

Table 20 (Continued)

Frequency per 100
Job Age 35-44 Age 45-54 Age 55-64

23. Poultry house

24. Watering trough

25. Hay rack

26. Batten door

27. Jockey stick

28. Step ladder

29. Milking stool

30. Nest for laying hens

Totals

Note: There were 89 farmers 35 to 44 years of age,
years of age, and 71 farmers 55 to 64 years of age.

Repair Work in Wood.— Here as in the previous classification
where all farms were used as a basis of study it will be necessary to
remember that re])air work means only such repair work as was
done by farmers on objects not made by farmers. Tables 17, Iv^,
and 19 give the results for the age grou])s and Table 20 gives a
com])arison of the three grou])s.

The kinds of work done in the age grou])s is summarized in
Table 21. Since the work done by very few farmers ]:>er hun-
dred is less significant in general for purposes of secondary educa-
tion, only that repair work was included in the latter table which
was done by 10 or more ])ersons ])er hundred. Likewise for the
construction work the limit was set at work done by 25 or more
persons per hundred.

Table 21

Showing the relative frequency with which certain repair and construction
work in wood is done by farmers grouped according to age.

Age 35-44 Age 45-54 Age 55-64

Number of kinds of repair work performed

by 10 or more persons per hundred 24 31 48

Number of kinds of construction work per-
formed by 25 or more persons per hundred 35 47 58

Interpretation of Group II. — It has been shown that farmers 35
to 44 years of age do fewer kinds of repair and construction work
than is done by farmers 45 to 54 years of age, and that the latter
grou]) do fewer kinds of work than farmers 55 to 64 years of age.

If farmers had much of their repair and construction work
done by mechanics, it might be inferred that the younger farmers
(lei)end more largely on mechanics for such work than do the

40

older farmers. But Figure 4 *ho\vs, as far as the kinds of work
treated in this study are concerned, that the amount of work is
negligible that farmers leave to mechanics. It is consistent with
.ucumulated experience to interpret the facts to mean that agricul-
ture is a vocation so broad that it actually requires a number of
years in order to obtain a well rounded training in it. Rotations
in crops and changes brought about by special market conditions
are some of the reasons why the work varies from year to year.
Certain objects such as hog houses are built only occasionally, and
( ertain repair work has to be done only every few years. Success-
ful farmers are always learning and grow constantly in their voca-
tion. A lifetime of successful farm experience is not time enough
in which to master the skills and acquire the technical knowledge
that may be used in the pursuit of an agricultural career.

41

CHAPTER IV.

Group III

Findings on the Basis of Type of Agriculture Pursued

It was found in Tabic 3 that there are 256 general farms and
81 dairy farms among the 400 farms studied. Tables 22 and 23
show the number of farmers per hundred on the general farms who
do certain construction and repair work in wood, and Tables 24 and
25 give similar results for dairy farms, while Table 26 gives a com-
parison of construction work as performed on the three principal
groups of farms ; namely, the group containing all farms, the one
containing general farms and the one made up of dairy farms.
Table 27 gives a comparison of repair work as performed on the
groups of farms just mentioned.

Interpretation of Facts Found in Group III. — The comparative
tables show that, as regards the kinds of work studied, there is
much similarity in the three groups of farms. There are several
reasons for this. In the first place the group headed "General
farms", makes up approximately 70 per cent of the first group which
contains all of the farms included in the study. Again, the farmers

Table 22

Showing the number of farmers per hundred who perform certain con-
struction work in wood. Data secured from 256 farmers operating general
farms.

Job Frequency per 100

Job Frequency per 100

1.

Wire fence

73

20.

Poultry house

37

2.

Farm gate

65

21.

File handle

36

3.

Nest for laying hens

65

22.

Mortar Box

35

4.

Milking stool

64

23.

Pick handle

35

5.

Chicken coop

63

24.

Saw horse

34

6.

Hatchet handle

59

25.

Chicken feeder

33

7.

Nest for setting hens

56

26.

Trellis for grapes

33

8.

Hammer handle

50

21.

Fruit ladder

32

9.

Rail fence

45

28.

Horse drawn sled

30

10.

Board fence

45

29.

Hand sled

30

11.

Yard gate

42

30.

Bins for grain

30

12.

Feeding trough for chicks

41

31.

Jockey stick

30

13.

Plank drag

40

32.

Hay rack

29

14.

Horse manger

39

33.

Watering trough

255

15.

Sledge handle

38

34.

Evener

28

16.

Pig pen

38

35.

Saw buck

27

17.

Hog house

38

36.

Wagon box

27

18.

Feeding trough for swine

38

37.

Wood picket fence

26

19.

Cattle manger

37

38.

Chicken crate

26

42

Table 23

Showing the number of farmers per hundred who perform certain repair
work in wood. Data secured from 256 farmers operating general farms.

Job Frequency per 100

Job Frequency per

100

1.

Door screen

29

15.

Corn crib

13

2.

Wheelbarrow

23

16.

Fruit ladder

13

3

Window screen

22

17.

Pig pen

13

4.

Horse manger

18

18.

Board fence

13

5.

Farm gate

18

19.

Horse drawn sled

12

6.

Wagon box

17

20.

Wagon bed

11

4 .

Bins for grain

17

21.

Step ladder

11

"S.

Cattle manger

17

22.

Yard gate

11

V».

Hog house

16

23.

Chicken coop

11

10.

Wagon seat

15

24.

Nest for laying hens

10

11.

Rail fence

15

25.

Nest for setting hens

10

12.

Combination barn

15

26.

Poultry house

10

13.

Wire fence

15

27.

W'ood picket fence

10

14.

Horse barn

15

28.

Hatchet handle

10

Table 24

Showing the number of farmers per hundred on dairy farms who perform
certain construction work in wood.

Job

Frequency

per 100

Job Frequency per

100

1.

Milking stool

65

24.

Corn crib

35

2

Nest for laying hens

65

25.

Board fence

35

i:

Chicken coop

59

26.

Hatchet handle

35

4.

Wire fence

59

27.

Watering trough

35

5.

Nest for setting

hens

54

28.

Chicken feeder

33

6.

Farm gate

52

29.

Yard gate

33

i .

Hammer handle

52

30.

Mortar box

33

S.

Horse manger

47

31.

Hand sled

32

9.

Bins for grain

46

32.

Tool box

32

10.

Hay rack

46

33.

File handle

31

11.

Saw horse

42

34.

Saw buck

31

12.

Sledge handle

41

35.

Fruit ladder

30

13.

Cattle manger

41

36.

Window screen

28

14.

Feed trough for

swine

41

37.

Horse drawn sled

2S

15.

Wagon l)ox

41

38.

Chicken crate

25

16.

Rail fence

40

39.

Smoke house

26

17.

Hog house

40

40.

Land leveler

26

IS.

Plank drag

37

41.

Potato marker

26

19.

Feeding trough

for chicks

37

42.

Crating

25

20.

Evener

36

43.

Wood picket fence

25

21.

Pick handle

36

44.

Wagon jack

25

22.

Poultry house

36

45.

Flight of steps

25

23.

Pig pen

36

in all three s^rou])S kee]) cow? — not to the extent that those do who
run dairy farms, but enough to give them similar experiences. In
similar manner, practically all farmers keep chickens, horses, swine,
raise some garden truck, some field croj^s and have other experi-
nces in common. It may be concluded from this that practically

43

Table 25

Showing the number of farmers per hundred on dairy farms who perform
certain repair work in wood.

Job Frequency per 100 Job Frequency per 100

1.

Dairy barn

27

17.

Potato marker

2

2.

Rail fence

26

18.

Milking stool

2

3.

Horse manger

25

19.

Pick handle

4.

Horse barn

23

20.

Hay rack

5.

Wheelbarrow

22

21.

Smoke house

6.

Wire fence

21

22.

Kitchen sink 1

(f .

Bins for grain

18

23.

Kitchen table

8.

Board fence

18

24.

Pig pen

9.

Door screen

17

25.

Window screen

10.

Wagon seat

17

26.

Wagon bed

11.

Cattle manger

16

27.

Woodshed

12.

Poultry house

16

28.

Chicken brooder

0

13.

Combination barn

15

29.

Hammer handle

LO

14.

Hog house

15

30.

Fruit ladder

[0

15.

Farm gate

12

31.

Step ladder

0

16.

Ice house

12

32.

Wheel barrow

LO

Table 26

Comparing construction work in wood as found on (a) All farms, (b) Gen-
eral farms, and (c) Dairy farms. The number of farms in each group is given
in Table 3.

Number of times per 100 farms

Job

All Farms

General Farms

Dairy

1.

Wire fence

71

73

59

2.

Nest for laying hens

67

65

65

3.

Chicken coop

61

63

59

4.

Milking stool

64

64

65

5.

Nest for setting hens

6i

56

54

6.

Farm gate

61

65

52

7.

Jockey stick

52

30

16

8.

Hammer handle

51

50

52

9.

Feeding trough for chicks

45

41

37

10.

Pig pen

44

38

38

11.

Rail fence

43

45

40

12.

Horse manger

43

39

47

13.

Cattle manger

42

37

41

14.

Board fence

42

45

35

15.

Plank drag

41

40

37

16.

Hog house

40

38

40

17.

Yard gate

40

42

33

18.

Hatchet handle

39

59

35

19.

Feeding trough for swine

38

38

41

20.

Sledge handle

3S

38

41

21.

Chicken feeder

37

33

33

22.

Poultry house

33

37

35

23.

File handle

35

36

31

24.

Pick handle

34

35

36

25.

Saw horse

34

34

42

26.

Bins for grain

33

30

46

27.

Mortar box

33

35

33

28.

Hay rack

32

29

46

29.

Fruit ladder

32

32

30

30.

