/7 SS- SL ' En 8 Federal Plan for Environmental Data Buoys FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION .T* .y*WTOFCo o c \ / U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE • Nation *^res o« •" FISCAL YEAR 1975 nic and Atmospheric Administration FEDERAL COORDINATOR Clayton E. Jensen INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE FOR MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION Robert C. Junghans , Acting Chairman ROBERT C. JUNGHANS Department of Commerce CDR. C. G. IVEY, JR. Department of Defense ROBERT SCHOEN Department of the Interior HENRY S. ANDERSEN Department of State CAPT. R. J. KNAPP Department of Transportation WILLIAM 0. FORSTER Atomic Energy Commission BRIG. GEN. JAMES L. KELLY Army Corps of Engineers CDR. WILLIAM R, WILLIS B. FOSTER Environmental Protection Agency MORRIS TEPPER National Aeronautics and Space Administration ALBERT P. CRARY National Science Foundation RICHARD S. HO UB RICK Smithsonian Institution DR. JAMES REISA Council on Environmental Quality JOHN J. CAREY (OBSERVER) Office of Management and Budget CURTIS, Secretary SUB-GROUP ON BUOYS William M. Nicholson, Chairman H. S. MOORE Department of Commerce DENZIL PAULI Department of Defense CDR. JOHN W. DUENZL Department of Transportation T. W. MUSSER Environmental Protection Agency ROBERT C. LANDIS, Secretary DR. MARTIN J. SWETNICK National Aeronautics and Space Administration ROBERT DEVEREUX National Science Foundation ERNANI MENEZ Smithsonian Institution For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402. Price $1.00 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION FEDERAL PLAN FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DATA BUOYS >» a o u 8 Rockville, Md, November 1974 G FOREWORD This Plan places environmental data buoys in perspective as essential elements complementary to ships, aircraft and satellites in a marine environ- mental monitoring system which supports warnings, assessment and prediction services, and oceanic research, These activities serve oceanic areas and coastal communities in the interests of safety of life and property, efficiency of operation, economic development, and energy transportation and exploration with due regard for environmental preservation and enhancement. This Plan does not include certain classified military requirements for environmental data buoys. These needs are being addressed in a supplemental plan to be prepared by the Department of Defense. The importance of environmental data buoys in marine monitoring has been specifically recognized in a series of national reports dating to the 1959 National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Oceanography (NASCO) report: Oceanography 1960 to 19 70. A second NASCO report, Oceanography 1966, recommended environmental data collection by automatic telemetering buoys and called for development efforts. The Ocean Engineering Panel of the Interagency Committee on Oceanography in 1966 and its successor Committee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities in 1967 recommended a National Data Buoy Development Project within the Department of Transportation, and this recommendation was implemented. The President's Commission on Marine Sciences, Engineering, and Resources in its Report Our Nation and the Sea called for the development of a pilot buoy network as one of six national projects. With the implementation of the President's Reorganization Plan No. 4, the National Data Buoy Development Project was transferred to NOAA and subsequently designated to be a focus for not only national buoy technological development but also data buoy applications in operations and research as part of a basic marine observations program. Three major planning activities related to Federal data buoy systems are discussed: support of monitoring, forecast, and warning services; support of scientific research; and development of buoy technology. The fiscal data presented are FY 74 spending and those amounts requested by the President for FY 75. Post-19 75 activity is mentioned for planning purposes only — and does not represent a commitment in scheduling or funding. This Plan was prepared by the Interagency Committee for Marine Environ- mental Prediction (ICMAREP) . Agencies represented on this Committee include the Departments of Commerce, Defense, the Interior, and Transportation; the Environmental Protection Agency; National Aeronautics and Space Administration; the National Science Foundation; and the Smithsonian Institution Claytqln E. \eprsen Federal Coordinator for Marine Environmental Prediction n TABLE OF CONTENTS Page FOREWORD ii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES-1 I. INTRODUCTION 1 Perspective of the Oceans and Atmosphere 1 Compensation for Loss of Ocean Station Vessels: 4 Moored Data Buoys Environmental Data Buoy Development 5 Data Management 9 II. FEDERAL PLANNING OF BUOYS FOR BASIC MONITORING, IN SUPPORT OF FORECASTING, WARNING, AND ASSESSMENT SERVICES 11 III. FEDERAL PLANNING OF BUOYS FOR SPECIALIZED MONITORING IN SUPPORT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 18 IV. FEDERAL PLANNING FOR DATA BUOY TECHNOLOGY 23 Annex A - Federal Agencies' Budgeting for Data Buoys 30 in Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation http://www.archive.org/details/federalplanforenOOunit EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Man's increasing dependence on the ocean for energy, minerals, food, transportation and recreation, requires new and improved forecast and warning services if this potential is to be realized with due concern for safety and maintaining marine environmental quality. The effectiveness of environmental service programs to meet this challenge is being limited by the lack of adequate oceanic observations. The present oceanic monitoring system is a mix of many elements involving satellites, cooperative ships, aircraft and buoys. Satellites make possible the routine global monitoring of the atmosphere down to the sea surface. Satellite-borne sensors provide cloud imagery, vertical temperature soundings of the atmosphere and in cloud- free areas, sea surface temperatures, sea ice distribution and certain gross features of the sea surface conditions. Cooperative ships obtain surface meteorological observations, sea surface temperatures and sea-state conditions. These observations are available on an irregular basis as they are taken only while the vessels are at sea. Moreover, the area coverage is restricted since the data are acquired only over established shipping lanes. Severe weather conditions which are of great importance in ocean forecast and monitoring are usually avoidec by ships. Air- craft provide high resolution information of sea surface temperature and some additional features of ocean conditions over areas that are limited by air- craft range. Buoys are supplying surface meteorological observations and limited surface and subsurface oceanographic data under all weather conditions. There is a need to fill certain existing gaps in oceanic monitoring. Routine surface and subsurface observations from key areas in the ocean are essential for providing the time-series measurements that are basic to warnings, forecasts, climate studies and research. The environmental data buoy