SIlfF a B. Hill iCibrara

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FEEDS AND FEEDING
ABRIDGED

THE ESSENTIALS OF THE FEEDING,
CARE, AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM
ANIMALS, INCLUDING POULTRY

Adapted axd Condensed from FEEDS AND FEEDING
(Sixteenth Edition)

BY

W. A. HENRY, D.Sc, D. Agr.

EMERITUS PROFESSOR OP AGRICULTURE,
AND FORMERLY DEAN OF COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AND DIRECTOR OP THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

AND

F. B. MORRISON, B. S.

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AND ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY,

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

MADISON, WISCONSIN

THE HENRY-MORRISON COMPANY

1919

Copyright, 1917

BY

THE HENRY-MOKRISON COMPANY
All rights reserved

J. F. TAPLEY CO.
NEW YORK

PREFACE

''Feeds and Feeding," first published in March, 1898, was received
with widespread favor by practical stockmen and by the teachers and
students of animal husbandry in this country. Since this date six-
teen editions have come from the press, and the book has been twice
entirely rewritten to include new and important data. Many stockmen
rely upon "Feeds and Feeding" as the guide in their feeding opera-
tions, and it is the standard text on stock feeding in practically all
the agricultural colleges in this country. As "Feeds and Feeding"
covers the feeding and care of each class of live stock in a compre-
hensive manner, it is of necessity a large book, containing much de-
tailed information.

With the rapid development of special agricultural courses in sec-
ondary schools and of short courses in the agricultural colleges, a
demand has arisen for a simplified and condensed edition of the work.
In response to this demand "Feeds and Feeding, Abridged" is now
brought forth. This is based chiefly upon the sixteenth edition of
"Feeds and Feeding," but the subject matter has been so condensed
and simplified as to adapt it for use as a text in brief courses in stock
feeding. Omitting topics of purely scientific interest, the authors
have sought to present in the simplest terms the most essential facts
concerning animal nutrition and the practical feeding, care, and
management of farm animals.

In most brief books on stock feeding the care and management of
stock receive scant attention, but in "Feeds and Feeding, Abridged"
these subjects, which are of the utmost practical importance, are fully
treated. To aid the teacher and the student, each chapter closes with
questions covering the subject matter, and 116 engravings illustrate
some of the most important points. Since the subject of poultry
feeding is commonly included in live stock feeding in secondary
schools, chapters have been added on the feeding and care of poultry.
Altho. thus covering a larger field, "Feeds and Feeding, Abridged"
contains but half as much text matter as "Feeds and Feeding."

Part I presents the most important general principles governing
the rational feeding and care of farm animals. The various feeding
standards are briefly discussed, including the new "Modified Wolf-

PREFACE

Lehmann Standards," prepared by the authors and based upon the
recent findings of the scientists in this and other countries. A chap-
ter on "Economy in Feeding Live Stock" points out some of the
economic principles which must be considered in the feeding and care
of live stock to realize the largest profits.

Part II discusses all the important feeding stuffs used in this
country, rather than merely the feeds available in any particular
district. This permits the teacher to give the most attention to the
feeds of local importance, perhaps omitting others entirely. Finally,
the chapter on "Manurial Value of Feeding Stufit's" points out the
vital relation of animal husbandry to the economical maintenance of
soil fertility.

Part III takes up the practical feeding, care, and management of
each class of live stock and summarizes the special value of the impor-
tant feeds for each class of animals. Most of the tables giving sum-
maries of the important feeding trials at the Experiment Stations, con-
tained in the corresponding part of "Feeds and Feeding," are
omitted in the abridged edition. Instead, the authors have presented
in siiaple terms their conclusions on the value of the difit'erent feeding
stuffs and of the various methods of feeding and caring for stock.

The Appendix Tables, condensed from the much more extensive
Appendix Tables of "Feeds and Feeding," show the composition and
the digestible nutrients and the fertilizing constituents in the most
important American feeds. As these tables are specially protected by
copyright, they can be given in no other texts on stock feeding.

The authors wish to thank the following for assistance : Mrs. Elsie
Bullard-Morrison, who has rendered invaluable aid on every page
of the book; Prof. J. A. James of the Department of Agricultural
Education, University of Wisconsin, and formerly Superintendent of
the Racine County, Wisconsin, School of Agriculture, who has made
valuable suggestions in adapting the book to the needs of secondary
schools ; and Prof. J. G. Halpin of the University of W^isconsin, who
greatly aided in the preparation of the chapters on poultry. For ad-
ditional suggestions incorporated in these chapters the authors are
indebted to the following works: Lippincott, "Poultry Production;"
Lewis, "Productive Poultry Husbandry;" and Robinson, "Principles
and Practice of Poultry Culture," Credit is given in each instance
to those loaning illustrations for use in the book.

W. A. Henry
F. B. Morrison
Madison, Wis.

February, 1917.

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction. Live Stock and Profitable Farming 1

Part I. — Plant Growth and Animal Nutrition
Chapter

I. How Plants Grow and Build Food for Animals 5

II. The Animal Body — Digestion — Metabolism 18

III. Measuring' the Usefulness of Feeds 34

IV. Maintaining- Farm Animals 50

V. Growth and Fattening 63

VI. Production of Work, Milk, and Wool 77

VIL Feeding Standards — Calculating Rations 84

VIII. Economy in Feeding Live Stock. 106

Part II. — Feeding Stuffs

IX. Leading Cereals and their By-products 117

X. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leg-uminous Seeds, and their

By-products 133

XI. Miscellaneous Concentrates — Feeding Stuffs Control — Con-

dimental Foods 146

XII. Indian Corn and the Sorghums for Forage 157

XIII. The Smaller Grasses— Straw— Hay-making 167

XIV. Leguminous Plants for Forage 180

XV. Eoots, Tubers, and Miscellaneous Forages 193

XVL Silage— Soilage 202

XVII. Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 212

Part III. — ^Feeding Farm Animals

XVIIL Feeding and Care of Horses 221

XIX. Feeds for Horses 236

XX. Feeding and Care of Dairy Cows 247

XXL Feeds for the Dairy Cow 267

XXII. Eaising Dairy Cattle 280

XXIIL Feeding and Care of Beef Cattle 290

XXIV. Feeds for Beef Cattle 308

XXV. Feeding and Care of Sheep 322

XXVI. Feeds for Sheep 336

XXVIL Feeding and Care of Swine 347

viii CONTENTS

Chapter Pag)

