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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT:

ONE DEPARTMENT OF THE FARM-FACTORY

FARM STOCK

A Practical Treatise on Horses, Cattle, Sheep
and Swine, including their breeding, feeding
care and management in health and disease

CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT

Editor of American Agriculturist

ILLUSTRATED

NEW YORK

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
1909

LIBRARY of CONGRESS |
Two Goples Received

FEB 6 1909

Copyrint Entry

Copyright, 1909
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
NEw YORK

Entered at Stationers’ Hall
LONDON, ENGLAND

PREFACE

Farm stock have played an important role in
American farming. An immense quantity of
roughage material unavailable as food for man,
each year by means of live stock is converted into
appetizing and nutritious food; protection and
clothing are secured from their hair and wool;
shoes are made from their hides; labor is done by
their employment; and assistance in a thousand
and one directions is rendered—all coming as a
direct result of the breeding, feeding and raising
of farm stock on the farms of the country.

The volume herewith presented abounds in help-
ful suggestions and valuable information for the
most successful production of farm stock in all
the phases of the subject. It is an every-day hand
book of live stock and contains the best ideas
gathered from the various authorities and the ex-
perience of a score of practical men in all depart-
ments of live stock production.

C...W., BURKETT.
New York City, October, 1908.

Sash

OT

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

CEEAPTER I
THE BREEDING OF FARM STocK .
Man has done much—Principles that govern breed-
ing—Where selection comes in—How selection is
worked—Get rid of the scrubs—Where live stock
pays—How to start your herd—Never use a grade
sire—More breeding terms—A wise plan for build-
ing up.
CHAPTER II
THe FEEDING OF ANIMALS
The principles of feeding—Nutritive ratio—Feed-
ing standards—A balanced ratio— Making the
ration—Each feed carries its own value—The idea
is to supply what is needed—Easy to swap feeds—
Use judgment in purchasing feeds—Folly of bury-
ing feed in the ground.

CRAP TE Re Art
EIORSES .

e CHAPTER IV
BREEDS oF HoRSES

CHAPTER V
Horse BREEDING. .
Selecting of good heavy horses—Conformation of
the draft horse—The breed for market.

CHAPTER. Vi
FrEepinc THE Horse 7
Make the feeds fit the needs—Roughage feeds for
horses—Grain feeds for horses— Watering the horse.

CHAPTER Vit

THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HorRSEs .
The management of stallions—Breaking the colt on
the farm—Winter care of farm horses—Preparing
teams for work—The mare and the foal

Page

Vii

12)

43

46

60

68

78

Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIII

Tue DISEASES OF THE HORSE
Recognizing and distinguishing diseases—Some com-
mon diseases—- Lock-jaw— Pneumonia — Heaves—
Indigestion— Colic— Constipation— Worms — Glan-
ders—Lameness—The best of all treatments.

CHAPTER IX

THEesMurE we serge Sex 5s 08 chs = CORN ea a elas

selection of the jack Best time for breeding—The

burro—Mule industry—Best time to breed mares—
Hinnies—Market classes—Feeding mules.

CHAPTER 1X

Cxrrr ngs Fine 7 ies een ey anne
CHAPTER 1
BREEDS OF CATTLE

CEEAP ERS Ore

THE BusINEss OF DAIRYING .

Dairy farming—Co-operative breeding —Feeding the
dairy cow Handling the herd for market milk—
Protect dairy cows from flies—Classifying milk for
market purposes—Care of milk on the farm—Mak-
ing cheese at home—Keeping up the milk flow—
Alfalfa feed for dairy cows—Cow feeding when pas-
ture is short—Feeding dairy cows in winter—Dairy-
ing, a balance in fertility—-What the dairyman
should be.

CEA PARE R2Xcreh
THE Business OF BEEF MAKING .
Learn to judge cattle—Baby beef —Shelter—Finish-
ing steers in the spring—Fattening steers in summer
— Beef cattle in autumn — Swine feeding after
cattle—Feeding inferior corn to cattle—Fattening
cattle in late fall.

CEEAP ABR XcIa
THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE :
Rearing calves on skimmed milk—Feeding the dairy
calf—Feeding milk in good condition—Amount of
milk for calves—Care of calves after weaning—
Wintering young cattle successfully—Supplemen-
tary cattle feeds.

CHAPTER Xcy

THE DISEASES OF CATTLE
Some common diseases.

Page

98

Lis

116

141

189

215

228

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVI
SHEEP

CHAPTER XVII
BREEDS OF SHEEP

CHAPTER XVIII

SHEEP FEEDING
Roots always fine for sheep—Let sufficient erain be
used—Choice must be exercised.

CHAPTER. .X EX.

THe CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP .
Weaning of lambs— Sheep during the lambing
season— Breeding ewes in winter—F eeding pregnant
ewes—Stock rams in summer—Shear sheep early—
Handling wool—Storing wool—Raising sheep for
wool alone.

CHAPTER XX

THE DISEASES OF SHEEP
Some common diseases.’

CHARTER XX!

SWINE
ie mortgage lifter—Filling swine orders by ‘mail.

CHAPTER XXII
BREEDS OF SWINE Tel Ta oe eh
CHAPTER XSGlIl
Freepinc Hocs
Pasture for hogs—Cooked and uncooked foods

Whole and eround grains—Wet or dry feed—Grain
feeds.

CHAPTER XXIV

THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE :

When the sow has pigs—Weaning pigs—Pigs from
weaning until fattening— Care of sow and pig—
Feeding skimmed milk—Feeding brood sows—
Brood sows in winter—Selecting and caring for
boars—Pasture cheap feed for swine—Alfalfa hay
for hogs—Hogging off grain—Pasture for hogs—
The popular type of hogs—Hogs for profit.

CHAPTER XXV.

Tue DIsEAsEs OF SWINE
Correctives for swine—Important diseases ‘largely
infectious—Common disease of the hog—Where
improvement is needed.

ix

Page
238

241

254

260

283

289

ZZ

307

314

345

INTRODUCTION
FARM STOCK

The progress that a nation is making can, with
reasonable accuracy, be measured by the kind of
live stock it raises. Poor people and poor stock -
usually go together. The most prosperous nations
of the earth get a large share of their wealth by
raising improved stock. This is the story the
world over. Wherever agriculture is really suc-
cessful and the people prosperous, the raising of
live stock is a fixed feature of that agriculture.
While it is true that many special lines of agri-
culture are extremely prosperous with no live stock
connected with them, still, as a general rule, live
stock are necessary to use up the roughage mate-
rials of the farm, thus bringing into profit a vast
amount of food material that otherwise would
be lost.

The history of farming tells in no uncertain
terms that where live stock have not been appre-
ciated, fertile lands cannot be maintained. Its
admonition is to get live stock; to get all kinds of
farm stock; to sell your crops through them. Its
mark is against any single line of farming, because
such means inefficiency, soil depletion and worn-
out land. The cotton farmer needs cattle, sheep
and hogs to consume his cowpea forage, his clover
forage, and the corn forage that were produced
as a part of the crop system to maintain the cot-
ton lands. The wheat farmer needs live stock for
a proper utilization of straw and clover and alfalfa
that are a part of good wheat farming. The corn

a PARM STOCK

farmer needs hogs and cattle to consume the grain
and stover and the rotation crops, that his lands
may remain fertile and his farming plant be made
better.

Humus and manure must be had. They may
come from green crops or from city stables, but
their use must never be ignored, else the time

GOOD FEED—THEN GOOD CATTLE

You can stock your farm with good cattle, but if good feed
is not provided you will not get very far in the business.

will come suddenly when neither fertilizers nor
tillage will avail and when the land will be thrown
back on nature for restoration and the renewal
of life. When correct farming is practiced, crop
rotation is renewed, diversified farming follows,
live stock are restored to the farm and the land
becomes fertile and the farm productive.
The old saying that runs:

INTRODUCTION 3

“No grass, no cattle;
No cattle, no manure;
No manure, no grass,”

applies to every American farm today. The cry
on the great majority of farms is for more manure
and for better preserved manure that shall be
applied to the soil more intelligently and more
thoughtfully than is now the case.

Just go into any old section of the country—
into New England if you please. There you will
find many deserted homes and abandoned farms.
Why? Because the fertility was sold and not re-
placed. It was sent away from the farms in bushel
baskets, in baled bundles, in cotton sacks—by the
pound, by the bushel and by the ton. Go into the
South—into the land blessed in every way beyond
measure. You find impoverished soils; you see
worn-out fields, gullied and wrinkled and cast
aside. The fat of the land was gathered up and
shipped away in cotton, in tobacco, in corn, and
none was returned to take its place. The humus
of the soil was used up and burned by one-horse
plows and shallow working tools and the land was
bereft of its powers of high production.

Go into any of the older parts of the country—
go even into the West, into the newest settlements.
You find depleted soils, farms rendering their
owners a bare subsistence. Why is this all so
true? Because the soil robber in every instance
has been present, the farm stock have been
shunned, the fertility has been taken away and the
lands have been reduced to the lowest point of
production.

All of the trouble has been due to a disregard
of the place and importance of live stock. Farm

4 FARM STOCK

stock will remake old lands and maintain good
lands: Let your farm! be) aytactory—a farm tac-
tory—where most of the crops raised shall be
consumed as food for live stock, that finished prod-
ucts may be made and as such be sold rather than
as raw materials, in which form they were secured.
These things it means: That there shall be diver-
sity in crops; that more live stock shall be bred

DAIRY CATTLE AT PASTURE

As the country grows older and more thickly populated
the number of dairy cows will increase, for the reason that
a larger quantity of human food is secured than through an
equal expenditure of raw materials fed to any other class of
farm animals.

and fed on the factory farm; that the entire plant
shall be managed as a business enterprise of the
largest magnitude.

Farm stock, then, have an essential bearing on
the profits of the farm. They stand for increased
fertility of the land. They call for the constant
rotation of crops, not only better to feed the stock,
but better to help the land.

INTRODUCTION 5

Farm stock consume many kinds of cheap
feeds that are raised on the farm. If sold on the
open market, these would seldom bring in enough
to cover the cost of transportation to market.
Therefore, farm animals are profitable machines
for using inferior cheap products and converting
them into wholesome, nutritious, animal focd.
They materially minimize, also, the cost of mar-
keting from farm to city or other place of con-
sumption. A ton of corn stover, wheat straw, or
corn, is marketed far more cheaply in the form
of meat, butter or cheese than if transported by
wagon to the place of sale. Not only is the cost
of transportation by means of live stock reduced
to a minimum, but a market is thus secured for
even the bulkiest of foods.

Farm stock have an important bearing on the man-
agement of farm labor. They call for a high type
of labor, give this labor regular employment and
keep farm help interested in all that is to be done.

Farm stock have a marked influence in the pro-
motion of industry in all rural communities. The
most settled people in farming, the most educated
class of farmers, the most prosperous people en-
gaged in agriculture, are those engaged in some
one or more lines of live stock.

Finally, farm stock greatly influence the mental
capacity, caliber and character of the men dealing
with them, not only because a balanced sort of
food supply is provided, but the close, intimate
touch that farm stock invite, secures the highest
mark in character, industry and intelligence. It
is on the farm, in touch with farm stock and in
contact with farm animals, that are fashioned vig-
orous bodies, clear brains, steady nerves, self-
reliance, character and sympathy.

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CEA DER sl:
The Breeding of Farm Stock

The average value of farm animals in the United
States is not high; while individual animals noted
for their superior work and performance command
immense prices, the vast majority of farm stock
is not particularly good. How to raise the yearly
performance of the dairy cow, the regular eff-
ciency of a farm horse, a larger quantity of beef
in the beef cow and quicker maturity and higher
quality in the hog are all pertinent questions with
us now, as they have been in the past. These are
the problems that American farmers will need to
solve in future years. Of course feeding will do
much in improving the quantity and quality of the
animal products, but the underlying principle in
efficiency, the fundamental factor in animal pro-
duction, is good stock. Blood pays in animals as
it shows itself in men. There has been a constant
improvement from the original low strains to the
modern individuals. |

MAN HAS DONE MUCH

During hundreds of years farm animals have
been adapting themselves to the various environ-
ments in which they have been placed. By man’s
help in selecting out those best fitted, results con-
stantly better have been secured. Consequently
farm animals today are of a much higher grade
than they were a century ago. Way back ten
centuries ago or twenty-five centuries ago there

7

8 FARM STOCK

was no great demand made upon farm animals.
The cow had no master. All she was interested
in was the getting just enough of food for herself
and to provide enough milk for her offspring. If
her hair was long and shaggy, it better protected
her body from cold and inclement weather. If
her horns were sharp, they gave her better pro-
tection and more certaim defense. She had ne
need of a large udder; that need came only after
man had found it to be useful, satisfying and
nourishing. The primitive hog was naturally
coarse and ferocious and easily angered, because
his protection lay in those directions. He needed
a long limb, because he could more easily escape
when the foe was stronger than himself. The
longer his snout the better he could root for roots,
and worms were good to his palate, and wholesome
medicine. If his hide was tough and thick, he
could the better stand the cold, the thorns or the
enemy’s tooth; and the stronger his tusk, the bet-
ter able he was to win the fight.

After man took a hand in the rearing of farm
animals these things quickly underwent a change.
Man brought better food; he gave better shelter;
he looked after their pains and troubles; and they
responded by growing more rapidly. Less effort
was required to care for themselves; so they just
naturally put on more flesh or produced more milk.
Our fathers who had charge of this breeding and
improvement had learned early of some funda-
mental principles of breeding and improvement
that they used to good advantage. They made the
best of them; they studied all the processes in-
volved and joined their practices with what sug-
gested better results.

THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 9

THE PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN
BREEDING

Now the fundamental principles that govern
feeding and improvement are: First, heredity; and
second, variation. Upon these two you must build
your structure; but you must furnish it and
beautify it by selection. Heredity is the law that
like produces like. Variation is the law that works

A REAL RAZOR-BACK

There is not much profit in this kind of hog. His place
is in the museum alongside of the cradle, the flail’ and the
spinning-wheel.

to produce new things. Heredity is the law of
uniformity. Variation is the law of change.
Heredity is satisfied with what now exists. Va-
riation goes out to explore—to seek new paths and
new fields. The animal breeder builds upon the
present heredity, but he courts variation and urges
it to seek new findings. If these are to his liking,

IO FARM STOCK

he seizes them as his own, attaches them to the
old heredity and builds the new structure higher
and better. The work is now to fix the new acqui-
sition and to make it a part of the building mate-
rial. Variation all the while is allowed free range
that it may gather in new discoveries for further
improvement and use. We let heredity hold, keep
and guard the values of the best fitted animals,
but we call in variation to improve them.

WHERE SELECTION COMES IN

But where. is «selection? (Ui 1ts-role is ‘soma
portant, why don’t we see it on the stage? We
do, 1f nothing in the play is struck out. Selection
is man’s part of the drama. It is his work to de-
cide what new things that variation has found
shall be held, what new ones shall be cast aside,
and at what point a new acquisition shall be fixed
as a part of the old stock. In beginning his breed-
ing operations, it was the breeder’s duty to as-
certain what classes and individuals already had
progressed furthest in the line in which he was
interested. Every breeder has been seeking some
special end. By looking over the field he was able,
if he was on to his job, to get some individuals
peculiarly adapted already in the direction he was

going.
HOW SELECTION IS WORKED

So if it was milk, the wise breeder sought the
breed and type that had longest been trained and
bred and had become most efficient in the produc-
tion of milk. When beef was wanted, he sought
out those breeds that had been bred most wisely and

Bee BREEDING OF BARM STOCK If

trained most carefully to deposit meat upon the
back. When he was after pork, he chose those
breeds longest selected to produce a large quantity
of meat and fat at the least expenditure of effort
and food. In every case he rejected the little-doer
and the scrub. Just as he did not expect to do
good tillage on his soils by means of a wooden
plow nor to travel fast when an old-time engine

GRADE MERINOS ON THE RANGE

The Grade Merino has for a long time been popular on the
sheep ranges of the West.

was used, so he did not expect to profit from live
stock grown from scrubs. All these are equally
out of date.

You are familiar with the highly specialized
breeding operations with dogs; some have been
bred and developed and trained as watch dogs,
others as hunters, others as pointers and setters,
and others in a score of other directions, peculiarly
and specially, adapted for some particular work.

I2 FARM STOCK

Now that same force and power applies to hogs
and cattle.

GET RID OF SCRUBS

The thing to do is to rid yourself of the scrubs
and poor producing individuals, because these bring
you only meager profits. I know that occasionally
an exceptional scrub cow pays in a dairy, but some-
where back in her breeding is improved blood;
something responsible for the result.

WHEN LIVE STOCK PAYS

_ Live stock pays only where you find well-bred
animals; this is the fundamental idea of live stock
management. If your beef business or dairy busi-
ness does not pay today, you are making a mistake
by condemning feed stuffs, lands, markets or sec-
tions before you have carefully considered the ani-
mal that works for you. Choose first the line, then
the breed, and to these other things will be added.

But high-class, special bred animals are expen-
sive; and I am not going to suggest that you start
with pure-bred animals. If you have money, and
are acquainted with the principles of breeding, it
will pay you to do this. But if you know little
about the care and attention required for pure-
bred, highly trained farm animals, your first need
will be to know how to care and tend such indi-
viduals before you become their owner.

HOW TO START YOUR HERD

I suggest, therefore, that you select for your
breeding herd or flock, the better grade of indi-
viduals that possess fairly good breeding, and such

THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 13

as possess those qualities as you desire when your
flock or herd shall be highly improved. You are
to use, however, for the purpose of improvement,
the best pure-bred males that can be obtained. For
the male is half or more. There must be no mon-
grel or questionable blood in his veins. He must
be no cross-bred individual. He must come from
no two breeds, even though both are pure breeds
with long lines of ancestors back of them. Real
success comes only from sticking fast to one line
of blood. Like begets like, you know. To trifle
with this principle is to end in your destruction.
You may have the best motives, but you will lose.
Nature works without sentiment, is heartless, and
her only reason for doing things is law; and from
this law she deviates not, nor does she ever stop.
Like the brook that goes on forever or until the
waters are no more, so does the fundamental law
of breeding govern and control both the improve-
ment and deterioration without hindrance or varia-
tion.

NEVER USE A GRADE SIRE

If you are a young breeder, do not make this
mistake of choosing a grade sire or an inferior
pure-bred, because such an animal may cost less
than a pure-bred one. If you do, instead of breed-
ing up to improvement, you will breed down to
inferiority and regret. Use a male of strong pre-
potency—one that possesses rich quality, high
character, and then your herd or flock can be
brought to quick productiveness in a short time.
But your herd or flock can be maintained at that
point only by the continued use of males of su
perior breeding. Use for a single generation an
inferior sire and a backward turn will be made.

GauH AHL AIVH SI AIS ZHL

14

THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 15

MORE BREEDING TERMS

Prepotency—We are now confronted with some
new terms in breeding. ‘The term prepotency re-
fers simply to that quality of an individual that
enables his characters to be transmitted to his off-
spring. In one sense it stands for lineage and
purity. If performance and production be back
of lineage and purity—performance and produc-
tion of the right kind—then that prepotent indi-
vidual can never be measured by words or money.
His worth transcends down into ten thousand in-
dividuals giving for all time the sort of character
you are seeking; and admitting of the results that
have been your aim.

Cross-breeding has its part to play, but within
prescribed limits. For breeding purposes—that is
to secure breeding animals—cross-breeding should
scarcely or never enter unless some master mind is
at hand to direct and control.

Cross-Breeding—Cross-breeding is commonly
employed in the production of meat. A cross be-
tween two beef breeds or. two meat classes of hogs
seems to increase the total quantity of meat and
also to hasten maturity. But in this case only
should the average breeder call this practice into
use.

Inbreeding—Inbreeding has been employed from
tiemeyery beginning of. time. It is a delicate
method of transmitting characters. Unless you
are proficient in the art and clearly see the good
points and the bad points in the two individuals
to be mated, unless you are able to look ahead and
picture in your mind the result of this commingling
of blood, you had better leave it alone. Just as
cross-breeding induces coarseness, increases the

ALIIVOO HOIN AO GNV AdAL Good AO

16

THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK a7

size and vigor, so does inbreeding act; but, how-
ever, in the opposite way. Inbreeding practiced
to any extent tends to decrease the size of the
individual, leads to refinement and quality, but
tends to lessen the vigor. In fixing a ‘type or
breed this method can be employed with good re-
sults. The early founders of each breed employed
it to its fullest extent. You should remember that
in-and-inbreeding makes heredity more powerful;
and inasmuch as heredity is just as much interested
in transmitting undesirable qualities as desirable
qualities, to intensify by an inbreeding is to affect
the undesirable qualities as well as the desirable
qualities. Consequently, you must expect when
in-and-inbreeding is practiced, to see each and
every character duly weighted in the progeny.

Your safety lies in mating only such individuals
as possess the undesirable qualities in a very minor
way. Let them be conspicuous and you are lost.
For the average breeder the use of breeding stock
of individuals not closely related is the safest plan
to follow. Leave this delicate art, in this treach-
erous course, to those who have superior knowledge
and unlimited means. Be content with the ordi-
nary methods until you have learned some of the
secrets of an intricate breeding business.

A WISE PLAN FOR BUILDING UP

The matter of greatest importance to you is this:
You can increase the efficiency, the worth and the
production of your flock or herd. To do this, rid
yourself of those animals that are not very produc-
tive. You have them in your dairy herd—the scales
and the Babcock test will point them out; you have
them in your swine herd—the number of offspring

18 FARM STOCK

to each litter, their size and vigor are all that you
need for your information; you have them in your
flock of sheep—the fleece, the individuals that tend
to sickness and the slow maturity condemn them-
selves in your sight.

After you have discarded these undesirable in-
dividuals, be they 10 or 50 per cent, concentrate
your energy upon the remaining ones, giving them
more abundantly ef tood and care; amd) an aan ts
saved turn in the direction of superior males to
head the flock or herd. ik will now be but-ajsaon:
time until your discarded numbers will have been
replaced by individuals of superior) brecaibetties
- adapted to your special line, more able to bring re-
munerative returns and more fitted for your en-
vironments and conditions. Employ these few
principles in your breeding operations in the future
and the richest sort of reward you have a full right
to expect.

CHAPTER IT.
The Feeding of Animals

It has been since the study of feeding principles
has come into use and favor that the greatest suc-
cess has been reached in the feeding of the various
classes of farm animals. Our fathers thought it
enough to supply food freely and abundantly; they
did not know that there were well-defined prin-
ciples upon which successful feeding rests. In
fact, it has only been in recent years that any care-
ful study has been made of the composition of
plants and animals, and an attempt to correlate one
with the other. Thanks to our scientists and ex-
periment stations, we now have the mist cleared
away and we can feed our various animals feeds
that serve the purpose best and at a time when
most needed.

THE PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING

As a result of this investigation there are certain
well-defined principles that must always be consid-
ered if the most effective methods are to be put in
operation in order that the best results may be se-
cured. The first thing that we are to bear in mind
is that plants contain many classes of ingredients.
In the same sense that a piece of meat contains
blood, fat, lean flesh, bone and other products, so
plants are found to contain several kinds of ma-
terials.

Roughly speaking, we can divide a plant, or in
other words a feeding stuff, into five grouns of

19

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20

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS Zar

constituents or ingredients. The first group we
call the ash or the mineral elements. You know
that plants contain mineral materials; the ashes
themselves are the evidence of that fact. A stalk
of corn or a tree develops until it reaches its ma-
turity; then decay sets in, and back to earth and
igo the elements, or man gathers in the
product, uses it as fuel or for consumption in some
other way. If burnt, the ash material is left be-
hind and this is gathered up and returned to the
fields, thereby supplying the needed fertilizing ele-
ment that originally came out of the soil brought
up by plant or tree.

Now animals require mineral materials. Bones
are largely made of them—all of which come out of
the soil. First the mineral compounds are dis-
solved in the soil and carried into the plant by the
sap and distributed where needed most. It now
enters into the work of plant building. Animals
can usually get along without ash or mineral ma-
terials. Our plants ordinarily contain enough to
supply all the needs of the body, exceptions, per-
haps, being the two elements—sodium and chlorine,
which we know as common salt.

As our foods are commonly prepared for the
table, mineral elements are frequently lacking in
them. We take the bran of the wheat giving tne
ash material largely (because deposited in the
bran) to our pigs and calves. We take the flour,
largely deficient in mineral materials, make it into
bread, feed it to our children and wonder why their
bones are not strong and their teeth not good. There
has been a deficiency of ash material and this sup-
ply could be furnished only by means of the food
set on the table.

FARM STOCK

i)
IN)

Water—You know how important water is to a
plant or an animal. Neither would survive very
long without this wholesome, life-giving influence
and agent. The water is sucked in by means of
the..tiny,, fibrous roots of the plants] it) soce. up
through cell by cell, carrying with it the mineral
elements in solution. As it passes along it gives
over to the plant the soil foods and passes out into
the air as vapor. For the time being its mission

ROUGH FEEDERS

Poor stock and poor feed, without exception, mean poor
farming.

is finished. There is, therefore, a constant current
of water passing through the plant.

When plants are young, green and tender they
contain a great quantity of water, but when har-
vested or when old, the water content becomes ma-
terially decreased, in some cases being very small
indeed. Consequently, when animals are given dry
food or dry forage they get an insufficient quantity
of water; unless supplied in some other way they
would perish. So long as on green pastures, gath-
ering much of their food in the night time when

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 25

the dew is on the leaf and grass blade, they can
about supply their needs; but otherwise the water-
ing trough is essential to supply this need.

Carbohydrates—But ash and water little concern
the feeder. It is three other groups that cause the
trouble and are conducive to loss or gain. These
groups are carbohydrates, fat and protein. The
carbohydrates compose the larger part of the
rough and coarse materials. This group is known
as the heat and fat formers. When taken into the
body they supply the materials that keep up the
heat of the body, furnish the energy to keep mo-
tion and activity going; and, if there is a surplus,
it is stored in the body as fatty tissue.

This important group is composed of three ele-
ments, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen
and hydrogen come out of the ground as water.
The carbon comes out of the air, combined with
oxygen, known in this form as carbonic acid gas.
It is exactly the same material that you and I and
all animals breathe off with every passing breath.
It is a broken-down tissue, the basis of which is
carbon.

Now what is waste for the animal is food for
the plant, so tnat the carbon moving about freely
in the atmosphere, although in a combined form
with oxygen, enters through the little mouths on
the under sides of the leaves into the cells and joins
the tiny molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, and
becomes a grain of starch. This starch is now
manufactured, Unless used in the making of some
other organic compound, it will be available for the
plant itself or the animal. The starch is very easily
changed into sugar; in this way it is easily carried
to ail parts of the plant.

24 FARM STOCK

Fat—The processes of plant growth are still
shrouded in mystery and always will be until the
secrets underlying life itself are learned, if they
ever are; hence, a complete statement of these
chemical changes will not be attempted here. We

WEANING-TIME

When the pigs are weaned, either let them have the run
of good pasture or plenty of slop. Weaning pigs ought not to
be an abrupt affair either.

know, however, that fat, called the oil of plants, or
the fat of the animal, is composed of the same three
elements that compose the carbohydrates—carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. The only difference lies in
the fact that a great deal more is stored in the fat
compounds than those of the carbohydrates. This
explains why fat is more effective in the production

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 25

of heat and energy than are the carbohydrates. It
is more concentrated in fact. Our scientific men
tell us that a pound of fat contains 2.5 times as
much heat and fat-making ability as a pound of
carbohydrates. For practical purposes both groups
can be used together, but for purposes of lubrica-
tion and insistent demands both fat and carbo-
hydrates are essential to the life of the animal.

Protein—The last group that concerns the feeder
is the protein of the feeding stuff. In addition to
the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen found in fats
and carbohydrates, nitrogen and sulphur are found
also in protein; the contribution changing the
character entirely. This protein is the basis of
protoplasm. Around it is centered the life of the
plant and animal. The term is used simply to de-
scribe the materials that, when taken into the body,
repair the wears and tears. It supplies and keeps
up the blood, the brain, the tendons, the flesh, the
internal organs, the skin, etc. In fact, it is found
in all parts of plants or animals; for this reason
protein has been called the most important con-
stituent of a feeding stuff.

NUTRITIVE RATIO

With this classification we are now able properly
to combine feeds so as to get just what is neces-
sary to supply the daily needs of any special class
of animal fed for distinct purposes. In compound-
ing rations the ash and water can be left out of
consideration of ration making. The three groups
then to consider are protein, the fats and the car-
bohydrates. If we know just how much protein
ought to be given daily, it is not a difficult matter,
providing the feeds available are of the right kind.
Thanks again to our scientific men these facts have

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26

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS Lyfe

been determined. Take pasture grass for instance,
the great universal farm animal food in America.
It has been analyzed and we know just how many
pounds of protein, of carbohydrates and of fat are
digested in each 100 pounds.

Let me add here that the digestibility is impor-
tant also because not all of the food taken into the
body is digestible—just a part of it; sometimes 90
per cent, sometimes 75 per cent, sometimes 50 per
cent, and with some feeds as little as 25 per cent
is digestible. Hence, with every feeding stuff a
part is lost and wasted, therefore serves no con-
tribution to the nutriment of the body. In the
case of pasture grass, you know by experience
that animals are healthy and perform their best
service when feeding freely on it. It is a balanced
food in itself. In other words, it contains protein,
carbohydrates and fat in sufficient quantities and
in just the right proportion to meet the needs of the
animal.

In r00 pounds of pasture grass there are 2%
pounds of digestible protein, 10.2 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and .5 of a pound of
digestible fat. In other words, for each pound
of digestible protein we have about five pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and fat. For every time
one pound of protein is supplied to furnish flesh
and muscles, about five pounds of carbohydrates
and fat are supplied to furnish heat, energy and
fat. This gives rise, therefore, to the term nutri-
tive ratio. It indicates the relative proportion of
the muscle makers to the fat and heat makers.

FEEDING STANDARDS

The attempt has been made to determine the
amount of each constituent that ought to be given

28 FARM STOCK

to an animal each day. For instance, a dairy cow
giving a certain quantity of milk requires in her
food each day a certain amount of protein, carbo-
hydrates and fat. For a horse doing heavy farm
work a different ration would be required and the
constituents in different proportions. If maximum
results are to be secured, a different standard for
young calves is necessary than for fattening steers;
and a different ration for young pigs than for ma-
ture hogs ready for the block. Of course, feeding
standards are to be taken only as guides to point
out the way. They are not specifics nor receipts.
Corn, for instance, is the great stock feed in
America. It is known as a starch or carbohydrate
food. It produces fat, but not muscle, hence it is
not a good feed for young stock or for milk cows,
because these animals require feeds rich in protein
for the muscle-making materials. It is always well
to feed a fattening hog an abundance of corn, but
there is so little protein in corn that even when fat
is the end sought, the best results are not always
obtained. The mixing of corn with other feeds
often brings better results. Our most progressive
hog growers now combine green alfalfa and clover
with the grain from the cornfield. If succulent
pastures are not available, the hay is hauled out
that protein may be given in addition to the starch
of the corn. And if hay be not available, a slaugh-
tering-house product, like tankage, or oil meal, or
some other carrier extremely and exceedingly rich
in nitrogen and protein is mixed with the corn.
In just the same way cottonseed meal is an illy-
balanced food. It contains too much protein. It
lacks the carbohydrates. When fed abundantly to
cattle, protein is wasted. Consequently, for the
grain part of a ration corn and cottonseed meal

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 29

blend well together. One is rich in starch, the
other in protein. The two meet on middle ground
and supply both materials without waste of one or
the other and both are supplied with neglect for
neither.

THE BALANCED RATION

These differences existing among the different
feeds give rise to the balanced ration. No single
food suffices unless it be pasture grass. Conse-
quently, the farmer knows that when he feeds a va-
riety of food he gets the best results. He does not
need to weigh each pound of food given after he
has become schooled in the practice of feeding
farm animals. For all practical purposes, with a
little thinking and figuring, he can approximately
estimate the kinds and amounts of the different
grains and roughage materials that he ought to feed
each day so as to give his stock the right nutrients
in the proper proportions.

He would do wrong to feed corn and corn stover
and timothy hay. ‘This mixture is bad for the rea-
son that it carries but one line of. food constituents.
It runs to the carbohydrate class. Likewise cotton-
seed meal, linseed meal and gluten meal combined
and fed in conjunction with clover and alfalfa
would be undesirable, because they run in the other
direction and supply an overabundance of protein,
With too little, in fact with very little, of the
carbohydrates and fats. Every mixture must in-
clude both classes. Alfalfa and corn, cottonseed
meal and corn stover, timothy and gluten or linseed
meal, are all good mixtures for the reason that both
the “muscle makers’ and “fat formers’’ are in-
cluded. Each of these mixtures can be improved

30 FARM STOCK

by enlarging on the number of feeds, for a variety
is always to be preferred to a few feeds.

Plan to have hay and grain, more than a single
kind of each is better; and in addition give some
succulent food like roots or ensilage. This secures
health, much milk and quick gains.

The chief value of cottonseed meal, for instance,

)

“MEMBERS OF A FEEDING SQUAD

The two larger pigs on the right have been fed corn
and tankage, while the two smaller ones on the left have
received corn only.

rests with protein and fat. Compared with other
concentrated feeding stuffs cottonseed meal is rich
in both of these nutrients. But it is low in carbo-
hydrates. Linseed meal is rich also in protein,
moderate in quantity of carbohydrates and com-
pared with cottonseed meal is low in fat. Corn
meal, while very high in starch, is much lower in
protein than cottonseed meal or linseed meal. It is
higher in fat than linseed meal, but -considerably
lower than cottonseed meal.

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 31

MAKING THE RATION

Cowpea hay, alfalfa hay, clover hay and other
legumes are also rich in protein when compared
with other roughage materials. They are moder-
ate in carbohydrates, and, compared with corn or
cottonseed meal or linseed meal, are low in fat.
Timothy hay, while low in fat and protein, is rel-
atively high in the carbohydrates. The table fol-
lowing shows the digestible nutrients of the feeds
mentioned :

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS. IN I00 POUNDS.

|
Protein Carbohydrates Fat

Cottonseed meal ________ 37.0 | 16.5 12.6
Linseed oil meal ________ 30.6 38.7 2.9
Cimumesla.. 2) 7 66. 1 4.8
Gowen tay) 2-2 10.8 38.4 ings
3) 10.6 S133 1.4
ever Gay 2 38.1 1.8
dioethy bay=_—_-__.___- Z9 43.7 1.4
@ormeStOVer 82025022 20 Se 0.6

Great Variation in Feeding Stuffs—From this
table may be seen the variation of the various nu-
trients. If one were to feed cottonseed meal, for
instance, he ought not to feed linseed meal also, but
seek some other feed that is higher in the nutrient
that is low in cottonseed meal. He might use any
of the legume hays, but these legume hays are also
rich in protein and but moderate in the carbo-
hydrates. Where a reasonable amount of cotton-
seed meal is fed, it would be better to use some
other hay not so rich in protein and higher, if pos-
sible, in the carbohydrates. Timothy hay and corn
stover are two such feeds and either is excellent to
be used with the meal.

32 FARM STOCK

When corn meal can be obtained at a reasonable
cost per nutrient, corn meal and cottonseed meal
can be economically used together, the cottonseed
meal being rich in protein and low in carbohy-
drates, while the corn meal is high in carbohydrates,
but low in protein. From this standpoint these two
feeds make an excellent combination as the grain
portion of a ration. The objection to using them
exclusively is in the fact that they are too con-

IN NEED OF A SQUARE MEAL

When farm stock are improperly fed, they are unable
to do efficient work. Wise feeding is an art that every good
farmer must acquire.

centrated. Some bulk feed ought to go with this
combination and, therefore, any of the hays like
cowpea, alfalfa, clover, timothy or corn stover can
always be used satisfactorily.

If the legume hays are fed, less of the cotton-
seed meal and more of the corn meal should be ad-
mitted to the ration; and if timothy hay or corn
stover is used, then more of the cottonseed meal
and less of the corn meal.

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS a8

Since protein contains nitrogen and sulphur, and
the carbohydrates and fat do not, then it is evident
that the carbohydrates cannot be used as a substi-
tute for the protein. Just as nitrogen in a ferti-
lizer cannot take the place of phosphorus or po-
tassium, so the carbohydrates and fats cannot take
the place of the protein. While protein can be sup-
plied as a provider of carbohydrates and fat, it is
neither wise nor economical, for the reason that
protein is an expensive nutrient to obtain.

The farmer can produce always in abundance his
carbohydrates. The most common plants grown
on the farm are, as a rule, rich in the carbohydrates,
and this class can be supplied at low cost. Unless
the farmer grows an abundance of legumes, his
supply of protein is short, and hence his animals
are supplied with too'little of this element and they
suffer. To overcome this shortage he is forced
to purchase costly meals or grain materials in order
to overcome the deficiency in common forage crops
grown over the greater part of the country.

EACH FEED CARRIES ITS OWN VALUE

Wise feeding recognizes these facts, and aims to
supply for each class of animals various kinds of
feeding stuffs so as to furnish the different con-
stituents in the proportions in which they are
needed.

The following feeds may be mentioned:

As types of the chief classes furnishing protein:
Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, wheat bran among
the grain, and cowpea hay, alfalfa hay, and clover
hay among the hay crops.

As furnishing carbohydrates: Timothy hay,
crab grass, corn stover, corn ensilage, cottonseed
hulls, orchard grass and wheat straw.

34 FARM STOCK

As furnishing fat: Cottonseed meal, goose oil
meal, corn meal and oats.

Consider One Feed in Connection with Others—
But you cannot simply select a feed and use it to
the best advantage without considering it in con-
nection with other feeds that you want to use. Take
cottonseed meal: Suppose you were to select it as
desirable for dairy or beef cattle. Aside from the
dietary effect of a single feed, you would soon ob-
serve that cottonseed meal contains too much pro-
tein and too much fat, and that the animals would
soon be in need of carbohydrates. Hence, cotton-
seed meal as the sole feed would be unsatisfactory.
With the addition of cottonseed hulls for the
southern feeder, or of corn stover or timothy hay
for the northern feeder, the ration would be ma-
terially improved, since you have now added carbo-
hydrates. If you use a good deal of cottonseed
meal, and your supply of corn stover or timothy
hay is limited, you can further improve the ration
by adding corn meal or some other hay. If you.
have hulls or timothy hay in abundance and a small
amount of meal, you will improve it very greatly
by using alfalfa hay, cowpea hay or clover hay in
addition to the other feeds.

A Proverbial Ration—Here is the proverbial ra-
tion for work horses: ‘Timothy hay and corn. To
a certain extent the ration furnishes all of the con-
stituents, but it does so in a badly balanced form,
for the reason that you feed too much of the car-
bohydrates and not enough of the protein. Con-
sequently, just as soon as you put your work horses
on heavy work, they lose in flesh, grow laggy, and
crave for more corn or feed of some kind. They
are getting too little protein. You can correct this

LE, PEEPING OF Rede 35

trouble by feeding a ieee Bodnds daily of cotton-
seed meal, three or four pounds of wheat bran, or
six or eight-pounds of oats. You will understand
that the aim is to furnish protein, carbohydrates
and fat in the right proportions in order to get
enough of each constituent to supply the needs of
the body.

NO WASTE ON THE STOCK FARM

The hay press has become a necessary affair where hay or
straw are shipped from the farm.

THE IDEA IS TO SUPPLY WHAT IS
NEEDED

The whole problem of feeding is concerned with
this delicate art of planning the constituents that
each animal may get daily what its body requires.
To do this you must consider the work that each
animal has to do. A work horse demands a differ-
ent ration from one doing very light work. A
young dairy cow producing two gallons of milk

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THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 27)

dailge requires a ration different from one that
gives four gallons of milk daily. A fat hog weigh-
ing 250 pounds requires a ration very much differ-
ent from that for a young beef steer weighing 600
pounds.

Every Section Has Good Feeds—lIt is a signifi-
cant fact that each section of the country has abun-
dance of feeding stuffs more or less adapted to its
need. No section has a monopoly of any class.
There is a range of forage and grain crops in each
section sufficiently extensive to admit a moderately
careful balancing of rations.

In the South there is an abundarive of cotton-
seed meal and cowpea hay. This section has, in
fact imore: proteim than it can use; and there are
also other feeds, as corn stover, cottonseed hulls
and cereal hays. The New England farmer is well
supplied with carbohydrates, but he is short in pro-
tein, for he neither grows cotton nor flax, and, to
his misfortune, he never grows a maximum quan-
tity of clover and alfalfa. He looks to the South
for meal or to the starch factories of the West for
the by-products to help him out with protein. The
western farmer gets this protein by means of alfalfa
and by-products of the starch factories, and at the
same time he has an abundance of carbohydrates
even more than he can use. The waste that takes
place in the cornfields each se is indicative of
this fact.

EASY TO SWAP FEEDS

Since transportation is now so easy, an exchange
of one class for another is easily made, furnishing
no reason why each section should not have such
nutrients as it needs to balance properly its stand-
ard feeding rations. The farmer who has an

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38

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 39

abundance of timothy and corn, which he is now
feeding his work horses, can well afford to dispose
of a part of either or both and expend the entire
receipts for bran or oats. By so doing he need not
increase his outlay at all; but he will supply his
work horses with a more satisfactory ration.

But there are large quantities of food each year
going to waste in every section. In this you will
not disagree with me if you will but consider the
thousands and thousands of tons of corn stover
and cottonseed meal, and the by-products of the
slaughtering houses that rot and decay each year
in American farm fields, a quantity of rich ani-
mal food and of real wealth so vast as to be almost
beyond estimation. And all this is wasted and
unutilized each year. Of course, these materials
help the soil, but they could help the animal first,
and to the land might go the resulting manure,
doing the land as much good as the raw animal
food.

How long shall we allow this state of affairs to
exist? Why not stop at this point? Why not be-
gin a readjustment of your business so that these
products now wasted may be utilized?

USE JUDGMENT IN PURCHASING FEEDS

There is often very poor judgment shown in the
purchase of feeds. Just think of the great quan-
tities of timothy and other hays that are each year
sent into some section to be fed to live stock! It
is not wise farm management to buy timothy hay,
and yet this practice prevails in many parts of the
country, particularly in the South. It is not eco-
nomical feeding. There is no special virtue in
timothy hay, for a feeding stuff is valuable only in

AO FARM STOCK |

proportion to its ability to furnish protein, carbo-
hydrates and fat. Why buy timothy hay when it
is) little better than “comm: Stover eas jaeereed:
Grow plenty of corn and the legumes and you need
not bother about timothy hay.

The good farmer and the wise feeder aims to
have some legume crop at all times. The western
farmer can readily grow clover or alfalfa; the
southern farmer cowpeas, clover or alfalfa; the
New England farmer clover, and as soon as he
learns how, he will grow alfalfa and cowpeas.

Grow the Legumes—Cowpeas and clovers and
alfalfa are needed not only to catch nitrogen out
of the air and store it in the soil so as to maintain
the fertility of the land and add humus thereto, but
they are needed for feeding cattle and sheep and
hogs and horses. Feeding experiments have shown
that, i feeding value, these three feeds are not
much less than the feeding value of wheat bran.

Many farmers who do not grow wheat, yet buy
wheat bran for the protein, because they look upon
wheat bran as a valuable feeding stuff. And it is,
but as well as being good, it is also costly. It takes
money from your pocket. Still if a man could sow
ten acres or more each year to a crop of wheat bran,
and if he could sow the wheat bran just as he can
now sow cowpeas or alfalfa or clover, and if he
could get two tons or more of bran per acre, I am
confident the practice would become general
throughout the country. And why? Because
every farmer has learned of the value of wheat
bran as a feed. But if alfalfa and cowpeas and
clover are almost equally as good as wheat bran
for all feeding purposes, why will you refrain from
growing alfalfa, cowpeas and clover when you can
get from four to six tons of the former and a ton

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS AI

and a half to three tons per acre of the latter two
crops?

THE FOLLY OF BURYING FEED IN THE
GROUND

There are lots of follies committed in agriculture,
but there is none greater than that annually made
when millions and millions of dollars of feed prod-
ucts are buried in the soil each year as fertilizer,
examples being cottonseed meal, tankage and dried
blood. We should aim to get the total profits that
these feeds possess. They ought to be fed first to
live stock so as to get the wealth penned up in them
in way of milk and meat. And then there is almost
a similar value in using the resulting manure upon
the land. It seems to me wise farm management
to take a dollar and buy first the material for a
feeding stuff, and afterwards to utilize it as a ma-
nure. When feeds are buried in the soil year after
year, no profit is secured at all from the potential
feeding values stored in them.

Here is one of the great opportunities of south-
ern agriculture, and if grasped by the southern
farmer, millions of dollars could be added to the
wealth of that great section. To a great extent
cottonseed meal goes into the soil unutilized year
after year. It ought to go to cattle first, bring a
profit by them, then be sent to the soil for a second
profit that will come from the increased yield from
crops.

In the great pork-making sections of the coun-
try tankage now largely goes unused, yet it has
been definitely shown that not only is tankage a
valuable feed product, but when combined with
corn greatly increases the potential value of that

42 FARM STOCK |

feeding stuff. How long, oh, how long, shall
these wasteful methods be practiced? Enough has
now been said about the feeding proposition—
about its principles, methods and practices. If you
would secure the reward, adopt them. And all the
while remember these facts: Wise feeding is not
only profitable, but it leads to land improvement ;
not only does it secure meat and milk economically,
but it increases the efficiency of farm stock; not
only does it bring immediate, profitable returns, but
it adds to the potential fertility of the farm. Right,
wise, skillful feeding makes farming profitable.

CHAPTER III.
Horses

When America was discovered there was not a
horse to be found. Hence, the Red-man, in his
meager attempts to bring agriculture into his
service, lacked a beast of burden to assist him. AI-
though recent investigations indicate that the
original horse stock had at one time a home on this
continent, the horse as we know him came into our
country from across the waters. To find his
original home we shall need to go into southern
Asia where the: tempests rage and man lives only
with difficulty.

‘The horse comes to us not of his own choosing.
He left his cold and stormy home, not because he
preferred some place else, but because man claimed
him, domesticated him, put him into service and
rode him away. Why the horse preferred these
vast steppes to warm climates and more luxurious
vegetation, I do not know. It may be that he felt
safer there. He could for one thing see his natural
enemies, the wild beasts, at a greater distance, so
that escape was more easily accomplished. Nor
have we any record of the early domestication of
horses. The time is too far back in history; before
words were written or paper made or printing dis-
covered. Tradition, however, indicates that far
back in the past the horse was used for purposes of
war, service and pleasure.

It is certain, too, that the horse in the early days
found man, as well as the wild beasts, his natural
enemy, for his flesh was not bad at all, and even

43

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NOITIVLIS AYNAOVH IVOIdAL

HORSES 45

today in Paris and other large European cities not
a little meat that is consumed is horse flesh.
We know nothing about the early handling of
the horse when first subdued; but we can be rea-
sonably sure that 1t was not by gentleness, but by
force, that he submitted to the demands of man.

Wild horses are still to be found; but their do-
mesticated kin are now our friend and helper, and
generously and willingly assist in every work and
duty which he is called upon to perform. The
horse has always retained the principal and best
Mudlities, ©: Mis ancestors — speed and strength.
These are the qualities, which served him once for
flight, that are now employed in the -service of
man. It is not out of place to honor and caress this
noble beast, which, sturdier, stronger and fleeter
than ourselves, is, nevertheless, one of the most
serviceable and devoted of all domesticated ani-
mals.

CHAP aii livs
Breeds of Horses

It is quite impossible to make a ranking list of
breeds. Even in the same community, under the
same conditions and environments, many breeds of
horses are observed, showing that men honestly
differ in opinion as to the merits and values and
varieties of horses, as they do in other matters in
life. It follows, then, in breeding or working, that
_taste, fancy and individual choice will govern in
the selection of the breed. Following is a brief dis-
cussion of the breeds common in America, givy-
ing their chief characteristics and qualities:

The Thoroughbred was the first breed of horses
to be definitely established. It comes from Eng-
land, where it was produced by mingling many dif-
ferent strains of oriental blood. The modern
Thoroughbred is thus the oriental horse, developed
and improved by centuries of breeding and se-
lection.