Evener

31

28

36

44

Table 26 (Continued*

Number of times per 100 farms
Job All Farms General Farms Dairy Farm;

31

30

26

30

30

28

29

23

32

29

28

35

29

33

17

29

27

31

29

27

41

27

26

25

23

24

23

23

22

35

23

24

25

25

19

28

23

22

18

23

22

22

23

23

26

23

22

26

22

22

17

22

IS

22

22

23

21

22

18

25

Table 27

ol. Hand sled

32. Horse drawn sled

33. Tool box

34. Watering trough

35. Trellis for grapes

36. Saw buck
o7. Wa^on l)ox

3S. Wood picket fence

39. Bird house

40. Corn crib

41. Wagon jack

42. Window screen

43. Privy

44. Wagon seat

45. Smoke house

46. Flight of steps

47. Dog house

48. Garden marker

49. Ironing board

50. Cratinjj

Comparing repair work in wood as found on (a) All farms, (b) General
farms, and (c> Dairy farms. The number of farms in each group is given in
Table 3.

Number of times per 100 farms
Job All Farms General Farms Dairy Farms

1. Door screen

2. Wheel barrow
3 Rail fence

4. Window screen

5. Horse manger

6. Cattle manger

7. Bins for grain

8. Wire fence

9. Wagon l)ox

10. Horse barn

11. Comb'nation barn

12. Hog house

13. Dairy barn
14 Board fence

15. Farm gate

16. Corn cri!>

17. Pig pen
IS. Poultry house

19. Horse drawn sled

20. Fruit ladder

21. Wagon b^d

22. Hay rack

23. Wood picket fence

24. Yard gate

25. Wagon seat

26. Privy

27. Chicken coop

24

29

17

23

23

10

1-S

15

26

18

22

11

18

18

23

IS

17

16

17

17

18

17

15

21

17

17

5

16

15

23

15

15

15

15

16

15

14

11

27

13

12

18

13

18

12

13

13

9

12

13

11

11

11

16

11

12

9

11

13

10

11

11

11

11

11

11

10

10

5

10

11

6

10

15

17

10

8

7

9

11

11

45

9

10

10

9

10

7

S

8

9

8

9

10

8

9

11

S

9

9

8

4

11

S

10

5

8

10

9

8

9

12

8

1

0

8

o

6

8

4

11

Table 27 (Continued)

Number of times per 100 farms
Job All Farms General Farms Dairy Farms

28. Step ladder

29. Nest for laying hens

30. Batten door

31. Hammer handle

32. Pick handle

33. Implement shed

34. Kitchen table

35. Nest for setting hens

36. Hatchet handle

37. Smoke house

38. Oats spouter

39. Jockey stick

40. Kitchen sink

all farmers in Pennsylvania except the very few who grow nothing
but truck, a variety or two of fruit, flowers, etc., have many ex-
periences in common and do much the same kind of re])air and con-
struction work. It is granted that this work varies in amount with
the type and size of farm operated.

In planning courses of study for vocational agricultural schools,
one is forced by economic considerations to consider primarily the
best interests of the majority of pupils. Rural schools cannot now,
as a rule, offer as many options to pupils as can the schools of
urban centers. It is hardly economically feasible for most agricul-
tural schools of secondary grade in Pennsylvania to offer separate
specialized courses in agronomy, horticulture, animal husbandry,
poultry raising and other major phases of agriculture. There are
other reasons why it is not attempted.

The conclusion drawn is that the repair and construction work
that was done most commonly by the farmers in Group I (which
contained all of the farms studied) closely represents essentials for
over 90 per cent of the farming of the state of Pennsylvania.

46

PART II.
CHAPTER V.

The Teaching Force

At the time this study was made (1919), there were 33 teachers
of agriculture (exclusive of assistants), in the schools shown in
Figure 1. It has already been mentioned that these men are called
Supervisors of Agriculture because they supervise home project
work in agriculture. In addition, they are frequently called upon
to render various forms of educational service to the adult popula-
tion of the community. All this tends to widen their sphere of
usefulness to the community and makes them bigger andd abler
men than if their efforts were restricted to those of the class room
and laboratory. The supervisors are young men as is shown in
Figure 8. Twenty-four of them are between twenty-six and thirty
years of age.

The pertinence of the graph lies largely in a probable relation-
ship (to which there are exceptions) between age and personal
adaptability to teach successfully a growing and dynamic vocation
>uch as that of agriculture.

More significant than age, however, is the background of pre-
vious experience that teachers possess. Figure 9 shows how many
years the supervisors have lived in urban centers, in rural communi-
ties, but not on farms, and on farms.

Experience in Shop Work. — In describing the experience that
the supervisors of agriculture have had in shop work, a distinction
is made between school experience and that obtained outside of
schools. Figure 10 shows that of thirty-three supervisors twenty-
nine have had normal school or college training in woodwork, and
that twelve have had training in iron and steel, that is, forge prac-
tice. No attempt was made to show the exact nature and amount
of this school experience. In the case of 82 per cent of the men —
those graduated in agriculture from the Pennsylvania State College
— it probably consisted of one three-hour period per week for one
semester. The woodwork given was largely joinery. The course
of studv for agricultural students in effect when the men graduated

required either the course just described or one in forge practice
for an equal length of time. The work covered is similar to what
is usually given in elementary forge practice in schools of engineer
ing. The Pennsylvania State College now requires students in
agricultural education to take farm shop work for six hours per
wxek for one semester.

t

^4 '^» *^ V-

Figure 8
Age of supervisors of Agriculture, September 1, 1910

In addition to the experience obtained in normal school or col-
lege in working with materials of construction, most of the super-
visors had practical experiences with tools and materials of repair
and construction, incidental to their farm life. This work no doubt
varied considerably with the men in amount and in character, but
farmers as a class do considerable work with hand tools ; this must
not be overlooked in spite of the fact that we have no exact measure
of the amount, nor can we describe its quality in a scientific way.
After all may not the description : "five years of practical farm
experience in general farming in Pennsylvania", give as clear a no-
tion of how much experience in farm repair and construction work a

48

in

T "Rcr

-1-

TT-

I

w Jfl

b

1

i

S u

_^3 ^ S ^

I

iM

1 z

^ ^ ^ 1 LJ ' *^f '"

1

c s

^' ^' fD ■ I t^

^ c

,: ^ ^ ' ' ' 1 K 1

Q ^

^ f" ^ ■ > i|

S:

in^

^ r^ ^ 1 1^ 7^1

2 «.^

1 ^ \3 ^ 1 ^ ^

i !

^ ^

■^

•(^ I ■ L^ •>v' !

i

H I ■ i

■j V -^ 1 \' ^ 1

J 1

^ 1 '

■■ ^' §* 1 ^ "^ •

V

■ ,

■ i^^ ^ 1 ^ ^ '

♦■ —

IH '

^^M '.

1 ^^1 . ^v 1 Oi ' 1 : ' ■ "^ N. ;

^1 '

\ ^^m -N: ^ ' ' ' I ' t !x|

---B-j-r—

, ^^1 rV 1 ' ' ! 1 i i 1 ]

' ^^Hi Bh 1 1 1 <

HH ^^I i

' ^^^H ^H ■ ' 1

1

^H ^^m '

i ^^^H ^^fel 1

1

H ■- f -

' ^^^^^^H

^^^1 ■

^^" ' i

.. i . _

<!»

Figure 9
Showing the time in years that the supervisors of agriculture lived on
farms, in rural communities but not on farms, and in urban centers.

3^ JS

bvz-;//.-</.<^z-^->^-c^-:vX<^:<--;-x<l

Y//////////y/////////////////\

\///////////X

I

/

Figure 10
Types of shop work pursued in Normal School or in College l)y Supervisors

of Agriculture.

49

person has had as to say he has "worked for five years at carpentry",
or "has had a three-credit course in farm shop work at an agricul-
tural college?"

The number of years the supervisors have lived on farms is
graphically shown in Figure 9. The diagram does not distinguish
between years spent in early childhood and years spent later in life,
but the graph shows that over two-thirds of the men have lived
sixteen or more years on farms.

Table 28

Experience in teaching farm shop work

1918-1919

1 1917-

1918

1916-1917

1915-1916

6

c/i

c/.

^

c«

Oi

^

Ij

, 3

'Z

3

'Z

3

'a;

3

a;

o

ii

o

u

C

<u

O

3

aj

(LI

c

"U

^ <U

c

<u

c t!

3 oj

^ ^ u

c

c

G
C

u

o

c
U

en

C

c

1 1

1 1 •!

1

X

2

X X

3

X X

4

X

X

X

5

X

X

6

XXX

X

X

X

X

X X

XXX

7

X

X

X

8

XXX

X

X

X

X

X X

9

X

X

10

XXX

11

X

12

X X

X

13

X

X

X

X

X X

14

XXX

X

X

15

X X

16

X

X

X X

17

X

X

y

18

X

X

19

X

y

20

XXX

X

X

X X

21

X X

X

X

X

X

X

22

X X

X

X

X

X

23

X

24

X

X

X

25

X

X

26

X

X

27

X

X

28

X X

X

X

29

XXX

X

X

X

30

X

31 1

X X

X

X

X

X

X

32

X

X

X

33

1

X X

X

X

X

X

X

To'll

32 15 6

22

t

5

IS

7 4

6 2 2

50

> S /O /S 2o dS 3e> J3

V////////////////////////////777\

v/////////\

//, O/^ 333^ or r/ffSCNOOlJ UJfD Arm e J/^/Z

6, 0^ I3./S^ OF T//F 5C//i!?^l5 ^JfD CO/^C^Fr^ .

''■A

^, Ojf 6.i^^ or rA'f 3C//0015 oJf£> if/imf^.

I

/, 0/^ 3.03^ Of r//£' SC/y00L5 OJfD J/Zfl/'-A/j^/'/^L.