represents a ready technological opportunity to enhance ocean monitoring capability and make available additional information to support the rational development of the ocean and its resources. This plan represents a phased schedule for the deployment of 36 environmental data buoys. These include the purchase of new buoys and the retro-fitting of 6 existing deep ocean buoys with improved payload systems currently in inventory. Based on national needs, buoys are to be positioned in the following priority areas: the Gulf of Alaska, off the east and west coasts of the United States, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. For the first phase, six new prototype buoys will be emplaced in the Gulf of Alaska and northeast Pacific Ocean for operational use. The succeeding phases of the plan will be implemented as funding will permit. Included also are details of the technological development effort that will be pursued to achieve optimum capability and reliability of buoy systems and components. Three areas of buoy application are discussed. They are: • Buoys for basic monitoring to support forecasting, warning, and assessment services. ES-1 ES-2 • • Buoys for specialized monitoring to support climate studies and other scientific research. Buoy technology development. BUOYS FOR BASIC MONITORING The functions of monitoring, predicting, warning, and assessing are all interrelated. Monitoring, however, underpins all other functions for without data, the prediction, warning, and assessment of environmental conditions would not be possible. Key areas with representative locations (see accompanying figure) for buoy deployment have been identified to support improved warning, forecast, and assessment services in four critical areas; the Gulf of Alaska and northeast Pacific Ocean; the east coast of the United States, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. Shortages of oil and other essential resources have focused increased activity in the oceanic environment. As a result, first priority in the deployment of buoys is being accorded to the Gulf of Alaska and northeast Pacific where additional monitoring is vitally needed to support the many activities there including the transportation of energy resources over the marine leg of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. Information supplied by these buoys will also provide the first opportunity to delineate the magnitude and intensity of eastward moving Pacific weather systems and result in more timely dissemination of warnings and forecasts of hazardous oceanic phenomenon affecting this area. The data will also permit more detailed forecasts of environmental conditions at port terminals to minimize the possibility of catastrophic oil and other hazardous spills resulting from grounding or collision, and to support other shipping and recreational activities. In addition buoy systems will ultimately be used for assessing long-term trends in environmental quality. The east coast of the United States is constantly exposed to destructive oceanic storms and related oceanographic phenomena. Positioning of buoys in strategic locations off the east coast will provide oceanographic and meteorological data that can be used in detailed forecast models to provide more accurate short-range (0-6 hours) forecasts of the intensity and landfall of hurricanes and other storms as well as early warnings of storm surge and other destructive oceanic conditions. In addition these data will also be used to improve the accuracy of longer range (12-36 hours) forecasts. Undetected winter storms which in the past have paralyzed major cities in the northeast with heavy snowfalls can now be observed in their incipient stages over the ocean and warnings issued for appropriate and timely community response. The Gulf of Mexico represents an important area for the production of energy and food. In addition to its vulnerability to hurricanes from the Caribbean, it can also generate storms of destructive proportion that not only threaten waterborne activities, but also substantial portions of the southern U.S. and adjacent offshore areas. The deployment of buoys in the Gulf will provide the environmental information needed to upgrade oceanic warning and forecast services and permit the eventual monitoring of environmental quality ES-3 trends so that the delicate balance between energy production, fisheries and recreational activities can be sustained without mutual detriment. The use of buoys in the Great Lakes will provide specific characteristics on lake storms and thereby improve the forecast and warning services to shipping, lakeshore, and marine recreational interests. Moreover these data will identify environmental factors needed by management for hydropower, public water supply, waste disposal and fish productivity. The number of buoys and the deployment configuration shown in the accompanying figure is formulated for planning purposes, on the following principal considerations: • The guiding requirement is for data to support weather forecasting as described above. • Synoptic meteorological systems typically have scales of the order of 2000 km and move at 30 kph. Hurricanes are smaller. Thus, buoy spacings of the order of 500 km, 300-1000 km from shore would monitor these systems and provide 12-36 hour warnings. • Storm tracks and development areas require a concentration in the Gulf of Alaska, the Atlantic Seaboard, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico as described above. • Buoy deployments are not planned at existing ocean weather stations (i.e. HOTEL and PAPA) . BUOYS FOR SPECIALIZED MONITORING Environmental data buoys offer an economical partial compensation for the loss of ocean station vessels for making sustained time-series observations needed to obtain a better understanding of the various dynamic processes involved in air-sea interactions. Such understanding is essential for extending the accuracy and range of environmental forecasts and for assessing the role of the ocean in producing climatic fluctuations. The use of environmental data buoys is being planned in several major experiments. The North Pacific Experiment is a large-scale air-sea interaction study being conducted in the North Pacific. Moored and drifting buoys are being developed to obtain comprehensive information on surface meteorological and oceanographic conditions and sub-surface thermal structures to determine the influence of the ocean on seasonal weather and climate change. The ocean as a vast reservoir of heat exerts a profound influence upon the earth's weather and climate. Due to internal forces, large oceanic thermal anomalies form which, because of their persistence produce economically significant departures from normal weather conditions. In order to achieve a capability for predicting the onset and duration of these climate variations, concurrent surface and sub-surface meteorological and oceanographic observa- tions must be made to detect the evolution of these thermal anomalies and to monitor their complete life cycle. Environmental data buoys represent a viable platform for acquiring such data. Designing of the National Climate Program is ES-4 in progress at the time of publication of this Plan; it is too early to specify the detailed