/V^ THE FEDERAL OCEAN PROGRAM COLUECTJON The annual report of the President to the Congress on the Nation's efforts to comprehend, conserve, and use the sea. 1976 DOCUMENT COLLECTiOf- THE FEDERAL OCEAN PROGRAM =^= 1 1 =^= LT) r\ ni I -D- 2 ^r-l The annual report of the President • o to the Congress on the Nation's efforts to comprehend, conserve, and use the sea. 1976 PREFACE A Report to the President From the Committee on Atmosphere and Oceans of the Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering and Technology December 1979 THIS REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT ON THE FEDERAL OCEAN PRO- GRAM for 1976 is prepared in accordance with Public Law 89-454, the Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966, which states that the President shall transmit to the Congress an an- nual report including: (a) A comprehensive description of the ac- tivities and the accomplishments of all the agencies and departments of the United States in the field of marine sciences during the preceeding fiscal year; (b) an evaluation of such activities in terms of the objectives set forth pursuant to Public Law 89-454; (c) such recom- mendations for legislation as the President may consider necessary or desirable for the attainment of the objectives of Public Law 89-454; and (d) an estimate of funding requirements of each agency and department of the Federal Government for marine science activities during the succeeding fiscal year. This report on the Federal Ocean Program is submitted to the Con- gress in response to that requirement. m CONTENTS I. OCEAN MANAGEMENT: AN EXPANDING ARENA . . 1 Outer Continental Shelf Oil Development 1 Coastal Zone Manegement 2 Fishery Resources g Program Emphasis 10 About This Report 11 II. INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES 13 United Nations Law of the Sea Conference 13 Marine Pollution 16 Foreign Relations Aspects of United States Fisheries ... 17 International Ocean Programs 22 Foreign Assistance in Marine Science and Technology . 27 III. MAN, SOCIETY, AND THE SEA— FEDERAL SUPPORT FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH 29 Living Resource Economics 29 Nonliving Resource Development 33 Coastal and International Ocean Law 34 Support to Coastal Zone Management 36 Marine Recreation 40 Other Social and Behavioral Studies 41 IV. PROTECTING THE QUALITY OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 45 Pollution Surveillance and Control 45 Supporting Research and Environment Monitoring .... 48 Instrument Development for Pc'lution Detection 55 New Techniques for Pollution Prevention and Control . . 58 V. OCEAN ENGINEERING FOR SUBSEA OPERATIONS 61 New Materials and Equipment 62 Recovery Systems 65 Acoustic Systems 67 Research to Support Diver Operations 67 Submersible Operator Aids 68 Manned Undersea Activities 70 APPENDICES A-l Federal Ocean Program — Agency Budgets 73 A-2 Federal Ocean Program — Budget by Major Purpose Categories 74 A-3 Detail by Subpurpose and Agency 75 B The National Sea Grant Program 80 C Status of the Federally Supported Fleet 80 V CHAPTER 1 OCEAN MANAGEMENT— AN EXPANDING ARENA In recent years, the Federal Ocean Program has been marked by a new stress on marine activities directed to expanding our energy sup- plies as expeditiously as possible. This emphasis was reflected in ac- celerated studies to develop new techniques to generate usable energy from ocean processes and in intensified programs to appraise the oil resources of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) and assess the environ- mental impact of their development. While energy-related programs are of great importance, our concern with the development of ocean resources extends beyond augmenting our energy supplies. We are increasing our endeavors, both national and international, to establish a sound basis for the mining of marine minerals without damage to the environment and to improve our har- vest of marine fishery resources without endangering fishery stocks. An essential element of energy and resource programs is the attain- ment of a balance between development and environmental quality. Such a balance can only be achieved by sound management practices based on thoroughgoing knowledge of the environment. A com- paratively new effort directed to this goal is concerned with a wide gamut of economic and conservation issues. This effort involves cooperative Federal/State actions to formulate comprehensive regional coastal zone management programs. OCS Oil Development The Department of the Interior (DOI) continued the implementation of its accelerated OCS Oil and Gas Lease schedule of six sales a year. The process leading to sales, however, has been extended from 12 to 19 months to accommodate greater detail and thoroughness in assessing the potential impact of development of coastal and marine environments. During 1975. DOI Bureau of Land Management (BLM) conducted five sales off the Gulf Coast and one off Southern California. BLM plans to continue the accelerated lease schedule during 1976 and will include sales in frontier areas off the southern Alaska and Mid- Atlantic coasts that were postponed in 1975. The first of the frontier area sales — off the south Alaska Coast — was conducted during mid-April 1976. The practice of advance authorization to industry for drilling test wells to provide knowledge to cooperating companies in the preparation of their lease-tract bids is notable in the preparations for the Atlantic sale as well as for an earlier sale off Texas and the Alaska sale. Like postsale authorization for OCS exploration drilling, the authorization for test wells also contain stipulations that require the sharing of derived data and samples with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). USGS uses this material to make analyses applicable to the evaluation of environ- mental impact as well as to establish fair market values for tracts to be offered in later sales. Federally funded OCS environmental assessments in support of the leasing program are summarized in chapter IV. Coastal Zone Management The fragility of coastal zone environments and the abuses to which coastal zones had been subjected were major national concerns during the late 1960's. In recent years, the situation has been compounded by the prospect of large-scale tanker traffic, offshore oil drilling, the con- struction of nuclear powerplants, and other activities to ease the na- tional energy crisis. These conditions have led a number of States to take measures to address their coastal zone problems. Coordinated Federal assistance in these efforts became possible in October 1972, with the enactment of the Coastal Zone Management Act. This act authorized grants on a matching-funds basis to the States, for the planning, develop- ment, and implementation of State coastal zone management programs. The Department of Commerce (DOC) is charged with administration of the act and provides guidance and funding support to the States for their management activities through the Office of Coastal Zone Management (OCZM), in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Every coastal State and territory, with the exception of American Samoa, has now received grants for program development. Many of these States had received second-year continuation grants during fiscal year 1975, and the remainder of the States are expected to receive their second-year funding grants in fiscal year 1976. The second year of program development is expected to result in greater efforts to develop the necessary legal framework for approvable programs. During fiscal year 1975, coastal zone management plans were submit- ted to the OCZM by the States of Washington, Oregon, and Maine, and Photo: NOAA by the San Francisco Bay regional area. The Washington plan was ap- proved on a preliminary basis by the Secretary of Commerce in May 1975. When minor deficiencies in the plan have been corrected, it v\/i\\ receive final approval. An important feature of the Coastal Zone Management Act is the sec- tion providing that after a State has produced a management program approved by the Secretary of Commerce in consultation with all affected Federal agencies, these Federal agencies must conduct their activities in that State consistent to the maximum extent practicable with the State program. The Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) make information available to State governments regarding land use and development and provide technical assistance to State planning agencies. The Council on Environmental Quality and other agencies review environmental impact statements (EIS) for coastal zone management plans and assist States in determining the effective- ness of programs designed to protect or improve environmental quality. The General Services Administration (GSA) is responsible for the transfer and disposal of surplus Federal lands to other governmental en- tities and for the sale thereof to the private sector. GSA has provided assistance to coastal zone management planning by identifying those Federal lands currently available to public entities with park and recrea- tional interests or those areas with potential for park and recreational purposes and by providing advice as plans are developed. The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), the Federal Energy Administration (PEA), and DOI's BLM and the USGS are deeply involved in one of the major concerns of many State coastal zone management planning agencies — the establishment of energy facilities in the coastal zone. The Coastal Zone Management Act and the regula- tions issued under its authority specifically require State management programs to consider the national interest involved in the siting of facilities (including energy facilities) to meet requirements of more than a local nature. New energy facilities in the coastal zone may include installations necessary for oil development on the OCS such as refineries, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, supply-boat bases, and pipelines. Other energy-related facilities may be required for increased importation of oil and gas. Such facilities might consist of offshore ports, terminals, and storage facilities. ERDA is involved in assessing the technological and economic feasibility of nev\j energy systems including the possible social and en- vironmental impact of these systems. ERDA supports a sizable program to study marine processes involved in the accumulation of energy-re- lated pollutants in the marine environment. This information is used to determine the impact of particular types of energy development on the coastal zone and to select the best possible sites for such facilities. FEA works with coastal State agencies to determine the need for energy-facility sites in the coastal zone and to handle energy-related permit applications as expeditiously as possible. In looking at local and national needs for energy facilities, FEA cooperates with coastal State agencies to achieve an appropriate balance between development and conservation programs. FEA and BLM regional offices provide technical assistance to local officials and work with these officials, public and pri- vate utility companies, and other groups to determine the needs of coastal zone program development. The USGS is supporting a study to develop and test methodology for siting coastal energy-related facilities that are required for OCS oil and gas development. Another DOI bureau, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), has worked closely with several State governments to resolve conflicts be- tween plans for coastal zone development and the preservation of wildlife habitats. The National Park Service and other DOI offices cooperate with coastal zone management planners to protect access to national parks, preserve national historic sites and landmarks, and assure that alteration of local terrain through development does not result in the loss of historical or archaeological data. DOI's Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (BOR) aids States in planning coastal recreation programs, and. through the BOR-administered Land and Water Conser- vation Fund, DOI supports the acquisition and development of coastal recreational lands and facilities. The Department of Transportation's Office of Environmental Affairs cooperates closely with DOC and other Federal agencies in providing advice and assistance to State coastal zone planning projects. DOT ad- ministers a number of regulatory programs governing land, air, and water transportation, including the transportation of cargo at port and oil in pipelines. DOT also administers Federal programs of assistance to State and local governments for the construction and operation of transportation systems. DOT regional representatives assist State and local officials in formulating those coastal zone management plans that recognize Federal legislation governing transportation. Acknowledging the need of coastal zone management agencies for in- formation about land-form changes in coastal wetlands, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has initiated a project to develop techniques for measuring land-area and shoreline length from multispectral remote sensor data acquired from the earth-orbiting satellite. LANDSAT. At the suggestion of the State of Alabama Geologi- cal Survey. NASA successfully employed its new techniques in measur- ing the Alabama shoreline. In cooperation with COE, NASA has developed an automated en- vironmental information system using LANDSAT data. Information derived from this project was used in revising surface classification maps in the COE atlas "Inventory of Basic Environmental Data, South Louisiana." The surveyed area included the major wetlands of the State, of special interest to coastal zone planners. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established coastal zone management coordinators in each of its eight regional offices, with jurisdiction in coastal areas. These coordinators assist State agencies in developing management programs for setting air and water quality standards, related research, and enforcement of standards. Under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), EPA administers a per- mit program to regulate the discharge of pollution from point sources, including industrial and municipal facilities, into navigable waters. Since authority under the FWPCA can be delegated to the States, EPA and the States both have major responsibilities for coastal water quality protection. New proposed marine discharges require the preparation of EIS for EPA review, and States may also establish requirements govern- ing discharges into State coastal waters. Both the States and the EPA en- vironmental quality protection programs may, therefore, constrain coastal zone development activities. EPA works with the States to resolve such conflicts and advises state coastal zone management plan- ning on environmental pollution control techniques, including the assessment of damages with regard to spills of oil and other hazardous substances in coastal waters. The major grant programs affected by the Coastal Zone Management Act are those involving grants for the planning and construction of municipal wastewater systems. To assure cooperation between the EPA construction grant program and state coastal zone management programs supported by NOAA, EPA and NOAA issued a joint memorandum in August 1975 to provide guidance in the development and implementation of the two programs. The Department of Defense (DOD) is a significant user of coastal zone land and water resources and is assisting State and local coastal zone management agencies in the planning and implementation of their programs to ensure that such programs recognize and provide for na- tional defense interests. In this regard, DOD has established coastal zone management con- tacts at each military installation in the coastal zone and is providing designated State coastal zone management officials with detailed infor- mation on mission requirements, present and proposed activities, master plans, general development maps and offshore-operating area and train- ing-range requirements. A bilateral agreement signed in February 1975 by the Department of Housing and Urban Developm.ent (HUD) and OCZM provides coastal States and localities with an opportunity to receive funding from DOC for coastal zone management planning and assistance from HUD in fi- nancing the comprehensive planning of community development. OCZM has also established working arrangements with other NOAA elements. In an agreement between the National Marine Fisheries Serv- ice and OCZM, provision was made for considering marine resource re- quirements in coastal zone management plans. OCZM and the National Ocean Survey (NOS) are working with USGS on a soon-to-be-completed coastal zone mapping handbook. A January 1975 agreement between OCZM and NOS encourages close cooperation between State officials and NOS in resolving coastal zone boundary questions. Private, State, and Federal marine boundaries are primarily based on tide behavior. Long-term tide observations are required to compute tidal data that, in turn, are used to define marine boundaries and seaward ex- tensions. As the Federal agency responsible for tide observations and predictions, NOS is now implementing a long-term plan to provide marine boundary baseline data for the 27 coastal States and Possessions on a cost-sharing basis. The first surveys were conducted in Florida in 1969. In fiscal year 1976, the program was fully operational in four States — Florida, South Carolina, New Jersey, and California. As a part of the Marine Boundary Program, NOS is producing coastal boundary maps on a cost-sharing basis. In fiscal year 1976, the format was changed from orthophoto on the land area to a standard shoreline- type map. The scale is 1:10,000 and 1:20,000, depending on the geographical region being covered. Eighteen maps were produced in fis- cal year 1976. NOS also produced a s«'ri(?s of coastal area and Continental Shelf maps showing bottom topography, gravity anomaly data, and magnetic data. As of this report, a total of 111 maps had been published — 86 bathymetric maps, 10 gravity maps, and \5 magn(!tic maps. This series has proved to be of great value in crustal and sediment studies, offshore oil and gas development, facilities siting, ocean dumping, environmental studies, and coastal zone planning. Overlays, data lists, printouts, tapes, and technical reports are prepared to accompany the basic maps. In an agreement with the NOAA Environmental Data Service (EDS), signed in March 1975, EDS will keep OCZM cognizant of its information services and will try to identify coastal zone management needs. OCZM. in turn, will keep State program developers aware of information availa- ble from EDS. NOAA In addition to its support to coastal zone management plans. OCZM administers a program to establish marine sanctuaries under the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972. The first marine sanctuary was established in January 1975 at the site of the wreck of the Civil War ironclad, U.S.S. Monitor. The objective of designating the site. off the coast of North Carolina, a marine sanctuary was to assure that the Monitor will be protected from souvenir hunters and that research activity at the site will be conducted in a manner that will not disturb the wreck. Two estuarine sanctuaries have also been designated by DOC — one in Oregon and the other in Georgia. Under the Estuarine Sanctuary Program authorized by the Coastal Zone Management Act, funds have been allotted for the purpose of preserving these estuarine areas in their natural state for ecological research and to provide information useful in coastal zone management. The activities described above are supplemented by a variety of other efforts that contribute to the management of the coastal zone. Two of these efforts, one concerned with the social and economic aspects of marine coastal programs and the other dealing with pollution abate- ment, are described in chapters 3 and 4, respectively. Fishery Resources The past year has been characterized by intensified planning for the management of ocean fisheries in waters beyond the immediate coastal zone. The 1974 and 1975 sessions of the Law of the Sea Conference revealed an international consensus in favor of the establishment of 200- mile ocean zones, in which coastal nations would have jurisdiction over resources. Failure to reach agreement on a Law of the Sea regime in 1975 (see Chapter II), combined with the unilateral extension of jurisdiction over fishing zones by a number of nations and the growing competition to the U.S. fishing industry presented by foreign fishing fleets operating in offshore waters, led the Congress to initiate hearings on the extension of U.S. jurisdiction for fishing purposes beyond the limits of the twelve- mile conservation zone. This Congressional activity resulted in the passage of the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976 (FMCA), signed into law on April 13 as Public Law 94-265. The FMCA establishes U.S. jurisdiction, effective March 1, 1977, over a fishery conservation zone extending 200 miles from our shores. Authority for the management of fisheries and all over forms of marine animal and plant life, including migratory fish species, in the 197 miles beyond the territorial sea is vested in the federal government under the Act. Moreover, the Act asserts exclusive U.S. jurisdiction over anadromous species of fish, such as salmon, spawning in U.S. rivers or estuaries. Jurisdiction over those species is to apply in all ocean waters with the exception of the recognized territorial seas or fishery conserva- tion zones of other nations. The FCMA, however, goes considerably beyond the establishment of new jurisdiction over fishery resources; it contains explicit provisions for the formulation of an innovative fishery management regime to be applied in the extended fishery resource zone. The Act requires that Photo: NOAA management plans be prepared by "Regional Fishery Management Councils" consisting of both federal and state officials. These manage- ment plans are to be submitted to the Secretary of Commerce for review, approval, and implementation. If they are disapproved, in whole or in part, the Councils must consider the Secretary's comments in the prepa- ration of new plans. Under certain circumstances the Secretary of Com- merce may prepare preliminary management plans and establish in- terim regulations pending action by the Councils. The FMCA sets standards for conservation and management measures to be included in the plans and prohibits foreign fishing in the economic resources zone unless it is conducted under the terms of inter- national agreements. New international agreements must recognize the authority of the United States to comply with regulations issued by the Secretary of Commerce under the Act. The Act prohibits the renewal, or extension, of existing agreements beyond June 1, 1976, and requires the renegotiation of treaties to make them accord to provisions of the Act. In the event that a comprehensive Law of the Sea treaty conflicting with the FMCA is agreed upon, the FMCA provides that the Secretary of Commerce in consultation with the Secretary of State shall amend fish- ery regulations to conform to the terms of the treaty. The FMCA is a watershed piece of legislation with regard to both in- ternational policy and Federal/State relations. The Regional Councils, to be established under the Act, will provide arenas for the accomodation of coastal State interests in the establishment of fishery policy. Moreover, the Act preserves the rights of States to regulate fishing operations, beyond their boundaries, conducted by vessels registered in those States. The Act even provides that State fishery management measures may be incorporated in programs for the management of fish- eries in the conservation zone. No State's authority to regulate fishing within its own boundaries may be preempted unless, after the State has been notified and given an opportunity for adversarial proceedings, the Secretary of Commerce finds that fishing operations in a State-regulated fishery occur largely in the conservation zone and that the consequences of State action, or lack of action, adversely affect implementation of a Federal fishery management plan for the conservation zone. At any time that these conditions