I

Figure 11
Materials chiefly used in farm shop work in the schools

Experience in Teaching Farm Shop Work. — In Pennsylvania,
the supervisors of agriculture, without exception, teach the farm
sho]) work. Table 28 shows the kinds of materials used and the
number of years that each supervisor has taught this work. Fig-
ure 1 1 shows graphically what materials were used. That the farm
sho]) work is still influenced by manual training ideals is brought
out in Table 31. This shows that of 33 schools, 10 were in 1919 de-
voting their efforts to repair and construction work, such as is fol-
lowed by farmers in the pursuit of their vocation, and that the char-
acter of the work was good as measured by standards obtaining in
STOod farm ])ractice. Three more schools were doing the same kind
of work with a fair degree of skill. Fourteen combined good farm
shop work with cabinet work. Four schools gave cabinet work
almost exclusively. One restricted its efforts almost entirely to

51

making models — that is small scale samples — of objects useful on
the farm, and one school gave no time to farm shop work during
the year. A list of shop projects cannot well be given as there is
no uniform practice in kinds selected.

Table 29

Where teachers

received

training, and amount received

rt

High School,

3

Academy, or

Normal School

College

>

Prep. School

-5

j3

iOutside!

jOutside

Penn

lOutsidel

Pa.

1 Pa. 1 Years

Pa. 1 Pa.

Years

State

Pa. 1

Years

1

X

3.5

X

1 1

4

2

X

4.

X

4

3

X

3.

X

1

4

4

X

4.

1 X I

4

5 1

X

4.

X

1 i

4

6 1

X

5.

X

1 i

4

7 1

1

X

6

X

i 1

2

8

X

1.

X

1 "!

6

9

X

4.0

1

X

t i

4

10 1

X

4.

X

\ 1

4

11 1

X

4.

X

i 1

2

12 !

X

4.

1

X

i 1

13 1

X 1

2

X

! !

14 !

X

2. !

1

1

X

j

15 i

X

4. i

1

X

16 1

X

4.5 1

1

X

17 1

X

2.5 ;

X

i

18 1

X

4. 1

X

!

19 !

X

4.

X

1 X

20 1

X

3.5

X

i i

21 1

X

4.

1

X

i 1

22 1

X

■

5.

1 X 1

23 1

X

4.

j

X i

4.5

24 1

X

4.

■ 1 !

1 X 1

25 1

X

3.

1 ■ 1

X

I

26 i

X

4.

1 ^ 1

X

1

27 1

X

3.

X

28 I

X

4.

. i 1

X

[ !

29 1

X 1 1

2.5

X

1

30 !

X

1 4. i

1 !

X

31 1

X

! 3.

1 1

X

i

32 i

X r 4.

X !

?3 1

^

1 3.

1 1

V

1

Totls"

28

4 110.

3 ' ■

10.5

27

7 1315

i

1 av.

1 . 1

av.

1

av.

II

1 3 34

1 1

.318

i

4.00

Where Teachers Received Their Training, and the Amount
Received. — Almost 88 per cent of the supervisors of agriculture re-
ceived their high school education in Pennsylvania, and about 82
per cent of them are graduates of the School of Agriculture of The

52

w/io j^fCf/ysD r/^f/j^^/^/^ SCHOOL frocc/ir/oA/ o^ /r3

90.S FSj^ cSNr ^/^ /%f 3£//'/rj^-

cc?/.is^£^ f/x/c/^r/o/^ Ai r//£
Figure 12

Pennsylvania State College. These facts are graphically shown in
Figure 12, and are revealed by Table 29, which gives detailed in-
formation about all of the supervisors. Only three individuals, or
less than 10 per cent, have had normal school training — that is, have
had training in methods of teaching. They are among the best
teachers. All but two of the supervisors are graduates of four-
year courses in agriculture.

Tenure. — Of the thirty-three supervisors holding positions in
1919, five have served four years, eleven served three years, eleven
served two years, and six served one year (see Figure 13). The
number of changes that have been made are shown in the left hand
group in the same figure. Thus, three of the five men who have
taught for four years in Pennsylvania are holding their original
l)Ositions. and sixteen have been in their present position but one
vear. There are at least two reasons for the latter fact. Manv of

53

/ ^ 3 4

/ 2 ^ 4
/A ftANSY^yA/y/A

Figure 13

/ 2 3

the men gave up their positions in order to go in the service of our
country. Others were put in their places. \\ hen the former re-
turned, they w^ere often put in charge of other schools where men
of experience and energy seemed especially to be needed. In other
instances, men were promoted, or their experience and demon-
strated ability were utilized in starting new departments of schools.
During the first half of the present school year (1919-1920) five
rural community vocational schools and three agricultural depart-
ments in high schools have been added — an increase of twenty-five
per cent.

Farm Shop Product. — By letting boys make objects for them-
selves, one stimulates and increases their natural interest in work
with hand tools. Figure 14 shows what proportion of the ])roduct
of farm shop work goes to the boy, or to his home farm. The dia-
gram shows that the practice among the schools is not uniform.
Too much uniformity in this respect is undesirable, for some schools
are well housed and equipped and need little construction work
such as boys can do with educational advantage to themselves,
while others have many things that need to be made that fit in
with farm shop work requirements.

54

\\ hile it is desirable to encourage pupils by giving them some
of the product of their efforts, it is likewise worth while to keep in
mind a higher aim than the purely selfish one just referred to. By
having pujjils i)lan and execute work for the school, for instance,
thev are given the opportunity to do faithful work in the service of

F^^ C^/VT

/o

F'/^nDz/rr

I
\

^

Figure 14
Per cent of school farm shop product for the boy, or for his home farm.

the community (Table 15). To be worth while, such work must
be within the capacity of the boys, and must be worth while edu-
cationally, otherwise it may result in exploitation of the pupils.

If the product in farm shop work is classified into two divisions,
construction work and repair work, it is found that there is also
quite a variation in the amount of the latter kind of work done by
the schools. Figure 16 gives the distribution in terms of per cent
ot the work done for the year.

All but one of the schools show up fairly well on the basis of
the per cent of shop product that is used after it is completed. (Fig-
ure 17). The aim should be one hundred per cent.

Cost of Material in Shop Work. — The cost of material per pupil
per year varies a good deal. Table 30 shows that there are three
schools having a cost of $1.00 per pui)il per year, and one school
expends fourteen times as much.

Figure 15

Showing the per cent of school farm shop product that is undertaken by
the pupils for the school.

There are about 72 double periods (two 45 minute periods)
devoted to shop work per year. Taking the median cost of $2.63,
it means that the cost of material per pupil for each period is
less than four cents. Figuring lumber at 8 cents per foot, this al-
lows one-half foot of lumber per pupil per period — ])rovided he
uses no other supplies. It is impossible to do satisfactory voca-
tional work with so small an outlay for material. As a matter of
fact, it is not being done. Pupils are usually required to ]:)ay for all
material used for objects repaired or made for personal or home
farm use. This is why the work is not costing the ])ublic more.

56

In one instance a sui)crvisor was asked by his school board to
get along entirely with l)ox material which could be secured at
stores for nothing. The result was unsatisfactory. It is a gross

(Mec//ar? 3.5-^)

^^^ C^^/^r

Figure 16

Showing the per cent of school farm shop product that is repair work, as
distinguished from construction or "mak"ng" work.

waste of valuable time to have i)U])ils size and surface material that
may be had in stock sizes from dealers.

Shop Work and Related Subjects. — Drawing is correlated with
farm shop work in twenty-one of the thirty-three schools. (See
Figure 18). There is little correlation with arithmetic.

The shop work undertaken ought to grow out of, or at least fit
into the technical agriculture that is being studied at the time, and

20

0

I

/s

/2C

/^^

CJ-^A'/--

> M I I I I ..

%

(?

7^/?? 3 ScAc^e^/s.

Figure 17

Showing the per cent of school farm shop product that is actually used
after completion.

arithmetic and other related sciences should be closely correlated
with the agricultural work — hence also with farm shop work. In
a relatively new field of public education, this cannot be realized
immediately. Before it can be brought about, there must be teachers
of related subjects available who have both pedagogical training
and the necessary vocational background required in the process

58

^ 5 /ij /^ ^9 ^y J<9 Ji

^y, c?/^ 63 6 /^s/* C^A^r CO'^^c^^rro /$?/f/V J><?^ yi/a^K ^r/o D^A'^j/vcj

—ZZZ I

Figure 18

Showing extent to which related subjects are being correlated with farm
shop work.

of making ])ractical education the vehicle for conveying fundamental
truths.

Aim or Purpose of Farm Shop Work in the Schools. — As the
aim or ])uri)Ose in teaching largely controls means and methods
of instruction, it was thought advisable to have the supervisors state
what their aims are for farm shop work. Figure 19 gives the re-
sult. It shows some confusion as to ultimate ends sought. There
is no doubt about the desirability of acquainting ])upils with tools

Table 30
Cost of material in farm shop work per pupil per year

Amount

Number of Schools

Amount

Number of Schools

% 1.00

3

S 9.00

0

2.00

5

10.00

1

3.00

4

11.00

0

4.00

2

12.00

0

5.00

3

13.00

0

6.00

1

14.00

1

7.00

1

(No information

12'

S.OO

0

Median amount e.xpended per pupil per year is S2.63. Pupils are usually
asked to pay for such material as they use in the construction of objects made
for personal or home farm use, hence the cost per pupil to the school board is
low.

and of developing skills of hand and accuracy of eye, but these
things are i)urely means to an end and not ends in themselves.

The purpose of farm shop work should be to i>repare for repair
and construction work as i)erformed by successful farmers. The
aim is not the mastery of tools but production, and the self-realiza-
tion or personal develoi)ment that accompanies planning and ex-
ecuting honest work that is essential to society at large.