Three oriental horses are mentioned by all au-
thorities as having contributed most to the forma-
tion of the modern Thoroughbred; viz., Darley
Arabian, Byerly Turk and Godolphin Arabian, the
only existing male line from these horses tracing
their ancestry to Eclipse, Herod and Matchem, re-
spectively, all from the middle of the eighteenth
century. As stated by Sanders, however, while
the oriental horse furnished good material as basis
for the breeder, the skill of the English and Amer-
ican breeder has done more than the blood of Ara-
bian and Barb horses. The Arabian is docile and

46

BREEDS OF HORSES 47

possesses great beauty of form, but he is inferior to
our Thoroughbred in size, height, speed and en-
durance. Our Thoroughbreds are imported from
England or are descendants of horses thus imported,
with an occasional mixture of the Arab or Barb,
which is not considered as vitiating the pedigree.

The Thoroughbred has been bred for the race
course and similar purposes for centuries. In this

THREE GOOD FARM-BRED PERCHERONS

Percheron horses have always been popular in America
ever since their introduction. They are good walkers, quiet
and heavy enough to perform all operations on the farm
that call for weight and pulling power.

long course of breeding, certain defects have crept
into his make-up which unfit him for farm uses.
He has become tall, lithe, light and too nervous for
everyday use. Nevertheless, the Thoroughbred has
been used in the improvement of all kinds of
horses. The favorable influence of a cross with a
Thoroughbred is recognized on every hand. Trot-
ters have been built largely on Thoroughbred blood
and this same blood is at the foundation of nearly
every fine roadster and driving horse in America.

48 FARM STOCK

A heavy Thoroughbred makes an excellent cavalry
horse, general saddle horse or carriage horse.

The Trotier—There were trotting or ambling
horses in England 600 years ago, but it was not
until 1818 that an authentic record of a mile in
three minutes was made. In 1806 a horse named
Yankee is said to have trotted in 2.59, but the
record is doubtful.” “Whe ain or the Breeden son
trotters is to secure a fast trotting oait amdeene
speed of these horses has been gradually increased
during the past century.

Naturally this reduction of the time-is partly
due to the use of a lighter vehicle, ball bearings,
_ pneumatic tires, improvement of the track, etc.,
but a steady increase of speed has been brought
about by breeding. The Trotter is essentially an
offshoot or variety of the Thoroughbred, produced
from the latter by breeding and selection for the
possession of a trotting gait. The first known or
definitely recorded sire of a winner in a trotting
race was Coriander, son of imported Messenger.
Several other distinguished sires of trotters de-
scended from the same Messenger. In fact, not
until 1837 did a noted trotter appear which did not
come from Messenger. The Morgan family came
into existence in 1840, the Clay family in 1850 and
Rysdyk’s Hambletonian in 1860.

Pacers do not constitute as yet a recognized
breed. Many standard-bred trotters number pacers
among their progeny. In early days in this coun-
try, pacers were used largely as saddle horses.
Later they were put.on the track, On the raee
track the pace seems to be a somewhat faster gait
than the trot. For general driving purposes, how-
ever, the pacer is inferior to the trotter. The hips

BREEDS OF HORSES 49

slope, the shoulders are high and the form is other-
wise less perfect. Within the past 25 years the
speed of the pacer has been greatly increased until
Dan Patch made a mile in 1.55%.

The American Saddle Horse—The foundation
stock of this breed was Denmark (a Thorough-
bred), John Dillard and Tom Hal (Canadian
horses), and a number of other Thoroughbred and
Morgan horses.

Saddle Gaits—To entitle him to registry the sad-
dle horse must possess five gaits—walk, trot, rack
and canter, and either the running walk, slow pace
or fast trot. The rack is also known as the single-
foot gait. Style is an important feature. Many
of these horses are good for saddle or driving and
a few of them have trotted faster than 2.30. The
hair is silky, mane of medium length, head small,
ears erect, neck arched, withers narrow, barrel
round, legs hard and flat with rather small joints.
The fox trot can be maintained all day and carries
a horse at the rate of four to six miles an hour.

The Morgan Horse originated with Justin Mor-
gan, owned by a man of the same name from West
Springfield, Mass. The foundation horse of the
breed was foaled about 1793 and was claimed to be
of Thoroughbred descent. A thorough investiga-
tion by Wallace and others shows pretty clearly
that the ancestry of the original Morgan horse is
unknown. Sherman Morgan was among the
progeny of this horse, his dam being a Narragan-
sett pacing mare. He is noted as the sire of Black
Hawk, the most famous of all the Morgans. ‘The
Morgan horse is essentially a trotter of small size,
but active and speedy. Fifty years ago they were
much more in favor than at present, and were
widely known from Maine to Iowa.

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BREEDS OF HORSES Su

The Hackney originated in northeastern Eng-
land more than 100 years ago by the careful se-
lection of carriage mares and the use of Thorough-
bred sires. The breed was first called Norfolk
fopers.or cobs. The action of the Hackney is
very high and showy, the leg and feet somewhat
larger than trotters, the general form rounder and
less angular, back short and stout, height 14.2 to
15.3 hands, hindquarters rounded, shoulders slop-
ing, color chestnut or brown or bay. The knee ac-
tion is high and the hind legs are always kept under
the body. Ihe Hackney is essentially a heavy
harness horse. He is too small for the farmer and
too slow for racing. His endurance is also not
great. He is merely a park horse and high step-
per. Hackneys are bred extensively in Canada and
in recent years many have been imported into this
country, especially in New York, to satisfy a fad
among fashionable society.

The French Coach Horse was at first called
Demi-Sang on account of the fact that it was orig-
inated by crossing the English Thoroughbred on
native French mares, the latter carrying consider-
able oriental blood. Toward the end of the eight-
eenth century the French government undertook
this work in order to obtain better cavalry re-
mounts. After the type was fairly well established,
breeding was continued in the government studs
and by farmers, under government supervision.
Thoroughbred stallions are still used occasionally,
so that some French coachers may be self-breeds.

The French coacher stands higher than the Hack-
ney, the knee action is not so high and the general
form more rangy. The weight is 1050 to 1400
pounds and the color bay, brown or black. The
type is poorly fixed and it does not breed true.

52 FARM STOCK

Some are much coarser than others, which may
show their Thoroughbred ancestry. In the hands
of skilled breeders, the French coach horse may
be used in the production of heavy harness horses
and for this purpose they have been imported in
small numbers. It is probable, however, that a
much better type of this sort can be obtained from
the American Trotter by selecting the heaviest ani-
mals.

The German Coach Horse is a name used to
cover several breeds of coach horses bred in the
northern German provinces. The most important
_ breeds are the Oldenburg, Hanoverian, East Fries-
land and East Prussian, the first named being the
most promising. According to some authorities,
this type was known in Oldenburg as early as 1608.
The breed was greatly improved by crossing Thor-
oughbred stallions on the Oldenburg mares under
government supervision. This horse is_ black,
brown, bay or chestnut in color, 15 to 1634 hands
in height, 1200 to 1500 pounds in weight. “Phe
legs are strong, but smooth and the carriage of the
head, neck and tail is graceful. The gait is much
like that of the French coacher. On the western
range, German coach horses have produced fine
grades from native mares, and the breed seems to
be on the increase in this country.

The Cleveland Bay is a coach breed which origi-
nated in England by crossing the Thoroughbred
upon native mares of the Cleveland district. It is
noted for coaching and long distance work. The
color is bay, weight 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, height 16
to 16.2 hands. The croup is straight, back short,
thighs strong. The Cleveland bay is adapted for
pulling heavy loads at considerable speed. He has
much to recommend him to the farmer. Since the

BREEDS OF HORSES 53

establishment of the stud book in 1884, additional
speed has been secured by the further admixture
of Thoroughbred blood. The Yorkshire coach
horse is very similar to the Cleveland bay and is
considered by some as a family of the latter. It
shows more of the Thoroughbred, occasional white

PLOW HORSES

In the conquest of American lands, the farm horse has been
the most conspicuous of all farm animals

spots and does not breed as true as the Cleveland
bay.

Influence of Thoroughbred—From the above
discussion of light breeds of horses, the immense
influence of the blood of the Thoroughbred is ap-
parent. The Thoroughbred has furnished the
foundation of the Trotter, Saddle Horse, Pacer,

54 FARM STOCK

Orlov Trotter, Morgan, Hackney, French, German
and Yorkshire coach, and Cleveland bay. The ori-
ental blood is “hot blood.”” The Thoroughbred and
its modifications in various modern breeds are
known as “hot blooded” as contrasted with the

“cold blooded” draft horses which originated in
continental Europe. The blood of the Thorough-
bred is everywhere present in horses which are dis-
tinguished for speed, courage and endurance. Even
the Welsh pony carries some oriental blood.

Draft Type—As the light or “hot bloedear
horses are all descended, with modification, from
the Thoroughbred, so the draft or “cold blooded”
horses are descended from the old black horse of
Flanders. At the dawn of history this wild black
horse was found throughout continental Europe.
In northern Europe the conditions seemed to be
favorable to the development of large men and large
horses. By -skillful breeding and an occasional
mixture with oriental or native blood, several heavy
breeds have been produced from the black horse of
Europe. Thus from England we have obtained
the Clydesdale, Shire Horse and Suffolk Punch;
from France the Percheron and French draft horse;
and from Belgium the Belgian draft horse or Flem-
ish horse.

Before the days of railroads much freighting
was done by horses through Pennsylvania from the
seaboard to the Ohio river. For this heavy work
the Conestoga horse was produced and was at one
time famous as a draft horse in Pennsylvania. This
horse was a product of local breeders, based on
imported heavy horses of unknown blood. The
Conestoga horse stood 16 to 18% hands high and
weighed. 1,600 to 1,900 pounds. With the advent of
railroads the breed was allowed to become extinct.

BREEDS OF HORSES 55

The Clydesdale originated in Scotland, being
first referred toin 1715. The Black Flemish horse
and other heavy horses were crossed with the early
form of the type. At present the type is well fixed
and the breed is very true and prepotent. The
color is bay or brown with white markings on
the face and legs. Other colors, such as gray,
black and chestnut, sometimes appear. The flanks
See iekter, ia color, fading to a dun on the
belly. Mares weigh 1,500 to 2,000, stallions 1,800
foeezoo and the height is 16 to.17 hands. The
head is long, neck medium, leg broad and fine,
silky feathering below the knee = and_ hock,
shoulders sloping. The Clydesdale shows a fast,
elastic walk and a fairly good trot. The waist is
sometimes too small, the back too long and the
feet too flat. In these points much improvement
has been made of late. The forehead is broad,
hindquarters well developed, leg joints strong, tail
well carried. The special merits of the Clydesdale
are the smooth, clean legs, and the long graceful
strides.

The Shire Horse—The black horse of Flanders,
imported to England and crossed on native heavy
mares, gave rise to the old war horse or “great
horse,” which was much in favor as a charger in
the days of knight-errantry.

The Shire horse resembles the Clydesdale, but is
heavier and coarser. The color is black, bay, brown
or gray; height 16 to 17.2 hands, weight 1,600 to
2,300 pounds, neck short, nose Roman, shoulder
straight, body short, deep and round, back broad,
legs strong with heavy bone and “feather” extend-
ing around on the sides. The gait is slower and
less stylish than in the Clydesdale, but the animal
is stronger and less likely to be “weedy.” The

56 FARM STOCK

shoulders and pasterns are more erect than in the
Clydesdale and the hair is coarser.

The Percheron 1s the national horse of France
and originated in the district of La Perche. Until
1883 all draft horses in France were referred to
indifferently as Norman, Norman-Percheron, Per-

A TYPICAL PERCHERON STALLION

This prize-winning Percheron represents the grace, qual-
ity and high breeding of the draft horse. The Percheron is
known in every state and county in the country.

cheron or French Draft. In that year the name
Percheron was adopted. At first two types, the
light and the heavy, were recognized. The light
Percheron was most in favor and was used as a
coach horse. He weighed 1,400 to 1,600 pounds,
stood about 15.2 hands high and had considerable
speed as well as strength. The neck was trim, the

BREEDS OF HORSES 57

feet well formed and the legs only slightly feath-
ered. In 1732, many of the oriental horses were
captured in France from the invading Saracens,
and this blood, mixed with that of the European
black horse, yielded the Percheron. Shire horses
were also imported from England and their blood
added to the existing mixture. Du Hays in his
treatise on the Percheron claims an Arabian ances-
try for this horse.

The color of the modern Percheron is black,
gray, or white. He stands 16 to 17.2 hands high,
and weighs 1,600 to 2,200 pounds. The legs are
short, blocky and without feather, the hoof 1s good,
head small, face straight, neck arched, shoulders
and hips sloping, body deep, round and broad. The
Percheron is powerful, but his legs and feet are
his strong points. He shows his heel in walking,
and his action is good, but not quite so swinging
as that of the Clydesdale. The percentage of
blacks has been increased by the Americans.
Roans, bays, browns and chestnuts are occasionally
observed, but probably indicate impure breeding.
The weak points in the Percheron are lightness of
leg below the knee and hock, rolling gait in front
and wide straddling behind. These defects, how- ,
Gvereate Only Seen in’a certain percentage. For
breeding, stallions with oblique pasterns should be
selected.

Alexander rightly calls attention to the beneficial
effects which the Percheron has exercised upon
our native horses. This horse is by far the most
popular of all the draft horses, and breeds fairly
true to type. He is docile, easily kept in condition,
of good constitution and well adapted to all sorts of
draft purposes. When crossed on native mares,
the Percheron produces excellent express, farm,

58 FARM STOCK

draft and general purpose horses, according to
the size of the mare. “Where the blood of this
breed predominates in a district, no other breed
should be used. Continued breeding in the right
line is highly advisable and will result in the pro-
duction of practically pure bred horses of great
usefulness and value.”’

The French Draft has the same ancestry as the
Percheron and was once included with the latter.

CHILDREN’S HORSES

_Thousands of ponies are to be found on American farms.
While intended for the enjoyment of children, they may be
made to do much useful work.

In fact, the breed is now in process of differentia-
tion from the Percheron and can scarcely be dis-
tinguished from it. The prevailing colors are
gray, bay and black. The French Draft is slightly
heavier than the Percheron and useful for fewer
purposes, being purely a heavy draft horse.

The Belgian Draft Horse, or Flemish horse,
stands nearer than any other breed to the old black
horse of Flanders. His ancestors were first used
as war chargers and later for draft purposes.
Until recently the Belgian Draft horses imported

BREEDS OF HORSES 59

into the United States have lacked quality. The
Percheron and Clydesdale possess more style and
better action than the Belgian, and are therefore
more in favor in this country. The Belgian has
less feather on the legs than the Clydesdale, shorter
neck, wider breast and larger body.

The Belgian Draft is the largest of all horses,
weighing 1,700 to 2,500 pounds. The preferred
colors are brown, bay and black, with an occasional
roan or chestnut. They are closer to the ground
than the Percheron and less trim in appearance.
The head is large, ears sometimes lopped, neck
thick, shoulders straight, back short and broad,
chest deep, legs short and flat, feet large, heel low.
The defects of the Belgian are clumsy gait, coarse
neck, sloping croup and too erect pasterns. Atten-
tion is being given to the correction of these points.
Belgians are slowly gaining in favor among Amert-
can breeders on account of their great power and
easy keeping qualities.

CHAPTER V.
Horse Breeding

While we have many races and breeds of horses,
we may with all correctness classify them into
three groups. By continually selecting the heaviest
animals of a heavy race and giving them such food
as their needs require, our heavy breeds of draft
horses have been obtained—horses that rear them-
Selves like giants of fairy tales to the eyes of those
who see, them for the first time. In using for
propagation the fleetest animals of a fleet and
noble race and giving to their product an education
that develops muscles and tendons, and by carefully
repressing all tendency to lay on fat, breeders are
obtaining more and more animals of incredible
speed which on the American race track are taking
less and less time to cover a certain distance. By
using the smallest specimens of a race of small
ponies, breeders have succeeded in producing
horses no larger than mastiffs. I saw a dwarf
horse not long ago exhibited at one of our passing
shows that was slightly less than two feet in height.
Breeders have also seized and reproduced the
freaks of nature, such as the albino horses (born
white).

When the horse was wild he looked after his
own food, his own protection and his own shelter.
He naturally made little progress, and what pro-
gress he did make was of a nature to fit him to his
conditions and environments of life, rather than

60

HORSE BREEDING 61

to fit him to do useful work, or otherwise to con-
tribute to the pleasure and happiness of his goodly
friend, man.

SELECTING TO GET HEAVY HORSES

With the coming of civilization, however, man |
took the horse in hand and helped him. Inasmuch
as the horse could more rapidly till the soil, he was
used for this purpose. An early observation was
that the heavier the horse the harder work he
could do and the heavier the load he could draw;
hence there was an unconscious selection in de-
veloping animals to do the heavy draft work of
the world.

As we have the draft horse today, he possesses
striking characteristics. By looking at him from
the front you see that he is wide between the eyes,
moderately long in face and rather wide between
the shoulders. If he stands correctly there is be-
tween his feet the measured distance of another
hoof.

A plumb line dropped from the point of his
shoulder divides the forearm, knee, canon and
hoof in equal parts, thus insuring an even, regular
movement of the leg. Stepping around to the
‘side, the first observation will be that the neck is
relatively short, but it is heavy and muscular. It
blends evenly and smoothly into the shoulders, the
breast at the bottom, and the withers at the top.
The shoulder slopes gently upward and, compared
with the race horse, is rather straight. The back is
well covered with muscle, is broad and well fleshed,
with well-covered hips, presenting a view that
would indicate the back not to be long. The gen-
eral slope over the hips becomes rather abrupt, for

62 FARM STOCK

the hips are well muscled, thus giving force and
power; for it is from the rear that ability to draw
comes. ‘The same well-muscled form continues
about the buttocks and the thighs. Here are shown
short muscles, but muscles that are large and
strong. ‘The knees and the hocks should be deep
and broad and rather large. The usual trouble in
the hocks, known as curb, is due often to bad con-
formation. The liock is not wide and deep enough;
leverage of muscles to stand the strain and to do
the hard work demanded of this region of the body
is not sufficient.

Special attention should be paid to the feet, for
unless a horse has strong, well-made feet, he is
poor material for either field or road work.

A further observation from the side shows the
horse to be square or of a rectangular appearance.
The height from the ground to the withers is
about the same as the height from the ground to the
croup. These measurements, in turn, are practi-
cally the same as the distance from the point of
the shoulder to the quarter or buttock. Carrying
these measurements still further, either of them is
just about two and one-half times the length of
the head, which in no case should be more than
three times the width between the eyes.

These measurements have been rather carefully
worked out and much of the beauty and ease of
action and grace and efficiency of this noble ani-
mal is due to these proportions along the line of
law and order, rather than of casual chance.

An awkward, ungainly horse is, as a rule, an
inefficient, little-doing horse. He is awkward and
ungainly, because his proportions are bad, and as
a result the work he accomplishes represents the
minimum quantity.

HORSE BREEDING 63

But there is a radical difference in the type be-
tween draft and speed horses. While the trotting
horse requires great width between the eyes (and
it might be added that width between the eyes is
an absolute beauty in any animal), he is longer in
face, longer in neck and leaner in appearance. In
fact, the neck is thin, the chest is very deep, but
perhaps not so wide as in the case of the draft
horse. The shoulder is more sloping and longer,
and there is less muscle at the meeting place of the

FARM TEAM AT WORK

Quietly and calmly they stand; but whenever needed, the
farm horse responds willingly and faithfully

two shoulders. The back is long, but thin and nar-
‘row, and slightly fleshed; the hips are prominent,
the croup quite horizontal, and attached to thin,
long muscles that speed may be accelerated. The
buttocks and thighs are slightly covered with flesh,
but the hock is wide, deep and thick and the feet
are hard and strong—just as they are with the
draft horse. The leg and canon bones of the
speed horse are longer than those of the draft
horse. Now, why these differences? Each type
represents a specialty. The speed horse is a poor

64 FARM STOCK

working horse, because he lacks conformation; and
the draft horse will never win a race on the track
if competing with special-bred race horses because
he possesses no qualities of speed. The leg of
the draft horse is too short, the forearm is too
short, the shoulders are too upright and the mus-
cles are too thick and too slow-acting. The speed
horse possesses the opposite characteristics, which
are basal features of speed.

Take a long, thin rubber. You can extend it
a long way and when released it passes through
the extended distance quite rapidly. Take this
same piece of rubber and lap it over itself a few
times so as to shorten it into one-fourth its original
length and you get greater power when the rubber
contracts; but it acts more slowly and extends itself
less. That is the way it is with horses. The long-
legged, long-muscled race horse can reach out and
cover greater distances than the draft horse because
of these special features. But these differences in
type go deeper than mere skin and flesh. The
skeleton presents these differences even more prom-
inently than the living flesh. You have pulae
study the skeleton to see the reason and the proof
of the foregoing explanation of differences between
the two types.

Function is based on conformation. You must
have type and conformation. It is useless to at-
tempt to press one into the service of the other.
Farmers too often make the mistake of inter-
changing type along with other breeding opera-
tions. The mating of draft with speed types for
a generation or two and then changing to the car-
riage type and then back again to either the
speed or draft type, causes an intermixture of

HORSE BREEDING | 65

blood and function that makes a good-for-nothing
individual.

Select Your Line of Animals—If it is a large
draft type, then breed straight to that line. If you
want lighter horses, do not make the mistake of
breeding down in size. Rather take individuals of

A FOUR-YEAR-OLD SHIRE STALLION

The Shire horse is not so well known as the Percheron,
but the breed is gaining friends very rapidly.

some breed that possess already the characteristics
you want, and improve these by careful selection
and mating. By so doing you will then get quality,
an important character for any breed.

The carriage or coach horse comes in between
the two extremes of draft and speed. These horses

66 FARM STOCK

supply the demand of the general purpose horse,
although they are not just that, but horses of this
class are able to do considerable work, and at the
same time have greater speed characteristics than
the heavy draft horse. But they are neither speed
nor draft horses and would be outclassed in either
case. They do light road work or heavy harness
work and do it well. They have their work to do
just as the speed or draft horse has its work to do.

CONFORMATION OF THE DRAFT HORSE

Many farmers have attended our state fairs and
seen modern draft horses on exhibition. The up-
to-date draft horse is one that stands close to the
ground, with short legs and broad base. ‘The feet
are well apart, with space enough for another foot
of the same size to be placed between thenm ane
back of this animal will be somewhat shorter than
that of the speed horse. It is with theamdM@egs
that he propels himself, and thus it can be easily
seen that, since the collar is on the shoulder, the
whole weight of the load is drawn by the back.
Therefore it must be short, broad and well muscled.

The shoulder of this horse is long and well
shaped, so as to give a good base to the collar. It
should be more nearly perpendicular than that of
the speed animal. However, sloping shoulders are
often found in our best draft horses. The hocks
of this horse will show rather a narrow angle, be-
cause it is by this that a great leverage is given
and he is able to move heavy loads. The body is
massive, low set, ample, very muscular and cylin-
drical. The horse should have solid, large, broad
bones and limbs; the latter are well formed and
properly placed under his body.

HORSE BREEDING 67

He should have large, healthy, well-formed
hoofs, heels well separated, frog strong, healthy
and quite hard; good physiognomy, plenty of style
and action, ardor and endurance. He must have
a short, rather straight pastern in order to do
the heavy work required of him. His weight
should be in the neighborhood of a ton. If he
weighs a little more or a little less, but is good
otherwise, he will not be long without a purchaser.
The animal can be of any draft breed. All have
special characteristics which commend them to their
admirers. It is not necessary at this time to favor
one and condemn the others, for all breeds sell
alike when the animals are of the right kind. We
say that it is quite easy to describe the animal we
would like to produce, but to produce him is
another thing.

Breed for the Market—A short time ago any
horse that would weigh 1,400 or 1,500 pounds, was
awkward, big-headed, lazy and good for no par-
ticular work, was classed as a draft horse by the
layman. Today in many places this same notion
prevails. If we will become acquainted with the
animal many farmers raise and force upon the
market, we will find that they are not draft horses,
neither are they road or coach horses, but quite
likely a lot of misfits that belong to no particular
Gass and tor which’ there is no market. The
farmer should learn to produce that which the peo-
ple want and the market demands.

CHAPTER VI.
Feeding the Horse

The entire anatomy and physiology of its diges-
tive apparatus show that the food of the horse
should be nutritious in quality, supplied frequently,
and in comparatively sniall quantities. The food,
of whatever variety, must, of course, be of good
quality, sound and wholesome; but beyond this, no
specific rules can be laid down for general applica-
tion. The amount and character of the food must
vary with the size and constitution of the horse,
the climate and season, the amount of work re-
quired, and the country it lives in.

The horse is an inhabitant of nearly all parts
of the earth, and exhibits a wonderful adaptabil-
ity to various situations. In Arabia its principal
food is barley, varied by scant herbage, and
even dates; in Iceland and some of the Shetland
Islands it subsists mainly on dried fish. On the
western plains, great herds of horses retain
splendid health and vigor through the rigid, stormy
winters upon the dried bunch grass, often having
to paw away the snow to reach it. In England
the food of the horse is mainly hay, oats and beans.
while in various parts of the Continent horses are
fed on rye, barley and inferior qualities of wheat.
In India the common food of horses is a plant
of the pea family. In some parts of the United
States and the southern regions of Europe, Indian
corn forms an important element in horse food,
but not to such an. extent that ‘‘American horses

rarely taste oats,” as is asserted by an eminent
68 ae

_ FEEDING THE HORSE 69

English author. Good, well-made hay, free from
dust and dirt, and sound, well-seasoned oats may
in a general way be regarded as the staple food
for horses. But no animal can do as well on a
monotonous diet, even if.of good quality, as it will
with a judicious variety.

MIX THE FEEDS TO FIT THE NEEDS

With the results of skillful chemical analysis be-
fore him, the feeder need no longer proceed in a
haphazard manner, or follow blindly in old ruts,
often buying at heavy cost certain standard kinds
of food, when equally valuable material of other
kinds is cheap and plentiful. He has only to adjust
the rations in such a manner that they will con-
tain about the correct proportions of the various
elements. Those proportions should be varied
according to the’ season, the amount of work
required, and the constitution of the horse.

Roughage Feeds for Horses—Timothy hay with
oats may well be regarded in this country as the
standard article for feeding horses. But there are
Many other grasses equally available. In the
prairie regions and farther west, there are several
species of blue-joint and other wild grasses scarcely
inferior to timothy. Some of these attain immense
growth in rich bottoms, and if cut at the right time,
- and properly made into hay, are both palatable and
wholesome for horses.

Hungarian grass and German millet, if cut and
cured just as the first blossoms appear, make a
hay scarcely inferior to timothy.

Clover and alfalfa are rich in albuminoids.
Either one makes a well-balanced ration with corn
meal, corn fodder, straw or other material contain-
ing an excess of carbohydrates.

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70

FEEDING: THE HORSE ya

Corn fodder is a better feed for horses than is
generally supposed. But it must be bright and
well cured. If allowed to stand for months in
small stooks, with the butts on the soft ground,
and the tops and leaves exposed to the weather,
it is unfit for fodder. On the other hand, if stored
away in a barn while damp, and allowed to mold
and rot, it is not only unpalatable, but actually per-
nicious to the health of animals which are com-
pelled to eat it. Corn fodder contains an excess
of carbohydrates for a well-balanced food, and
when fed either green or dry, should be mixed
with clover, bran or any other nitrogenous food
material. It is eaten with a better relish if cut up,
crushed, moistened and fed in connection with
bran, oil meal, or cottonseed meal.

Grain Feeds for Horses—Oats are pre-eminently
the grain for horses, 1f only one kind of grain is
fed. They contain a large per cent of nutrients in
almost the correct ratio for the horse’s require-
ments. The fibrous husk in which the grain is in-
closed serves a valuable purpose in dividing the
mass in the horse’s stomach, and exposing it to
the action of the digestive fluids. Oats should be
at least three months old before they are fed.
When new, they are difficult to digest, and liable to
give a horse the colic. They should be plump and
of full weight. The husk on light, inferior oats
is as heavy as those which are sound and heavy,
the deficiency in weight coming wholly out of the
grain. Thirty-two pounds constitute a _ legal
bushel, but good samples weigh more, running as
high as 44 pounds to the measured bushel. Six
quarts of the latter weigh nearly as much as
a peck of the former, and contain far more nutii-
ment. This fact should be taken into considera-

72 FARM STOCK

tion in buying and feeding. If fed whole, even
to young horses with good teeth, oats are more
or less imperfectly masticated and a part passes
through undigested. Many judicious feeders have
them crushed, to secure more complete mastication.

Indian corn is the great food grain of America,
and of the immense annual crops, aggregating
more than two billion bushels, the greater part is
fed to domestic animals. Corn is largely used as
an article of horse food, either unground or in the
form of meal. Corn is a highly concentrated food,
heating and deficient in muscle-forming elements.
When fed to horses, it should, therefore, be com-
bined with nitrogenous foods in such proportions
as are best adapted to the season, amount of work
required and other conditions. It is quite a usual
practice with many horse owners to feed their
horses corn in the ear, under the idea of saving the
expense of grinding. But this is very questionable
economy, for a considerable part of the grain must
go through undigested. On the other hand, if fed
in the form of fine meal, it should be mixed with
several times its own bulk of cut’ hay jon onaes
cuarse feed to separate the particles and expose
them to the action of the digestive fluids of the
stomach. If fed alone, corn meal becomes i1m-
pacted in the stomach, forming a plastic, adhesive
mass nearly impenetrable to the gastric juice. Se-
vere, and in some cases, fatal colic is the frequent
result. Even if the meal is mixed with oats, the
mass is too dense to form a safe and desirable
food, unless fed in combination with a coarser ma-
terial.

Barley is the principal grain food of horses in
many parts of the world. The Arabs feed their

FEEDING THE HORSE 73

famous horses largely on barley; the French in Al-
geria have adopted the same practice. In some of
the great breeding stables of Illinois barley and
oats are ground together in proportions varying
with the season, and are fed to stallions and mares.
The introduction of a black, hull-less barley into
cultivation is likely to lead to still more extensive
use of this grain as food for horses. The black,
hull-less variety is not used in malting; it yields
large crops in many parts of the Northwest beyond
the “corn belt’ and is as easily raised as oats.
This new variety seems likely to become an impor-
tant item in the general grain crops of the country.
Barley contains a larger proportion of the elements
which produce heat and fat than any other grain,
except Indian corn. Moreover, it weighs one-half
more per bushel than oats, and the hull-less variety
is still heavier. When either barley or corn and
oats are ground and fed together, they should be
mixed according to weight, not bulk.

Wheat bran is a valuable article for horse feed,
both for its peculiar action on the digestive organs,
and as a balance to richer foods. When fed alone,
it is generally in the form of warm mash. To
make this, take four quarts of pure wheat bran,
add two tablespoons of salt, pour over it boiling
water, and stir quickly until all is wet, but not too
thin; cover closely to confine the steam, let it stand
until cool and give it in place of the regular
feed. Such a mash once a week, while the horse
is kept in stables, will gently open the bowels and
promote digestion. It should be given at night,
and preferably before a day of rest, as the imme-
diate effect is somewhat weakening. Bran may
also be mixed with ground oats, corn or barley.

74 FARM STOCK

Linseed cake is largely employed as animal food
in England, the greater part of that made in this
country being exported there. But Americans are
learning its value, and are feeding more of it than
formerly. . It. acts both as.:a imediemevandeacia
food. It is mildly laxative to the bowels, sooth-
ing to the air passages, and gives gloss to the coat.
The “new process’ meal contains much less oil
than that made by the old process, and is therefore
less relaxing and fattening, while the proportion
of albuminoids is greater. As a feed substance oil
meal is useful mainly to mix in small quantities
with other materials. A ration containing six parts
of oats, four of corn, and two of linseed meal,
would be very nearly equivalent to the oats and
beans which form the grain staple of food given
to horses in England.

Cottonseed meal is similar in its chemical com-
position to linseed meal, but is more highly con-
centrated, and contains a larger proportion of
nitrogenous elements. It should be fed with
caution, in small quantities of two to four pounds.

Carrets have a. food; value. greater thamsiwem
composition would indicate. Eighty-five per cent
of their bulk is water, and of the solids which re-
main, nearly one-tenth is fiber. Yet they serve to
cool the system, and assist in the digestion of other
food. They should be fed a few at a time, two or
three times a week. Parsnips have nearly the same
composition as carrots, except that they contain
even a larger per cent of water. In England and
France they are fed in the same way as carrots.

In making up a feeding ration for a horse, the
first point is to find out how much the horse will
eat; the next is to regulate the ration according
to the weather, and the amount and character of

FEEDING THE HORSE 7s

the work the horse is expected to perform. The
harder the work and the colder the weather, the
greater the proportion of carbohydrates required
in the food.

Salt is doubtless wholesome and beneficial for
horses, notwithstanding the contrary opinion of
some people who have given attention to the mat-
ter. But horses are fond of salt, and thrive better
with it than if deprived of it. The best method
of supplying this article is to keep a lump of rock
salt at all times where the horse can lick it. Re-
ceptacles are made of wire for this purpose, but a
small wooden or iron box, fastened near the man-
ger or rack, will serve nearly as well.

WATERING THE HORSE

The horse in a state of nature feeds upon juicy,
succulent herbage, and drinks at pleasure from.
pure water. When these conditions are changed
for confinement in the stable or work on the dusty
road, with a diet consisting mainly, if not ex-
clusively, of dry hay and grain, the health and
well-being of the horse, as well as common human-
ity, demand careful and judicious attention to the
matter of water supply. The water must always
be pure and fresh. No animal is more delicate and
fastidious about its drink than a horse, and one of
‘them will suffer agonies of thirst rather than
quench it with impure, tepid or stale water. It
should be given in small quantities and frequently,
and never in large draughts, when the horse comes
in heated, or immediately before being put to work.

Some horses require more water than others, the
quantity varying with the amount of hay they will
eat, propensity to sweat, etc. The water should

76 FARM STOCK

not be excessively cold. Copious draughts of cold
water, when the horse is heated, produce colic, or
founder is likely to ensue. If pumped from a cold
well, it may stand until the chill is taken off. Hard
water is much decried as causing harshness in the
coat, and soft water is doubtless better. Yet no
part of the country produces finer horses than the
limestone states of Vermont and Kentucky. Ifa
change is made from soft to hard water it should
be done gradually, as the horse becomes accustomed
to it. Where rain water is given it should be kept
clean and aerated. Stale, foul water from a neg-
lected cistern is unfit for a horse, and will be re-
‘fused except in case of extreme thirst.

Water When at Work m Fields—Horses when
working in the field are subjected to great suffer-
ing from thirst. From morning till noon, and
again from noon until the hour of quitting for the
night, the horses are kept in. the dusty field, often
under a burning sun, without a drink. The driver
makes frequent visits to the water jug in the shade,
without giving a thought to his thirsty horses. If
there is no brook or other water supply within con-
venient distance, a keg of it, with a pail, may be
carried along and kept in the shade.

When a horse comes in heated and tired from
hard driving, nothing is more grateful and sooth-
ing than a few quarts of gruel made by throwing
a handful of oatmeal or linseed meal in a gallon
of boiling water. If none of this is prepared, a
handful of oatmeal in half a bucket of cold water
may be given.

Watering at the Barn—Many good horsemen
prefer watering before feeding, which, I think, is
a good practice, especially in summer, as the horse
requires a large amount of water to supply the

FEEDING THE HORSE . 7/7

needs of the body. After perspiring almost all
day, the horse comes in pretty much exhausted in
the evening, due to the loss of water and energy.
Before being fed his grain, he should be given
water and allowed to cool. If he is very warm,
only a limited amount should be given at one time,
but he must be watered frequently until he gets all
that he wants as soon as he is cool enough to
take it.

It is a good plan to allow a little time for the
horses to cool off before giving them the evening
grain ration. Some men allow them to stand and
eat hay while they themselves are at supper and
then feed the grain ration later. After standing all
night, the horse will be thirsty and will appreciate
a drink the first thing in the morning. If water
is given before feeding instead of after feeding,
there will be no tendency to wash the food out of
the stomach into the intestines.

Large quantities of cold water taken into the
stomach immediately after a meal tend to. arrest
digestion by cooling the stomach and diluting the
digestive fluids, which may cause colic.

CEA PAVE Reale

The Care and Management of Horses

It is no small matter to give farm horses just
the sort of care necessary and to manage them in
the most satisfactory way, unless very thoughtful
study be given that feed, work, stabling and rest be
all properly adjusted. It is a very easy thing fo
overfeed, or to feed materials not just ideally
adapted to the purpose. Just how much work a
horse ought to be expected to do in summer or
winter must always be considered by the man who
has the team in charge; likewise, when to pasture
and the sort of pasture, and both in relation to
other feed, are problems not yet solved, but yet
very important ones to both the owner and to the
animals.

The winter period usually calls for no great
amount of work on the part of horses; and on
many farms little care and attention are paid to
farm horses. As a rule, all of the teed thar ts
needed is supplied; at least enough to induce fat-
tening, although the stock may be dirty and some-
what unthrifty. How often it is that we see horses
which are fat and in good condition put to hard
spring and summer work and abruptly or gradually
decrease in substance and weight! [Either the
horse is worked too hard or he is not receiving
the food and kind of food and care in other di-
rections that he should have.

During the winter season good water is a first
essential, as in the summer; and the daily ration
should contain bright, clear, roughage material

78

CARE AND, MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 79

with some grain to furnish the necessary nutrients
for the maintenance of the animal in good form
and condition.

The winter ration for the average work horse
does not need to be expensive. Some alfalfa, fed
two or three times a week (and if alfalfa is not
available, then clover or cowpea hay) should be
supplied for the protein or muscle-making ingre-
dients. In addition you can feed oats straw, bright,
clear, corn stover or any ordinary hay. But corn
and corn stover, a common winter ration for work
horses, is not the best sort of feed, because it is
lacking in protein, and contains an over-supply of
carbohydrates.

Whether horses during the winter are to be
sheltered in stalls or allowed to run in the open
will depend upon circumstances. Where many
horses are kept together during the winter and are
not subjected to work, the open field with good
protection from wind, storm and rain by means of
sheds, covered straw-piles and the like, is very sat-
isfactory.

While daily grooming is desirable, it is not es-
sential for common stock if good shelter and good
feed of the right quality and quantity are other-
wise provided. Feed should contain considerable
variety, for horses like a change just as other ani-
mals, or people.

The substance of winter treatment can be boiled
down to good food, plenty of fresh air, constant
exercise and shelter. During the summer and work
season, of course, the closest attention must be paid
to feed, daily grooming must be done, fresh water
must be provided, the most nutritious, appetizing
and refreshing grain and fodder furnished, and
the general health of the animal maintained.

80 FARM STOCK

THE MANAGEMENT OF STALLIONS

The stable for stallions must be arranged so
that they can have plenty of fresh air and sun-
shine. The stalls must be roomy and smooth so
that they can have perfect freedom to move about
in them without injury to themselves. Everything
about the stable must be kept thoroughly clean and
fresh bedding must be supplied each day in abun-
dance. In feeding, care must be taken not to over-
do it. Their appetites must be kept sharp. The
best results are obtained by frequent feeding.
Small proportions can be given at first and then
_ gradually increased until a full portion is given,
which varies according to the size and condition
of the horse.

A Good Ration—For a growing three-year-old
stallion, a fair feed upon which he would do well
would be, in the morning, five quarts oats and four
fair-sized carrots; at noon, eight to ten quarts
mixed feed, consisting of two-thirds bran and one-
third oats and a small quantity of chopped hay, all
mixed together and dampened with water. They
do well on this mixture and relish it. At night,
have the same as at noon. After the horse has
finished his grain ration, he should be given a small
ration of mixed. hay,. timothy: and, clover.) same
same rule applies to feeding hay as grain, namely,
a horse should not be given more than he eats up
clean.

Groom Daily—It must not be forgotten that a
horse must be well groomed each day, that is, well
brushed and rubbed, in order to keep him in good
condition. It puts a finish and gloss on his coat,
gives him a fresh appearance and makes him more
choice in every way. The tail and mane should

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES SI

have every care, for they add greatly to the ap-
pearance of a fine horse. The stallion should al-
ways be kept shod and the shoes should be reset
at frequent and regular intervals. This is espe-
cially true with heavy draft stallions, otherwise the
feet are in danger of being broken when the horse
is exercised or worked.

Never Slight Exercise—Exercise should be
given a horse moderately. Under all circum-
stances he should have a large box stall, wherein
he will have freedom to move around, and he
should be exercised out in the open air a half hour
each day. To walk out in the open air a half
hour each day is sufficient to keep a stallion in per-
fect health. Where a large number of stallions are
kept in one place, it is necessary to avoid excite-
ment as much as possible. Kind treatment and
quietness go together. A horse that is treated
kindly will always walk up and take his feed and is
never in fear of the man who cares for and feeds
him. Horses that are treated in a kindly, quiet
manner are always much easier handled. They
grow and thrive much better.

BREAKING THE COLT ON THE FARM

The first step in training a colt is to make
friends with it. Gain its confidence by dividing
your apple with it, petting it and currying it. A
colt is practically half broken when you catch it
anywhere. This is brought about gradually in the
ways stated above, or by giving a little choice feed
or some salt. Do not permit any abuse or teasing,
as such treatment is often responsible for a great
many of the vicious horses. Slip on the halter, or
preferably the bridle, and, with the assistance of a

$2 FARM STOCK >

driver, lead it about. Repeat this frequently Dis
pense with the driver as soon as possible.

How to Halter-Break—A very good way to hal-
ter-break a colt 1s alongside a horse. The rider
ther acts both as a leader and driver. Some tie
the colt to the harness of the work horse or trot-
ter. This is a good way, as it not only teaches it
to lead; it teaches also its place. Put on the harness
very gently and let the colt get used to it. Then
drive it, using two short lines.

WINTER CARE OF FARM HORSES

The feed and care of farm horses during the
winter months should be governed somewhat by
the condition of the animals and the amount of
work and exercise they are getting. Under no
conditions is it advisable to cut off the grain ration
entirely or turn the animals out to a straw stack
to get a scant living as best they can, or in other
words barely to exist until springtime and hard
work comes again. Individual horses require dif-
ferent feeds and in varying quantities during the
winter months. Some animals when not at work
will winter nicely on silage as a principal feed with
some hay, but. I prefer to add some “bran™and
ground oats to the ration. I would not advise the
feeding of silage to any horse that is being worked
or driven, or one that is at all subject to colic A
horse that goes in the winter in fair flesh should
be fed a moderate amount of hay twice a day.
Many farmers feed too much hay. What a horse
will eat in an hour is a great plenty. This eating
period will include also enough bran and middlings
or ground oats to keep him in good condition.

Salt Always Wanted—A little salt once a week,
or better, if you can get it, a good sized lump of

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 83

rock salt in the manger all the time. Occasionally
a hot bran mash with a little oil meal added is a
good thing. Heavy or excessive feeding is not
necessary if the horse is in fair condition. Let a
horse get poor, hair rough and dull, and it is more
expensive to get him in condition again than to
keep him in good shape all the time.

Horses should have all the water they want.
They should be watered often enough so that they
will not get chilled by drinking too much cold water
at one time. I have noticed that the better horses
a farmer owns the more pride both he and his help
take in keeping them in good shape and caring for
them well.

I would advise every farmer to breed the best
horses he can. If buying a team, get as good a
pair as you can afford. A really good team will
usually do better service; besides, it is a pleasure
and satisfaction to own such animals. They sell
quicker and for more money when you wish to
dispose of them.

A word about young horses and colts, which
every farmer should depend on for his working
and driving animals. Remember that feeding, as
well as breeding, governs the value of your colt —
when old enough for business.

Keep him thrifty and growing nicely from a
weanling to maturity. The lack of a little feed
while young has reduced the value one-half cna
many farm and market horses. Watch the colt’s
feet, keep them straight and not too long. Ex-
amine the teeth. If any sharp corners are found
near the cheek, take them off with a file or float.
Bad digestion and unpleasant drivers have been
cured in this way. Should you have a sick horse
or colt use some standard remedies, or employ a

84 FARM STOCK

good veterinarian. Too many kinds of harmful
doses advised by friends and too much activity in
giving them by anxious owners has helped to
shorten the life of many a farm horse.

PREPARING TEAMS FOR WORK

Horses just taken up after a long rest do not
need much grain at first, but the quantity should
be increased, little by little, as the time advances,
and amount of labor increases. You should re-
member that the system is not in a condition to
digest and assimilate much food at first, but that
the capabilities will increase gradually as the sys-
tem requires, to maintain it under the increased
effort required to perform the extra amount of
labor. Increase in capabilities in feeding and capa-
bilities for labor can be developed slowly at the
same time, under judicious management; but a
horse that has been idle for any great length of
time cannot be transformed suddenly from the soft,
flabby condition to a hardened condition capable of
sustained effort and endurance.

Know the Team—The man who really has a love
for his horses and seeks to give them a chance to
perform their part without injury to themselves,
as well as in a manner that will be a profit to him-
self, will study their needs under varying condi-
tions, as well as the character of each individual
horse so as to be able to meet the different require-
ments as they present themselves. Such a man is
alert, never allowing the harness to gall for lack of
proper adjustment. He will not worry one horse
or put him to a disadvantage beside the other. It
is too often the case that the owner and driver of

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 85

the horses need educating and training first. When
failures and losses are met with, many find the man
behind the team responsible.

THE MARE AND HER FOAL

Until the foal is a month old, it ought not to get
wet nor have a damp bed. After that time, if well

HACKNEY MARE AND FOAL

The colt here is sired by a thoroughbred. It is to be used
as a roadster by a Maryland farmer.

cared for from the first, it can stand as much ex-
posure, if well, as the dam should be allowed to be
put in.

If the mother is put to work, it is much better to
leave the colt at the barn from morning until noon,

86 FARM STOCK

cooling the mare if warm before allowing the foal
to suck. The annoyance of having the colt follow-
ing the dam will be avoided and it really is much
safer in a stall by itself. The mother is more quiet
than if her young is following and getting around
other stock and running the risk of entanglement
with machinery and harness. If the foal has a stall
of its own and is with the dam only at nursing
time, the process of weaning is much easier. As
the feed is increased and the time approaches the
hours without milk can be made to include the en-
tire day. When entire separation takes place the
tantrums are avoided.

At all times when the dam is not worked, the
foal should be allowed to run with her in a pad-
dock away from other stock. Grass is an ideal
feed supplemented with oats for the first few
months. Ii the mother and col are kepr syomo
fright and excitement and accustomed” to” tae
groom, the breaking of the colt to harness will be
a comparatively small job. Halter breaking should
be done while the colt follows the dam. ‘This is
quite another process when cows and other horses
run in the same pasture and the mother 1 id
panic of fear lest the foal be hurt, and perhaps the
dogs join in a barnyard melee now and then. The
colt then may be as hard to manage as the mus-
tang, who finds an enemy in every man.

.

CHAPTER VIII.
The Diseases of the Horse

Health is the prime requisite in the successful
management of live stock. A herd or flock more
or less indisposed or sick is a rather sure indication
that either the stock itself is not of a healthy strain
or else that the conditions under which the anima!s
are cared for, managed and fed, are not right.
Some really good farmers are frequently troubled
with disease in their stock, but the great majority
of the best live-stock men have the least trouble of
all. This is due for one reason to the fact that the
stock owner has qualified himself to take proper
care of the animals he possesses. He has learned
how to feed, care for and manage, and, therefore,
he is little concerned with treatment and medicine.
In fact, the secret of successful treatment of dis-
eases is to begin that treatment before the disease
has taken hold. That means “prevention is better
than cure.’ Have good ventilation in the stables,
thorough sanitary conditions in all of the quarters,
well-balanced food, so that all requisites of nu-
trition may be secured, with plenty of salt and
water, and the common ailments will not come to
your herds or flocks.

RECOGNIZING AND DISTINGUISHING
DISEASES

To become expert in recognizing disease you
must study carefully the horse in health. This
means that the practice of feeling the pulse and

87

88 FARM STOCK

heart, listening to the sounds of the lungs in breath-
ing, feeling the skin, and generally observing the
features will come in good use when the animal is
sick. Become acquainted with the healthy and the
sickly eye, tongue and posture; and fix in your mind
the nature of the appetite and the discharge of the
bowels and bladder.