XXVIII, Feeds for Swine 3(52

XXIX. Feeding- and Care of Poultiy 377

XXX. Feeds for Poultry 39(3

Appendix

Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 403

Table II. Average Digestibility of Important Feeding- Stuffs 411

Table III. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing- Constituents

in American Feeding Stuffs 413

Table IV. Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. .. 423
Table V. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm

Animals 425

Table VI. The Feed-Unit System— Amount of Different Feeds Re-
quired to Equal One Feed Unit 428

Table VII. Armsby's Net Energy Values for Feeding- Stuffs 429

Table VIII. Armsby's Feeding- Standards for Farm Animals 430

Table IX. "Weight of Various Concentrates 432

Index , _ 433

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

INTRODUCTION

LIVE STOCK AND PROFITABLE FARMING

Farm animals are really living factories that are continuously con-
verting their feed into products useful to man. A most important
fact is that a large part of the feed thus made useful is of such char-
acter that it cannot be directly utilized by humans. Among the
products yielded by animals are such articles of human diet as meat,
milk, and eggs, materials like wool, mohair, and hides, which meet
other needs of man, and, of greater aggregate value than any one of
these, the work performed by draft animals. Each year the farm
animals in the United States yield over five billion dollars' worth of
useful products — a sum almost equal to the value of all the crops
harvested.

As the population of our country increases, most naturally a smaller
portion of the crops raised can be fed to animals and more will be con-
sumed directly by humans. This change must come with the in-
creased demand for human food, since even high-producing animals
can convert but a small part of their food into forms edible for man.
However, not only is the number of farm animals failing to keep pace
with the increase in population, but the number of cattle and sheep
in this country has actually decreased in recent years, and the number
of swine has increased but little. This means that animal products
can not long hold their present important place in our diet unless
American farmers come to appreciate the advantages of stock farm-
ing and better understand the principles and methods which are
essential to its success.

Live-stock farming and soil fertility. — With the high prices ruling,
many farmers are selling their crops for cash, rather than marketing
at least a portion thru feeding them to live stock, and thereby practic-
ing balanced agriculture. Too often they forget that each ton of
grain sold removes from $7 to $8 in fertility from the soil, and that
this gradual mining of their farms will surely result in worn-out fields
that must forever afterwards be fed with commercial fertilizers in
prder to produce fair crops. On the other hand, thru feeding a part

2 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

of the crops to animals and caring properly for the resulting manure,
most of the fertility may be retained on the farm, and the need of
commercial fertilizers long delayed. Where intensive stock farming
is followed and milling by-products rich in fertilizing constituents
are purchased and fed on the farm, the land may grow richer each
year, A^dth little need for commercial fertilizers.

Consumption of feed otherwise wasted. — In exclusive grain farm-
ing, there is no successful way of utilizing such materials as straw and
corn stover, and, being regarded as waste, they are often burned

Fig. 1. — Live Stock Utilize Feed Otherwise Wasted

In grain farming, tlie corn stalks are allowed to waste away in the fields after
the ears are harvested, but in live-stock farming the corn stover is profitably fed
to the stock.

or otherwise disposed of without regard to the fertility lost to the soil.
In stock husbandry, all these by-products may be economically used
for feed or bedding. By this means much forage whicli cannot be
eaten by humans and would otherwise be wasted, is refined thru the
agency of animals into forms suitable for man, while most of the
fertility goes back in the manure to nourish the fields. Immense
quantities of by-products result from the manufacture of flour, break-
fast foods, vegetable oils, etc. Tho these are all unsuited for human
food, they are valuable feeds for stock. As our population increases,

INTRODUCTION 3

such by-products must to an ever increasing degree be used to sustain
farm animals.

Utilization of land unsuited for tillage. — In those sections of our
country which are so rough or stony that the land cannot be culti-
vated, cattle and sheep may be profitably kept. Also, in the great
semi-arid regions of the West where neither dry farming nor irriga-
tion are practicable, stock thrive on the scanty but extremely nutri-
tious grasses and other vegetation. Cut-over timber districts may
likewise be profitably grazed before they are finally brought under
tillage.

Distribution of labor. — In grain farming, the demand for labor is
irregular and during rush seasons, such as harvesting, help is scarce
and high priced. On the other hand, live-stock farming gives em-
ployment thruout the year. ^Moreover, in winter, when animals re-
quire the most care and attention, the farmer is the least busy with
other farm Avork. By offering steady employment, the stock farmer
is usually able to secure more efficient and trustworthy men than the
grain farmer.

Intelligent and progressive agriculture. — The whole world over,
the most enlightened and progressive agricultural districts are found
where live-stock farming is practiced. This is due to several reasons :
The live-stock farmer can not live from hand to mouth, but must lay
in a store of feed for his animals thruout the winter months. This
same care and foresight are then carried into his other activities.
Under some systems of agriculture the returns from the year's crops
all come in at once, which makes for extravagance and idleness, with
resultant poverty until another crop is harvested. On the other hand,
under most systems of live-stock farming, income is secured several
times during the year.

The care and control of domestic animals, which are intelligent yet
submissive to his wall, tend to develop those instincts in man that make
him kindly, self-reliant, and trustworthy. The good stockman grows
proud of his sleek, well-bred animals and derives a satisfaction there-
from not measured in money. With pride he may hand down to his
sons his reputation as a breeder. He is also able to leave them fertile
fields which he has built up rather than robbed, a heritage bequeathed
by few grain farmers.