cease to exist, on application by the State, its authority over fishing within its boundaries must be returned to it. Plans to implement the FMCA will be formulated during the coming year, before the Act goes fully into effect. The impact of these plans on fishery development programs will be reviewed in next year's Federal Ocean Program report. Program Emphasis The estimated level of funding for the Federal Ocean Program in fis- cal year 1977 is $83 million higher than in fiscal year 1976 and $174 million above the fiscal year 1975 budget. This rise reflects the con- tinued high priority accorded to the developpient of ocean resources, the protection of the marine environment, and supporting efforts, such as oceanographic research and the development of ocean observation systems, to provide data essential in a wide range of ocean activities. Ex- penditures in other areas of the ocean program, while not rising as rapidly, are projected at levels required for national security, mapping and charting and other program interests. Federal efforts for the development of ocean resources are focused on improving fishery management and enhancing energy supplies. A num- ber of projects in the living resource category have assumed a new im- portance with the enactment of the Fishery Conservation and Manage- ment Act of 1976. The DOC will increase its budget for the appraisal and 10 management of fishery resources by almost $6 million, while U.S. Coast ouard (USCG) expenditures for the enforcement of fishery treaties will rise to $3.6 million. With respect to energy-related activiti(!S. the en- vironment assessment tifforts of DOl and DOC in support of the DOI OCS leasing program are to be augmented by $14 million. To establish the basis for the long-term development of new energy sources. HRDA will augment the funding of its ocean thermal energy conversion project by $1.1 million to $9.2 million, more than triple the fiscal year 1975 budget for this project. The funding of coastal zone programs is projected to rise $12.8 million in fiscal year 1977. This sum includes an additional 5.v3 million for coastal zone management planning grants, an increase of almost 30 per- cent. An increment of $1.1 million is being requested for the support of ocean dumping research. Expenditures by the COE, in its dredge-permit program, and by the USCG, for the development of pollution control technology, will increase by $2 million and $4.9 million, respectively. The oceanographic research budget will be augmented by $15.9 million, $15.1 million of which is to be expended by the U.S. Navy (USN) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). The Office of Naval Research is allocating an additional $4.9 million to its ocean science program. NSF support of basic marine research will be increased by $4.6 million. Another $2.7 million will be added to the NSF budget for the In- ternational Decade of Ocean Exploration and $3 million for the support of facilities used in university ocean research programs. The rise in expenditures of two other ocean program categories can be attributed largely to single projects for the development of platforms needed for ocean observation and description. The ocean engineering budget reflects an additional $8.3 million to be spent by NASA, in the SEASAT project, for the development of an ocean observation satellite. The increase in budgets for the production of nautical charts is the results of costs to the Navy for the conversion of a ship to be used in ocean survey programs. These platforms will provide data useful in en- vironmental quality programs, resource management, transportation, and other ocean activities. ABOUT THIS REPORT This year's report highlights the continuing effort to resolve law of the sea problems and other international issues; the growing support for economic, iegal. and social studies bearing on the development and con- servation of marine resources and the coastal environment: pollution abatement; and engineering investigations for undersea operations. Ap- pendix A consists of the program budget tables. Appendix B summarizes the activities of the Sea Grant Program, and appendix C tabulates the status of the federally supported ocean research fleet. 11 Photo: United Nations 12 CHAPTER U INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES During 1975, the law of the sea negotiations continued working toward the adoption of international conventions for the prevention of marine pollution, and in the resolution of international fisheries issues. The year was also marked by advancess in international research programs, many of them involving efforts to preserve the ocean environ- ment. United Nations Law of the Sea Conference The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea con- tinues to be the most significant international ocean activity occurring today. At this conference, approximately 150 countries, including 120 coastal states, are attempting to bring a greater degree of legal order to the seas. Conference discussions embrace such wide-ranging issues as the breadth of the territorial sea, unimpeded passage through, under, and over straits used for international navigation, the living and mineral resources of the economic zone and the Continental Shelf, mineral resources of the deep seabed, marine pollution, marine scientific research, and the peaceful and compulsory settlement of disputes. The present conference is the result of several years of preparatory work within the United Nations. A short organizing session was held in New York in December 1973. The first substantive session of the Third U.N. Conference on the Law of the Sea was held in Caracas, Venezuela, during the summer of 1974. The second and most recent substantive ses- sion of the conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland, during the spring of 1975. The principal results of the Geneva session were the drafting and distribution of an informal Single Negotiating Text pre- pared by the chairmen of the main conference committees, covering subjects before the conference. The Single Negotiating Text is intended to take into account all the formal and informal discussions held thus far. It is informal in character and therefore does not prejudice the posi- tion of any nation, nor does it represent any negotiated text or accepted 13 compromise. It is expected to serve as a procedural device and as a basis for further negotiations. The structure of the conference consists of three main committees: Committee I deals with issues concerning the mineral resources of the deep seabed; Committee III deals with issues concerning protection of the marine environment, marine scientific research, and transfer of technology; and Committee II deals essentially with all the remaining law of the sea issues, such as the breadth of the territorial sea, the extent and status of an economic zone, and fisheries management. In addition, an informal group within the conference is considering the peaceful set- tlement of disputes. In Committee II, there appears to be general agreement on the struc- ture of a 12-mile territorial sea, unimpeded passage through, under, and over straits, a 200-mile economic zone with coastal state sovereign rights over living and nonliving resources, and special treatment for highly migratory species such as tuna and anadromous species such as salmon. The future major negotiating problems facing Committee II are likely to include the following unresolved issues: • Status of the economic zone. — Assuming all resource and economic activities (activities other than navigation, overflight, submarine cable and pipeline operation, and other reasonable uses of the high seas) are subject to coastal state jurisdiction and that pollution and scientific research questions are resolved, the ques- tion is whether the legal status of the economic zone remains that of high seas. • Access of landlocked and geographically disadvantaged states to fisheries in the economic zones of their neighbors. — The land- locked states are numerous, and an increasing number of states, both developed and developing, regard themselves as geographically disadvantaged. • Right of access to the sea for landlocked states. — While, in princi- ple there is agreement, the strength and scope of the "right" are matters of contention among concerned states. • Highly migratory species, such as tuna. — No complete meeting of the minds has yet been reached on this issue, although positions are closer. It seems that an organization to establish mandatory conservation measures would be broadly acceptable, but there is still disagreement as to whether other measures, including alloca- tion, adopted by such an organization would be mandatory. • Delimitation of the outer boundary of the Continental Shelf and revenue sharing. — While no agreement has yet emerged on Conti- nental Shelf jurisdiction beyond 200 miles, it is increasingly recog- nized within the conference that coastal state jurisdiction to a pre- cisely defined limit of the margin beyond 200 miles coupled with 14 the sharing of revenues derived from the production of mineral resources beyond 200 miles is the only way to achieve widespread agreement. In Committee HI, progress has been made on pollution questions. The issues of monitoring, environmental assessment, land-based pollution, ocean dumping, and Continental Shelf pollution are very near resolu- tion. The key outstanding issue concerns vessel source pollution, and a balance is being sought between the protection of the marine environ- ment and the requirements of navigation. In the other subject area under the cognizance of Committee III — marine scientific research — there has not been as much progress. The most difficult issue involves reaching agreement upon a regime for marine scientific research within the economic zone that will balance the freedom to conduct scientific research against the interests of coastal states, as perceived primarily by the less developed coastal states. The Single Negotiating Text provides that any research project related to the living and nonliving resources of the economic zone and the Continental Shelf shall be conducted only with the explicit consent of the coastal state. Scientific research of a fundamental nature (i.e., not related to the living and nonliving resources of the economic zone and the Continental Shelf) would not require the explicit consent of the coastal state, but could instead be conducted upon notification to the coastal state and compliance with internationally agreed upon conditions. In Committee I, the issues concerning the development of deep- seabed minerals remain contentious. During the first half of the Geneva session, the United States agreed to consider including basic conditions of exploitation in the treaty as opposed to detailed regulatory provisions. The United States also agreed to consider a system of joint ventures, with the possibility of profit sharing with the International Seabed Resource Authority (ISRA), as the single method of exploitation and proposed a reservation of areas system. Under the latter approach, an ap- plicant for a joint venture would submit two mine sites, one of which ISRA would designate a reserved areas. In the reserved area, ISRA could negotiate with applicants for mining ventures on behalf of ISRA. At midsession, the chairman of the Committee I working group in- troduced a personal draft text that focused primarily on a contractual joint venture system that included a reservation of areas for states as well as a reservation of areas for direct exploitation by ISRA. This elaboration of a parallel system (an approach in which ISRA directly ex- ploits at the same time as states and their nationals exploit under a sepa- rate system) was considered intensively by the Group of 77 (actually a group of over 100 less developed countries) and, eventually, was re- jected for ideological reasons. 15 Other crucial, outstanding issues include the composition, voting pro- cedures, powers, and functions of the organs of ISRA. In summarizing the results of Committee I, it may be noted that although little progress was made in bridging the ideological gap between the developed and the developing nations, nevertheless greater understanding was achieved on the relative needs and interests of states that must be accommodated in the structure and powers of the ISRA. From the start, the United States has held that effective provisions for compulsory settlement of disputes arising from the interpretation and application of a law of the sea treaty are an essential part of any negoti- ated package. During the Geneva session, an informal group of about 60 countries developed a text on dispute settlement procedures. While the text proceeds on the principle that there will be some binding dispute settlement procedures, there is no agreement yet as to what the scope of binding dispute settlement will be in the economic zone. The U.N. General Assembly has approved convening the next session of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in New York, for 7 weeks commencing March 15, 1976, and convening an addi- tional session in 1976 if such a decision is taken by the conference. Since the close of the Geneva session, the U.S. delegation has engaged in ex- tensive bilateral and multilateral negotiations with many of the partici- pants to the conference. The United States is going to New York fully committed and prepared to expend every reasonable effort to reach a satisfactory accommodation to protect its interests and the interests of the international community. Marine Pollution The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) has become in- creasingly active in the past year in the field of marine pollution. The most significant indicator of this activity was the convening of a con- ference of Mediterranean states, under UNEP auspices, that resulted in signing, in February 1976, of the Barcelona Convention for the Preven- tion of Marine Pollution in the Mediterranean Area. The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter at Sea, signed in London in November 1972 and ratified by the United States in 1974, came into force in August 1975. The first organizational meeting of the contracting parties was held in London in December 1975. At this meeting, the parties designated the In- ter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) as the organization to function as the secretariat for the convention and set the date for the first consultive meeting of the contracting parties for Sep- tember 1976. IMCO has continued its efforts to reduce world maritime pollution through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) which, 16 to date, has held four meetings. The United States continues to be a prime force in MEPC. The work program of MEPC includes providing for adoption and implementation of international pollution-related con- ventions and amendments thereto; adopting recommendations, codes, standard practices and guidelines as appropriate; initiating studies of particular problems and making the results of such studies available to interested states; and providing technical advice to member countries, particularly developing countries. With the cooperation of the Govern- ment of Mexico. MEPC is sponsoring a technical symposium on the pre- vention of marine pollution, in Acapulco, Mexico, during April 1976. Photo: U.S. Coast Guard Foreign Relations Aspects of U.S. Fisheries Jurisdictional disputes between U.S. distant-water fishermen and foreign governments continued to be a problem during 1975, with seizures by Ecuador of seven U.S. tuna vessels in the early part of the year. Under the terms of the Fishermen's Protection Act, the vessels owners were reimbursed for most of their losses as a result of the seizures. The confiscation of the catch and long detentions of several weeks in port, however, made these latest seizure incidents particularly difficult. Since February 1975, no seizures have taken place, and some 17 progress was made during the course of the year in moving toward a set- tlement of the tuna problem in connection with the Third United Na- tions Conference on the Law of the Sea. During 1975, the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission con- tinued to encounter difficulties in achieving a settlement at its annual meeting. Agreement was finally reached on a conservation and manage- ment program that establishes the same quota for 1976 as was in force during 1975. The agreement includes a small increase in the special allocation that applies to Mexico. Agreement was also reached on a U.S. proposal for enforcement, which should go a long way toward ensuring that the vessels of all nations comply with the recommendations of the commission. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) continued to monitor the tuna stocks in the Atlantic Ocean during 1975 in order to ensure the proper conservation of those fisheries. With respect to bluefin tuna, the conservation measures in force during 1975 were agreed to for 2 more years, with the possibility of modification after review during the 1976 meeting. The two conserva- tion measures that apply are a minimum size limit of 6.4 kilograms and a limitation on fishing catch to recent levels. No other new conservation measures for any other tuna species were considered necessary by the ICCAT's Scientific Committee, and none were recommended by the IC- CAT. The U.S. -Brazil Agreement on the conservation of shrimp expired at the end of 1974 and was renegotiated in early 1975. The new agreement, which expires at the end of 1976, is similar in approach to the original ar- rangement. It sets forth restrictions on both the U.S. and Brazilian fleets for conservation purposes and provides access for a limited number of U.S. vessels to the shrimp grounds off the coast of Brazil making up the agreement area. As in the first agreement, the new treaty gives certain enforcement authority to Brazil, with the United States helping to defray the cost of this burden. For a number of years, up to several hundred U.S. -flag vessels have fished for spiny lobster off the Continental Shelf of the Bahamas beyond 12 miles. In July 1975, the Bahamian Government claimed jurisdiction over the spiny lobster as a living resource of the Continental Shelf. Simi- lar action was taken by the United States in January 1974 when it declared jurisdiction over American lobster as a living resource of the Continental Shelf. The United States does not dispute the Bahamian claim, but negotiations between the two governments during August 1975 failed to result in any arrangements regarding terms of access for U.S. fishermen to that portion of the resource which Bahamian fisher- men are unable to take. The United States believes that the Bahamas have an obligation under international law to take into account the in- terests of fishermen who had previously fished for spiny lobster in the area and to negotiate resonable arrangements regarding U.S.-flag vessels to that end. In this connection, the United States has suggested to the Government of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas that the issue be submitted without delay to the International Court of justice. The International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) made significant advances in international, cooperative fish- eries regulation during 1975. The year also saw the beginning of a series of events that could lead to the termination of the commission's regulatory functions by the end of 1976. The years 1975 and early 1976 were characterized by increasing indications that the two largest nations in the ICNAF area — Canada and the United States — will unilaterally im- plement 200-mile fisheries conservation zones early in 1977. At the annual meeting in June 1975, decisions on 1976 quota alloca- tions for nine stocks of fish off the Canadian coast were deferred because of lack of agreement, until a special meeting in September, and the allocations for herring and squid off the U.S. coast were contentious items not resolved to the full satisfaction of the United States. At the September meeting in Montreal, Canada. ICNAF agreed to a Canadian proposal for an approximately 40-percent reduction in the fishing effort for 1976 in the area off the Canadian coast, as well as to several other allocation and conservation issues of importance to the United States, although the allocation for herring was again deferred. A U.S. proposal for more effective enforcement through a system of vessel registration was approved, and ICNAF agreed to a major prohibition on the use of bottom-trawling gear on Georges Bank by vessels over 155 feet in length. The long-sought ban on all high-seas fishing for salmon within the ICNAF region became fully effective on January 1, 1976, providing the most effective regulation ever of that important fishery resource. Fish- ing for salmon is now limited to the countries of origin and a small con- trolled fishery by natives along the Greenland coast. At the January 1976 special meeting, ICNAF adopted significant size limit regulations on herring and mackerel and set herring allocations for the first half of 1976, deferring until the June annual meeting the deci- sion on allocations for the second half of the year. Substantial improvements were made in catch reporting by member governments, under a more rigorous monthly reporting system, and sig- nificant scientific research on fish stocks in the area was carried out ac- cording to planned programs. The research is extensively reported in IC- NAF publications. The intensity of foreign fishing in the North Pacific continued at a high level in 1975. Despite the imposition of lower catch quotas negoti- ated with some foreign countries by the United States, many stocks con- tinued to decline. The resource problems have been compounded by the 19 recent entry of several new countries into the North Pacific fishery as well as the expansion into new fisheries by countries already engaged in fishing in the area. A total of seven countries — the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, lapan, Poland, the Republic of China (Taiwan), South Korea, and the U.S.S.R. — are presently fishing in waters adjacent to the United States in the North Pacific. The United States has bilateral agreements in force with japan, Poland, South Korea, and the U.S.S.R., but none with the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, and the Republic of China (Taiwan). Many stocks have continued to decline despite the imposition of lower catch quotas allocated to some foreign countries by international agree- ment. Deteriorating resources include, among others, Alaska pollock in the eastern Bering Sea; Pacific hake off California, Oregon, and Washington; and black cod, which have a wide distribution. The combined total catches of these species by the foreign fleets exceed their species max- imum sustainable yield, and, in order to arrest the decline, it will be necessary to further reduce foreign catches. In 1975, the International North Pacific Fisheries Commission (IN- FPC) (consisting of — Canada, Japan, and the United States) extended an agreement initially reached in 1974 to establish extensive closed areas in the eastern Bering Sea in the winter and early spring seasons to protect concentrations of juvenile halibut. Japan operates a large trawl fishery in the area and has agreed to continue to refrain from trawling in these closed areas. In addition, the parties to INFPC have agreed to conduct studies on the incidental catch of halibut by off-bottom trawl gear. Although the abundance of halibut is still critically low, there are some hopeful indications that these trawl closures are having a positive effect. In December 1974, the United States renegotiated two 2-year bilateral agreements with Japan — one relating to the king and tanner crabs in the eastern Bering Sea and the other to finfishes of the northeastern Pacific and the Bering Sea. Under these agreements, which extend to December 31, 1976, limitations were placed on the Japanese harvests of king crab and tanner crab. Due to the small king crab quota, the Japanese industry found it uneconomical to fish for this species in 1975 and is not expected to do so in 1976. In addition, the Japanese quota for Alaska pollock was reduced by nearly 30 percent, and limitations were placed on catches for other groundfish species. In negotiations held with the Soviet Union in July 1975, the Soviet catch of pollock was reduced in proportion to the reduction made in the Japanese quota. However, the combined foreign catch of pollock still ex- ceeds the maximum sustainable yield, and further reductions will be necessary. The Soviet Union also agreed to the establishment of closed areas in the eastern Bering Sea that would closely approximate the areas of closure agreed to by Japan to protect halibut. 