Pulse-—In the full-grown horse, it beats 40 per
ininute;.in the ox, from 50 to 55; 1m the sheep ama
pig, as man, from ZOO OO!

You can always find the pulse where an artery
passes over a bone. ‘The usual place it is sought in
the horse is on the cord that runs across the bone
of the lower jaw, just in front of the curved por-
tion; in cattle 1t is conveniently found over the
middle of the first rib, or beneath the tail.

In the horse the pulse is full and tense; in the ox,
soft and rolling. Any variation is a sign of dis-
order. Fever is indicated by the pulse being rapid,
small and weak for the low kind: and if fever is
high it is rapid, full and hard. If very slow, you
can expect brain disorder; and if fast, then slow
and irregular, some trouble with the heart.

Breathing—The air passes through the windpipe
with a regular, steady sound. Observe this by
placing the ear near the throat. When any varia-
tion is observed you may know that all is not right.
The rapidity with which breathing is performed in-~
dicates health or disease. Normal breathing in the
horse varies from eight to 12 times a minute and in
the cow a little faster. Any great increase may be
taken as an indication of trouble.

Body Heat—Any deviation from 98 degrees is
a certain sign of disease. When the thermometer
rises above 104 degrees there is great danger. Each
disease has its own temperature.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE 89

Skin and Hair—The normal skin is soft, mel-
low and pliable. If harsh and dry, it is abnormal.
“Hide-bound” is a symptom of general disorder,
due to poor nutrition, indigestion, worms or lack
of exercise. When the skin becomes covered with
a cold sweat, the life of the animal is in great
danger.

How the Animal Appears—To lie constantly on
one side or to assume one position indicates that
the animal is in pain in the other. By acquainting
yourself with the different postures, you can often
quickly arrive at the trouble.

SOME COMMON DISEASES

Of all domesticated animals, the horse is the one
whose diseases have received the closest study. One
reason for this has been that the horse is the most
valuable of farm animals. Some specimens of
horse flesh are very valuable indeed, commanding
wonderful prices in the markets of the world. It
follows that where such conditions as this prevail,
the closest attention will be given to that animal’s
diseases and their treatment. A few of the com-
mon diseases only will be mentioned here.

Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis—This is a congestion
that soon passes into inflammation of the brain and
the spinal cord, accompanied by paralysis. The
cause of this disease is believed to be improper food;
food that is moldy, like moldy clover hay, al-
falfa, grain stover, are always connected with this
trouble. In its severe form the horse is attacked
suddenly with inability to swallow and with spasms
that frequently follow one another. The respira-
tion is bad and the horse tends to move around in a
circle. When the temperature rises to 103 to 104

90 FARM STOCK

degrees, death is imminent. In treating, it is best to
call in a trained veterinarian.

Tetanus or Lockjaw—This is a germ disease
that develops from a wound in the legs or feet,
often in itself of a trifling character; the pene-
tration of a small nail more frequently being the
cause than all others combined. Tetanus is simply
a long continued spasm of the muscles which con-
tract rigidly, often keeping the jaws firmly closed
or locked.

The first indication of this trouble is the stiff-
ness of the muscles near the injury. The animal
will move his limbs with difficulty. In a day or
two the stiffness will be increased until it extends
over the body. The champing of jaws and grind-
ing of teeth will soon be noticed. Froth will show
itself also on the lips, breathing becomes more
rapid, the pulse quickens and the muscles dilate.
Veterinarians always look for the unfailing sign
of winking membrane of the eye and the protrusion
of the haul together with a closing of the jaws.
The best advice and treatment is to call a veteri-
narian.

Pneumonia—This is the inflammation of the
lungs followed by the secretion of lymph which fills
them up and solidifies them, later leading to death
by suffocation or else to the gradual absorption and
recovery.

The common cause of this disease is any sudden
change in temperature, weakened condition of the
body effected by getting chilled or wet, thereby
giving the germ an opportunity to fix itself and
develop rapidly. In other words, the cause is quite
similar to what it is in the case of man. One of
the early symptoms is the rapid increase of the

DISEASES OF THE. HORSE QI

pulse, going up to 70 to 80 beats a minute; tem-
perature rises to 103 or 104 and above. The ani-
mal. appears cold; there is a dull, dry cough and a
coldness about the legs and ears; sometimes a
blood-stained mucus is discharged from the nose.

In treating the disease, put the animal in a warm
place where there is plenty of fresh air and where
it is not cold. Wrapping the body with cloths is
also a good idea. Keep the bowels loose and open;
feed cooling and nutritious and laxative, like bran
and linseed meal; and then you had better call a
veterinarian also.

Heaves—This is a chronic disease that affects
the breathing organs. There is no inflammation
at all. The peculiar breathing, especially if the
horse is given active exercise, will tell you at once
the nature of the trouble.

The immediate cause of heaves is the breaking
of the cells in the lungs, consequently air is expelled
only with extra effort, giving the two distinct noises
by the effort. Animals that are unthrifty and
generally not in good health are thus more predis-
pescayto this trouble. There is no cure for the
malady. You can help the animal by feeding only
light, nutritious food in moderate quantities, by
keeping the bowels regular and open. If the trouble
is just noticed as beginning, it is wise to turn to
pasture on green, short grass. _

Indigestion—There are all sorts of causes of in-
digestion, but, of course, that most common is the
improper use of food; overeating or the use of
undesirable materials naturally causes trouble.
Young horses passing through the stage of teeth-
ing often get indigestion. Another cause is allow-
ing the colt to suckle while the dam is hot and
exhausted.

Q2 FARM STOCK

Indigestion is indicated by pawing of the fore-
feet, pains in the stomach, belching of wind and
often a fullness in the abdomen. 3

In treating ordinary cases, to change the food so
that some easily digested product can be taken into
the body, giving the least possible amount, is a very
satisfactery proceeding. It will be well to give the
animal scme sort of a tonic that can be obtained
from your druggist or veterinarian.

Colic—-One of the most common troubles of the
horse is colic. ‘This is nothing more than a spas-
modic contraction of the muscular coats of the in-
_ testines; quite sudden severe pains spring up and
oftentimes they run into inflammation. Improper
food is the common cause; overworking, with sud-
den filling of the stomach with water or food, fre-
quently brings on colic. Sudden change of diet,
the animal greedily eating the changed food, and
such other little incidents are often the cause of in-
digestion. You will always notice that pains ac-
companied by pawing, kicking at the abdomen,
lying down, rolling, getting up again, lying down
and stretching out, then quickly rising again, shak-
ing of the body, etc., are certain indications of this
trouble.

About the safest and wisest treatment of colic is
to give some opiate to relieve the pain and then
to secure a free action of the bowels by using some
purgative, one not too violent in its action. A half
to one ounce of laudanum in warm water will
quickly allay the pain, and then follow this with
some purgative.

An old reliable formula is to use one ounce each
of choloroform, laudanum and sulphuric ether with
eight ounces of linseed oil, giving all at one dose.
Many colic preparations are now on the market that

DISEASES OF THE HORSE 93

can be readily purchased and are reliable and good
and ought to be in every stable where horses are
kept.

Constipation—This common trouble is caused
by feeding heavily of grain and dry feeds
with lack of exercise. When it becomes more or
less acute, colicky pains are noticed, the skin be-
comes hide-bound and various indications of indi-
gestion appear. The animal does not look well or
thrive and it lacks spirit. The simple use of pur-
gatives that are strong will not cure the trouble—
it is more deeply seated than that. The best way
to do is to change the feed, using such materials as
are naturally laxative, like bran and _ linseed-oil
meal. Then there is nothing better than good,
fresh pasture grass; in the winter time carrots,
which are liked by horses, will be worth more than
any sort of medicine to relieve the difficulty and
to put the animal well on its feet again.

Worms—The horse often is troubled with worms,
which may arise from various sources. The symp-
toms are not always distinctly pronounced, but if
the coat is rough, appetite peculiar, constant rub-
bing by the animal of the hind quarters, and general
run-down condition, you may be reasonably certain
that worms are behind the trouble.

Feeding sulphur, linseed oil, a little carbolic acid,
oil of turpentine, are all good in relieving the
trouble. Better, however, secure some preparation
from your druggist for this ailment or get some-
thing from your local veterinarian.

_ Glanders—This is a contagious and fatal dis-
ease, due to poison in the system. There 1s a dis-
charge from the nostrils and usually the animal
loses in flesh and strength. The poison can be
conveyed easily to man and for that reason the only

94 FARM STOCK

thing to do is to slaughter the animal as soon as
glanders have been diagnosed.

Glanders is without doubt the most dreaded of
all horse diseases and is always incurable. In most

~

BAD CASE OF GLANDERS

, The farcy form is shown here. The animal has not
ong to live. Except for experimental purposes, every horse

having glanders should be killed as soon as the disease is
discovered.

states rigid laws are being enforced as to the elimi-
nation of this dreaded disease. It is usually ex-
tended by the change of horses from one stable to

DISEASES OF THE HORSE 95

another. If you suspect glanders, always call a
reputable veterinarian. You cannot afford to have
a glanders horse on your place, not only because
all your other animals may become affected there-
by, but your own health and that of your family
are in danger.

Here are just a few indications of acute chronic
glanders: The pulse usually is feeble; there is rapid
breathing, together with poor appetitie. The eye is
weak and watery and the under jaw swollen. The
lining membrane of the nostril is usually swollen,
with a reddish color showing frequent ragged ulcers
here and there from which a bloody and watery
discharge drops. Abcesses form about the face and
neck and these on ripening give forth their pus.
Do not attempt to cure the animal at all.

Lameness—It is not always an easy matter to lo-
Gereete Cause Of lameness in a horse. It may ‘be
due to corns or splints, or ring bones, or spavin, or
side bones or to some injury, as a cut or nail insert.
Of course, a cut can easily be located and readily
seen, but many a nail has pricked or even entered
the under side of a horse’s foot and has been de-
tected only with difficulty. In examining for lame-
ness, observe when the animal is at rest and in
motion; the favored foot will point out in what
member you are to seek for the trouble.

A corn is due always to bad shoeing or to wear-
ing a shoe for too long a time. Corns don’t always
cause lameness, but they cause suffering. When
noted, have the shoe removed, and if the corn is
festered, have an opening made to give vent to
the pus.

The deposits of bony matter above and below the
coronet are known as ring bones. In heavy horses,

96 FARM STOCK

excessive work is usually the cause, although rheu-
matism is sometimes back of it. Often the black-
smith who shoes the animal can relieve the trouble
by adjusting the shoe.

Bone spavin is a bony growth on the inner and
lower side of the hock. It is due to overwork or
a hereditary predisposition to weakness there, due
to bad conformation. Many treatments are sug-
gested, such as blistering or firing. In the early
stages of the trouble, have a veterinarian to treat
the disease locally.

Side bones are due to the change of the carti-
_lages of the forefeet into bony substance. ‘They
are more frequently found in draft horses and there
is not much to do in the way of treating other than
to remove the cartilages with a knife. This, how-
ever, has not proved very satisfactory. Get your
veterinarian to examine; maybe he can relieve the
difficulty

THE BEST OF ALL TREATMENTS

But the best treatment that you can give your
horse is good care, proper feed, clean, fresh water,
good sanitation, plenty of ventilation and never ex-
cessive work unless the horse is used to it. There
is in use an immense number of different methods
and recipes for treating various kinds of diseases
of the horse. Do not have anything to do with
these. They are old-maidish, of little use and often
impose great suffering. It is absurd and inhuman
to treat horses in sickness in the way some of these
old methods and recipes call for. Such methods
ought to be prohibited by law; for instance, pour-
ing medicines or water into the nostrils, forcing
old dish cloths down the throat of the cow, ete.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE 97

This sort of treatment is not backed by good sense
and you cannot afford to have it practiced on your
animals. Do away with the quack in the treating
of diseases. Unless you know a good deal about
veterinary medicine yourself, call a veterinary sur-
geon in just as you would call your physician in to
look after your family—not at every little indica-
tion of trouble, for the reason that ordinarily, nine
times out of ten, the horse will recover of its own
account. Familiarize yourself with a few of the
common ailments and troubles so that when some
trouble manifests itself you will have in mind some
line of treatment to begin at once.

(ClEDAUEATIB I IX.

The Mule

The breeding of these animals goes away back
into antiquity. It was forbidden among the Israel-
ites by the laws of Moses, but in David’s time they
were certainly employing mules, probably im-
ported. We know also that the Greeks and Ro-
mans raised them.

This hybrid is tall and is our strongest draft ani-
mal for the farm. In appeafance, more or ame
qualities of the horse are inherited than those of
the ass. In height, in shape of neck, shoulders and
body, the maternal form is inherited, while the
head, the long ears, the tufted tail, the thin, wiry
legs and the hoofs are the inheritance from the
father. The coat largely resembles the horse, but
the bray has a certain resemblance to the paternal
noise.

The most common character of the mule is his
freedom from disease and his great vigor. When
three years old, he is ready for work and will keep
it up for two or three decades, I have known
mules at 30 years of age to do their full day’s
labor with little fatigue and keep it up day after
day in the hot summer months of North and
‘South, without any observable bodily change. The
animal may lose in weight, but not in grit.

The mule, as is commonly known, is a hybrid be-
‘tween the mare and the male ass or jack. The
ihybrid produced between the horse stallion and the
female ass, or jennet, is known as a hinny.

98

THE MULE 99
SELECTION OF A JACK

In raising mules, the selection of the jack is an
important matter. We may, therefore, proceed to
describe the various breeds of jacks, which may be
used for the purpose. In general, the best grades
of jacks of all breeds are used for raising jacks
and are called jennet jacks, while the somewhat less
valuable ones are bred to mares for the production
of mules and are called mule jacks. In the follow-
ing account of jack breeds, Goodpasture’s descrip-
tions, as modified by Knight, Smith and Wilcox,
are largely utilized.

Andalusian—This breed comes from southern
Spain, and was the first to be introduced into the
Umaredasiates. The King of Spain presented a
jack and jennet of this breed to George Washing-
ton in 1787. Later Henry Clay introduced them
ime@e<entmecky. It is an old breed. The color is
gray, frequently white, and rarely black or blue.
The Andalusians stand 14 to 15 hands high and
have fine legs with large bone and comparatively
free from jack sores. The head and ears are fairly
satisfactory in conformation, but the breed is un-
popular on account of its color.

Maltese—This well-known breed came from the
island of Malta, and the first to reach this country
were given to General Washington by Lafayette.
The Maltese is a small jack, seldom standing over
14 hands high. The color is black or brown. The
head is well formed, with pointed upright ears, but
the legs are rather small for sires of mules. The
Maltese is quite satisfactory for saddle or driving
purposes, but is too small as a mule-getter for our
farm conditions.

ALNVA

wot LON GNV SMYOM AOA GAts

100

THE MULE IOrL

Catalomian—This is another Spanish breed of
jack first introduced into the United States by
Henry Clay. This is a good black, with white
points, of fine style and action, and from 14% to
15 hands, with a clean bone. The Catalonian is a
popular jack on account of his desirable color, fine,
short hair and unusual height. Rarely specimens
of this breed are gray. In style and action the
Catalonian is unsurpassed and he is, therefore, a
desirable animal for crossing upon our native
jennets. Some of the chief good points of our
native jacks come from Catalonian crosses. Certain
breeders claim that mules sired by Catalonian jacks
mature earlier than those from other breeds.

The Majorca Jack—The Majorca jack comes
from the island of the same name. It is the lar-
gest of all imported jacks, often standing 16 hands
high, with the greatest weight and heaviest bone,
head arid ear of all jack breeds. No jennets of this
breed have been imported into America.

The Italian Jack—The Italian jack is common in
Italy and has been imported in considerable numbers
linmewdhis country. It is- the smallest of im-
ported breeds and the price is correspondingly
low. ‘The color is black, with an occasional gray,
and the height 13 to 14 hands. The bone is large,
but the Italian jack is too small for producing
mules. It seems to be related to the Maltese.
Occasionally they are quite vicious.

. The Poitou—The Poitou was the latest breed of
jacks to be imported into this country. The Poitou
jack has been greatly improved by systematic
breeding, with the result that France leads Europe
in quality and number of jacks and also of mules.
According to Ayrault, the noted French authority
on the subject, the head of this jack is large, the

102 FARM STOCK

mouth small, and the ears with long, curly hair.
The tail is short, with long hair only at the tip. The
chest is broad, and all the joints are large. The
mane is long and the hair generally fine and silky.
The color is black or dark brown, rarely gray. The
price is high, ranging from $1,000 to $3,200. They
are in such great demand in France, Spain and
elsewhere that the trade can scarcely be supplied.
The requirements for entry into the Poitou stud

MULES MAKE GOOD FARM WORKERS

For hard work and warm work the mule is unexcelled. He
does his business well and never complains.

book are very strict. Mules from this jack, ac-
cording to Allen, are unequaled, and sell for more
than those from any other breed. Draft mares
bred to this jack in the United States produce ex-
cellent mules.

The Native Jack—Notwithstanding the excel-
lence of many imported jacks, especially the Poitou
and the Catalonian, it is the opinion of experienced
breeders like J..L.- Jones;: that “our mative jacks

THE MULE 103

with good imported crosses behind them will sire
the mules best suited to the wants of those who use
them in this country, and will supply the market
with what 1s wanted by the dealers.” The native
jack is of greater weight and larger bone than im-
ported jacks, showing in this regard the effect of
limestone soil and blue grass. He is a mixture of
all breeds of imported jacks, and, therefore, shows
all colors. Recently, however, breeders have select-
ed them for black color with white points. Colts
from native jacks are stronger, with better body
and more length than those of imported jacks.

BEST TIME FOR BREEDING

In breeding jacks to jennets, the spring is the
best season. Jack colts are weaned at six months
of age. They are fed on oats, bran, hay and plenty
of green forage or pasture. Both jennet and mule
jacks may begin service at two years of age. The
jack gets only about 50 per cent of mule colts from
his service, but the percentage of colts from stal-
lions is usually no higher. About 40 mule colts
per season is good work fora jack. Most consider
it best that mule jacks should not be allowed to
associate with their own species, but only with the
horse. During the season of service they should
be fed a nitrogenous ration and. should have the
freedom of a good pasture.

THE BURRO

From the Rocky mountains to the Pacific coast
a diminutive jack, known as the burro, is in com-
mon use. The burro is the descendant of jacks
brought by the Spanish settlers of that region, but

104 FARM STOCK

it is not certain to what breed of jack it is most
closely related. Its color varies from white to
almost black, mouse color being very common. The
size 1s about that of the Shetland pony. A peculiar
feature frequently seen in the burro is its enor-
mously thick neck. It is a slow, strong, patient
and sure-footed animal, and is capable of carrying
loads up to 250 pounds. It is, therefore, an excel-
lent animal for mountain work. Burro mares
crossed with the thoroughbred stallion produce
hinnies of considerable speed, good temper, great
endurance and more style than the ordinary mule
shows. ‘The best of hinnies for mining are ob-
tained by putting burro mares to small, blocky stal-
lions. If it is desirable in such cases, artificial
insemination may be practiced by means of the
syringe or capsule.

MULE INDUSTRY

The following states are leaders in the mule in-
dustry: Texas, Missouri, Mississippi, Georgia,
Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Arkansas, North
Carolina and Kansas. In recent years, the industry
has become widely extended and there are at pres-
ent large mule ranches in Iowa, Montana, Colorado
and Utah. The number of jacks, including burros,
in the United States is about 125,000, a large per-
centage of them being used in the production of
mules.

Mules may be used for all purposes for which
horses are adapted, except fast driving, and in
addition are well suited to several lines of work
where horses cannot be profitably employed. Thus,
in mines, mules excel horses for several reasons,
notably for the reason that horses when frightened

THE MULE I05

throw the head up, thus bruising it and causing
poll evil. Mules, on the other hand, lower the head
at such times and avoid danger in that way. More-
over, mules excel horses in their capacity for hard
work, in endurance, in length of life, and in econ-
omy of feeding. It is often asserted that mules
live twice as long as horses, but the truth is they
live considerably longer than horses. Then, too,
mules are not immune to ordinary horse diseases,
as is sometimes asserted. On the contrary, they are
just as susceptible to glanders, influenza, distemper,
colic, etc., as are horses. The English government
suffered great losses from glanders among mules
in the Boer war

For military purposes, the mule has long been
considered superior to the horse, and the army mule
has been a conspicuous feature in all our Indian
fighting and more serious wars. ‘The mule is less
easily frightened than the horse and withstands
hardships better, such as going without water for
24 hours and without feed for two or three days.

The use of mules for draft purposes in cities is
increasing from year to year, and for farm work
they are also becoming more popular. <A Virginia
farmer writes: ‘“‘For general purposes and lasting
wear the well-bred mule outclasses and outlasts any
horse.” This statement is based on a long expe-
rience with mules bred from mares weighing 1,400
to 1,750 pounds, and a Kentucky jack for which
$1,000 was paid.

The opinion prevails quite widely that the muie
is more stubborn, vicious and ill-tempered than the
horse. The temper and behavior of the mule, how-
ever, depend largely on his breaking, training and
method of handling. Mules endure abuse and
rough handling with as much patience as the horse.

106 FARM STOCK

An lowa breeder considers “no team more gentle,
more safe or agreeable to handle than a pair of
mules.” In the South, the mule and the negro
work together. Cotton and sugar plantations are
inconceivable without mules. All these uses of a
mule constitute a market which is not likely to be
overstocked for some time to come. Since the mule
inherits much of its form from the dam, it is neces-
sary to exercise as much care in selecting mares as
in horse breeding. The mare must be sound and
well built, and color should be dark, preferably
black, bay or brown. “The mare should have good
length, large, well-rounded barrel, good head, long
neck, good, broad, flat bone, broad chest and good
style.”

BEST TIME TO BREED MARES

The right time for breeding is about April I in
Tennessee and at corresponding times in other parts
of the country. Before being served, mares should
be hobbled or placed in pits or chutes. A suitable
breeding chute may easily be constructed of plank,
placed vertically and close enough together so that
the jack’s feet do not get caught. At the entrance
to the chute, wings may be placed opening out at a
slight angle. Poles passing through the chute in
front and behind the mare, and also behind the fore-
legs and in front of hind legs just under the belly,
will prevent any accident from kicking or squat-
ting. Moreover, if several mares are ready for
service at the same time, artificial insemination may
be accomplished by means of the syringe or capsule
method. The mare is returned to the jack on the
eighteenth day after service.

For farm work, a mule should stand 15 to 15.2
hands high and weigh 1,050 to 1,100 pounds. Some

—

THE MULE 107

users of mules prefer a heavier animal—up to 1,300
poumas. In order to get mules of this size,
Percheron mares and a jack 15.2 hands high may
be used. In all cases, both the mare and jack should
be dark in color, for the market demands dark-
colored mules. A mature jack is a more certain
foal getter than a young one. While, therefore,
jacks may be allowed to do service sparingly at two
years of age, they should not be brought up to a
maximum till the age of four or five years. Some
breeders castrate male mules during the first sum~
mer, while they are still with the mares, but, as a
rule, it is better to wait till they are one year old.
In general, the market prefers female to male
mules. The females mature a little earlier and are
plumper and more squarely built. Then, gnats and
screw worm flies often irritate the sheath of the
male.

Warder recommends that mules be broken at
two years of age, after which they are to be put at
light work during the third year. It is believed
that by this system they develop a quicker step than
when broken after attaining full maturity and put
at hard work immediately. The same methods are
to be used in breaking mules as with horses. Abuse
and barbarous treatment are quite uncalled for.
“By kind treatment mules may be rendered the
most docile and affectionate creatures among our
domestic animals and will often show more intelli-
gence than the horse.”’ |

HINNIES
Hinnies, as already stated, are hybrids obtained

by crossing the stallion upon the female ass or
jennet. The hinny is usually smaller than the mule

WaLST] AHL OL SHIOW XIS HLIM .°SVSNVM

NI aaaHL Ln0o,,

108

THE MULE 10g

and is commonly considered less desirable in every
respect. One breeder states that hinnies are weak
and stubborn and cannot be compared with mules.
They resemble the horse rather than the jennet and
have a neater head and heavier mane and tail than
the mule. In Jamaica, the hinny is not considered
so unimportant. One noted breeder says: “I can
make bold to say that they are hardier than the
mule out of mares, will grow to a serviceable size
and are more cheaply bred.’’ Another breeder in
Jamaica states that hinnies “are larger, more do-
cile, and in all respects better than the ordinary
mule, and the saving in breeding is considerable, as
the price of one mule mare equals that of three or
four jennies, and the keep of a jenny one-fourth
that of a mare.” Small stallions are used in breed-
ing hinnies. We have already mentioned the fact
that good hinnies have been obtained by crossing
thoroughbred or pony stallions on burro mares.
Now and then, in farm papers, the question is
raised concerning the value and usefulness of
hinnies. It may be, therefore, that on account of
the economy in raising them, more attention may
be given to the hinnies in the future than has here-
tofore been the case.

MARKET CLASSES

There are three general classes of mules, cotton
mules, sugar mules and mine mules. The size of
the colt at birth and the rapidity of growth de-
termine whether it be a sugar or cotton mule. If
the colt, when foaled, is 3 feet 5 inches and up-
ward, and grows nicely, it will make a sugar mule;
if under the above height it will be a cotton mule.
The mature sugar mule stands 15.3 to 16.3 hands

Tilo FARM STOCK

or higher and is heavy, well boned and rather sty-
lish. They are used on sugar plantations for dray
purposes and for heavy farm work. The cotton
mule is simply smaller than the sugar mule, but of
the same conformation. The mine mule is the
smallest of the three and must be dark brown or,
black in color.

FEEDING MULES

The statement is frequently made that mules eat
less than horses. Riley, however, on the basis of
_a long experience with thousands of army mules,
formed a different opinion. Hie maintains that a
mule “requires just as much as a horse of similar
dimensions.” In fact, at hard work, Riley states
that “the mule will eat more than the horse will or
can.” At three years of age the mule is shedding
his milk teeth and cannot eat much. He is, there-
fore, weak and particularly lable to contract dis-
temper, sore eyes, skin sores, and other. diseases.
But the mature mule in health is a good feeder. In
general, a poor feeder is a poor animal whether it
be sheep, pig, dairy cow, beef steer or horse, and
the mule is no exception to this rule. The mule will .
manage to get along on poor feed given at irregu-
lar intervals, but the sensible man does not attempt
to determine just how much neglect in this respect
the mule endures.

The Mule Colt is taught to eat grain before it is
weaned, which takes place’ at the age of /fom
months. At weaning time, the colts are put in a
barn and fed bran, oats, cut grass and clean hay.
After about two weeks, they may be turned on pas-
ture, preferably alfalfa or clover, with some grain.
Little variation is needed on this system till mules

TEE, MULE III

are two years old. Then, if they are to be sold, they
must be fattened; otherwise they bring but a small
price. The following fattening regimen has been
proposed by Jones: “The sugar mule should be
placed in the barn with plenty of room and not
much light about the first of November, before he
is two years old, and fed about 12 ears of corn per
day and all the nice well-cured clover hay he will
eat, and there kept until about the first of April.
Then, in the climate of middle Tennessee, the clover
is good, and the mule may be turned out on it with-
out fear of firing, that is, heating so as to cause
scratches, as the green clover removes all danger
from this source. During the time they run on
clover they eat less hay, but this should be always
imepe myothem. later, they are put in barns or
sheds and fed green clover and grain in the form of
sheaf oats and bran. Ground barley may be fed
in june ad libitum. Later they may be fed, in
several separate grain rations, green roasting ears,
saclea corm, bran and oats: Bran and oats are
considered necessary for giving the proper finish
to the coat. Mules fed in this way until Septem-
ber after they are two years old, should weigh
1,150 to 1,350 pounds. The sugar mule market
opens in September.

The Cotton Mule is usually not put in the barn
till August after it reaches two years of age. It
should receive shelled corn, green corn, good hay
and soiling crops until November, after which time
oats and bran are added, so as to bring the mule
to the right finish by January 1, when the market
for the cotton mule opens. The central southern
market for sugar mules is New Orleans, but large
markets for both classes of mules are found in

ITi2 FARM STOCK

Chicago, St. Paul, St. Louis, Kansas City, Louis-
ville, Nashville, and many other cities of the Mis-
sissippi valley region. In feeding working mules,
the same materials may be used and in the same
rations as for horses.

CHAPTER X.
Cattle |

No domestic animal has in the past, or does now,
contribute so much to man’s welfare as the cow
and her kind. She gives us milk, our most impor-
tant food to drink; she supplies us with butter and
cheese, both appetizing and nutritious and both im-
portant products on our tables; her flesh is daily
used on all occasions for supplying our most popu-
lar food; from her back comes the hide to be made
into leather that our feet may be kept covered, and
that other necessities and luxuries may be provided
us; and when she has ended her work and closed
up her duties of life, her bones, blood and offal go
back to our soils to maintain their freshness and
fertility.

The cow is a ruminant; she belongs to the great
class of cud-chewing animals. Her past is shrouded
in mystery and we only surmise wha: her early his-
tory has been. When she was domesticated we do
not know, but during all the years that she has been
held captive by man, she has supplied him with
food, performed many of his hard labors, and con-
tributed to his comfort and welfare.

Cattle Improvement a First Essential—The fact
that it is not possible for every farmer to possess
pure-bred cattle is no reason why he should not
improve the stock he has. He can do this by
securing pure-bred sires that possess the character-
istics desired: Scrub stock can be quickly 1m-
proved by the continuous use of good sires. It iS

113

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CATTLE 115

never wise to use grade or cross-bred sires, since
they do not possess stable characteristics.

Moreover, it is possible for every farmer to de-
termine exactly the producing power of his dairy
cows. When cows are milked, the milk should be
weighed and a record kept of it. If this is done, it
will be found that some cows produce as much as
1.000 gallons or more, while others produce
not more than one-half or even one-fourth of that
quantity. If a farmer will kill or sell his poor
cows and keep his best ones, he will, in a short
while, have a herd of only heavy milkers.

Young calves that are not to be fattened should
be fed only such food as will produce rapid, thrifty
growth, so that they may be gotten in readiness for
the market at as early an age as possible. Young
dairy animals may be fed any food that insures
thrifty growth, but foods of a coarse nature are
particularly good, especially such kinds as clover,
alfalfa and cowpea hay; pasture grasses, corn en-
silage and roots, being succulent and juicy, are also
excellent.

CHAPTER XI.
Breeds of Cattle

Shorthorns—We commence with this breed for
the reason that, of all breeds of cattle, this is the
most popular. Shorthorns are also commonly
called Durhams, from the English county in which
the breed originated. These animals were de-
veloped by improving the Teeswater and Holder-
ness cattle with slight admixtures of Dutch bulls
and Galloways. Shorthorns had already been in-
troduced into this country about 1790, and impor-
tations have occurred with great frequency since
1815. Among prominent early breeders of Short-
horns in this country, we have Lewis F. Allen and
William Warfield

At present, Shorthorns are found 1n every state
and territory in the Union, and in every province
of the Dominion of Canada. Their popularity is
due largely to their fitness for the purpose for
which they are raised; or, in other words, is based
on a solid business foundation. Shorthorns are
capable of readily adapting themselves to the dif-
ferent conditions under which they are found.
In regard to size and weight, they are somewhat
superior to other beef breeds. They mature as
early as other breeds, and may be brought to a
proper market ripeness at the age of two and one-
half years. They become fully mature and attain
their complete size at the age of four years.

The conditions under which they thrive best and
yield the greatest profits are those which prevail
in the central states, where good pastures are to be

116

BREEDS OF CATTLE Li7

obtained, and where suitable grains for fattening
are abundant. Shorthorns are capable of making
as good returns for their feed as any other breed.
The meat is of good quality, the percentage of
bone and offal is small, but the grain of meat is
not quite so fine as is observed in other breeds.
One of the strong points in favor of Shorthorns
is their milk yield. In fact, the Shorthorn is often

A TYPICAL SHORTHORN

A representative of the beef type. Note the square and deep
Sides. He is all beef and he knows it.

referred to as a dual-purpose breed, yielding a
good quality of beef, and at the same time giving
a large quantity of milk. This quality has been
considered of sufficient importance to perpetuate,
and, as a result, we have a milking race of Short-
horns.

CuOsAVAH SNOWVA V ‘OdaNd AONTUd

118

BREEDS OF CATTLE Ig

More attention has been given to milking Short-
horns in England than in this country, and this
fact is due, perhaps, to a tendency among our breed-
ers to go into specialties. This requires that atten-
tion be given to securing one line of good qualities
without regard to other matters, such as milk pro-
duction. On account of the large amount of milk
which Shorthorns yield, they are well adapted to
localities where a combination of dairying and
beef production can be operated most profitably.

Shorthorns are also of great value, like other
pure beef breeds, in grading up native scrub cat~
tle, so as to produce a good quality of grade ani-
mals for beef. The chief weaknesses of Shorthorns
are lack of constitution and relative sterility as
observed in certain families, especially where care-
less breeding or in-and-inbreeding have been
practiced.

The standard colors of the Shorthorns are red,
white and roan, with red most in favor, and all
shades of roan well liked; but white is somewhat
in disfavor. The general form is large, compact
and rectangular, with a smoothness of outline such
as is required by the standard adopted for beef
form. The body is long and deep, with parallel
upper and lower lines and side lines. The head is
relatively small and considerably narrower in the
female than in the male. The horns are short, but
longer and smaller in the female.

Hereford—It is commonly considered that the
Herefords are descended from some of the native
cattle of Great Britain, and that they mixed, in
their earlier history, with the Devon and the Sus-
sex cow. Apparently all of these animals were at
first nearly a solid red. A cross with white cat-
tle gave a tendency to white markings, which has

120 FARM STOCK ~

persisted in the Herefords. In the early history
of the breed, the face was not pure white as at
present. This characteristic, however, has been
definitely fixed by long continued breeding.

The Herefords were well known and had estab-
lished a considerable reputation for themselves in
many herds as early as 1835. ‘They did not gain
popularity, however, as fast as the Shorthorns,
partly for the reason that their milking powers
were somewhat inferior. Then, too, there was con-
siderable controversy regarding the purity of
white-faced and mottled faced animals, so that
their distribution was strongly checked. Appar-
ently the first importation of Herefords into the
United States was made by Henry Clay in 1817.

The Herefords gain rapidly, adapt themselves
to all soil, climatic and feed conditions which pre-
vail in the United States and do exceedingly well
in the corn belt and the agricultural part of Can-
ada. They are also particularly noted for their
grazing ability on the range. The average size of
the Hereford is slightly under that of the Short-
horn, but they mature as early, being ready for
beef at two and one-half years. In fact, recently,
claim has been made that Herefords mature earlier
than any other beef breed. The quality of the meat
is good and the dressed weight satisfactory. In
crossing the Herefords with other breeds, the best
results have been obtained with Shorthorns and
Galloways.

The face, throat, chest, lower part of the body,
legs and tip of the tail are white, all other parts
being red. The red should neither be too dark nor
too light. The skin is slightly thicker than that
of the Shorthorn, but the form of the body is es-
sentially the same. The horns are longer and

BREEDS OF CATTLE I21

more spreading, the position in which they are
carried being a characteristic of the breed.
Aberdeen Angus—This breed is variously known
as Polled Angus, Polled Aberdeen, or Aberdeen
Angus. In the early history of Scotland there
seems to have been a number of polled cattle
referred to as Angus Doddies, Buchans or Aber-
deen Humlies. In Scotland, the approved color is
black, but occasionally some white markings
appear; such animals, however, are not used for
breeding purposes. In Scotland the Angus is
considered as having a finer bone, softer and silkier
hair and shorter legs than the Galloway. It has
long occupied in that country a conspicuous place
in the fat stock and beef markets, on account of its
excellent meat. The chief difference between the
Angus and Galloway is in the thicker skin and
larger and more shaggy hair of the Galloway.
The Angus was first imported into the United
States in 1873. The breed met with some preju-
dice, on account of the fact that the field was al-
ready occupied by Shorthorns and Herefords. It
was necessary, therefore, for the champions of the
Polled Angus to demonstrate the good points
claimed for the Angus before this breed acquired
any decided popularity. The Angus is, perhaps,
best adapted to localities where moderate tempera-
tures prevail and where comfortable quarters may
be furnished for the winter. With regard to the
value of the Angus on the western ranges, con-
siderable difference of opinion prevails, and the
statement has been frequently made that these cat-
tle are too lazy to make a success under range con-
ditions. It is impossible to give an authoritative
opinion on this subject, since so much prejudice
prevails in the matter; in fact, the champions of

I22 FARM STOCK

almost every breed claim that their particular breed
is superior to all others as a rustler on the range.
It is sufficient to say that many cattle raisers,
throughout the range, from the northern to the
southern boundary of the United States, have re-
ported excellent results from the use of pure-bred

AN ABERDEEN ANGUS HEIFER

The strong lines and beef form stand out conspicuously.
Even the novice knows this individual likes to make meat.

and grade Angus on the range, and have found
that Angus bulls are as capable of getting vigor-
ous calves under range conditions as any other
breed of bulls.

In size, the Angus is perhaps slightly inferior
to the Shorthorn and Hereford, but on account of
its short legs, it weighs more than its apparent size
would indicate. The breeders in this country have

BREEDS OF CATTLE 123

given much attention to the early maturing quali-
ties of the Angus, with the result that this breed
now matures as early as any other. In the eco-
nomic use of food, the Angus is second to no
other breed. The form is almost always symmetri-
cal, and not patchy. In fact, the hair is so short
that any irregularity of form would be apparent.
During recent years, the Angus has carried away
its share of prizes at fat stock shows, and in block
contests. The quality of meat is usually recognized
as superior to that of the Shorthorns and Here-
fords, and nearly or quite equal to that of the West
Highland and Galloway cattle.

Galloway—This breed of cattle also comes from
Scotland, and has occasionally been called Polled
meets. ein scotland -the. color is black with a
brownish tinge. The head is short and wide, with
a broad forehead and wide nostrils. The body
must be deep, rounded and symmetrical, the skin
mellow and thick, the hair soft, wavy, with a mossy
undercoat ; and wiry or curly hair is very objection-
able. The Galloways are so called on account of
their apparent origin in the province of Galloway
and the breed is one of the oldest and purest of
the beef type.

Biggar has justly called attention to the fact
that Galloway cattle have qualities which particu-
larly fit them for western ranges. In the first place,
they are possessed of unusual hardness, whereby
they are able to endure a severe climate. Absence
of horns is also a desirable quality, and in type
they are very uniform. Finally, they possess the
power of transmitting their good qualities to their
offspring in a marked degree. A Galloway bull
of good breeding will transmit a black color to go
per cent of his calves, and the hornless condition

124 FARM STOCK _

to from 95 to 100 per cent without regard to the
breed of the mother.

While at present the Galloways are, perhaps, not
so popular as either the Shorthorns, Herefords
or Angus, they are at least entitled to the fourth
place among the beef breeds, as pointed out by
Shaw, and they are rapidly gaining in popularity.
They are the hardiest of all beef breeds except the

A PAIR OF GALLOWAYS

The Galloways are rugged, hardy and can stand much
exposure. They have been much appreciated in improving
the range cattle of the West.

West Highland cattle; their size is somewhat
smaller than that of the breeds already considered,
but their grazing qualities are of an exceedingly
high order. They do not mature quite so early as
the Shorthorns, Herefords or Angus, but they take
on flesh smoothly and the meat has long been
noted for its excellent quality; in fact, in this re-
spect, they. perhaps excel even the Anpis:; ene

BREEDS OF CATTLE 125

Galloways are excellent breeders and show an ex-
tremely small percentage of sterility. The only
serious objection which can be raised against them
is their small milk yield. One of the peculiarly val-
uable points of the Galloway, is their hide, which,
when tanned, may be used for robes and fur coats.
According to the most recent scale of points for the
Galloway, this breed must be pure black, with a
brownish tinge; white markings on the feet, ankles,
legs or any part of the body above the under line
are very objectionable.

West Highland Cattle—West Highland cattle,
also known simply as Highland cattle, came orig-
inally from the western part of Scotland. The
horns are large, sharp-pointed and upturned. The
color is generally black, brindle or dun. The hide,
as compared with the Angus and Galloways, is
thick and covered with long, soft hair, considerably
longer than that of the Galloways. There are sev-
eral distinct varieties of West Highland cattle, the
principal of which are the Kyloes, North High-
landers, and the West Highlanders. In Scotland,
this breed is not considered of much value for its
milk, and, therefore, the calves are usually allowed
to suck the cows. In hardiness, however, it is
superior to all other breeds, and is, therefore, best
adapted to severe climates like those of Alaska and
northwest Canada, and some of the colder parts
of the Rocky mountain ranges. The West High-
land cattle are capable of not only enduring the
cold, but also damp weather, and can find a living
for themselves on either grass or brush. They
mature rather slowly, and the quantity of the milk
is very small. The meat, however, is considered
especially excellent, and in the English markets
commands the very highest price.

726 FARM STOCK

The color may vary considerably, black being
very common, with a tendency at present toward a
yellow or light dun; brindle or red and black colors
are also allowed. The form is that of the typical
beef type, only smaller, and the body in proportion
to its size is strong, deep, thick and exceedingly
compact.

Red Polled Cattle—Red Polled cattle are com-
monly classified among the dual-purpose breeds and
are sometimes called the Norfolk Polled breed or
Norfolk Red. Polls. ' According tothe Eugen
standard, the color must be red, while the tip of
the tail and under may be white. The head must
be decidedly that of the beef type and absolutely
hornless. The Red Polls are apparently the out-
come of mixing both Suffolk and Norfolk Polled
cattle. Improvement has been brought about by
careful selection and good feeding. They were
fust imported into the Wnited| States, images
They stand between the Shorthorns and Devons in
size, are excellent milkers, mature early and are
noted for transforming their feed into milk during
the period of lactation and into beef as soon as
they are dry.

Devon Cattle—This breed of cattle is one of the
oldest and purest breeds of dual-purpose cattle
which originated in Great Britain. In their early
history, they were closely connected with the Here-
ford and Sussex cattle. The breed is found in its
purest and best form in North Devon. The Eng-
lish standard for the Devon requires a small, clean
head, with deerlike expression; thin, fine horns of
a cream color, tipped with black, growing with a
regular curve upward. The skin is somewhat
loose and covered with hair of a soft, furry nature,
inclined to curl whenever the animal is in good

BREEDS OF CATTLE 1277

condition and full coat. The North Devon race
of this breed is highly esteemed for beef and for
draft purposes, but less for the dairy. Their milk
has a high fat content, but the quantity is rather
small.

Devons were first introduced into the United
States in 1817, after which importations took place
with considerable rapidity. This breed is now
found in nearly every state in the Union, but is
more numerous in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York,
Massachusetts and Wisconsin. Devons are not
particularly popular in most parts of this country
for dual-purpose cattle, for the reason that they
are somewhat deficient in size for beef, and the milk
yield is small. They are active grazers and the
fat content of the milk is very high. They do not
mature quite so early as the standard beef breeds.
in crossing and grading up scrub stock, they are
quite valuable. The bulls are able to transmit
their rich, red color to a large percentage of off-
spring.

Polled Durham—Polled Durham originated in
Ohio, from two sources; viz., a cross between
Shorthorn bulls and muley cows and pure hornless
Shorthorns, which occasionally are seen as freaks
in this breed. The Polled Durhams are becoming
popular throughout the United States and have
been exported to some extent abroad, where they
are also making a name for themselves. They are
most numerous in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Texas:
and other central states. They were first exported
to the Argentine Republic in 1894., The appear-
ance and points of the Polled Durhams are essen-
tially the same as those of Shorthorns, but more
attention has been given to milking qualities, so

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128

BREEDS OF CATTLE I29

that this breed probably excels even the milking
Shorthorns in the quantity of milk.

Brown Swiss Cattle—Brown Swiss cattle are
one of the standard breeds from Switzerland, and
have become generally distributed throughout Eu-
rope. They were first imported into the United
States in 1869 by Mr Henry M. Clark of Belmont,
Massachusetts, since which time many importations
have been made. Brown Swiss cattle are well
adapted to conditions where a combination of
dairying and beef product is sought. The size is
medium; cows weigh from 1,200 to 1,300 pounds.
The quantity of milk is moderately large, and its
fat content good. The Brown Swiss cattle are ex-
cellent grazers, fatten readily when dry and the
calves develop rapidly. They are fertile and ex-
cellent breeders. According to the American stand-
ard, the color is dark brown to light brown, or at
some seasons of the year gray. A few splashes of
white near the udder are not objectionable and a
light stripe is allowed along the back. The hair
between the horns is light, but not reddish. The
horns are rather short, flattish and with black tips.

Jersey—In point of numbers, the Jerseys are
considerably in the lead of other dairy breeds in
the United States. This breed originated in the
Island of Jersey and has gradually spread through-
out the dairy regions of Europe and America. A
small number of Jerseys, then known as Alder-
neys, were introduced into the United States before
1840, but large importations did not take place
until after 1850.

Jerseys are the smallest in size of all the noted
dairy breeds, the cows ranging in weight from 700
to 1,000 pounds, and the bulls from 1,200 to 1,800
pounds. A deliberate attempt has been made to

130 FARM STOCK

increase the size ofthe Jerseys, so that im me
United States they are somewhat larger than in
their native island. The color of the Jerseys varies
extremely, showing all shades of brown, even to

A GREAT JERSEY COW

Adelaide of St. Lambert is a typical specimen of her
race. The fine head, thick neck, large udder and prominent
milk veins are all indicative of dairy quality and tempera-
ment. In addition to this, the fine skin, silken hair and neat
bene are all qualities of superior breeding.

black, and various shades of yellow, fawn, tan and
cream; mouse color, light red and brindle are also
observed. The head of the Jersey is small and
usually dished, and the muzzle, including the upper
lip, shows a black or dark red color. This at once

BREEDS OF CATTLE 131

distinguishes the Jersey from the Guernsey, which
has a tendency to show a buff color about the head.

Many breeders prefer solid colors in Jerseys.
The majority of this breed are variously marked.
The udder is of good size and ordinarily hangs
lower than in Ayrshires, while the milk veins are
well developed. Jerseys are likely to be irregular
and angular in outline, rather quick and graceful
in movement and deerlike in appearance. They
are nervous and excitable, but when carefully
treated, are docile and easily managed. The mat-
ter of temperament in all dairy cows may be said
to be largely a question of breeding and treatment.

Much effort has been made in America to in-
crease the milk yield of Jerseys while maintaining
its high fat content. Jersey cows frequently give
three to four gallons a day, and many Jerseys prc-
duce 300 pounds or more of butter annually. A
few animals under careful test have yielded from
g,000 to nearly 17,000 pounds of milk in a year.
The amount of fat in the milk is usually from 4
to 5 per cent, and sometimes higher.

Guernsey—This breed originated in another of
the Channel islands, known as the Island of Guern-
sey, and has practically the same origin and his-
tory as the Jersey. In the development of the
Guernseys, however, more of the original character-
istics of the parent stock from Normandy have
been preserved. At present, however, the Guern-
seys closely resemble the Jerseys in their general
conformation and appearance.

The Guernseys were first introduced into the
United States, in numbers, in about 1850, being
grouped together with the Jerseys at that time
under the name of Alderneys. Between 1870 and
1875 the Guernsey was recognized as a distinct

132 FARM STOCK

breed in this country. ‘The head of the Guernsey
is long, the neck slender, the body large and deep
and the flanks thin. The color is light yellow and
orange or buff predominating, with considerable
white in patches on the body and legs. Dark colors
approaching brown are seen on some cows and

QUEEN OF THE BARNYARD

This Guernsey cow shows the dairy type very conspicuously.
No one questions her rank.

more frequently on the bulls. The muzzle is almost
buff or flesh color. ‘The horns are small, curved
and waxy, often showing a rich yellow at the base.
One of the distinguishing characteristics of the
Guernsey is the large secretion of yellow coloring
matter throughout the skin, but especially where
the hair is white around the ears, eyes and udder.