requirements for buoy systems at present. The Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment is designed to establish the dynamics and statistics of meso-scale eddies, their energy sources, and their role in general ocean circulation. Moored and drifting buoys are being used in this experiment for measuring ocean currents as well as standard surface and sub- surface parameters. The GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment entails a comprehensive study of the structure and evolution of weather systems in the tropics to ascertain their effect on the behavior of the global atmosphere. Buoys were used during the field phase of the Experiment in mid-1974 to obtain temperature, salinity, and ocean current data as well as surface meteorological observations. A Polar Experiment is being planned to study the effects of polar regions in the formations of major weather systems. The Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment is being conducted to relate sea-ice dynamics and ice deformation to wind and current stresses and to obtain further knowledge of the heat budget of the Arctic Ocean. The Antarctic Circumpolar Experiment is one of a series of experiments to use the southern ocean as a laboratory to monitor and study large scale dynamics and interactions between the ocean and atmosphere. In these experiments specially constructed buoys will be used as free drifters in polar waters to measure ocean currents and sea surface temperatures . The First GARP Global Experiment is being planned to obtain a heretofore unavailable complete set of global observations in which stationary and drifting buoys will be utilized to acquire data from the global ocean. Buoy requirements for this effort are expected to be extensive and we expect other nations to participate and to coordinate the overall buoy program. At such time as the U.S. effort is decided, this Plan will be revised. BUOY TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT A continuing research and development program will be maintained to develop required buoy systems and enhance the capability, and operational reliability and decrease the cost of environmental data buoy systems. Emphasis will be placed on the development of drifting buoy and ice buoy systems, remote sensing of the lower atmosphere, water quality sensors and on the improvement of ocean profilers, meteorological sensors and wave measure- ment systems. New hulls are to be developed for drifting buoys and for moored buoys for use in near-shore, estuarine and shallow water areas. Ways will be sought to reduce the costs of large ocean hulls. Mooring techniques and materials especially for shallow water areas will be tested. Plans also include the development of improved equipment and techniques for buoy handling and servicing. ES-5 The optimum use of satellite and navigation technology will be studied to improve the collection and relay of environmental data and the geographical positioning of drifting buoys. Budget The Federal Data Buoy Budget for FY 74 along with projected levels through succeeding phases are shown in the accompanying table. FY 74 represents appropriated and spending levels and FY 75 represents those items included in the present budget; the follow-on phases, corresponding roughly to fiscal years, represent estimates and are included for planning purposes only. Federal agencies' budgeting for data buoys [Millions of dollars] Agency FY 74 FY 75 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 3.8 BASIC MONITORING TO SUPPORT FORECAST, WARNING, AND ASSESSMENT 3.1 2.5 6.1 6.1 4.4 Coast Guard 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 NOAA 1.0 SPECIALIZED MONITORING TO SUPPORT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 1.3 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.4 Department of Defense National Science Foundation 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 NOAA TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT 3.7 3.2 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.2 Total 9.8 9. 9.7 14.5 15.3 14.5 ES-6 I. INTRODUCTION Major interactions between man and the oceanic environment involve his daily decisions regarding the use of this natural resource. To make such decisions, he must monitor the state of the oceanic environment, assess the impact of his activities on that environment, and predict the ocean's future state to guide his actions. More specifically, if man is to reside nearby and work or play in the oceanic environment safely, efficiently, and enjoyably and understand it more fully, a system of marine warning, prediction, and assessment services and related research are needed. Marine observations are the foundation for these activities. The objective of this Specialized Federal Plan for Environmental Data Buoys in the MAREP series is a planning perspective for such buoys as a component in the family of elements employed for marine environmental monitoring as the basis for environmental warnings and predictions and in support of various oceanic research projects. Although it is not feasible to publish precise fiscal information beyond the approved budget year, buoy system programing over 5 years is included in the Plan to better coordinate annual program and budget proposals by the Federal agencies involved. As environmental programs are adjusted, changes in data buoy planning will be required. PERSPECTIVE OF THE OCEANS AND ATMOSPHERE The upper layers of the ocean transmit all of the solar enerev in and out of the sea. Because they are so intimately coupled to solar and meteorological influences, physical conditions in these layers change much more rapidly than those in the deeper ocean. Similarly, changes in the surface layers of the sea are about 25 times slower than similar transient patterns in the overlying atmosphere. Furthermore, the variability of the oceans is complicated by density differences, tides, and momentum exchanges that are unique to that environment. Because of the paucity of oceanic monitoring stations, oceanographers ' knowledge of variations of the ocean with respect to time has grown very slowly. On the other hand, physical differences from place to place were the earliest observations made by mariners. Awareness of the space variability of the oceans led to such descriptive labels as the Red Sea, the Kuro-Shio (Black Current) , and the Sargasso Sea (Willow Sea) . Fishermen since earliest times have used patterns of water color to locate fish and still do. The size, or scale, of the distribution of characteristics of the ocean was realized first from the CHALLENGER expedition in the year 1872. The limited mobility of sailing vessels, however, caused early scientists to emphasize features spread over 1 degree of latitude or more and forced them to assume a stationary ocean. For almost a century, oceanographic conclusions have been based on the necessary concept of an "ocean frozen in time." Obviously, only its gross anatomy could be conceived; its turbulent processes remained virtually unknown, even unsuspected. The impetus given to oceanographic research by the requirements of the U.S. Navy during World War II resulted in the development of smaller scale sampling capabilities. Ships, improved sampling gear, and new techniques