Profitable live-stock farming. — In the early days, with land low in
price, pasturage abundant, and feed and labor cheap, profit from live-
stock farming was comparatively easy, even tho one knew little of
the principles governing the feeding and care of stock. Conditions
have now changed. The great western prairies no longer offer rich
fields free for the taking, and hence thruout the country fertile land

4 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

has advanced in price. No less marked has been the increase in the
cost of labor and of feeding stuffs. But the price of live-stock prod-
ucts has also advanced, so that satisfactory profits may still be real-
ized. However, present conditions call for a more intelligent type of
stock farming than has ruled in the past. Good profits are possible
only when the operations are planned with good judgment, and there
is a thoro appreciation of the requirements of the various classes of
animals for food and care.

In the pioneer days of our country the feeds commonly used for live
stock were restricted to the grains and forages grown on the farm.
Knowledge of the value of these farm-grown products is not now suf-
ficient for intelligent feeding. The problem is complicated by the
host of by-products resulting from the manufacture of articles of
human food. Many of these are valuable and economical supple-
ments to the feeds raised on the farm. However, such products vary
considerably in price and even more markedly in nutritive value.
Most economical feeding is therefore possible only when the relative
value of these products compared with each other and with the farm-
grown crops is clearly understood.

In learning of feeds and of feeding we must first consider the plant
substances which provide the nourishment for farm animals and study
how they are built up in the living plant. Next we should learn how
the food consumed by animals is digested and utilized within the body
for the production of meat, milk, work, or wool, and should also study
the requirements of each class of animals for food, water, shelter, and
exercise. Only then are we in a position to understand the value and
merits for each of the farm animals of the many different feeds, and
finally to consider the principles of care and management, the con-
stant observance of which is essential to the highest success in animal
husbandry.

Part I

PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL
NUTRITION

CHAPTER I
HOW PLANTS GROW AND BUILD FOOD FOR ANIMALS

I. Plant Growth

All food for animals, with the exception of air, water, and salt, is
supplied either directly or indirectly by plants. To understand the
feeding of live stock, one should therefore know how plants grow and
build this food and of what it consists.

The food of plants. — Both plants and animals are composed of a
great many substances or compounds — yet all are made up of a rela-
tively small number of chemical elements. Indeed, of the 80 or more
elements known to the chemist, only 14 are commonly present in
plants. Of these, at least 10 are absolutely necessary for plant growth.
These are : carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, po-
tassium, calcium, magnesium and iron. Sodium, silicon, chlorine,
and manganese are also usually found in plants and may be essential
to growth. lodin also is present in some plants. Except in the two
instances which will be noted later, plants cannot use for food the un-
combined elements, such as metallic iron or carbon in the form of
charcoal, but they are nourished by water, carbon dioxid (carbonic
acid gas), and mineral salts — all of which are compounds containing
the elements in chemical combination.

Water (composed of hydrogen and oxygen) serves a double pur-
pose in plants. Some of the water taken up by the plant roots is used
as food, while the rest serves as the carrier of plant food. Only when
it is dissolved in water can plant food be taken from the soil by the
roots or be carried from one part of the plant to another. A surpris-
ing amount of water is needed by plants during growth. For every
pound of dry matter which they manufacture, from 200 to 500 lbs. of
water is drawn from the soil in humid climates, and as high as 1,800
lbs. in arid districts.

Next to water, carbon dioxid, or carbonic acid gas (composed of car-
bon and oxygen), is the great food material of plants. This is ob-

5

6

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

tained from the air, ten thousand parts of which contain 3 to 4 parts
by volume of carbon dioxid. The air supplies carbon dioxid to the
cells of the plant thru the innumerable minute openings on the
under surface of the leaves. In producing a 15-ton crop of green
corn over 5 tons of carbon dioxid are required, to obtain which the
plants must take in over 12,000 tons of air. Yet the suppl}^ of carbon
dioxid is never exhausted, for it is being continuously returned to the
air thru the breathing out of carbon dioxid by animals and the decay
of plant and animal matter.

Nitrogen abounds in the living, growing parts of plants. Altho
about three-fourths of the air is nitrogen gas, plants in general cannot
use the free nitrogen of the air, but obtain their supply from nitrogen-
containing compounds in the soil, chiefly the nitrates. Bacteria living

Carbon cf/'oxid

^^^%-^

^ _ ^(ffyo/roi^enondoKyqen)

m/hera/ mo/^er ^^^^^'^rates
Sa/phur Ca/c/'um
P/}03p^orus magnesium
Potosd/um Iron

Fig. 2. — ^Where Plants Secure Their Food

Plants obtain carbon dioxid from the air, and water, mineral matter, and
nitrates from the soil. Legumes are able to use indirectly the nitrogen of the
air. Plants give off water and free oxygen gas to the air thru their leaves.

in nodules on the roots of legumes, such as clover, alfalfa, and peas,
are able to take nitrogen gas from the air and pass it on in combined
form to the host plants. Thus, the legumes are able indirectly, thru
the aid of these bacteria, to use the nitrogen of the air as food.

Oxygen, which is a part of all plant compounds, is obtained largely
from water and carbon dioxid, and not from the free oxygen gas of

HOW PLANTS GROW

the air. Some oxygen gas is, however, being continuously absorbed by
all green plants and is necessaiy for their growth.

The mineral substances, such as phosphates, potash, and lime, which
are needed by the plants, are taken from the soil thru the roots.

Plant building. — The carbon dioxid, the water, and the nitrates and
other mineral compounds are carried in the sap currents to the living,
green-colored protoplasm of the leaf cells. Here these relatively
simple compounds are built into the much more complex plant sub-

FiG. 3. — Plant Cells, Magnified 350 Times

A, Cell wall; b, nucleus, or life center of cell; c, strands of protoplasm; d,
spaces filled with cell sap; e, chlorophyll bodies. (After Strassburger. )

Fig. 4. — Section op Leaf, Magnified 400 Times

A, stoma, or openings on under side of leaf thru which air enters; b, chloro-
phyll bodies in leaf cells; d, lower epidermal cells of leaf; e, upper epidermal
cells of leaf. (After Strassburger.)

stances. In some mysterious manner chlorophyll, the green coloring
matter of the leaves, breaks down carbon dioxid and water under the
influence of light, and rearranges the carbon, hydrogen, and some of
the oxygen into relatively simple plant compounds. The rest of the
oxygen is given back to the air as free oxygen gas. It is not definitely
known whether the first product so formed is starch, sugar, or some
simpler compound. From the compounds first made the plant then
builds more complex substances, some of which contain mineral matter
obtained from the soil. Both sugar and starch contain much energy,

8 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

while carbon dioxid and water contain but little. Therefore, to make
sugar and starch from these two energy-poor substances the plant
must secure energy from some outside source. This it obtains from
the sun, as light, which is absorbed by the leaves.