BREEDS OF CATTLE 135

The udder and teats are well shaped. While the
Guernsey is of nervous temperament, the cows are
gentle under proper management, and the bulls
are probably less likely to become vicious than Jer-
sey bulls. ,

The Guernseys are economic feeders and excel-
lent butter producers, the milk often showing from
5 to 6 per cent of fat. They are especially recom-
mended by Alvord and others for butter cows and
for the production of market milk, where quality
secures a high price. They show great power of
assimilating feed and converting it into milk, but
do not endure excessive forcing. Guernsey cows
average about 1,000 pounds or a little more in
weight, and being slightly larger than the Jerseys,
may be expected to give more milk than the latter.
On the farm a good Guernsey may be expected to
produce 5,000 pounds of milk, or 300 pounds of
butter, without high feeding. In one case a herd
of 104 cows averaged 318 pounds of butter each
a year. Recently a Guernsey cow in Wisconsin
made a new world’s butter record of 1,000 pounds
a year, under a carefully supervised test.

Ayrshire—This breed of dairy cows originated
in the county of Ayrshire, in the southwestern part
of Scotland, and was brought to its present fixed
form by careful breeding in that country.

Ayrshires were first brought to New York in
1822, and began to be imported in considerable
numbers about the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury. With the exception of the Kerry cow, no
other breed of dairy cattle can excel the Ayrshire in
obtaining a subsistence and thriving well on scant
pasture and upon the coarsest of forage. “The
natural hardihood of constitution renders these cat-
tle admirably adapted to grazing on broken and

aYLHSYAV

ONINNIM-HZIad V

134

BREEDS OF CATTLE 35

rugged pastures and in sterner weather than would
be conducive to the well-being of cows of some
other breed.”” The purpose of breeding in the Ayr-
shire has been to secure an animal which will give
a large milk yield without extravagance of feed-
ing, but this breed, while showing the greatest
economy in the utilization of feed, responds
promptly to liberal feeding.

The Ayrshire cow weighs from goo to 1,100
pounds, and the bull from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds.
They are short of leg, with’small bone and active
movement. The general form is good, without
any weakness in the forequarters, but with an un-
usually strong development of the hindquarters.
They do not carry any extra flesh during the period
of lactation. The face is in most cases long and
straight, and the horns curve outward, then in-
ward and up, with the tips inclined backward. The
muzzle is usually black, although white is permis-
sible. The prevailing color is red and white in
spots, not mixed, with a tendency at present toward
more white. The red is bright and is frequently
compared to that of the shell of a horse-chestnut.
The udder of the Ayrshire is somewhat character-
istic, being flattened from side to side and extend-
ing far forward and backward. The teats are
small and tend rather to a cylindrical than a conical
form. The Ayrshire is nervous and the cows some-
times show a tendency to be quarrelsome, but the
bulls are not particularly vicious.

In good hands, a herd of Ayrshires should aver-
age 5,500 pounds of milk a head annually. In
some noted herds, the average yield has reached
nearly 7,000 pounds, and many cows have given
from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds a year. The milk
fat averages about 4 per cent, and the amount

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136

BREEDS OF CATTLE 137

of butter in good herds should run from 300 to 320
pounds each a year. The milk of the Ayrshire is
not especially rich in fat, but is above the aver-
age of all dairy cows.

With regard to distribution of the breeds thus
far considered, Jerseys are found in all parts of the
United States, but are kept most numerously in
the eastern and middle states and less extensively
in the West and South. The Guernseys, likewise,
are most extensively maintained in New England,
New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Wiscon-
sin, while the Ayrshires are most numerous in New
York, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hamp-
shire, and less frequently observed in the central
States and west of the Mississippi.

Holstein—The black and white cattle of Hol-
land, or the Holsteins, are one of the very oldest
of dairy breeds. According to some of the cham-
pions of the Holsteins, this breed can be traced
back for 2,000 years in the territory where it orig-
inated. Holland has long been noted for its dairy
industry, and the Holsteins and Dutch Belted are
its two famous dairy breeds. Holsteins have also
been referred to as Holland cattle, North Holland-
era's Dutch cattle, .’ Dutch: Friesians, ‘Holstein
Friesians and by other names. ‘The large frame,
relatively heavy bone, silken coat, remarkable docil-
ity and enormous milk yield of the Holsteins are
commonly referred to as due in part to their origin
in the fertile plains of Holland. It appears that
the early Dutch settlers in America brought their
cattle with them, but no large, well-known i1m-
portations took place until about 1850. The
characteristics of the Holsteins are large size and
contrasting colors, jet black and pure white.

138 FARM STOCK

The weight of the Holstein cows ranges from
1,200 to 1,500 pounds, and the bulls often weigh
2,500. The black predominates in some animals
and the white in others. The color of the animal,
as a whole, may, therefore, be either white spots on
a black background or black spots on a white back-
ground. In America, breeders show a tendency to
favor black rather than white. The arrangement
of the spots varies in different animals, but the
black and white are never mixed. As just indi-
cated, the Holsteins are the largest of all dairy cat-
tle. The neck is long and slender, the back line
_ level, the hips broad and the legs relatively long.
The udder is large and frequently of phenomenal
size, with prominent milk veins and cone shape
teats.

Both cows and bulls are exceptionally gentle and
docile. This breed shows great constitutional
vigor. The calves are large at birth and grow
rapidly, maturing at an early age. Holsteins can
utilize profitably more feed than any other breed of
dairy cows and the milk yield corresponds to the
abundance and quality of the feed. There are au-
thentic instances of cows yielding 100 pounds of
milk or more a day, and a yield of five to seven
gallons a day is regarded as an average perform-
ance, the average annual yield being from 7,500 to
8,000 pounds. Ina few instances, cows have given
from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds in a year. The milk
does not average as high in butter fat as that of
most other breeds, but with exceptional cows the
fat content is high. In point of numbers, the Hol-
steins are second only to the Jerseys in the United
States and are kept in every state and territory in
the Union. They are most numerous in New

BREEDS OF CATTLE 139

York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois and
Iowa, about in the order named.

Dutch Belted—The Holsteins and Dutch Belted,
as already indicated, both come from Holland and
probably have a common origin, the colors being
sharply contrasted hlack and white in both breeds.
While, however, the black and white are irregularly
arranged in patches on the Holsteins, these colors
are placed with great regularity on the Dutch
Belted cattle. The animals of this breed are jet
black, with a broad belt of pure white encircling
the central part of the body. This belt varies in
width, but seldom reaches the shoulder blade or
hip. According to modern standards, no white is
permitted except in the belt.

In size, Dutch Belted cattle are about equal to
the Ayrshires; occasionally individual animals are
slightly larger. In Holland a deliberate attempt has
been made to keep this breed almost entirely under
the control of the nobility. Partly for this rea-
son the breed is not numerous, either in Europe or
in America. It was first introduced into New York
about 1838, but may possibly have been brought
over by the settlers somewhat earlier.

The average weight of, cows is from 1,000 to
1,200 pounds and bulls weigh about 1,800. The
milk production of Dutch Belted is nearly equal to
that of Holsteins, and the quality is about the same.
They are good feeders, maturing at a fairly early
age, but are probably not quite so vigorous as Hol-
steins.

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140

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The Business of Dairying

There is a sentiment abroad that dairying is
becoming unpopular with many, and there is less
inclination among young men to engage in it.
If this be so, it is time dairymen took hold of this
matter to raise the standard of dairy intelligence
and education up to a point where it will be popu-
lar. The door must be opened to the boys and
girls of this country so invitingly, with so much of
interest and profit in sight, that they will without
question become our future citizen farmers. We
cannot expect much change in those with settled
opinions. While we may not change much, we
have it in our power to promote and institute a
change, an uplift, that shall be a power for good
to those who come after us. The door must be
opened wide, and the light made so clear, it will be
recognized that getting a start and winning suc-
cess in life does not imply that one must leave the
farm. It must be shown that a man may by intel-
ligent practice have a farm, high producing dairy
stock, and may know about feeds and feeding and
produce the best; but it implies study, comparison,
and gathering the best information and applying it.

Must Siudy Your Business—The man who
refuses to educate and broaden his mind along his
business, who pins his faith to the reckon and guess,
will always be found milking mixed-bred cows, in
which the failures are the most prolific, will be
feeding everything if it is cheap, and believing that
all failures are due to the factory and market end

141

142 FARM STOCK

of his business. As one has expressed it, too many
men go through life mistaking their gizzards for
their heads. The moment a man sees and puts
into practice the idea that he can cheapen the cost
and imcrease the excellence of (any anticle) stat
moment he has opened the door to enlarged oppor-
tunities.

DAIRY FARMING

Dairying has long been assuming more and
more importance as a line of animal industry, keep-
ing pace in this respect with the growth of large
cities and the consequent demand for great quan-
tities of milk and other forms of dairy products.
In the northern and western states, particularly,
this development of dairying has been most pro-
nounced. In the early history of the United States,
dairying was of far less importance, relatively,
than at present, largely for the reason that there
was no steady market for large quantities of dairy
products and consequently no inducement for
farmers to keep a large number of cows for dairy
purposes. The tendency then was for each farm-
er to milk as many cows as were required for
the production of the milk, butter and cheese which
he needed for his own family. Gradually, how-
ever, the concentration of population in large cities
furnished the demand for more dairy products and
this was the business reason for the extensive de-
velopment which has taken place along this line.

Dairy Industry 1s Large—The importance of the
dairy industry is seen not only from the number of
dairy cows and their value, but from the extent of
dairy products; thus, according to the most recent
available statistics, farmers sell annually about 2,-
250,000,000 gallons of milk, and butter and cheese.

‘THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I43

factories buy annually about 1,500,000,000 gallons
of milk. Within recent years, the development of
creameries On a co-operative or some other basis
has been rapid and extensive. They have naturally
used large quantities of milk, as just indicated, in
the manufacture of butter. Contrary to the wide-
spread notion, however, there is more than twice
as much butter made on farms at the present time
as in factories, the amounts being 1,072,000,000
pounds on the farms, annually, and 420,000,000
pounds in the factories. The opposite tendency is
observed in cheese making. The process of cheese
making is somewhat more elaborate than that of
butter making and requires more skill and expe-
rience, as well as a more elaborate equipment in
order to produce a first-class article.

Cows for Human Food—Good dairy cows pro-
duce human food in the form of milk much more
economically than food products can be obtained
in the form of beef, pork or mutton. Naturally,
the cost of production of milk and butter varies
greatly in different localities, according to the price
of farm labor and feeding stuffs, but the relative
economy of dairy and beef production varies in the
same direction in nearly all localities. The only
apparent exceptions to this rule are found in two
extreme types of farming conditions found on the
western ranges and in the neighborhood of large
eastern cities. On the western ranges the distance
from the market is so great that milk could not be
delivered in a satisfactory condition and dairying
is practically impossible. In the neighborhood of
large eastern cities, on the other hand, the price of
land and the cost of feeding stuffs are so high that
the production of beef becomes altogether too ex-
pensive as compared with milk production. The

144 FARM STOCK ©

amount of feed required for the production of a
pound of modern beef steers is nearly, if not quite,
ten times as great as the amount of feed necessary
for the production of a pound of milk by the mod-
ern dairy cow. This should indicate without argu-
ment the great difference in the relative economy of
beef and milk production in localities where condi-

THE FOUNDATION OF SUCCESS

Behind dairy success is well-bred and well-raised young
stock. These must be thrifty, healthy and good eaters.

tions are favorable for both beef and dairy indus-
tries.

Building the Dairy Herd—\n making a start in
the dairy business, the first great problem is the
formation of the dairy herd. In this operation the
selection of the cows and the bull to head the herd
is by no means an unimportant matter. It is ordi-
narily to be recommended that the herd should not

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING T45

be composed of different breeds, but should con-
tain only one pure breed or grade of animals based
on that breed. In practice, however, dairy cows
should be selected for their individual record
rather than for their pedigree, color or form. For
dairy purposes, dairy breeds should be chosen
rather than beef breeds, for the reason that they
produce milk fat rather than body fat from their
food ; while beef cattle, on the other hand, are likely
to become fat under forced feeding without in-
creasing to a corresponding degree their milk yield.
No one, however, should allow either breed or type
to determine entirely his choice of cows for his .
dairy herd. The prime requisite is that they shall
give a large quantity and a good quality of milk.

CO-OPERATIVE BREEDING

Co-operative breeding, or community breeding,
gives promise of great achievements in the future.
Our great dairy industry is carried on largely in
the dark. Very few owners of dairy herds know
with any certainty what their herds are doing, and
whether they are kept at a profit or a loss few
Camgrell. “Sites: oi no particular breed, immature,
and utterly worthless, are often used. If a com-
munity will form an association, study the breeds
and carefully select the breed they like best and is
best suited to their conditions and that they will be
willing to stand by ever after, then they will have
laid a sure foundation for future prosperity.

This much we know, that when an association
is formed, interest is aroused, and a desire for
better things is inspired.. Pure-bred sires are
bought, and if a man feels too poor to buy a good
animal alone, two or three will go in together and

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146

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING LL yaa7

buy. As good sires are bought, exchanges are
made, so a choice animal can be kept near the same
locality during the entire period of his usefulness.

A First Requisite is a Good Secretary—The sec-
retary should be a live business man, be in touch
with every member; he should know what stock
each one has, and what he desires to have.
Through him, exchanges are made, buyer and
seller brought together. When they have stock to
sell he carries advertising for the whole associa-
tion, thus lessening the expense. He should have
the registry books of the breed, so a prospective
animal can be traced and its worth determined.

When animals are for sale they are reported to
the secretary, so a buyer can find out by him just
what can be bought, and where it can be bought,
and a buyer will go to such a place, when he would
not go from house to house in the uncertainty of
finding what he wanted. In shipping there is also
an advantage, as animals can be shipped much
cheaper in car lots than singly.

It opens the way for cow testing associations,
and they begin to test and weigh each cow, and
weed out the least profitable ones. It promotes
friendliness, for when two members come together,
the common interest will bring up the subject,
and experiences and knowledge will be exchanged.
Speakers of experience can be secured, and the
best knowledge gained. The demand for good
stock is stronger than ever before.

A Noted Example—Lake Mills, Wisconsin,
is noted the world over for its cattle, because
breeders have been working together raising one
breed. A buyer has large numbers to pick from,
he can buy in large lots, and he can get what he
wants, and he is willing to pay the price. This is

148 FARM STOCK

business; straight, honest, legitimate business. It
will give an uplift to the farmer himself, it will
bring comforts to his family, and education to
his children.

Seest thou a man diligent in his business,
He shall stand before kings.

FEEDING THE DAIRY COW

The dairy cow is fed primarily for one purpose:
that milk may be produced. Since milk is so largely
formed of the protein elements of the food, it fol-
lows that the dairyman must have the best that can
be secured to supply this kind of ration. Conse-
quently, the old-fashioned way of feeding any sort
of feed will no longer prove profitable; especially
since lands have increased in value, since labor has
gone up higher, and more remunerative returns
have become necesssary to the farmer. It used to
be the custom to turn the cow into the pasture in
early spring, in a somewhat depleted condition. At
this period she freshened and then for five or six
months produced milk abundantly and satisfactor-
ily. This was because pasture grass was a bal-
anced feed and supplied her with the necessary
constituents for the production of milk and butter
food. Then in the fall, as the pasture began to
dry up, her milk yield decreased and continued so
throughout the winter. The. winter feeds, mec
largely corn fodder, straw and some ground feed,
like wheat, bran or corn. Naturally, under these
conditions she never did her best. With the devel-
opment of the dairy industry there gradually spread
over the country a better knowledge of the prin-
ciples and methods of feeding, as they concern the
dairy cow. Asa result, corn has been relegated to

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING TAQ

the background as unnecessary and even undesir-
able as feed for cows, except in its use as ensilage.

So the silo has come and is sure to stay. It of-
fers the best means of corn consumption for dairy
cows that we have. Corn ensilage possesses feed-
ing value of much merit and it possesses at the
same time the succulence and juices, two. things
very essential in maintaining the milk flow during
the winter months. But corn ensilage in itself is
not a balanced feed. While it is succulent, it is
still lacking in nitrogenous constituents. It stimu-
lates milk flow, but it does not provide the where-
with to make milk; hence they must be fed
something that supplies this feeding constituent.
Fortunately, the range is very wide.

In the southern states cottonseed meal is right at
hand; in the West are the by-products of the cereal
factories; and transportation is so rapid that the
eastern dairyman can secure protein feeds from the
North and West at no great cost. But in all sec-
tions corn ensilage may be balanced within reason
by clover and alfalfa, and no dairy farm is complete
in its plan, equipment and management if it does
not include one or both of these great legume
crops. ;

To supply the grain side of the ration you will
need to go a long way in order to find any feed
more satisfactory than the cottonseed meal. Com-
pared to its commercial price, its value is exceed-
ingly high, and of the various feeds on the market »
cottonseed meal invariably provides protein at a
less cost per digestible pound than any other food.
Cottonseed meal is generally available throughout
the country. Large quantities of it, however,
ought not to be fed. Three to five pounds for eight
or nine months in a year should cover the ground.

SONIGNOOWANS GVd LNA WILLVO AYXTVd GOOD

150

THE BUSINESS \OF> DAIRYING I5I

The remaining part of the daily ration and the re-
maining months of the year should be supplied
through the use of some other feed or feeds; linseed
meal, wheat bran, and others of equal worth and
value may be used for this purpose.

in producing dairy feeds you ought to make a
practice of always considering the cost of the feed
from the standpoint of its digestible nutrients. Too
often feeding stuffs have been purchased by name
rather than because of merit. The point to consider
is, How many pounds of digestible nutrients do I
get in a ton of this feed, and what does each pound
of digestible protein cost me? Figured on that
basis many dollars will be saved in the feed bill and
more satisfactory results will be had when the
profits are figured up at the end of the month or
year.

HANDLING A HERD FOR MARKET MILK

In making milk for the retail trade the producer
must consider carefully the demands of the trade.
The consumer is yearly becoming better educated as
to what constitutes good milk and as to the dangers
which are often found in milk when carelessly pro-
duced and handled. In general, the consumer is
growing more critical in his demands for high-
grade farm products and is willing to pay a fair
price if he can have what he wants. The farmer
must study the demands of the higher class of trade
and strive to meet them, or else expect low prices
for products of only ordinary to fair trade.

In buying for family consumption the purchaser
wants milk of good flavor, of a fair degree of rich-
ness and of good color. Bad flavor is mainly the
result of improper care in handling the milk during

152 : FARM STOCK

and after milking, although it is not infrequently
caused by tmproper feeding and stabling. It fol-
lows then that, whatever the breed, milk of good
flavor cannot be produced except under cleanly and
healthful conditions and under the exercise of good
judgment as to the kinds and quantities of food to
be used. Garlic in pastures will surely produce
garlic flavors, and so will turnips or turnip leaves
produce a turnip-like flavor. Silage when fed in
large amounts will produce a fermentive flavor,
just as it will produce a musty flavor if fed when in
a state of partial decay.

~The Reason of Bad Silage—The objection of-
fered to the use of silage by some mill shippers is
based on its excessive use, or on the use of poor
silage, coupled with the difficulty of controlling
these points. While it is true that flavor depends
mainly on the care used in producing and handling
the milk, it is also true that milk to be of rich flavor
must contain a fairly high percentage of fat. Mulk
which has a creamy flavor and consistency is highly
prized by many people as a healthful drink. There
are sanitariums where the chief food for nerve and
brain-worn people is good, rich milk.

In judging the richness of the milk in fats, the
consumer is guided by the bulk of cream it will
produce. The milk from some breeds does not give
a large bulk of cream nor a well-defined cream line
after being bottled for several hours.

Color Important in Milk—But one point looked
for in a good grade of milk is color. Usually there
is a close relation in milk between color and rich-
ness in fats. Asa rule, a yellow color means milk
rich in fats. I have seen striking instances where
this was not the case, but so usually does the belief
prevail that a yellow color in milk denotes richness.

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 153

that it is wise to take notice of. Lack of color and
lack of creaminess are firmly associated in nearly
everyone’s mind with poor quality, and it is a good
business point for the farmer who retails milk to be
guided by it in selecting his cows. It must be
admitted, too, that a decidedly yellow color in the
milk does give it a more pleasing appearance than
when such color is lacking.

Get a Good Bull—In selecting the foundation
for a herd, the dairyman should not hesitate to pay
well for a bull that will stamp upon his female
progeny the power to give quantity, color and rich-
ness in the product. In selecting females only the
best should be used for building up the herd. It
seems to be a rule in breeding that the more mixed
the blood of the female the greater will be the in-
fluence of the male. In selecting the females, care
should be taken to get those which have no tendency
to beefiness. By selecting foundation stock in this
way, and by rearing the best of the offspring, a val-
uable herd for producing high-grade market milk
may be built up in a comparatively short time.

PROTECT DAIRY COWS FROM FLIES

The season of midsummer is one of the most
trying times for the dairy farmer and then more
than at any time of the year is it necessary to use
special care with the dairy herd. During the time
of harvest, when flies, heat and mosquitoes make
life a burden for the old cow, she also has to cope
with dry, short pasture and a very busy keeper. I
not only sympathize with the old cow, but also
have some feeling left for her keeper; for who can
forget the milking during the fly season, when
the temperature is very high and one is tired out

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154

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 15 )5,

after a hard day’s work? Certainly this is not
an easy task, but the remedy we are anxious to
hear, and I do not know as I can give a sure cure
for this complaint. In many ways life can be made
easier for both man and beast if a few things are
complied with.

In the first place, you should bear in mind that
cows freshening in the spring will have to be milked
during the winter if they are to be made profitable,
and if they are neglected during the fly season and
their milk flow cut down, the chances are they will
be strippers the balance of the lactation period.
Therefore, it is very important from an economical
standpoint to use special care during the hot sum-
mer months. If the cow switches our face instead
of her side, and kicks over a pail occasionally, it
should remind us that it is better often to practice
winter dairying and see to it that the bulk of our
cows freshen in the fall and early winter.

It is true also that a darkened stable is a more
convenient place in which to milk than in the cow-
yard or the open shed. You might also bear in
mind that there are on the market many kinds of fly
removers, which can be sprayed on at little cost at
milking time. If this expense is considered too
high, a light burlap cow blanket will greatly help
matters; this may be thrown over the cow at milk-
ing time. I have found that by darkening the
barn the flies give me little trouble during milking
time. This can be greatly improved by first using.
a strong disinfective spray, or some material that
will repel flies. Use this freely about the stalls,
gutters and windows, and upon everything, so that
the flies that are in the barn may go out; then
darken the barn and little trouble will be expe-
rienced. Cows can stand the attacks of flies much

156 _ FARM STOCK

better if they have in the pasture some place where
they can feed among the underbrush. This is
their natural way of fighting flies; and they will
take very kindly to the hazel brush patch if it is
in their pasture.

CLASSIFYING MILK FOR MARKET
PURPOSES

Pasteurization has not solved the problem of
clean milk commercially, for the reason that it is

SANITARY MILK

Care at milking time is essential if a clean, sanitary product
is to be obtained.

expensive, requiring apparatus and labor; it 1s
rarely done with sufficient care to render the milk
safe; it does not take the filth out of the milk,
and it tends to promote carelessness all along
the line. Modern methods call for the exclu-
sion of bacteria by cleanliness rather than by
destruction by heat, and show that dirty milk is

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING ey,

death to babies and dangerous to man. Pasteurized
milk is a fairly satisfactory substitute where clean
milk cannot be obtained, and where the process is
carried on under the direction of boards of health
it is reasonably safe. The milk committee in
Washington, appointed by the district commission-
ers to report on the milk supply of that city, recom-
mended that there be recognized by law three
grades of milk, as follows:

Class 1. Certified milk to be produced under
all conditions necessary to avoid infection. I will
not attempt to outline these conditions here, fur-
ther than to say that the cows must be tuberculin
tested and free from disease; that the temperature
of the milk must not exceed 50 degrees, when
delivered, by chemical and bacteriological analysis ;
that the milk must not contain more than 10,000
bacteria to the cubic centimeter, and must not be
more than 12 hours old when delivered. This class
of milk to be certified by the health office of the
District of Columbia.

(ies 92. Inspected milk.’’ To be limited to
clean, raw milk from healthy cows as determined
by the tuberculin test and physical examination.
The cows to be fed, watered, housed and milked
under good conditions, but not necessarily equal to
the conditions provided in class 1. The milk to
be kept at a temperature not exceeding 50 degrees
until delivered to the consumer, and to contain
not more than 100,000 bacteria to the cubic centi-
meter.

Class -3. Pasteurized milk. To include all
milk from dairies not able to comply with the re-
quirements of classes 1 and 2 to be pasteurized
under the supervision of the board of health. This
milk to be kept at all times at a temperature not

158 FARM STOCK ©

exceeding 60 degrees while in transit to the pas-
teurizing plant and at a temperature not exceeding
50 degrees when delivered to the consumer. The
cows must not show physical signs of tuberculosis
or any disease.

We may have gone too far or been too radical
on some points in this milk question, but when it
comes’ to preserving the lives of intants, jineee
question whether we have gone far enough. It is
a crusade for the children, and if by any means we
can lower the fearful death rate, who will refuse
to lend his aid and give all possible assistance?
The basis upon which this question rests is hygienic
economics.. This lesson is being Jearmed yom,
rapidly at the present time. We are learning that
bad air, bad water, bad sewerage, bad housing,
bad streets, bad milk or bad food of any kind are
not cheap in the long run and that in the end they
prove a heavy expense to the individual or com-
munity.

CARE OF MILK ON THE FARM

Whether milk is delivered promptly or held some
time before delivery, it needs particular care. The
best dairymen provide for this purpose a room near
the stable, but separated from it so as to exclude
dust and unpleasant odors. As soon as a pailful
ot milk has been drawn from the cows, it is carried
to the milk room, poured through a fine strainer,
and cooled with an apparatus made of thin meal
and containing cold water. The milk flows over the
outside of it in a thin sheet. After 20 or 40 quarts
have been thus treated a shipping can is filled and
set in cold water, or the milk is bottled and kept
cold until needed.

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING T59

Some farmers do not use this care, but strain
the milk directly into a large can, which stands in
any convenient place, usually within the stable.
When the can is filled it is placed, as soon as con-
venient, in a tub of cold water and stirred until
partly cooled, then left with the cover ajar until
wanted for delivery.

Milk Easily Absorbs Odors—Persons handling
milk in this way do not appreciate how sensitive

ax CASTY MILK HOUSE

The old. dirty, dilapidated, slonoy milk house has Ziven
way to modern buildings that permit of thorough cleanli-
ness, and which are sanitary in every way.

the fluid is to surroundings and how quickly it will
absorb injurious odors. It is fortunate for con-
sumers that milk shows so plainly when it has
been carelessly handled. If purchasers are suf-
ficiently watchful they can avoid being supplied
with milk which has been improperly cared for. A
dairyman should always bear in mind that milk is
food, and he should not leave it unnecessarily in
any place where he would be unwilling to have his
own food left an equal length of time.

160 FARM STOCK

In some cases the milk delivered in the morning
is that of the previous evening, well cooled and
kept in a cold place, and the milk delivered in the
afternoon is the morning product similarly treated.
This is a much better method than the delivery of
perfectly fresh, warm milk. When but one delivery
is made each day, and that in the morning, the

A GOOD WAY TO DRY AND AIR MILK CANS

Air and sunlight are death to all kinds of germs.

production of the same morning and the previous
evening is usually distributed.

Many dairymen do this when they drive directly
from the farm to the places of delivery, except
when it is necessary to start before the hour of
milking ; then the milk of the morning and evening
of the previous day is taken. During the hottest
weather, the evening’s milk is sometimes delivered
by itself early in the morning, and the supply of the
same morning is served later.

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 161

MAKING CHEESE AT HOME

Use milk three or four hours old that has been
held at 70 degrees and which has not as yet com-
menced to sour. Heat to about 86 degrees, add
commercial rennet at the rate of three ounces or
85 cc (cubic centimeters) to 1,000 pounds of milk.
Allow to coagulate for about 30 to 40 minutes,
break the curd with a spoon or three-cornered stick
until the particles are the size of the end of the
small finger; heat slowly to about 100 degrees,
stirring almost constantly in the meanwhile, and
allow to stand at 100 degrees until the curd becomes
firm.

A few experiments along this line will show
about how firm the curd needs to be, but roughly it
may be stated that it will require about 2% hours
from the time the curd is broken. Drain off the
whey, stir the curd for 15 or 20 minutes, allowing
it to cool slowly. Salt at the rate of 2% pounds salt
per 1,000 pounds milk; put in a mold, square or
round, as desired, and apply considerable pressure.
The amount of pressure required is rather indefi-
nite, but should not be less than 100 pounds to each
cheese. The utensils required are a thermometer,
a tin vessel for heating and a measure for meas-
uring the rennet extract. All of these articles, in-
cluding the rennet extract, can be purchased from
any supply house.

KEEPING UP THE MILK FLOW

It is a matter of importance that the flow of milk
be kept up to the highest possible point. It is too
often the case that the matter is not attended to on
account of the press of work during haying and
harvest. The feed gets too short in the pasture,

162 FARM STOCK

the flies bother the cows, and as the amount of milk
is reduced a little each day it passes unnoticed until
it is too late to remedy the matter.

If supplemental feed has been provided in the
shape of oats and peas, it is well to begin feeding
them as soon as a shrinkage is discovered. In the
absence of such feed, green clover, cut andiiom: aie
the manger for the cows to eat when they come in
at night, makes a good substitute. If fodder corn

PART OF A DAIRY PLANT

In the illustration is seen the cement silo, a permanent
improvement of the dairy farm. The silo is steadily in-
creasing its popularity.

was sown or planted thickly for the same purpose,
one can begin on it soon after the tassels appear.
I have noticed that the best results from it are ob-
tained after the ears have formed and the kernels
are appproaching the glazing point.

When I have had fodder corn to feed during the
latter part of the summer, especially sweet corn, I
have found that it was a saving of time to use it,
for the cows relish the feed so well that they would
come up for it at milking time. Those who now

-. THE: BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 163

have a'supply of silage to feed can meet the require-
ments of the cows very easily, and they are then
masters of the situation. The silage can be fed with
the least extra trouble of any of the supplemental
feeds.

ALFALFA FEED FOR DAIRY COWS

During the past few years many dairymen have
investigated the merits of alfalfa. What you have
found out about it has been sufficient inducement
for you to attempt to supply your wants by grow-
ing it on your own farm. Unfortunately for you,
however, climatic and soil conditions offer a handi-
cap which will be hard for you to overcome in the
successful growth and harvesting of alfalfa. Our
best posted men on alfalfa have named it the king
of all forage crops for feeding purposes and the
results of feeding tests prove that it has not been
misnamed. Unlike other feeding material of the
forage character, it contains that valuable food ele-
ment known as protein, the milk producing
material.

Two equally important conditions confronting
eastern dairymen are: (1) The ever-increasing de-
mand for dairy products; (2) the insufficient sup-
ply of good milk producing feeds to keep feed prices
down to an economical basis, from the feeder’s
standpoint. It was the shortage of home-grown
feeds and the lack of protein in natural farm grains
that developed the necessity of utilizing commercial
feeds to supply what the regular farm grains
lacked, the milk producing material.

I call your particular attention to the alfalfa that
is grown out West and which is now being offered
for sale in eastern markets. It offers you an ad-
vantage you should not be slow in accepting by

SVAdMOO

NO DNILSVAI SMOD AXIVAG

164

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 165

adopting its use. Alfalfa contains more protein
than wheat bran, and, as a basis of a feed for the
dairy cow, it perhaps has no equal.

Alfalfa Meal—How are eastern dairymen to be
supplied with this alfalfa grown so far away in
these arid sections? My answer is that it is a mill-
ing proposition, just the same as supplying you with
wheat bran and concentrated feeds made from
wheat, corn, oats and barley, all of which are pro-
duced in surplus quantities throughout the middle
west and far northwest. Alfalfa mills located in
the arid producing sections will be even more neces-
sary than wheat and corn mills, from the fact that
the rate on alfalfa in the baled form is excessive,
while in the milled form it will be reduced to the
grain products rate basis, the same on which you
are buying all other commercial feeds.

COW FEEDING WHEN PASTURE IS SHORT

A genuine dairy cow is a splendid machine for
converting a variety of food products into milk,
but oftentimes, especially during the busy fall, the
operator fails to realize that the task of changing
fuel is a severe test for the machine, and, as a
result, often finds himself trying to repair the
damage.

Cows used to making milk from grass alone find
a great difference in its palatability and nourishing
qualities as the season advances, and, while they
may not decrease the flow of milk as long as there
is an abundance of grass, a careful survey of their
general appearance will indicate that they are
losing the bloom, the freshness, and possibly the
vigor, that was so marked earlier in the season.

166 FARM STOCK

Supplementing Pastures—The watchful herds-
man needs no orders. He at once begins to supply
the wants thus made known. He has found from
experience that it is a costly practice to allow the
milk system to draw from the needed physical
vigor of the animal, and realizes, too, that the milk
flow once checked is hard to restore. The alfalfa
field is called upon to furnish a little @reemery,
else he tempts their appetites with green sweet
corn fodder, second crop clover, cowpeas, a few
potatoes, or, better yet, some silage; they are in-
vited to nibble at some bran, corn meal, moistened
beet pulp, or, if necessary, some brewers’ grain,
and if one mixture fails, others are tried until the
trying fly season is passed and the needed rains
flush the dry meadows and prompt the clover and
timothy meadow to furnish a few welcome, suc-
culent mouthfuls.

Some Grain May be Fed—Even then the grain
or selected-variety feeds are not removed entirely
from the ration, for winter is coming “and the
cow’s vigor can more easily be maintained and
reinforced for the coming cold weather. Oats
and pea hay may be tried; the early corn fodder
looks very tempting, and a few hills are cut and
thrown over the fence and greatly relished by the
milkers. The straw stack needs brushing down,
and the chaff should not be left to sour or spoil,
so the cows are given a romp in the stack yard.

By this time the evenings are chilly and change-
able, so the herdsman finds it profitable to keep
the cows in the barn all night, and soon has them
on a satisfying winter ration, which he changes
occasionally for variety’s sake.

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 167

His cows have not missed the change from
grass to hay; they are healthy, vigorous and func-
tional, and eat with relish the various fodders and
grains which he has in store for them. The milk
flow is increasing, rather than decreasing, and all
bids fair to a profit-sharing season.

Begin Before Cold Weather is at Hand—The
wave of prosperity will not come to the farmer
who is less watchful and who waits until cold
weather before he begins feeding his winter
forage.

The grass-made flesh and vigor are lost during
early fall; the milk check is scarcely worth while
cashing; the animals have unsatisfying appetites,
and refuse to respond, even if the herdsman allows
them special excursions to the feed trough; all
excess energy stored while the pasture was green
was expended in trying to make milk out of dry,
dormant grass, while the milk-making function
could not be maintained when there were calls for
the nourishment of the growing fcetus.

The milch cows are mere strippers during the
greater portion of the winter, and most of the
blame comes from a lack of care, feed and atten-
tion during the critical period. It is well worth
while to take simple precautions in tiding the milk
cow over from her summer to winter ration.

FEEDING DAIRY COWS IN WINTER

The kind of food that will be fed to cows in
milk, will, of course, be much governed by the pro-
duction in any given locality. The aim should be,
of course, to feed approximately a balanced ration.
Opinions may differ somewhat, but not greatly, as
to what a balanced ration may mean. On this

168 FARM STOCK

point, however, divergence of opinion is not great.
Where fertility is in equilibrium nearly all will
agree to the statement that the aim of every dairy-
man should be to grow, as far as may be practi-
cable, the food needed on his own farm.

Food That Nearly All May Grow—There are
certain foods that may be looked upon as standard
for feeding the dairy cows. Nearly every dairy-
man can grow them wherever he may be located,
and because they are standard foods, he ought to

HAULING IN THE SILAGE CORN

Corn ensilage, where known, is highly prized. In time it will
he considered a necessary feed on every stock farm.

try to grow them. These include as roughage,
plants of the clover family, as silage, corn in one
or the other of its varieties, and as grain, a mix-
ture of wheat and oats. Of course, in addition to
these, many other foods will be grown, but these
are of less importance than the foods named.
Providing Clover—Wherever this _ beneficent
plant can be grown it ought to be used with much
freedom. The food furnished for cows represents
only one element in its value. The benefit to the
soil is always helpful, and in many instances great-
ly so. This fact should never be lost sight of when

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 169

taking into account the comparison in nutrients
furnished by clover and other plants.

Usually clover can be best grown in mixtures for
dairy cows. This means that two or three varieties
may be grown together. This not only adds to the
yield, but also increases the value of the products.
It would also seem correct to say that quite a sprin-
kling of timothy improves a clover ration for dairy
cows. It does so by helping to support the clover
while it is growing and makes it easier to cure
when the crop is out. Alfalfa will, of course, an-
swer the same purpose as clover. Where neither
may be had it may be quite possible to get vetch
hay or cowpea.

Providing Corn Silage—No food can be grown
in the United States that will provide so large a
proportion of nutrients as corn. But the nutrients
furnished do not tell all the story. In addition to
nutrients, when cured in the silo, its succulence is
beneficial. It is helpful to the digestion. It also
favors milk production. There are two advantages
that it always will have over corn and fodder fed
iene dry ‘LOrm.

When the extent of the production that may be
obtained from corn is considered, and when the
ease with which it is fed is taken into account,
it does seem, indeed, surprising that any persons
engaged in dairying will be content without a silo.

Furnishing Grain Food—Clover and corn fur-
nish a fodder ration that cannot easily be improved
upon for dairy cows. The grain complement is not
always so easily obtained. Wheat and oats do
not grow equally well in all parts of the country,
but they do grow well over large areas. The first
advantage from growing them together is the in-
creased yields. The second advantage is that when

170 FARM STOCK

grown in due admixture they furnish a suitable
food. The third is that in very many instances
they can be grown more cheaply than they can be
bought. When silage from corn well grown is
freely fed it is not necessary to add corn to the meal
ration. :

DAERYEENG VAS Ag SLD Eel Sis:

In this case the cow is appreciated for her work in
maintaining the fertility of the land and for the money she
brings in.

Amount of Grain to Feed—Two factors should
be taken into account when determining the amount
of grain to feed. One is the extent to which clover
or alfalfa is fed and the second is the production of
the cow. The rule with some is to feed one pound
of grain for every three pounds of milk produced.
When clover or alfalfa form a large part of the
ration it would seem reasonable to suppose that a

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 71

less quantity of grain would suffice than the
amounts named above.

DAIRYING: A BALANCE IN FERTILITY

Dairying is one of the most effective practices in
agriculture for retaining and restoring the fertility
@emine sol. A gereat.artay of facts are on
record that prove that soils, devoted to dairying,
may be as fertile after centuries of farming as
they were in their original state. In European
countries, as well as in all parts of the United
States, we find farms that once were abandoned
because the soil fertility was exhausted; it did not
pay to farm them. As a last resort, dairying was
introduced and the fertility was restored complete-
ly. Many of these farms are even more fertile
today than they were in the beginning; and so long
as dairying is carried on, they will continue to in-
crease in fertility and productive power.

Grain Farming Exhausts the Soil; Dairying
Does Not—In grain farming the fertility is re-
moved from the farm by selling the grain. Ac-
cording to Professor Woll of the Wisconsin experi-
ment station approximately $8.35 worth of fertility
is removed from the soil with the sale of every ton
of wheat. With every ton of corn that is sold
approximately $6.50 worth of fertility is removed
from the soil.

But in the case of dairying—where butter is
‘made on the farm and where all the by-products
are fed to pigs and calves—we find that only 36
‘cents’ worth of fertility is removed in each ton of
butter produced. The commercial value of a ton
-of wheat at 75 cents per bushel is approximately
‘$24.75; but the commercial value of a ton of butter

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THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING B73

at 25 cents per pound is $5,000. Hence, for each
$100 worth of wheat that is sold from the soil
$34.50 worth of fertility is removed from the
farm, but for every $100 worth of butter that is
sold, 7 cents’ worth of fertility only is removed.

This vast difference between wheat raising and
dairying is explained in this way: A cow is fed a
ration, say, of alfalfa and corn. Both the alfalfa
hay and the corn have been raised on the farm.
When consumed, the cow has assimilated approxi-
mately 10% per cent of the fertilizing elements.
The remaining 89” per cent go back to the soil in
the shape of manure. Of the 10” per cent of fer-
tilizing elements that are retained by the cow, about
three-fourths go to make milk, and one-fourth to
the maintenance of the body.

In the case of butter made on the farm: The
milk is separated; its analysis shows that 90 per
cent of the fertilizing elements of the whole milk is
found in the skim milk; hence, cream and butter
remove but ten per cent of the whole amount. But
the skim milk is returned to the farm and is fed
to pigs and to calves, which utilize a part of these
materials for building up the body; the unused part
passes on to fertilize the land.

Dairying Is a Fat-Making Process—It may be
said that dairying is a sort of fat-concentration
process. That is to say, the resultant product,
which is butter fat, is distilled from corn and alfalfa
hay (and from all other materials used as food)
through the agency of the dairy cow, the cream
separator, and the churn, by means of which the
distilling process is carried on.

Butter fat, from a chemical standpoint, is a con-
centrated form of heat. The heat comes from the

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THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 175

sun, in the first place. It is then taken up by grow-
ing plants—such as enter into feeding rations—
and made into palatable products for the cow; made
into products that satisfy hunger, and produce heat
and fatty tissue in the body of the animal. Speak-
ing strictly, this is one way by which man can sell
concentrated heat for butter prices. Now, if the
dairyman harvests hay and grain as feed and
applies nothing whatever to the land to replace
the fertility withdrawn, he will gradually reduce
the fertility of the soil; but the process of tearing
down will be slow. In 20 years a wheat farm may
be worn out by continual cropping; but to wear out
a dairy farm to an equal degree 9,720 years will
need to pass. Wheat raising makes swift work in
ruining lands; but dairying preserves them.

Dairying Remakes the Soil—A great source of
profit in dairying lies in the fact that it remakes
the soil. When you purchase feed for the cow
that more milk may be produced, you add fertility
to the land. Such feeds as linseed meal, cotton-
seed meal and bran are exceptionally rich in fer-
tilizing elements. It is not unusual to purchase
elements of fertility more cheaply in the form of
feeds than in the form of fertilizers. And the feed
is paid for by the milk; the milk pays also for the
labor and allows, in every case, where attention and
care are given, a fair margin of profit. In this way
the fertility of the soil is restored at practically no
cost.

While soil building can be accomplished by using
other classes of animals, it is, however, a fact that
the dairy cow produces more real fertility than any
other farm animal. A cow weighing from 1,200
to 1,300 pounds, if fed to produce milk, during the
year produces about 2,800 pounds of manure.

176 FARM STOCK

Nearly one-half of this is liquid and should be
saved, for it is exceedingly rich in fertilizing ele-
ments. But right here comes a great loss to the
average farm. The liquid manure gets away from
the land which would not be the case were it guard-
ed as its importance merits; for liquid manure is
even more valuable than the solid manure; and if
proper arrangements are made, it will take care of
itself, and will not only fertilize the soil to which
it should be passed, but it may be used for irri-
gating the land at the same time.

This can be done by means of a septic tank if
the gutters in the stables are properly constructed
so as to allow it to pass into the septic tank. When
there, it ferments and later is discharged, through
a system of tile drains, onto the land, where it be-
comes distributed into all parts of the soil. The
solid manure can now be hauled onto other fields
with half the labor that otherwise would be re-
quired, and all the fertilizing constituents in the
manure can be completely recovered and restored
to the soil.

The loss of manure ought to be guarded against
with zealous care; certainly as much as is given to
guarding against the loss of any other farm prod-
uct; for it must be borne in mind that the manurial
value of feeds like bran, after it has passed through
the cow, is worth $10.50 per ton; of red clover,
under the same conditions, approximately $7.30
per ton; of linseed meal $16.77 per ton; andwen
cottonseed meal $19.70 per ton. This bears out
the statement, made elsewhere, that the fertilizing
elements in manure are governed by the feeds that
are fed to the cow. Hence, rich feeds make rich
manure; poor feeds, poor manure and little product.

Dairying Is Behind Rich Lands—Dairying sets

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING WT.

in motion the processes that make rich lands; that
make plant food available. Your land may con-
tain an abundance of plant food, but it may be un-
available as food. Dairying will set the strings
going; it will produce the food for plants in a
soluble way and in abundance. Suppose you are
s-ayeara cup Of tea. You taste of it and find 1t
is not sweet; but you are told that sugar has been
added and you should stir the tea; it now becomes
sweets he Sucar, in this case, remained at the
bottom of the cup and was not available until thor-
oughly stirred and dissolved; until then there was
little sweetening effect.

So it is with soil fertility. Until it becomes
soluble it is not food for plants. Manure has a
disintegrating action on fertilizing compounds; it
sets free the plant food.

Dairying; a Balance in Fertility—An illustration
may now be in place to show the important role
that dairying plays as a soil builder in the realm
of agriculture. Let us assume that a man pur-
chases a farm of 100 acres for which he pays $100
per acre, the whole amounting to $10,000. In this
case, he invests his money in soil fertility, from
which he desires to draw interest just as he would
were he to deposit his money in a bank.

We will now assume that wheat is grown on the
farm on the entire 100 acres and for 20 years, the
rate of production being 16 bushels per acre, which,
according to statistics, is a high average for 20
years of continual cropping on good soil without
the addition of chemical or stable manures. At 80
cents per bushel, the entire production of wheat, at
the end of 20 years, will amount to $25,000.

But there is still another side: With each ton
of wheat there goes $8.35 worth of fertility; with

178 FARM STOCK

the entire yield for the 20 years there goes $8,832
in fertility—leaving $1,168 only, out of the entire
original investment. Instead of simply drawing
interest on the capital invested, there has been
drawn nearly the entire capital. On the face of the
purchase 88 per cent of the original investment
has been withdrawn by 20 years of continual
cropping.

We now will assume that instead of wheat alone,
a dairy herd of 15 cows is maintained in connec-
tion with wheat farming and that all the grain fed
to the cows is purchased and that the manure is
carefully preserved. It has been determined that a
cow produces 14 tons of manure per year; but since
there is always some waste, we will say that ten
tons only are recovered, each ton of which is worth
$2.95 per ton, as actual crop-producing experi-
ments have shown to be the case. On this basis of
valuation the fertility from the 15 cows will be
worth, annually, $442.50, or $8,850 for a 20-year
period.

Besides the value of the fertility, there is to be
added to the gross receipts of the farm $18,720,
received from the sale of butter fat, and $3,600, the
value of the skim milk; and these have paid for
feed and labor, and some is left for prom, lemme
manure has been cared for and distributed prop-
erly over the soil, the 15 cows in 20, yeatsumave
replaced the $8,850 worth of soil fertility that was
removed from the soil by the 20 crops of wheat.
Hence, 15 cows are able to balance the soil fer-
tility that is removed in growing 100 acres of
wheat.

Combined with dairying, wheat growing can be
carried on indefinitely without the loss of fertility.

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 179

In other words, interest, and not capital, is with-
drawn in this farming operation. Consequently,
the full crop-producing power is maintained and
an increase of $18 in plant food is added to the
soil. If 20 cows are kept on this land, the crop
producing power of the soil will be improved to
the extent of $3,000. Therefore, the farm daily

THE NEW WAY OF MILKING

The milking machine is gradually being improved, and
before many years will be a fixed feature on every com-
mercial dairy farm.

é
grows in value; it adds quite a little to the capital
invested in the plant.

WHAT A DAIRYMAN SHOULD BE

It is a trite but.true adage that in all sorts of
farming “there is more in the man than there is
in the land;’ and this applies in the most forcible
manner to the dairyman. For he must not only
be a skillful farmer, but a good judge of cattle; a

180 FARM STOCK

careful, cautious man, and habitually regular in
his habits; endowed with the virtues of patience
and perseverance, and good, sound, common sense;
he must be studious, of a retentive memory, and
able to judge wisely as to points of his busi-
ness which may be in dispute; a good business
man, and of a certain refined disposition and
habits, and exceedingly neat and particular in his
person. All these characteristics are indispensable
for success in his vocation, and for the following
reasons:

A Skilled Farmer—He must be a skilled farmer,
because he must grow a large variety of crops,
and make his soil exceedingly productive by the
aid of the large quantity of manure he may make
and gather; and he must expend the crops he raises
in the most economical and effective manner. He
must understand well the character and uses of
the different kinds of soil, so that he may select
the best suited for his purpose; and he must know
how to manage such land as he can best select or
procure with the greatest effect and success. His
profit depends upon the raising of large crops, and
those of the most valuable kinds for feeding; and
he must thoroughly understand the different modes
of culture for grain, grass, root and fodder crops.