provided the capability to sample ever closer to continuity in time and space. Patterns of ocean features previously unknown were being revealed. Each extension of the sampling capability to higher frequencies has uncovered unsuspected details of small-scale anomalies in the variable conditions of the sea. From this measured capability it was found that temperature and salinity variations have scale sizes as small as 1 cm. Other components of the sea, such as the light-scattering constituents in sea water and the evaporation layer of the sea surface, approach molecular dimensions. Movements of the ocean in the time domain have come to our attention in a similar manner. Whereas early investigators were of necessity satisfied with sampling frequencies measured in days, years, and even decades, new measuring devices and the adaptation of computer technology have permitted temporal sampling resolution to frequencies in kHz. For both the space and the time scale, new advances in the ability to sample in greater detail or at shorter intervals has resulted in new and significant insight into oceanic processes. More important, however, has been the recognition that in order to apply these newly understood processes to problems of prediction, the time and space scales must be examined simultaneously. This requirement can best be met by continuously sampling the ocean at specific locations to determine the influence of high-frequency oceanic motions on the formation of long-wavelength, large-scale anomalies. This means a continuous series of measurements at both discrete and variable locations in greater numbers than was possible from the ocean station vessels (OSV's) deployed in the Northern Hemisphere during World War II (fig. 1 ). FIGURE 1 Historically, environmental observations from the oceans of the world in support of operational forecasting have been obtained from platforms that are on or over the ocean for some prime purpose other than to obtain environmental data. The primary mission of the platform determines where and when the observations are obtained. The OSV's were positioned initially on trans- oceanic flight routes as navigational aids and for search and rescue rather than for the expressed purpose of ocean-atmosphere observations. Because of this universal practice of using platforms of opportunity to obtain operational data in support of environmental forecasting, the spatial and temporal distribution of the data has generally been less than best for meteorological and oceanographic use. Moving surface ships have been and are the main source of surface and subsurface data. Because these ships are at sea either in transit from one port to another, intent upon a minimum time or fair-weather passage, or to exploit the sea's resources, there is a concerted effort to avoid places or times when sea conditions impede progress toward the ship's destination. Thus, oceanic data are heavily biased toward daylight, fair-weather areas, coastlines, and great circle routes between principal world ports. Efforts to overcome the lack of data from meteorologically active oceanic regions led to the use of weather reconnaissance aircraft to obtain data in the most violent storm areas in order to improve weather forecasts and to prevent excessive damage and loss of life. Aircraft equipped with newly developed remote sensors can provide marine observations, especially in coastal and Continental Shelf areas. Aircraft can fly under most clouds and can acquire extremely high resolution data. These data include observations of sea surface radiance and sea ice and indication of spills of oil and other hazardous materials. However, cost has restricted the routine use of weather reconnaissance aircraft, as have budgetary cutbacks in recent years. Polar orbiting satellites can provide global coverage for certain marine upper air observations and descriptive mapping of sea surface radiance and ice cover in cloud-free areas. Geostationary satellites will provide near- continuous observations of areas between 55°N and 55°S and be extremely useful for storm detection and warning. An additional feature of satellites is their capability to relay data from remote platforms such as buoys, ships, and automatic weather stations to shore. The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) , Improved TIROS Operational Satellite (ITOS) , and the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) satellites provide three principal types of observations: visual images, infrared images with quantitative surface radiance measurement, and (from ITOS and DMSP only) vertical atmospheric temperature profiles. Significant cloud cover now limits these observations, but may not when microwave techniques are developed and improved and other observing platforms are positioned to provide surface calibration data. In near-shore and coastal areas, several types of facilities are available for marine observations that either measure special types of data (e.g. , tides) or are available as fixed platforms of opportunity. A major fault of most marine data, however, is the lack of fixed observing points in the oceans. Important information available from fixed stations on land and used in forecasting overland areas is the time rate of change of the various parameters measured. Only from the ocean station ships have scientists concerned with studies of the marine environment had this time-series data. COMPENSATION FOR LOSS OF OCEAN STATION VESSELS: MOORED DATA BUOYS Jet aircraft with their superior speed, increased range and reliability, together with new electronic navigational techniques, eliminated the need for typical ocean stations in support of transoceanic flight. Also, as personnel and maintenance costs increased, the expense of maintaining ships on station soared. As the promise of upper air information from satellites came closer to reality, reduction in the number of OSV's began. By FY 1975 there will be but one U.S .-supported ocean weather ship, and that off the Atlantic coast. The one ocean station vessel remaining in the Pacific will be OSV PAPA, operated by Canada. The loss of the OSV's has deprived oceanographers of a major source of long-term, time-series data from the oceans. In fact, OSV's at one time were the source of some 10 percent of the routinely gathered subsurface oceano- graphic data available to the U.S. If compensation for OSV's is not somehow arranged, operational environmental services for activities other than aeronautics will be severely limited. Furthermore, science will lose the OCEAN STATION VESSEL HAMILTON 4 continuity of an unbroken time series of ocean temperature vertical profiles that goes back more than 25 years. For scientific research and improvement of operational forecasts, the value of time series data increases in proportion to the length of the record. Moored buoys are logical means to compensate for discontinued ocean station vessels for surface and subsurface environmental data gathering. The buoy as an unmanned platform enjoys significant cost and operational advantages over a ship's crew and can remain on station 3 years or more with minimal ship support. The buoy eliminates the high cost of the crew and provisions for their comfort and the requirement for abandoning station in the face of severe storms. Experience has shown that the buoy will continue to telemeter data even in fully developed typhoons and hurricanes. The lower cost of data buoys compared with the OSV is reflected also by the economy of support requirements. Support can be provided by available seaworthy vessels with little modification. Existing communication facilities can be utilized to collect data from buoys after adding only supplementary automatic radio equipment. Buoys can be refurbished and overhauled at most shipyards without special provision. In this regard, data buoys can substitute for weather ships in obtaining surface, subsurface, and eventually lower atmospheric environmental data. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA BUOY DEVELOPMENT In the late 1950s, scientists began to realize the interactions of time- dependent and space-dependent variables in the ocean. At the same time growing technology in aerospace enabled development of a system capable of acquiring time-series data on a whole-ocean scale. A product of these two situations was the development of moored ocean data stations that could continuously measure ocean variables and transmit those data over great distances to a shore station whence the analyzed data could be reduced into useful information. Before 1960, the use of buoys to obtain environmental data from the ocean was limited to deployment of on-board recording buoys by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, of an elementary telemetering buoy (NOMAD) in the Gulf of Mexico by the Naval Weather Service, and of ordinary drift bottles. Except for the drift bottles, deployment of moored and drifting buoys was conducted only by the United States. These early efforts were not sophisticated, though they did represent a complete break with brute-force methods used for navigation buoys moored in shallow water. No attempt had been made to incorporate technology available from the then-burgeoning aerospace program, not even to use the newly emergent and extremely powerful digital data transfer and processing methods then at hand. In 1960, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) began a program to develop a long-range telemetering buoy for acquiring oceanographic data from the deep sea. Drawing heavily upon aerospace technology, especially systems design, energy conversion, information systems, and quantitative field testing, this program resulted in development of the "monster" buoy. Advisory groups of scientists comprised a constant and significant part of the program. ONR organized a Guidance Committee, made up of leading U.S. scientists, to serve this purpose throughout the development of the buoy system. The "monster" buoy development program incorporated state-of-the-art computer and telecommunications technology into a complete system involving oceanographic and meteorological sensors on the prototype buoys, a comprehensive interrogation station ashore, and processing and graphics facilities to present data, in near-real time, in the form of magnetic tape and analog time- series charts and X-Y station plots. This was the first comprehensive ocean data acquisition system. Performance tests at sea demonstrated the capability of telemetering digital oceanographic and meteorological data with better than 95 percent reliability, using high-frequency (HF) radio propagation, over distances greater than 3,500 miles. By 1967, the long-time series of salinity, temperature, and depth measurements from the buoys had proved sufficiently accurate to support geo- strophic computations. Also, time-series of surface meteorological data as long as 1 year, with accuracy and reliability comparable to most weather stations on land, were being obtained. The modern telemetering environmental data buoy has presented the Nation with a significantly increased ability to measure the environment for effective XERB-1 BUOY 6 monitoring, forecasting, and more incisive scientific investigation. The usefulness of telemetering buoys has been widely recognized in the past few years, leading to deployment of such buoys by several United States agencies and foreign governments. This growing data acquisition effort and the multiplicity of agencies involved require coordination. Data from telemetering buoys will equally benefit operational environmental monitoring, forecasting, climatic assessment, and scientific research. Similarly, specially developed buoys deployed for scientific programs will also provide data to enhance operational programs. Overall control of all deployment is not necessarily desirable, but coordina- tion of effort and routine collection and distribution of all data is essential for the most effective use of buoy technology. Coordination at the Federal level seems expedient to assure the best utilization of environmental data buoys in the national interest. As has been noted, long-time series data are critical in recognizing changes, both manmade and natural, in the ocean and in the atmosphere above it. The best possible way to understand the long-term trends and to separate the natural changes from those induced by man is to monitor continuously the oceans and the atmosphere in key areas for a suitably long period of time. Various workshops and symposia on use of buoy data have generally agreed on the most desired measurements from data buoys, and these are listed in table 1. Recent investigations have summarized the need for operational and research data and have attempted to sort the parameters into priority groups. The principal conclusions are given below. In these investigations, the parameter needs of users to be satisfied by the quantity and quality of data offered by buoys measuring only a few parameters were sorted into three classes according to the present degree of need: * Critical * Important * Useful Critical parameters to be measured are: (1) Air temperature (10) Insolation (2) Atmospheric pressure (11) Wave period (3) Dew point (4) Wind velocity (vector components, or speed and direction) (5) Precipitation (6) Water pressure (7) Water temperature (surface to 300 m) (8) Wave height (9) Salinity Table 1 . — Desired parameters from data buoys Parameter Range NOW FEASIBLE Air temperature Air pressure Wind speed Wind direction Dewpoint Global radiation Precipitation Water temperature Water pressure Salinity Sound speed Current Speed Current direction Wave height (significant)' °C mbar m/sec — degrees- °c . Langley/min- cm/h °C kg /cm — 0/00 m/sec — m/sec — degrees- m -10- +40 900-1100 0-80 0-360 -10-40 0-2 0-20 -2-35 0.5-55 20-40 1,410-1,580 0.1-3 0-360 0-30 NOT NOW AVAILABLE Visibility Cloud base height Cloud amount Atmospheric electricity- Ambient light Ambient noise Transparency Wave period Wave direction km m percent kV Langley/min ' dB m sec degrees Water quality (dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll, etc.) Lower Atmosphere -— Temperature ° C 0-20 0-100 0-10 0-0.3 -80- -20 0-25 2-40 0-360 Wind Vector- Humidity- °C +1°C for each 100 mb layer to 850 mbs and preferably to 500 mbs; m/sec +3 m/s or 10% for each 100 mb layer up to 850 mbs & preferably to 500 mbs; cm of H20 Water vapor profile up to 850 mbs & preferably to 500 mbs Important parameters to be measured are: (Some, such as current