59

i/S'^ /o pre/r7re/dr .^ej^^/r^/i^a^ ri2/7Vr6^c//(p/? ^(pr/- cpr? y1^e /ar/7?.

(/3j 7b /e^cr //?e<yse (?/^/oo/j

{Q /<p /ray/7 /7;e /?a/P6/(^/p^/€y^ y^ •^cc/zr^cy^

0) A/c //^rdr/?7a//a/2

[J'/z/e/p faz-'d y^h/o a//77j,j

Execution

No. of schools

Good

10

Fair

3

Fair

14

Fair

4

Fair

1
1

/

Figure 19

The aim or purpose of farm shop work as stated by the Supervisors of
Agriculture.

Table 31

Showing character of work given in farm shop work in the vocational agri-
cultural schools and departments.

Character of the work
Good farm shop work
Good farm shop work

Combination of good work with cabinet work
Cabinet work almost exclusively
Models of good farm shop projects
No work

Separate or Combined Shops.— There is a question in the minds
of many about what is the most desirable w^ay of housing, in a
school i)lant, the equi])ment required for instruction in farm shop
work. W^ith this thought in mind, the supervisors were asked
whether, in the light of their ex])erience, they favored having this
equipment in one sho]) or whether they preferred se])arate rooms
for different materials such as wood, concrete and steel. Their
answers are shown in Figure 20. The result of the inquiry is not
at all conclusive. All of the shops in the agricultural schools of
the state are at ])resent so arranged that work in wood is given in
rooms se])arate from those in which forge ])ractice is taught.

Equipment for Farm Shop Work

The subject of equi])ment for farm sho]) work is one of im-
portance. Table 32 gives a list of equi])ment for work in wood that

60

has been recommended by tKe State Bureau of Vocational Educa-
tion, but which the State Director feels needs revision. In order
to tind out how well the supervisors of agriculture are satisfied with
it, the writer arranged the subject matter alphabetically and asked
each supervisor to indicate just how many of the various tools or
appliances he considered desirable for a unit of 12 boys. Column 2
of the table gives the median results. They would seem to show
that the list is ample. This view is shared by the writer. Of course
too much value must not be placed on the facts shown in column
two. for many of the supervisors could not be considered competent
judges in the matter owing to the small amount of training and edu-
cation thev have had for it.

Table 32

"Tools and equipment for woodworking recommended for a unit of twelve
students by the State Bureau of Vocational Education, and the numbers de-
sired by the Supervisors of Agriculture

1 2

Number Number

recommended desired by
by State Supervisors of
Dept. for Agriculture
unit of 12 (Median to
Description of Tools and Equipment students nearest unit)

C.

D.

F.

H.

Axe, Forester's

Brace, Rachet, 8" No. 323 Barbers

Bit, Auger, R. Jennings in Wooden Case

Bit, Drill, assorted, 1 each, 2, 3, 4, 5

Bit, Screw Driver, 1 each, g", i", Hamacher

Schlemmer
Bit, Expansive, A", 3", Wrrght
Carborundum Stone No. 108, 8"x2"xl", Double

Combination
Chisels. Socket Firmer, 1 each, s", 1", l'\

V', i", 7", 1" and 2"
Chise!, Socket Firmer, 12 each, %", 1"
Clamps, 3 ft.

Countersink, Rose, No. 10, 2"
Dividers, winged, 3"
Dowel Pin Cutters, Sheet Steel
Drawshaves, 8" Witherbv
Files, Saw, 14 pt., 10 pt.,>" flat
Files, Wood, 1 each. Wood Rasp, fiat, i-round, rat-tal
Gauge, Bit

Gauge, Scratch, Stanley No. 64^
Glue pot

Grinder, Bench, 8", Pike Whirlwind
Grindstone, Cyco, 20" to 22"
Hammer, 13 oz., Hammond, Bell Face

8

12 ea.
3

1 •
2
2
2
3
3

6

1
1

1
8

■*Data of column
of writer.

secured from Mr. L. H. Dennis. Arrangement is work

61

Table 32 (Continued

Description of Tools and Equipment

Number
recommended
by State
Dept. for
unit of 12
students

2

Numljer

desired by

Supervisors of

Agriculture

(Median to

nearest unit)

Handscrew, Jourgensen's No. 2, 12"
L. Letters and Numerals, steel, 1 set each

Level, Spirit, Stanley No. 0, 24"
M. Mallets, No. 3, Second Growth Hickory

Mitre Box, Goodell Mfg. Co., 30" saw
N. Nail Sets, 1 each, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, H. S. Co.
P. Plane Block, Stanley No. 9*, 6"xll"

Plane, Combination, Stanley No. 45

Plane, Jack, Stanley, No. 5, 14"

Plane, Jointer, Stanley No. 7, 22"

Plane, Smooth, Stanley No. 3, 8"xli"
R. Reamer

Rule, Stanley No. 18, 2 ft. 2 fold
S. Saw, Back, Disston No. 4, 12"

Saw, Coping

Saw, Crosscut, Disston 24", 10 pt., 7 D.

Saw, Hack
S. Saw, Pruning, Disston, Nest

Saw, Rip, Disston 26", 7 pt. 7 D.

Saw, Set

Scraper, Cabinet 3"x6"

Screw Driver, 1 each, 4", 6", 8", New Century

Spokeshave, Iron handle, Planing blade

Squares, Framing, Sargent No. 100 br., 24"

Squares, Try, Disston No. 5\, 6"
W. Wrench, Monkey

Wrench, Stilson

Table 33
Tools and equipment for forge work recommended for a unit of twelve
students by the State Bureau of Vocational Education. (This list has been
in effect a number of years and is not satisfactory to the Bureau. It is given
in order to give an idea of the kind of equipment the schools have where
forge practice is taught).

Required Required

for Unit of 12 for Unit of 12

6

5

2

2

1

1

4

4

1

1

4

4

12

12

1

1

12

6

2

2

3

3

1

1

12

12

6
1

4
1

1

4

1
4

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

2

3

3

3

2

4

3

12

12

1

1

1

1

A.

Anvil

4

Punch, Horseshoe (Desirable

) 1

C.

Chisel, Cold li" •

1

S.

Shovel

Chisel, Hot, li"

1

Square, Steel

D.

Drill, Hand ( Desirable i

1

Swage, Top, 1"

F.

Files, Flat, 12"

2

Swage, Bottom, A"

Flatters, 2"

2

T.

Taps and Dies, (Desirable)

Forge

4

Complete set

G.

Groover, (Desirable)

1

Tongs. Bolt, ]"

H.

Hammer, Ball Peen, 16 oz.

4

Tongs, Bolt, 2"

Hammer, Flat, 32 oz.

4

Tongs, Bolt. V'

Hard-e, 11"

5

Tongs, ]"

Heading Tool, i"

4

Tongs 2"

P.

Poker

4

Tongs, *"

Punch, Center

4

Tongs. •;"

Punch. A"

2

V

Vise. Blacksmith's W

2

62

Table 33 shows the number of tools or appliances recommended
by the State Bureau of \'ocational Education for forge practice at
the time the list given in Table 32 was sent out. It will be noticed

7 mD£C/D£D,

S Fj4/0/^ (ZOMB/A/ZNO.

/7 j^y^y^^ 3jr/i4J^/ir£ ^//ofs
£"(0^ /?/£££^£A/r /y//ir£j^/^L5 of coA/srj^i/cr/oAf

3C/C/y /1 5 WOOD A/VD srssL..

Figure 20

Showing extent to which Supervisors of Agriculture favor combining all
kinds of farm shop work, so that all equipment is in one shop.

63

that some articles are marked "desirable", meaning that they arc
not required to be purchased.

It is our purpose here to give these tables in order to describe
the equipment found in the schools. This list, like the previous
one, is not satisfactory to the State Director of Agricultural Edu-
cation. The writer's views regarding them will be given later.

CHAPTER VI

Deductions and Conclusions

The purpose of this chapter is, to present conclusions based on
the findings presented in the preceding pages, viewed in the light
of the writer's acquaintance with farming needs and school condi-
tions as they exist in the state.

What Should be the Aim or Purpose of Teaching Farm Shop
Work as a Part of Vocational Agricultural Education? — The aim or
purpose to be kept in mind in teaching farm shop work may be
stated in this way : It is self-realization through individual pur-
posing, planning and doing the kinds of repair and construction
work that successful farmers of the region engage in. By self-
realization is meant the development of one's best self in ways that
l)romote and perpetuate the ideals and best interests of society.

When it is said that the purpose of farm shop work is to give
manual skill, accuracy of eye, or a knowledge of tool processes, only
a part of the story is told. All these enter into farm shop work
but they are only means to ends instead of ends in themselves. To
be sure, farm shop work as a part of vocational agricultural edu-
cation must make a demonstrable contribution to vocational ef-
ficiency. If the instruction does not lead to economic production —
to more prosperous agriculture — it fails in a vital way, but educa-
tionally it is important to think of the boy as the chief product of
farm shop work instruction, and of the work performed merely as
])erhaps the best single, tangible evidence of his vocational de-
velopment. Xow this does not mean that good standards of work-
manship are not essential. It means that through the application
of certain well recognized laws of psychology and of pedagogy bet-
ter material and social results can be secured through major em-
])hasis on the individual pupil as a developing democratic citizen
than can possibly be obtained through narrow vocational training
the purpose of which is habit formation, as distinguished from vo-
cational education the purpose of which is habit formation plus
individual purposing and reasoning.

Kinds of Work That Should Be Undertaken.— The kind of
work which farm boys need to know how to do is not that which

65

carpenters, cabinet makers, or toy makers commonly do, but that
which successful farmers perform in the pursuit of their vocation.
Facts have been given in this study that show what kinds of repair
work and construction work are most frequently done with the ma-
terials commonly used for the purpose by farmers.