A Good Judge of Cattle—He must be a good
judge of cattle, because the cows are the tools of
his trade, and without the best tools, no good work
can be done. Moreover, there is such a large
variety of breeds, and such a great variation in
the quality of cows in use for dairy purposes, that
without good judgment, and some accurate knowl-
edge as a basis for the exercise of judgment in
this respect, a dairyman would be at a loss how
to make a proper selection, and would be very apt
to make a serious and perhaps ruinous blunder at

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I8I

the outset. There are exceedingly great differ-
ences in cows, and yet, as a rule, good cows are
easily distinguished from poor and unprofitable
ones, and the distinguishing marks and character-
istics should be well known to the dairyman who
expects to make a profit from them. So, too, he
should be able to choose the most promising calves
from which to replenish his stock, and also to
choose a good sire for his calves, that he may
steadily improve his herd in character and value.
It is also indispensable for full success in the dairy
that the dairyman should be able to judge of the
character of the cows he is feeding, that he may
discard those which are not profitable and keep
only those which pay the best for keeping; and
while there are certain accurate tests by which
they can be ascertained, yet it is a valuable acqui-
sition for a dairyman that he can tell at a glance
which cows of his herd are the best and which he
had better get rid of as soon as practicable.

Broad Executive Ability Necessary—Caretful-
ness in every detail, cautious supervision over his
stock, and in every little matter which calls for
change or modification of method, are necessary
qualifications in the dairy. A thousand small
things are coming up at times which need fore-
sight to guard against, and caution to avoid or
evade. There are so many contingencies which
are to be apprehended constantly, and so many
accidents continually threaten to occur in this most
intricate business, that unless one is naturally in-
clined to be careful in every matter of manage-
ment, the accidents which will surely follow will
be sufficient to rob the dairyman of his profit. For
instance, a gate may be left open, and the cows
thus get into a luxuriant clover field, become

182 FARM STOCK

bloated or otherwise injured, and some of them
permanently ruined; or a cow may be left un-
fastened in her stall and spend the night in roam-
ing about the stable, molesting the other cows and
perhaps injuring or even killing one or more of
them. The feed box may be left open and the loose
cow may be found dead in the morning from over-
gorging herself with the feed. The water trough
may be permitted to overflow on a cold day and
an icy spot thereby formed upon which the cow
may slip and fatally injure herself. The root cel-
lar may be left open and the roots become frozen,
and this stock of an indispensable feed be lost.
The water trough may be leaking and the cows
may go without a supply for the day, and half the
day’s milk be lost. And so on all through the
daily routine of work there are so many chances of
damage which are to be avoided only by the exer-
cise of great care and constant caution.

Regularity, too, in every detail must not be ne-
elected. It is one of the rarest attributes of a man,
to be constantly regular to hours and minutes, and
to methods. And yet it is of the utmost impor-
tanee in the dairy. A cow is a machine for making
milk and butter. This fact should never be lost
sight of. And the cow must be fed and watered,
and supplied with every attention; milked, turned
out and turned in, protected from storm and
weather, and in every way managed with perfect
regularity. She is an accurate time keeper, and if
her feed is late she frets, and fretting wastes milk,
and the milk loses cream.

A Dairyman Must Be Patient—Patience, perse-
verance, and good common sense are requisite for
success in the dairy. From the training of a calf
to the last operation in dairying, patience is called

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 183

for. The calves and cows should be well trained,
and made docile and good natured. This can-
not be secured unless the trainer is a patient
man, able to control his feelings, and quell
any rising anger stimulated by some accidental
mischance. Impatience will make cows vicious,
and their owners, at times, brutal. An accidental
movement made by a cow, when the milker is care-
less or incautious, may cause a pail of milk to be
-overset. An impatient man will kick or beat the
cow for his fault; for, as we have seen, he should
at every moment be on his guard for such acci-
dents, and always ready to avoid them. We should
remember that the man is the reasonable animal,
able to exert self-control and to think, while the
cow has only a natural instinct, and that alone
makes her suspicious and always on the defensive
against danger or attack. An unguarded, hasty
approach may cause a cow to kick or attempt to do
it instinctively, and to avoid all such dangers the
dairyman should, as we have already shown, be
exceedingly cautious; but when they occur, the
greatest patience is to be exercised. Cows should
be pets, without fear, and with affection for their
keepers; they are then most profitable to their
owners; and to bring them to this desirable condi-
tion of docility the dairyman must exercise great
and constant patience with them.

Perseverance and common sense will enable one
to surmount difficulties and to apply proper reme-
dies for them at the right moment. Dairy work
is full of risks, and as few persons are able to meet
_ with every contingency until they have long expe-
rience, it is necessary to persevere in spite of disap-
pointments, using good common sense to make the

184 FARM STOCK

lessons learned from time to time available for
future service. ! ,

Always a Studeni—A dairyman must be stu-
dious, and remember what he learns, applying his
oathered information to the better working of his
dairy. There is no other business connected with
agriculture which is $0 intricate and involves so

BUSINESS-LIKE DAIRYING

The up-to-date dairyman is a business man in every sense of
the word.

many uncertainties, or which requires such con-
stant applications of special scientific experiment
and of careful personal investigation and practice;
and to meet successfully all these and other re-
quirements of his work, a dairyman must have at
‘east a fair knowledge of dairy literature, and
know what other dairymen are doing, and what is
done at the numerous experiment stations and by
private investigations. At least he must have a

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 185

good handbook or manual for reference in case of
need, and must not be averse to learn something
from every possible source of information. Be-
sides, one man alone is weak and helpless, and
knowing this, the dairymen have formed associa-
tions for mutual help and information. It is very
necessary, then, that every dairyman should make
himself competent to discuss at these meetings such
questions as may arise, so that from a multitude of
counselors he may find safety from the difficul-
ties which he meets constantly in his daily work.

Must Be a Business Man—The dairyman must
be a good business man, and make himself ac-
quainted with the ordinary principles of business;
able to keep accounts, and discipline himself as
much as possible in the strict rules of regularity
and promptness which conduce so much to suc-
cess in any avocation. He is a manufacturer as
well as a farmer; a purchaser and a seller in the
markets, and should, therefore, keep himself ac-
quainted with the markets, and should habituate
himself to weigh and measure accurately every-
thing he buys, everything he produces, and all that
he sells, keeping strict account of all these matters.
Otherwise he cannot tell where he loses and where
he makes a profit; he will not know an unprofitable
animal from a well-paying one; he will not know
which are the best and most profitable crops to
grow for use, or the best foods to purchase; he
will be groping in the dark all the time, and must
necessarily suffer in pocket from his want of ac-
curate knowledge of his business.

Must Be a Gentleman—Lastly, he should culti-
vate a certain refinement of manner and dispo-
sition, a kind, considerate and thoughtful habit,

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186

THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 187

and, above all, practice the most thorough neat-
ness and cleanliness in his person and manner.
These requirements should be so constantly culti-
vated that they will become a second nature, an
instinct which is so thoroughly and completely a
part of the man’s character that they come into
action spontaneously and without thought or effort
on his part. For instance, the treatment of his
cows should be instinctively kind and gentle, and
the dairyman must so train himself to this habit,
think it so often, and make it so much a con-

MILKING-TIME

Scientious duty and a regular system of action,
that he will never be tempted to act otherwise. Mr.
Harris Lewis, President of the New York State
Dairymen’s Association, once remarked in reply
to a question as to how cows should be treated,
that every man should treat a cow as he would a
lady; that 1s, with as much consideration for her
comfort and happiness, and with the same gentle-
ness and politeness. Politeness is simply the es-
sence of thoughtful kindness, and this every dairy-
man should accord to his cows as a matter of com-
mon habit. Cows so used will well repay the favor,
and in turn, become kind and gentle, and never

I88 FARM STOCK ~

exasperate or annoy their owners with the com-
mon and troublesome vices of cows. Perfect
cleanliness should be made a constant study, until
it is so thoroughly a part of the daily life that a
dairyman would no sooner milk a cow or handle
milk or butter, or go about the work in the dairy
in an unclean condition or manner, than he would
put a dirty hand to his food, or go to a social gath-
ering all unwashed and with clothes reeking with
filth. This scrupulous cleanliness is indispensable
in the dairy, and it should be so made a part of the
nature and disposition of the dairyman by con-
stant self-training, that it will naturally apply it-
self to every part of the dairy work—the care of
the stables, the management of the cows, frequent
carding and brushing them, the washing of the
udder when necessary, but always the wiping of it
with a wet sponge or towel, the cleansing of the
utensils, the careful protection of the milk from
everything which would make it impure or offen-
sive, the situation and care of the milk house, the
manner of milking, churning and preparing the
butter, and every other of the various details of the
work. In every way the most constant and perfect
cleanliness being necessary, this habit must be so
thorough and strong that no effort will be needed
to accommodate one’s self to it, and, therefore, it
must be made a part of himself by every thorough
and successful dairyman.

CHAPALE Rie
The Business of Beef Making

The making of beef is one of the large farm
industries and calls for much capital, great skill
in breeding and feeding, and constant attention to
details. Beef raising has had its ups and downs; at
some periods profitable, at others a losing venture.
Even the cattle kings in the older days had many
losses as well as good profits, at times. The de-
mand for beef is always equal to and sometimes in
excess of the production; and this is more likely to
be true in the future than it has been in the past.

The control of prices in the sale of beef has
brought about much hardship to the producer.
Whether co-operative slaughter houses and sale
yards will be things of the future only time can
tell. However, there is certainly now too large a
difference between the cost of the live animal and
the cost of the product to the consumer. Ether the
consumer pays too much or the producer gets too
little. The simple fact that a number of large
slaughtering houses have been built up, bringing
their owners immense profits and incomes, is
enough to indicate that the margin between produc-
tion and consumption is too large.

One of the first essentials in the business of beef
making is the right sort of stock. The manufac-
turing animal should be a good _ beef-making
machine. If you have primitive live stock, you
certainly cannot expect very large profits. Deli-
cate machines produce high-grade work. Finely

189

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90

1

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING Igf

bred and carefully attended animals are profitable;
and just in proportion as the owner is skilled and
trained in the art of right breeding and right feed-
ing, will he succeed in the production of beef ani-
mals that pay. <A scrub beef cow is a failure and
has been so for a long time. She is an old-fash-
ioned beef-making machine; she is out of date; she
is too slow in doing her work; and when that work
is done its quality is often so poor as to be unsatis-
factory to both producer and consumer.

Then you must know about the market require-
ments. Too many men insist on growing beef to
suit their own ideas and pay no attention to what
the market requires; hence, when they sell their
stock they must take what they can get. Not
only should you study the best market from the
standpoint of your locality, but study the best mar-
ket from the standpoint of the class of beef you
‘raise. This refers to breed, to size of finished ani-
‘mals, and to their general quality.

LEARN TO JUDGE CATTLE

There are several reasons why the feeder should
be able to judge cattle. Every steer is not a good
feeder and a poor feeder in a herd cuts down the
profits. The good judge knows which steers will
utilize their food to the best advantage, and his
herd is composed of cattle which will put on flesh
rapidly. Some experiments have shown that pure-
bred cattle can be fattened on less than the poorer
grades, while, on the other hand, many scrubs are
found that will make larger gains than thorough-
breds, on the same amount of feed.

Reasoning from these facts, the feeder who
knows just what degree of purity will make the

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192

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 193

best feeders, and who can pick from the cattle of
low breeding those that will make the best gains,
has a great advantage over the man who cannot
distinguish between good and bad feeders.

The success of the feeder depends as much upon
the kind of cattle bought, and the price paid for
them, as upon the way in which they are fed. It
is evident that, if a stockman buys inferior cattle
and pays a big price for them, he will not
make a very great profit on them. The buyer
should know when, where and how to buy, and,
more important, what to buy. The time of year
at which the herd is to be marketed influences the
kind of cattle demanded.

Christmas Beef—An example of this is the de-
mand for beef of fancy quality at Christmas. If
a feeder intends to market at that time, he should
buy feeders of fancy quality. To be able to do
this he must know what degree of quality is re-
quired, and what kind of cattle will finish in a
fancy condition. During the feeding period, the
feeder should be able to determine the exact con-
dition of his herd:s.If his animals are not making
the proper gains, the feeder should at once detect
it, and change the ration. The expert judge knows
just when to add more roughage, or when the feed
does not contain the proper amount of carbona-
ceous or nitrogenous food.

Another very important thing that the good
judge knows, 1s that he is able to detect disease
and unhealthiness in cattle. The man who buys
diseased cattle has a poor chance of making any
profit. Unhealthy cattle do not make profitable
gains, and are as objectionable in a herd as the poor
feeder. The purchase of one diseased animal may
cause the infection of the entire herd. If disease

194 FARM STOCK

comes into a herd during the feeding period the
feeder should be able to detect it, and separate those
affected from the rest of the herd.

Study the Requirements—A feeder learns to be
a good judge by studying the requirements of a
good steer. He must know what the form of
a steer should be, low-set, deep, broad and compact,
rather than long-legged, gaunt, narrow and loosely
put together. The broad, compact form indicates
strong constitution, and the low-set animal is
usually a good feeder. The top and underline
should be nearly parallel and the flank and twist
low. Cattle having prominent hips, tail, heads and
shoulders should be avoided, as smoothness of out-
line is essential.

The quality depends very much upon the breed-
ing of the animal, and the market class into which
the steer shall go depends largely upon the quality.
Good quality is indicated in a smooth, refined head,
fine bones, and thin skin, covered with silky hair.
The skin should be loose and mellow. Strong con-
stitution is necessary if the animal is to make good
gains. The rapidity of gains depends largely upon
the amount of food that a steer can digest and as-
similate, and a strong constitution is required to
handle a large amount of food. Strong constitu-
tion is indicated by a wide, deep chest, long and
well-sprung ribs, compactness of form and fineness
of bone. If a breeder knows when an animal pos-
sesses these perfections, he can choose a herd that
will be good breeders and money-makers.

BABY BEEF

In the old days the idea was to raise cattle until
they reached the age of four or five years and then
to fatten them. The new idea is to grow beef,

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 195

starting with the young animals, that are gradually
brought to the block at as early an age as possible.
It requires a great deal of feed, much time and
effort; and money is locked up for a long period if
cattle are not sent to the market under five years
of age. If they can be brought to nearly the same
weight in from 15 or 18 to 24 months, all the
feed for maintenance is saved, but half of the labor
is expended, and the money is used but half the
period. These are important considerations in
growing beef or live stock of any kind.

The raising of baby beef is somewhat of a diffi-
cult and complicated specialty that has grown up
within the last few years. Of course, in this busi-
ness there is no chance for scrub animals. Only
highly bred individuals that possess good quality,
good health and the right type need be entered into
the race of baby beef making. Now baby beef is
coming to be the rule. It is the sensible kind of
beef to raise. It is obvious that the sooner an ani-
mal can be brought to a market condition, the
greater is the profit. The quicker stock can be
grown and fatted for the market, the greater the
profit and the more satisfaction to the producer.
Many experiments have been conducted in the beef-
raising section which all point to the greatest suc-
cess in the production of baby beef. But this style
of farming requires just a little more skill than the
old style. Better feeds must be used, they must be
fresh and palatable and they must be presented in a
way that the animals wll eat the largest possible
quantities.

SHELTER

Several experiments have been made to determine
if shelter is necessary in the production of beef.

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196

a THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING LQ7

_ The results indicate that an open shed is preferable
to either a closed barn or an open barnyard. In
stall feeding no better results were obtained than
where fed out in the open with exposure to all kinds
of weather. The best results are obtained by al-
lowing the run of the yard with shelter provided
so that during the cold rains and snows the ani-
mals. may get in out of undesirable weather. A
small amount of exercise is good for the health,
and not enough to cause any loss in feed.

FINISHING STEERS IN THE SPRING

After being fed all winter on dry foods, which,
to a certain extent, become monotonous to the fat-
tening animal, steers will frequently eat but little
else when turned suddenly upon fresh pasture.
Unless they are kept off the grass for all but brief
periods during the first weeks, there will be a check-
ing of growth due to the fact that the succulent
grass has disordered the digestion of the animals.
At the same time they will consume more of the
fresh, palatable grass and will not eat enough of
strong nitrogenous or fat producing foods.

Do Not Give Pasture Exclusively—This calls for
careful regulation of the diet of the growing steer
when first put upon the green pasture. They should
be allowed enough palatable mixed feed to take
the edge from their appetites, so they will not feed
heavily upon the grass when turned out. It has
been found that a good feed of mixed grain, early
in the morning, will serve this purpose best. If
the steers are then turned upon the pasture, they
will not .overfeed on the green forage. At this
time the concentrated meals and ground grains are
not as good as properly mixed whole grains, for

198 FARM STOCK

the reason that if these are fed in addition to the
already extremely laxative fresh grass, the animals
will be checked in growth.

A balanced ration cannot be said to be furnished
by early spring grass alone. ‘This early growth is
large succulent grass containing practically no ni-
trogen or fat-producing matter. For this reason
considerable corn with some dry alfalfa or clover
hay or some of the small grains should form a part
of the morning ration. The well-mixed feed com-
posed of grain, such as oats, barley, rye and corn,
is, at this time, to be preferred above one formed
chiefly of corn.

FATTENING STEERS IN SUMMER

_ It is a significant fact that many extensive feed-
ers, especially along the borders of what is known
as the bluegrass region, have turned from blue-
grass to the clovers, or a mixture of the same with
timothy or broom grass. They believe that the
net returns in beef per acre are thereby enhanced
and the crop rotations of the farm better provided
for.

The permanent bluegrass pasture has many ad-
vantages of its own; but in many localities in the
latitude of central Illinois and northward, large
yields of such pasture are precluded by conditions
of soil or climate. In this event, it is but the part
of wisdom to replace it by that grass or legume
crop which will contribute most largely to the an-
nual net profit of the farm and to the advantage
of the live stock thereon. Unproductive pasture
land is certainly one of the largest leaks in the
farming and animal husbandry systems of the cen-
tral west at this time.

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 199

One common mistake in the handling of pasture
lands is that of supposing mere grazing to be the
means of keeping up the fertility of the land. If
the cattle have their feeding, bedding and watering
places apart from their pastures, the fertility they
take from the land will be deposited about these
places. This results in a removal of plant food al-
most as marked as if hauled off in the form of
hay. The mechanical application of manure to the
pasture in that case becomes of importance equal
to that of the fields devoted to several crops.

As to the grain rations advisable for finishing
steers on grass, we may note, in the first place, that
the amount of grain fed should be governed largely
by the relative cost of grain and grass. That is,
when grass is cheap and corn dear, it is good prac-
tice to utilize the former to the greatest possible
extent consistent with the production of a satis-
factory marketable product. If the quickest finish
is wanted, the appetite of the steers is the best guide
to follow. They will commonly eat 17 or 18 pounds
of corn per 1,000 pounds live weight, or about the
same amount as in winter.

If fed a full grain ration, about one-half as much
pasture area will be required as on grass alone.
Further, the question whether such a supplement
as linseed-oil meal or cottonseed meal can be added
profitably to the corn fed, must be answered con-
ditionally with reference to the character of the
pasture crop. With any of the clovers or other
legumes the need of a nitrogenous supplement is
generally doubtful, while with bluegrass, or still
more markedly, with timothy, orchard grass or
native prairie grasses, such feeds are of distinct
value.

200 FARM STOCK

BEEF CATTLE IN AUTUMN

The critical time with beef cattle is the period
when grass fails and they are not yet taken into
winter quarters. The’ reference is; oi courses fe
cattle that are to be finished some time during the
winter. To meet the emergency of a dry summer,
the pasture provided should be in excess of the

A HOME-MADE DIPPING TANK

This dipping tank is always ready for use. An occasional
dipping wards off disease, and. plays havoc with lice and
mange.

needs of the stock. Such pasture, though in ex-
cess, will not be wasted. What is not eaten in the
fall will so protect the plants that early growth
will follow in the spring, and this will probably
more than offset any loss from uneaten grass. But
even the most careful forethought will not pre-
vent a shortage at such a time in a very dry sea-
son.

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 201

Supplementary Food—When pastures are short,
supplementary food of some kind must be fed.
If no increase was made during this period of
shortage, all the food eaten would be lost in the
sense that no direct profit would be made from it.
Wise forethought, then, will provide such food.
The form in which it is most commonly furnished
is that of corn in the stalk, and in some areas sor-
ghum. It is sometimes furnished in northern
areas in the form of rape. When thus furnished,
the cattle are introduced gradually to the rape to
avoid the danger of bloating. They are allowed
access to an old grass pasture at the same time to
counteract the tendency to scouring. Where one
has only a small bunch of cattle to carry, a few
acres of rape will go a long way toward putting
the cattle in high condition, providing the rape is
well grown.

How Corn and Sorghum Are Fed—Of course,
the feeding of corn may begin before the season
has arrived for harvesting. But to harvest by
hand, and feed from day to day, is laborious work.
It is much easier when the corn can be harvested
with the corn harvester and can then be drawn and
spread over the pastures. Where the number of
cattle is large there should be two pastures. The
corn for one day’s feed is thrown down on a fresh
place each day on the sod, but only every other day
in each field or inclosure. The cattle that are being
led up to fattening take the choice from the food,
and other store cattle eat up what is left. Swine,
of course, glean also with the latter. Sorghum is
cut and shocked like corn or is piled in heaps and
is carried from these to the pastures or paddocks.

No additional grain is called for unless the cattle
are to be made ready for the early market; that

202 FARM STOCK ©

is, before the end of the year. If more grain is
called for it may be given most cheaply in the form
of corn. But, of course, other grains will answer
fed in the ground form. More commonly, it is
not added to the food until the animals go into
winter quarters. If farmers would only provide
for it, the cheapest food that could be used would
be corn silage. The idea is common that corn
silage is only good for milk production. When the
silage is made from corn that is well stocked with
ears, it is even better relatively for beef produc-
tion than for milk production when it is the chief
factor in the ration, as it furnishes a ration much
more nearly balanced for making beef than for
making milk. Such food would meet the needs of
cattle on short pastures better, probably, than any
other. Think also of the economy of feeding the
silage, because of the almost complete consumption
of the stalk. Should the silage not be ready for a
week or two at the first, corn in the stalk could be
fed until it is ready: The: feeding of the sitame
could begin the day after the silo had been filled.

It is a matter of much importance that cattle
thus in process of fattening should be protected
from cold storms. Especially is this important at
night. During such periods they ought to be
protected. Such exposure will greatly retard in-
crease. No detail should be overlooked that will
tend to promote their comfort. They can then be
taken into winter quarters without any hindrance
to progress from the change. }

SWINE FEEDING AFTER CATTLE

The plan of allowing swine to feed after cattle
that are being finished on corn has become so com-
mon in the corn-belt states that to fatten cattle

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 203

successfully in any other way than in conjunction
with swine feeding after them is looked upon as an
impossible thing. ‘That is to say, it is looked upon
as impossible to make the financial end of the work
come out right without making swine to glean
among the droppings.

The plan of thus fattening cattle and swine in
conjunction grew out of the exigencies of necessity.
Corn was so cheap relatively in former years that
it was possible to feed it ever so freely to animals
that were being fattened. When corn was 10 to
20 cents a bushel, it did not matter much, though
it was fed very freely to the cattle. If feeding a
large amount fattened them quickly, that was the
great consideration. It was of more consequence to
rush the cattle in the fattening process than to try
to save corn. Because of this, it became quite com-
mion te teed) to a cattle beast of 1,200 to 1,500
pounds weight not less than 25 to 28 pounds of
shelled corn per day. The animal so fed would
probably gain 2% pounds per day for the short
feeding period of 100 days, and so much of the
corn would be undigested that a pig gleaning after
it would get enough, to produce, say, one pound of
increase per day.

Putting the corn at 20 cents per bushel, the beef
made at 4 cents per pound and the pork at the same
price, the increase in meat would be worth 14 cents
and the cost in corn would be but 1o cents. There
would thus be a gain of 4 cents on the meat made
in one day, also a further gain in the enhanced value
of the meat, as shown by the live weight when the
feeding began. This does not take into account the
fodder fed or the cost of feeding, nor the value of
_ the manure, which would offset both by such a sys-
tem of feeding.

THE NEW IDEA IS TO GROW BEEF

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 205

Influence of Changed Food Values—The influ-
ence of changed food values is going to affect
mightily such a system of feeding. Take corn at
40 cents per bushel. Suppose the gains in beef and
pork are the same. Present prices will scarcely war-
rant putting the average value of the finished steer
at more than 4 cents per pound in the feed lot, and
the same is approximately true of pork. The cost
of the increase in beef and pork in this case would
be 20 cents, while the value of the same in the feed
lot would be but 14 cents as before. Therefore, the
loss would be 6 cents. To offset this would be
the increased value of the meat each day that com-
posed their original weight.

It is questionable 1f this would offset the loss re-
ferred to. Now, suppose corn went up to 50 cents,
the prices of meat remaining the same, the chance
for making a profit would be further reduced.

What Must Happen—lIt is very evident, there-
fore, that if finishing beef by this system is to con-
tinue, there must be modification somewhere. It
may come in different ways. It may come first
through the enhanced value of meat, or second,
through modification in the system of feeding. It
is evident that the present system is not attended
with large profits as things are. ‘The prices paid
for meat must advance or the value of grain fed
must decline. The margins at present are too nar-
tow. When they become too narrow feeders must
shut down, or at least curtail their operations, and
this ultimately reacts upon those who supply the
cattle. Now, food values are not likely to decline
seriously. The trend of the level of food values is
to go up as countries grow older, hence, if meat
is to be grown in sufficient supply, it must become

206 FARM STOCK

more expensive; that is, it must become higher in
the sense that the grower shall get more for it.

Another Plan of Feeding—It may be that an-
other plan of feeding will be introduced. By this
plan the corn and other grain will be ground. It
will be mixed with ensilage and fed, or with other
cut food. Instead of feeding each animal 28 pounds
of grain a day they will be fattened on less than 14
pounds a day and the swine will be eliminated from
the feeding. The gains will be somewhat less than
two pounds a day on the average and the feeding
period will extend over five months rather than
three months. This system calls for more labor
than the other, but the time is unquestionably com-
ing when it will pay better.

It may be, however, that this time is not quite
here. No one in Europe or Canada would think of
feeding a cattle beast 28 pounds of grain a day.
They would not think of doing so, because they
could not afford it.

FEEDING INFERIOR CORN TO CATTLE

The feeding value of inferior grades of corn is
usually underestimated by the farmer who finds a
lot of it on his hands. Consequently, he often
sells it at a sacrifice to some neighboring stockman,
whose experience has taught him that such corn is
better than it looks. This is true of lhght-weight
corn, which has matured too early by reason of
drought, and it is true of soft, frost-bitten ears.
The former is low in starch and oil, having been
halted in its growth before the storing of these sub-
stances was completed; but the protein is there in
nearly normal amounts so that the proportion of
protein to other nutrients is greater than in sound
corn.

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 207

Good Gains on Frosted Corn—Soft, frost-bitten
corn, excepting its high percentage of water, com
pares favorably in composition with sound corn
and its feeding value depends chiefly upon the
amount of moisture it contains. In 1896 and 1902,
when large areas of corn were damaged by early
frosts, professional cattle feeders were able to buy
at them, own prices, below ten cents a_ bushel
in many cases, all the corn they could use, and in
most cases it was found that the steers fed out
with as good gains as in normal years. It is not
to be inferred that the highest finish can be put
on choice or fancy feeders with soft, watery corn,
but it is a fact that medium and good grades of
cattle can be made about as thick and ripe as the
market demands of these grades on a ration of
soft and.even moldy corn, such as the crop of 1896.
Combined with hay at its present low price, it
should be the means of producing beef at very low
cost. Let unsound corn, therefore, be reckoned at
its true value.

The class and grade of cattle best adapted to the
circumstances is the most important matter to be
decided by the farmer who proposes to convert his
damaged crop into beef. Those who have to buy
feeders will find that the prevailing cheap hay,
plentiful grass and high-priced corn of this sea-
son generally favor the handling of yearlings
rather than calves or two or three-year-olds, be-
cause they have the greatest capacity for utilizing
a coarse ration to good advantage. The farmer
is fortunate who can buy in his own neighborhood
native yearlings suitable for feeding, but most
buyers will have to look to one of the markets.

Quality of Feeders Important—Quality of feed-
ers is the essential point in cattle of yearling age

208

/

WHERE BEEF IS
ack of the Elereford calves are seen the cattle barns, sheds and silos, all essential

MADE

Just b

for profitable beef making.

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 209

whether they be natives or western range cattle.
They should be started on feed while grazing on
fall pasture, stubble or stalk fields, together with
the best available roughage. They cannot be fat-
tened most profitably under eight to ten months,
and an effort to crowd them more rapidly will
give disappointing results. Let ten or 12 pounds
of shelled corn per steer be the upper limit during
the winter. Regulate the ration so as to keep the
cattle growing fast and fattening somewhat. A
600 or 700-pound steer started in October should
weigh 300 pounds more before the opening of the
next grazing season. They may then be full fed
on grass for the July market or grazed over sum-
mer with little or no grain and fattened in the
fall. This proposition, of course, requires pasture
and a supply of good roughage like clover hay.
It would be advisable only where a part of the corn
crop matures sufficiently so that it can be kept over
winter.

Buying Feeders in Fall—Supposing that a large
amount of badly damaged corn must be disposed
of in a short time, or that pasture or leguminous
hay is lacking, the most suitable cattle to select
are usually either heavy, fleshy feeders or some
kind of thin butcher stock. Whenever medium
or good grade, 1,100 to 1,250-pound, three-year-old
feeders can be bought at feeder prices, they are the
most profitable cattle that can be fattened; but
they are difficult to find in the country, and can
seldom be bought at conservative rates at the large
markets. They must be thrifty, and not previously
burnt out with corn. They can be fattened in 90
to 120 days, according to their condition and age.
They may be started on shock or snapped corn,
and should be on full feed after about three weeks.

210 FARM STOCK

Various kinds of butcher stock—cows, heifers,
bulls and low-grade steers—will also be handled in
large numbers this fall by experienced cattle feed-
ers who wish to make a quick turn. Such cattle
are especially suited to the man who is located
near a large market, or who can pick up mixed lots
of cattle cheaply in his own neighborhood. Little
capital 1s required and such cattle can be handled
with less care than any other class. For instance,
a field of corn that is scarcely worth husking or
shocking may be harvested by turning the cattle
into it, gradually, of course, until they are on full
feed. - High prices of milch. cows remden the
butcher stock proposition unusually safe at present,
in view of the good returns that can be secured
from cows or Reivens that prove to, be aim Callie
Some skill and experience in trading are neces-
Sary im order to buy cattle of this class worth the
money.

Best Methods of Feeding—As to methods of
feeding immature corn, it may be said that, on gen-
eral principles, the simplest methods should be
used; that is, the greatest profit 1s usually made
by feeding it as shock fodder, snapped or husked
ear corn. The silo, also, is undoubtedly one of
the most effective means of extracting the full
value out of such a crop as we are considering.
Cutting damaged corn for fodder has an advantage
over snapping and husking in that it keeps better
in that condition. The degree of softness and
the percentage of water contained must be con-
sidered in determining the way in which the crop
shall be fed.

It is now settled that grinding corn does not
pay, ordinarily, even though corn is high and
though no hogs follow the cattle. Shock corn is

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 211

best fed by stringing it out on the ground in a dry
yard, keeping the hogs out until the cattle are
through eating. Feed half a shock a day to a car-
load of steers at first, increasing up to the amount
desired at the rate of one or two stalks a day per
steer. Nitrogenous concentrates, like cottonseed
meal, linseed-o1l meal, gluten meal and gluten feed,
may be profitably fed, considering the price of
corn. They are most effectively used when legu-
minous roughages, clover, alfalfa, cowpea hay,
etc., cannot be obtained, as they take the place of
such roughages to some extent; and wherever corn-
stalks, timothy hay or straw must be depended
upon, the by-products named can usually be fed
with profit.

FATTENING CATTLE IN LATE FALL

Never in the history of all live stock feeding
has the necessity been greater for the exercise of a
prudent caution on the part of those who feed live
eee tieamt at the present’ time. The prices: of
coarse grains have run up to such a pitch that the
greatest of care and judgment will be required to
make any considerable profit from feeding cattle
the coming winter. It would seem, therefore, to
be the part of wisdom with those who have cattle
in good condition to push them forward for the
early rather than for the late market.

Where the facilities are present, there are two
or three ways of doing this. If the owner has a
good field of well-grown rape he can turn it to
excellent purpose in fattening cattle in the autumn.
He must introduce the animals to that kind of pas-
ture with much caution. When once really intro-
duced onto a rape pasture, they may be left on it,

ZZ FARM STOCK

but should have a chance to graze on a pasture not
too distant in which the old grass and the new are
abundant. Such a condition is frequently found
in bluegrass pastures in the autumn. On such pas-
tures the cattle should gain rapidly, even without
grain. In the absence of a grass pasture, access
daily to clover or alfalfa hay will have a good
effect upon the digestion. Rape, soft and imma-
ture, will not be nearly so valuable for laying on

CATTLE FEEDING ON A WESTERN FARM

They have both quantity and quality in the West. In
time these big herds will be broken up; better care will be
given and a higher quality of product will result.

fat as rape that is well matured. When the rape
begins to fail, it may be supplemented by shock
corn, or in the absence of corn, by grain.

Feeding Shock Corn—This is one of the com-
monest and best ways of finishing the cattle where
such food is to be had. There is no better way of
feeding it than by strewing it on the pastures.
The cattle will consume the ears and also much of
the stalk. If two pastures can be had and the cat-
tle are fed in these on alternate days, and if other

THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 213

store cattle can follow, then the waste in the corn
will be much reduced. It will be further reduced,
if not entirely obviated, if the pigs can follow to
glean amid the grain that shells. But in northerly
areas it may be necessary to finish the cattle by
feeding shock corn and hay, preferably clover, in
the paddocks or sheds, and by adding some corn
in the ear or shelled in addition.

Fimshing on Meal—In areas where corn is not
abundant, the cattle can be finished on meal, which
at first supplements the pastures and later the fod-
ders fed in the sheds. Such meal may be obtained
from any of the coarse grains, as oats and speltz,
or oats and barley, or it may be obtained from any
one or two of these and ground millet. While the
cattle are yet on rape or other good pasture, the
feeding of the meal may begin, giving only two
to three pounds a day at first, and increasing the
quantity according to the needs of the cattle. Corn
m@ader or hay, or both, may, of course, be -fed
when the pastures begin to fail. Good corn fod-
der, quite equal to hay, may be grown away north
and several tons may be obtained per acre.

Protecting from Storms—When cattle are thus
finished in the autumn, they should be most care-
fully protected from storms, especially when ac-
companied by cold. Exposure to one storm will
prove a hindrance to gain fully equal to the ordi-
nary gain of several days. Ontario feeders aim to
promch thet cattle from exposure to the early
- frosts even, by giving them the cover of a shed
at night. They give them a light feed of hay in
the early morning before turning them out to
Piaze he practice is excellent, as it prevents
them from filling the stomach with grass while
still covered with rime.

214 FARM STOCK

A High Fimsh Essential—When cattle are thus
finished in the autumn, a high finish should be
sought; such cattle reach the market when it is
flooded with common cattle, which affects the price.
But the proportion of highly finished animals at
such a time is not large; hence, if they have the
finish, they will usually be in demand at fair prices.
They should be marketed, as a rule, before poultry
begins to arrive at the holiday season, otherwise
they should be carried over until after the opening
of the year. ie

Good cattle in fair flesh, say in August or Sep-
tember, may be finished as outlined above with
more profit than by carrying them on into or
through the winter. This cannot be done with
lean cattle, as the time is too short to bring them
to a high finish.

CTA PATER A RV;

The Care and Management of Cattle

The cattle-man, regardless of his line, recognizes
that the most intimate association must exist be-
tween himself and his stock. ‘It is positively out of
the question to make a success of dairy cattle or
beef cattle when the tender is not in close sympa-
thy with and earnestly attentive to the animals
under his charge.

The “animal knoweth his keeper.” He who is
abusive, rough and thoughtless is not a success.
When you see a flock of sheep, a drove of hogs or
deaerd on cattle at the very heels of their master,
licking his hands and clothes, you may know that
there is a chord of sympathy and good will exist-
ing between the man and his animals. No slip-
shod attention and care will do.

You must study the needs of your herd from
day to day. You must feed and care for them ac-
cording to each particular period in the lives of your
animals; and you must be ever ready to make
some sacrifice in some direction, 1f you would se-
cure the greatest success in the raising of the stock,
in the production of milk, or in the fattening of the
Ssveer.

Just as there is a constant changing demand for
food from early calfhood to adult age, so must
there be constant changes of management during
the period of growth to maturity.

No general rule will apply for all classes of
cattle. The scheme or plan of managing a beef
herd will not be applicable to a dairy herd; and each

215

216 FARM STOCK

breed calls for close attention, in some single di-
rection, to some particular point ; consequently, each
cattle raiser must thoroughly understand his herd,
be in close touch with the market to which his milk
or beef products go and give close attention to the
feed of his section, the community and individual
farm.

He must be conversant also with the drawbacks

JUST WAITING FOR SUPPER

This simple contrivance is much esteemed where many
calves are fed and raised. Pach gets its own ration, with-
out fuss, confusion or fight.

or strong points of his own farm in its relation to
the particular breed of cattle or to style of product
he produces.

REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK

A great many people think a good calf cannot
be raised on skim milk. For many years our calves
were such long-haired, stunted, little things we were
ashamed of them. But we kept on trying until we
had something to be proud of. After much reading

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 217

and experimenting, we have mastered the subject
and now raise fine, thrifty calves. After letting
the calf suck for three days we put it in a pen by
itself and let it get hungry. Then, with three pints
of its mother’s milk, we teach it to drink; this may
necessitate two or three trials. A total of only
four quarts and a pint is given at first in three
feeds. If the calf does not seem to be very strong,
we give four feeds, the last at bedtime. It always
gets new milk warm from the cow until it has a
good start and is drinking well. This practice con-
tinues for two weeks.

When to Begin—At two weeks we begin to feed
skim milk. A teaspoonful of flaxseed meal is
mixed with half a teacupful of warm water and
placed on the back of the stove a few minutes. This
is mixed with one quart skim milk and one quart
new milk, and fed three times a day, always at a
temperature equal to blood heat. Now we have
the calf taking two quarts three times a day. The
new milk must always be sweet. We never over-
feed ; if the calf does not drink its milk up clean at
once we take away what is left and give less next
time until it has an appetite for three quarts three
times a day; never any more. Overfeeding on
skim milk always stunts a calf. Each calf is kept
in a pen by itself. Since no two calves are alike, we
are very particular to give his own ration according
to his age. When each is a month old we begin
to feed a little hay and a few oats or a little meal,
thus keeping it growing thriftily. This method in-
volves some trouble at times, but it pays.

FEEDING THE DAIRY CALF

If strong and healthy, the calf should be taken
away from the dam when two or three days old.

ATVO GNV MOO NIDLS TION

218

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 21Q

The calf should be fed whole milk for about two
weeks; then add about one-fourth skim milk, and
keep increasing it for a week or ten days, until
the whole milk is entirely displaced by skim milk
altogether. Frequently, with excellent results, a
little flaxseed jelly can be used in the skim milk.
Add this when beginning to feed skim milk; and
even if the calf is a week old no bad results will
follow.

To make this jelly, soak whole flaxseed in hot
water. This is far superior for young calves to
any calf meals used as a substitute for milk. If
you cannot get the whole flaxseed, ground oil-cake
meal, as Road on the market, is a very eee sub-
stitute.

At two weeks old, place a little whole corn and
oats in a box so the calves can get at it—they soon
learn to eat and relish it—as well as hay. With
this system, calves do well at three weeks old on
flaxseed jelly, grain and hay, with about one pint
skim milk added to each feed, morning and even-
ing, so as to give the jelly a milk flavor.

Do not allow calves to get fat, but keep them in
a good, thrifty, growing condition. Get them to
eat a minimum amount of concentrates. Continue
this system with the calf until within three or four
months of cowhood, then feed concentrates liber-
ally so as to develop the milk-secreting organs for
service after the birth of the calf.

FEEDING MILK IN GOOD CONDITION

Many of the ills of calves arise from giving
them milk in poor condition. At the creameries
the vats are sometimes allowed to get in a very
unsanitary state. They are not emptied and

220 FARM STOCK

scalded out with sufficient frequency, and some-
times washings from the utensils are dumped into
the vats. In some instances the milk is drawn
back and kept for a day or two before it can all
be fed. It has time to become acid and otherwise
deteriorate, and when fed in such a condition does
not make a very good food for calves.

Separator Milk 1s Best—The best skim milk
that can be obtained for calves is that which has
been obtained from new milk run through the
separator soon after it has been obtained from the
cow. Itis them fresh. -It is of proper temperature.
or nearly so, and is in its constituents almost as
' good as new milk for promoting growth. If the
pails in which it is kept are scalded, then the dan-
ger from bacterial contamination is obviated.

The temperature at which milk is fed is a mat-
ter of much importance. Cold milk lowers the
temperature ot the. stomach, and throwehiieetwe
temperature of the body. Though no further
harm be done, the lowering of the temperature of
the body means more food, as, before any gain
can result, the temperature must become normal,
and this means that it is made so at the expense
of food.

Milk, from what is known as the setting process,
is usually, if not, indeed, always, below the normal
temperature. If fed, therefore, at the normal tem-
perature, it must be heated.

Sometimes it is heated by adding hot water.
This dilutes it too much. Again, it is heated over
a fire. This changes its properties somewhat, and
is troublesome. Heat is added by pouring in hot
eruel. This is as good as far as it goes, but does
not go far enough usually. Hence, simple as the

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 221

problem of heating milk seems, it is not so simple
after all.

AMOUNT OF MILK FOR CALVES

The amount of milk for calves varies greatly
with the capacity of the calf to take it. The
amount recommended to be fed also varies great-
ly, some authorities recommending twice as much
as others. With reference to this question it will
be correct to say that during the earlier weeks of
the life of the calf no adjuncts will be found su-
perior or equal to milk. It is also true at the same
time that as soon as calves can utilize other food to
good advantage, it will be found cheaper than milk.
It follows, therefore, that the calves should be
given all the milk that they can digest properly
until they can make good use of substitutes that
take the place of milk.

But care should be taken not to overfeed milk,
good as it is. This can be easily done. The indi-
cations of overfeeding soon show themselves in
deranged digestion, and such derangement is com-
monly indicated by scouring. The moment that
such an indication appears the amount of milk fed
should be reduced.

It is very evident from what has been said that
it will not be possible to name the amounts of milk
to feed that will be suitable for calves of all ages,
but it may be possible to state average amounts. It
would seem safe to say that during the first week
of the life of a calf it will safely take from six to
eight pounds of milk, the latter quantity being fed
at the close of the week. Strong, vigorous calves
may take as much as ten pounds, but ordinarily the
smaller quantity is the safer one. Then add one

222 FARM STOCK

pound of milk every week with the advance in the
age of the calf until it is, say, ten weeks old.

CARE OF CALVES AFTER WEANING

Subsequent to the weaning period, calves are
frequently allowed to lose in flesh, thus, in a
measure, losing the benefit that would otherwise
result from careful feeding during the milk period.
The food and care are not exactly the same with
calves weaned in autumn as with those weaned in
the spring.

Calves weaned in spring usually go on grass
pasture as soon as it is ready. Such food is very
suitable for them, and when it is abundant, no
other food may be necessary. Usually, however,
it is advantageous to keep up the supplement of
grain, though it may be in lessened quantity.

The same is true of calves that are to be finished
quite young, as when grown for baby beef, calves
of the beef types or classes intended for breeding
should be given a less amount, and those intended
for milk production may fare well enough without
any. No kind of meal supplement, probably, is
superior. to the following for summer feeding:
Ground corn, three parts; ground oats, three, and
wheat bran, one. If only one grain is fed, let it be
oats.

WINTERING YOUNG CATTLE SUCCESS-
FULLY

Four things are necessary to insure fair growth
and good condition in young cattle during the win-
ter. These are all within the power and reach of
everyone to obtain if he so desires. First, shelter.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 223

Since our timber has been taken away, live stock
cannot be left out in open lots as in former years
without suffering serious loss and discomfort.
Where the owner has not sufficient barn room and
is not able to build it, good shelter can be had by
making straw sheds for the cattle with but trifling
expense. Or, in the absence of straw, warm sheds
may be made by using fodder for sides and roof
and this can be fed in late spring when the danger
of cold rain or snow is past. At any rate, sheds
can and should be provided for them so that they
may have protection in bad weather.

Supply Plenty of Water—Then they should have
plenty of pure, clean water. Many farmers enter-
tain the idea that stock cattle will not drink much
iieeoteeatier. - [his 1S “a. mistake.” Chey are
eating dry fodder, hay or straw, as the case may
be, and they must have plenty of water to assist
nature in dissolving these dry feeds. And they
should have it at will. By this means they will
not be so likely to fill themselves full of cold water,
or sufficiently so to chill their entire system and
make what should be a source of comfort to them
a source of discomfort. They should also be fed
plenty of forage, either fodder or hay, clover or
mixed preferred, and straw about all they will
consume, with a small ration of grain once or twice
a day.

What Grain to Give—This grain may be fed in
the shape of corn in the shock if any is grown on
the farm small enough that they can readily masti-
cate it; if not, larger corn may be husked and
chopped into small pieces with hatchet or corn knife
so that the yearling steer can readily take hoid of
it and eat it. Some farmers shell corn, others pre-
fer grinding corn, cob and all, and feeding it that

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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 225

way. This latter method requires more careful
equipment and greater care in feeding than either
of the other two methods. For calves, however,
we prefer shelling corn and mixing one part oats
to two parts corn. The young animal will do bet-
ter and make better growth with part ration of
oats than where corn alone is fed. There is more
protein in oats and the growing animal needs more
of that. However, if clover or alfalfa hay is used,
the protein in that will even up the corn and fod-
der and make better rations.

Helping the Manure Pile—When this method
of disposing of the forage crops of the farms is
practiced, all rough feeds, such as fodder, hay and
straw, is worked up into manure and put back upon
the land from whence it came. And we believe
that young cattle, sheep or colts, carried through
the winter on rough feeds mainly, do not pay large
profits for feeding, yet the incidental profits coming
from the business in increased fertility and conse-
quently larger yields of other crops, makes the
feeding of forage-consuming animals on the farms
almost a necessity rather than a choice. And in
these days of close competition and small profits in
business, farmers are compelled to practice such
methods as will give them maximum results at
minimum cost of producing them.

SUPPLEMENTING CATTLE FEEDS

Early in the history of cattle feeding in America,
the problem was not as serious as it is today. Com-
petition was at a minimum. Feeds were plentiful
and cheap, so it came about that each farmer could
raise a few steers each year, using the grains and
forage produced on his own land. This he usually
did at a profit.

226 FARM STOCK

The modern cattleman has a more difficult prob-
lem. Corn and other feeds are high and the packers
have systematized the business so that they pay
the least possible price for fat cattle. The matter
of supply and demand does not cut as much figure
as it did formerly, consequently the man who de-
sires to remain in the business of raising and feed-
ing cattle must use every means of getting his
stuff on the market at the lowest cost.

Good Feeders Wanted—In order to do this, he
must first secure feeders of good beef formation
and get the kind that will mature early. Long

two-year-olds are probably the most satisfactory,

-as they put on fat more readily than older cattle
and at less cost. When these animals are secured,
put them in a dry feed lot, so arranged that the
drainage is good, and also so placed that the cat-
tle will be protected from the storms and winds.
A cheap open shed will keep off rain and snow.
Have good feed troughs.

Com -is the most fattening feed im the yiestem
where the bulk of the beef cattle are produced
and finished. It will always remain the standby,
because it is a great fat producer and is one of
the cheapest feeds we have. Oats and barley may
ibe fed in limited quantities, but seldom is either
‘used alone. Ground in combination with corn,
‘results are satsfactory.