velocity, were found to be critical for some data uses.) (12) Visibility (13) Bottom pressure (tidal fluctuations in depths less than 200 m) (14) Current velocity (vector components, or speed and direction) (15) Sound speed (derived from water temperature, conductivity pressure) (16) Wave direction Useful parameters to be measured are: (17) Ambient noise (subsurface) (18) Biological collections (19) Chlorophyll (20) Dissolved oxygen (21) Ice accumulation (22) Transparency Although the composite of all data needs includes many parameters measurable from buoys, most users are largely satisfied by critical and a few important parameters. It is important to note here that data needs are continually evolving and changing and that the total requirements for many potential user agencies have not been fully established. For example, measurement of water quality and pollutant parameters may eventually be accorded higher priority. DATA MANAGEMENT All available meteorological synoptic reports from the buoys are placed in the standard World Meteorological Organization (WMO) formats and delivered to the National Meteorological Center for input to various computer programs and for entry into the national circuits and the international data exchange. The data are also delivered to coastal forecast offices of the National Weather Service and other users for marine warnings and for marine forecast services. The Environmental Data Service (EDS) of NOAA is responsible for archiving meteorological and oceanographic data collected by data buoys and for providing data and data summary services to the "secondary" or "non-operational" data user communities. U.S. operators of data buoys work with EDS to establish mutually agreeable procedures and schedules for archiving these data and data summaries. The shore processing, editing, quality control, and compression, if any, of data collected by buoys are the responsibilities of the buoy operators, and budget plans include funds necessary to prepare and copy the data for archiving. EDS provides data storage, retrieval, reproduction, summary, and display services to any requestor in the Government or private sector, domestic or foreign, on an exchange or reimbursable basis, the latter at the cost of retrieval. EDS and the NOAA Data Buoy Office (NDBO) assist operating activities in data archiving by jointly arriving at suitable specifications for standard archival data formats, data processing requirements, and related technical criteria. Such coordination is specifically provided for in NOAA , National Science Foundation, and Navy programs. At present, standard formats have been established to serve during implementation of data buoys under cognizance of NDBO for both fully processed oceanographic and meteorological data and data telecommunicated in WMO code forms via landlines. NDBO provides data periodically to EDS, which maintains buoy data archives at the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) and the National Climatic Center (NCC) . With further development of capabilities for observational systems of data buoys, EDS will continue to develop and upgrade formats responsive to future requirements. 10 II. FEDERAL PLANNING OF BUOYS FOR BASIC MONITORING, IN SUPPORT OF FORECASTING, WARNING, AND ASSESSMENT SERVICES To provide the oceanic data needed for long-term monitoring, forecasts, and warnings, moored operational data buoys are being developed and deployed in deep ocean areas, and eventually coastal continental shelf. An array of 36 buoys for locations in the Atlantic and Pacific is planned for completion by 1980. During this period existing buoys will be modified, and additional buoys procured with sensor systems for surface, subsurface, and lower atmospheric measurement. Table 2 shows the proposed schedule for moored operational buoys. A prime need for environmental data from ocean areas of the world is to support analyses directed toward more accurate forecasts of the oceanic and atmospheric state and possibly toward development of oceanic and atmospheric climatic predictions. Predictions of the future state of the oceanic environment are used to support global climate analysis, commercial fisheries, recreation, ship routing, search and rescue, military operations, and improved storm warning at sea and over land. Each of these activities benefits from improved forecasts. Ability to improve forecasts, however, is seriously hindered by the lack of observational data. Past rationale for deploying moored ocean data buoys for basic monitoring, forecast, and warning services includes support of climate research and EB-10 EEP BUOY 11 Table 2. — Schedule for moored operational buoys Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Procurement : Buoys procured EEP payload replacement- Upper air sensors Operation: Buoys on station Rotating replacements — Total buoys operational- 9 _1 10 12 4 9 _1 10 12 2- 25 26 4 20 33 _5 38 20 36 _6 42 assessment, and overlaps with the next section of this Plan. Although a major part of the effort involved in climate assessment and prediction is research, the observation requirements are similar to those needed for forecast and warning. A National Climatological Plan for Climate Research is under preparation by Federal agencies, in which consideration is being given to deploying buoys. The North Pacific has large changes in ocean heat content that bear on forecasts and warnings for ocean traffic, and fisheries; apparent correlation between east-west atmospheric circulation and marked deviations in equatorial waters and fisheries; and close correlation between large scale temperature anomalies in the ocean and subsequent weather over the U.S. Like the North Pacific Ocean's climatic role, the North Atlantic affects the long- and short-period changes in European weather patterns. Certain data buoys employed to support climate research are needed in operation for relatively long periods and thus become a component of the basic oceanic monitoring effort. Two moored buoys in the North Pacific for research support will be refurbished in FY 1975 and FY 1976 and subsequently deployed with "Alpha" buoy located at 35°N and 155°W and "Dana" buoy located at 30°N and 140°W, formerly occupied by ocean station vessel "November" which has been withdrawn. At that location, Dana buoy will contribute also to the previous 25 years of time series data already available from that location. A growing need for gathering data from the oceans on a regular basis is to support environmental quality assessment. Although pollution has become a national concern only in the recent past, there is a strong requirement growing to monitor the rate of pollution and to detect changes in the oceans that might be harmful to man or nature. Routine observations for monitoring changes in the oceans can also be used to provide warning of events that cause damage. An array of buoys to 12 provide early warning can in many instances complement a viable forecast scheme. Data obtained by environmental buoy systems would form a subset of the total national marine meteorological and oceanographic data required. Also, the data requirements best met by buoys are evolving apace with the national data requirements. For various users, variables have different priorities, yet