Furniture making by hand is practically obselete today and
does not function generally as a part of industrial education. Much
less can it be sanctioned as vocational agricultural education.

Toy making has value as general education and as prepara-
tion for the vocation of toy making but cannot be considered ade-
qua4:e preparation for the kind of work adult farmers do.

In order to determine what kinds of repair and construction
work should be given prospective farmers it will be necessary to
analyze it on the basis of : Is it the kind of work that successful
farmers perform in that type of farming, in that particular region,
or are there good reasons for believing that it is a thing that farm-
ers of the region should do?

Materials That Should Be Used.^ — An analysis of the kinds of
work done by farmers as revealed in this study shows that the bulk
of repair and construction work is done in wood, but it also shows
the desirability of using in addition such materials as concrete,
iron and steel. Instead of limiting the work during the first year
(or during longer periods of time as is sometimes the case in the
schools) to work in wood, it would seem to be much better to give
whatever work needs to be done irrespective of the materials in-
volved. For example : if a class in poultry wishes to build a poultry
house, why not teach the class how to put in a concrete foundation?
Or if a boy is making a wagon jack, why not have him do the iron
work on it as soon as it needs to be done instead of having him
wait until next year or later when forge practice is scheduled for
him?

Size of Work Undertaken. — Raising an acre of potatoes or keep-
ing several hogs or cows is better preparation for general farming
than growing a bed of dahlias and raising a few kittens or pups.
Similarly, doing the man-sized repair and construction work in-
volved in farming practice is better preparation for the latter vo-
cation than making nothing but small objects. The skills develop-
ed are not identical, and the related knowledge attained is not the

66

-ame in the t\\ o cases. Consequently the practice of making small-
sized models of things — in order to save material and time — is less
desirable than making the same objects full size.

Educational Considerations Condition the Kind of Work to Be

Given. — The kind of work, while conforming to the fundamental re-
requirements of the vocation, may well be selected so as to cor-
relate closely with the technical agriculture pursued at the time.
1 hat is, the psychological time in which to consider the repair or
' instruction of a potato bin is when field crops are studied, and the
time to pay attention to hog houses is when animal husbandry is
taken up. There are other considerations w^hich make it difficult to
follow^ this practice at all times. In general it may be said that the
work selected should grow^ out of, or at least fit in with the techni-
cal agriculture being pursued at the time.

Another educational factor influencing the kind of work under-
taken at any given time is the learning difficulty involved. More
knowledge is required than is at present available before an ac-
curate classification on the basis of "learning difficulty" involved
can be made of repair and construction work done by farmers. It
is feasible, however, at the present time to group such work rough-
ly in this way, and it is highly desirable to do it. Instead of having
a fixed number of things for pupils to do it would seem to be bet-
ter to have outlined a number of groups of objects, arranged rough-
ly according to learning difficulties involved, and let the pupils
choose what they wish to make from a number of things suggested.

It is not desirable to have a sequence of an absolute type. If
the teacher has to begin with a bare room the first things required
are saw horses and work benches. By careful planning and de-
tailed explanations these can properly be made by boys fourteen
years of age.

Standards of Workmanship. — Since the purpose of farm shop
work is not to make carpenters, cabinet makers or blacksmiths, but
to contribute a tangible part to the vocation of farming, the stan-
dards of workmanship ought to be those obtaining for the specific
work in mind in good farm practice. On the whole, the work will
not need to be as fine in quality as is much of the work done by
carpenters and other mechanics. It is essential, however, to do the
work as well as it needs to be done for the purpose it is to serve.
It has been said that a farmer in farm shop work needs to be a

67

"Jack of all trades". This is an unfair way of putting the matter.
It is true that a general farmer is called upon to do a large variety
of work, but there is no reason why we should not do this as w^ell
according to the standards obtaining in farming as a plumber does
his w^ork according to trade standards. A farmer can be as much
of a master of his entire vocation as a mechanic is of his. If in-
struction in farm shop work is intimately related to the work the
farmer needs to do, there is no reason why he needs to be a "Jack
of all trades", which implies that he can do only a passable quality
of work with tools and materials used in repair and construction
work.

The Kind of Shop That Is Desirable. — It is traditional practice
in Pennsylvania schools to have forge practice in separate rooms
from those in which work in wood is given. This has the ad-
vantage of keeping coal smoke and dust away from where wood is
used. That is its chief advantage. The disadvantages are : either
the forge equipment must be large enough to accommodate
the entire class or it makes the teacher's work difficult in
that he has to supervise a part of his class in one room and the
remainder in another. In order to overcome this latter difficulty
and at the same time avoid coal dust and smoke it is possible
to concentrate the work in one shop. In one corner two or three
forges may be placed. These can be enclosed with a wire glass par-
tition with wainscoating underneath. In another part of the shop
a similar arrangement can be made for w^ork with concrete and
again for work in w^ood. If floor space is scarce, concrete work
can be given entirely out of doors. The detailed shoj) lay-out will
depend upon the space available, and the number of pupils that
will be at work at one time. The general idea is that equipment
can be reduced to a minimum where work in various materials can
be given at the same time. Out of a class of fifteen pupils, three
may be working at forges, three more may be doing related drawing
in the shop, one may be using taps and dies, one may be cutting and
threading pipe and seven may be working with wood. A farm shop
arranged so this work can be carried on at one time under the super-
vision of one teacher will facilitate shop work on a project basis, and
the cost of equipment will be considerably less than if separate shop
units are established for the various materials that should be used.

Equipment. — Lists of minimum equipment that are suggested
are given in Table 34 in the appendix. It has been pointed out that

68

he amount of equipment needed depends to quite an extent upon
I he \vay the work is organized — whether separate shop units are
cstabHshed or whether the equipment is all placed in one shop.

Many schools at present have Langdon or Stanley miter boxes,
Stanley number 45 universal planes and back saws. Farmers do
not have sufficient use for steel miter boxes and universal planes to
warrant purchasing them. A "home-made" miter box of wood is

juite ample. Back saws are used only very rarely by carpenters
and not at all by farmers. They should have no place in farm shop
equipment. They lead to wrong methods of work. The easiest

nd quickest way to use a saw is at an angle of 45 degrees to the
surface to be cut. This is impossible with back saws on all material
over a few inches in width. Similarly, bench hooks are not used
in practical carpentry and are not used by farmers. They too ought
to be done away with. Pupils are inclined to use them too much.
It is better to encourage their doing much of the work on saw-
horses.

There is also a tendency to use block-planes for smoothing and
even for jointing lumber parallel to the grain. Block planes are
built with blades set at a low angle in order to facilitate end-grain
]>laning. They are not well suited for the former operations men-
tioned because of their small size. It is well to use smooth planes
for surfacing and jack planes or jointers for joining lumber.

Quite frequently the use of try-squares is encouraged to the
exclusion of the framing square. The latter tool is worthy of great-
er study and use than it is at present receiving in the agricultural
-chools of the state.

Arrangement of Shop Equipment. — Benches should be so ar-
ranged as to receive the best possible light the room affords. Light
should come from the left and back as pupils stand in position to
lane. The benches should be located also in such a way as to per-
mit easy passage about the shop. It is desirable to have a part of
the floor space free of benches so that larger objects may be as-
sembled or erected on the shop floor, or on saw horses. It is de-
sirable to have eight feet of bench space for each vise. It is desir-
able but not necessary to have as many bench spaces as there are
pupils in the class.

Several schemes are in use, each having advantages, for taking
care of shop tools. If the tool equipment is of minimum size for

the pupils concerned, it may well be housed in ^i cabinet or two, or
if very small, the tools may be arranged on a wall board. In either
case each tool should have a definite place that may be easily recog-
nized.

The schemes just mentioned have this disadvantage. At the
beginning and at the close of each shop period, there is likely to
be more or less congestion around the cabinet or tool board, and
some time is taken in getting and returning tools. In order to re-
duce t^:is to a minimum, it is often found advisable to have some in-
dividual equipment which may be kept on, in or under the benches.
It is easier to see that boys keep their tools shar]) and less time is
wasted in getting and returning tools with individual equipment.
The amount of individual tool equipment that should be found in a
given school depends largely on the financial resources of the school.
Perhaps the minimum amount for the Pennsylvania schools may be
equitably set at one dollar per pupil. It need not exceed ten dol-
lars per pupil in any case.

Method in Farm Shop Work

The methods of instruction used by the supervisors of agricul-
ture in teaching farm shop work dififer quite as much as do the aims
they gave for this work. (Figure 19). In one school the w^ork was
entirely on an exercise basis. The majority combined work on an
exercise basis with work on the project basis.

Manual training ideals and practices are plainly responsible for
the exercise method existing to some extent in the agricultural
schools. If teachers of farm shop work would draw upon their
practical farm experience for guidance they would not attempt to
teach joinery on an exercise basis to farm boys. But there seems
oftentimes to be a tendency for men with vocational experience, but
without much pedagogical training, to discount their i^ractical
experience in favor of traditional practice obtaining in schools. A
graduate of an agricultural college who may have had a course in
joinery for three hours per week for one semester is thus likely to
promote the ideals and methods he came in contact with in this
short time rather than to use the methods that his practical farm
experience would dictate.

Farm shop work that aims to develop socialized individuals
through vocational efticiency will need to keep in mind fundamental

educational considerations. The work should be given in such a
way as to :

1. Develop in pupils initiative and the power to think in-
dependently.

2. Guide pupils that their thoughts and acts are truly
social and not narrowly selfish.

3. Develop the spirit of cooperation.

4. Lead pupils to have the problem-solving attitude.

The project method is one that is particularly well adapted to
the realization of the aim stated for the following reasons:

1. It offers opportunity for individual purposing and plan-
ning.

2. It enlists, at the outset, the pupil's interest in the thing
to be done, or act to be performed.

3. It gives opportunity for, and in many cases requires co-
operation ; it involves the opposite of the "stay at your
bench and do as you are told" method.