20 An agreement with Poland, a fairly new entrant to the North Pacific fisheries, primarily engaged in fishing hake, was negotiated in May 1975, and renegotiated in December 1975. Poland's hake quota was reduced by 39 percent to 26.000 metric tons, but the combined foreign catch still ex- ceeds the maximum sustainable yield. The United States presently has only a small fishery for hake but hopes to expand it. A Republic of China (Taiwan) trawler began fishing in the eastern Bering Sea in late 1974 and continued to fish the area in 1975. It was ob- served fishing for salmon with gillnets in the approaches to Bristol Bay in the summer of 1975. Firm representations were made to the Govern- ment of the Republic China by the United States requesting that the vessel be ordered to stop fishing for salmon: Following these representa- tions, discussions were held between the two governments and the Republic of China agreed not to license its vessels to fish for salmon, halibut, and Continental Shelf fishery resources off the U.S. coast. The United States, Canada, Japan and the U.S.S.R. met in March and again in December 1975 to renegotiate the Interim Convention on Con- servation of North Pacific Fur Seals. Although the United States, as re- quested by Congress, was not able to obtain conformance with the provi- sions of the Marine Mammal Protection Act, articles were introduced allowing for the supply of subsistence needs to native populations living on rookery islands; the ensuring humane methods of capturing, killing, and marking fur seals; and the conduct of research on the effect of en- vironmental and marine ecosystem changes on the fur seal populations. A draft protocol resulting from the negotiations has yet to be signed by the participating governments. During 1975, the United States continued to pursue efforts to conserve whales, primarily through its efforts as a member of the International Whaling Commission (IWC). Since 1972, United States representatives to the IWC have urged a 10-year moratorium on commercial whaling. Despite U.S. inability to obtain a moratorium, during the past 3 years, the IWC at United States urging has developed progressively more effective conservation proposals. The most important of these was the Austrialian Amendment passed in 1974 and implemented at the June 1975 session of the IWC. This new management procedure provides total protection for depleted stocks, plus stricter rules governing the quotas for stocks not yet seriously depleted. To implement this procedure at the June 1975 meeting, the IWC has prohibited commercial whaling for the following: all fin and sei whales in the North Pacific; fin whales in almost all of the Antarctic; fin whales in the North Atlantic except for areas around Ice- land and Newfoundland; sei whales in a major region of the Southern Hemisphere; and sperm whales in the vicinity of eastern Australia. The new management procedure is also notable for identifying specific regional stocks for each species and setting quotas or providing protec- tion on a stock-by-stock basis. This will permit more effective manage- 21 ment of whale stocks and will provide for the protection of individual stocks before they become endangered. At the June 1975 meeting, the IWC departed from what the United States considers to be sound scientific practice by setting higher quotas than was believed advisable for stocks not yet seriously depleted but possessing populations just above the level where the stocks would be fully protected. With this one significant exception, however, the United States expectations at the time of the 1974 IWC meeting were substan- tially met during the 1975 IWC meeting. International Ocean Programs The United States has participated actively during 1975 in a broad range of international ocean science programs. The National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored a number of international research projects under the aegis of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE). These projects were directed at the dual objectives of improving our understanding of scientific problems of the ocean, and, at the same time, laying a sound scientific basis for future worldwide management of the various uses of the ocean. The first field studies under the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Midocean Dynamics Experiment (POLYMODE) were conducted in 1975. An initial intercalibration of instruments and intercomparison of techniques and methods were completed by U.S. and Soviet scientists. The U.S. core program under POLYMODE consists of a statistical study of eddy mo- tion in different geographic areas and a local dynamics experiment. The initial field studies under the statistical-geographic program were com- pleted in 1975. Planning for a local dynamics experiment continued. Four additional countries — Canada, the United Kingdom, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany — will participate in the statistical- geographic program. A major observational survey of the El Nino phenomenon was con- ducted in early 1975, after U.S. scientists had predicted the onset of an El Nino for that time period. Scientists from the United States, Peru, and Ecuador have collected a broad spectrum of physical, chemical, and biological data in the region. These data indicated that a weak El Nino event developed steadily over the period from January to March, but that the large temperature and circulation anomalies that had developed over this period dissipated very rapidly thereafter. During 1975, U.S. geologists and geophysicists published a series of scientific papers summarizing the results of continental margins studies conducted earlier off the coasts of Brazil and Argentina. These results suggest that during early Cretaceous Period, the Sao Paulo plateau and the West African coast between Equatorial Guinea and Angola were contiguous. 22 Planning studies were begun in 1975 for a major study of metallogen- sis and tectonic patterns in the East Asian island arc. A compilation of existing data was started and is expected to result in the production of a working atlas of marine geological and geophysical characteristics for this region. The major field studies for this program will commence in 1976 under the aegis of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commis- sion (IOC) and the Committee for Coordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in Asian Offshore Areas of the Economic. Scientific and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. U.S. efforts under this program are likely to focus on the Banda, Phillipine. and Sunda Arcs. In its IDOE environmental quality program, the NSF initiated a 2-year study of the transfer of pollutants from the West Coast of North America into the open Pacific Ocean. This study, using cadmium as a tracer, should improve our understanding of the routes through which pollu- tants move from coastal to open-ocean regions. The Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment (CEPEX) completed the engineering field-testing of its environmental enclosures in Saanich Inlet, British Columbia, in 1975. CEPEX preliminary findings from petroleum hydrocarbon experiments conducted in conjunction with these field tests were very striking. The research suggests that hydrocar- bon concentrations in the water column decrease within a few days after their introduction. Furthermore, there appear to be shifts in the relative distribution of species of plankton, with some sensitive species dying off and resistant species increasing in number. There was actually an over- all enhancement of primary productivity among some organisms at low levels of contamination of the water column by petroleum hydrocar- bons. Both U.S. and foreign institutions completed their initial analysis of samples collected during the Pacific Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) expedition. These samples had been collected from the research ship, Melville, during the period from August 1973 to June 1974. The NSF-sponsored International Southern Ocean Studies initiated studies of the Circumpolar Current in the Drake Passage and the western Scotia Sea. These studies were directed at delineating the path, baroclinic structure, and property distributions of the Circumpolar Cur- rent and determining its spatial relation to the Polar Front. This work was undertaken in cooperation with scientists and vessels from Argen- tina and Chile. Simultaneously, expeditions from Poland and the Soviet Union conducted related surveys, and the real-time exchange of data was achieved among these expeditions. In June 1972, representatives from 113 nations attended the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm, Sweden, and developed a plan of action for preserving and enhancing the human environment. The conference resulted in the creation of 23 UNEP and the adoption of 109 specific recommendations for UNEP. These recommendations may be categorized in three major program areas — environmental assessment, environmental management, and supporting measures. Environmental assessment provides the basis for responsible environmental management, and is called Earthwatch. Earthwatch is, in turn, a four-part program involving monitoring, research, evaluation, and information exchange. The Third Meeting of the UNEP Governing Council during April- May 1975 made substantial progress towards the design and implemen- tation of the Global Experimental Monitoring System (GEMS). The results included the specification of principles, the identification of program goals, priority pollutants, and related environmental factors, and the recommendations for future work and institutional arrange- ments. One of GEMS' primary objectives will be to contribute to an assessment of the state of ocean pollution and its impact on the marine ecosystem. The UNEP Governing Council adopted guidelines for in- tergovernmental cooperation in monitoring that includes international sharing of responsibility for implementing monitoring systems in areas outside national jurisdiction, such as the oceans. UNEP is looking to the Intergrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) as a basis for the ocean component of GEMS. IGOSS, a service- oriented program jointly sponsored by IOC and the World Meteorologi- cal Organization (WMO), is comprised of cooperative activities for the near-real-time collection and compliation of ocean observational data, and the preparation and distribution of oceanographic analyses and pre- dications. The first experimental IGOSS activity, the BATHY Pilot Project, was started in 1972. Its purpose is to determine whether, on an international basis, expendable bathythermograph data could be effectively ex- changed by radio telecommunication using special international code forms developed for this project, and if such data would be useful in the preparation of analyses and predictions. The BATHY Pilot Project has also demonstrated that IGOSS is a viable system for the real-time ex- change of temperature, salinity and current data (TESAC). In early 1975, the IOC and WMO agreed to convert the BATHY Pilot Project activity into an operational program. Over 20 nations are now participating in the BATHY /TESAC programs. A second experimental IGOSS activity, the Marine Pollution Monitoring (Petroleum) Pilot Project, was begun in January 1975. Its goal is to test the mechanisms for the collection and exchange of data re- lated to pollution of the oceans resulting from petroleum hydrocarbon residues. The program is monitoring oil slicks, floating particulate residues or "tar balls," and tar on beaches, and is collecting samples of dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons in the surface waters of the ocean. 24 Thirty-three countries have expressed willingness to participate in this activity scheduled to run for 2 years. A new IGOSS General Plan and Implementation Program for the period 1976-1980 has been prepared to guide the further development of IGOSS. It is anticipated that such program development will occur through the incorporation into oceanographic analyses and predictions of oceanographic data gathered via satellites and buoys; the automation of shipboard observation techniques; the implementation of a near-real- time analysis and prediction system; and the monitoring of marine pollutants. The final draft of the IGOSS General Plan and Implementa- tion Program will have to be presented to the IOC and WMO governing bodies for approval. The IOC has also undertaken a Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME), which is intended to be a major proj- ect. GIPME provides an international framework within which national and regional research programs on various aspects of marine pollution may be coordinated to contribute to an understanding of global pollution problems. A first priority in GIPME is the accomplishment of baseline studies on three levels — national, regional, and open ocean. Equal priority is given to a number of research activities dealing with pollution sources, pathways, sinks, effects, and the dose/response relationship. Studies are also proposed on pollution carried by rivers to the ocean and on the exchange of pollutants between the atmosphere and the ocean and between the ocean and the floor beneath. These tasks, when suc- cessfully completed, will provide a systematic picture of the quantitative understanding of the transfer to and within the marine environment of major pollutants and will act as a base for the development of a predic- tive capacity to assess the potential effects of pollutants on the marine environment, and, lastly, the studies will provide a sound basis for measures to control the introduction of pollutants to the ocean. The IOC's International Coordination Group (ICG) for GIPME held its third session in May 1975. During this session, the ICG established a Task Team on Marine Pollution Monitoring to define the requirements and provide the scientific basis for the IGOSS marine pollution monitor- ing program. A Task Team on Marine Pollutant Input Data was also established. This task team will evaluate the need for and quality of pollutant input data for mass-balance studies; recommend necessary actions required to obtain quantitative data on rates, locations, and releases to the marine environment of potential pollutants; and recommend research on transfer processes as such processes affect pollutant inputs into the marine environment. DDT will be used as the test base for obtaining in- put data. 25 The Ninth Assembly of the IOC, meeting in October-November 1975, instructed the secretary of the IOC to distribute the Comprehensive Plan for GIPME (including the implementation framew^ork) to all member states for comment by March 1, 1976. The seventh session of the IOC Executive Council, meeting in June 1976, has been requrested to review and approve a final document to permit the immediate implementation of the Comprehensive Plan. Another significant action of the Ninth Assembly was the creation of a Scientific Advisory Board to serve as a focal point for the IOC's scien- tific programs. The board, to be composed of 12 senior scientists acting as governmental experts, will review the scientific content of the ongo- ing program of the IOC, and also review, proposals for new programs. On the basis of these reviews, the scientific Advisory Board will make recommendations to the IOC as to the priorities that the IOC should assign to its scientific programs and other matters needed to strengthen the scientific activities of the IOC. The Scientific Advisory Board was established as a 2-year experiment. The Tenth Assembly of the IOC, in 1977, will decide whether the scientific Advisory Board, or a similar body, will continue to fuUfill these responsibilities. The Ninth Assembly also agreed to establish, on an experimental basis for 6 years, an IOC Association for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (lOCARIBE). lOCARIBE will be responsible for implementing all the Commission's programs — research, services, training, education, and mutual assistance — in the lOCARIBE region. lOCARIBE will be a semiautonomous subsidiary body of the IOC with its own regional secretariat. The 63rd Statutory Meeting of the International Council for the Ex- ploration of the Sea (ICES) took place in Montreal, Canada, in Septem- ber 1975. It was the first time an ICES meeting has been held on the western side of the Atlantic. At the meeting, ICES, which acts as a scien- tific advisor to several international fisheries commissions, decided to advise the Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission to stop all exploita- tion of herring in the North Sea in 1976. The stock is now at such a low level that even the by-catch of herring in other fisheries represents a serious problem for the future. Another mission of ICES is the scientific study of marine pollution. ICES has organized a monitoring program for the North Sea, based, in part, on earlier baseline studies. ICES has also decided to extend baseline studies to the entire North Atlantic. These efforts are now well under- way. The second meeting of the U.S./U.S.S.R. Joint Committee on Coopera- tion in World Ocean Studies was held in Moscow during May 1975. The Joint Committee assists in the implementation of the provisions of the Agreement on Cooperation in Studies of the World Ocean signed by the 26 United States and the Soviet Union in June 1973. The Joint Committee noted with satisfaction the progress of the existing five woricing groups: Large-scale Ocean-Atmospheric Interaction; Ocean Currents and Dynamics; Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry; Biological Prod- uctivity and Biochemistry; and Intercalibration and Standardization. The programs for future cooperation under these working groups were approved, and it was agreed that future efforts would be directed toward the broadening and extension of cooperation on existing projects, in par- ticular the southern Ocean and North Pacific studies agreed to by the first meeting of the Joint Committee. Three new projects were adopted for discussion and planning in order to determine the feasibility of their implementation. The first — a study of the Indian Ocean monsoon phenomenon — will be coordinated by the Large-Scale Ocean-Atmospheric Interaction Working Group. The other two new projects — in sediment dynamics and studies of the origin and evolution of ocean lithospheric plates — will be coordinated by the Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Working Group. Although all the activities under the agreement have not moved for- ward as quickly as one might have hoped, successful field projects have carried out, and the important, but sometimes slow, process of develop- ing mutual working relationships continues. Foreign Assistance in Marine Science and Technology Assistance to the marine programs of other nations includes the train- ing of foreign nationals, help in fishery development, and aid in improv- ing harbor survey programs. Of the theee efforts, the training programs are the most diversified, and involve the greatest number of foreign countries, sponsoring agencies, and disciplines or specializations. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ad- ministers several cooperative fisheries-training programs sponsored by the United Nations, the Department of State, the Agency for Interna- tional Development (AID), and private foundations. Promising fisheries candidates from developing nations are brough to the United States for further training in their specialities. The needs of the participants are determined; their programs are outlined; and they are assigned to universities, government installations, or commercial organizations for training courses. The training programs are designed to prepare the future fisheries leaders of the developing countries to understand, har- vest, and manage their marine resources. Because the trainees will later deal with resources harvested by fleets operating internationally, the program is designed to familiarize future fisheries experts with the in- ternational aspects of marine resource development and improve their ability to administer the scientific, technical, and economic phases of fisheries management. 27 Currently there are 14 AID-sponsored trainees in the United States and 10 additional foreign trainees sponsored by the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, private foundations, and the Department of State. Many former participants of the program are now serving in policy-making positions in their own countries or as fishery attaches in other countries around the world. The U.S. Navy (USN) provides training to naval officers and govern- ment civilians from allied countries through an allied student training program conducted by the USN Oceanographic Office. During 1975, 19 students, representing 10 countries, received courses under this program. Most of the students were enrolled in the hydrographic engineering/marine environment program. This 52-week course pre- pares students to conduct a hydrographic survey from the initial phase — the geodetic survey — to the presentation of the hydrographic data in its final form — a nautical chart. Students are also introduced to the basic principles of oceanography. In January 1976, a new course was initiated in oceanographic data processing designed to give students from allied countries insight into the management of oceanographic information. USN assistance is also provided to Latin American countries in the development of their cartographic and hydrographic capabilities through a Harbor Survey Assistance Program (HARSAP). HARSAP, initiated in 1965, provides countries with the technical resources and advice neces- sary to conduct hydrographic surveys and produce nautical charts of harbor and coastal regions. 