many users want data from essentially the same site. For certain data uses, related groups of parameters must be measured if any of the data are to be meaningful. In the former case, a simple example is preparing optimum ocean ship routes. Knowledge of wave height is important, as is knowledge of winds, atmospheric pressure, currents, air temperature, and tidal fluctuations. However, for predicting effects of coastal storms inland, wave conditions and currents may be of minor importance, although other parameters remain critical. Conversely, in predicting weather (which may be over land) effects in coastal waters, then waves, tidal fluctuations, and currents become critical. Water temperature at the surface and down to about 300 meters is an example of measurements of groups of parameters. For tuna fishermen, accurate knowledge of water temperatures can help to pinpoint where tuna are most likely to be EB-03 BUOY IN GULF OF ALASKA 13 found. However, other parameters are needed to detect, locate, analyze, and predict storms in the best fishing areas; otherwise fishing vessels might attempt locations on the basis of water temperature, only to find the seas and weather too rough to make the catch. Increasing reliance on weather forecasting has led fishermen and sports- men into coastal waters under conditions which they would have avoided in earlier days. Such reliance on available forecasts can be dangerous because of present data limitations. An example is the disaster along the Texas coast on Valentine's Day, 1969. Throughout the day, the marine forecast was for winds of 16-20 knots and seas of 4-6 ft. Consequently, the shrimping fleets from Galveston, Freeport, and Sabine left port, the smaller boats expecting to "weather" nearshore until those winds and seas abated the following morning. By 11 p.m., winds from the southeast had risen to 64 knots and seas to 22 ft. Already some of the smaller boats were in trouble, but the larger shrimpers (70-90 ft boats), relying on the limited available marine forecasts, were standing by with sea anchors out, waiting for the winds to diminish. They didn't, however; and before midnight, gale-force winds and seas higher than 25 ft had destroyed a major part of the fleet. By the morning of February 15, 32 boats were sunk (12 at sea), 7 crewmen drowned, more than 100 boats severely damaged, and the financial loss was over $8 million. There was no possibility of forecasting this local storm with existing techniques because it was born, grew, and died all outside the available net- work of observing stations. No continuously reporting stations existed in the Gulf of Mexico, though occasional data were acquired from offshore drilling platforms. Consequently, the forecast had to rely on inadequate stations along the coast. Buoys offshore could have provided significant data for making a more accurate forecast, probably saving the lives and property lost. Other examples could be related, but the need for coastal and offshore buoys to acquire data for early warning of storms is clear. NDBO has the capability for buoy deployment to meet monitoring, warning, and forecasting data requirements. High-priority areas represented in (fig. 2) have been identified to support the following major national goals: increased safety and efficiency of exploration and transportation of energy resources in ocean areas; adequate and timely warnings of hazardous weather and sea conditions; operation of national marine monitoring to support environmental preservation; and enhancement of marine environmental information services to support offshore platform design and operations. The depletion and shortages of oil and other fuels have caused more activity in the oceanic environment for exploration and transportation. Because of the hostility of this environment and the obligation to protect living resources, more monitoring is needed. To meet this need, buoy deploy- ments are planned for the Gulf of Alaska and northeast Pacific to aid in continuing environmental monitoring for the marine leg of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) Besides playing a major role in the environmental support of energy transportation and development in this area, buoy data will also be used for future designs of environmentally safe offshore facilities like superports , power plants, and airports. 14 15 Most natural disasters that strike heavily populated areas along the Eastern Seaboard and Gulf of Mexico are ocean related. Violent hurricanes from the subtropics and winter storms that develop off the Atlantic Coast often come ashore and move rapidly inland in these heavily populated areas. Offshore marine observations are required so that adequate warning can be provided. Marine environmental observations in support of storm and hurricane warnings will be acquired through deployment of environmental data buoys along the east coast and in the Gulf of Mexico. These buoys, as those deployed for TAPS, will provide valuable information for the design, construction, and safe operation of offshore platforms. Besides support to warning and forecasts, moored data buoys in the coastal and offshore areas can monitor the physical oceanographic conditions that influence the distributions and abundances of certain living marine resources and can support deep ocean mining operations. More specifically, buoys would be used to measure changes in speed, direction, and volume trans- port of water (currents) and changes in the distribution and physical properties of water masses. The use of data buoys to monitor various chemical and biological conditions, although a desirable prospect for the future, is not specified here because necessary sensors are not yet developed. Physical oceanographic (initially temperature and salinity) data are most needed for the Continental Shelf areas where most of the living marine resource species are concentrated. Specifically, data are needed to determine the axes of currents and the boundaries of water masses. Salinity, being a more diagnostic variable than temperature in waters outside the coastal zone, is the better measure of water mass differences. Equipping buoys for salinity measurements at the same depths as for temperature, or use of an oceanographic profiler, is therefore essential. Locations and numbers of buoys. Approximately 35 buoys configured similar to that shown in Figure 3 will be required to perform these missions. This formulation is based on the following rationale: • The primary return on investment will be in improved weather forecasting so that this should be the guiding requirement. • Synoptic meteorological systems typically have scales of the order of 2000 km and move at speeds of the order of 30 kph. Thus, buoy spacings of the order of 500 km, 300-1000 km from shore are appropriate. • Pacific cyclonic storms generate and move southeasterly from the Gulf of Alaska to the U.S. Pacific Coast. In the Atlantic seaboard they tend to develop and propagate to the Northeast. This requires a concentration in the Gulf of Alaska and Atlantic seaboard. • Hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico and typhoons near Hawaii generally move easterly and northerly. Cyclones also develop in the Gulf of Mexico. 