4. The method is pedagogically superior to the exercise
method of shop instruction in that the psychological
rather than the so-called logical order (as conceived
by trained adult minds), is followed.

5. It emphasizes immediate as distinguished from deferred
values. To put it tersely : it involves a minimum of
"cold storage" process.

The project method in farm shop work is analagous to the
same method in technical agriculture. It requires the pupil, under
guidance, to take the initiative in purposing a given piece of work
that he later plans and executes. The pupil keeps records of time
and material and seeks to develop general truths from the specific
work undertaken.

Projects in farm shop work cannot be as large in terms of time
or labor required as can projects in a major enterprise in farming,
such as crop or animal production. They must be limited to the
time allowed for such work in the general plan of agricultural edu-
cation.

Organization of the Project Basis. — If instruction is to be given
in the kind- of work successful farmers do. as revealed in this

study, it means that school instruction must not be limited to the
kinds of work that can be given only in the school shop. In order
to make the work as practical and worth while as possible the fol-
lowing plan is suggested :

The teacher visits every boy's home farm during the sum-
mer months when school is not in session, and when he needs
to supervise the home-project w^ork the boy is doing. The pur-
pose of the visit is to go over the farm carefully with the boy
and with his father in order to determine jointly what repair or
construction work may be needed on the farm. From this the
boy can, under guidance, make his selections.
If the pupils have had little experience with tools commonly
used it will be desirable to have them select ''jobs'' that can be per-
formed at the school. Relatively small objects such as watering
troughs, farm gates or fruit ladders can easily be made by boys in-
dividually. Larger jobs such as hog or poultry houses may well be
treated as class projects. They can be planned and cut to size in
the school if that seems desirable so that little time is used in as-
sembling them on the farms.

Some desirable kinds of work cannot well be done within the
school building or grounds. For such work the pupils should be
taken to particular farms where they can have the opportunity to
do the work according to detailed directions given by the instructor
or someone w^ho understands the work.

Boys Who Do Not Live On Farms. — In some rural communi
ties, particularly where oil wells or coal mines are found, there are
boys taking agricultural work who do not live on farms. There
are therefore no jobs for them to do for the home farm. Such pupils
Qan be provided for satisfactorily in several ways. The farm shops
in the schools should have a good variety of full sized models of
objects such as farmers need to make. These objects serve a two-
fold purpose : they stimulate boys to similar efforts, and they serve
as illustrative educational material in both technical agriculture and
farm shop work. Boys from other than farm homes can work on
such objects to advantage. As an alternative they may do desirable
kinds of work for other members of the class or for other people.

Mechanical Drawing as Related to Farm Shop Work
Aim or Purpose of Mechanical Drawing. — The first, and un-
doubtedly a most fundamental question to be considered when dis-

cussing contemplated educational work, is the one regarding the
aim or purpose that such work is to serve. Traditionally much em-
phasis is placed by teachers of drawing in secondary schools (par-
ticularly in technical high* schools) on technique, on the science of
orthographic and isometric projection, and on lettering. From the
standpoint of developing draftsmen this procedure is justifiable :
from the point of view of preparing for farming it is not.

In mechanical drawing the vocational agricultural schools of
Pennsylvania are laboring under the handicap of tradition — the
tradition of city schools that have been carried over into the rural
schools without much question as to whether* or not the aims are
truly the same in industrial and technical schools as compared with
those whose chief concern is to prepare for happier rural life and
more productive agriculture.

Farmers are occasional readers, not makers, of blue-prints.
J hey ought to know enough about conventional representation so
that they can understand working drawings dealing with farm sub-
jects. They ought also to be able to make working sketches, for
the latter are usefrl in conveying ideas to others, and are essential
to practically all mechanical progress.

Instead of ])lacing major emphasis on technique, and on the
science of drawing the requirements of an agricultural career may
be better served by the kind of instruction that aims at developing:

1. Ability to read working sketches and blue-prints.

2. Ability to make working sketches. (These need not
be* to scale, but must show all necessary views, di-
mensions, and notes).

3. Ability to write simple specifications to accompany
sketches.

4. Ability to make working drawings to scale.

In developing ability to make v.orking sketches it may be ad-
visable to let pupils take advantage of all mechanical aids (such as
T-square, and triangles) at hand, \\hile it is probably advisable
to use mechanical aids, such as instruments, cross-section and iso-
metric paper in introducing work in sketching for farm boys, it is
always to be remembered that the objective held in view is the
ability to make clear free-hand sketches, and the transition should
be made as quickly as ])ossible.

7?

Methods in Teaching Drawing. — It is highly desirable to have
a predetermined plan for all repair and construction work under-
taken in the farm shop. This may be in writing, in the form of a
sketch, or drawing, or a combination of these.

Since pupils differ greatly in their ability to visualize and re])re-
sent objects, it will be best not to use the same method of approach
for all. Individual instruction is possible in all agricultural schools
in the state.

To begin with, sketches needed in farm shop work may be sup-
plied by the pupil himself, by a more capable pupil, or by the
teacher. If a pupil has special difficulty with drawing, it may be
best to let him make a sketch from an object that has already been
made, or from the object that he has made from a sketch furnished
him. More capable pupils will be able to make sketches without
having the object before them or without having made the same.
This latter ability should be developed in all pupils as rapidly as
possible.

Medium to Use.- — ^The time that can be devoted to drawing in
a program of agricultural education is so limited in amount that
most satisfactory results can probably be attained by limiting the
rendering to pencil work only.

Cream or buff colored paper is less likely to show the eft'ects of
frequent handling in the shop than is white paper.

Soft pencils are better for sketching than are hard ones. Draw-
ings made with soft pencils are more inclined to smear, however,
and so for purposes of making sketches that will be handled much
in shop work a medium hard pencil is preferable.

APPENDIX

Table 34
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT SUGGESTED FOR FARM SHOP WORK
I. Work in Wood (Required)
Item Amount Description

1 1 Brace, rachet, 10" sweep.

2 1 Set Auger bits, V to 1" by 16ths, in wooden box.

3 8 Bit stock drills, 2 each i", ^io", ^", one each i", i".

4 1 Each Combination countersink and gimlet bit No. 0, 1, 2.

5 1 Expansive bit, i" to 3" cutters.

6 1 Each Screw driver bit, i", i".

7 1 Oilstone I",x2"x8" combination faces.

8 1 Slipstone 4i"x2i"x:'".

9 12 Chisels, socket firmer, beveled edge, 2-V', 1-1", 3-i", 1-5", 3-1",

1-1", 1-U".

10 1 Countersink, rose, bit brace shank.

11 1 Drawing knife, 8" blade.

12 1 Divider, with wing and extension leg.
File, auger bit.

File, saw, three square regular taper 5".
File, saw, three square extra slim taper, 5".
Glass cutter, turret head.
Grinder, carborundum or emery wheels 7i"xH", 1 each medium

and fine. Foot power attachment.
Hammer, Adz2 eye bell face nail hammers, weight 16 oz.

Curved claw.
Hand axe, 4i" handled.
Level, 30" adjustable.
Nail sets, cup points, assorted sizes.
Oiler, drawn steel, copper plated, 3i" diam., 5" spout.
Plane, block, 5i"xli", lever adjustment.
Plane, smooth, 9"x2", smooth bottom.
Plane, jack, 14"x2", smooth bottom.
Plier, combination, 5".
Putty knife, 2" flexible blade.
Reamer, Vio" to ^"yo]", bit stock shank.
Rules, 2 ft. 4 fold, 1" wide, brass tips.
Saw, crosscut, 8 point, 26".
Saw, crosscut, 10 point, 22".
Saw, crosscut, 10 point, 24".
Saw, rip, oh point, 26".
Saw, compass, 14".
Saw, coping, with 12 blades.
Saw set.

*N — Quantity of tools equal to the number of pupils in the class.
'N/2 — Quantity of tools equal to half the number of pupils in the class.

13

1

14

6

15

6

16

1

17

1

18

*N

19

1

20

1

21

3

22

1

23

1

24

**N/2

25

**N/2

26

1

27

1

28

1

29

*N

30

1

31

2

32

3

33

2

34

1

35

1

36

1

**N/2

Table 34 ( Continued <

Amount Description

Saw jointer (made by pupils).

Saw clamp (made by pupils i.

Saw file handle (made by pupils i.

Screw driver, 2^'' blade, slim.

Screw driver, 4" blade, regular.

Screw driver, Ti" blade, cabinet.

Sliding T bevel, 6".

Square, framing, body 24''x2", tongue 16"xl V'.

Square, framing, body 24''x2", tongue 16"xlA". (Of standard

make other than item 44).
Square, try, 6" blade, steel.

Screw, bench, wrought iron, 1" diam., 15" long.
Vise, blacksmiths' solid box, 4" jaw.
Wrench, monkey, 8".

Additional Desirable Equipment
Brace, 12'' rachet.

Chuck, capacity O-i", 3 jawed, bit stock shank.
Hack saw, adjustable 8"- 12'', with 1 doz. 10" blades.
File, fiat bastard cut, 8".
File, half round, bastard cut, 8".
File, cabinet rasp, 12".
File, bastard cut, 10" round.
File, mill, single cut, 8".
Set Cross cut tools.
Pair Level sights (to fit item 20).
Tape, 50 ft., A'' corded linen, graduated to fourths.

II. Work In Iron and Steel (Required).
Breast d\''\\\ for bit stock shanks and round shank drills.
Cold chisels, 1 each I", i", 3".