28 CHAPTER in MAN, SOCIETY, AND THE SEA: FEDERAL SUPPORT FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH The expansion of Federal ocean activities has been accompanied by a growing sensitivity to the social and economic aspects of marine and coastal resource use and development. The Sea Grant Program of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is the major source of Federal support for research on the social and behavioral aspects of marine affairs. But other agencies have supported research on the social aspects of marine resource development, including the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Army Corps of Engineers (ACE), the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the Environmental Protection Agen- cy (EPA), the Departments of State and the Interior, and the Smithso- nian Institution. Nearly all the federally supported research in marine- related social science is directed toward the solution of specific problems — for examples, the economics of marine resource use, coastal zone management, offshore powerplant siting, deep-water ports, and the law of the sea. Living Resource Economics The use of ocean food and minerals frequently hinges on the distribu- tion of costs and benefits to consumers and producers of these products. Specific problems examined by Sea Grant researchers involve the economic aspect of fish marketing, aquaculture, fisheries management, and the operation of boats and ports. As examples, studies are looking at the marketing channels for fresh sea food, the development of finfish marketing systems, potential international markets for mullet, and pro- duction costs and returns for the Texas shrimp industry. Other projects concern the economic aspects of aquaculture, such as the economics of salmonid culture in New England, and the income and market potential of aquaculture systems for cold-water fish. One major concern of investigators supported by Sea Grant is the im- plication of extended jurisdiction by the United States over its coastal 29 fisheries. Extended jurisdiction will call for many public and private decisions involving fishermen, fish processors, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers. A number of studies is designed to provide decision- makers with data and analyses of the economic implications of extended jurisdiction, particularly with respect to fisheries management issu(js. In one such study. Oregon State University is trying to put together a fra- mework for evaluating the economic impact of extended fishery jurisdiction. Questions involve estimating how much domestic invest- ment is called for to harvest available stocks, and determining whether sufficient economic incentives exist to attract investors. Another key issue involves setting criteria for the determination of equitable rates for the reduction of foreign fishing efforts and the formulation of appropri- ate levels for fees to be paid by foreign fishermen. A study supported by NSF at the University of Delaware will look at how various stocks are distributed within the extended fisheries zone, and what effects these distributions will have on harvests. The data will be used to suggest different management schemes in areas falling under the jurisdiction of the United States. Another project relates to management in the anticipated 200-mile fisheries zone and involves finding out how to cut back on fishing efforts, possibly by limiting entry to particular fisheries. The study, con- ducted by an economist and an anthropologist for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's Marine Policy and Ocean Management Program, deals specifically with the New England fishery. Interviews with skippers, fishermen, and processors have been conducted in New England ports, including New Bedford, Chatham, Provincetown, Gloucester, Boston, Rye, Rockland, and Portland. One aspect of the study describes the fish-processing plants in New Bedford, including the volume of fish, types of handling, markets, labor, and port investment. The information, gathered directly from New England ports and from sources such as NMFS, will be used to describe the structure of the fish- ing industry in New England. By combining the specific characteristics of New England ports with information about methods for reducing ac- cess to fisheries elsewhere, the researchers hope to develop regulatory mechanisms for regional management plans. At the University of California, investigators are looking at different approaches to public regulation of the Santa Barbara Channel abalone industry by limiting access to the fishery. Attention will be given to political and administrative factors involved in controlling access to these fisheries and putting new rules into effect. Study of existing limited entry programs and explicit comparisons with analogous indus- tries should identify pitfalls to be avoided in the drafting and implemen- tation of regulations for the fishing industry. Additional projects in marine economics deal with such diverse topics as the prospects for commercial fisheries in the Great Lakes, the 31 economics of ground fish trawlers, and an analysis of recreational boat- ing for the planning of waterfront-boating facilities in Dade County. Florida. Most of the marine-related economic research supported by NMFS revolves around marketing problems. For example, one project involves the development, distribution, and analysis of a questionnaire that will be used in a national survey of chainstore meat merchandisers. The pur- pose of the survey is to learn about merchandiser attitudes and practices with respect to fresh or thawed seafood. A related study deals with the use of marketing orders in the seafood industry. The project is intended to provide the basic descriptive information necessary for both industry and public policy decisions regarding the improved marketing of seafood. Other studies seek to analyze competing uses of the Chesapeake Bay and the effect of imported shrimp on price fluctuations in the domestic shrimp market. One of the most difficult problems facing ocean policy makers has been to determine, with any degree of confidence, the economic value of ocean resources. A project supported by NSF addresses this problem. The management of ocean activity and the allocation of ocean resources require much more accurate and systematic information than is cur- rently available. An initial step toward clarifying these questions is the development of an income- and product-accounting system. This in- volves evaluation of the usefulness of extending national income-ac- counting concepts and procedures to ocean activities. The definitions, concepts, assumptions, and procedures implicit in national income-ac- counting practices as they relate to problems that arise in ocean ac- tivities will be analyzed. Then, a conceptual framework for ocean prod- ucts and income will be developed to overcome the inadequacies of ex- isting national income-accounting practices. Specifically, the study will seek to define the following: What constitutes economic activity in the oceans? the best method of evaluating commodities resulting from ocean activity; and the spatial boundaries within which ocean activity takes place. Project data will be used to outline procedures for imple- menting the proposed system of ocean accounts. The Department of the Interior's (DOI) Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) has been increasing its support of research into economic and other social subjects that involve the protection and enhancement of coastal ecosystems and conservation of fish and wildlife resources. For example, a recently completed study conducted for FWS by the Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences contributes to the National Water Resource Assessment of the Water Resources Council. Following a general classification of estuarine and coastal environments, the study report lists regional, natural, and societal problems, summarizes the legal in- stitutional systems applied to fish and wildlife management in each 32 region, evaluates (jcononiic pressures, and relates lh(;s(! factors to prj;- dicted water utilization. NONLIVING RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT Studies to advance the development of nonliving ocean r(!sources have grappled with problems brought about by the changing law of the sea. technological developments, and requirements for the managc^ment and exploitation of ocean resources. In one of these studi(!s. two scien- tists, three engineers, a marine biologist, and a lawyer have set out to assess Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas operations. They first examined the development of OCS oil and gas resources and how- Federal policies are currently set. Then, they studied the adequacy of present technology, the quality of environmental control, government management, and the question of Federal and State jurisdictions. They offered recommendations directed toward achieving the following goals: To get the most out of Continental Shelf oil and gas reserves: to ensure equitable government management of the development process: and to maintain the quality of the ocean environment as exploitation takes place. Legal issues involved in ocean thermal energy conversion schemes are the subject of a current study by the American Society of Interna- tional Law. Researchers plan to identify problems in at least five main areas. These areas include: Rights to place energy conversion installa- tions in the oceans; rights to remove thermal energy resources from the oceans: responsibility and liability for the consequences of running ther- mal energy systems conversion: and the legal status of operators and in- stallations. The context for examining these questions will be the engineering features of the conversion mechanisms, the likely effects on the marine environment, and the probable location of these installations. Earlier societal studies have analyzed the legal, economic, and political aspects of international fisheries management and protection of the ocean environment. Potential impacts of offshore oil and gas development have greatly in- creased concern about the onshore effects of offshore activities. DOI's Bureau of Land Management (BLM), U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and the Bureau of Mines have joined the more traditional sources of funding for marine social science research — the programs of the Na- tional Park Service (NPS), the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (BOR), the Office of Water Research and Technology (OWRT). FWS. and the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). One of the DOI projects jointly sponsored by USGS and the New Eng- land River Basins Commission seeks to develop and test a methodology for siting onshore energy-related facilities associated with OCS develop- ment. This study is expected to have broad application to planning in 33 other regions. The study will include the examination of alternatives in facilities siting to minimize adverse environmental impact, to reduce costs, and to maximize economic benefits. The methodology, develop- ment, and testing involves the following: Formulation of a set of scenarios describing the likely range of types and volumes of oil and gas that may be discovered on the New England OCS; development of means to identify possible sites for major onshore supporting facilities and to calculate expected environmental and socio-economic impacts; and the conduct of case studies, in cooperation with State institutions, to assess the usefulness of the methodology in different political and physi- cal settings. BLM has supported extensive research on the social and economic aspects of OCS development. These projects have been designed to cover the most promising areas for development, including the North. Mid and South Atlantic regions, the Gulf of Mexico, southern California, and Alaska. In addition, BLM provided partial support for a study of the potential economic impact in New England of oil development in the Georges Bank petroleum basin. In addition to its responsibility for OCS development. DOI. through the Office of Energy and Minerals Section, is exploring prospects for deep-sea mineral development. Two grants have been awarded to study specific aspects of these potential resources. One study is an analysis of the economic and structural characteristics of the deep-ocean mining in- dustry. The goal is to recommend appropriate domestic and interna- tional regulatory and management approaches for mineral resource development. The other project is a technological and economic assess- ment of the mining and metallurgical technologies that may be used in deep-sea manganese nodule operations. COASTAL AND INTERNATIONAL OCEAN LAW Much legal research sponsored by Sea Grant is geared to providing the kinds of analysis needed to enhance the coastal zone management efforts of the States. An example of the work supported by this program is a project by the University of Miami School of Law to analyze contem- porary issues in coastal law. using Florida as an example of how a specific State deals with coastal zone problems. In other work, University of Mississippi investigators are looking at a number of issues of particular concern to the Gulf Coast region. This effort attempts to develop an acceptable definition of the coastal zone, design a plan to control oil transported through the coastal zone, and devise a system for compensating parties suffering economic damage from pollution resulting from these activities. The university is also in- volved in selecting sites for deep-water ports and nuclear powerplants and an analysis of the Mississippi Coastal Wetland Act; it has recently 34 completed a compilation of State and Federal laws and regulations affecting the coastal zone. Similar legal research aimed at improving coastal zone management and the management of marine resources is going on in Oregon. New York, North Carolina. South Carolina, Louisiana, and California. Among the goals of these studies are the determination of the effects of public regulation on California's aquaculture industry: assessment of legal, in- stitutional, and policy factors in site selection for ports, waterways, and pipelines in Louisiana; and development of a model county flood plain and hurricane zoning ordinance for Dade County, Florida, Although most of the legal studies involve State and regional problems, a number of projects are examining issues of national and in- ternational scope. One project at the Louisiana State University Law Center is the study of the various choices open to the United States in the event that the U.N. Law of the Sea Conference fails to produce a comprehensive and widely acceptable treaty. The study will describe customary international law-making processes that are likely to be used in the event of a conference failure. The work will stress the effects of "nationalization" of ocean space and resources and the costs and conse- quences of alternative approaches in terms of U.S. security and economic interests. It will also seek to identify significant changes in U.S. ocean interests and policies following a conference failure. A NSF award was made in 1972 to the John Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies for the initiation of a study called the 'United States Ocean Policy Project," Three political scien- tists and one economist looked at ocean policy problems and choices faced by U.S. negotiators involved in the U.N. Conference on the Law of the Sea. The project report Toward a National Ocean Policy: 1976 and Beyond was released in February 1976, about a month before the third session of the conference in New York. It included a review of the evolv- ing international ocean regime, the background and character of the U.N, Conference on the Law of the Sea, and analyses of specific issues and alternatives for the United States with respect to national security, commercial navigation, protection of the marine environment, fisheries, mineral resources, and marine science, A small number of marine-related projects have been supported through the Department of State's Bureau of Intelligence and Research, One of these studies at the University of Washington examined present systems of law enforcement in the oceans. Various alternative ap- proaches to law enforcement were being studied to assure compliance with national and international regulatory schemes in light of changing international arrangements. Another project focused on the responsibility of nations for environ- mental damage. The project sought to determine the responsibility of a 35 state under international law for conduct that causes pollution damage outside its territory and to assess the degree to which that responsibility is likely to be expanded in the next two decades. A major project in forecasting the outcome of the law of the sea negotiations has been completed by the Center for Naval Analysis. Proj- ect investigators have analyzed statements made by decisionmakers in other countries with regard to law of the sea voting procedures, trends, and expected changes in national positions, including the likelihood of position shifts toward U.S. positions by other countries, and identifica- tion of possible compromises to which specific countries might agree. Two NSF projects focus on the problems associated with technical assistance in marine development and the nature of ocean policymaking in the Soviet Union. Pressure for technical assistance in marine science by developing countries has intensified in recent years. One study is seeking to analyze the relationship between technical aids as an instru- ment for economic development and the political and economic setting that shapes the scope and impact of such programs. The area under study is the Caribbean, and the study will involve an analysis of programs undertaken in all fields related to marine sciences or resource management during the decade from 1962 to 1972. A project recently funded by the NSF's Office for the International Decade of Ocean Exploration involves another aspect of ocean policy- making. It has been clear for some time that the Soviet Union has in- vested heavily in the expansion of its maritime capabilities. Far less evi- dent, however, is how and by whom Soviet decisions on ocean policy are made. This project will analyze the goals and activities of Soviet agen- cies, institutions, and interest groups involved in ocean management and policy making. Particular attention will be given to the way ocean policy choices are shaped by domestic interests, technological capabilities, and perceptions of broader international interests. These aspects of ocean policy making will be described in case studies of the fishing industry and oceanographic research. Information used in the study will be derived from a systematic analysis of Soviet professional publications and periodicals on ocean matters over the past decade, literature on Soviet bureaucratic behavior and decisionmaking, and interviews with ocean specialists from the United States and the Soviet Union. Support to Coastal Zone Management In New York State, a variety of Sea Grant projects are tackling plan- ning problems from several perspectives. One is looking at the coastal management institutional structure in New York. Several others are studying the prospects for redevelopment of the New York City coastal zone, and the potential of the city's coastlines for recreational use by ur- ban neighborhoods. A more general analysis focuses on the manage- 36 merit of the State's coastal waters. It involves the jurisdictional, func- tional, and geographic responsibilities of various government agencies and the existing methods used for managing and coordinating use and observation of the state's coastal waters and resources. Sea Grant projects are also underway to aid New Hampshire's coastal zone planning efforts. Researchers are seeking to determine the at- titudes of leaders and the general public in coastal communities toward coastal zone management questions. Complementary work is being done on the economic features of coastal communities in New Hampshire and Maine with a view to creating a framework for estimat- ing the effects of changes in specific parts of the local economy. In California, researchers are seeking to establish methods for con- trolling the cumulative impact of coastal development, and assessing other critical coastal zone management issues. In the Great Lakes region, several projects are using simulation and gaming techniques to deal with powerplant siting and energy issues. Studies of particular interest to Wisconsin deal with phosphorous removal in the Wisconsin-Lake Michigan watershed, and identification, evaluation and utilization of scenic, cultural, and historical resources in coastal communities. In Oregon, economists are studying the interaction between public and pri- vate campgrounds on the coast, and assessing the demand for recrea- tional boat moorage and storage. Photo: NOAA 37 Nearly all the marine-related social science research supported by ACE is sponsored by the Institute for Water Resources. ACE projects over the past 5 years have focused particularly on aspects of coastal zone management and deep-water port developments. One coastal zone study seeks to assess the significance of legislation, policies, and actions at all levels of government affecting the coastal zone. Other, more specific, studies are concerned with different ways of estimating the value and incidence of beach recreation benefits and the evaluation of alternative cost-sharing roles for shoreline protection with respect to efficiency, equity, and administrative feasibility. A major ACE project examined the need for deep-water ports off the U.S. coast. It included commodity studies and projections, as well as studies relating to the physical characteristics of coastal areas and port requirements, the selection of deep-water port alternatives, the environ- mental and ecological aspects of deep-water ports, and the transport of bulk commodities and benefit-cost relationships. Several ACE studies have dealt with the comparative aspects of deep- water port development. For example, one report has provided a selec- tive overview of the economic, engineering, and environmental factors in the decisions of foreign governments about deep-water port develop- ment, primarily for oil tankers but also for general cargo carriers. In- vestigators working in this project have visited and described ports in the Persian Gulf as examples of oil loading and Europe as examples of unloading. Other comparative work examined port developments in Japan. A more recent study has used a systems approach to analyze the total cost of alternative deep-water port, refinery, and transport com- binations for crude oil and refined products. Since 1970. DOI's OWRT has funded increasing numbers of studies devoted to the socio-economic aspects of water quality and its availability and use in estuaries and coastal areas. Most current projects are supported through annual allotments to institutes in each of the coastal States involved in water resources research. Representative proj- ects in this program include: A case study of "Estuarine Pollution and Local Agency Interaction" in Mississippi; "A Management Model for the Chowan River Estuary" in North Carolina; "Transfer of Public Par- ticipation, Education, and Communication to Coastal Zone Programs" in Ohio; "An Economic Investigation of the Allocation of State-Owned Wetlands with Regard to Oyster Production" in South Carolina; and "Economic Effects of Land Subsidence Due to Excessive Ground Water Withdrawal in the Texas Gulf Coast Area." Several projects deal specifically with coastal zone management issues. One is a two-part study of the problems of urban development at Rookery Bay, Florida. The first part involves a study of the hydrology, oceanography, water quality and ecology of the Rookery Bay system as 38 it is subject to urban development. The second is a study of the poUtics, economics, and social attitudes involved in the decision-maHing process. The goal of the work is to develop information useful to other areas where urban development occurs in similar coastal environments. Another project is aimed at refining methods for determining how often different groups make use of water-based recreation, particularly in ur- ban areas. Through its mission to protect tribal treaty rights and to foster Indian social and economic advancement, DOI's BIA supports a wide range of social and technical marine-related activities. Many of these activities are conducted under the direction of. or through, tribal councils. They include the planning and development of fishing and other industries, such as the mariculture program being conducted by the Lummi Indians in Washington, construction of fishing vessels for. use by an Alaskan tribe, and the development of marinas and associated resort facilities by the Red Cliff Tribe of northern Wisconsin. BIA provides direct legal sup- port to the councils on matters concerning jurisdictional rights. Partly as a result of this support, the courts have, for example, recently recognized retained Indian rights to fishing in Lake Superior, and to anadromous fishing in the Pacific Northwest, both of which are now controlled by In- dian ordinances and exempt from State controls. Photo: NOAA 39 MARINE RECREATION Millions of people travel to our Nation's ocean shores annually to en- joy a wide variety of recreational opportunities. DOI's NPS and FWS manage shorelands that are dedicated entirely, or in part, to recreational purposes. NPS and Wildlife Refuge Systems and comparable lands under jurisdiction of State and local governments offer the public access to many of the most popular shoreline attractions. Because of population growth, greater affluence, and more leisure time, demands on these areas have increased to the point where many have become crowded and thus less attractive for recreation. This, in turn, has led to a rising national interest in conserving and improving recreational resources. NPS and FWS, in cooperation with BOR, conduct and support social science research that may be applied at all levels of government and the public interest to develop and improve the use of recreational oppor- tunities in the coastal zone. The work includes research associated with planning for the acquisition and development of additional public parks and refuges in shoreland areas, partly through allocations from the Land and Water Conservation Fund administered by BOR. NPS has established cooperative research units at