Concentrates Profitable to. Use—Big feeders
nowadays find that concentrated feeds are advis-
able. None of them suggest large quantities, but
-a small addition to the regular ration not only gives
‘the animal a good appetite, keeping his coat smooth
‘and his skin mellow and his digestive organs in
‘good condition, but materially aids in increasing
‘the live weight. Linseed meal is one of the chief

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 227

standbys and cottonseed meal is exceedingly satis-—
factory. Both these feeds are to be used with
caution, and more especially where hogs follow
cattle.

It behooves the feeder, therefore, to study the
problem of feeds very carefully, secure prices of
concentrated feeds, note the value of feeds produced
on the farm, and make his combinations accord-
ingly. Locality, distance from market, etc., have
much to do with the problem, and all must be taken
into consideration.

CHAPTER Ser
The Diseases of Cattle

The most successful directions in which the
treatment of cattle diseases have gone are of the
nature of prevention, of eradication of cause, and
of improved sanitary conditions. It does not pay
very well to attempt simply to cure disease, for
the cause remains just as it did before. Another
thing that has been learned is this fact. Our most
troublesome, our chief contagious and our greatest
loss-making diseases are due to germs] (alan
tuberculosis. A few years ago we considered that
an hereditary disease only. Now we know it is not
hereditary, but solely a germ disease, easily ac-
quired by taking into the system, through air or
uncooked food, living germs that find comfortable
quarters in the body.

Take hog cholera—the most fatal and trouble-
some disease among swine raisers. It is a germ
disease. It does not pay to attempt to cune asick
hog 1f the germ still remains on the premises, for
the cause is still present, ready to rise up at any
moment to attack oncoming herds.

The idea back of treating disease among our
lower animals is to combat the cause, eliminate the
starting troubles so as to secure thorough sanitary
conditions, healthful environments and quarters
free Of Serim Or Insect:

SOME COMMON DISEASES

Tuberculosis—Without question, this disease is
the most far reaching among cattle. The annual
228

THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 229

loss is tremendous, not only due to diseased ani-
mals being either killed or dying of the disease, but
the loss in production, the shortage in work,
whether it is beef or milk, is somewhat tremen-
dous. Not only is this phase to be considered, but
the number of people, especially babies and chil-
dren, who by means of milk and butter from tuber-

Aw CAT ELE. BATE «EUB

The cage here shown is used for dipping the cattle for
treatment of mange. The dipping tank is now generally
used throughout the West.

cular cows, take this disease annually, is alarm-
ing. The effort of the experiment stations, the
department of agriculture, boards of health and a
score of other workers to lessen and wipe out
tuberculosis is going along right lines and in the
end will bring about great good.

Tuberculosis of cattle is similar to that of peo-
ple. It destroys the tissues of the lungs, is found

230 FARM STOCK

in the intestines and may locate itself in various
parts of the body. The early signs of tuberculosis
are unthriftiness, poor appetite, dry cough, papery
skin, and coarse, rough hair. As the disease ad-
vances the flesh gradually wastes away, the cough
increases and often a discharge is seen from the
nose or mouth. By listening to the lungs, if far
advanced, considerable difference will be noted
from the normal action. <A physical examination
may be verified by the tuberculin test, a preparation
that is injected into the animal just under the skin
and readily taken into the circulation. If the ani-
mal is tubercular, the fact is indicated by the rise
in the temperature eight or ten hours after the in-
jection. This rise continues for several hours,
reaching 105 or 106 or even 107°, and then grad-
ually declines.

Treating the Disease—There is little to be said
about the treatment of animals affected with tuber-
culosis. If they are common animals, perhaps the
best thing is to slaughter them. In many cities,
inspection of suspected herds is done under the
direction of the state, and some compensation given
by the state for the slaughtered animals.

Animals of considerable worth, especially dairy
animals, may be handled as follows: Isolate the
tubercular animals from the rest of the herd by
giving them quarters of their own, off by them-
selves, where they may have plenty of fresh air,
an abundance of ventilation in the stables, and
nutritious food. As soon as the offspring are born,
immediately remove each one from its mother,
giving it none of its mother’s milk at all. It has
been proved conclusively that this new born off-
spring does not possess tuberculosis. If now given

THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 231

milk free from tuberculosis germs, it will develop
into a strong animal, free of the disease.

The milk from the tubercular herd can be made
into butter, provided it has been thoroughly steril-
ized so as to destroy all of the germs. By this
practice a costly herd of cattle can be maintained
for the time being, until the offspring are born, at
a small cost due to the isolation.

Fighting Tuberculosis m the Stable—A_con-
tinued battle needs to be fought against tuberculo-
sis in every stable where cattle are, in any great
quantity, housed or constantly stabled. This will
apply especially to dairy cattle. A wise practice is
to test the dairy cows in your herd at the earliest
possible moment by means of the tuberculin test.
You can do this yourself; but it is better to get a
veterinarian who is fully acquainted with all of the
details of the work. If any of your cows respond, it
is to your interest to dispose of them. They can be
sent to the slaughtering houses and there they will
be passed upon by the government officials. If not
far gone, they will pass the test and you will get
the usual beef prices. If in bad health, they will
be condemned and, of course, you would not want
them to be used or kept for any reason.

The next step is to thoroughly disinfect all of
the cattle quarters. Any of the disinfecting fluids,
and lime, will do for this purpose. A monthly
spraying of the quarters is to be advised and the
whitewashing of all of the premises at least twice
each year. And then every six or ten months,
test the cows for tuberculosis, or until you are
certain that it has been eradicated. From now on,
once every year or 18 months will be sufficient and
by so doing you can be reasonably sure that your
herd is free of this dreaded disease.

232 FARM STOCK

It is also advisable to have all purchased cattle
that go into the dairy herd isolated and tested be-
fore admitted. In this way you will avoid danger.

Anthrav—This is an infectious disease due to
the anthrax bacillus. While most common in cat-
tle and sheep, it is known also to occur in horses,
mules and goats. The disease may be transmitted
from animals to man. It is first noticed as being
in the skin, lungs or intestines ; breathing is labored
and the intestinal discharges may be covered with
mucus and blood; swellings appear as carbuncles.
which, when opened, show a yellowish mass stained
with blood. Pools of stagnant water are frequent
sources 1f contaminated with the bacillus. If such
a disease has been present, make a most thorough
disinfection by the use of chloride of lime or other
disinfecting substances. Vaccination of susceptible
animals for the purpose of preventing the disease
has proved very successful and is now generally
employed.

Abortion—By this is meant the premature expul-
sion of the offspring. It may be due to an acci-
dent, a noncontagious trouble; or it may be due
to an infectious germ that is contagious and unless
checked will pass through the entire herd. Symp-
toms prior to abortion are not generally observ-
able and no successful treatment has yet been dis-
covered for handling the disease. It is necessary,
however, to use the greatest caution in isolating
aborting animals from the stables and barns, to
thoroughly disinfect the quarters in which they
have been placed, and then to frequently use disin-
fecting liquids every week or ten days so that the
disease will not spread to other members of the
herd.

THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 233

Texas Fever—The greatest bane of southern cat-
tle raising has been Texas fever. It has been only
recently that this ailment has been clearly under-
stood. Now we know it is due to the ticks that
seek to live on southern cattle. One of the ob-
servations early made was that young cattle never
were inconvenienced nor troubled with ticks, but

A CASE OF TEXAS FEVER

A familiar attitude assumed when afflicted with Texas fever,
caused by the cattle tick.

that old cattle, if they had never had ticks on them,
would invariably die when the ticks came. Cattle
that had carried ticks from young calfhood went
into old age bearing this parasite for years without
any disease manifestation at all. These differences
were not clearly understood until recently, when
the following facts were brought out:

234 FARM STOCK

First, that young calves are usually immune.
Cattle ticks do not bother them and by the con-
tinued carrying of ticks they carried their immu-
nity throughout life.

Second, that if the young calf was not rendered
immune by having ticks on it at an early age, that
same calf, when reaching the age or "15, on te
months, would succumb to the disease if infested,
because it had not been rendered immune while
young.

Third, inoculation for the purpose of securing
immunity has been practiced successfully. The
- most rational treatment of Texas fever is in the
order of prevention. That is, to keep the ticks off
the farm. It is not good farming to have each ani-
mal carrying thousands of big ticks, constantly
filled with blood, even though they do not threaten
the life of the animal. It should be remembered
that these ticks consume great quantities of nutri-
ents that have been given the animal in form of
good food. The flesh of tick-infested cattle is
not good, and they never reach the highest develop-
ment; and it is an easy matter to keep ticks off the
farm. By keeping cattle off the field for a year,
the ticks will be entirely destroyed. The following
year, turn the cows in a field that has been cleared
of ticks, being sure that no ticks are on the cattle;
and then, by keeping all cattle off of the infested
parts of the farm for another year, complete eradi-
cation will be effected.

Any sort of grease or lard rubbed by means of
a brush onto the cow along her abdomen and legs
and neck, or such parts of her body as touch the
ground when she lies down, will reach all of the
ticks and in a short time they will drop off dead.

THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 235

Foot and Mouth Disease—This is a common dis-
ease throughout Europe and threatened our coun-
try quite seriously a few years ago, especially in
New England. The very quick and effective work
of the states in conjunction with the United States
Department of Agriculture quickly wiped out the
disease.

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE

In this case the dreaded disease has affected the udder.
When affected, the only method of treatment is immediate
slaughter.

The disease itself is highly infectious, the virus
being found in eruptions in the mouth and on the
feet; in the milk and other products of the barn-
yard. ‘The death rate is low. The chief symptoms
are rise of temperature, loss of appetite, followed
by blisters and sores in the mouth, on the tongue
and lips. Even the udder may show such spots.
Many cases are known where the hoofs were com-
pletely destroyed.

236 FARM STOCK

Vaccination has been practiced, but not very suc-
cessfully. The best method has been to destroy
all of the diseased animals and then to thoroughly
disinfect all quarters where such animals have been.

Milk Fever—TVhis disease is peculiar to the cow
at the time of calving. It may be due to bad sani-
tation, poorly ventilated stables, mature age, etc.
The disease ordinarily appears from one to two
days after calving. Some claim that the disease
is due to excessive milk secretion, but the cause is
not clearly understood by the scientists.

Milk sickness is usually associated with the
heavy milking cows. ‘The common treatment of
milk sickness now, is to inject ten grams of todide
of potash into the udder as soon as possible after
the symptoms of milk fever are noticed.

One of the most common treatments is to simply
pump air into the udder. I know many people who
have resorted to the common bicycle pump for this
purpose and in a few hours the afflicted animals
were up, moving about, and as full of life as ever.

Cornstalk Disease—The cause of this disease is
not known. ‘The symptoms are digestive disturb-
ances, accompanied by delirium and wunconscious- ’
ness. The most reasonable view to take is that it
is some germ disease associated with molds in the
food. If once attacked with the disease, the afflicted
animals succumb very rapidly. The greatest
caution is here suggested in the use of moldy food.
Cornstalk disease has, perhaps, been more prevalent
throughout the western states than elsewhere in
the country.

Bloating—This trouble is caused by the forma-
tion of gas in the first stomach. It is closely asso-
ciated with indigestion. In fact, it is a form of
indigestion. Green foods like clover or alfalfa, until

THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 237

the animal has become thoroughly used to them,
will ordinarily cause bloat. Even dry alfalfa when
cured into hay, frequently causes bloat and death.
Where alfalfa is mixed with other grass or where
the pasture animals have access to dry hay, corn
stover and sorghum, there seems to be little dan-
ger from its use as pasture.

In treating, large doses of soda dissolved in
water may be administered, using with it melted
lard or other harmless oil. When the pressure
upon the inside of the stomach has become so great
that the animal cannot walk, it 1s necessary to
resort to paunching. ‘This operation consists in
making an opening in the stomach directly through
the body wall and may be accomplished by means
of a thrust with a knife. The incision is described
as equally distant from the last rib and the hip bone
and the set process of the vertebral column upon
the left side of the animal.

CHAPTER Daval:
Sheep

From the earliest ages the sheep has been a
source of profit to mankind, and its keeping and
rearing an important industry. Abel, the second
son of Adam, chose sheep herding as his employ-
ment; and although his brother chose to till the
soil, the tending of herds and flocks became the
favorite occupation of the human race in its early
_ periods. In those days people did not till the soil
more than they were obliged to. Of course it was
very easy to tend the flocks, because there were
few people and much land and it is very likely
that the sheep was the earliest animal domesti-
cated.

So dependent is this animal on man that without
him he could not exist. Having always yielded
to his master’s will, gone where that master bade
him and been protected as much as possible against
all dangers, he has become stupid and dreamy.
His senses have lost their acuteness.

As civilization progressed stage by stage, and the
manufacture of garments of wool displaced those
of skin, careful breeding began to improve the
fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in
type. Later on, as people became more settled in
their occupations, cities were built and demands
for mutton increased; and that demand has in-
creased, until, at the present day, it is greater than
the supply. It has been stated that the markets
of the city of New York alone require more than

one million sheep each year.
238

SHEEP 239

While the sheep industry has always been one
of prominence in the United States, it has always
been less than its worth has merited. There is
a place on every farm for some sheep. Wool 1s
in constant demand and usually commands good
prices. Mutton may be consumed at home, re-
placing some of the pork, or it may be sent away
to the markets of the world. Sheep will graze on
pastures that other farm animals reject; and
wherever the sheep's feet tread for any length of
time, the land improves and wealth abounds. For
this reason, this beast has been termed the “animal
with the golden hoof.”

A PAIR OF COTSWOLDS

The ewe and ram shown here are both prize-winning
individuals. They have to their credit silver medals and
championship ribbons.

SSHNIVAYD S VOISANV AO SYAMVIN

AHL 40 ANO

240

CHAPTER XVII.
Breeds of Sheep

Merino—The Merino sheep was evolved in
Spain, and has been reared there for centuries.
From Spain they have been exported into the vari-
ous countries of Europe, United States, Australia,
etc. The first importation into the United States
was made in 1802 by Col. Davis Humphreys of
Derby, Connecticut. Under the influence of Ameri-
can and French breeders, the old Spanish Merino
has been improved so that the forms now known in
the United States are the American Merino, the
Delaine Merino, and the French Merino or Ram-
bouillet. The Delaine Merino has been evolved
from the American Merino and differs from it in
the longer fleece and improved mutton form.

The American Merino is one of the smallest
breeds in the United States. The ewes at maturity
weigh from 90 to 125 pounds and the bucks, when
in good condition, from 140 to 175 pounds. The
skin of the Merino is characterized by heavy folds,
especially about the neck; wool is fine and very
dense. The fleece will weigh ro to 15 pounds
more in the rams. It is one of the hardiest sheep
in the United States and adapts itself to various
conditions of climate and food products better than
any other breed. It can be herded in flocks of
thousands where the mutton breeds cannot be suc-
cessfully herded in flocks of over 200.

They are the sheep par excellence for grazing.
They do not become fully mature until the age of
three or four years, and their feeding qualities are

241

242 FARM STOCK ~

inferior to those of the mutton breeds. The meat
is lacking in tenderness and flavor, and contains
a large proportion of bone to meat. Within recent
years many of the eastern flocks of Merinos have
been crossed with the mutton breeds, for the pur-
pose of producing an all-around wool and mutton
sheep.

Delaine Merino—The Delaine Merino has been
produced from the American Merino. It has a
larger carcass, a better mutton form, is nearly free
from folds and wrinkles and carries a longer fleece,
though not quite as fine nor as well glued together
on the surface as the American Merino.

The chief sub-types of the Delaine Merino are
the Standard, the National and the Improved De-
lame. . Closely related to these im them leagine
characteristics are the Black Top Spanish Merino,
the Improved Black Top Merino and the Dickin-
son. , All the Delaine Merinos have herns)) aud
more or less wrinkles or folds about the neck and
breast. The Black Top Merinos, likewise {awe
horns in the rams, but do not have wrinkles, and
the fleece is more.of a black ‘The Wiekngemion
Polled Merinos have neither horns nor wrinkles.
They are a little larger in size and the fleece as
longer than the Delaines.

Ewes of the Delaine type, when mature, will
weigh from 100 to 150 pounds, the rams from 140
to 190 pounds. They are practically equal to the
American Merinos in hardiness and grazing
powers, but are superior to them in early maturing
qualities, in the quality of the mutton produced and
in feeding qualities. The Delaines are used ex-
tensively for crossing on western range sheep,
where the fleece has become light and open. The
fleece in ewes will weigh from nine to 15 pounds,

BREEDS OF SHEEP 243

and in the bucks, 12 to 18 pounds. The minimum
length of the fleece is three inches.
Rambouillet—In 1786 the French government
imported from Spain 383 selected Spanish Me-
rinos. These sheep were kept chiefly at Ram-
bouillet, where they have been carefully bred by
rigid selection and liberal feeding, and greatly

RAMBOUILLET RAM

A sturdy representative of the old French Merino class.

improved in mutton form, quality of meat and
weight, without the introduction of any outside
blood; both the weight of the carcass and the
weight of the fleece have been increased from 100
to I50 per cent over the old Spanish Merino.
These sheep were introduced into the United States
in 1840, but did not become specially prominent
until during the last 20 years. Full grown rams

244 FARM, STOCK

of this breed will weigh up to 225 pounds and the
ewes up to 175 pounds.

These sheep are much taller, stronger limbed
and more rangy than the American sheep, have a
better mutton form, are less wrinkled and the wool
is longer, though not quite so dense or fine, and

SOUTHDOWN EWE

A saddle of Southdown has long been considered one of
the choicest of all morsels. Some of the best in the world
are raised in this country.

freer from yolk, than the American Merino. They
are also taller and heavier than the Delaines, but
have not quite so good a mutton form, though
very similar in other respects.

The Rambouillets have the same hardiness and
feeding qualities as the American Merinos and,
while the quality of the meat is excellent, it is

BREEDS OF SHEEP 245

not quite equal to that of the mutton breeds. These
sheep are especially valuable for crossing upon
range stock for the purpose of securing a larger
carcass and heavy fleece of wool. They are at
present largely used alternately with Cotswold
rams on western range flocks.

A SHROPSHIRE AT ATTENTION

Of the medium wool breeds, the Shropshire leads all others
in numbers. Nearly 25,000 were registered last year.

Southdown—The Southdown originated in
England, and was imported into this country at
the beginning of the nineteenth century. It is a
smooth, round-bodied, symmetrical sheep, with a
brown, gray or mouse-colored face and feet. The
fleece is rather dry, coarse and light. They are horn-
less and while the smallest of the medium breeds, a

246 FARM STOCK

medium fat, two-year-old wether will weigh from
130 to 140 pounds. They are especially well
adapted to hilly lands with a dry soil, short, dry
ierbage. They stand in the first rank among
early maturing breeds, and the meat is of the best
quality. They are vigorous and especially desirable

A PAIR OF HAMPSHIRES

Hampshires are black-faced, hornless and black-legged.
This sheep is gaining in popularity, because of its heavy
fleece, good grazing quality and large size.

for crossing where mutton is chiefly sought. They
have been used to a greater extent in the produc-
tion of the various other pure, dark-faced breeds,
than any other of the Down breeds. They are
inferior in wool production, giving an unwashed
fleece that will average from five to seven pounds
in weight.

BREEDS OF SHEEP 24/7

Shropshire—The Shropshire is the most popu-
lar mutton breed produced in the United States.
It is well proportioned, symmetrical, and a little
heavier than the Southdown. ‘The ewes will weigh
up to 175 pounds, and the rams up to 225 pounds.
It is of English origin and was evolved out of the
Southdown, Cotswold and Leicester breeds. It
was first imported into the United States in 1855.
They are especially adapted to general farm con-
ditions where the land is well drained and where
pasturage is good. The ewes are very prolific,
producing on the gps about 40 per cent of twin
lambs.

' The unwashed fleece will average nine to ten
pounds in weight in ewes, and 12 to 15 pounds in
the rams. ‘The face is grayish black and the legs
still darker; in recent years there has been a tend-
ency toward somewhat lighter faces.

As compared with the Southdowns, the Shrop-
shires have a longer and heavier body and a heavier
fleece. ‘The head is more completely covered with
wool, and the wool is longer, though not so fine;
it is what is known on the market as medium De-
laine or half combing wool.

It is one of the best general-purpose sheep for
farm flocks, since it produces a high quality of
mutton, a good grade of wool, which brings nearly
top prices, and a large percentage of lambs.

Hampshire—The Hampshire is a_ hornless,
black-faced, black-legged sheep. Like the South-
down and Shropshire, it originated in England and
is the outcome of a cross of the Improved South-
down upon the Wiltshire and Berkshire Knot sheep.
It is much larger than the Southdown, more pro-
lific, produces a heavier fleece, and has _ better
grazing qualities. It is larger than the Shropshire

248 FARM STOCK

and the lambs grow more rapidly to maturity.
They are especially adapted to an intense system
of farming, and for crossing where early, quick-
maturing, large-sized lambs are desired.

The unwashed fleece will weigh from seven to
ten pounds in the ewes and a little heavier in the

A HORNED-DORSET BUCK

For the production of hothouse lambs no breed is
more popular than the Dorset. The breed is gaining in favor
every day.

bucks. The wool corresponds to that of the Shrop-
shire, but is perhaps a little coarser. ‘They are a
stylish, handsome sheep of the mutton form, and
are quite widely distributed throughout the United
States.

Suffolk—This is a medium wool, hornless, mut-
ton breed, with a long, black face, and a gerieral

BREEDS OF SHEEP 249

absence of wool on the head and between the ears,
which constitutes the principal difference in appear-
ance between the Suffolk and Hampshire breeds.
The body is rather long, the legs jet black. The
Suffolks occupy an intermediate place between the
Shropshire and the Hampshire. They have not
been extensively bred in the United States.

Oz;0rd —Vhe Oxford Downs originated in
England as a result of crossing Cotswold rams
upon Hampshire Down ewes and the selection and
mating of the progeny. These sheep since 1857
have been known as Oxfordshire Downs or Oxford
sheep. They are widely distributed over the United
States. They are the largest and heaviest of the
Down breeds. When in good flesh, the rams
should weigh 250 to 275 pounds, and the ewes
from 200 to 225 pounds. The wool is rather
coarser than any other of the medium wools and
the fleece is heavier, weighing from ten to 12
pounds unwashed.

The Oxfords resemble the Hampshires in gen-
eral form, but are a larger breed and the face is
not so dark. It is usually an even dark gray or
brown, with or without a gray spot on the tip of
the nose. They are best adapted for lands furnish-
ing good pasture, and do not succeed as well under
range conditions or on rugged, broken pastures as
either the Shropshire or Southdowns.

Dorset—The Dorsets are one of the oldest Eng-
lish breeds of sheep. Both sexes are horned. The
face is white with a tendency toward a slight Ro-
man nose. They are considerably larger than the
Southdowns. The average weight for a mature
ram is about 215 pounds and for mature ewes, 165
pounds. The wool is short and will average six to
eight pounds unwashed to the fleece.

250 FARM STOCK

The Dorset is a solidly built sheep, and especially
esteemed for its prolificacy. When properly man-
aged, two lambing seasons a year are possible
with this breed. This makes the Dorset especially
popular for the production of winter lambs. When
bred in May, they produce lambs for the Christ-

A CHAMPION LEICESTER EWE

If you do not like sheep for wool only, then why don’t you
try mutton?

mas market, and will breed again soon after drop-
ping their lambs. They frequently produce twins
and often triplets. The ewes are frequently bred
to Southdown or Hampshire rams to give the mar-
ket lamb a black face, which is generally pre-
ferred by the butchers. The Dorset is generally
regarded as the most prolific of the sheep breeds.

BREEDS: OF SHEEP 251

The ewes are exceptionally good milkers. They are
a hardy sheep; good rustlers; have early maturing
qualities, and the mutton is superior. They stand
unrivaled among the sheep breeds for the produc-
tion of winter lambs; i. e., unweaned lambs which
can be marketed during the holidays and winter
months.

Cheviot—The Cheviot is a mountain breed of
sheep, hardy and does well on scant pasture. They
are native to the Cheviot hills of England. These
sheep are distributed in nearly all the states east
of the Mississippi river. They are a medium-
sized sheep, the rams weighing 175 to 200 pounds,
and the ewes from 135 to 150 pounds. The wool is
rather coarse, the fleece weighs eight to ten pounds.
They are especially sought where hardihood is im-
portant. The breed is pure white, including a
white face and white legs. Occasionally there are
small black spots on the head and ears. The end
of the nose is dark. They do not bear close con-
finement as well as some of the other breeds. The
mutton, though of good quality, is not equal to
that of the Southdown.

Leicester—The Leicester is one of the long-
wool native English breeds which, though popular
in England, have never made much headway in
America. There are two types of Leicesters, the
Bakewell and the Border Leicester. They both
have the same general style, but the Border Leices-
ter is a little the larger and not quite as compact
as the Bakewell. They are a white-faced, square-
bodied, hornless breed. The mature bucks weigh
225 to 250 pounds, and ewes 200 to 225 pounds.

The unwashed fleece will weigh from nine to II
pounds. The wool is of good length and fiber,

252 FARM STOCK

and hangs in spirals at the outer surface, cover-
ing the whole carcass except the head and legs.
They are especially suited to thickly settled condi-
tions where there is an abundance of succulent
vegetation. They are easy keepers, mature early
and make excellent use of the food given them.
They are only fairly well adapted for rough graz-

A FINE LINCOLN FLOCK

The Lincoln belongs to the large mutton class of sheep. This
breed is growing more and more popular in this country.

ing purposes. In prolificacy they are not equal to
some of the other breeds.

Lincoln—This is probably the most popular of
the long-wool breeds of sheep. It originated in
Lincolnshire, England, and has been distributed
all over the world. They were first imported into
the United States in 1836. They are the heaviest
of all the breeds of sheep raised in this country,
the mature rams in good flesh weighing 275 to 300

BREEDS OF SHEEP 253.

pounds, and the ewes 225 to 250 pounds. The
unwashed fleece should weigh from 12 to 14
pounds on the average, and the staple should not
be less than eight inches in length. It hangs in
large and wavy spirals. ‘This breed has a white
face and a conspicuous tuft on the forehead. Both
sexes are hornless.

They are especially well adapted to an intensive
system of agriculture, are good grazers, dress out
well on the block and the quality of the meat is
good, though not equal in flavor to that of the
middle wool breeds. The Lincoln has been ex-
tensively used by ranchmen in America and Aus-
tralia for crossing upon Merinos to improve their
size and mutton qualities.

CHAPTER DYViir
Sheep Feeding

The variety of foods suitable for the feeding of
sheep is extensive. Hay, straw, corn fodder, roots
of various kinds, corn, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat,
cottonseed and linseed-oil meal, and bran, furnish
a variety of food from which a proper choice can
readily be made. The relative feeding values of
these various substances used as food will deter-
mine their relative money values, and as these dif-
fer and fluctuate from time to time, it is often
necessary, to secure the most profit on the feeding,
to choose the food that is most economical in use,
although it may be the highest in price.

Clover and alfalfa hay are the most valuable
foods for winter use, cut when in blossom, cured
so as to preserve all good qualities and kept free
from damp and mold. Where the main object in
view is the production of market lambs, either kind
of hay should furnish the chief subsistence of the
ewes. They will also be found preferable as the
staple and cheapest fodder when sheep are pur-
chased for feeding for market and the most rapid
growth of flesh is desirable.

Well-cured pea straw will be chosen by sheep
next to clover or alfalfa hay, and before timothy
or any other hay. Odat straw is readily eaten by
sheep, and is a healthful food, especially if har-
vested before the oats were dead ripe. Barley,
wheat, and rye straw will help to keep life in a
flock, but are not sufficiently nutritive to contrib-
ute much to the growth of flesh or wool, and

254

SHEEP FEEDING 255

should be used only as adjuncts to roots and grain
or oil-cake meal.

ROOTS ALWAYS FINE FOR SHEEP

Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest value
for winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper
quantities, their laxative effect healthfully opposes
the tendency of dry hay or straw to produce cos-
tiveness, and in addition they supply a considerable
proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for
the growing animal and its fleece. But if fed in
excess, the large quantity of water they contain,
and their large bulk, especially when they are fed
in the winter, reduce the temperature of the animal
too much, and gradually act unfavorably on the
health. When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any
but very small quantities, abortion is frequently
iproduced, and this ill effect has been noticed more
conspicuously when the roots have been manured
heavily with superphosphate of lime. This has
been noticed by some extensive feeders and breed-
ers in England, where that fertilizer is largely used
in root culture, and their experience should serve
aS a warning to us.

The reason assigned for the loss of lambs by
abortion when many turnips are fed, is not only
that the fcetus is affected by the presence of a mass
of very cold matter in the stomach of the ewe, but
that there is an irritation produced in the intestines
by this unacceptable food, which causes the death
and expulsion of the fcetus. Nothing of the kind
has occurred in flocks that have been largely fed
on cooked roots, applied at such a temperature that
would prevent a chill to the animal. It may, there-
fore, be understood that it is the low temperature,

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SHEEP FEEDING 257

generally near freezing, and often below it, at
which the roots are given, and nothing in the roots
themselves that acts thus injuriously. Knowing
this, the ill effect likely to be produced may easily
be avoided.

The roots that are generally fed to sheep are
sugar beets, mangels, rutabagas, yellow turnips and
white or corn horn turnips, and are to be preferred
in the order in which they are here enumerated.

Roots Are Nutritious—Considering the large
quantity of water contained in them, roots may be
considered as highly nutritious food, and when fed
in conjunction with dry fodder, and in proper pro-
portions, are generally conducive to the health and
growth of the sheep. Their effect upon the quality
of the wool, especially the lustrous wool of some
of the long-wool sheep, is very favorable. The
proper quantity of roots to be given depends upon
the kind of sheep. As a safe guide, it may be es-
timated that one bushel of roots will be a sufficient
daily allowance for ten sheep weighing 150 pounds
each live weight, if along with the roots, 112 pounds
of hay and.one-half pound of meal or bran per
head be given.

LET SEVERAL GRAINS BE USED

Grain, or preparations of grain of various kinds,
furnish the concentrated foods which are found
needful to maintain sheep in healthful condition,
or to induce the rapid growth and fattening for the
market. These foods exist in abundant variety, but
no one alone can be fed with the greatest benefit for
any length of time. A change of food is both ac-
ceptable to, and healthful for sheep, and the dif-
ference in the money value of these articles of food,

258 FARM STOCK

which exists at nearly all times, makes it necessary
to exercise a judicious choice in this respect, in
order to secure the greatest profit.

The fat-forming elements in any article of food
consist of starch, sugar, gum, oil and fat, all car-
bonaceous matters, or matters rich in carbon, with
the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and
oxygen. The chemical composition of these ele-
ments is very similar and in some of them is nearly
identical. Thus an animal” red “upon \stanemuas
sugar may become fat, and it is well known that
bees fed upon sugar are able to produce honey or
wax from this food. In the process of digestion
and assimilation, starch, sugar and gum are changed
to fat. This fat is either consumed in the process
of respiration, or is stored up in the tissues of the
body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But
in the consumption of food rich in starch, a much
larger proportion is necessary to produce a given
weight of fat, or a given result in the process of
respiration, than is required of a food rich in fat
or oil.

CHOICE MUST BE EXERCISED

In choosing the variety of food, then, for a spe-
cial object, as, for instance, the feeding of a young
growing animal, or the fattening of a mature ani-
mak and the sustenance of a sheep that produces
fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of the pure-bred
Merino, those foods which would furnish abundant
flesh should be chosen for the one, and those rich
in starch and oil for the others. By thus choos-
ing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy
in the cost of food, and the object sought is gained
at the least expense

SHEEP FEEDING 259

Much may be gained by varying or mixing the
food of an animal so as to stimulate the appetite;
for a healthy animal will increase in weight in
proportion to the food consumed so long as di-
gestion and assimilation are perfect. If a sheep
eats only three pounds of hay per day, but will eat
and digest, in addition, six pounds of sliced turnips
or beets with a pound of bran sprinkled upon them,
a manifest advantage is gained. In changing the
hay for straw, ten pounds of turnips and one pound
of bran or oil-cake meal can be consumed, the
money value of the food may be reduced, and the
sheep be equally well fed.

In estimating the amount of a sheep’s food, it
is necessary to take into consideration the age and
condition of the animal: whether it be in a grow-
ing state or in a state of maturity; its weight, also
the drain upon its vitality, as in the case of a ram
serving a number of ewes daily; or a ewe in lamb,
or suckling a lamb or pair of them. On this ac-
count, it is absolutely necessary to grade the flock
and provide different quarters for those which need
special feeding care.

CHAPTER XIX.
The Care and Management of Sheep

In handling sheep, just remember that they are
naturally timid and of a nervous disposition. The
highest success in sheep raising cannot be expected
unless the flock keeper by his quiet manners and
gentleness inspires confidence in them. A sudden
disturbance of any kind, like the bark of a dog,
will startle the whole flock and sometimes create
a panic. Some shepherds make a habit of whis-
tling or talking to the sheep as they approach them
unexpectedly.

Whenever sheep are handled, gentleness and
quietness should be insisted upon. ‘This sort of
training and custom is of especial value at lambing
time. The shepherd with experience knows what
this advice means, and if you will observe him as
he works day in and day out, with rams, ewes and
lambs, the wisdom of such attention will be seen
and its force, in successful management, appre-
ciated.

And then remember, too, that the lambing period
is the most critical time in the life of a flock. Con-
stant attendance during day and night is called for.
If the lambing season occurs in cold weather, the
lambs may become chilled before they are able to
suck their mother. If twins are produced, the
mother may give attention to only the stronger one.
Here it is the shepherd’s duty to see that the
weaker one gets its full supply of nourishment.

If the young lamb is unable to suckle within a
few minutes after birth, it should have help, and it

260

cd

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 261

is often necessary to hold the ewe for this purpose.
Sometimes the mother refuses to own her offspring.
This trouble can be overcome by shutting her up in
an individual pen out of the sight of other sheep
and with only the lamb for company. You may
even have to hold her a few days until she submits
to the charge. Some shepherds sprinkle the
mother’s milk over the lambs, often with good
results. |

When a strange lamb is placed with another ewe,
due to the death of her own offspring, many prac-
tices are resorted to in order to induce her to own
the strange lamb. The common practice is to re-
move the skin of the dead lamb and to tie on to
the lamb which is to be adopted. This is an old
custom and generally satisfactory.

Should a lamb become chilled after birth, it can
often be resuscitated by putting it into a pail of
water as hot as it can stand. It should be covered
entirely with water, leaving only the nose exposed.
When the water becomes cool more warm water
should be added. It may be necessary to do this
two or three times if the lamb is chilled, after
which the lamb should be rubbed dry with a towel
and fed with warm milk heated to blood heat. In
severe cases a few drops of whisky or brandy
added to a teaspoonful of water have been given
with good success and can be generally recom-
mended.

After reviving, the lamb can be returned to the
flock and will require no further attention. When
lambs are two to six weeks old the tail should be
cut off, using for the purpose a sharp jackknife.
A stub about two inches long should be left. Some
use a chisel for the purpose. The tail of the sheep
is a useless appendage, difficult to shear and likely

262 FARM STOCK

to get besmeared and unsightly; consequently with:
farm flocks docking has been resorted to, and is
now an universal custom.

WEANING THE LAMBS

Every flockmaster realizes that the weaning of
the lambs from the mother ewes is generally an

ALL THREE ARE FRIENDS

A case where the dog and sheep get on well together.

ordeal that is attended with a good deal of mani-
festation of displeasure in the way of bleating on
the part of both the ewes and the lambs. From
the time the lambs are dropped in the spring
to the time they are taken from the flock, they are
dependent on the mother ewes, first, for the milk
which sustains them, and second, for the company
or companionship.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 263

When the lambs are taken from the ewes and
compelled to suffer from hunger and lonesome-
ness, it is no wonder that they bewail their condi-.
tion and shrink in flesh, and that a considerable
time may be required to recover and start along
maintaining themselves and improving in condition.

I have noticed that large, thrifty lambs, that are
good eaters, make less ado when taken away from
the flock than the weaker and unthrifty ones. I
have also found that if the lamb’s stomach is well
filled with nutritious food, it stands the loss of
companionship much better, and more readily
adapts itself to the new conditions. A little extra
pains taken to prepare for weaning will be paid in
saving of loss of flesh, as well as a good deal of
worry and bleating on the part of the ewes and
lambs.

A little while before weaning time arrives it is
a good plan to teach the lambs to eat some food
that will take the place of the mother’s milk better
than the grass of the pasture. Get the flock into
an inclosure, where they will be comfortable after
they have filled on the grass in the morning and
give them a light feeding of oats and wheat bran,
equal parts, and then just at night feed them again
and turn them out to pasture. The lambs will learn
to eat the grain with the ewes.

Taking Lambs from Mothers—After they have
learned to eat the grain the time can be set for
separating the ewes from the lambs. On the morn-
ing of the day set, get the flock in earlier than
usual, feed and hold until nearly time to turn out,
when the ewes can be sorted out, the lambs fed
and the ewes driven to a distant field out of hear-
ing of the lambs. The lambs can be turned into

204 FARM STOCK

pasture where they wil! give their attention to feed-
ing on the grass; and if taken in each day, fed a
fairly liberal portion of grain, given access to all
the water needed and plenty of grass to eat, they
will make a constant growth at weaning time. If
kept improving the wether lambs will soon be in
condition to command a good price for the drover
or feeder and the best ewes can be retained to in-
crease the size of the breeding flock.

SHEEP DURING THE LAMBING SEASON

It is greatly important that lambs be strong
and vigorous at birth. When they come delicate,
it is difficult to carry them on without loss, and the
extra labor entailed is very great. That they will
not come large and strong is a foregone conclusion,
unless the ewes have been properly fed, properly
housed and properly exercised.

Food for Breeding Ewes—In localities where the
ground remains uncovered during much of the
winter, fortunate are those flockmasters who have
a pasture with a reasonably tough sod on which
the sheep may graze. With grass in plentiful sup-
ply, even though partially dead, the ewes will need
but little else until the approach of the lambing
season.

Where the ground is deeply covered with snow,
the best fodder that can be given to breeding ewes
is clover or alfalfa hay. If’this can be given only
once a day, the other feed may consist of-a good,
finely grown corn stover, well-cured millet, or good
Oat straw. “It hay .or alialta are ted bulpeneers
day, it should be fed in the evening, as the sheep
will eat the other fodder more readily in the morn-
ing when they are hungry. Pea straw. well saved.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 265

is also an excellent fodder for them. The same is
true of peas and oats or vetches and oats grown
together.

When thus supplied with good fodder, they do
not need much grain until toward the approach of
the lambing season. They will be in better condi-
tion, however, at the lambing time if they have
been fed a small quantity of grain previously. No
grain is more suitable for them than whole oats
fed alone, or, what is better, along with a little bran
or oil cake. Both bran and oil cake are not neces-
sary, but they will do no harm if both are present.

Field roots are excellent, but before the lambing
season it 1s not necessary to feed more than two to
three pounds a day. If roots cannot be had and
corn silage can, it will be in order to feed silage
at least once a day. When clover or alfalfa hay
are fed either of these goes admirably with silage.
The latter is a carbohydrate and the hay is a pro-
tein food. When straw is fed as one of the feeds,
what is left over answers nicely for bedding. As
a rule, the aim should be to clean out daily the racks
on which sheep are fed their fodder.

Suitable Shelter—The housing for breeding ewes
may be simple. It should possess two requisites.
These are freedom from drafts and capability of
protecting from storms. But in no instance should
the quarters be confined. Usually the ewes should
have perfect liberty of access to a protected yard on
the sunny side of the shed. This yard ought to be
well bedded. It is a fatal mistake to have sheep
housed too warmly, even at night. They are not
liable to suffer from the cold if protected from
winds.

Suitable Exercise—Sheep will take ample exer-
cise if they have the freedom of one or more fields

266 FARM STOCK

when the snow is not deep or entirely absent. It is
when the snow is deep and they are-unable to paw
it off that they are in danger of becoming too slug-
gish. The more highly they are fed the more slug-
gish they are. To avoid this it may be necessary
to put feed in a rack some distance away from the
shed, and located, if possible, in a secluded and
protected spot. If the snow is deep, clear away
by using the snowplow and strew a little hay here

A PAIR OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS

These healthy, vigorous sheep are looking into a bright
future in this country. They are good feeders, possess good
weight and give good account of themselves wherever placed.
and there along it. The ewes will soon find the
way to the feed. They will make a pilgrimage to
it daily if the food is enticing.

Exercise Necessary—When the ewes do not take
ample exercise, the lambs are lacking in vigor when
they are born. When this happens the task of car-
ing for them while they are young is difficult and
the losses that occur will probably prove serious.
After the lambs are born and on their feet, the
ewes may be fed grain with much freedom. A

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEF 267

mixture, as of oats and barley or oats, bran and
barley, will furnish a good grain supplement. Roots
also may be fed with the utmost freedom.

BREEDING EWES IN WINTER

Every flock owner should carefully examine his
flock in the fall, and if there are any lice or ticks
on them, they should be dipped. Even if the
weather is quite cold, dip them by all means. One
can never afford to feed lice and ticks, and espe-
cially he cannot when sheep and feed are as valu-
able as they are this season. The water for dipping
may be warmed some, then if the sheep are kept
out of the wind in a reasonably warm place, they
will not suffer.

Some of the Best Feeds—For their feed in the
line of roughage, there is nothing better or cheap-
er than alfalfa or clover hay, bean straw and roots.
If the ewes go into winter in good condition and
have plenty of these feeds, they will need no grain
until within a few weeks of lambing time. Even if
one has only a fair amount of these feeds and gives
them with corn stover and straw, the flock will
usually do well.

When one has not enough alfalfa, clover or pea-
vine hay or bean straw to supply at least one good
feed a day, some grain should be given to. furnish
a fair amount of protein. The ewe must have a
certain amount of this kind of feed to properly
nourish the foetus and grow her wool. Oats are
splendid for this purpose, but in recent years they
are very high in price. I have found gluten a very
good feed to mix with silage or with the chopped
roots. If one can get cull beans, a few of them
are good.

268 FARM STOCK

It is very seldom with a fair sized flock that all
the individuals feed well. Those that do not should
be separated from the flock and be given special
Cakes ae

Keep Sheep Cool and Dry—It is not necessary
that the sheep pens should be warm; in fact, it is
better that they should not be, at least until lambing
time. Quarters that are cool, well lighted and
ventilated—with special emphasis on the ventilated
—and will keep the feet and back of the sheep dry,
are ideal.

One of the greatest mistakes made with the
breeding flock in the winter is that the sheep are
not given enough exercise. I usually draw corn
stover to a field that is to be plowed in the spring,
and feed the sheep there at noon every day that is
not stormy, or when the ground is soft. If you
cannot feed this way, see that your ewes are ex-
ercised in some way. You cannot have good, vig-
orous sheep and lambs without it.

Amount of Grain to Feed—The amount of grain
and the length of time the flock should be grained
before lambing depends upon the condition of the
ewes, and whether you are having early or late
lambs. If the lambs are to come early, the ewes
should be in the pink of condition, or they will not
be able to keep the lambs growing well until grass
comes. On the other hand, if the lambs are to
come late, but a short time before the mother is
to go out to grass, she will require not nearly so
much grain.

Start Grain Ration Gradually—Whether they
are to be fed little or much, great care should be
taken in getting them on the grain ration. No
farm animals are as apt to be injured by abrupt
change of feed as are sheep. Feed small amounts

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 269

to begin with, and see to it that a few do not get the
major portion of that. Increase the amount grad-
ually and the sheep will be all right. Very many
lambs are weakened before birth by the injudicious
feeding of the mother.

Silage has been condemned by many as a feed
for breeding ewes, but I am satisfied, after several
years’ experience, that 1f one commences by feed-
ing very little and increases the amount slowly, it
is not only a safe but a splendid food.

Give Plenty of Water—Sheep will get along and
live a long time without water, but for them to do
their best it is just as essential that they should be
supplied with pure water, and have it as they want
it, as for other animals. Feed is so scarce and
high this season that many flocks will be underfed,
their owners thinking that they are economizing
by so doing. The results will be poor, light fleeces
of wool, and a small, inferior lamb crop. Economy
of this sort always makes men poorer instead of
richer. Keep no more sheep than you can feed
well.

FEEDING PREGNANT EWES

It is very essential that the rations supplied the
ewe flock possess the quality to assist rapid and
thorough assimilation. A narrow ration of wither
roughage or grain is more apt to cause a sluggish
condition throughout the digestive tract and ul-
timately influence the development of the fcetus.
Food that can be readily acted upon by the diges-
tive secretions and made available for immediate
use is very desirable in the composition of a ration
for pregnant ewes. The greater the variance in

270 PARM SLOG@K

any well-balanced ration the more readily is it di-
gested and transformed into available nourish-
ment.

Exclusive Roughage Ration Undesirable—Preg-
nant ewes should never be confined to an exclusive
roughage ration, though it may possess the neces-
sary ingredients to comprise a well-balanced ration.
Clover hay is one of the best roughages available
for pregnant ewes, but under no conditions should
they be limited-toithis one element or diem eau
is convenient, clover hay can be fed twice daily,
say morning and evening, but for an intermediate
_ feed, corn stover, bean pods or bright oat straw
should be supplied. Under no conditions should
wet, musty roughage of any kind be fed ewes in
the advanced stage of pregnancy.

Succulent Food—lt is very important in the com-
position of a roughage ration for the ewe flock at
this time to include some succulent matter. Roots
are beyond question the most succulent food avail-
able for sheep. Many flockmasters make it a point
to grow afew tons of roots to feed during the
advanced stage of pregnancy. However, the flock-
owner who has no roots at hand to feed must af-
ford some other solution. Silage can be fed with
excellent results at this time, although care must
be exercised not to overfeed. I am feeding a part
ration to my breeding ewes and they are doing
finely. I remove the larger portion of theyconum
thus reducing the danger of overfeeding on grain.
It is not advisable to feed silage more than once
daily to pregnant ewes.

The Grain Food—The grain ration should be
selected with considerable precaution, so that the
right proportions can be computed. Select as wide
a ration as possible. Do not feed too heavily upon

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 271

‘corn. I have found that a grain ration composed
of three pounds of oats, one of linseed or oil cake,
one of wheat bran and from two to three pounds
of corn meal, depending upon the flesh condition
of the ewes, makes a very excellent grain ration. If
the ewes are thin in flesh the corn proportion of
the ration may be slightly increased, never to ex-
- ceed the above proportion. The importance of
plenty of clean, fresh water at this time cannot be
overestimated, and salt should also be constantly
before the flock.

STOCK RAMS IN SUMMER

Where but a small flock of sheep is kept and but
one ram, there are no serious objections to allow-
ing the ram to graze with the flock when the pas-
tures are good, “but should the flock be large =
the rams many, it is different.

Several Rams in Separate Pasture When sev-
eral stock rams are kept they are given a small pas-
ture by themselves. If they can be given a change
of pasture occasionally, they are likely to do bet-
ter, but this is frequently found impracticable. As
stock rams are usually grained somewhat heavily
at the mating season, and as they are generally
given considerable grain food during the winter,
the aim should be to bring them through a portion
of the summer, at least, without grain.

This can usually be done when the grazing is
plentiful, nutritious and succulent. The effect on
the system is cooling. The digestion is less taxed,
and the influence exerted is renovating. But when
the season draws near for service, it may be neces-
sary to feed grain to them again, that they may
begin the season’s service strong and vigorous.

272 FARM STOCK

Sale Rams—The management of sale rams, that
is, of shearlings, may be different. With them
erowth is incomplete. It is necessary that they
shall be in good flesh when sold. They should not
only have good grazing, but it may be necessary to
give them a certain proportion of grain through all
the season. Of course, the amount should not be
large nor the food stimulating and heating, as »
when corn is fed. There is probably no kind of
grain better adapted for such feeding than oats,
and, in some instances, the grazing may be so good
that it is not necessary even to feed any grain. The
- feeding of the grain should be gauged by the condi-
tion of the rams and the nature of the pasture.