Hack saw, adjustable, 8" to 12" with 1 doz. 10" blades.
Hammer, ball pene, 10 oz.
Punch, center, machinist's octagonal I".
Set Screw plates, taper taps dies and collets cutting ?"-20,

9i(;"-18, i"-16, Vu/'-14, A"-13.
Wrench, monkey, 8".
Wrench, monkey, 10".
Wrench, alligator, 5i".

Additional Desirable Equipment

Anvil, 100 lb.

Chisel, cold, 2 lb.

Chisel, hot, 1] lb.

Forge, 30"x36" hearth, fan 12" diam., water tank and half hood.

Hammer, ball pene, I2 lb.

*N — Quantity of tools equal to the number of pupils in the class.
•N/2 — Quantity of tools equal to half the number of pupils in the class.

. 70

U", 2'

Table 31 (Continued)
Item Amount Description
6 1 Hammer, 2 lb., blacksmith's, 18" handle.

Hardie, I"; blade U".

Pair Tongs, "V" notched jaws for i" stock, 18".
9 1 Pair Tcngs, bolt tongs, 18".

10 1 Pair, Tongs, straight lip, 18".

11 1 Pair Tongs, general forging, flat jaws.

III. Pipe Fitting (Optional »
Cutter, A" to 2i" capacity.

Oiler, drawn steel, copper plated, diam. 3i", 5" spout.
Stock and die, adjustable, cutting pipe sizes 2", 2", 1",

right and left.
Vise, capacity J" to 2*".
Wrench, pipe, 10".
Wrench, pipe, 18".

IV. Work in Cement (Required).

Edger, 6"x3", i" radius.
Jointer, 9"x3".

Square angle tool, outside, 8"x2|".
Square angle tool, inside, 8"x2i".
Trowel, cementer's, lli"x4i%6"-
Trowel, pointing, 5".

V. Soldering and Babbitting (Optional)

Chisel, half round nose, i".

Chisel, plugging, §".

Gasoline torch.

Shave hook, triangular.

Pair snips, 82" cut.

Soldering coppers, weight 1 lb. each.

VI. Drawing Equipment (Required)

1 3 Boards, white pine 20"x26"xi->n;" with end ledge flush with sur-

face of boards.

2 3 Compasses, pencil.

3 3 T Squares, pearwood blades 3(K', fixed heads.

4 3 Triangles, 6"-45°.

5 3 Triangles, 8"-60°.

6 3 Scales, architect's 12", triangular boxwood.

Additional Desirable Equipment
Pencil sharpener.
Eraser shield, brass, nickel plated.
Pair Paper shears, 10".
Yard stick, maple.

Set instruments, containing ruling pen, bow pen, compass, and
attachments.

77

Item
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

VII. Work in Leather (Optional).
Amount Description

Awl, automatic sewing, with straight and curved needles

Awl, Harness maker's collar or drawing, 8".

Awl haft, 4".

Edging tool, 5".

Knife, leather, 4".

Knife, Harness maker's, round.

Paper needles. Harness maker's, assorted sizes.

Rivet set No. 1.

Rivet set No. 2.

Spring punch, revolving, 4 tubes.

VIII. Desirable

Fire extinguisher, brass finish, with wall bracket for support.

First aid kit.

Oily waste can, with self closing lid. 12" diam., 18'' high.

Table 35

In order that farm shop work may be correlated as closely as possible
with technical agriculture, a number of "jobs" have been grouped under
heads used in the study of agriculture. The list was taken from this study.
It is merely suggestive, and is not meant to be exhaustive. Some objects may
well appear under several of the heads used.

The items in each group are so arranged that they appear in the order of
the number of farmers per hundred who make these objects

I.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Note

Plank drag
Bins for grain
Evener
Corn crib
Crating
Land leveler
Road drag

Soils and Field Crops

8. Planting stick

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Grain bed
Seed corn curinj
Ensilage rack
Seed corn tree
Seed corn shed
Weight carrier

frame

11. Animal Husbandry and Dairy Husbandry

Milking stool 15.

Jockey Stick 16.

Pig pen 17.

Horse manger 18.

Cattle manger 19.

Hog house 20.

Feeding trough for swine 21.

Hay rack 22.

Horse drawn sled 23.

Watering trough 24.

Smoke house 25.

Dog house 26.

27.

Feeding trough for sheep

Rabbit coop.

Roughage feed rack for cattle

Ice house

Wagon shed

Roughage feed rack for swine

Pigeon house

Combination barn*

Dairy barn*

Horse barn*

Milk record-sheet case

Sheep barn*

Unloading chute for cattle

Feeding trough for stock

Brush and curry comb cabinet

: Items marked with * are too large to build for school work, but may

present desirable repair work.

III. Horticulture and Vegetable Gardening

1. Fruit ladder

2. Trellis for grapes

3. Garden marker

4. Trellis for tomatoes

5. Seed corn testing tray

6.

Step ladder

7.

Bee hive

8.

Bee hive seat

9.

Sack holder

0.

Cabinet for seeds

78

Table 36 (Continued)

Nest for laying hens

Chicken coop

Nest for setting hens

Feeding trough for chicks

Chicken feeder

Poultry house

Wire fence
Farm gate
Board fence
Yard gate
Saw horse
Mortar box
Tool box
Saw buck
Wagon box
Wagon jack
Privy

Wagon seat
Flight of steps
Ironing board
Well covering
House ladder

IV. Poultry

7. Chicken brooder

8. Chicken crate

9. Oats sprouter

10. Egg tester

11. Trap nest

V. General

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

Implement shed
Nail cabinet
Wood shed
Vise handle
Batten door
Miter box
Bread board
Kitchen stool
Kitchen sink
Tool carrier
Saw clamp
Wind'ass
Wagon top
Lumber rack
Kitchen bin
Fireless cooker

Table 36
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR FARM SHOP WORK

I. Books

(Books marked with "" are to be purchased first)
Woodwork

Blackburn, Samuel E., Farin Woodworking, Manual Arts Press, 1916.
Brace and Mayne, Farm Shop Work, American Book Co.
Burton, Myron G., Shop Projects Based on Community Problems, Vo-
cational Supply Co.
Griffith, Ira, Carpentry, Manual Arts Press. Second Edition, 1917.
Radford, Wm. A., Practical Carpentry, Radford Architectural Co.,
Vol. I.
*Roehl, Louis M., AgHcultural Woodworking, Bruce Publishing Co.,

1916.
*Roehl, Louis M., Farm Woodwork, Bruce Publishing Co., 1919.

Drawing

* French and Ives, Agricultural Drawing, McGraw-Hill Co., 1915.
Eugene Dietzgen Co., Lettering Strokes, Sent gratis. (Loose sheets)
We'k, Elementary Mechanical Drawing, McGraw-Hill Co.
Howe, Agricultural Drafting Problems, Wiley and Son.
Howe, Agricultural Drafting, Wiley and Son.

Forge Work

Brace and Mayne, Farm Shop Work, American Book Co.
Buffalo Forge Company, Exercises in Forge Shop Practice, 1919.
Drew, .J. M., Farm Blacksmithing, 1901-1910-1915, Webb Pub. Co.
Googertv, Thomas F., Practical Forging and Artsmithing, Bruce Pub.
Co., 1915. Price $1.00.

79

Table 35 1 Continued!

Ilgen, Wm. L., Forge Work, American Book Co., 1912.
* Schwarzkopf, E., Plain and Oomamental Forging, .John Wiley and Son.

Concrete

Davidson, Ralph C, Concrete Pottery and Garden Fiwniture, Munn
and Co., 1910.

Eklaw, K. .J. T., Farm Concrete, Macmillan Co., 1917.

PorMand Cement Association pamphlets.
*Scaton, Roy A., Concrete Construction for Rural Communities, Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Co., 1916.
Farm Shop Work— General

Eklaw, Farm Structures, Macmillan Pub. Co., 1916.

Ramsower, Harry C, Equipment for the Farm and Farmstead, Ginn
& Co.

Shawvor, J. L., Plank Frame Baim Construction, David Williams Co.

Magazines

American Carpenter and Builder. (Monthly).

Concrete and Cement Age. (Monthly).

Farm Mechanics. Farm Mechanics Co.

Industrial A^'ts Magazine. (Monthly), Bruce Pub. Co.

The Manual Training Magazine. (Monthly), Manual Arts Press.

II.

A Selected List of Free Bulletins ContaininE; Subject Matter of Value to

Farm Shop Work

Belgian Hares

Raising Belgian Hares and other Rabbits, Farmers' Bui. 496, 1917.
Birds

Bird Houses and How to Build Them, Farmers' Bui. 609, 1918.

Building Plans

Farm Building Plans, Ext. Circ. 104, April, 1918, College of Agr.,
University of Wis.

Concrete

The Use of Concrete on the Farin, Farmers' Bui. 461, 1916.

Cement and Concrete Fence Posts, Bui. 148, 1909, Exp. Sta., Colo. Agr.
College.

Concrete Feeding Floors, Bui, May, 1918, Portland Cement Assoc.

Concrete Foundations, Bui., Jan., 1918, Portland Cement Assoc.

Concrete Troughs, Tanks and Cisterns, Bui., June, 1918, Portland
Cement Assoc.

Proportioning, Mixing and Placing Concrete, Bui., Jan., 1918, Port-
land Cement Assoc.

Dairy Barns

Dairy Barns, Bui. 266, 1916, Agr. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Wis.
Dairy Barns, Bui. 179, 1914, Univ. of Ky.

The Dairy Barn and Milk House. Hoiv to Construct Them, Popular
Bui. 95, 1915, Ag. Exp. Sta., Wash.

Dairy Houses

A Plan for a Small Dairy House, Farmers' Bui., 689, 1915.

The Construction of the Dairy House, Bui. 188, 1916, Ag. Exp. Sta.,
Univ. of 111.
Egg Tester

Egg Candler, Ext. Bui. 1, 1916-1917, Ag. College, Ohio State Univ.