universities throughout the country. Marine-related sociological studies have been undertaken by such units as the City University of New York, and the University of Washington. The studies conducted by these units in- cluded a forecast of visitor requirements and social behavior on beaches and in wetland areas; surveys of marine recreation areas; studies of marine recreation available to the handicapped in national and state parks; and an assessment of the impact of Fire Island National Seashore operations on nearby businesses, land uses, and other local activities. NPS also conducts and supports research in archaeology and history to enhance park system interpretive and educational programs and to fulfill NPS responsibilities for the preservation of antiquities and other cultural resources of the United States and its territories. Much of this research is undertaken in cooperation with local societies and other in- terested groups and individuals. The Nation's Bicenntennial Celebra- tion, in which NPS had a lead role, has offered a recent stimulus to the efforts. The collection of marine-related archaelogical and historical data commonly utilizes both social research and technical surveys. An exam- ple of the former was the improvement of interpretive programs at the Salem Maritime Historic Site. Technical surveys have included the use of satellite and aircraft remote-sensing surveys to aid in identifying historic shipwrecks off the Gulf Islands National Seashore, adjacent to Fort Jefferson National Monument and Biscayne Bay National Monu- ment. In other technical surveys, scuba divers were employed to obtain data in waters adjacent to Biscayne Bay National Monument, Virgin Is- 40 lands Nationul Park, Buck Island National Monunicnl. Cape; Hatteras National Seashore, and Padre Island National Seashore. Similar research by BOR complements that of NPS. Such research tends to cover general recreational topics in accordance with purposes of the Land and Water Conservation Fund — to foster the development of public recreational opportunities at all levels of government. Many BOR projects involve analyses directly applicable to use of the Nation's oceanic and Great Lakes shores, wetlands and adjacent waters. PZxam- ples of current investigations include a project to determine the op- timum carrying capacities of beaches and other recreation resources: a second project evaluates public willingness to pay for th(! use of outdoor recreation areas; and a third surveys public opinion and otherwise deter- mine trends and factors that reflect the demand for. and use of. public recreation areas. OTHER SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL STUDIES Although there are social and economic dimensions to the projects described above, a number of studies sponsored by the Sea Grant Program are concerned quite specifically with the social and behavioral aspects of man's relation to the sea. One. for example, is an occupational study of shrimp fishermen. The long-range goals of this study are to achieve a better understanding of shrimp fishing as an occupation, the shrimping industry, and the fishing community. The findings should help the fishermen and their families gain a sharpened insight into their own ways of life, their values, beliefs, perceptions, and problems. It should also help public and private agencies (e.g.. public education, health, and welfare departments and the Cooperative Extension Service) to remove hindrances to the attainment of a desirable standard of living and quality of life for fishermen and their families. Similar studies of coastal communities are being carried out in set- tings as diverse as the coasts of Oregon and northwest Florida. In one such study, anthropologists are trying to put together a coherent body of information on the social organization, work routines, values, attitudes, and everyday lives of people in a northwest Florida fishing community heavily dependent on living marine resources. This study will provide a basis for developing realistic and socially effective programs of informa- tion dissemination and for guiding technological and economic changes. One key to taking the greatest advantage of the economic potential of maritime enterprises involves the maintenance of a stable, predictable supply of experienced labor. One Sea Grant study is trying to pinpoint the social and cultural features associated with the high-turnover rates among workers in Louisiana's offshore service industries. The apparent inability of these crucial industries to maintain a stable labor force has 41 Photo: NOAA had an adverse effect on their efficiency and productivity. The findings of the study should provide the basis for action or the cure for the causes of labor instability in these industries. NSF has occasionally supported projects in economics or anthropology that involve ties to the oceans. In one such project, a University of Pittsburgh anthropologist is exploring what happens to local communities when previously local fisheries expand to become large commercial enterprises. The study is being conducted on the island of Cebu in the Philippines. An earlier project examined the cultural ecology of Chinese fishermen in western Malaya and included fish classification, training of fishermen, catching techniques, and conserva- tion practices. In another study, an anthropologist conducted research in a Ghanaian fishing town to find out how residents made complicated in- vestment decisions. Although the Smithsonian Institution, typically, does not support marine-related social science projects, it has reported two pertinent anthropological studies. One involves work on major sea-level fluctua- tions in the coastal region of Madras and Cape Comorin, India, and an 42 examination of archeological evidence of tli(!ir efftu;! on human occupa- tions. The other project is a study of the use of seaweed by the Seri In- dians of Sonora. Mexico, one of the hist of the hunting and gathering peoples. Another agency. NPS, has recently initiated a program to protect cultural resources of the OCS. The principal resources of this region in- clude shipwrecks and Indian sites that reflect occupation during low sea-level stages of the last glacial epoch. The program is treated as an in- tegral component of the DOI OCS lease/management system which pro- vides for preleasing surveys and evaluations to determine the likelihood of finding cultural resource-values within tracts to be offered and in- cludes lease terms to protect and permit investigation of any cultural ob- ject on sites that may be discovered in the course of postleasing opera- tions. The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is the one agen- cy outside the Federal Ocean Program providing support for projects pertaining to man and the sea. NEH does not, however, set aside a fixed amount of funds for any particular subject area. It responds to grant ap- plications but does not solicit them. Awards are granted only after com- petitive reviews by scholars and the presidentially appointed National Council on the Humanities. Between 1970 and 1975, NEH has supported projects involving marine archeology (excavation of the ancient harbor of Cosa. reconstruction of a Greek merchant ship) and studies of maritime histo- ry (seaport and coastal town histories, ships and seamanship of the 12th century, the colonial rum trade, the English slave trade with Spanish America, and the naval policy of Imperial Germany). NEW also pro- vided support for museum exhibits on man and the sea. 43 Photo: NOAA 44 CHAPTER IV PROTECTING THE QUALITY OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Pollution of the marine environment can occur anywhere in the ocean, but is is most pervasive in coastal waters. Municipal and in- dustrial wastes are discharged or dumped directly into coastal waters or reach them from discharge points in rivers and streams. Accidental oil spills in shipping lanes and harbors threaten coastal water quality. Offshore oil development operations compound this threat, especially as oil production is extended to new areas on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). The potential for damage to the marine environment, however, has been reduced by a number of Federal programs designed to control the introduction of pollutants into marine waters. Both the Environmen- tal Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) have issued regulations to reduce the likelihood of oil discharges into coastal waters. EPA also regulates ocean dumping and discharges from point sources of industrial, municipal, and other wastes. These regulatory programs are supplemented by surveillance infor- mation produced by environmental quality assessment studies and by the development of technology to prevent, detect, and remove pollution. POLLUTION SURVEILLANCE AND CONTROL Since the late 1960's, incidents of oil pollution have engendered a growing public awareness of the hazards posed by large oil slicks to beaches and shorelines, and sea birds and other marine life. In 1972, the USCG was charged, under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (I-'WPCA), as amended, with the responsibility for issuing and enforcing regulations for the prevention of oil discharges by vessels and transpor- tation facilities, such as those for the transfer of oil. The act also author- izes USCG activities to control and, if possible, remove oil pollutants and other hazardous substances discharged into the marine environment. To carry out this mission, USCG has become deeply involved in the development of pollution spill detection, identification, measurement 45 techniques and equipment, and new systems and procedures for the control and removal of oil and other hazardous substances. A recent USCG development to detect and identify oil pollutants is the Airborne Oil Surveillance System (AOSS). an integrated system designed by the USCG Research and Development staff and produced by Aerojet Electro Systems as a prototype. AOSS is the culmination of several years of investigation into oil slick signature characteristics. In addition to its value in pollution detection, this multisensor system can be used for search and rescue, enforcement of maritime laws and treaties, ice operations, flood and hurricane damage assessment, and marine science. AOSS is comprised of four components: a sidelooking airborne radar (SLAR), an infrared line scanner with one ultraviolet channel, an aerial reconnaissance camera, and an inertial navigation system. This combination of sensors has the ability to detect, measure, and, in some cases, identify oil discharges in all weather, day and night. AOSS was initially deployed for test and evaluation on a HU16E Grumman Albatross — a medium-range sea air rescue aircraft based at USCG Air Station, San Francisco. During this testing period, four dis- charges were initially detected, three of them from a distance greater than 6 miles. It must be remembered that the purpose of the system is not only to detect a discharge but also to gather evidence sufficient to assess penalties under the FWPCA. The demonstration program was successful in three of the four cases detected by the AOSS. An un- planned benefit from the demonstration program occurred when the SLAR was able to detect a disabled wooden sailboat at a distance greater than could be done with conventional airborne radar. By January 1, 1977, the system will be transferred to Elizabeth City, North Carolina and will become operational on an HC130 Lockheed Hercules aircraft. It will also be installed in the new USCG medium-range search aircraft. In addition to its use of the AOSS, USCG conducts oil pollution detec- tion activities in the course of aircraft flights made for other purposes. For example, USCG uses an infrared temperature sensor developed for its Airborne Radiation Thermometry (ART) surveys. These aerial sur- veys are conducted monthly on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States. The data from the surveys are used for producing sea- current charts and modeling efforts applicable to the USCG search and rescue planning and its oil spill response roles. The ART flights often in- clude oil pollution, fisheries, or search and rescue surveillance activities. USCG continues to modify and expand its Pollution Incident Report- ing System (PIRS). PIRS uses computerized procedures to store and retrieve data on the discharge of oil and hazardous substances into navigable waters. The data bank includes information on the detection, nature, and cleanup of all discharges as well as subsequent penalty ac- tion and pollution expenditures. Information from the data system is 46 translated into policies nnd strategies needed to execute USCCI respon- sibilities in marine environmental protection more effectively. Informa- tion from the system has also proven useful to other P'ederal agencies. Congress, industry, and academic institutions. The National Response Center (NRC:), operated by the USCG. is the focal point for notifying the USCG of oil and hazardous substance pollu- tion incidents. NRC receives current information on pollution incidents as they occur, contains technical data on hazardous substances, and in- ventories response resources. The NRC disseminates operational infor- mation to all interested parties and agencies. It is manned continuously and has quick access to qualified personnel ufho can provide assistance and advice on a wide range of subjects required for response activities. The Chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS) being developed by USCG as part of the NRC will be placed in operation in 1976. CHRIS will provide field personnel with the information they need to make effective responses to discharges of hazardous polluting substances. Field response personnel not completely familiar with the myriad of chemicals and other hazardous substances that may be dis- charged into navigable waters can use the CHRIS to obtain information on the composition of substances, their potential danger, dispersal or decomposition patterns, the symptoms of sickness from exposure, and antidotes. CHRIS will also provide information on alternate methods to handle the discharge. A cadre of USCG personnel has been trained to respond to discharges of oil and other hazardous polluting substances that exceed the capabilities of regional forces. Called the National Strike Force, this cadre is organized into three teams, the Atlantic Strike Team, the Pacific Strike Team, and the Gulf Strike Team. The teams, each with a strength of about 15 men, respond to pollution discharges, or threats of dis- charges, and provide technical expertise and supervisory assistance in the deployment of special pollution control equipment for removal operations to USCG, EPA, or other Federal coordinators. The National Strike Force has U.S. waters as its primary area of responsibility, but it has been requested to provide assistance in foreign waters. Strike Force personnel have responded to the requests of foreign governments for assistance with oil removal from the Metuia in the Straits of Magellan, Chile, in 1974, and from the Showci Mciru near Singapore in 1975. In each case, the assistance was provided on a cost- reimbursable basis. The USCG is also responsible for enforcement of ocean-dumping regulations and the surveillance of dumping activities. In accordance with the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, EPA administers an ocean disposal permit program and the Na- tional Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA) conducts a program of research and monitoring of the environmental effects of 47 ocean dumping. NOAA's findings are used by EPA in selecting and regulating the use of dump sites. The USCG is now testing and evaluating a high-seas ocean-dumping surveillance system. When development is complete, the system will be deployed on dumping vessels to provide USCG with data on the position of the vessels and the time of dumping in order to insure vessel com- pliance with dumping permits. This system will eliminate the very cos- tly requirement for periodic USCG cutter surveillance of dumping vessels and sites. Completion of the prototype system is expected by the latter part of 1976. SUPPORTING RESEARCH AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Pollution control programs must be supported by a knowledge of natural environmental systems and how these systems are influenced by different types and levels of pollution. A number of Federal agencies is involved in programs to provide basic environmental research and monitoring data. EPA sponsors a number of studies directed to in- vestigating the eventual fate of pollutants in ocean waters and effects of pollutants on the marine environment. This work includes research by the University of Rhode Island to assess the biological effects of wastes on ecosystems and individual species, studies by Fordham University of factors contributing to massive algal blooms, Harvard University research to determine the ability of marine microorganisms to destroy human pathogens, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology studies of the fate of toxic metal pollutants in the ocean. In consequence of its responsibilities for the administration of Federal land, conservation of mineral and water resources, and preservation of fish and wildlife resources, the Department of the Interior (DOI) sup- ports several marine science programs contributing directly or indirectly to environmental quality. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) operates the National Stream Quality Accounting Network, an important gauging system for provid- ing basic information for pollution abatement and control. The waters measured by this network are not marine waters, but they empty into estuarine and coastal waters, and thus data furnished by this network are essential in the understanding of marine chemistry and pollution dynamics in nearshore areas. USGS operates over 5,000 water quality stations. Of this number, 1,143 are of particular importance to marine environmental quality programs. These are the 369 gauging stations near the mouths of streams to monitor such water characteristics as tem- perature, inorganic and organic constituents, and suspended sediments. The gauging stations also monitor the 774 gauges that measure the flow of fresh water into nearshore marine areas. 48 The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) administers an environmen- tal assessment program to assure that offshore oil and gas resources are developed in an environmentally sound manner. These studies are con- ducted on OCS areas being considered for possible oil and gas leasing as well as in areas already leased for that purpose. BLM studies are now in progress off the coast of Alaska and along the Atlantic seaboard and Gulf coasts. The studies consist of four phases. Phase one surveys exist- ing environmental data and identifies data gaps that require investiga- tion. The second phase consists of predevelopment, baseline sampling of the chemical, biological, and physical characteristics of each area. Dur- ing phase three, special studies on specific problems (e.g.. toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons to marine biota) are performed. Phase four con- sists of a continuing monitoring of selected environmental parameters to detect any effect on the environment that might result from OCS oil and gas development. The Office of Water Research and Technology (OWRT) funds con- tract research, a portion of which bears directly on pollution abatement and control. Among the projects currently funded by OWRT is a study to determine the role of sewage effluent and sludge as a source of mercury introduced into marine ecosystem off the California coast. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), pursuant to the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, assesses the environmental impact of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) and other projects, as does the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Both FWS and NMFS make recom- mendations on the most effective types of pollution control for the pro- tection of living resources in the project area. The FWS also conducts in- vestigations on the toxic effects of waterborne pollutants on fish and birds. NOAA provides information on types and quantities of pollutants in the marine ecosystem and conducts research on the effects of the ocean disposal of waste material. NOAA also provides historical data on severe storms and other atmospheric phenomena and consults on prospective uses of coastal zones to help assure that coastal zone facilities are well planned, properly engineered, and adequately managed in order to minimize adverse environmental impacts. The Marine Ecosystems Analysis Program (MESA), initiated by NOAA in 1973, has made significant progress toward its goal of defining major ecological systems, processes, and stresses in the New York Bight. When an integrated model of the Bight ecosystems is developed, it may be possible to predict harmful anomaly levels. The New York Bight was selected as the first area for concentrated study because of its complex- ity and heavy use. The MESA project, managed by the NOAA Environ- mental Research Laboratories, involves several other NOAA elements, other Federal agencies. State agencies, and private institutions including 49 industry and university contractors. A similar cooperative study will be initiated in Puget Sound/Prince William Sound in fiscal year 1976. In another major cooperative effort, NOAA participates with ships, facilities, and scientific expertise in DOI OCS Environmental Assess- ment Program. The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) sup- ports marine science research directed to learning the effects of biologi- cal activity, sedimentation, circulation and mixing, and other marine processes on the accumulation of energy-related pollutants in the living and nonliving portions of the marine environment and the impact of those pollutants. Information derived from these studies can be used in ascertaining the probable effects of large-scale oil drilling and spilling activities on the Continental Shelf as well as assessing the impact of situating large numbers of powerplants in the coastal zone. ERDA-sup- ported coastal zone research programs are conducted by university research scientists in the New York Bight, the South Atlantic Bight, Puget Sound and the Continental Shelf off the Washington coast, the southern California Bight and the Great Lakes. A program is also being established in the Gulf of Mexico. The National Science Foundation (NSF), mainly through its Division of Ocean Sciences, also supports basic research on the sources pathways, and fates of pollutants in the marine environment. Much of this work is supported through the International Decade of Ocean Exploration's En- vironmental Quality program. The program is designed to provide infor- mation on the quality of the oceanic environment and to assess and pre- dict man's impact on this environment through research in geochemical processes and marine pollution. The present program consists of the following three major investigations: the Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) to make detailed measurement of physical and chemical characteristics of ocean waters along Arctic to Antarctic sec- tions; the Pollutant Transfer Program to investigate mechanisms and pathways by which pollutants are transported to and within the oceans; the Biological Effects Program to assess the impact of selected pollutants on marine organisms; and the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experi- ment (CEPEX) to study the effects of pollutants on the dynamics of marine planktonic ecosystems in large plastic enclosures suspended in the ocean. GEOSECS is an international cooperative program involving geochemists from 14 U.S. universities. Investigators from Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, India. Japan, and the United Kingdom are participating in the GEOSECS program or are carrying out similar programs coordinated by the United States. The U.S. program involves the occupation of 121 oceanographic sta- tions in the Atlantic and 147 stations in the Pacific. These stations are lo- cated along north-south survey tracks and generally coincide with the 50 51 paths of bottom-water currents. Samples of water and suspended materials collected from selected