SHEAR SHEEP EARLY

The season for shearing sheep is much affected
by locality. There are climates in which two
shearings would doubtless be better. The time for
shearing in the northern states, say north of par-
allel 40 degrees, is April, as practiced now by the
best shearers. Years ago, when washing preceded
shearing, it was common to defer shearing to a
later period. Sheep now are usually shorn without
being washed. When the flock is much infested
with ticks, the time of shearing should be advanced.
But it may be necessary to confine shorn sheep when
the shearing is done very early.

The sheep-shearing machine is fast superseding
the shears. So much more quickly and neatly does
it do the work that it will pay to invest in one of
these machines, even for a small flock of sheep. It
is usually practicable to harness various kinds of
power so as to run these machines, but when this
may not be practicable they may be run by hand,

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 27 3

one person shearing the sheep and the other fur-
nishing the power.

The machines do excellent work. If any criti-
cism is to be made of them on this score, it is to the
effect that they leave the sheep, as it were, too bare.
The danger of maiming the sheep by way of cut-
ting the skin is less also than with the hand shears.

Of course, shearing will still be done to some ex-
tent with the shears. When so done, it is impor-
iambetiaeetae shears be kept sharp. It is also
important that they have a spring that works
easily. Shears with a stiff spring work hard.
Wherever done, the floor should be clean that the
wool may be kept as free as possible from all ad.
mixture with dirt and filth.

When sheep and lambs are being fattened, it is
important that: the shearing be done early. The
stimulating food that is being given to them
causes more heat in the system than would other-
wise be present. This becomes so serious as soon as
the days become warm as to interfere with the
gains of the sheep. The importance of promptness,
therefore, in attending to this matter, is very con-
siderable. Years ago, shearing was often deferred
until some time in June. The suffering thus en-
tailed must have been considerable. The sheep also
frequently lost considerable quantities of wool
through rubbing and in other ways. This, in a
large flock, was a considerable item. There was
also usually some loss from the soiling of the wool
around the buttocks of the sheep when the pastures
became succulent and abundant.

HANDLING WOOL

As soon as the fleece is removed, it should be
spread upon a folding box or table, the inside being

274 FARM STOCK

downward. The sides of this box fold inward,
thus causing the sides of the fleece to overlap one
another, and the ends likewise cause a similar lap-
ping in the other direction. The strings which are
to tie the fleece are put into place in grooves for
them before the fleece is folded. When thus fold-
ed the strings are tied. The fleece is folded up
and tied into a neat roll, the smooth side of the
wool only showing outward. No filth or tags
should be rolled up with the wool, as this will be
found out in time and will seriously react against
the seller. When no table is at hand, the fleece
should be spread similarly on a clean surface. The
_ sides should then be folded in and the wool rolled
up in the opposite direction and similarly tied, using
such twine as is made for the purpose.

STORING WOOL

When the wool has been thus rolled up, it is next
put into sacks awaiting shipment. The sacks are
suspended so that they stand erect and the respec-
tive fleeces are dropped into this. )) ney, sare mh
tramped down or pressed down into the sacks which
are sewed at the mouth when full and are then
stored in any dry place until ready to ship. Wool
may be kept some time 1f necessary, but it is prob-

ably true that, taking one year with another, the
- price will average as much when the wool has first
been removed as after it has been stored a while.
The wool is sometimes stored in a warehouse built
for the purpose, convenient to some place of ship-
inent. On “couse, thete (ave: Gemim chat eee as a
rule, for such storage.

Store in Dry Place—When the number of eee
is small any dry place will answer in which to store

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 2765

the wool, that is free from dust and dirt and pro-
tected from the same, and that is safe from injury
by wild animals or rodents. Even when the num-
ber of fleeces is small, it may mean considerable to
the owner to have them done up nicely and kept in
good condition until sold.

LONG WOOL AND LOTS OF MUTTON

The mutton sheep is now claiming its own. The demand
for mutton is on the increase and at satisfying prices to the
man who produces it.

RAISING SHEEP FOR WOOL ALONE

Sheep cannot be profitably grown for wool alone
_on high-priced agricultural lands when wool brings
but 20 to 25 cents a pound. In large flocks, under
western range conditions, where land is cheap and
one man can handle from 2,000 to 4,000 sheep, there
is often considerable profit in growing sheep for
wool alone; but even under western conditions a
_very large number of ranchmen believe in growing

276 FARM STOCK |

a general purpose sheep which will not only yield a
good fleece, but also a good mutton carcass. Mut-
ton growers in the eastern states frequently ob-
tain as much money for their fleeces as those do
who grow sheep for wool alone.

In years past Merino wool has been the chief
wool on the American market. The medium and
coarse grades, supplied largely by the mutton type
of sheep, have been offered in very much smaller
-quantities, as a result of which better prices have
been paid in recent years than for Merino wool.
By far the larger proportion of woolen goods is
manufactured from Merino wool; but for some
_ purposes longer wools are superior and for one
purpose or another every grade and length of wool
can be used. For all grades of wool, however,
there is apparently a bright future.

The wool of sheep grows continuously through-
aut the year. If the feed of the Sheep as) autrenm
and nutritious, a uniform quality of wool will be
produced according to the breed of sheep. Any-
thing which affects the health of the animal also
affects the quality of the wool. During a period

of sickness or scant rations, the wool may tempo-
_rarily stop growing. When the animal recovers,
or when. better rations are fed, the wool begins
growth again. As a result, however, of this in-
terruption, a weak spot is produced in the wool,
which greatly decreases its strength and value for
manufacturing purposes.

Yolk—By yolk in the wool is meant the natural
grease or oil secreted by the skin. Under normal
conditions the yolk passes down through the fiber
and escapes apparently at the end, where it gradu-
ally works its way back into the fleece, giving it a
kind of creamy appearance. In healthy sheep the

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 277

yolk constitutes about one-third of the weight of
the fleece. At the factory, the fleeces are scoured
and the yolk washed out before the wool is used
for manufacturing purposes.

We have seen that grain feeding or the feeding
of nitrogenous rations contributed to the produc-
tion of the yolk and consequently a heavier fleece.
The feeding of foods rich in oil also seems to
favor the secretion of yolk. The yolk is of great
importance in the fleece, as it keeps it soft and
compact, clean and bright on the inside, and is a
protection to the sheep in turning water. It is
a characteristic index of the healthfulness of the
sheep, since in sheep underfed or unthrifty it may
be nearly lacking, while if present in excessive
quantities, indicated by accumulations in flakes, it
may be taken as a sign of unthriftiness, due to
overfeeding.

In examining the fleece on the sheep, it is first
opened over the shoulder. This is the point where
the finest and soundest wool of the fleece is likely
to be found. In parting the wool, the hand should
be used in a flat position. The poorest, coarsest
wool of the fleece is found on the thigh, while the
thinnest wooled portion is likely to be found on
the belly. The more nearly the fleece approaches
in length, thickness and fineness the wool on the
shoulders, the greater is the value of the fleece. A
dense fleece is especially desirable, as it affords
greater protection to the sheep from cold and ex-
posure to wind and rain, and protects the inner
wool from dirt and dust.

Shearing Sheep—Sheep are sheared once a year
in all portions of the United States, except the
Southwest, where they are sheared twice a year, in

278 . FARM STOCK

April or May, and again in October. The shear-
ing is done either by hand or by machinery. Good
shearers in the East can shear from 40 to 60 sheep
a day on the average, and the price for shearing is
from 8 to 10 cents a head.

Hand Machimes—On small farms or where
there are less than 400 or 500 sheep to shear, the
use of sheep shearing machines is of very doubtful
economy. Ona small scale shearing machines are
run by hand power, requiring one strong boy or
man to turn the machine and another to handle
the clippers. The clippers work on the principle
of the sickle of a mowing machine; the knife
moves very rapidly, the power being transmitted
through a flexible shaft. Sheep cannot be sheared
any faster by machine than by hand; with care,
however, the wool can be cut closer and perhaps
a little more fleece secured than by hand shearing.
The extra man, however, required to run the ma-
chine more than offsets any greater value of the
wool. Where, however, a man has a flock of 1,000
or more to shear, and can supply the power for
running the machines by steam or gasoline, it may
be found economical. In the hands of the novice
a little better job can be done with the machine
clippers, perhaps, than with hand sheers, otherwise
there is no advantage in them. A further disad-
vantage is that the knives must be returned to the
factory for sharpening, oftentimes causing delay
at a critical time in the shearing.

The time to shear sheep in the northern states is
April or May. The earlier the sheep can be sheared
in the season, without causing discomfort from
cold to the sheep, the greater the weight of fleece
is likely to be and the better the quality of the
wool.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 2'79

Washing Sheep—Some years ago, sheep were
generally washed before shearing. ‘This practice
has almost entirely gone out of vogue. The wash-
ing in creeks or otherwise is entirely ineffective
from the manufacturer’s standpoint and practically
as good prices are secured for unwashed wool now
as for the so-called washed wool. Of course, if
shearing is done in the latter part of April, wash-
ing is generally out of the question, as at that
early time of the year it would endanger both the
health of the sheep and the men employed to wash
them.

When sheep are washed they are usually driven
to some river or creek, where the water is waist
deep, and taken one by one into the stream. When
a sheep is thoroughly soaked, the fleece is shaken
and squeezed so that the dirt is washed away. The
head of the sheep should, of course, be held above
water, and after they are washed they should be
turned on a clean, grassy lot to dry. Oftentimes
the fleece is so heavy with water that the sheep
will need assistance in getting on their feet. Ewes
in lamb must be handled with especial care, though
in most flocks the washing will not take place until
June, when the lambing season should be over.

Clean Wool—Great care must be taken in the
winter feeding of sheep and housing to prevent the
wool from becoming filled with chaff, burs, etc.
The wool is valued always on the basis of its
scoured weight, and the buyer always allows for
whatever dirt may be present in it. The wool of
sheep that have access to a. straw stack in winter
is likely to be filled with chaff and will not bring
within two to five cents a pound as much as it
would if the wool was free from chaff. Likewise
wool which is full of sand or burs is docked by the

280 FARM STOCK

buyer. The dockage is not so much on account
of the weight of the burs and chaff itself, as of the
difficulty in separating these substances from the
fleece. This is usually a very tedious and expen-
sive process and cannot be done without more or
less injury to the wool fiber. Racks should be
provided for sheep, at which they may eat without
getting their necks full of chaff, seeds and dust.

Tymg Wool—Sheep should be sheared on a
clean floor or bench free from dust, chaff or other
litter in order that the fleece may be kept perfectly
clean. If the wool is put in sacks or bales, no
tying is required. Otherwise the sides of the
fleeces should be turned in and the fleece rolled to-
gether inside out and tied with a light, strong
string, using as little as possible to securely hold
the, fleece together. The use of ‘common, neque
large-sized sheep twine is especially objectionable,
not so much because it increases the weight of the
fleece two or three ounces, but because the fiber
becomes mixed with the wool and must be combed
out before the wool can be used for manufactur-
ing. Mumford found that the lower price of
Michigan wools as compared with Pennsylvania
and Ohio wools was largely due to the old square
method of doing up the fleece and the use of heavy,
coarse twine in tying it.

The, best twine to use is about No. 18 hemp or
small linen. If the box is used to do up the fleece,
it should be a little longer than usual and smaller
and much less twine used. :

The tags should be trimmed off the fleece and
sold separately. They should never be done up in
the fleece. When sheep die of natural causes the
wool may be pulled off and sold. This pulled wool
is not as valuable as sheared live wool, as it will

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 281

not take dye as well and should always be sold
separately as pulled wool. Likewise the pelt of a
dead sheep is much less valuable than from one
that has been killed.

Paint marks on the wool represent so much loss
to the manufacturer and consequently lower the
price for the wool.

Classification of Wool—The grower will seldom
be in a position to sort his wool in such a manner
that it would be any benefit to the manufacturer.
It should, however, be graded uniformly as re-
gards fleeces of different breeds, putting those to-
gether of the same breed and character. Beyond
this the grower will seldom be able to go. Wool is
classified in several different ways and in order
that the grower may interpret the market prices of
these different grades, a brief account will be given
of them.

In a broad way, wool is classified as Domestic,
Territory and Carpet or Blanket wool. By Do-
mestic wool is understood the kind of wool gener-
ally obtained from sheep grown under general
farm conditions. It should be bright, free from
sand, dirt, burs, etc. Should it contain these ma-
terials, it would fall into the Territory class.

The Territory wools are so called because they
are produced most abundantly in the territories
and are generally discolored and dirty with sand,
burs, seed, etc. Where, however, range wool is
clean, it falls into the Domestic class.

The Carpet or Blanket wool is composed of
wools contuning a large amount of hairy fiber and
kemp. By kemp is meant the coarse, white hairs
which are found mixed with the wool in greater or
less quantity. Kemp is usually prominent in the

282 FARM STOCK

face, the forearm and inside of the flank. When-
ever kemp is found in these latter places, it is like-
ly to be more or less abundant throughout the
whole breed. This kemp or hair does not take dye
readily and on this account injures the fleece for
manufacturing, except for the coarser grades of
goods, like carpets and blankets. In breeding sheep
for wool, those which exhibit kemp should be fat-
tened for market.

The Domestic and Territory wool may be di-
vided into three classes designated as clothing or
carding wool, Delaine and combing wool. ‘This
classification is based entirely on the length, quality
‘and strength of the wool. And each one of these
classes may be graded as fine, medium or coarse.

Generally speaking, clothing wools are short
wools of relatively fine quality and less than 2%
inches in length. The Delaine wools are also fine
wools clipped from all varieties of Merinos, which
erow a long, strong wool staple, 2% to 3 inches in
length, while combing wools are those over 3
inches in length which are sound. Nearly all of the
coarser long wools are graded as combing wools.
However, a wool which may be long enough for
combing, if it be unsound, is classed as clothing or
carding wool.

CHAPTER XX.
The Diseases of Sheep

The diseases of sheep fall into two principal
classes, those arising from exhaustion, run-down
condition of the system and general debility; and
those due to the presence of parasitic animals.
There is no reasonable cause for the first class if
the sheep have been properly fed, handled and cared
for, but parasites are very common both on and
in the sheep. Its thick wool and comparatively
thin skin afford a most favorable lodging place
and feeding ground for the class of vermin that
dwell on the surface of the body; while of its
internal organs, not only the stomach and the
bowels, but the liver, brain and nostrils are the
chosen habitat of various low forms of animal
life.

SOME COMMON DISEASES

Colic—This is a disease similar to bloating in
cattle and is known by the swelling of the third
stomach in the sheep by food, water or gases.
The most frequent cause is due to feeding on green
clover or alfalfa, especially when wet with rain or
dew. It may arise, also, from indigestion or from
musty food. The disease is readily recognized
by the swelling of the belly on the left side, which
appears while the animal is still feeding or shortly
after. You will note, also, the oppressed condi-
tion of breathing, the bowels are constipated, and
the eyes are anxious and wild and there is much

283

284 FARM STOCK

pain. Some shepherds are not specially concerned
so long as this swelling is on the left side only,
but when it reaches the right side, the animal is
in imminent danger. About the only help now
is to use a trocar, or sharp pointed penknife,
making an opening to the point where the accumu-
lation occurs. . The penetration should be kept
open by the use of a goose quill or some hollow

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TWISTED STOMACH WORMS

A common attitude observed when sheep are afflicted
with twisted stomach worms. The animal loses in flesh, and
unless relief is found in time, dies. The parasite is shown
in the illustration.

tube. Kneading with the hands the swollen stomach

is also helpful.

Foot Rot—This is one of the most common dis-
eases of American sheep and there have been few
sections or few farms free from it. It is always
contagious, due to a germ that harbors in the earth
and grass.

The forefeet are usually first attacked. Lame-
ness is there noticed and soon becomes complete;
the appetite becomes poor; fever sets in and the

THE DISEASES OF SHEEP 285

animal dies from general exhaustion. The offen-
sive odor of the true foot rot is so characteristic
that once experienced you can use it as a certain
guide thereafter in recognizing the disease. The
old practice has been to pare the hoof so as to
rid it of all this diseased portion. This gives tem-
porary relief only. The best sort of treatment is
to keep no animals with diseased feet on the farm,
to move the sheep from one pasture to another
and to frequently till and cultivate so as to have
the land pure and wholesome and free from the
disease.

Constipation in Lambs—Lambs, especially those
which are fed immoderately either on cow’s milk
or the milk of other ewes, are often liable to con-
stipation. ‘The bowels cease to act and the animal
droops and after a while lies down. Once affected,
there is little to do for the lamb. <A change in
food and some purgative or laxative are helpful.

Diarrhoea in Lambs—This disease frequently
attacks whole flocks on first feeding on green
grass. It is usually of no danger, but when indi-
vidual cases call for attention, treat on general
principles, because it may be more than a simple
loose condition of the bowels. Real diarrhcea is
often fatal and the lambs must receive the closest
attention. It may be due to exposure, some sud-
den change in temperature, but is more likely due
to improper food. The disease usually appears
without warning, the lamb becomes languid, sad,
keeping away from other lambs, and frequently
lies down. The excrement is thin, whitish or
greenish and in the later stages is quite watery
and mixed with mucus and blood.

The first thing to do in treating this trouble is to
change the food. It is not a bad idea to do that

286 FARM STOCK

even though the food does not seem to be the matter
in fault. If the disease seems to be passing through
the flock, it is wise to remove all the healthy in-
dividuals from the infested quarters, placing them
elsewhere. An immediate remedy is the use of
the white of an egg beaten in water, then mixed in
warm milk and so given.

Intestinal Worms—Sheep are liable to be in-
fested with a number of varieties of intestinal
worms, such as tape worms, thread worms and
round worms. The symptoms these produce are
very obscure and not often manifest, for the most
healthy looking sheep when slaughtered often show
the presence of these parasites in the stomach and
the intestines. But, of course, the best results can-
not be secured when present, and if they can be
gotten rid of, it ought to be done. In many cases,
the sheep show a dizziness, often staggering and
falling, and a general impairment of the sight. The
best way is to consult your veterinarian for some
treatment so that all trouble in this direction may
be removed.

Scab—This is a contagious disease of the skin
and is due to a parasite in or upon the skin. There
are different forms of scab, but each kind causes
itchiness—the most common symptom. Whenever |
you see an animal presenting a very ragged appear-
ance, bare spots on the different parts of the body,
with tufts of wool pulled out, and upon examina-
tion you find reddish pimples, you may feel pretty
certain that the insect that causes the scab is
present. Any sort of dip that is now on the market
will remove this trouble. In the large sheep-grow-
ing districts, dipping plants are maintained by in-
individual growers or by small stock companies. In
this way frequent dipping is possible and takes

THE DISEASES, OF SHEEP 287

care of the work very rapidly. Even the small
farm, with a few sheep, ought to have a small
dipping plant. A little work, a little cement and
boards for fencing purposes are all that are neces-
sary.

Head Scab—The attacks of this mite are largely
confined to the head. You will often notice the
eyes, ears and neck affected also. The mites bore

SHEEP BOTS

The arrow shows location of grubs.

under the skin where not much hair is found, caus-
ing the formation of little scabs and blotches. The
crusts may be removed by rubbing with oil and
then applying any of the dips commonly used in
the treatment of scab.

Botfly—This is a serious trouble and is due to
the sheep botfly that lays its eggs in the ears and
nostrils, which upon hatching, develop into grubs.

288 FARM STOCK

These penetrate deeply into the nasal cavity. When
completing their life as a grub, they fall out, come
out of the nose, go down into the ground for a
short while, after which they come out as a botfly.
Grubs are very disagreeable and painful when in
the nostrils and sometimes go so far into the head
that they never get out.

It is difficult to treat this trouble, the best way
being to dislodge the grubs by the use of a feather
dipped in turpentine and inserted into the nostrils.
When tar is smeared up the nostrils of the sheep at
the time the botfly is most active, the difficulty can
be kept down to a minimum. Some sheep raisers
bore holes in logs; these holes are smeared with tar
and: filled with salt. Sheep in geettine the jal,
therefore, keep their noses smeared with tar.

The Stomach Worm—This is a parasite that is
found in the stomach and is a very serious disease
in the eastern part of the country. Lambs are
particularly troubled. When afflicted with stomach
worms, they have digestive disturbances and diar-
thea. - The remedy lies more im the natigenen
prevention. than cure. ~. Worms are hagboteditm
moist pastures and in this way the animals take
them into their stomachs. Many remedies are pro-
posed and it is best to see your veterinarian for
treating the disease. |

Lung Worms—These attack the small air cells
of the lungs, causing a, sort of pnetimoniag es
hacking cough is an indication of the trouble. Of
course, no medicinal treatment can be given. The
way to prevent the disease is to seek new pastures
that are free of the worms. Pastures tiaemaige
not had sheep on them for two or three years are
free. The old pasture should be plowed up so
as to completely rid the land of the trouble.

CHAP TER Od:

Swine

The many breeds of hogs have all descended
from the wild hog that once roamed over Europe,
Asia and Africa. In evolving from the wild to
the tame animal, many changes took place. The
long snout gradually shortened, the skull widened
between the eyes, the neck lost some of its sharp-
ness and the legs became short and straight. But
the most marvelous change was the laying on of
meat and fat. ‘There’s where man came in and
helped out. He found use for the meat and lard.
He cultivated the tendency to develop these pro-
ducts and after a few centuries the modern hog
was the result.

The wild hog possesses a head that is large,
bony and coarse. The large jaw carries the heavy
tusks that inflict the severest wounds. The neck
is long and muscular and the loins broad and
strong. In every way he is a foe fearful to com-
bat when attacked by an enemy of any sort. He
likes places that are moist, rather well concealed
by brush growth, where he can get roots and fruits
and succulent food, and even has a strong appe-
tite for worms and snakes and flesh of any kind.
Many of these characteristics have been lost in
the modern domestic pig. Our present-day hogs
may degenerate and become wild and fierce, yet
they never, to the fullest extent, take to the habits
of their ancestors.

The Mortgage Lifter—The hog has been called
the “mortgage lifter.” He reaches, when properly
fed and managed, maturity at an early age. He

289

290 FARM STOCK

uses up a large quantity of food for whicamne
makes good returns. He is at his best when plenty
of green food, supplemented with various kinds
of grains, is provided for his use. Clover or al-
falfa and corn are the foods most desired by him,
and when these are furnished he makes the best
reckoning.

THE MODERN HOG

Just nose enough for breathing, ears enough for hearing,
mouth enough for eating—and most of the rest is meat.

The hog is one of the most important animals
on the farm for meat and money, and no farm
is complete, be it large or small, unless there be
a number of these animals to assist in the modern
business of farming.

FILLING SWINE ORDERS BY MAIL

‘Swine are usually purchased when young if they
have to be taken any distance. This is owing in
part to the fact that they are usually carried by

SWINE 291

express to avoid the hazard of disease. They are
also very frequently ordered by mail, as the cost
of a personal visit would be relatively more than
the sum invested in the purchase would justify.
When so ordered they are usually purchased when
young, not later than the period of weaning, the
object sought being to keep down the cost of tran-
sit. This is, under any conditions, costly when the
transit is by express.

When ordering thus, the persons who order
should be specific in stating the kind of animal
wanted, the age at which it is to be shipped, the
character of the pedigree, and the nature of the
color markings when these are involved. Of
€@ugse, first of all, the integrity of the breeder
should be looked into. It would be safe with some
men to allow the choice to rest with them when
the knowledge possessed by the purchaser is
limited.

The person who receives the order should frank-
ly say so if he cannot fill it. This would be vastly
better than to send an animal inferior in any im-
portant particular. It might involve the loss of
one sale, but that would be better than to run the
hazard of losing many sales through shipping such
an animal.

When the animal ordered arrives, the purchaser
should be slow in passing judgment upon it. After
a journey of some distance in transit, the first view
is secured under unfavorable conditions. Nor
should any blame be charged against the breeder
should the animal show undesirable development
later. This sometimes happens under the most
favorable conditions for making a choice when the
animals are young. Their subsequent development
is frequently disappointing.

CHAP al ik Oar

Breeds of Swine

Poland-China—This hog originated in the
Miami valley of Ohio, in Butler and Warren coun-
ties, from miscellaneous crosses of Big China,
Poland, Byfield, Berkshire and Irish Grazier breeds
on the common stock.

A WELL-BRED POLAND-CHINA BOAR

An Ohio invention to make pork. And in this connection let
it be said there is no better money maker in all the world.

In the early days the breed was variously known
under such names as Butler County, Warren
County, Poland, Dick’s Crick, Magie, Moore, etc.,
and it was not until the year 1872 that the name
‘“Poland-China” was permanently adopted.

999

BREED OF SWINE 293

Further improvement of the breed occurred in
Illinois and Iowa and they now constitute the most
popular breed in the corn belt. The type is now
firmly fixed and the breed undoubtedly pure. It
is perhaps the best suited of all breeds to quickly
convert corn into pork. It will stand close con-
finement and heavy feeding perhaps better than any
other of the large breeds, but it is not as good a
rustler and able to take care of itself as many other
breeds. The sows are not as fertile as the Berk-
shire, though some strains are excellent breeders.

The Poland-China is a black hog, with six white
poetics eet, race, aid tip, or tail. The face is
slightly dished and the ear broken about one-fourth
to one-third from the tip. The breed is character-
ized by early maturity and nearly perfect form of
the lard hog type, being very blocky and compact.
Boars at two years of age should weigh 600 pounds
and sows 500 pounds.

Berkshire—The Berkshire breed is of English
origin and stands next to the Poland-China in popu-
larity in America. It was first brought to this
Goumtiy about 1830. It is a black hog with six
white points, marked much like the Poland-China,
MWilienom ieet, tace, and tip of tail. The face: is
dished, ears short and erect or slightly inclined
forward, the neck very short and the back arched.
The Berkshire breed in England is largely used
for bacon; under American influences it has de-
veloped into the lard hog type. The hogs are of
about the same size as the Poland-Chinas and
possess about the same qualities. Good hogs weigh
240 to 300 pounds nine to 12 months of age, and
mature hogs, 500 to 600 pounds. The specially
good points in regard to the Berkshire are its early
maturity, good grazing qualities, adavtability and

re

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BREEDS OF SWINE 295

excellent carcass. It is one of the most popwar
breeds in the South.

Duroc-Jersey—Vhis is an American dev eloped
breed. Its origin, however, is not positively known.
Red hogs were known to exist in New York as
early as 1823 and in Connecticut in 1830. Red
hogs were imported into New Jersey from Spain
in’ 1832 and in 1850 into Kentucky from either
Spain or Portugal. In New Jersey they were first
advertised in 1870 as Jersey Reds. In New York
the breed was called Duroc, after a noted stallion,

DUROC-JERSEY BOAR
A living factory that makes pork, lard and bacon.

as early as 1823. These two families of hogs
possessed like characteristics and were undoubtedly
of the same origin.

In form, the Duroc-Jerseys closely resemble the
Poland-Chinas, but are red in color. The standard
is a cherry red without spots. It is a coarser breed
than either the Poland-China or Berkshire, with
lop ears and numerous wrinkles and creases about
the back and hind quarters.

The breed is chiefly noted for its great fecundity
and remarkably good grazing powers. At six

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BREEDS OF SWINE 297

months ot age, good specimens of the breed
should weigh 150 pounds, and at eight or nine
months, the average should be 275 pounds. Mature
hogs in good condition average 500 to 600 pounds
in weight. The breed is of a qutet disposition,
easily handled, have vigorous appetites and fatten
rapidly.

They are one of the best of all breeds for the
South, as they never sun scald. The breed is most
popular in New jersey, Pennsylvania and New

A MODERN CHESTER WHITE

The Chester White has held its own throughout all the past
years. It is a very popular breed in the eastern states.

York, and is rapidly gaining favor throughout the
South and West.

Chester White—This breed originated in Chester
county, Pennsylvania. It appears that a sea cap-
tain, James Jefferies by name, imported a pair of
white hogs from Bedfordshire, England, in 1811.
This stock, in connection with some Big Chinas,
was used on the native stock of the country, mostly
descendants of the Large Yorkshire breed, and
formed the foundation stock of the present Chester
White breed. This hog is the most popular of the
white breeds, and its blood makes up a large

298 FARM STOCK

portion of the mixed black and white grades seen
throughout the country.

The breed is white and the hogs among the
largest, if not the largest, in the country, weighing
at maturity 600 to 700 pounds and dressing 175
to 256 pounds when eight to nine months old.
The hogs are of a quiet disposition, easy fatteners,
with good grazing qualities. The sows are pro-
lific, but are inclined to a sullen disposition at pig-
ging time. Like all other white breeds, the Chesters

TWO AVERAGE YORKSHIRES

5 /
_ While an old breed, the Yorkshire is not well known in
this country. It is, however, especially esteemed for® its
bacon qualities.

are not well adapted to southern conditions be-
cause of injury from sun scalds, mange and other
troubles. The Chester White, while a large hog,
has strong, fine bones and a big, lengthy body.
The face is slightly dished, snout fine and long,
the ears pendant, jowl rather light, neck short
and deep.

The Ohio, or Todd’s Improved Chester White,
has for its foundation Chester County White hogs,
crossed with a hog owned by S. H. Todd, which

BREEDS OF SWINE 299

traced its ancestry back to the Norfolk Thin breeds,
mixed with Normandy blood. In 1865 this hog
was crossed with Chester Whites from which
spring the Improved Chester White.

YVorkshire—This is an old English white breed.
Its blood has entered into the formation of prac-
tically all modern breeds either of English or
American origin. ‘There are three breeds, the Im-
proved Large Yorkshires, or the Large Whites, the
Medium Yorkshires or Medium Whites, and the
Small Yorkshires or Small Whites.

These differ chiefly in matter of size. The Small
Yorkshires owe their refinement to a cross with
a Chinese hog, while the Medium Yorkshire is the
outcome of the cross between the Large and Small
Yorkshire. The old Yorkshire is long in head;
body and legs large, with coarse, erect ears, with
a strong coat of white hair. There are usually a
few pale blue spots in the skin, but the hair on
these is white. They are prolific, but slow in ma-
turing. ©

This old type has been considerably improved,
and the new form, under the name of Large York-
shires, has been recently imported into Canada
and the United States in comparatively large num-
bers; Large Yorkshires of the old type have ex-
isted in the United States for nearly a hundred
years.

Ihe Large Improved Yorkshire is fully as large
as the Chester White, and represents the longest
breed of hogs we have, though they are not as
broad as the Chester Whites and do not generally
grow to such heavy weights. They are especially
suitable for the production of bacon, have good,
strong legs, are excellent rustlers, impart a vigor-
ous constitution to their offspring and are of great

306 FARM STOCK

value in crossing on over-refined stock. The sows
are prolific and good mothers, being probably
superior in these respects to the Chester Whites.

As compared with the Chester Whites, they have
somewhat longer heads, with face dished, more
pronounced jowl, longer sides, with less girth in
proportion to length, and are slightly larger in limb,
and rather more active.

SMALL YORKSHIRE SOW AND LITTER

This breed, while not well known, is highly prized by those
who know it best. It has a place in American farming.

The Small Yorkshire is finer in quality than the
Improved, presents greater symmetry and is much
more compact in form; they mature much earlier,
but do not attain as heavy weight as the Large
Yorkshires.

Tamworth—These pigs originated in England,
and have been bred for many years, being one of
the oldest and purest breeds of Britain. The blood

BREEUS OF SWINE 301

of other breeds has been used to but very little ex-
tent in the improvement of the Tamworth. ‘The
Tamworth resembles the Large Improved York-
shire, being practically equal to it in size.

They are a long-bodied, long-legged hog, of a
red or chestnut color, and especially suitable for
the production of bacon. They possess great vigor
and stamina, and impart these characteristics when
crossed upon other breeds. They mature fully as
rapidly as the larger breed of lard hogs when
heavily fed. They are the equal of any breeds in
grazing qualities and give good results under a
foreed “ceding. ~The proportion of lean to fat
meat in this breed is unusually high, which makes
the pork and bacon produced of superior quality.
No breed surpasses them in prolificacy.

Cheshire—This white breed of swine originated
in Jefferson county, New York. It is the outcome
of crosses between Large Improved Yorkshires
and Suffolk breeds upon native white hogs. They
are smaller than any of the breeds described above,
and possess early maturing qualities in a marked
degree. They have fair grazing qualities, are
docile, rank high among the medium breeds as
bacon producers, and are valuable in crossing upon
the more slowly maturing breeds for the purpose
of refining the bone and increasing early maturity.
They considerably resemble the Berkshire in gen~
eral appearance except that they are white, are
not quite so heavy, and are more refined in frame
and bone. The ears are small, fine, and erect and
in old animals point slightly forward.

Hampshire or Thin-Rind—This hog traces its
origin to Hampshire, England. It was introduced
in Kentucky as early as 1825, where it has been
carefully bred ever since. These hogs are black

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302

BREEDS OF SWINE 303

in color, with a band 4 to 12 inches wide en-
circling the body and including the front legs,
which are: also white. .This gives the breed a
striking appearance. The head is small, ears of
medium length, slightly inclined forward, light
jowls, broad back of nearly uniform width, heavy
hams, legs well set apart, active and muscular. The
sows are prolific and uniformly good mothers.
The breed has excellent grazing qualities and easily
attains a weight of 300 pounds at 12 months of age.

In crossing, they transmit their qualities and
markings with great uniformity. The breed is
comparatively new, but owing to its handsome ap-
pearance and other good qualities is very likely
to increase in popularity.

Suffolk—The hog known as the Suffolk is a
black hog, while the hog called Suffolk in America
refers to a white breed. Good authorities, how-
ever, consider the American strain of white pig
as merely the Little Yorkshire under another name.
The Black Suffolk is one of the smaller breed of
hogs. The head is short, snout turned up similar
to that of the Small Yorkshires, body deep, ribs
well sprung, with short, small bones and legs. The
breed possess early maturing qualities in a
marked degree, is medium in size, iays on fat
rapidly and dresses out a high percentage of meat.

What is known as the American or White Suf-
folk is a hog somewhat similar in general appear-
ance except that the color is yellowish white, per-
fectly free from spots or other colors. In general, it
may be described as a short-legged pig, with a mod-
erately long body, but wide and deep, and a much-
dished head. It is adapted to intensive conditions
where grazing lands are scarce and expensive and
for producing a good quality of quickly grown pork.

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304

BREEDS OF SWINE 305

Essex—The Essex is another representative of
the smaller black breeds of England, originating
in Essex. As bred in America, they attain a weight
of 250 to 400 pounds at maturity. They have a
fine head, short nose, nicely dished face, thin, erect
ears, short jowl, with a short, firm-boned leg.
Especially good results have been reported with
this breed in the South, but in the northern states,
it will never be a serious competitor of the larger
breeds like the Poland-Chinas or Berkshires.

Razor-Back—The hog, commonly known as the
Razor-Back, is a representative of the unimproved
breed in this country and is confined almost en-
tirely to the more southern states. This breed is a
long-bodied, long-legged, thin, long-nosed hog,
exceedingly hardy, and with remarkably good for-
aging powers, but too slow in maturing and too
light in weight to compare with the improved
breeds of swine. It has no place in modern agri-
culture. ae

Breeds to Grow—Under present conditions in
the United States, farmers will find it most gen-
erally profitable to grow the larger breeds of hogs,
since they gain as rapidly as the smaller breeds up
to the marketable weight of 180 to 250 pounds,
and.if not marketed at this time will continue to
grow, while the smaller breeds will reach their
limit at about this weight.

Some idea of the popularity of the different
breeds can be obtained from the number of pure-
bred animals registered in the different associa-
tions and which are now alive. In 1905 the figures
for the Poland-Chinas were 113,000; for Berk-
shires, 30,000; Duroc-Jerseys, 20,040; Chester
Whites, 8,400; Yorkshires, 4,600; Essex, 1,300;

300 FARM STOCK

Tamworths, 1,200; Cheshires, 1,000; Hampshires,
500.

These figures indicate that the Poland-Chinas are
much in the lead, followed by the Berkshires, the
Duroc-Jerseys and Chester Whites. The Poland-
Chinas are particularly satisfactory to hog grow-
ers in the corn belt. Outside of this region they
are no more popular than a number of other breeds.
In the South, the Berkshires are probably most
popular and numerous.

So far as can be learned, there is no special mar-
‘ket and no special demand by packers in this coun-
try for bacon breeds of hogs like the Tamworths
and Yorkshires. ‘These breeds sell as well on the
market as any other, but do not bring any higher
price at present. Owing, however, to the large pro-
portion of lean to fat in the carcasses of these hogs,
the pork is superior and these breeds are likely to
increase in popularity.

CHAPTER XXIII
Feeding Hogs

The first food of the pig is milk. After a short
time, additional food will be advisable in order to
secure the most rapid growth. The best gains are
always secured in the early life of the animal;
therefore, skimmed milk, kitchen slops and grain
should be given as soon as young pigs can be in-
duced to eat. This ought to be continued as long
as available, even until fattening, if possible. Milk
is naturally a nitrogenous food. It contains a large
quantity of the muscle-making materials in pro-
portion to the fat-making materials. As the pig
grows older, its rations should be widened, until
the protein in proportion to the food and carbo-
hydrates is about one to six or seven. Corn is a
great finishing food and it has a nutritive ratio of
about one to nine. From this it will be seen that
there is too much of the fat elements in proportion
to the muscle elements; consequently even during
the fattening period, some additional nitrogenous
food is advisable. Feeding in early life should be
for the purpose of developing bones, muscles and
vital organs. This gives a foundation for pro-
fitable forcing later.

Many feeding experiments have been made in
all parts of the country that show that an exclusive
grain ration made up of corn is never satisfactory.
Not only are the gains not so good as when mixed
ration is fed, but the carcass is less desirable be-
cause of the large amount of fat located in all
edible parts of the body.

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308

FEEDING HOGS 309

Pasture for Pigs—In the early stages of pig
feeding, milk is very desirable and should be in-
cluded whenever possible. Where milk is not
available, slops made of middlings and shorts are
to be preferred to most other milk products. But
the great opportunity for making a profit out of
pigs, especially when prices are low and grain prod-
ucts are high, is through the use of clover and
alfalfa pasture crops. As the subject of pig feed-
ing is studied, more conclusive becomes the evi-
dence that alfalfa and clover pasturage go hand in
hand with pork production.

It should be the swine raiser’s aim as much to
grow these two wonderful forage crops as it is
to grow the hog itself; consequently in the great
alfalfa regions where alfalfa has come into its
own, it is so greatly appreciated that thousands
of acres are annually being given over to this crop.
In the eastern sections of the country, alfalfa is
less popular and less known because of the difficulty
in securing a stand and subsequent success with
the crop. The fault, however, does not lie with
the alfalfa crop. It is due to the fact that the
farmer has not yet learned how to grow alfalfa on
his particular soil in his immediate section and
under his climatic conditions. Therefore, experi-
mentation is in order for him so that he may learn
the essential steps to take to get a successful stand.

Hogs can be turned into the alfalfa field early
in the spring, and if the acreage is large in pro-
portion to the number, they can be continued in
the alfalfa throughout the season until frost comes
again. The tramping will not hurt the crop nor
will the feeding of swine impair the feeding qual-
ity of the alfalfa when made into hay. When the
hogs are pastured in a large field, a small part of

3 IO FARM STOCK

the field can be cut, to be followed a week later by
another part, and so on until the field has been
cut over. In this way there is a new growth of
alfalfa on at all times, giving the pigs just the sort
of pasture they desire. But alfalia is menvin
protein, or nitrogenous elements, and hence the
addition of corn while running on the pasture is
advisable, especially if early maturity is desired. By
turning young pigs early on alfalfa, supplying
them with a daily small feed of corn will bring
them within six or seven months to weigh 250
pounds.

With corn at 50 cents a bushel and hogs at four
cents per pound, live weight, considerable profit —
is secured where alfalfa, corn and pigs are com-
bined as a phase of the farm business

The alfalfa pasture is just the right sort of food
for brood sows, stock hogs and other store stock.
During the winter season, alfalfa hay or clover
hay can be used in the dried stage as furnishing a
large part of the ration and providing those ele-
ments essential for growth, thrift and lean meat.

The abundant supply of wood ashes and salt to
which hogs may have constant access is an essential
in hog raising that should never be neglected.
Ground bone, charcoal, soft coal, are also desirable,
and their use in hog feeding should not be denied.
Where ground bone and ashes are constantly at
hand, pigs mature better, have stronger bones and
better health. This fact has been brought out by
frequent tests and is now a part of good swine
management over every part of the country.

Cooked and Uncooked Food—Much has been
said as to the value of cooked feeds, but the fact
remains that cooking is expensive and in those
cases where better results have been secured, as

FEEDING HOGS ONeT

a result of cooking, the cost and expense have been
greater than the increase would warrant. Conse-
quently, the greater number of hogs will be raised
and fattened without having received cooked feeds.

Whole and Ground Grains—While grinding in-
creases the value of the common mass of feed,
such as corn, peas and other grains, it still remains
a question whether grinding shall be practiced, be-
cause of the extra expense. In round numbers,
from 10 to 15 per cent cheaper gains will be made
from ground food than from unground food. Ifa
farmer owns his own grinding mill, he can ordi-
narily grind his feed at a cost that will-be less than
the extra returns through the use of ground food.
Hence, it will be to his advantage to feed ground
corn. If, however, he is obliged to haul his corn
some distance to the mill, pay toll for the grinding,
then return it to his farm, it is a question if the
extra cost will not more than use up the additional
returns. It is very likely that, all things consid-
ered, a great part of the feed will continue to be
used in the unground state.

Wet or Dry Feed—The facts as to the feeding
of grain either wet or dry are still conflicting.
Many tests have been made, in some cases in favor
of the wet feed and in others of dry feed. The
weight of evidence seems, however, to be that it
is desirable and advantageous to soak grains for
hogs, but not to cook them. On the average, this
advantage is from 5 to 10 per cent.

Different Feeds—Among the roughage mate-
rials may be mentioned alfalfa and -clover, first.
After them come oats and peas, sorghum, cowpeas,
soy beans and green corn. The growing practice
of hogging-off corn fields is warranted by the
facts. Tests show that there are not only as good

312 FARM STOCK

gains made by hogging-off as when fed the corn
husked or snapped, but there is a saving of the
labor in cutting and husking the corn. In my
judgment, a larger and larger area will each year
be given over to hogs to hog-off. The practice
extends now from Ohio to Minnesota and the repe-
tition of the tests, especially by practical farmers,
warrant the conclusion that this practice has come
to stay.

The leading grains used in feeding hogs may be
mentioned as follows:

Corn—Of course, this is the cheapest and most
satisfactory grain to be fed. It is universally used
for finishing off hogs. As has been pointed out,
it should not be fed, however, to young and grow-
ing hogs except in connection with other foods,
like tankage, middlings, shorts or some other
nitrogenous feeding stuff.

Middlings and Shorts are largely used for mix-
ing with other hog feeds and one or both is com-
monly employed for the purpose of making swill
or slops.

Tankage is growing into favor, not only to be
used for feeding young and growing hogs, but in
fattening pigs as well. About one part of tankage
to eight or ten parts of corn seems to be the right
proportion to give. Many tests have been made
and they invariably show not only greater gains
when tankage is fed in conjunction with corn,
but that these gains have been made at a far less
cost than on the exclusive corn diet.

Almost every kind of grain feed finds favor in
the hog lot. In the South, peanuts prove satisfac-
tory when used as a pasture crop, especially when
sweet potatoes or some more carbonaceous food
is fed in connection with them.

FEEDING HOGS ae

Peas are a very desirable food, but their feed-
ing value is hardly in keeping with the commercial
price.

Cottonseed Meal has been fed to pigs, but with
poor success. For some tnexplained reason, it
is injurious. While tests have been made showing
that cottonseed meal may be fed with profit and
satisfaction, still in the great majority of cases,
death sooner or later comes; consequently at this
stage of feeding-knowledge, cottonseed meal is not
to be recommended as a suitable food for swine.

Linseed Meal, on the other hand, can be fed with
impunity and profit. It should be fed, however,
in connection with other grains. One part of lin-
seed meal to ten parts of corn makes a very desir-
able food.

Wheat, Rye and Barley are all satisfactory hog
foods, but on account of price, they do not often
fall into the class of economical hog foods. There
are so many other foodstuffs unavailable for use
by man as to throw these grains out of the feeds
available for hogs.

All the by-products of the dairy are valuable
for hogs, such as skimmed milk, buttermilk and
whey; fed in connection with the grains and al-
falfa and clover, the greatest profit and ease are
secured in the feeding and management of this
class of live stock.

CEUAR AE Ree Oy;
The Care and Management of Swine

While the hog is accustomed to bad treatment,
he will be a far better money-making help on the
farm if he receives such attention as is given to
other farm stock. “There is just as much reason
for tidiness in hog pens as in the houses and barns
of other live stock. It is not stating the case too
strongly to say that the many infectious diseases,
now so fatal to hogs, are in most cases due to un-
sanitary quarters. Care and attention in this di-
rection will bring better returns than when applied
elsewhere.

The small pens ought to be abandoned as much
as possible, and where necessary, cement floors be
provided, or else open pens outside of the barns
that they may be easily plowed and seeded to some
cultivated or forage crop.

The practice of having many small run lots—a
rod or two up to any width and long enough to
be tilled by means of horse power—has solved the
problem very satisfactorily to the health of the
animal and to the owner, because of the additional
profit secured by rapid growth and the minimizing
of labor and expense.

As to general care, let the hog be provided with
water, clean quarters and shelter from cold or heat.
In the management of the hog in general, let good
pasturage be considered as essential, in conjunc-
tion with which should be given grain foods that
maturity may be reached at the earliest possible
age. Slops and grain food are not enough for

314

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 315

the most economical production of pork. Hogs
need green food; they need a variety of foods;
they need fresh water and sanitary quarters, just
as other stock of the farm.

WHEN THE SOW HAS PIGS

When possible, provision sheuld be made during

THE INTERIOR OF A MODERN HOG BARN
Iron and cement are now taking the place of mud and
filth in housing hogs. Everything about this hog barn is

cleanly and wholesome. If rightly cared for, there is no
show for disease.

the summer to give the sow the run of a small grass
plot or field where she will be free from annoyance
from other farm stock. In the winter and early
spring, the barnyard may be used for this purpose,
when the cows and horses are not at liberty.
The sow, while nursing, requires liberal feeding,
as the rearing of a large litter is a severe drain on
the system. The following foods are especially
good: skim milk, buttermilk, bran and_ shorts,

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316

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 317

eround oats, wheat and barley, with a liberal sup-
ply of boiled roots and a grass run 1f possible.

Teach Little Pigs to Drink—With a little care
and attention the little pigs can be taught to drink
a little at from two to three weeks old and thus
lessen the demand on the dam. The best method is
to put a shallow, flat-bottomed trough or dish in a
small inclosure in one corner of the pen, allowing
the young pigs access to it at will, but where the
sow cannot reach it. For the first day or two a
little fresh milk might be used, afterward changing
to sweet skim milk warmed to blood heat.

Good sows are often ruined at weaning time by
the pigs being suddenly taken away while there is
still a large flow of milk. This will tend to pro-
duce inflammation or garget, and a number of blind
teats may be the result. The plan of removing all
the pigs with the exception of one or two is also
objectionable. It is a sudden check tc the ones re-
moved and the remainder will not, as a rule, take
all the milk, besides running the risk of spoiling

the sow.

Feed the sow a spare diet, giving such foods as
a little dry grain, raw potatoes, etc., which will
tend to arrest the secretion of milk.

WEANING PIGS

The weaning season is more or less critical with
young swine. In many instances they receive a
setback at that time, which means loss in growth.
The manner of the weaning is important, as wel!
as the time of the same. When young pigs have
learned to take slop freely, made of shorts and skim
milk, they are being made ready for weaning with-
out a serious check to their growth. Such pigs may
be weaned, if necessary, at the age of eight weeks.

3 TS. FARM STOCK

If they cannot be given skim milk, it is better
for the pigs if they can remain longer on the dam, —
In such instances, they will fare better if they can
take nourishment from the dam until ten weeks old.
In no case should they be weaned until they can
take food freely apart from the dam. Much care
should be exercised to furnish them with those
kinds of food that will promote good growth.