The carbohydrates. — Sugar and starch, together with the related
products, the celluloses and pentosans, are called carbohydrates. This
group of plant compounds makes up the major portion of all plant
substance. The term carhohydrates means that these compounds are
formed of the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter
two being present in the proportion existing in water, the chemical
formula for which is H^O. (This means that every molecule of water
contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.)

The molecular composition of the leading plant carbohydrates is as
follows :

Glucose 1 p TT n
Fruit sugar J '"«^i^'-'«

Cane sugar 1 p tt n
Malt sugar J ^i^^^^v^"

CeUulose } (CeH.oOJx

Pentose C^H^oOs

Pentosan (CsHgOJx

The molecules in the bracketed groups are in reality far more com-
plex than the formulae indicate, the actual molecule being many mul-
tiples of the groups here given.

All sugars, not only the simpler glucose and fruit sugar but also
the more complex cane sugar and malt sugar, are soluble in the juices
of the plant. They are thus the portable, carbohydrate building ma-
terial of plants, which is carried in the sap to all their parts as
needed. Some plants, as the beet and the sugar cane, store their re-
serve food chiefly in the form of sugar.

Starch is more complex in structure than the sugars and is in-
soluble in water. It is the form in which most plants chiefly store
their reserve food. This carbohydrate abounds in nearly all seeds,
forming over 70 per ct. of the dry matter in corn and wheat grains.
Often starch is stored in the underground parts of plants, as in the
potato tuber, or in fruits, as in the apple. Since starch is insoluble
in the sap, it must be changed into sugars by an enzyme or ferment
when it is needed in other parts of the plant. (See Page 22.)

Cellulose is the ^reat structural substance of plants-, for the walls

HOW PLANTS GROW

of all plant cells consist chiefly of this carbohydrate. Thus it forms
almost the whole of the skeleton or framework of plants. It is built
by the plant cells from the simpler carbohydrates — the starches and
sugars. The thickness of the cell walls, and consequently the per.
centage of cellulose, varies greatly in different parts of plants, the
walls being thick and resistant in the woody stems, and thin and
delicate in the softer parts, such as the fruits and leaves. Especially
in the woody parts of plants, the cell walls do not consist simply of
pure cellulose, but of cellulose
combined with other related
carbohydrates, which are even
tougher and more resistant.
In analyzing plants the chem-
ist includes cellulose and these
other compounds under the
term fiber.

The pentoses and pentosans
are carbohydrates with 5 atoms
of carbon in the molecule, in
place of 6 as in the sugars and
starches. The pentoses corre-
spond to sugars, and the pen-
tosans to starch and cellulose.
The pentosans are widely dis-
tributed in plants, being found
in largest amount in the more
woody portions and in the
outer portions of seeds. While

corn grain contains less than 6 per ct. of pentosans, straw and hay
from the grasses usually contain over 20 per ct.

Fats and oils. — Fats, which are solid at ordinary temperatures, and
oils, which are liquid, are composed of the same elements as are the
carbohydrates ; i. e., carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In fats and oils,
however, the proportion of carbon and hydrogen is greater. They
therefore give off more heat on burning, one pound of fat producing
about two and a quarter times as much heat as a pound of carbo-
hydrates. Oils and fats most abound in the seeds of plants, the
reserve food supply in peanuts and flax seed, for example, being
largely in this form.

Nitrogenous compounds. — In the living plant cells sugar and
starch, formed from carbon dioxid and water thru the action of the
sunlight, are united with nitrates and other salts gathered by the
roots from the soil to form a new group of complex compounds called

Starch Grains

A, From corn gi-ain; b, from wheat; c,
from oats; d, from potato. (Magnified
330 times.)

10 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

crude proteins. In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, these
compounds contain nitrogen, sulfur, and sometimes phosphorus.
The nitrogenous compounds are the most complex of all plant com-
pounds and are therefore the most difficult to study and classify.
For example, the probable molecular composition of legumin, a pro-
tein found in the seed of the field pea, is C71SH115SO038N014S.. Due to
this complexity, and also because of the great number of different
nitrogenous compounds found in plants, even after years of effort by
able chemists our knowledge of the differences in composition and
feeding value of these compounds is still limited. In discussions of
feeding stuffs and stock feeding, the terras crude protein, protein, and
amids are commonly used for designating the various classes of
nitrogenous compounds.

Crude protein includes all the nitrogenous compounds of the plant.
The chemist finds that about 16 per ct. of the plant proteins is
nitrogen. Accordingly, he multiplies the nitrogen found in a given
plant substance by 6.25 (100 -f- 16 = 6.25) and calls the product crude
protein. Crude protein embraces two great groups of nitrogenous
plant compounds, proteins and amids.

The amids may be termed the building stones of the proteins, for
from them the plant constructs the more complex proteins, just as a
wall is built from stones, and on decomposition the proteins are again
broken down into these more simple substances. These compounds
are the portable nitrogenous building compounds of the plant, for
they are soluble in its juices and hence may be carried wherever
needed. Commonly included under the general term amids are com-
pounds which the chemist calls amino acids, and others which he
terms true amids. In this book, unless otherwise stated, amids will
be used to denote both classes of substances.

Proteins are the more complex forms of crude protein. The^^ are
not always soluble, and therefore in many cases not transportable, in
the juices of the plant. The proteins form the basis of the proto-
plasm, which is the life-holding part of all plants and animals, and
so are essential to all life.