depths at these stations are analyzed for approximately 40 physical and chemical features to determine the stirring and reaction processes in the deep sea, the interchange of material between deep and surface waters, and the exchange of water and gases with the atmosphere. The data provide a baseline for measur- ing amounts of pollutants, specifically nuclear and other waste products that are introduced into the ocean. This work will be extended from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to the Indian Ocean where the GEOSECS survey of the major world's oceans will be completed. In NSF's Pollutant Transfer Program, initiated in 1972, the processes by which pollutants are transferred from land sources to the oceans and the movement and concentration of these pollutants in the ocean are under investigation. The program's objectives are the following: Identify important transfer pathways and mechanisms; evaluate major environ- mental factors that influence transfer processes; and develop principles governing the transfer of pollutants. Of special interest are the con- centration and dispersal of pollutants at the air-sea interface, movement of pollutants through estuaries to Continental Shelf waters, deposition of pollutants in sediments, and the chemical form and degradation of these pollutants in the marine environment. Initial study results show that the atmosphere is a major route for the transfer of chlorinated and petroleum hydrocarbons and trace metals into the ocean. Studies on atmospheric transfer of trace metals suggest that, except for sea salts, most airborne trace metals over the open ocean are the result of normal weathering of the Earth's crust. However, the concentrations of several easily vaporized trace metals (antimony, cad- mium, copper, lead, selenium, and zinc) are greater than those predicted to be of crustal origin. Investigators in the Biological Effects Program are conducting laboratory studies to evaluate the sublethal, low-level effects of trace metals, petroleum, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and phtalates on the behavior and biochemical processes of individual classes of organisms. The objectives of this program are to determine which species, life cycle stages and physiological processes are most effected by various types of pollutants, and at what levels. In addition, biological indicators are being sought to provide an early warning of pollutant-induced perturbations in the open ocean. CEPEX is a cooperative field international research project. It in- volves trapping natural marine communities in large plastic enclosures (10-meters diameters by 23-meters deep) and assessing the effects of selected pollutants on pelagic marine ecosystems. The project site is lo- cated in Saanich Inlet, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. All the pollutants introduced into the CEPEX experimental containers to date 52 show similar effects on the organisms present. Specifically, the effects of metals and petroleum on bacteria are transient and short term, owing to the population's rapid adaption (approximately 3 days) to imposed stress. Consequently, measurement of hetrotrophic activity is probably not reliable as an indicator of pollutant stress after the first few days of exposure. Measurements of respiration/excretion rates in zooplankton show lit- tle reaction to pollution stress. However, other indexes of metabolic well-being such as egg production and feeding rate are sensitive indica- tors of stress at sublethal levels. In general, small zooplankton, regard- less of species, are more sensitive than larger organisms. The conse- quence of pollution on higher trophic levels, for the most part, remains unsolved. The ACE continues marine research and experimentation activities as part of its Dredged Material Research Program. ACE is currently monitoring four open-water dredged material disposal sites in Lake Erie (off Ashtabula. Ohio.) the Pacific Ocean (off the mouth of the Columbia River), the Gulf of Mexico (off Galveston. Texas), and in Elliot Bay (off Seattle, Washington). These sites are representative of marine, estuarine and freshwater locations. The dredged material is obtained from routine channel maintenance projects. Material discharged at these sites ranges from nonpolluted channel shoals to polluted harbor sediments. Dredging is by hooper and mechanical dredge with hooper and barge discharge. The objectives of the ACE investigations are to provide definitive infor- mation on the environmental impact of dredging and discharge in coastal areas and inland waterways and to develop new or improved dis- charge practices. To accomplish these tasks, multidisciplinary field studies have been designed involving investigations of water quality, current patterns and other hydrodynamic processes, sediment chemistry, and sedimentary dynamics. The first year of these 2.5-year studies has been completed. This phase involved the collection of baseline data and sampling. Con- trolled disposal and continued baseline monitoring are being conducted during the second year (Phase II) of the study. The identification of cause-and-effect relationships will be possible throughout the re- mainder of the study. The final phase of the investigations will consist of compiling the results, evaluating identified problems, and formulating recommendations for environmentally compatible discharge techniques. These effects in the four selected areas, in addition to other smaller scale physical and chemical investigations, will provide useful data to other interested agencies and benefit ACE missions. The United States Navy (USN), like ACE and USCG, conducts water quality research primarily in support of its operating responsibilities. A significant USN research effort is now being directed toward the use of 53 bioindicator organisms to measure concentrations of chemical pollutants in the field. Byssal thread production by mussels has been shown to be a function of environmental stress; investigations are now in progress to measure correlations between changes in the organism's response and concentrations of various pollutants. The office responsible for USN pollution monitoring and surveillance efforts is the Naval Environmental Support Office (NESO) at Point Hueneme, California. NESO acts as executive agent for the Naval En- vironmental Protection Support Service, which has the responsibility for maintaining data on all USN generated pollution, for the purpose of minimizing or when possible, eliminating the pollution in compliance with environmental legislation. In addition to its data management function, NESO also provides USN commands with technical assistance in establishing monitoring and surveillance plans, in providing rapid access to specific environmen- tal legislation, and in incorporating environmental protection into developing programs. Certain agencies in the Public Health Service of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare support the Federal marine pollution abatement and control effort indirectly in the following manner: Through research aimed at developing an understanding of the factors in the marine environment that have an adverse effect upon human health and the mechanisms through which toxicity is generated; by making the results of that research available to the regulatory agencies. L^ ( Photo: NOAA 54 industry, and the general public: by providing technical assistance, train- ing and consultation to the regulatory agencies, industry, and the general public: and by developing standards and promulgating appropriate regulations. Since many marine species are particularly sensitive to pollutants. they can often be used in studies of hazards to humans. By studying the effect of a pollutant on a marine species, it is possible to develop ad- vance information on possible threats to human health. Scientists at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of the National In- stitutes of Health have performed studies of the physiological mechan- isms of transport, accumulation, metabolism, and excretion of pollutants by a variety of marine and estuarine organisms. The results of such studies are made available to regulatory agencies such as EPA and the Food and Drug Administration. FDA is involved in special studies geared to improving the quality of the Nation's marine food supply. Based on the results of its own research and that of other agencies. FDA develops shellfish cultivation, harvest- ing, processing, and shipping standards and promulgates appropriate regulations. INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT FOR POLLUTION DETECTION A vital element in pollution abatement programs is the development of new instrumentation for detecting pollution. Remote sensors appear promising for this purpose because of the vastness of ocean surfaces. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) develops remote-sensing capabilities for aerospace applications con- cerned with environmental quality monitoring, NASA, although it has no statutory responsibility for pollution abatement and control, cooper- ates with other agencies in the demonstration and transfer of its remote- sensing technology. NASA research and development efforts in remote sensing have been concerned with both passive and active techniques. Passive techniques are those where phenomena are observed by emitted electromagnetic radiation or reflected solar radiation. Thus, only a receiver or electromagnetic radiation, such as a camera or a radiometer, is required as a remote sensor. In the active techniques, radiation transmitters, such as lasers in the visible and near visible portions of the spectrum and radar devices at microwave frequencies, illuminate matter for receivers. Both passive and active remote-sensing techniques have been used, for example, in the detection of oil spills. Passive devices have detected the oil by differences in the reflection of solar radiation from an oil slick and the surrounding water. These differences have also been detected by differences in the polarization of reflected sunlight. As most oils 55 fluoresce, active lasers have been used to excite this phenomena in the oil, v^ith the receiver detecting only the emitted fluorescence. At microwave frequencies, radar has been effectively used to detect oil spills since the oil has a different emissivity than the water and thus gives rise to a different radar return. Such techniques are being rapidly made operational by agencies such as the USCG. Remote water temperature measurements have also now become routinely received from aircraft and satellites. The primary remote sen- sor is an infrared radiometer, sensitive to thermal infrared wavelengths of about 8 to 12 microns. NOAA weather satellites routinely produce thermal images where the varying gray scale is proportional to the sur- face water temperature. As noted earlier, the USCG also employs stand- ard infrared temperature sensors in its ART survey system. NASA developments have also shown that a passive microwave radiometer sensitive at S-Band frequencies will make surface water temperature measurements to an accuracy of about +1° C. The microwave devices are attractive since they are minimally affected by clouds, whereas the infrared sensor above clouds will give a measure of the cloud-top temperature rather than the water temperature below. Many water pollutants are detectable because they cause changes in water color. Images from the LANDSAT satellites have often shown water color changes that have been attributed to such factors as sewage sludge, acid waste dumps, industrial effluents, heavily sedimented rivers, and algal blooms. The LANDSAT images are processed from multispectral scanner data from four spectral regions in the visible and near infrared. These wideband (approximately 100 nm) radiance data can be processed in black and white or color images and are available on Computer Compatible Tapes for automated analyses. There are numerous multispectral scanners, including those commer- cially available for aircraft use. For example, NASA has aircraft versions of a Multichannel Ocean Color Sensor (MOCS) and an Ocean Color Scanner (OCS), with the latter very close to an aircraft prototype of the Coastal Zone Color Scanner that will fly on the NASA Nimbus G satellite in 1978. Both the MOCS and OCS are especially suited for the detection of color changes in the water because they have numerous channels with narrow bandwidths (15-20 nm) in the visible region of the spectrum. Such spectral resolution allows separation of the subtle effects of various water constituents such as sediments, chlorophyll, and acid wastes. This discrimination is a result of the "spectral signature" of the pollutants. The instrument not only discriminates between pollu- tants, it infers a quantitative measure of the actual pollutant concentra- tion. Film-filter combinations can be used with cameras to provide multispectral images, and several systems have been developed to ap- proximate the spectral coverage provided by the LANDSAT scanner. However, this device is not as adaptable to automated analysis tech- 56 niques as those devices that can provide the data directly to computer tapes. In cooperative efforts with NOAA and EPA, NASA has evahiated the capabilities of existing multispectral scanners and data analysis tech- niques to detect and to quantify the concentration and distribution of materials dumped and subsequently dispersed in the New York Bight. These activities are coordinated with those of the NOAA MESA program. Data verification has been the responsibility of other NOAA elements, particularly the National Environmental Satellite Service (NOAA/NESS) and the Atlantic Oceanographic and Marine Laboratory. Another cooperative program with EPA in 1976 will use similar multispectral techniques in an application of remote sensing to deter- mine the impact on the Great Lakes of pollutants resulting from sur- rounding land use practices. This is part of a larger joint effort between the United States and Canada to assess and improve water quality in all the Great Lakes. Remote-sensing methods can also be used to infer chlorophyll and sediment concentrations and Secchi depth in marine and fresh waters. Knowledge of these factors and the pressure of algal blooms is important in studies concerned with eutrophication and productivity as well as pollution. In addition to the use of multispectral scanners for this pur- pose, active laser systems have been demonstrated in which the laser energy is used to excite algae and phytoplankton causing them to fluoresce. Similar laser applications are being investigated to determine sediment, salinity, and temperature distributions. In addition to remote sensing, NASA has demonstrated satellite data acquisition and retransmission as a link in Data Collective Systems (DCS). DCS consists of a data collection platform located on the surface containing a transmitter and an antenna to which a number of in situ sensors are linked. The in situ sensors are not restricted to the surface; they can be located at various depths and connected to the platform. Satellites on geostationary orbits collect the data from numerous plat- forms and transmit the results to a central data facility. The system can be used with moving platforms, such as drifting buoys and balloons, as well as stationary platforms. This capability is operational on numerous NASA research and development satellites as well as on NOAA opera- tional satellites and has been used by ACE. DOI (USGS), and numerous other Federal and non-Federal organizations. NOAA field scientists and engineers are working with the NOAA/NESS and NASA in the development of remote-sensing equip- ment such as multispectral scanners for use in aircraft, or satellites such as Nimbus G. Plans for an intensive development program for these scanners are now in a formative stage. Three "window" experiments have been already conducted by the MESA New York Bight Project Office to compare results with conventionally collected information. 57 Progress has been made by NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories in adapting acoustical equipment for tracking particulate matter such as might be found in sewage sludge. In a Navy project, preliminary design work is being done on an automated pollutant- measuring device that will permit rapid and accurate measurements of a large number of chemicals present in seawater. NEW TECHNIQUES FOR POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL Development programs of a different nature are being conducted by Federal agencies to improve methods of controlling the release of pollu- tants into marine waters or to facilitiate the containment, dispersal, or removal of oil and other hazardous material discharged into the water. The Maritime Administration (MARAD) of the Department of Com- merce administers a program to develop tanker design, construction, and operating criteria needed for the reduction of pollution from ships. MARAD also coordinates port authority efforts to develop shore facilities for the treatment of oily wastes. In addition, MARAD partici- pates actively in various Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) Committees, and other forums that consider research and developmental findings in the negotiations of international standards and agreements. Researchers at the Naval Coastal Systems Laboratory have developed a prototype ultrasonic sewage treatment system. Exciting the sewage system with ultrasonic energy has been found to produce almost com- plete mortality in coliform bacteria. The use of such a system in over- board discharges from ships should significantly reduce their impact on the marine environment. To prevent other forms of pollution from ship operations, the USCG is cooperating with the USN in a joint project to develop high-capacity oil and water separators and impermeable, flexible membranes to avoid mixing ballast water with fluid bulk cargoes. USCG also has developed new testing techniques for pollution abatement and control instrumen- tation. The Oily/Water Separator Testing Laboratory installed in a Coast Guard Test Facility near Mobile, Alabama, was formally activated in February 1976. This laboratory will be the United States principal facility for testing the ability of equipment to satisfy proposed IMCO specifications for oily/water separators and to investigate the influence of test variables on oily/water separator performance. There are a range of other USCG projects continually undergoing modifications that are directed at the prevention of marine pollution, in- cluding such developments as a "fingerprinting" process to facilitate marine pollution enforcement. 58 Laboratory techniques have been developed to analyze dischar^cnl oil and to enable investigators to identify the source of the oil through a fingerprinting process that combines the use of infrared absorption, ultraviolet fluorescence, gas chromatography, and thin film chromatography. While some of the forensic techniques are still in the research and development stage, a major breakthrough occurred in 1975 when evidence obtained from this forensic analysis system was ac- cepted in court to identify a vessel involved in a discharge off Key West. Florida. Less sophisticated forensic analysis equipment, including ultraviolet spectroscopy and then layer chromatography, is being pro- vided to USCG Captains of the Port for rapid field analyses. These analyses could be augmented, if necessary, by more complete analyses of samples given to the USCG Research and Development Center Foren- sic Analysis Laboratory. After an analysis has identified the source of the discharged oil. penalty assessment procedures can be initiated against those responsible for the pollution. 59 OGRAPHIC ITIiriON fN»*»lllfSURCH ^-^•^ Photo Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 60 Chapter V OCEAN ENGINEERING FOR SUBSEA OPERA TIONS The severity of the ocean environment dictates the need for a broad understanding of the various oceanic properties and processes that im- pact, to some degree, on the development of technology to facilitate manned and unmanned subsea operations. Consequently, such develop- ments rely heavily on Government-supported fundamental research. Certain areas of fundamental research, however, are especially perti- nent to undersea operations. For example, the National Science Founda- tion (NSF) is supporting research on the follou'ing: The effects of tem- perature on the geotechnical properties of deep-ocean sediments; the properties of deep-ocean sediments; the properties of buoyancy-induced flows; heat removal and thermal plumes issuing from objects in ther- mally stratified fluids; the turbulent nature of water below the airwater interface; the long-range problems in developing improved acoustic- imaging systems for use in the ocean. The United States Navy (USN) has been involved in a number of geophysical investigations of the ocean bottom, studies of anomalies associated with the gravity field, investigations of sedimentation and bottom processes, and ocean bottom roughness as related to acoustic reverberation or reflection. The Office of Naval Research also supported a study to understand the phenomenon of cable strumming in the hy- drospace environment and provided expertise and advice on acoustic and nonacoustic detection systems for clearance operations in the Suez Canal. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is coordinating a broad multidisciplinary research and engineering study of sediment instability and movement. The study involves several governmental agencies, universities, oil companies, and an electronics firm. It was initiated after earlier investigations had provided tangible evidence that major storms could trigger massive failures in sediments supporting offshore plat- forms and pipelines. During the initial study phase, USGS and university 61 scientists analyzed high-resolution seismic profiles of the Gulf of Mex- ico provided by oil and oil-service companies in order to identify, classify, and map a variety of features indicative of sediment instability and movement. The results of this work have provided the basis for con- tinuing studies of sediments in the Gulf of Mexico and on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. Although a knowledge of environmental conditions is important to undersea operations, the success of these operations must ultimately de- pend on the development and improvement of materials, equipment, and instruments for undersea use as well as on the sound planning of the operations themselves. The development of undersea technology is sup- ported largely by the USN. Coordination of the use of submersibles and habitats by the civil Federal agencies is the responsibility of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NEW MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT As vehicles are designed for deeper and deeper ocean waters, the thickness and the corresponding weight of the pressure hull must be in- creased. This increase in weight results in a significant loss of buoyancy. If the vehicle is to carry out its assigned tasks, supplementary buoyancy must be provided. A number of materials and systems have been in- vestigated to provide supplementary buoyancy, but. because of its ease of handling, safety, and fail-safe characteristics under pressure, syntac- tic foam was selected. Syntactic foam is composed of hollow microspheres embedded in an epoxy matrix. The diameter of these microspheres is on the order of 10 to 150 microns. In order to produce blocks of minimum density, a blend of two distributions of microspheres is used. This blend of a component containing small microspheres with a component containing larger microspheres produces a binary mixture that optimizes the volume oc- cupied by the microspheres in the finished product. Using binary mix- tures, the volume of a syntactic foam block occupied by microspheres is characteristically 72 to 76 percent, depending on the fabrication pro- cedure. The finished product is made by either the vacuum impregnation of a prepacked column of microspheres or by mixing the microspheres directly with the resin under vacuum conditions and then curing the resin component. The strength of the final product depends on the type of resin employed, the percentage of microspheres present, and the den- sity of the microsphere component. The density of syntactic foam for use at depths of 20,000 feet has now been reduced from 42 to 34 pounds per cubic foot. This increase in buoyancy, because of the reduction in space required for foam, has resulted in significant savings in vehicle 62 size. A new. lower cost foam has also been developed, but research is continuing to further reduce foam costs. A number of materials are being tested for use by the USN in submersible hulls and undersea structures. One of these materials, graphite-epoxy, because of its high-strength, low-weight properties, offers the potential for extending operating-depth capabilities without significant payload sacrifice. In a project to evaluate the capacity of graphite-epoxy structures to meet deep-sea requirements, especially built cylindrical models with a SVz-inch-outside diameter were hy- drostatically tested at the Naval Underwater Systems Center. These models satisfactorily met the test pressure requirements, and therefore, newer models with larger diameters are now being fabricated and tested. Although acrylic plastic spherical shell sectors have been widely used for manned submersible windows, they have not been found adequate for precision optical systems because they are subject to large displace- ment and deformation under high hydrostatic pressure. Experiments have, therefore, been undertaken to test shell sectors with 150° spherical angles, fabricated from optical glass, chemically surface-compressed glass or transparent cermaic. The tests indicate that a submersible system equipped with a 150° spherical shell window flange assembly made of a chemically surface-compressed glass or ceramic can operate at any ocean depth. A wide variety of concrete pressure-resistant structures can function successfully at 3,000-foot water depths. In an effort to extend these depths, concrete polymer is being studied as an underwater structural material. It has excellent properties for use in ocean environments because of its impermeability to water, high durability, and compressive strength on the order of 20,000 lb psi. The tests show an operational depth range for positively buoyant concrete polymer spheres of 4,000 feet. Moreover, even though the cost of polymer-strengthened concrete may be three times that of conventional concrete, the structural mem- bers need be only one-third to one-fifth as large as conventional con- crete members, and the increase in durability reduces maintenance re- quirements, making the product cost-effective. The problem of marine fouling on concrete underwater structures has also been investigated. A method has been developed for incorporating toxic chemicals into concrete to protect such structures from the approx- imately 2,000 species of marine foulants. Tests indicate that the antifoul- ing concrete is sufficiently strong for construction in which a com- pressive strength of 3.500 lb psi is acceptable. Several years ago the USN installed a new titanium alloy hull on the submersible Alvin. This hull extended Aivin's working depth from 6.000 to 12,000 feet. Data on the performance of this hull continue to be col- lected for use in the further application of titanium alloys to submersible 63 and submarine construction. One such application, now underway, is the development of a 20.000-foot-depth hull for the USN deep isubmersi- ble vehicle SeacUff. In addition to materials research, the USN ocean-engineering program focuses on the development of new equipment for undersea operation. A major effort of this type is the Remote Unmanned Work System (RUWS) project. RUWS is an unmanned, cable-tethered work system designed to per- form a variety of engineering and scientific tasks at ocean depths ex- tending to 20.000 feet. When operational. RUWS will be capable of in- strument and equipment inspection, recovery, repair, and emplantment. as well as data gathering functions for over 98 percent of the ocean floor. RUWS will be able to maneuver with 4° of freedom, operating in cur- rents of up to 1 knot. Designed to be air transportable, and operable from ships of oppor- tunity, the RUWS will be used either alone or in conjunction with the operations of any USN deep-ocean vehicle. Components can be adapted to the basic RUWS configuration for all aspects of deep-ocean salvage. RUWS includes advanced technology for high-accuracy deep-ocean navigation and local-area bottom search. The navigation system will, for the first time, provide coordinated navigational information to the RUWS operators and the support ship's bridge. The bridge display will indicate the ship's safe maneuvering area, and other displays and record- ers will provide precise bottom mapping data. The RUWS design emphasizes the extension of man's senses to the seafloor site. The simulation of man's presence is accomplished pri- marily through the use of head-coupled television, force feedback from the RUWS manipulator, and the use of integrated displays and controls. RUWS is presently undergoing at-sea testing, evaluation and further development. A recently initiated USN project is directed to the development of a closed cycle internal combustion engine. The goal of the project is to produce a closed system using propane fuel and a Wankel engine for operations requiring more horsepower than is practical with silver zinc batteries but less than the amounts generally obtained from nuclear/steam plants. A bench version of the closed internal combustion engine and a demonstration model have been built. This model is suit- case portable and demonstrates the basic operating principles of the full- scale system. Experimental data to confirm the theoretical analyses were obtained in the USN's SEACON II project. The project represents a milestone in the USN effort to design and construct large and complex underwater cable structures. SEACON II is a three-legged, experimental cable struc- ture installed off the coast of southern California. SEACON II was con- 64 figured and instrumented to measure the response of complex, three- dimensional cable structure to ocean currents and permit the evaluation of structure analysis methods. After 8 months of operation 500 feet below the ocean surface, suspended from the top of the three 4.000-foot- long mooring legs, the structure continued to maintain nearly complete mechanical and electrical integrity. Anchor development is another area of ocean engineering benefitting from recent developments in technology. New propellant-actuated anchors offer distinct advantages over conventional anchors. They resist loads in any direction, are highly efficient, function in any seafloor from soft-clay to basalt, do not require dragging to become embedded, and greatly decrease the size and amount of line, chain, and connective ap- paratus required. Three categories of propellant anchors have been produced. They have, respectively, a 10.000-, 20.000-, and 100.000-pound, nominal, long- term holding capability. The 20.000-pound anchor has been recently fabricated and is still undergoing tests at 12.000- and 18.000-foot depths. The other two categories are used by military organizations, and interest in all three is rapidly spreading to other Government agencies and to in- dustrial firms. In 1975. the value of propellant-actuated anchors was demonstrated when 18 of these anchors were successfully fired into a coral seafloor at the U.S. Naval Communications Station in Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean. The purpose of this operation was to establish two large mooring systems for tankers of from 38,000 to 54,000 dwt. They were used after conventional anchors failed to provide adequate mooring for the tankers, RECOVERY SYSTEMS The development of the Large Object Salvage System (LOSS) will sig- nificantly improve the USN ability to recover objects weighing up to 3,000 long tons from depths down to 850 feet, LOSS will be used to recover surface vessels, submersibles, habitats, missies and weapons, and other objects in that weight range. To achieve this objective, the LOSS project includes the development of rigid pontoons, each capable of providing 100 tons of buoyancy at depths to 850 feet using self-contained gas generation systems. The system will employ various methods of pontoon placement and attach- ment as well as ascent control and remote control from the surface. LOSS components may be combined in various ways to provide flex- ibility of response to a wide variety of operational scenarios. Attachment arms affixed to the pontoon understructure can easily be modified to the desired configuration for each specific operation. These attachment 65 arms, in conjunction with a self-contained gas generation system, will eliminate the need for the large number of airhose and rigging lines re- quired with existing equipment and techniques. The pontoon will be able to be placed on the object by using either conventional rigging techniques or a remote-controlled propulsion system. These new pontoons will be used by fleet salvage forces and will replace the existing 80-ton submarine salvage pontoons. A prototype pontoon with a liquid nitrogen system and a LOSS pro- pulsion system, composed of five 30 hp motors, was tested in the Gulf of Mexico, off Panama City. The test included the successful raising of an 80-ton object from 110 feet of water. Presently two second generation systems designed to salvage 180-ton objects are being fabricated. Dockside testing is being planned for fiscal year 1977. The success of the LOSS system prompted efforts to improve the Navy's ability to recover objects weighing more than 1,000 long tons from depths of 850 to 20,000 feet. These efforts are directed to salvaging, from the lesser depths, submarines, surface ships, and pieces thereof, and from the greater depths, submersibles, habitats, aircraft, missiles, weapons, and essentially any other object in the weight range. To achieve this objective, the Extended Salvage Depth Capability project will develop modular buoyancy units, each capable of providing 5 to 15 long tons of buoyancy to sunken objects at depths to 20,000 feet. These units will be flexible or rigid pressure-compensated pontoons with solid or liquid buoyancy-generation subsystems. Delivery and emplacement subsystems, remote surface control systems, attachment devices, and operational techniques will also be developed. The final system will be used by fleet salvage forces for recovery operations carried out at depths in excess of 850 feet. The system could also be utilized to provide supplemental buoyancy for operations involv- ing LOSS equipment at depths above 850 feet. At present, grappling hooks or lift lines must be used to recover large objects from depths in excess of 1,000 feet. Even though the physical characteristics of the full- scale unit have not yet been fully determined, the first series of tests on the quarter-scale prototype are underway. In 1973, two manned submersibles, the /ohnson-Sea-Link and the Pices III, were involved in accidents calling for emergency undersea rescue. As a result, the USN prepared to plan from among USN research and development resources to provide emergency assistance in case of a submarine or submersible disaster. The initial step in this effort was the preparation of a USN report "In- ventory of Navy Laboratory R&D Equipment Available for Emergency Undersea Operation." This report represents the first attempt to provide in a single volume, a concise listing of USN emergency research and development hardware for submarine rescue or recovery. 66 ACOUSTIC SYSTEMS Precise underwater navigation requires a means of measuring velocity through the water and, if possible, relative to the bottom. The ability to detect and identify underwater objects is also necessary, not only to navigation but also to undersea engineering operations and scientific studies. The most effective means of measuring velocity and detecting and identifying objects are the use of acoustic sensors. The two prime systems currently in use for velocity sensing are the electromagnetic log and the sonic doppler log. The electromagnetic log has hitherto been able to measure only fore- aft velocity relative to the surrounding water. Experimental studies with a flush-mounted, bi-directional sensor on a submarine indicate that the electromagnetic log can and should be adapted to measure athwartships as well as fore-aft velocity. The sonic doppler log now in use senses velocity relative to the bot- tom, but is effective only within 500 feet of the seafloor. An experimen- tal pulse sonic doppler log system tested at the Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center offers the potential for accurate navigation in waters 1.500 feet or more above the bottom. However, the space re- quired for the system and its weight (several hundred pounds) limit its use to longer subsurface vessels. Many USN missions require the detection and positive identification of underwater objects. The development of technology for these pur- poses is the goal of the USN Acoustic Imaging Program. To accomplish this objective, a system is being designed to achieve a recognizable im- age, in turbid water, of a beer can at ranges to 25 feet, anywhere within a 22° by 11° field of view. Larger objects may be imaged at ranges to 150 feet. Pictures will initially be produced at the rate of one every 5 sec- onds. With continued development of the system, it is expected that 30 pictures per second can be produced. The acoustic-imaging system will be installed aboard manned sub- mersibles descending to depths of 12,000 feet. The system will be used in conjunction with a search sonar to provide target identification, similar to a television, but with greater range and less sensitivity to water tur- bidity. As a visual system, it will enable the operators of underwater work systems to see what they are doing, even through the mud turned up by bottom operations. RESEARCH TO SUPPORT DIVER OPERATIONS Until recently, diving scientists, living saturated in oxygen-nitrogen mixtures in habitats on the Continental Shelf, have not had tables to tell them how long they can stay at lower depths without making decompression stops on the way back to the habitat. Such tables have now been developed in a USN/NOAA project. The tables are used in 67 dives to greater depths from habits enplaced 300 to 1.000 feet deep. The developmental work was supported by the Manned Undersea Science and Technology (MUST) office of NOAA. To obtain data for use in preparing the tables, divers descended from the 30-foot-depth level and ascended from 60-. 90-. and 120-foot levels. Maximum descents of 250 feet were made from 90- and 120-foot-depth levels. In these experiments, it was discovered that a diver could go from the 100- to the 200-foot level for 125 minutes without the need for a decompression stop on the way back. Where decompression was re- quired, the project determined the necessary duration and depth levels of the stops. This information is contained in the tables. In a project to improve diver equipment, a new acoustic diver com- munication system is being developed. The standard set for the new communicator is that, at a depth of 1,000 feet, in water temperature ranging from 29° to 100° F, a random word list should be 60-percent in- telligible over a range of 2,000 yards. This standard would assure a high level of intelligibility for phrases and sentences transmitted under the same conditions. The system will provide communication between divers and between swimmers and distant delivery vehicles, sub- marines, and surface craft. The communicator is being designed for easy handling by a SCUBA (swimming) diver. The USN new Ocean Simulation Facility, housing the world's largest hyperbaric chamber complex, is now in full operation. The $12 million facility is certified for testing and evaluating diver and equipment reac- tions to a depth equivalent to 2.250 feet of seawater. Nearly all environ- mental conditions found in the ocean can be simulated under laboratory control at the facility. The core of the facility is the hyperbaric complex that consists of a 55,000-gallon "wet" chamber and five dry chambers, all interconnected, with fully automated closed-circuit life support systems and computer facilities. Another feature is the high-pressure, gas storage bottle field. It is the source of all gas for pneumatic control pressure, life support gases, and chamber-pressurizing gases. The bottle fields have a capacity of about 836,000 standard ft^ of gases. This amount can be augmented dur- ing deep dives by gases from commercial trailers. Located at the Naval Coastal Systems Laboratory in Panama City. Florida, the facility will serve as a national center available to Govern- ment, academic, and industrial laboratories for research, development, testing, and evaluation of systems and hardware used by divers in the ocean environment. SUBMERSIBLE OPERATOR AIDS New materials and equipment including acoustic sensors described earlier in this chapter are important in the development of better sub- 68 mersibles. A submersible opcnator. however, also needs efficient manipulators and tools for undersea operations, more varsatile ballast systems, and improved electrical and signal transmission circuits. An integrated group of underwater tools is being developed in the USN Work Systems Package Project. The tools are to be packaged in a modular system, providing for quick installation. The system will be compatible both structurally and electrically with the manned and un- manned submersibles Sen Cliff. Turt/e. Alvin. Curv III. and RUWS. Moreover, it can be operated by a diver or. remotely, from a surface sup- port ship. The system is capable of completing a full work task without resur- facing. The tool storage box can hold over 15 different tool bits. These bits can be interchanged during underwater operations. A combination of high- and low-velocity reciprocating and rotating motions provide the force for the tool bits to perform their various functions. Support func- tions include sophisticated electronics and power mechanisms. The system will be used in specialized activities concerned with recovery, salvage, research, underwater construction, and other deep-ocean opera- tions. The versatility of the package affords adaptability in operations involving other equipment such as salvage ships, recovery ships, deep- diving equipment, manned or unmanned submersibles. and LOSS. For a deep-diving submersible to operate effectively in the ocean en- vironment, an effective buoyancy control system is needed. The most effective way to compensate for changes in vehicle buoyancy while div- ing is to use seawater in a variable ballast system. A USN project to develop such a system is now underway. This effort, in addition to pro- viding a more flexible and operationally versatile system, is expected to result in information that can be used to improve other hydraulic systems with seawater as the working fluid. The program has been conducted in two phases, the first terminating with a system having a maximum operational depth of 12.000 feet. This was installed in the submersible A]vin and is operating satisfactorily. The second program phase involves the development and testing of a direct seawater-pumping system for operational depths to 20.000 feet. A second phase variable buoyancy system is now in use as a prototype test bed. Plans have been made to utilize it in the evaluation of components and characteristics of other deep-ocean technology systems, such as electric drive mechanisms. The buoyancy system, itself, is also undergo- ing continuing evaluation. Fiber optics technology has become a promising candidate to replace metallic wire conductors in many Navy applications. Technical ad- vances have already resulted in the reduction of signal attenuation in fiber optics from over 1.000 db/km to the recently achieved attenuation factor of under 4 db/km. Current research efforts are aimed at develop- ing a general set of fiber optic components. These would include 69 specialized cables, light sources in electro-optic modules, and photo detector modules. As USN equipment and systems are required to operate in ever-in- creasing depths, electronic circuits are called upon to operate at ever greater pressures. The conventional protection for systems at 20.000-foot depths requires an advanced-technology, pressure bottle design with heavy walls and endbells and special electrical feedthroughs. The high cost of this type of protection and the unreliability of the high-pressure seals have prompted the USN to initiate the Pressure Tolerant Electronics (PTE) program to determine the feasibility of employing solid state circuits in a "wet" environment without pressure protection. PTE circuits can be effectively used on any system operating beneath the sea surface. These liquid-filled, automatically compensated designs are potentially more reliable and easier to fabricate than pressure proof containers, even for shallow depths. The goal of the PTE project is to develop and verify technology for the design of PTE systems. This goal includes the identification of tech- niques for the fabrication of PTE components and the establishment of guidelines and test procedures to guide system designers in the selection of active and passive PTE components and compensating fluids. Since the project was initiated in 1970. hundreds of devices have been tested including most of those likely to be used in PTE systems. MANNED UNDERSEA ACTIVITIES The MUST Office in NOAA has continued its role of supporting civilian undersea operations directed to achieving a better understand- ing, assessment, and use of the marine environment and its resources. MUST supports NOAA investigations involving marine resource and environmental problems for which manned, subsurface observations, and data collection are required. In addition, MUST has continued assessing the civilian Federal agency needs for submersibles and habitats, and it coordinates the use of available commercial and Navy assets by civilian Federal agencies. Such coordination has included the use of available undersea shallow water platforms for scientific projects jointly sponsored by NOAA and other Federal agencies including USGS, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Protection Agency. Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), and Na- tional Aeronautics and Space Administration. In another cooperative effort, the USN, NSF, and NOAA have funded the operation of the deep research submersible Aivin, operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution under the aegis of the University National Oceanographic Laboratory System NOAA supported the use of the Perry Hydrolab near Freeport on Grand Bahama Island in a Bahama Banks Research Program involving 70 over 80 missions, beginning in December 1971 and culminating in a series of deep excursion dives in April 1975. This project used saturation diving, deep-air excursions, and submersible lockout techniques for deep-reef studies of fish corals, algae, and the geology of the reef en- vironment. These studies were done in cooperation with the Smithso- nian Institution and the Harbor Branch Foundation, which sponsored the use of the Johnson Sea-Link lockout research submersible in their programs. In the course of the project, 314 individual saturation dives were made by 212 different individuals, 22 of them women, with a total of 1.682 man-days or over 4-1/2 man-years spent in saturation. NOAA has also sponsored research missions using saturation-diving techniques to determine coral reef ecology; to establish the effects of pollutants on reef metabolism; to provide a means of calibrating and ex- tending the utility of in-situ instrumentation; and to provide a vehicle for international cooperative marine science programs. NOAA, through MUST and Sea Grant Offices, has also cooperated with USN Coastal System Laboratories, Panama City, Florida, in providing support to the training of marine scientists in conjunction with the Scientists-in-the- Sea Program. In 1975. the NOAA Diving Manual was published. It is designed especially for NOAA-sponsored working and scientific divers. The manual addresses, principally, "shallow" water diving, to depths of 300 feet. The NOAA Diving Manual contains the basic information on ap- plied diving technology needed to carry out NOAA's scientific in- vestigations and working tasks. NOAA has also developed standards, operational plans, and safety requirements for using research submersi- bles and has established standards for the use of NOAA recompression facilities and the training and certifying of chamber operators. In addi- tion, NOAA. through the sponsorship of a study by the University of Rhode Island, has been working with the U.S. Coast Guard in developing information on fatal scuba-diving accidents, primarily recreational. Working closely with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), NOAA has been involved in the development of a program concerned with the safety and health of commercial divers. NOAA participated in a task force consisting of representatives from NIOSH, National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), the U.S. Navy, ERDA, U.S. diving contractors, and representatives of diving-related labor unions formed to develop such a program. A "National Plan for the Safety and Health of Divers in Their Quest for Subsea Energy" was pro- duced by the Undersea Medical Society under a contract from NIOSH with additional contract support from ERDA. NHLI. and NOAA. The plan was prepared by over 80 international diving, medical, scientific, and operational experts from diving-related industries, universities, the USN, and foreign countries. 