16 Existing Ocean Station Vessels Hotel and Papa provide adequate coverage in their areas. Only if a halt of their services should be planned would buoys be required in those locations. Areas with little ship traffic such as south of San Diego should be serviced by buoys. Meteorological parameters over the oceans and Great Lakes are often observed to be significantly different than our land areas Thus a few buoys are needed in the Great Lakes COMPASS NO 2 ANEMOMETER NO. 2 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE NO. 2 SCUTTLE NAVIGATION WARNING LIGHT MET SENSOR J-BOX COMPASS NO. 1 ANEMOMETER NO. 1 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE NO. 1 AIR TEMP SATCOM ANTENNA PROVISIONS WAVE HEIGHT AND PERIOD SURFACE TEMPERATURE ARRANGEMENT OF PEB Figure 3 17 III. FEDERAL PLANNING OF BUOYS FOR SPECIALIZED MONITORING IN SUPPORT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH To provide needed data for the growing number of oceanic research projects, specialized buoys are being developed. Plans are to develop both drifting and moored buoy systems capable of supporting many national and international scientific programs such as GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Program) and IDOE (International Decade of Ocean Exploration) . Five specialized buoy systems are now in the planning phase or under development. These include the ice buoy, small expendable drifting buoy, drifting tall buoy, expendable weather service meteorological drifting buoy, and scientific moored buoy. The ice buoy program is a continuation of the systems developed for Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment (AIDJEX) . New efforts in this area are focused on providing an adequate buoy system for the Polar Experiment (POLEX) and polar requirements for GARP.. The small expendable drifting buoy program is aimed at achieving two related, but distinct capabilities: — Lagrangian tracking of water parcels. — Atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and buoy geographic locations. A small buoy of this type for use in "moderate environments" has just recently been developed under contract to NOVA University and is undergoing test and evaluation. Results from this testing will be used in developing a more rugged buoy for use in severe environments such as the Antarctic and southern ocean studies. In addition the small drifting buoys of this type are planned for Northern Pacific Experiment (NORPAX) and First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) . The drifting tall buoy program is in response to needs for measuring energy flux in large-scale air-sea interaction studies such as NORPAX. As a possible alternative or complement to moored data buoys in certain areas for warnings and forecasts, an expendable meteorological drifting buoy is under evaluation for technical feasibility and economic considerations. Three major efforts are now underway or being planned as part of the development of scientific moored buoys. These are continuation of development and deployment of two moored buoys (Alpha and Dana) by NOAA, the National Science Foundation (NSF) , and the Department of Defense (DOD) as part of the NORPAX experiment; modification and use of previously developed moderate — environment buoys for use in water quality monitoring; and development of buoys for meteorological observations in coastal and Continental Shelf research programs. Table 3 shows a development schedule for these specialized buoy systems. In addition, a brief of the scientific goals and programs that will utilize the specialized buoys is presented below. 18 CO 5-1 CU CO 13 CJ •H MM ■H 4-> 3 CU •H O C/J 5-( O MM CO e cu CO c/3 CU N •H 3 T3 CU m3 cj c/j 4-> fl CU 6 p o rH cu > CU P cj CU p. oo CO CU rH X> CO H o oo as 00 4-J s CU 6 PL| pM <1 <3 CO <1 CO CU H c3 o- o rH CU > CU P < CU a •H CU a w 9 CU CJ O w o o < CJ CU e •H 5m CU p< X W MM •H 4-1 3 CU •H O 00 a o •H 4-> O O 5-i Pm r*> O PQ 3 P <3 > o 4-J CO CU H TJ H CU •H fin 60 3 •H 5-1 CU CU 3 •H 00 3 w TJ a 4-1 PS CU 6 cu o rH CU > CU P 4-J O 3 CU CU 3 CU S 5-i >> CU cu 4-) O X! 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Q 4-1 rH CU 4C CO PQ O *» •» . - _"'*"' "^J*****. -»•» 4k, w «v. ■ ■* 1 ^i*^*^ EB-02 DEEP KEEL HULL BUOY EB-36 MODERATE ENVIRONMENT BUOY 27 A Deep Keel Hull Buoy (EB-02) has been moored in the Gulf of Mexico to test this hull shape in an open ocean environment. This buoy was repositioned to the Northeast Pacific in May 1974. During FY 1973, 10 Moderate Environment Buoys (MEBs) were partially tested and evaluated in the Gulf of Mexico. Five were moored buoys and five were designed as drifting buoys. In addition, two of the drifters were tested in an improvised shallow moor configuration. These tests were inconclusive, but indicated that MEB's would have use in the less severe environments. MEBs measure basic meteorological parameters, i.e., wind speed and direction, air and surface water temperature, and atmospheric pressure. In addition, the moored configuration is designed to measure water temperature at prespecified depths down to 200 m. Table 4 shows the measurement capabilities of the various data buoys of NDBO. In the test and evaluation process, much was learned that could be incorporated into present designs to improve them dramatically-even using available hardware, since many of the problems were due to design and fabrication techniques. These problems included RF interference, grounding and voltage spike problems in digital circuitry, and fabrication for long-term exposed connectors. NDBO is procuring its first severe-environment prototype operational buoy. This data buoy has been designed for deployment in data-sparse marine areas to meet the requirements of the National Weather Service. This system will have a low powered electronic payload featuring sensors with accuracies required for meteorological purposes; a relatively simple hardwired, low- powered data processing unit; an HF radio communications system with pro- visions for easy changeover to UHF ; a reasonable priced, high energy-to- density ratio battery power supply with proven reliability; and a buoy plat- form and mooring system designed to survive the environment that can reasonably be expected in the region of deployment. In summary, technology that still needs improvement, development, and testing includes sensors, particularly oceanographic and water quality; shallow water moorings; at-sea buoy handling and servicing; and adaptation of UHF communication equipment to buoy applications. The U. S. Coast Guard contributes significantly to the Federal data buoy program by providing key engineering personnel to NDBO; vital at-sea and shore logistic support, particularly ships and shore facilities; and high frequency shore radio communication stations and personnel. 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CJ O CO >< O CJ Q 4J o E-> 3 U 4J CD CO 45 4-1 (11 >-. cO o 4-) CD ■H •H 3 > O -rl "H 0) rl CJ 43 O CO Q £ -a •r-l -H O CO -H B i-H U- 1 CJ S-l i-H 43 CO B 4J 32 CO H ■H n) CO 00 CO O (3 CD S c 3 o J3 a CU en •H S *■ 1 c •rH CD U •H o •H 3 T3 O T3 J3 C ,C a a. O a) en CO CO O Q. >-i o. so (X O CO o o O H CD e H cu C CD CO cu > > CD > 0) C CD a cu a •H a o p 33 PENN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES AODOQVCHHSIOS O IX E# Fn J