The complexity of the proteins is evident from the fact that 18
different amino acids have already been identified which may enter
into their composition. Just as the letters of the alphabet may be
combined into innumerable words, so the possibility for the combina-
tion of the amino acids into different proteins is almost limitless.
Thus far, scores of different plant and animal proteins have been
separated and exam:ined by the chemists. Some of these, such as
egg albumin, contain all the known amino acids, while others, as zein
of corn and gliadin of wheat, lack one or more of them. As will be

■ /

HOW PLANTS GROW 11

shown later, the incomplete proteins may have a lower value for
animal feeding than those which are complete.

During the growth of the plant, amids are constantly being formed
in the living cells out of sugar or starch and the nitrates and other
mineral salts. These amids are continually being carried to needed
points and there changed into the proteins, and as a consequence do
not usually accumulate in the plant. Just as starch and sugar are
changed one into the other in the f)lant, so the proteins and amids
may be changed one into the other as plant necessity may require.
When germination starts in a seed, an enzyme, or ferment, it contains
acts on the insoluble proteins stored in and about the germ and
changes them to soluble amids, so that the nitrogen may be trans-
ferred to the newly forming parts of the plantlet. But little crude
protein is found in the older, woody parts of plants, the greater por-
tion always being concentrated at the points of growth ; i. e., in the
leaves, flowers, and seeds.

Plants support animal life. — It is Nature's plan that plants shall
use energy supplied by the sun in building inorganic matter taken
from earth and air into organic compounds. In this process the sun
energy employed becomes latent, or hidden. Animals can not directly
secure from the sun the energy necessary for their life but must
live on the organic compounds built by plants. After more or less
change during digestion, these compounds are built into their body
tissues or are broken down within their bodies to produce heat and
energy. In the coal burning in the grate, there reappears the energy
of the sun which was stored in the plants of ages ago. In a similar
manner the energy received from the sun by plants during their
growth is transformed into animal heat and energy. Plants are thus
sun-power machines for furnishing food to support animal life.

II. How THE Chemist Groups Plant Substances

As we have seen, many different compounds are formed in plants,
some of these being so complex that their exact structure has not yet
been determined. In studying feeding stuff's it is desirable to group
all plant compounds into a few classes, the amounts of which can be
readily found by chemists. Accordingly, in analyzing plant materials
and feeding stuffs, the following classes or groups of substances are
commonly determined : water, ash or mineral matter, crude protein,
fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat. The average percentages of
these in typical feeds are shown in the following table, which is taken
from Appendix Table I. The last column gives the number of
analyses from which the average composition has been computed by
the authors.

12 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Chemical composition of typical feecling stuffs, from Appendix Table I

Inorganic matter

Organic matter

Feeding stuff

Crude
protein

Carbohydrates

Fat

No. of
analyses

Fiber

N-free
extract

Water

Ash

Concen tra tes —

Dent corn

Oats

Wheat

Wheat bran

Flax seed

Roughages —

Timothy hay

Red clover hay ....
Oat straw . .

Per ct.

10.5

9.2

10.2

10.1

9.2

11.6
12.9
11.5
68.4
73.7
90.6

Per ct.

1.5
3.5
1.9
6.3
4.3

4.9
7.1

5.4
2.8
1.7
1.0

Per ct.

10.1
12.4
12.4
16.0
22.6

6.2
12.8
3.6
4.1
2.1
1.4

Per ct.

2.0
10.9
2.2
9.5
7.1

29.9
25.5
36.3

8.7
6.3
0.8

Per ct.

70.9
59.6
71.2
53.7
23.2

45.0
38.7
40.8
14.8
15.4
6.1

Per ct.

5.0
4.4
2.1
4.4
33.7

2.5
3.1
2.4
1.2

O.S
0.1

440

490

858

7,742

50

221
76
41

Kentucky bluegrass.

Corn silage

Mangels

32
121

38

Water. — To determine the amount of water in a feed, the chemist
weighs a sample before and after drying in an oven at a temperature
of 212° F. for several hours. Volatile compounds, such as give
various plants their characteristic odors, are driven off in addition to
the water by heating, but their weight is insignificant. The table
shows that even such "dry" feeds as corn, oats, wheat, and wheat
bran contain 9 per ct. or more of water. Timothy and clover hay
contain still more water, and such succulent feeds as green grass,
corn silage, and mangels are largely water.

Ash, or mineral matter. — The chemist next burns the sample and
finds the weight of ash, or mineral inatter, which is left. The table
shows that 100 lbs. of corn or wheat contains less than 2 lbs. of ash,
while oats, with their strawy hulls, and wheat bran, consisting of the
outer coats of the wheat grain, carry more. The hays and straws are
higher in ash than such grains as corn and wheat, due to the accumu-
lation of mineral matter in the leaves during growth, to soil washed
upon the growing plants by rain, and to dust settling on the roughage
before it is housed. Such foreign material is not really plant ash,
but of necessity is reported as such. Owing to their high water con-
tent, the ash in 100 lbs. of fresh grass, silage, and mangels is low.

The ash and water of plants together constitute the so-called
inorganic matter; the other compounds — crude protein, carbohydrates,
and fat — are termed the organic matter.

Crude protein. — The process of determining the nitrogenous con-

HOW PLANTS GROW 13

stituents of feeding stuffs is too complicated for presentation here.
Suffice it to say that the nitrogen content is found, and the result multi-
plied by 6.25 to give the crude protein, since about 16 per ct. of plant
protein is nitrogen (100 ^- 16 ^ 6.25). From the table we learn that
100 lbs. of wheat bran contains 16.0. lbs. of crude protein, while the
amount in wheat is 12.4 lbs. and in dent corn only 10.1 lbs. per 100 lbs.
Red clover hay contains over twice as much crude protein as timothy
hay.