71 NOAA has been involved in a number of cooperative diving programs with other nations; particularly with the United Kingdom. Canada. lapan. France, and West Germany. The latest and most ad- vanced program took place off the coast of Rockport. Massachusetts. This program utilized the West Germany underwater laboratory Helgo- land that was brought to Boston by a Polish fisheries vessel in September 1975. A series of 35 submersible dives had already been made by fish- eries scientists from NOAA's Northeast Fisheries Center using the General Oceanographic's Nekton Beta at the Helgoland dive site and the nearby herring-spawning grounds. 72 APPENDIX A Appendix A consists of the following tables; Table A-1 The Federal Ocean Program Budget, by Department and Independent Agency; Table A-2 The Federal Ocean Program Budget, by Major Purpose Category; and Table A-3 Federal Ocean Program Detail, by Subpurpose and Agen- cy- Table A-1. The Federal Ocean Program Budget, by Department and Independent Agency (Millions of dollars) Estimated by Fiscal Year Department of Agency ■ 1975 1976 TQi 1977 Department of Defense: Military 212.4 Civil works 31.9 Department of Commerce 213.2 National Science Foundation 69.2 Department of Transportation 75.6 Department of the Interior 106.8 Environmental Protection Agency 22.4 Department of State 11-6 Department of Health, Education and Welfare. . . 11.2 Energy Research and Development Administra- tion 12.8 National Aeronautics and Space Administration . 12.5 Smithsonian Institution 2.9 227.4 57.7 241.9 29.2 7.1 32.1 231.1 62.8 250.9 66.7 14.5 75.9 82.1 20.5 93.5 143.6 35.7 157.2 24.3 6.1 25.1 13.2 4.3 15.3 12.2 2.5 12.2 20.1 5.1 21.6 20.0 5.6 28.3 2.6 0.7 2.6 TOTAL 782.5 872.5 222.9 956.6 1 Transitional quarter. 73 Table A-2. The Federal Ocean Program Budget by Major Purpose Category (Millions of dollars) Major Purpose Estimated by Fiscal Year 1975 1976 TQi 1977 International Cooperation and Collaboration 11.7 13.3 4.3 15.4 National Security 93.0 98.9 24.8 97.3 Living Resources 113.7 127.5 31.0 138.3 Transportation . 37.9 32.5 7.2 36.8 Development and Conservation of the Coastal Zone 116.5 125.7 30.5 138.5 Nonliving Resources 82.9 118.6 27.4 129.3 Oceanographic Research 124.1 128.9 36.4 144.8 Education 11.3 11.3 4.8 11.4 Environmental Observation and Prediction 35.2 39.0 11.1 41.6 Ocean Exploration, Mapping. Charting and Geodesy 99.4 108.9 27.1 123.2 General Purpose Ocean Engineering 40.9 52.7 14.9 64.0 National Centers and Facilities 15.9 15.2 3.4 16.0 TOTAL 782.5 872.5 222.9 956.6 1 Transitional quarter. 74 Table A-3 Federal Ocean Program Detail, by Subpurpose and Agency (Millions of dollars) Sub[nirpose and Agency I'lstimated by Fiscal Year 1975 1976 TQi 1977 International Cooperation and Collaboration: .... 11.7 13.3 4.3 15.4 Marine-Related Activities of International Organizations: 7.1 8.1 2.3 9.2 Department of State (7.0) (8.0) (2.3) (9.1) National Science Foundation (0.1) (0.1) (0.0) (0.1) International Fisheries (Department of State) 4.1 4.7 2.0 5.5 Assistance to Developing Nations (Agency) for International Development 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.7 National Security: 93.0 97.9 24.8 97.3 Defense Oriented Surveys and Services (Department of Defense— Military) 25.7 24.9 6.2 25.0 Marine Science Support for Defense Systems (Department of Defense — Military) 48.4 51.6 13.0 50.8 Ocean Engineering for Defense Purposes. . . . 18.9 22.4 5.6 21.5 Living Resources 113.7 127.5 '.0 138.3 Fishery Resources Assessment, Development and Management (Department of Commerce) 48.9 54.2 13.4 60.1 Technical and Economic Assistance to the Commercial Fishing Industry (Department of Commerce) 7.9 7.9 1.9 7.8 Protection of Endangered Species. Marine Mammals Research (Department of Commerce) 2.4 4.0 0.9 5.3 Health. Sanitation, Contaminants, and Inspection: 6.3 7.0 1.6 7.2 Department of Commerce (1.0) (1.0) (0.2) (1.0) Department of Health, Education and Welfare (5.3) (6.0) (1.4) (6.2) Enforcement of Fisheries Treaties: 42.3 48.2 12.1 51.9 Department of Commerce (2.2) (2.1) (0.6) (2.2) Department of Transportation2 (40.1) (46.1) (11.5) (49.7) Use of Marine Life in Biomedical Research (Department of Health Education and Welfare) 5.9 6.2 1.1 6.0 ' Transitional quarter •i The Department of Transportation (DOT) actual marine science budget. OS reported in accordance with P.L. 89-454. The subtotals are as follows: FY1975. 15.2; FY1976. 17.7; FY1977. 18.9. 75 Table A-3 Federal Ocean Program Detail, by Subpurpose and Agency — Continued Department of Agency Estimated by Fiscal Year 1975 1976 TQi 1977 Transportation: 37.9 32.5 7.2 36.8 Maritime Science and Technology Advanced Ship Engineering Develop- 7.3 1.2 6.3 0.3 0.0 0,7 5.9 1.5 6.0 4.3 2.2 5.2 (2.3) (1.6) (2.8) (2.0) (0.6) (2.4) ment (Department of Commerce) 12.3 9.9 1.2 9.7 Shipping Economics and Requirements: Improvement in Ship Operations and Shipping Systems (Department of Commerce) 1 .7 Port Development (Department of Commerce) 0.3 Channel and Harbor Improvement (Depart- ment of Defense — Civil) 6.3 Aids to Navigation: 3.9 Department of Commerce (2.3) Department of Transportation^ (1.6) Merchant Marine Safety: Search and Rescue (Department of Transportation)^ . . 7.4 4.8 1.1 8.9 Development and Conservation of the Coastal Zone: 116.5 125.7 30.5 138.5 Marine Pollution Abatement and Control:. . . Water Quality Enhancement Standards, and Criteria: Department of Defense — Civil Department of Commerce Department of Interior Environmental Protection Agency Control and Removal of Pollutants: Department of Defense — Civil Department of Transportation^ Environmental Protection Agency Surveillance and Regulatory Activities: Department of Defense — Civil Department of Transportationz Environmental Protection Agency Conservation and Recreation Conservation of Marine Locales, Gamefish and Wildlife (Department of Interior) Planning and Development of Marine Areas for Recreation (Department of Interior) Boating Safety (Department of Transpor- tation)2 76 41.8 47.1 12.0 52.5 17.5 19.9 4.9 19.5 (0.6) (1.2) (0.3) (1.5) (2.0) (2.2) (0.5) (2.4) (0.7) (0.8) (0.2) (0.8) (14.2) (15.7) (3.9) (14.8) 13.0 8.9 2.7 15.6 (3.1) (2.7) (0.7) (3.0) (7.0) (2.9) (1.1) (7.8) (2.9) (3.3) (0.9) (4.8) 11.3 18.3 4.4 17.4 (3.0) (6.0) (1.5) (8.0) (3.0) (7.0) (1.6) (3.9) (5.3) (5.3) (1.3) (5.5) 40.7 46.3 11.6 48.3 (18.5) (21.9) (5.5) (22.0) (12.4) (13.4) (3.4) (14.6) (1.3) (1.6) (0.3) (1.9) Table A-3 Federal Ocean Program Detail, by Subpurpose and Agency — Continued Department of Agency Estimated by Fiscal Year 1975 1976 TQi 1977 32.:) 6.9 37.7 (2.7) (0.4) (2.5) (27.9) (6.3) (34.5) (1.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.7) (0.2) (0.7) Small Craft Harbor Development (De- partment of Defense— Civil) (4.0) (3.6) (0.9) (3.8) Beach and Shore Stabilization: Hurricane Storm Surj^e Protection (Department of Defense— Civil) (4.5) (5.8) (1.5) (6.0) Regional Environmental Systems Research (Chesapeake and San Francisco Bays; N.Y. Bight; Great Lakes Coastal Zone Management. Etc.): 34.0 Department of Defense — Civil (9.0) Department of Commerce (22.6) National Science Foundation (1.7) Smithsonian Institution (0.7) NonLiving Resources 82.9 118.6 27.4 129.3 Appraisal of Minerals. Fossil Fuels. Sand, and Gravel: 15.3 14.3 3.2 13.2 Department of Defense— Civil (0.1) (0.1) (0.0) (0.1) Department of Interior (15.2) (14.2) (3.2) (13.1) OCS Environmental Assessment. Leasing, and Management: 60.5 93.6 22.3 107.7 Department of Interior (53.9) (86.5) (21.7) (99.8) Department of Commerce (6.6) (7.1) (0.6) (7.9) Environmental Impact of Mining (Department of Commerce) 1.0 3.9 0.2 1.5 Development and Protection of Fresh Water Supplies (Department of Interior) 6.1 6.8 1.7 6.9 Oceanographic Research: 124.1 128.9 36.4 144.8 Energy Research and Development Administration 9.4 Department of Defense — Military 27.7 Department of Commerce 19.5 Department of Transportation^ 0.2 National Science Foundation 65.7 Smithsonian Institution 1.6 ' Transitional quarter - The Department of Transportation (DOT) actual marine science budget. OS reported in accordance with P.L. 89-454. The subtotals are as follows: FY1975. 15.2; FY1976. 17.7; FY1977. 18.9. 10.5 2.6 10.9 31.8 8.1 36.7 19.8 10.8 20.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 65.0 14.4 75.2 1.6 0.4 1.6 77 Table A-3 Federal Ocean Program Detail, by Subpurpose and Agency — Continued Estimated by Fiscal Year Department of Agency 1975 1976 TQi 1977 5.8 5.8 3.4 5.8 4.5 4.6 1.2 4.6 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.6 35.2 39.0 11.1 41.6 32.1 35.0 10.4 37.3 (9.9) (9.8) (2.5) (9.8) (1.3) (1.2) (0.3) (1.2) (15.3) (14.8) (5.3) (16.5) (5.6) (9.2) (2.3) (9.8) 3.1 4.0 0.7 4.3 (0.5) (0.4) (0.1) (0.4) (2.6) (3.6) (0.6) (3.9) Education: 11.3 11.3 4.8 11.4 Department of Commerce Department of Defense— Military Department of Transportation- National Science Foundation Environmental Observation & Prediction: .... Data Acquisition, Processing and Dissemination: Department of Defense— Military . . . Department of Defense — Civil Department of Commerce Department of Transportation^ Model Studies and Development: Energy Research and Develop- ment Administration Department of Commerce Ocean Exploration, Mapping, Charting and Geodesy: 99.4 108.9 27.1 123.2 Nautical Charts: Department of Commerce Department of Defense — Military . . . Coastal Mapping: Department of Commerce Department of Defense — Military . . . Geophysical Mapping (Department of Defense— Military) 15.4 14.7 4.1 15.3 General Purpose Ocean Engineering: 40.9 52.7 14.9 64.0 Systems Development (Satellite, Aircraft, and other Sensor and Instrument Development): 20.9 26.8 8.2 36.8 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (12.5) Department of Commerce (8.4) Data Buoy Systems (Department of Commerce) 7.5 Deep-Ocean Technology (Department of Defense — Military) 7.6 Manned Undersea Technology (Department of Commerce) 1.0 Powerplant Sitings; Nuclear Power Sources (Energy Researcti and Development Ad- ministration) 0.8 1.1 0.3 1.1 65.5 71.4 18.0 84.0 (22.8) (24.3) (6.1) (26.3) (42.7) (47.1) (11.9) (57.7) 18.5 22.8 5.0 23.9 (6.9) (10.3) (1.9) (11.4) (11.6) (12.5) (3.1) (12.5) (20.0) (6.8) (5.6) (2.6) (28.3) (8.5) 1.7 1.8 7.8 8.0 2.0 8.0 1.0 0.2 1.1 78 Table A-3 Federal Ocean Program Detail, by Subpurpose and Agency — Continued ,^ . . f A Estimated by Fiscal Year Department of Agency 1975 1976 TQi 1977 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: 3.0 8.1 2.4 9.2 National Science Foundation (1.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) Energy Research and Development Ad- ministration (2.0) (8.1) (2.4) (9.2) National Centers and Facilities 15.9 15.2 3.4 16.0 National Oceanographic Data Center (De- partment of Commerce) 3.5 3.9 0.9 4.1 National Climatic Center (Department of Commerce) 0.6 0.7 0.1 0.7 Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center (Smithsonian Institution) 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.3 Mediterranean Marine Sorting Center (Smithsonian Institution) 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 National Oceanographic Instrumentation Center (Department of Commerce) 2.1 2.3 0.5 2.5 Polar Icebreakers (Department of Transportation^) 7.6 7.0 1.8 7.4 International Ice Patrol (Department of Transportation^) 1.5 i.o 0.0 1.0 1 Transitional quarter 2 The Department of Transportation (DOT) actual marine science budget, OS reported in accordance with P.L. 89-454. The subtotals are as follows: FY1975, 15.2; FY1976, 17.7; FY1977. 18.9. Commencing with this report, only these four categoreis and their totals should be construed as the DOT marine science budget. Effective with the 1976 and subsequent an- nual Federal Ocean Program reports, budgetary and narrative information reported by DOT will reflect this modification. The information on the categories to be excluded is provided in this year's report solely to reconcile the new budget format with the budget tables published in previous years. This modification has been made in order that the DOT marine science program, as a primary support for its own myriad missions and as a secondary support for the needs of other agencies, is more clearly defined. 79 APPENDIX B— THE NATIONAL SEA GRANT PROGRAM The National Sea Grant Program cooperates with State and local governments, academic institutions, and industry for the purpose of fostering marine resource development, technology, environmental research, education and training, and advisory services. These broad programs are organized to function under several interlocking activities each with the following specific goals: • Marine Resources Development and Utilization — To assist and ac- celerate the development of new marine business and increase the efficiency of existing industry through research, engineering, and assessment of socio-economic and legal implications relating to the propagation, utilization, and management of specific living-marine resources and their products, mineral resources including fuels, and recreation. • Socio-economic and Legal Studies — To acquire information and develop appropriate evaluation and study techniques for the iden- tification and assessment of relevant economic factors over specific areas in the coastal zone, the investigation of basic institu- tional establishments, review of legal requirements, and develop- ment of new legal concepts. • Marine Technology — To facilitate through engineering the development of new industry and the improvement of the general efficiency and productivity of existing industry; to better man's ability to operate in the marine environment; and to help control and correct the adverse effects of natural forces and man's ac- tivities on the coastal zone and its marine resources. • Marine Environmental Research — To develop through research the basic knowledge needed both to formulate coastal zone management plans and to assist coastal zone managers in making sound decisions for assuring an optimum mix of development, con- servation, and management of the coastal environment and its marine resources. 80 • Murine Education and Training — To educate and train the specialized manpower needed to meet national marine objectives, with due prudence to avoid an excess supply of manpower in fields presently, or potentially containing adequate supply. • Marine Advisory Service — To organize an integrated program of marine advisory and extension services so that scientific and tech- nical research results may be communicated most expeditiously to the research community. During its relatively short lifetime. Sea Grant has grown from a program of $5.0 million in FY 1968 to $23.5 million in FY 1976 (see table B-1). Over 2.500 professionals and graduate students from more than 150 institutions are engaged in about 700 different projects, while more than 5,800 students are enrolled in Sea Grant programs, and about 200 com- panies are affiliated with Sea Grant. Twelve institutions have thus far earned the designation "Sea Grant College." Sea Grant Colleges Massachusetts Institute of Technology State University of New York/Cornell State University System Florida University of North Carolina Texas A&M University University of Hawaii University of Rhode Island University of Washington University of California University of Wisconsin University of Delaware Oregon University Table B-1. Type and Number of Grants Under the National Sea Grant Program TYPE OF GRANT Project Grants Coherent Area Institutional Total FY75 25 10 21 56 NUMBER OF GRANTS FY76 22 12 24 58 TQi 6 6 11 23 81 Table B-2. Expenditures by Major Topic and Fiscal Year (Thousands of dollars) jopic FY 1975 FY 1976 TQ (actual) (actual) (actual) Marine resources development Marine socio-economics and legal research Marine technology research and development Marine environmental research Marine education and training Advisory services Program management and development Total 21,707 FY 1977 (estimate) 5.924 5,029 3,038 5,628 1,210 1,336 741 2.874 2,718 2,685 1.665 3.640 3,488 3,807 1,941 1.402 1.342 1,960 916 2.201 4,526 5.567 3,060 7.223 2,499 2,906 1.758 3,527 23,290 13.119 26.495 Table B-3. Sea Grant Expenditures by State and Institution for Fiscal Years 1976 and 197T1 (thousands of dollars) State or Territory Institution Fiscal Year Alaska University of Alaska Arizona University of Arizona California Humboldt State University University of California, San Diego University of Southern California Stanford University Connecticut University of Connecticut Delaware University of Delaware Florida State University System of Florida University of Miami Georgia University of Georgia Hawaii University of Hawaii Oceanic Institute Idaho University of Idaho Louisiana Louisiana State University Maine Maine Department of Marine Resources University of Maine Maryland University of Maryland Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 1976 TQ 559 33 125 1,880 2,120 436 492 327 100 48 10 781 400 995 336 307 583 582 1,394 1,356 155 10 26 700 720 75 825 75 28 999 1,159 425 421 82 Table B-3. Sea Grant Expenditures by State and Institution for Fiscal Years 1976 and 197T1 (thousands of dollars) State or Territory institution Fiscal Y ear 1976 TQ Michigan University of Michigan 465 383 Minnesota University of Minnesota 65 Mississippi Mississippi-Alabama Sea Cran t Consortium 575 New Hampshire University of New Hampshire 43 8 New Jersey New Jersey Marine Science Consorti ium 220 New York Columbia University 37 State University of New York and C iornell University 1.188 SNAME 24 North Carolina University of North Carolina 835 Oklahoma University of Oklahoma 90 Oregon Oregon State University 2.108 1.142 Rhode Island University of Rhode Island 1.716 561 South Carolina Marine Resources Center 360 373 Texas Texas A&M University University of Texas Austin 1.999 1.318 6 Virginia Washington Wisconsin District of Columbia American Samoa University of Texas Marine Science Institute Virginia Institute of Marine Science Virginia Polytechnic Institute University of Washington University of Wisconsin National Fisheries Institute University of Guam College of American Samoa 426 94 1.565 1.131 20 47 314 1,225 Trust territories Marine Resources Division of the Pacific 55 66 83 APPENDIX C. STATUS OF THE FEDERALLY SUPPORTED FLEET Table C-1 summarizes Federal fleet size and funding over a 4-year period extending from fiscal year 1974 through fiscal year 1977. This ta- ble also reflects a decision by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to reduce its input to the list of federally supported ships to those three that are specifically related to its redefined role in the Federal Ocean Program (see footnote. - appendix A-3). Following this action by USCG. the cur- rent Federal fleet now numbers 73 ships. An additional net reduction of four ships is also seen between 1975 and 1977. reflecting an insufficient growth in funding to meet rising operating costs. This is particularly notable between 1975 and 1976 when funding increased only 2.5 per- cent. The larger increase of 14.7 percent between 1976 and 1977 more nearly sustains a constant level fleet, although the academic and Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) fleets each show a decline of one ship, offset only in part by a one-ship increase in the Navy component of the Federal fleet. Thus, although the overall fleet support picture shows a more encouraging trend at the end of this report period, funding problems have persisted throughout. Table C-1. Changes in Federal Fleet Size and Funding, Fiscal Years 1974 through 1977 FY 1974 FY 1975 FY 1976 FY 1977 (acti ual) (atl lual) (esti mated) (esiM Tial led) No. of Funding No of Funding No 0 f Funding No 0 f Funding operating (millions operating (millions operati "K (millions operati "K (millions Agency ships iif dollars] ships of dollars) ship? 1 c if dollars) ships of dollars) - . , 31 18.20 30 19.17 29 2009 28 21.89 NOAA . . . . 19 16.90 24 27.33 24 29.88 23 33.89 USN 16 27.97 14 31.51 12 30.11 13 38.14 NSF 1 1 30 1 1 30 1 1 30 1 1 71 USCG 3 1(7) 3.42 (1390) 3 (7) 361 (12.20) 3 (6) 3 33 (1330) 3 3.53 USGS 2 .60 2 1 00 2 1 30 2 160 ERDA , , , 2 .12 3 49 3 55 3 .67 Total 74 6851 77 8441 74 86.57 73 101 43 • Figures reported i n parentheses are from the Apri 1 1975 Fedei :al Ocean Program. 84 C3f the three major components of the Federal fleet (academic, NOAA. and United States Navy), the academic ships showed the least gain in operating support from fiscal year 1976 to 1977 and also for the total 3-year period reported here; NOAA made the greatest overall gains both in funding and fleet size; and USN. having lost ground between 1974 and 1976. shows a significant recovery in 1977. In both 1976 and 1977. the USN has committed funds (shown in table C-2 but not in C-1) for the conversion of Concidci Mail, which will enter service late in fiscal year 1977 as a replacement for Michelson and for use on deep-ocean sur- veys in the Atlantic. The academic fleet declined to 28 ships in fiscal 1977 because of the early retirement of Agassiz, but a replacement is now under construc- tion. The count of academic ships is expected to return to 29 during fis- cal 1978. However, unless support funds show a more substantial in- crease than in fiscal 1977 (about 8 percent), some ships will operate at less than an optimal utilization level. Table C-2. Agency Lists of Federally Supported Oceanographic Ships Year Ship Built U.S. Navy-Oceano- graphic Ships: Canada Mail (c) 1965 Michelson(c) 1944 Bowditch(c) 1944 Dulton(c) 1944 Chauv3net 1969 Harkness 1969 Wilkrs 1971 Wyman 1971 Bent 1965 Kane 1967 Mizar(c) 1957 Hayes 1971 Lynch 1965 Barllell 1969 Desteiguer 1969 NOAA Fleet: Atlantic Marine Center: Researcher 1970 Ml Mitchell 1967 Peirce... 1963 Whiting 1963 Oregon II 1967 George E. Keliz(c) 1944 Albatross IV 1962 Delaware 11 1968 Ferrel 1968 Rude, Heck 1966 George M. Bowers 19SS Berths Length Funding in thousands FY 75 FY 76 FY Operational Status 564 0 1(2413) 1(11071) — — PTO' 454 2749 0 0 PTO POS POS 454 3608 3585 5825 FTO PTO- PTOJ 454 3221 4861 4157 FTO PTOi PT02 393 3030 2774 3624 FTO FTO FTO 393 3237 3062 3530 FTO PTO* FTO 285 2210 2254 2891 FTO PTO* FTO 286 2015 2230 3530 PT05 PTOS FTO 285 2082 2097 2781 PTO« FTO FTO 285 2006 2208 2705 FTO FTO FTO 266 1543 0 0 PTO' POS' POS' 246 1349 2700 3000 PTO« FTO PTO« 208 1430 1400 2015 FTO FTO FTO 208 1484 1506 2073 FTO FTO FTO 208 1545 1436 2004 FTO FTO FTO 278 1774 2009 2402 FTCJ FTO FTO 231 1477 1820 1962 FTO FTO FTO 164 914 966 1136 FTO FTO FTO 163 824 1034 1058 FTO FTO FTO 170 420 632 835 FTO FTO FTO 177 900 715 775 FTO FTO FTO 187 704 1023 1041 FTO FTO FTO 156 470 648 864 PTO FTO FTO 133 530 464 556 FTO FTO FTO 90 560 597 707 FTO FTO FTO 74 111 lOH 0 rn > [■•■I( ) POS» 1 Into service last quarter FY 1977. KY 1976 and 1977 funding primarily for conversion. 2 Major casualty repairs. J 10-year extended life overhaul. Now being operated by Argentina as the Islas Orcadas under bilateral agreement. Funding cited is the NSF contribution LEGEND: (c) — converted FTO — full time operation PTO — part time operation TOS — temporarily out of service POS — permanently out of service SIO — Scripps Institution of Oceanography LOGO — Lamont Doherty Geological Observatory Columbia OSU — Oregon State University URI — University of Rhode Island use — University of Southern California WHOI — Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 87