80

Table 36 (Continued)

Farm Home Conveniences

Farm Home Conveniences, Farmers' Bui. 927, 1918.

Home Made Fireless Cookers and Their Use, Farmers* Bui. 771, 1918.

Drying Vegetables and Fruits for Home Use, Dept. Circ. 3, 1919, U. S.

Dept. Agr.
Flij Traps and Their Operation, Farmers* Bui. 734, 1916.

Hogs

Dry Lot vs. Pasture Crop for Growing Pigs With a Self-Feeder, Sep-
arate Bui. 5, 1917, Ag. Exp. Sta., Penn. State College.

Conuniinitij Hog Houses, Bui. 166, 1916, Ag. Exp. Sta., Iowa State
College.

The Location, Construction, and Operation of Hog Houses, Bui. 109,
Reprint 1915, Ag. Exp. Sta., Univ. of 111.

Hog Houses, Farmers' Bui. 438, 1917.

Mo cable Hog Houses, Circ. 102, 1918, U. S. Dept. of Agr.

How to Make a Hog Crate, Circ. 46, U. S. Dept. Agr.

The Self -Feeder for Hogs, Farmers' Bui. 906.

A Simple Hog Breeding Crate, Farmers' Bui. 966, 1917.

Dipinng Vat for Hogs, Bui. 4, 1916, Ag. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Fla.

Pork Production in Wviconsiri, Bui. 242, 1914, Ag. Exp. Sta., Univ.
of Wis.

Swine Husbandry, Bui. 6, 1918, Pa. Dept. of Agri., Harrisburg.

Hotbeds

Hotbeds for Home Gardeyis, Circ. 77, 1918, Ag. Exp. Sta., Purdue Univ.
Hotbed Construction, Popular Bui. 98, 1916, Washington Ag. Exp. Sta.
Frames as a Factor in Tnick Growing, Farmers' Bui. 460, 1911.

Ice Houses

Ice Houses, Farmers' Bui. 475, 1918.

Ice Houses and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farm, Farmers' Bui. 623,

1915.
Killing and CuHng Pork, Farmers' Bui. 913, 1917.

Paint

Use of Paiyit on the Farm, Farmers' Bui. 474, 1917.

Poultry

Poultry House Co7ist ruction. Farmers' Bui. 574, 1918.

Poultry Houses, Bui. 211, 1918, Ag. Exp. Sta., Purdue Univ.

The Missouri Poultry House, Circ. 80, 1916, Ag. Exp. Sta., Univ. of

Missouri.
Poultry Houses, Bui. 2, 1916-1917, Ag. Ext. BuL, Ohio State Univ.
A Sucessful Iowa Shed Roof Poultry Ho2ise, Bui. 176, 1918.
Chicken Houses, Circ. 61, 1917, Ag. Exp. Sta., Kans. State Ag. Coll.
Poultry House Consti-uction, Bui. 81, 1915, Ag. Exp. Sta., Storrs, Conn.
Practical and Inexpensive Poultry Appliances, Circ. 142, 1915, Ag,

Exp. Sta., Univ. of Cal.
Natural aitd Artificial Brooding of Chickens, Farmers' Bui. 624, 1915.
Poultry Houses, Ext. Circ. 62, 1916, Ag. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Wis.

Preserving Wood

The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers, Bui. 744, 1916.
Preservative Treatment of Fence Posts, Bui. 158, 1915, Ag. Exp. Sta.,
Iowa State College.

81

Table 36 (Continued)

Repair of Farm Equipment

Care and Repair of Farm Implements, Farmers' Bui. 947, 1918.

The Repair of Farm Equipment, Farmers' Bui. 347, 1915.

Points on the Selection, Adjustment and Care of Farm Machines, Bui.

133, 1915, Exp. Sta., Oreg. Ag. College.
Care and Repair of Farm Implements, Farmers' Bui. 1036, 1919.

Road Drag

The Road Drag and How It Is Used, Farmers' Bui. 597, 1917.
Making Good Earth Roads, Bui. 9, 1911, Ag. Exp. S.'a., Ohio State
Univ.

Rope

Use of Rope on the Farm, Bui. 5, 1916-1917, Ag. Ext. Dept., Ohio State
Univ.

Sheep

Sheep Raising, Ext. Circ. 49, 1916, Penn'a State College.

SUos

Home-made Silos, Farmers' Bui. 855, 1917.

Suggestions for Selecting and Building A Silo, Ext. Circ. 72, 1918,
Penn'a State College.

Silo Questions and Answers, Ext. Circ. 87, 1917, School of Ag., Univ.
of Wis.

Silo Construction, Bui. B-49, 1919, A. & M. College, Texas.

How to Build the Wooden Hoop Silo, Circ. 9, 1917, Alabama Poly-
technic Inst.

Modern Silo Construction, Bui. 141, 1913, Ag. Exp. Sta., Iowa State
College.

Monolithic Concrete Silo for Your Farm, Bui. 1918, Portland Cement
Association.

ADDRESSES OF PUBLISHERS

American Carpenter and Builder, 178 W. Jackson Bldg., Chicago, 111.

American Book Co., 100 Washington Square, E. New York City.

Buffalo Forge Co., Buffalo, N. Y.

Bruce Pubhshing Co., Milwaukee, Wis.

Concrete and Cement Age, 79 Fort Street, W. Detroit, Mich.

Eugene Dietzgen Co., 218 E. 23rd Street, New York City.

Farm Mechanics Co., 1827 Prairie Avenue, Chicago, 111.

Ginn and Company, 29 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.

Henley Publishing Co., 130 Nassau Street, New York City.

McGraw Hill Book Co , 66 Fifth Avenue, New York City.

The Macmillan Co., 66 Fifth Avenue, New York City.

Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111.

Orange Judd Co., New York City.

Portland Cement Association, 111 W. Washington St., Chicago, III.

Popular Mechanics Co., 6 Michigan Avenue, Chicago, 111.

Radford Architectural Co., 185 E. Jackson Bldg., Chicago, III.

Van Nostrand Co., 25 Park Place, New York City.

Vocational Supply Co., Muncie, Indiana.

Webb Publishing Co, St. Paul, Minn.

John Wiley & Sons, 432 Fourth Avenue, New York City.

82

ADDRESSES OF AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT

STATIONS

(Compiled from "List of Workers in Subjects Pertaining to Agriculture.
Home Economics and Marketing". 1918-1919. U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture).

Alabama. Alabama Polytechnic Institute and Agriculture Experiment

vStation, Auburn.

Arizona. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta

tion of the University of Arizona, Tucson.

Arkansas. College of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station

of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville.

California College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of California, Berkeley.

Colorado. The State Agricultural College of Colorado and the Agri-

cultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins.

Connecticut. Connecticut Agricultural College and the Storrs Agricultural

Experiment Station, Storrs.

Connecticut State Agricultural Experiment Station, New
Haven.

Delaware. Delaware College and the Agricultural Experiment Station.

Newark.

Florida. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Florida, Gainesville.

Georgia. Georgia State College of Agriculture, University of Georgia.

Athens.
Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment.

Idaho. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Idaho, Moscow.

Illinois. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Illinois, Urbana.

Indiana. Purdue University (The School of Agriculture and the Agri-

cultural Experiment Station), LaFayette.

Iowa. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and

the Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames.

Kansas. Kansas .State Agricultural College and the Agricultural Ex-

periment Station, Manhattan.

Kentucky. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Louisiana. Louisiana State L^niversity and Agricultural and Mechanical

College and the State Experiment Station, University Sta-
tion, Batan Rouge.

83

Maine. College of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station

of the University of Maine, Orono.

Maryland. Maryland State CoPege of Agriculture and the Agricultural

Experiment Station, College Park.

Massachusetts. Massachusetts Agricultural College and Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Amherst.

Michigan. The Michigan Agricultural College and the Agricultural Ex-

periment Station, East Lansing.

Minnesota. Department of Agriculture (School of Agriculture and Agri-

cultural Experiment Station) of the University of Minnesota,
University Farm, St. Paul.

Mississippi. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College and Agri-

cultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College.

Missouri. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Missouri, Columbia.

Montana. Montana State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts

and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman.

Nebraska. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln.

Nevada. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Nevada, Reno.

New Hampshire. New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic
Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham.

.New Jersey State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts and

Agricultural Experiment Station of Rutgers College and the
State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick.

New Mexico. New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechan'c Arts and

the Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico.

New York New York State College of Agriculture and the Agricul-

tural Experiment Station at Cornell University, Ithaca. New
York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva.

North Carolina. North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineer-
ing, West Raleigh, and the Agricultural Experiment Station,
Raleigh, and West Raleigh.

North Dakota. North Dakota Agricultural College and the Agricultural Ex
periment Station. Agricultural College.

Ohio. The College of Agriculture and of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio

State University, Columbus.
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster.

Oklahoma. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College and the

Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater.

Oregon. Oregon Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Corvallis.

Pennsylvania. The School of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, State College.

84

Rhode Island. Rhode Island State Colege and the Agricultural Experiment
Station, Kingston.

South Carolina. Clemson Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Clemson College.

Scuth Dakota. South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts and the Agricutlural Experiment Station, Brookings.

Tennessee. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Texas. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas and the Agri-

cultural Experiment Station, College Station.

Utah. Agricultural College of Utah and the Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Logan.

Vermont. College of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station

of the University of Vermont and the State Agricultural
College, Burlington.

Virginia. Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Poly-

technic Institute and the Agricultural Experiment Station,
Blacksburg.

Washington. State College of Washington and the Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Pullman.

West Virginia. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion of West Virginia University, Morgantown.

Wisconsin. College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion of the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Wyoming. College of Agriculture and the Experiment Station of the

University of Wyoming, Laramie.

85

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