Fiber. — The woody portion of a feeding stuff is determined by
boiling a sample successively in weak acid and alkali and washing
out the dissolved matter. That which remains is termed fiber. Fiber,
which consists mostly of cellulose, is less digestible and hehce has a
lower nutritive value than the other nutrients of feeding stuffs.
Corn contains but 2.0 and wheat only 2.2 per ct. of fiber, while,
owing to the woody hulls, oats contain 10.9 per ct. Most roughages,
especially the straws, are much higher in fiber than the concentrates.
Mangels contain but 0.8 per ct. fiber; were they dried to the same
water content as oats they would contain only 7.7 per ct. fiber — less
than oats.

Fat. — A sample of the pulverized dried fodder is treated with ether,
which dissolves out the fats and also the waxes and resins, the chloro-
phyll, or green coloring matter, and similar substances. This, called
ether extract in works on plant analysis, is for convenience termed fat
in this work. The ether extract of seeds is nearly all true fat or oil,
while that of the leaves and stems of plants contains much chlorophyll,
wax, etc. Corn and oats carry more fat than the other cereals. Some
seeds, such as flax seed, are so rich in oil that it may be extracted from
them by crushing and subsequent pressure.

Nitrogen-free extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, expressed in the
tables in this book as N-free extract, embraces the substances that are
extracted from the dry matter of plants by treatment with weak acids
and alkalies under standard conditions, less the crude protein, fat, and
ash. It is determined by difference and not by direct analysis. The
total dry matter in a feeding stuff minus the sum of the ash, crude
protein, fiber, and fat, equals the nitrogen-free extract. It embraces
the sugars, starches, pentoses, non-nitrogenous organic acids, etc., of
the plant. The nitrogen-free extract is more soluble and hence more
digestible than the fiber, and thus has a higher nutritive value. Over
70 per ct. of both corn and wheat is nitrogen-free extract, largely
starch. The roughages, carrying much woody fiber, contain less of
these more soluble carbohydrates than the concentrates. The nitro-
gen-free extract and fiber together constitute the carbohydrates.

Roughages and concentrates. — These terms are used to differen-

14 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

tiate feeding stuffs of a coarse, bulky nature from those which are
more condensed and nutritious.

Concentrates are feeding stuffs of condensed nature, which are low
in liber and hence furnish a large amount of digestible matter.
Examples of this class of feeds are the various grains, as Indian corn,
wheat, and oats, and milling by-products of high feeding value, as
wheat bran, linseed meal, gluten feed, etc.

Roughages are the coarser feeding stuffs, which are high in fiber and
supply a lower percentage of digestible matter. Such feeds as hay,
corn fodder, straw, and silage belong to this class. Some of the low-
grade milling by-products, such as oat hulls, ground corncobs, and
peanut hulls are roughages, rather than concentrates, for the}^ are
largely fiber and furnish but little nutriment. Roots are watery and
bulky, and contain relatively little nutriment per pound, yet based
on the composition of the dry substance they are more like concen-
trates than roughages, as they are low in fiber. They are really
watery, or diluted, concentrates, tho for convenience they are included
under fresh green roughages in Appendix Table I.

III. The Study of an Acre of Corn

The manner in which plants grow and store nutrients is well shown
by a study of Indian corn, the greatest of our agricultural plants.

Changes in a growing corn crop. — By analyzing corn plants at
various stages from July 24, when they were about 4 ft. high, until
Oct. 8, when the kernels were hard, Jones of the Indiana Station ^
secured the following data, based on an average stand of 10,000 stalks
per acre.

Cofupositiou of an acre of Indian corn at different stages

Total wt.

Dry

Crude

Nfree

Stage of growth of green

matter

Ash

protein

Fiber

extract

Fat

crop

in crop

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Four feet high, July 24 5,138

731

90

149

170

282

40

First tassels, Aug. G.. 18,827

2,245

195

360

670

977

42

Silks drying, Aug. 28. 24,327

4,567

272

436

1,203

2,606

49

Milk stage, Sept. 10 . . 2G,710

6,174

328

544

1,361

3,846

95

Glazing stage, Sept. 24 23,750

8,104

389

566

1,523

5,425

202

Silage stage, Oct. 1 . . . 25,275

8,929

369

660

1,602

6,084

215

Ready to shock, Oct. 8 . 22,253

9,412

383

691

1,737

6,336

265

From July 24, at a stage when sometimes unwisely fed as soilage,
to Aug. 28, when the silks were drying, the crop increased over
19,000 lbs. in total weight and nearly 4,000 lbs. in dry matter. The

ilnd. Bui. 175; see also Ladd, N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt. 1889.

r

HOW PLANTS GROW

15

increase in total weight was thereafter less rapid, reaching the maxi-
mum when the kernels were in the milk stage. After this the gross
weight decreased by over 4,000 lbs., due to drying out as the crop
matured. The dry matter, however, continued to increase rapidly
until the plants were fully ripe. Indeed, in less than a month follow-
ing Aug. 28 the acre of corn stored over 3,500 lbs, of dry matter!
When four feet high the crop was nearly 86 -per ct. water and only
14 per ct. dry matter; while when the kernels were hard and the
husks dry over 42 per ct. was dry matter. The mineral matter, or
ash, increased rapidly until the plants reached their full height.

■ CRUDE PROTCIN
! FIBER
: NITROGEN-FREE EXTRACT

FIRST TASSELS

GLAZING STAGE

SILAGE STAGE

Fig, 6. — Nutrients in Corn Plants at Various Stages

Tlie shaded areas in the legend represent the amount of crude protein, fiber,
nitrogen-free extract, and fat in corn plants at various stages. (From In-
diana Station.)

The most rapid increase in crude protein, the nitrogenous portion,
occurred in the period before the plants were tasseled, when cell
growth was most active, but some increase occurred until the plants
reached maturity, Altho amids — the building-stones of the proteins —
were constantly being formed during the development of tlie plants,
they were in turn quickly built over into the more complex, stable
proteins. Hence it was found in further studies that the amount of
amids did not increase after the plants were silked, while there was a
steady storage of true protein up to maturity.

16 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Since the stalk of the corn plant must be strong and sturdy to carry
the abundant foliage and the heavy ear, the fiber increased rapidly
until the woody framework was grown.