PIGS FROM WEANING UNTIL FATTENING

As soon as young pigs are weaned, they must be
kept entirely away from the dam until she ceases to
secrete milk, but not necessarily for a longer period.
Give them access to a good pasture in the day, and
meal in addition, morning and evening, until the
fattening period arrives. ‘The amount of meal fed
will, to some extent, depend upon the character of
the pasture, but it should be enough to secure good
growth. The meal portion of the ration should be
of a nitrogenous character. When fed.in connec-
tion with milk, a less quantity can be given and the.
meal can be more of the carbonaceous -feed like
corn.

Pastures for Store Pigs include rye, blue grass,
alfalfa, clover, barley and oats, rape and soy beans.
Winter rye is ready before any other kind of pas-
ture, and it may be made to last a long time when
cropped closely. Bluegrass, nearly as early as rye,
furnishes good pasture, but soon gets too dry and
woody. Alfalfa, where it grows well, will furnish
pasture for swine during the greater portion of the
growing season. Common red clover is ready
fourth in point of time, and when properly man-
aged will furnish good pasture much of the season.
In the absence of clover, barley and oats, or peas

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 319

and oats, will furnish a good pasture. The Dwarf
Essex rape, sown early and eaten off when fairly
grown, will furnish excellent pasture for store pigs
from the middle of June until freezing-up season,
but to accomplish this it must be sown at successive
periods. Soy beans and cowpeas furnish grazing
when the grain is nearing maturity and somewhat
later in the season.

CHESTER WHITES IN A PORTABLE PEN

This breed makes good use of pastures, is especially
popular when dressed and sold in local markets. The port-
able pen for outside feeding should take the place of the
stationary, filthy feeding lot.

Green Foods—In addition to pastures, certain
green crops may be grown with much advantage
for store pigs, such as peas, sweet corn, squashes
and mangels. They are to be fed to supplement
the pastures and also the meal part of the ration.
Store pigs will make a substantial growth when
gleaning among wheat stubbles, for a time at least,

320 FARM STOCK

providing they have been given access to the stub-
bles soon after the wheat has been cut. When thus
engaged they do not require much additional food.
If clover has been sown in the spring, no grain will
be required.

When store pigs are to be reared in the winter,
the aim should be to have them farrowed early in
the season, that they may be considerably advanced
in growth when the winter sets in. The pens must
be warm, well lighted and dry, and the pigs should
be allowed some exercise on fine days. The food
may be essentially the same as that given in sum-
mer, €xcept that roots only, or clover, or ;altalia
can be given in lieu of the green food of summer.
When practicable, the food should be steamed,
hence it can be, and should be, fed warm. The pigs
usually bring a better price when sold before the
season for grass pasturing. For various reasons
there is more hazard in rearing autumn than spring
litters, but with due preparation and due care such
litters may be profitably reared.

CARE OF SOW AND PIGS

Sows should be mated ten months to a year old,
according to growth. Breeders differ with regard
to the length of time the boar and sow should be
together, but I prefer to leave them im each otnemes -
society about a day.

The hog house should be of sufficient height to
clear the sow’s back and necessitate short turning.
If the period of birth occurs in the winter, the house
cannot be made too warm. If possible, have a yard
for the sow outside the pen. It will not only give
her contentment, but exercise, thereby preventing
the accumulation of flesh, which is a detriment to

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 321

the coming brood. It also develops bone and
muscle and imparts to the offspring vigorous con-
stitutions. Feed at this period with light, tasty
food, such as middlings, bran and stale bread.

Care at the Time of Birth—Ili the sow’s house is
comfortable this is about the only precaution nec-
essary. Give just bedding enough to lie upon. It
is a good plan to chop it up in the fodder cutter.
The sow is inclined to form her bed for her nest,
just her own size. The tottering little fellows fall
under her as she rises. When she again lies down
they are crushed. The best of mothers are liable
to do this. After keeping the bed level for two or

A GOOD HOG TROUGH

A feeding place like this provides cleanliness, stability; and
the trough is unbreakable.

three days, the pigs get strength and this danger
passes away.

Food and Care After Birth—Feed moderately
with tasty food for two or three days, when the
milk will come in full ow. Then gradually open
your grain bins and cribs and give her a variety of
heavy feed, accompanied by milk if possible, watch-
ing all the time for signs of clogging. At the first
symptoms restrict the feed. Do not forget to give
some whole corn, as she will nibble at that at odd
times.

Care of Pigs—The pigs will not need much care
for about a week or ten days. At the end of that
time they will begin to emerge from the pen. At
that time place some tasty food, milk and broken

Bee FARM STOCK

crackers at their door, sheltered from dogs and cats,
and you will be surprised how soon they will sample
it. In a few days they will come out at your ap-
proach. By feeding from that time on until selling
time, you will increase their weight about one-third
and they will sell all around your neighbors’ who
do not “bother.”

FEEDING SKIM MILK

The feeding of skim milk to swine is but im-
perfectly understood by many of those who feed it.
The following may be said with reference thereto:
The aim should be to feed the milk as soon as it is
possible to do so after it has been obtained, as, es-
pecially in cold weather, it is a distinct advantage
to feed it with the animal heat in it. No bemer
food can be given to young swine, aside from the
milk of the dam, while they are yet unweaned. At
such a time they will turn to good advantage all
the skim milk that they will consume.

Subsequently to the growing period they will turn
to the best advantage not more than, say, four
pounds of skim milk to one pound of grain, when
they do not have any grazing. When furnished
with grazing and grain, not more than three pounds
would be needed to one pound of grain. Much
more may be fed, but the relative profit will not
be so great. Not more than four or five pounds to
one pound of grain should be fed to swine that are
being fattened. Brood sows can turn to good ac-
count large quantities of skim milk, but not to
such good account as the young swine that nurse
them. It is correct. fo. Say that the \younmery ume
swine to which the skim milk is fed, the better will
be the return from feeding it.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 323

FEEDING BROOD SOWS

In feeding brood sows, three points should be
constantly borne in mind: First, to supply the nu-
trients necessary for the proper nourishment of the
sow and the litter she is carrying; second, to make
the ration bulky enough to keep the system open
and in good condition; and third, 1o make it as
cheap as possible. During the growing season such
a ration can be supplied at a minimum expense by
feeding about two per cent of the sow’s weight of
three parts of corn and one part bran or middlings,
soy beans or cowpeas; the remainder of the ration
being supplied by allowing the sow to run on clover,
alfalfa or some other leguminous pastures.

Clover and Alfalfa Desirable—In winter, cut
clover or alfalfa hay mixed with grain, together
with a sugar beet or two, or mangels, will make a
good substitute for the pasture. The sows, as well
as the boar, should have abundant exercise, and in
placing the houses in the lot where the pigs are
confined, care should be taken. to have the feeding
place as far from the sleeping quarters as condi-
tions will allow, so as to enforce exercise in cold
weather.

BROOD SOWS IN WINTER

The management of brood sows in winter has
more influence in determining what the swine crop
for the season will be than any other single influ-
ence which bears upon the question. When sows
are wintered properly from start to finish, let the
season be what it may, the return in progeny is like-
ly to prove satisfactory. It should not, at least,

324 FARM STOCK

prove disappointing. Sows, to produce good lit-
ters, must have proper food and exercise, and also
proper shelter during their period of pregnancy:

A diet all carbonaceous or mainly so is very un-
suitable for brood sows. Such is corn. Barley is
not so highly carbonaceous, but it should not be fed
alone. Such a diet does not properly sustain the
foetus in uterus. The young pigs when born, if
born alive, will be small. In some instances they
will be deficient in hair. The sows are likely to
be excessively fat if fed liberally, and may also
have trouble in bringing forth their young.

Feeding Floor

HOG HOUSE AND FEEDING FLOOR
This convenient hog house is inexpensive and the feed-
ing floor at the side insures cleanliness and thorough sani-

tary conditions. A sanitary hog house should be one of the
chief improvements of the farm.

A diet all nitrogenous or mainly so is just as
unsatisfactory. Blend the two groups and get a
mixture. - Use grasses; clovers, altalfiavand meld
roots with the grain.

Use Home-Grown Feeds—The rations used
should depend upon the readiness with which they
may be grown in the locality. The list is a long
one, and it may be made to include the following:
Ground corn, barley or rye and wheat bran, fed in
equal proportions by weight of one of the grains
and two of the shorts; equal parts ground oats and
shorts by weight; any kind of field roots fed so

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE = 325

freely as to furnish the bulk of the ration with
some corn added in the ear, or, in its absence,
a little grain of any of the kinds named above;

‘potatoes, grain and skim milk; cowpeas and corn

in the proportions of two and one parts respective-
ly; and cassava and cowpeas in the proportions of
three and two parts by weight. )

Well-cured clover hay, if cut early, may be freely
fed with profit and the same is true of alfalfa.
These go along with a diet considerably carbona-
ceous. Sorghum, well grown, may also be used
similarly, but along with a nitrogenous diet. The
proper blending of the foods is greatly important
with brood sows, so unless the diet fed is at least
approximately correct, the young litters will be
proportionately disappointing.

Exercise for Brood Sows—The question of ex-
ercise need not give any serious concern to those
who live in climates so mild that they can pasture
more or less during the winter. If they can be
set to work to dig artichokes or peanuts, so much
the better for the progeny. They will come strong
and vigorous. But where brood sows have not the
opportunity to dig thus for their food, and where
the winters are of such a character that they cannot
get to the fields to glean, it is very different. When
the days are cold they are much inclined to lie in
their sleeping quarters, and thus take little or no
exercise.

This can usually be most readily remedied by al-
lowing them free access to a barnyard, where they
will have opportunity to root amid the litter in
search for stray heads or kernels of grain. Some
strewn purposely now and then will encourage them
to take more exercise and the more of this they can
be made to take the better will be the results. One

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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 327

objection to having been in a barnyard is that they
may run into apartments where the doors may be
opened, while the animals within are being cared
for. In this way they may become a positive
nuisance, but this matter may be regulated by al-
lowing them access to the barnyard when other
work, such as has been referred to, is not going on.
The fear that they will be injured with other live
stock need not be felt. In a few instances this
may happen, but such instances will be rare.

Shelter for Brood Sows—Whatsoever the char-
acter of the shelter, it should possess sufficient ven-
tilation, dryness and warmth to keep the animals
comfortable. With these requisites it matters not,
so far as the health of the sows is concerned, how
these have been secured. Even in cold climates
they may be secured in an old straw stack which
stands on dry ground. Brood sows have thus come
through the winter in good shape in stack bottoms
built adjacent to the yards. But, of course, when
the farrowing season draws near, they should have
quarters that are more accessible, hence, when a
number of brood sows are kept in winter, there
should be apartments for them in which they can
farrow separately, and be kept there with their
young for a sufficient period. Dampness in winter
quarters is particularly prejudicial, as it tends to
produce lung and rheumatic troubles, both of which
may prove disastrous even in the case of the dams,
to say nothing of the litters. The necessity, there-
fore, for attention to keeping the bedding dry is
imperative.

Keep Brood Sows Apart—While sows may lie a
number together for a time, after they become preg-
nant, this should not be allowed in the advanced
stages of pregnancy. To allow it may result in

328 FARM STOCK

injury to the young and also to the dams. They
should not be allowed to sleep on concrete or ce-
ment floors in winter, unless they are overlaid with
boards, or they may lead to rheumatic affections in
the sows. Where they cannot have access to barn-
yards, they must be encouraged to take exercise by
giving them a part of their food in any open place
where the ground is dry and bare. Such grain food
should be thinly strewn. They will then take more
time in which to gather it. But in really cold and
stormy weather such exercise should not be in-
sisted on.

SELECTING AND CARING FOR STOCK
BOARS

The more important considerations in selecting
a stock boar include lineage, general individual
qualities, and characteristics as to form. As with
cattle and sheep, it is essential that the boar be
purely bred and descended from an ancestry en the
side of the sire and dam possessed of requisite
qualities. These qualities include constitutional
vigor and the ability to give good returns in meat
for the food fed. His size should be meditim te
large of the breed represented, his bone medium to
strong and his body of a compact type and smooth,
and covered with a good coat of strong but not
coarse hair and possess a clean, smooth skin; and
he should also have decided masculinity. In ad-
dition his head should be medium to strong; the
neck broad and deep, varying in length and depth
with the breed. He should be evenly wide at the
shoulders, sides and hams, and deep top and bot-
tom lines parallel, except that the top line should be
a little arched in some breeds.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 329

Do Not Select Too Early—The selection of a
stock boar should not be made at too early a period,
as modifications in form take place with the gradual
development of the animal, hence selection, when
possible, should be deferred until after the weaning
season. Boars from early spring litters should be
given the preference, as they can be used to some
extent in service the same year. The food, until
ready for service, may consist largely of shorts or
oats and corn meal, in the proportions of, say, two
to one part, with green food added. More com-
plete development can be secured when the boars are
fed apart or in small lots after they have been se-
lected for breeding. They should not be allowed to
remain with the sows beyond the age of four or five
months.

Amount of Service—A boar should not be used
in service until eight or nine months old. Until
one year old he should only be used to a limited
extent. Soon after one year old he should be used
with much freedom in service, but, if possible, not
more frequently than every other day. The dura-
tion of service will depend, to some extent, upon
the disposition of the animal, upon the extent to
which he has been used in service, and upon his
prepotency. Vicious animals and indifferent brood-
ers cannot go too soon to the block, while superior
breeding animals may be kept as long as they are
markedly useful. It is not usual to keep boars be-
yond the age of five years. But remember that ex-
cessive service always leads to physical degeneracy,
small animals and lack of vigor in the young pigs.

Isolation and Exercise—It should be the aim to
keep the boar in quarters quite away from sows,
but this may not be practicable, especially in winter. |

330 FARM STOCK

It is advisable, however, to have the fence sur-
rounding his yard close rather than open and both
summer and winter he should be encouraged to take
exercise.

Summer Management—The meal portion of the
ration may include shorts and corn meal or ground
barley or ground peas in the proportions of two and
one parts respectively; wheat bran, shorts and corn
meal or barley, equal parts; ground oats and ground
corn or ground barley or ground peas, in the pro-
portions of one and two parts respectively. Green
food may be added, such as bluegrass, alfalfa,

HOG HOUSE FOR A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL

The corn stover set about the wooden house gives good
protection in cold weather.

clover, green peas, rape, sweet corn, squashes,
pumpkins and weeds from the garden. |
Winter Management—During this season the
boar should be given warm quarters with frequent
changes of litter, access to yard, and where practi-
cable, access to a barnyard, during a part of the
lay. The food may be substantially the same as in
the summer, as far as the meal factors are con-
cerned, taking care to use more relatively of the
carbonaceous foods. Green food may be and
should be applied in the form of field roots.
Disposing of the Aged Boar—When not wanted
longer for service the boar should be castrated,

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE Ba

preferably in the spring of the year. He may then
be allowed to run through the summer on pasture
and other food. When fattened and slaughtered in
the autumn, he may be turned into lard and sold
as such, if so desired.

PASTURE CHEAP FEED FOR SWINE

It would be correct to say that in no other way
can a pound of pork be made so cheaply as when
it 1S Made on pasture. As a rule, however, other
food more concentrated should be fed while the
swine are on pasture, to supplement the same. The
amount of supplemental food will depend upon the
nature of the grazing.

The most valuable grazing is that which is legu-
minous in character, as clover in any of its varie-
ties, alfalfa and peanuts. Other grazing, however,
may be very excellent that is not leguminous.
Such is Dwarf Essex rape and some other plants.

In the northern states the following plants may
be used to provide grazing for swine: Winter rye,
barley, alfalfa, clover in nearly all its varieties,
vetches, rape and artichokes. The grains that may
be harvested by the swine when mature include
rye, bald barley, corn and the Canada field pea.

In the eastern states the same foods may be
grown as in those north. The Canada pea may
not grow so satisfactorily, but the crimson clover
could be added to the list, also certain varieties of
cowpeas and soy beans. The sand vetch would
also furnish pasturage.

In the southern states the list of nietianes would
include: Winter rye, winter oats and winter bar-
ley, the common vetch and the sand vetch. All of
these would be sown in the fall. In the line of

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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE Z33

other grazing, the list would include crimson
clover, Japan clover, burr clover and Bermuda
grass. In the line of roots it would include arti-
chokes, sweet potatoes and peanuts. The two lat-
ter, however, would only be used thus when of
coarse-growing varieties, as when, for instance,
they were too coarse for market uses. Cowpeas
and soy beans would also furnish good grazing.

In the western states, especially in the mountain
states, alfalfa will be the outstanding swine pas-
ture. This does not mean, however, that many
other pastures, as winter rye, bald barley and Can-
ada field peas, will not be used. In the states just
west of the Mississippi, sorghum is frequently
grown for swine pasture.

Since pasture is so easily grown for swine, and
since the list of plants suitable is so large, it should
be easily possible to provide pasture for swine in
any part of the United States in which swine are
kept.

ALFALFA HAY FOR HOGS

Can alfalfa hay be substituted for corn during
winter feeding? It can. In the alfalfa sections,
both green and dry alfalfa enter very largely into
the maintenance and fattening rations of hogs. It
is not uncommon to winter hogs on alfalfa alone.

The objection to this practice les in the fact
that alfalfa is too valuable to be used without
other feed going with it. Alfalfa, you know, is
rich in the proteids. It runs to one extreme just
ae eonderums co the other. It is the mixture of
the two, of proteids and carbohydrates, that makes
the ideal ration for any class of live stock. When
alfalfa enters into the pork production, let this
plan be followed:

334 FARM STOCK

Beginning with the Shotes—In early spring let
the shotes, stock hogs and brood sows run in the
alfalfa field. This will carry them for several
months. Many feeders like to give, even while on
alfalfa pasturage, some corn also. As the feeding
period advances, and the shotes reach maturity and
approach the fattening period, increase the amount
of corn constantly until you take the hogs from the
pasture altogether, at the same time giving corn
almost wholly.

If pen fed, a little alfalfa hay will not be out of
place. Alfalfa meal 1s often substituted for alfalfa
hay in the feed pen, but from the standpoint of
price, alfalfa meal is out of reach. Tankage, one
part being used to ten of corn, makes quite an ideal
addition to the usual finishing food. The last two
or three weeks of feeding, corn may be used alone.

In feeding during the winter time, if you have
plenty of alfalfa, give the hogs free use of alfalfa
hay, cut or uncut, as the case may be, and a little
less of corn than your usual custom. When alfalfa
hay is used, of course other feeds, like middlings
and shorts, need not be used.

Pasturing Cattle on Alfalfa—What is said here
about hogs, in the most part, is true of cattle, with
this exception: The greatest caution must be used
in pasturing, especially in the spring. I know many
cattle raisers who pasture cattle on alfalfa, but they
make it a point always to have bluegrass and tim-
othy available, and old stocks of hay scattered
throughout the field, or old hay fed from racks or
the load.

Alfalfa is a coming crop for the older middle
states. In the future it will enter more largely into
the production of pork, beef and dairy products
than any other forage crop, corn excepted.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 335

HOGGING OFF CORN

Some hold the idea that hogging off corn is a
shiftless way of farming. This is based neither
on facts nor good judgment. As a method of
economical feeding, the practice of hogging off
corn has been growing in favor during the past
few years, and seems to be a practicable and
economical way of feeding hogs several weeks
during the fall.

A two years’ investigation into this subject was
made at the Minnesota station. Comparisons were
made with other methods of feeding corn and let-
ters of inquiry were sent to many farmers who
had experimented with this plan. As a result, the
station is strong in its recommendation of this
plan, viewed from an _ economical standpoint
brought about by the reduced bill for labor. High
prices for labor, together with low prices for corn,
warrant economy in labor, even though it may
lead to a slight waste of corn.

What the Experiment Shows—The following
conclusions were arrived at after a thorough inves-
tigation of this interesting subject:

Pork was produced with less grain by hogging
off corn than by feeding ear or snapped corn in
yards. Hogs fed in fields gained nearly one-third
more rapidly than those fed in yards. The cost of
fencing corn fields may be from $1.00 to $2.50 less
per acre than the cost of husking corn. It requires
no more labor to prepare for subsequent crops,
fields that have been hogged off than those that
have been treated by the ordinary methods of har-
vesting. Hogs waste no more corn in fields than
when fed in yards. They pick the corn as clean
as most men do in husking. Labor in caring for

336 FARM STOCK

hogs is not increased by hogging off corn, but may
be decreased, if systematic methods are employed.
How to Obiam Best Results—The variety of
corn usually grown in a locality is the proper kind
to grow for hogging off purposes, since it is prob-
ably best adapted to the locality and gives the
largest yield. However, getting an early start in
the fattening process is very advantageous, and it
sometimes happens when pasture supplies are
short, or the early sale of hogs is desirable, that
such a variety does not mature early enough.

To be prepared for such conditions, it is well
to grow a sufficient amount of sweet corn or early
maturing flint corn to tide over until the field
corn is ready for use. No more than is sufficient
for early fall seeding should be grown, since it
costs just as much to grow these varieties as it
does the dent, and they yield much less. Flint
corn is preferable to sweet corn for hogs, and
field feeding of flint corn gives better results than
where husked and fed aiter the corn has hardened.

Size of Pigs to. Use—Pigs weighite tomes
to 140 pounds are best suited for field feeding,
since they have at that weight formed a good
amount of bone and muscle for framework, and
are in a condition to fatten rather than to grow.
Those that have been grown on pasture are better
fitted for the work than those that have been con-
fined in pens, as they are more active, and have had
more experience in gathering food for themselves.
They, therefore, eat corn more readily and require
less amounts of expensive mill feed. Shotes of
this weight may be expected to gain at the start
about 1.4 pounds daily. In 60 to 70 days of feed-
ing they should gain approximately 92 pounds.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE SO7

Old brood sows that are thin in flesh fatten up
very quickly when turned into a field. A few
weeks on early varieties of corn will usually permit
such sows to be marketed early, or before it would
be possible following the common method of
feeding.

Much Water Needed—While eating corn in the
field, hogs require a great deal of clear water.
They grow and thrive better when they have it,
and some means of supplying it to them fresh
and in large quantities must be provided. When
in the field, hogs do not come up and drink in
droves, as they do in the yards. Therefore, it is
necessary to keep water before them continually.

When fields adjacent to the farmstead are used,
hogs can be brought up to the yards and watered
or fed slop as usual. Where fields remote from
the farmstead are used, the simplest way is to fill
several barrels or casks with water, and haul them
by team on a stoneboat or other conveyance to
the field. Enough can thus. be taken out at a time
to last two or three days.

When a plentiful water supply is assured, slop-
ping does not require such careful attention.
Many feeders do not slop at all, but better results
are undoubtedly obtained by supplying some sort
of bone and muscle-producing feed to pigs weigh-
ing under 140 pounds. Old hogs do not need it,
but young ones do. In the early fall, when on a
rape or clover crop, or when green feeds of any
sort are plentiful, once a day is all that is neces-
sary to slop the hogs, but as the season advances,
they should be slopped at least twice a day.

Shorts, middlings, or oilcake and shorts com-
bined are good growing foods, and hence are good
material for slops. Experiments have not yet

338 FARM STOCK

been carried on to determine the extent to which
slops should be used, but careful observation and
experience warrant the above remarks.

Even though it may be safe to turn hogs into
the corn fields early, it might not be wise fone
smaller amount of feed is obtained when the corn
is not allowed to ripen first, and the pigs are likely
to tear it all down before it matures. When to
turn in, will, therefore, depend upon the amount
of available pasture and the nature of the pigs as
well as upon the development of the corn. It is
safe to begin hogging off the field corn about the
time it is dented.

PASTURE FOR HOGS

It is probable that in no way can pork be made
more cheaply than with grain on pasture, provided
the rain and pasture are on the might Kind aac
periments at a number of different stations have
shown that it requires one-fifth to one-third less
grain to produce 100 pounds of pork with pasture
than without it. While this is no doubt true, care
should be taken not to overdo the matter of pas-
ture, especially with young pigs. Young pigs need
more protein than older ones, because) taey sare
growing, rather than fattening.

In consequence, the young pig should receive for
some time after being weaned, a ration equivalent
to two parts of corn meal and one of middlings,
with perhaps little tankage aside from access to
good clover, alfalfa, oats and peas, or cowpea pas-
ture, from which he will get considerable protein.
On this sort of pasture, as the pigs grow larger,
the proportion of corn may be increased until they
have attained the weight of about 100 pounds, when

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 339

corn alone may be economically fed, unless, per-
chance, corn may be high and protein feed propor-
tionately low in price. Under usual conditions,
however, the nitrogenous feeds are so high that,
although their use undoubtedly would make more
rapid gains, they are obtained at such an increased
cost as to render. their use unadvisable.

Work for Steady Growth—Pigs should be so
fed that they will gain a half-pound a day from the
time they are three weeks old until they are mar-
keted. It is impossible to make anything like this
gain on pasture alone, but, on the other hand, it is
possible to feed more grain than is necessary to
make the maximum gains. It seems, too, that in
order to get the best results from the pasture, it is
essential that the pigs be allowed to graze rather
than to have the green feed cut and brought to
them. Whole grain feed on pasture should be
ground or soaked, with the possible exception of
corn, which may be fed on the cob or shelled. It
will pay, however, to soak old corn before it is fed,
as soaking is equivalent to grinding and is much
cheaper.

It requires considerable skill and forethought to
arrange to have desirable pasture available during
the greater part of the growing season. Assuming
that the land devoted to pig pasture is fairly fertile,
the following plan will probably yield satisfactory
results under average Pennsylvania and other east-
ern conditions where alfalfa is not as yet a certain
crop.

Some Good Pastures—The earliest pasture that
can be had is rye, and although its food value may
not be great, it will serve to tone up the system and
induce better appetite and faster growth. Hairy

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340

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 3241

vetch, red clover, alfalfa, oats and peas, rape, sor-
hum, soy beans and cowpeas may follow each
other. Climate, soil and other conditions will prob-
ably serve to exclude some of these crops. It is
quite certain, however, that from this list a rotation
may be had that will give anywhere a succession of
suitable pasture for hogs. The great advantage in
supplying such a course of pasture is that many of
them supply, in a very cheap manner, protein which
is needed for rapid and economical gains.

far POPULAR TYPE OF HOGS

The popular demand at the present time is for a
class of hogs that are prolific. It does not cost
any more to winter sows that farrow ten pigs at
a litter than it does those that farrow about four
or five. Early maturing hogs are demanded, for
it does not pay to keep pigs more than eight or
nine months of age to reach the popular weight,
which is from 200 to 250 pounds each. Pigs kept
growing right along from time of birth to that age
make pork cheaper than they will if kept longer,
and it will be of better quality than if the hogs
are fed slowly at first and then fattened up for the
market, as was the custom in times past.

Lean Meat Demanded—Another point is the fact
that people demand bacon and hams that have a
large percentage of lean meat. The muscles that
make the lean meat are formed largely during
the time that the pigs are growing. ‘Therefore, it
is essential that pigs be well fed while growing,
and at the same time be given an opportunity for
exercise to develop muscle.

The waste points, like the long nose and long
legs, should be eliminated from the hogs in order to

242 FARM STOCK

get the most desirable meat possible in the carcass.
It seems to be the impression that the bacon hogs
must, of necessity, have long, sharp noses in order
to get the bacon sides. The impression is an er-
roneous one. By selection and following the proper
variations a type of hogs with short faces and legs
and deep sides can be developed. This same class
also carry good hams, which add to the value of the
carcass. It is certainly worth while to give more
attention to the type of hog that will be most profit-
able to keep on the farm than was given a genera-
tion ago.

FEEDING HOGS FOR PROFIT

Raising hogs for profit is one thing and letting
them grow on the farm and make what they will is
another. If we expect to profit from our hogs we
must give them care and attention. They need
comfortable quarters in winter, protection from the
sun 1n summer, clean pens at all seasons, regular
feeding, a clean place to eat, food properly pre-
pared and some space in which to root, with no
rings in their noses. Death comes to many hogs
because we deprive them of that inborn desire to
root, to find their medicine and restore themselves
to health when sick. The hog knows why he roots,
but we do not. Careful experiments have shown
that each bushel of corn fed hogs. will produce on
the average about ten pounds of pork. When
ready to fatten divide your hogs into lots of 20 or
25 each. Too many hogs together will certainly
invite contagion. Keep your hogs at all seasons in
good growing condition, and never allow more than
60 days to have your hogs round and plump and
ready for the highest market.

——

ee ee es RE Ne a) ee eee

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 343

To Fatten Is Not Difficult—There is no trouble
in putting fat on a well-kept hog. When ready to
fatten hitch the horses to the feed grinder and
erush and grind 50 bushels of corn, cob and all,
into coarse meal. Put this corn and cob meal in a
dry place, in barrels or boxes. Then fill three or
four extra barrels about half full of this corn and
cob meal. Pour boiling water into these barrels
until they are about three-fourths full; this water
may inciude milk and other slops from the kitchen.
Now stir this mixture and let it stand two or three
days till it begins to ferment. This process will
soon fill the barrels to overflowing. Feeding now
begins sparingly at first till the hogs get used to it,
then give them all they will eat three times a day.
This preparation of soft mush makes an excellent
laxative diet, allays the tendency to a feverish con-
dition of the hog’s bowels, hastens digestion, gives
the hog a good appetite, promotes health and puts
on fat and flesh with exceeding rapidity.

Pasture as Long as Possible—Let your fatters
run on grass until the snow falls, then house them
and bed with sweet clover hay. It is often neces-
sary to renew the bed every two or three days, as
the hogs eat the bed when they can’t get grass from
the pasture. They are very fond of sweet clover
eye) imere is no waste of hay, for clover. is a
muscle producer and promotes the health of the
hogs. The soft mush produced by scalding the
corn and cob meal should be fed in long troughs
on a regular feeding floor, so as to keep the food
clean. This is very important. Keep a trough
in one corner of the feeding floor filled with char-
coal and salt for the hogs to eat just when they
want it. This is a fine preventive of cholera and
purges the bowels of impurities. In 60 days from

344 FARM STOCK

the time of beginning this special feeding your hogs
are ready to sell. About eight bushels corn for
each hog will be required; and each hog will gain
on an average 160 pounds in the 60 days. Now
let us count the profit: 50 hogs gained 8000
pounds, at 5 cents per pound, is $400; 400 bushels
corn, 45 cents per bushel, is $180, leaving a net
gain of $220. To these figures add 7000 pounds,
the weight before fattening and you have the total
valuation.

CHAPTER XXV
The Diseases of Swine

The hog is such a small and unimportant animal
when considered singly that to treat him when he
is slightly indisposed is scarcely to be thought of.
It is when certain diseases that are contagious
play damage to the entire herd or spread through-
out the community that treatment is sought. With

THEY ARE DOING THEIR OWN DIPPING

A simple contrivance for hog disinfectants. You can make
it yourself and your hogs will like it.

a few possible exceptions, the hog is not afflicted in

any great way by infectious or contagious diseases.

Naturally the short time that he dwells on the farm

removes some of the difficulties in this way.
The chief cause of whatever diseases do bother

him is filth and unsanitary conditions under which >

he is placed. The most undesirable quarters about

345

340 FARM STOCK

the farm are given the hog. Who does not recall in
his community some small pen where one or more
hogs are quartered for weeks or months with
scarcely ever any additional bedding and constant
exposure to all kinds of weather? The pen soon
becomes a mud hole, requiring the inmate to both
eat and sleep in filth.

Now the hog is not naturally filthy or uncleanly.
He likes to lie in water and moist places, but he
prefers these to be cleanly and healthy. No farm
animal is more careful in seeking cleanly quarters

if left to himself. ,

CORRECTIVES FOR SWINE

Under some conditions swine show a decided
craving for such substances as charcoal, charred
corn cobs, soft coal, wood ashes, soft sandstone, soft
brick, bits of mortar, rotten wood and soapsuds,
also earth. Such a craving, when markedly present,
is evidence that the swine are not getting in the
food all the elements that they need. In order to
meet this need, it is recommended that some, at
least, of these substances shall be given to them ar-
tificially. Those most commonly recommended are
charcoal, charred corn cobs and wood ashes. These
are put in self-feeders and are made accessible to
the swine.

The following was a favorite of Theodore
Low’s, now gone to his rest: Six bushels charred
corn cobs, three bushels charcoal, three bushels
wood ashes, eight pounds salt and 1% pounds cop-
peras. The charcoal was broken and all the other
ingredients added and mixed by shoveling them
over. The copperas was then dissolved in hot
water and sprinkled over the mass, which was then

THE DISEASES OF SWINE 347

shoveled over again. The old man used this for-
mula during nearly all his years of farming.
Some authorities recommend that all swine be
given access to some such preparation. This I
cannot endorse in its entirety. My contention is
that when swine are largely developed on pastures
mixed in character, and especially when not much
corn is fed, they will not need such correctives.

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SUG AL
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AN ATTACK OF CHOLERA

One of the familiar attitudes assumed when the hog
is affected with cholera. When this far along, not many
cases of recovery are observed.

Where bacon is grown in food form these correct-
ives are but little in evidence. The reason is that
the food that produces good bacon will also main-
tain that condition of health in which the craving
referred to will be but little present.

IMPORTANT DISEASES LARGELY
INFECTIOUS

Hog Cholera—The farmer is, therefore, con-
cerned more. with the infectious diseases which
are also the important ones that attack the hog.

248 FARM STOCK

Chief among these is hog cholera. No disease is
known that destroys more animals than hog
cholera. So far the prevention and curing of the
disease have baffled all scientific attempts, although
at the present time a method of inoculation has
been perfected by the United States Department of
Agriculture. The preliminary demonstrations of
this test have been very favorable and may lead to
far-reaching results. In brief, this remedy is an
inoculating fluid secured from the horse after in-
oculation with hog-cholera germs. Of course, hogs
_ that have hog cholera already in their system could
not be expected to be helped very materially by this
treatment. The discoverers mean to use the prepa-
ration for healthy hogs as a means of prevention
when once the disease breaks out in the community
or State.

The hog-cholera bacillus locates in the intestines,
giving rise to this infectious as well as malignant
disease. Among the first things noted are loss of
appetite, high fever, a discharge from the eyes and
a spotted discoloration of the skin. At first con-
stipation is noted, followed very quickly by profuse
diarrhoea, which persists until the animal is dead.
Hogs affected with hog cholera are dull and seek
quietness in some corner of the pen or yard. The
mortality is very great, being from 80 to 90 per
cent. When of any acute nature, two or three days
are all that are required to bring death to the in-
dividual.

Prevention the Best Sue In some. sections
some farmers are constantly afflicted with this dis-
ease in their herds, while others seemingly are free
of it. Since it is a germ disease, it is readily car-
ried from one farm to another by dogs, birds, or on
the shoes of people. It is quite essential, therefore,

THE DISEASES OF SWINE 349

' that there should be no interchange between farms
when hog cholera is prevalent. The most careful

sanitation is necessary also.
should be frequently sprayed
with disinfectants and lime
scattered all about that the
germ may have little or no
chance of gaining headway
if it were to secure lodging.

To keep hogs healthy,
vigorous and fast growing,
good food of the right kind,
nutritious and wholesome,
will do much; it will aid in
building up the system so as
to withstand infection. Con-
sequently on farms where an
abundance of pasturage like
alfalfa and clover are to be
found, fewer cases of hog
cholera will result.

Hogs that are fed largely
on corn seem to be the first
ones attacked. The lack of
protein and mineral material
in their food keeps the sys-
tem in a-run-down condition
and the animal is not so able
to resist disease.

If the disease once breaks
out in your herd, the first
thing to do is to separate the
sick hogs from the well
hogs, give both kinds new
quarters at once and make

The sleeping quarters

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THE, RESULT OF -HOG
CHOLERA

_ A post-mortem of a hog dy-
ing from cholera will show
ulcers like those pictured here.
Look for them in the large in-
testine.

350 FARM STOCK

their separation as complete as possible. Divide the
well hogs into as many groups as possible, so that
your entire herd may not be affected. Be careful
in feeding that the same attendant does not go from
the sick hogs to the well hogs. It is so easy to carry
the germs from one place to the other that it is
reasonably certain that in this way the disease will
be transmitted.

If the disease has broken out in your herd and
a large part of your animals die, let those that sur-
vive be kept for breeding purposes rather than be
sold. You are reasonably sure that these are im-
mune to the disease and will be more likely to
withstand future attacks. In this way you have
some good brood sows and service boars that you
can reasonably well count on should another at-
tack occur. You thus are not confronted with the
risk of losing your entire herd.

Szine Plague is closely allied to hog cholera and
is usually confused with it, but the two are not one
and the same disease. In swine plague the lungs
are found to be in a heavy and congested condition,
much as is the case when attacked with pneumonia.

In hog cholera, the seat is in the intestines, but in
swine plague the seat is in the lungs, so in the latter
disease, some pulmonary trouble is nearly always
the direct cause of death. The swine plague in-
fection takes place through the air passages, while
in hog cholera infection occurs through the water
or food.

Tuberculosis—This is a disease of swine just as
it is of cattle or sheep or man.’ There is:a larger
percentage of tuberculosis among hogs than is gen-
erally supposed. Its cause is by direct infection
and by the use of milk from tuberculous cows. Of
course, no method of treatment is advisable, even

THE DISEASES OF SWINE Byo

if possible. The hog is worth too little money to
receive much treatment for so important a disease
as tuberculosis. The best way to do if tuberculosis
has gained a foothold in your herd is to slaughter
your animals and start over again by getting new
stock entirely free of the disease. All feeding and
running lots should be destroyed for both tubercu-
losis and hog cholera and the ground plowed and
put to some crop that the germ may be entirely
killed and eradicated. If the fences are of a painted
nature, see that they are covered with whitewash
and all litter of every nature is destroyed.

ONE OF THE PARASITES OF THE HOG

The thorn-headed worm attached to the anterior part
of the small intestine often causes death. Not more than
five or six are usually found in a single animal.

Trichinosis—This disease is caused by a minute
worm that lodges in the flesh of the animal. So
great and troublesome is this disease that fresh pork
is not considered safe in some parts of the world.
Man becomes affected with this disease by eating
raw or undercooked pork. The trichinz are killed
either by cooking or by the usual process of salt
pickled and cured pork products. Hogs usually get
the disease by eating offal and rats that fre-
quent slaughter houses. Where hogs are given

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302

THE DISEASES OF SWINE R56

wholesome quarters out on the farm, free from
this filth and unwholesome food, it is quite unlikely
that they will be afflicted in this way.

Worms—Young pigs are often afflicted with
-worms. Of course, infected quarters are back of
the trouble. When kept on land or lots annually
plowed and cultivated and for the most part kept
on pastures, worms do not often trouble hogs.
Worms may be expelled from infected hogs by giv-
ing turpentine in doses of one teaspoonful ; in milk.
Repeat this dose daily for three or four days.

Mange—A parasitic mite is the cause of this com-
mon disease. This little fellow appears first near
the eyes and ears and on the inside of the fore-
legs. Later on it spreads over the entire body.
Scabs are formed by this mite and are white and
dry in nature. The hair falls off in patches. In-
fected animals should be isolated and the skin
washed with soft soap, after which apply a mix-
ture containing one pound of white arsenic and 12
pounds of alum in 25 gallons of water. This will
be sufficient, but the pig pens or other quarters
should be sprayed and disinfected.

Lice—The lice have been known to produce death
in hogs by worrying the life out of them and bring-
ing them into a very unthrifty condition. Lice bite
the skin and suck blood and thus produce much irri-
tation. They come from filthy quarters. A good
remedy is to pour kerosene over the back and
shoulders. Fitting up a rubbing post smeared with
kerosene is a good way. The hogs soon find this—
post, work up to it and do the rubbing themselves.

Thumps—This is known as spasms of the dia-
phragm and is rather common in pigs. Over feed-
ing or some other digestive trouble is back of this
disease. The irregular, jerking movement of the

qauH Wavad V 40 SNOULVAW AHL

THE, DISEASES OF SWINE 355

flanks indicate what the trouble is. Some cathartic
like raw linseed oil, together with a dose of about
ten drops of tincture of opium, is a satisfactory
kind of treatment. To turn pigs out on pasture
will usually bring about desired results.

WHERE IMPROVEMENT IS NEEDED

From this discussion, it will be noticed that most
of the important diseases attacking swine are due
to filth and unsanitary quarters. Good farming
calls for as close attention to be paid to the living
needs of hogs as of other animals of the farm.
Give them frequent change of quarters. Let their
lots be annually turned over to some crop. Let
them be given good, wholesome food and pure,
clean water. Give them the right sort of bedding
and housing and treat them with the consideration
that their importance merits, and the troubles and
ills of the hog will be reduced to a minimum.
While an important money-maker, he will, with
better treatment, respond with greater enthusiasm
and more profit to his keeper.

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Aberdeen Angus
Alfalfa for dairy cows
Ayrshire
Baby beef
Balanced ration

mieten aiiertn) soe, ta) oe \0: 20) 56, 0! lee) 6. nm

Beef making
Belgium draft
Berkshire
Boars, selecting and caring for. .
Breeding, co-operative

Farm stock

IegitS.-. 4 hay a eae

Burying food in the ground
Calves, amount of milk for
Care after weaning
Rearing on skim-milk
Carbohydrates defined
Cattle

Care and management of
Concentrates to use for
Diseases of
Fattening in late fall
Fed inferior corn
Feeding, shock corn
Finishing, on meal
High finish essential
Learn to judge
Some common diseases of.
Supplying plenty of water....
What grain to give
Wintering young. SS ph
Cheese-making at home........
Cheshire

(CUVES AIG) it 5 5 3! o 1
Eleveland Bay..
Lo SVGUSS 51a 205 ie a
Colt, breaking of
Cow feeding
Cross-breeding
Dairy calf, feeding of
Dairy cows, feeding of
Feeding in winter
Protecting, from flies
Dairy farming
Dairy herd, building of.. 3
Dairying, a balance in fertility . :
Business of
Dairyman, what he should be...
Delaine Merino
Devon

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Pwce)a ere je = is) av \e os) 0 @ a,

corer eee eee eee eee eee eee e

Index

357

IDOTSE TR ee tees eee Midis oA Oe 249
Draft horse, conformation of. 66
ID Fakiyewe Stes oe et 54
I UTOCHMIEESE Wee toe eee Le ess 295
bGh eB ebbeciys ccs us vee ce sce Ss 139
I DSSTES ep i IR Ss eo PS IP eee tae oe 305
Ewes, best feeds for. . 267
Breeding i ATM WITLO et een 267
Feeding pregnant............ 269
HOO Gara r ie erat en on coon 264
Necessary exercise for........ 266
Plenty of water for... .. 3... 269
Succulent food itor: .- ra... 2: 270
Suitable shelter for.......... 265
Farm horse, winter care of...... 82
Fat defined, infeed ..3 0.5... 24
Beedswreach sectionia.. fo5¢ 5s... 37
IPAS VabOUS Wap sa scmen see. decei «= 37
Use of judgment in purchasing 39
Wallste Of each! ste Seon es Ose 33
Peedinge, of animals: ..2.5.5..-. 19
IBaiinelpes Ole scks smh ee let 3 19
Reeding standards...20. 22si.u.- . 25
Feeding stuffs, great variation... 31
Feeding, supplying whatisneeded 35
Beading. the WOrses 0.6 fe. ees « 68
Rrenchwhcoach Norsed ska ars sess: Hil
Mrenc@hyd nat t.cwer eu ee frac odie 58
(CaO yas cp ee air 5 deans 123
Genman coact horse ss... o/s. : 51
Grade nSinee Aenea R ae nk, ec. ae eee 13
Grades "of SHEEP ie ass. 6 ss dee 241
(GaIeTEMISE Vacs tele hes co sic aso sale 131
lene lemeny een waged mene eee oo) s s)he 51
1a Pay aay evsl ash Ste oy aie bret eee eee 301
Ga viymW@Onsesee rec eis ses oon Saker 61
Herds, how to start Sed ORe et pet rare 12
Bicretordees ee 2 ae ee 119
Painiiteceeere ee ts ieee tates 107
Rogzseahiaita hay tor. on... ss. 333
Ditteremt feeds for. 23.5 ei Sila!
Ge diner yk tacerore cee ee 307
Beedine fom profit. <2. 222 285. 342
IPAStuIme TOG isnt o.ee ek eee 338
Poptularttype: Off nas oe cae cc 341
lopeamp=ott GOGtns css. scenes cess 335
OISBetinte ae ivy eee aoteactoees 137
FUORSES Harte cst ttehats are ole mee ge 43
Best treatmicnpioles.s 455-6 ses 96
TB e ee be 8A COVE ce Been cent 60
IBA SIS, OURS ES EO DEERE 46
Care and management of..... 78
Roushage.teed forss.-2. 5... 69
Some common diseases of.... 89
AYA Ri sSea ba eete e o oe Rit een Ieee 75
lGMorgs chile Hee eae 15

358 INDEX

Page Page
Jacks kinds Ofts. tans widest 101. Sheepit 22.0. ase ee 238
SclectionsOtee wee ee 99 Care and ianeeemer of SOE 260
Jersey. . Ce kre ee Choosing feeds! for.”, {2am 258
Lambs, taken from mothers.... 263 Diseasesiof.00 9 SCs eee 283
Wieaminerore tn ta te ne 262 Feed sufficient grains. ye 257
WeiCeStenn erie ete eee eae 251 Feeding: 2 oss. ako 254
Limeolini te scapes cpaetueie 209 cee 252 For wool salone?. sam «ene 275
Lave stock, when it pays....... 12 Lamibinige seasom jan ace ee 264
Maretancetoale snipe in stein 85 Roots always fine for..... ES)
Wate serteranmntlsget ety, nae al eaten 151 Shear: early.) 5 27058 See 272
lalennclibtars tne lsenGl ss os Se 6 on 151 Shearing Vere crchie crenebeneee eens 277
Menino.) 9 ei ee ee 241 Washing sy 0:5) pelea ene 279
MGIE Faeeea es en Se coeeee OMe nee 158 °° “Shire: Horse cc... 25 see 55
Carevoiiomeraiiine ieee (58e Shonrthonncis see role eek 116
Classified! for markets... 45. 156° Shropshire... 27. 432 Soe 247
Feedine in good condition 22. 219 > Southdowmss. 04. cee BRIG 245
Keeping wp! flow ots) as. ... 161 ° Sow: and pigs, icarc) OL we. sae 320
Separator mulikebest: & ae anne 220 Sows, brood, in winter. !. 2.2.2 323
Morgan horse sane eee 49 Peeding: brood! sear eee 328
Minas aotearoa 98 Stallions, management of....... 80
Feeding roniita seg eee terete: 110 Steers, fattening i im SuMUMIerS., Sits 198
Market iclassioisnae annie: 109 Finishing IN! Spring. 742 eee 197
MNCS inadaastr ys, eee reat vicke LOA AG ia Te es oe ee 248, 309
INGitinitive Tabions. eae ree S 25° SWAMEK i. a a 289
@hio Chester Whites 2.2... 2... 298 Care and management of..... 314
Oxford. . Pet AAG Khe MDD Correctives fom... 2b eee 346
Percheron |)... cee eS ee 56 Diseases largely infectious.... 347
1 PApogs melee aerate” ROEM ics Oe ler Ren 310 Peeding ater cathlel aera ane 202
Cooked and uncooked foods for 310 Filling orders by mail for.... 290
Feeding skim-milk to........ 622 Pasture feed cheap for.....:. 331
PAStUne TOR. act Rae ne 309). Mamiworthy pay asses eee 300
Weaning Oni Gievewe re Lae 317 Teams preparing for work...... 86
Weaning to fattening........ 318 | “Ehoroughbred 2. «6 eee nes. 46
Whole and ground grains for.. 311 Influence of: <1 .8 3 koa 5}
PolandiChama a ae cee ens cae 292. . Trotters. 2) ee ee 48
Rolled iptarharna-. 5) ..\seess ewes oe 127’ - Muberculosissim Vcattles ese 228
Prepotency.... cc... tate oa 1S) Water im) feed Soe). 22
Rambouillet A MOP aGE CENSUS 0 U8 TRA AVoMS 243 Wool} classtica tion) of ssa 281
ie a Seas Gh ae Sere eure tare ae Wool, cleam....s6.3. 2 eae 279

EMosKonaly Kaneyaumlor lakes Cn 6 on gig ce Hun -
ARAZ ORS DG ale adc ia ceo EEE 305 Wool, quality Son 273
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