The table shows that the nitrogen-free extract, the most valuable
portion of the carbohydrates, made up of sugars, starch, and the other
more soluble carbohydrates, increased more than 2.5 tons between
tasseling and ripening. This increase was chiefly starch, for, altho
sugars were being steadily formed in the leaves of the plants, they
were being continuously transferred to other parts, especially the
swelling kernels of the ear, where they were changed to starch.
Another portion of the sugars was changed into cellulose to form the
woody framework of the plant structure. The elements of a third
portion were combined with nitrates and other mineral matter from
the soil to form the nitrogenous amids and proteins.

At the milk stage, starch formed less than a fifth of the nitrogen-
free extract, but after this it increased rapidly as it was stored in
the maturing kernels. From the milk stage to the date when the com
was ready to shock, less than a month, there was a gain of nearly
2,500 lbs. of nitrogen-free extract, over a ton of which was starch.
This shows plainly the heavy losses of valuable nutrients which occur
when a crop of corn is harvested too early.

In producing this acre of corn, probably not over 10 lbs. of seed was
placed in the ground in the spring time. From this insignificant
beginning, by the following October, about 130 days later, the resultant
plants had gathered inorganic matter — carbon dioxid from the air, and
water, nitrogen, and mineral matter from the soil — and built all these,
first into primary organic forms, and finally into complex organic
parts of their structure. The product of such building amounted to
over 11 tons of green or 4.7 tons of dry matter, nearly all available
for nourishing the animals of the farm and, thru them, man. This is a
forceful illustration of Nature's wonderful processes of food produc-
tion occurring all about us under the guiding hand of man.

The end of plant effort. — In the life of the plant, we find that the
first effort is toward self-establishment and enlargement. At this
time all the material formed in the plant is transferred to the growing
parts. As the plant approaches maturity, its energies are changed
from growth to reproduction, or the formation of seed. For example,
in the corn plants the nutrients are now poured in a steady current
into the ear, where the kernels rapidly develop. In each of these
grains is the germ — a miniature plant — composed largely of protein,
about which is stored a generous supply of rich nutrients — proteins,
starch, sugar, oil, and mineral matter — all in compact, concentrated
form after Nature's choicest plan, to nourish the new life which is to
follow if the kernel finds lodgment in the soil.

HOW PLANTS GROW 17

QUESTIONS

1. Name the 10 elements essential for plant growth and 4 others which are
commonly found in plants.

2. Make a sketch of a growing plant, showing where it secures each essen-
tial element.

3. How do legumeis indirectly use free nitrogen gas from the air?

4. How are the first simple plant compounds formed?

5. Define carbohydrates. State what classes of compounds are included in
this group and tell what you can about each.

6. How do fats and carbohydrates differ in composition?

7. Distinguish between crude protein, proteins, and amids.

8. Why do not the amids accumulate in the plant during its growth?

9. In analyzing feeding stuffs, what groups of plant substances do chemists
usually determine?

10. How is the amount of each found?

11. What is meant by concentrates and roughages?

12. Discuss the storage in the growing corn plant of the various nutrients,
especially the carbohydrates.

CHAPTER II

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM

I. The Composition of the Animal Body

Having studied the composition of plants and the manner in which
they grow, let us now study the composition of the bodies of farm
animals, which are nourished by plants.

The animal body. — The bodies of the higher animals consist of a
bony skeleton, chiefly of mineral matter, surrounded by an elaborate
muscular system. Fatty tissue permeates the bones and muscles, filling
in and rounding out the body form, and around all is the enveloping
skin. Within the body cavity are the various special organs, such as
the heart, stomach, etc., designed for dissolving, distributing, and
utilizing the nutrients of the food and for disposing of the waste.
All these organs are nitrogenous or protein in nature, as are also a
part of the organic matter of the bones and a large portion of the
nerves, which control and direct all body activities.

Therefore, one of the fundamental differences between plants and
animals is that in animals the walls of the body cells are made chiefly
of protein, while in plants the walls of the cells are composed of cellu-
lose, which is a carbohydrate. Furthermore, in plants starch, another
carbohydrate, is the chief form in which reserve food is stored. In
animals, on the other hand, nearly all the reserve food is stored in the
form of fat. Tho small amounts of glucose and glycogen, or animal
starch, perform important functions in the bodies of animals, as we
shall see later in this chapter, these carbohydrates at no time form an
appreciable part of the animal's weight.

Composition of animals. — Over 60 years ago Lawes and Gilbert,
the famous English agricultural scientists, analyzed the entire bodies
of several farm animals — a task involving much labor. During recent
years similar studies have been made at certain of the American experi-
ment stations. The following table,^ which summarizes some of these
investigations, shows that the composition of the bodies of farm animals
varies greatly according to their age and degree of fatness:

1 Data for cattle from Haecker, Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1914, and for
sheep and swine from Lawes and Gilbert, Philosophical Transactions, 1859.

18

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 10

Composition of the bodies of farm animals *

Water Protein Fat Ash

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.

Calf, wt. 100 lbs 71.8 ll).9 4.0 4.3

Calf, wt. 300 lbs 66.3 19.0 10.2 4.5

(iiowing steer, wt. 700 lbs 60.3 18.6 16.0 4.5

Partly fat steer, wt. 1,000 lbs 53.0 17.0 25.6 3.8

Fat steer, wt. 1,200 lbs 48.0 16.6 31.1 3.7

Very fat steer, wt. 1,500 lbs 43.5 15.7 37.7 3.2

Fat lamb 52.3 13.4 31.2 3.2

Sheep, before fattening 61.0 15.7 19.9 3.4

Half-fat sheep 55.2 15.4 25.9 3.5

Fat sheep 46.2 13.0 37.9 3.0

Very fat sheep 37.1 11.5 48.3 3.1

Hog, before fattening 58.1 14.5 24.6 2.8

Fat hog 43.0 11.4 43.9 1.7

* Not including contents of digestive tract.

The table shows that 71.8 per ct. of the body of a 100-lb. calf is
water and that the proportion of water steadily grows less as the
animal matures and fattens, the body of a very fat 1,500-lb. steer
containing only 43.5 per ct. water. The percentage of protein remains
quite constant during growth but decreases as the animal fattens.
On the other hand, the percentage of fat increases gradually during
growth, and more rapidly while fattening. Over one-third of the
carcass of the fattened 1,500-lb. steer is fat. The percentage of ash,
or mineral matter, shows the least change, but decreases as the animal
fattens, since the fatty tissue contains but little mineral matter.
Similar changes occur in the bodies of sheep and swine as the animals
mature and fatten. In general, the bodies of sheep and swine at the
same degree of fatness contain less water and protein and considerably
more fat than those of cattle. The fat hog, for example, contains
43.9 per ct. fat and only 11.4 per ct. protein. Due to their small
skeletons, the bodies of swine contain less ash than those of cattle and
sheep.

II, Digestion

The changes which food undergoes within the digestive tract of
animals to separate the useful portion from the waste matter and
prepare it for absorption and final use in the body are known as
digestion.

Nutrients and rations. — In discussing stock feeding it is necessary
to understand clearly what is meant by each of the following terms :

The term nutrient is applied to any food constituent or group of
food constituents of the same general chemical composition, that aid in
the support of animal life. Crude protein, the carbohydrates, and

20 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

fat constitute the generally recognized classes of nutrients, altho air,
water, and mineral matter might likewise be so termed.

The term digestible nutrient covers that portion of each nutrient
which may be digested and taken into the body.

A ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during a day of
24 hours, whether all is fed at one time or in portions at different
times,

A balanced ration is one which furnishes the several nutrients —
crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat — in such proportion and amount
as will properly nourish a given animal for 24 hours.

The alimentary canal. — The alimentary canal is a long, tortuous
tube passing thru the animal from mouth to vent, enlarged in places
for the storage of food or waste. It includes the mouth, gullet,

^' C

Y

Fig. 7. — Diagram of the Digestive Tract of the Cow

A, Salivary glands; b, gullet; c, paunch, or first stomach (Only a small part
of the paunch is here visible, the rear portion being hidden by the intestines) ;
d, honeycomb, or second stomach; e, manyplies, or third stomach; f, fourth, or
true stomach; g, duodenum, or first part of small intestine; h, mesenteric part
of small intestine; i, caecum; j, colon; k, rectum; 1, point of entrance of bile
duct into duodenum; m, point of entrance of pancreatic duct into duodenum.
The intestines are spread out somewhat in this diagram.

stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Within its linings are
organs which secrete the various fluids of digestion, and into it, from
other organs located near by, pour still other digestive fluids. Within
its walls are nerves controlling its action, arteries which nourish it
with fresh blood, and veins and lymphatics which absorb and carry
from it the products of digestion.

Ruminants (animals which chew the cud), including the ox, sheep,
and goat, have much more complicated digestive tracts than other
animals. In the horse and pig the gullet is a simple muscular tube
passing from the mouth to the stomach. In ruminants the gullet is

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 21

expanded just before the true stomach is reached into three compart-
ments of great aggregate capacity, the first and by far the largest of
which is the paunch; the second, the honeycomb; and the third, the
manyplies. The 4 stomachs of a full grown steer may hold over 250
quarts, while the single stomach of a horse holds only 12 to 19 quarts,
and of a pig about 8.5 quarts.

The small intestine is the long, folded, tortuous tube into which the
stomach empties. It is about 130 ft. long in mature cattle, 70 ft. in
horses, 80 ft. in sheep, and 60 ft. in swine. Its average capacity is
about as follows : cattle, 70 quarts ; horse, 50 to 65 quarts ; sheep and
swine, 10 quarts. The large intestine, into which the small intestine
empties, is larger in diameter but much shorter. In the horse, that
part of the large intestine next to the small intestine, called the
blind gut, or caecum, is greatly enlarged. Due to this, the large
intestine of this animal holds from 120 to 140 quarts. Were it not
for this caecum, the horse would be unable to consume and digest
large amounts of roughage. In cattle the large intestine has a capacity
of about 40 quarts, and in sheep 6 quarts. The pig, which has neither
the 4 stomachs of the ruminants nor the large caecum of the horse, is
not well fitted to use large amounts of roughage. His large intestine,
however, holds nearly twice as much as that of the sheep, which aids
him somewhat in disposing of coarse feed.

Mastication. — In the mouth the food is crushed and ground by the
teeth and at the same time moistened by the alkaline, somewhat slimj'-,
saliva, moist and slippery masses being formed which pass readily
thru the gullet into the stomach. Exceedingly large amounts of saliva
are secreted by the larger farm animals, especially when eating dry
feed. For example, a horse may secrete as much as 90 lbs. during
24 hours.

Ruminants while eating chew their food only enough to moisten it,
if dry, and form it into masses of suitable size to be swallowed. The
gullet of ruminants opens into the first 3 stomachs thru a slit called
the esophageal groove, which has an exceedingly important function.
When the ox swallows the masses of solid food, which are so large as
to distend the gullet, on coming to the slit they are pressed out thru it,
just as would be the case if one tried to force thru a rubber tube with
a slit in it an object like a ball which fitted it tightly. These masses
of food usually pass into the paunch until it is full, and then on into
the honeycomb instead. When hunger is satisfied the animal seeks a
quiet place and proceeds to ruminate, or "chew the cud." By con-
tractions of the muscular paunch, the honeycomb, and of the gullet
itself, the food is forced back to the mouth in "cuds." Here each cud
is thoroly chewed and saliva is added until the material becomes more

22 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

or less souplike. On being resvvallovved, this finely divided material
usually flows along the gullet past the slit, and directly into the third
stomach, from which it passes into the fourth, or true stomach. Water
or liquid food, when first swallowed, may not be forced thru the slit
into the paunch but may pass at once to the third stomach.

Enzymes.— As most of the changes which food undergoes in diges-
tion are effected thru enzymes, their general nature should be clearly
understood. Enzymes are mysterious organic compounds which are
able to change or break down other organic compounds without them-
selves being changed or broken down. To illustrate the action of
enzymes, we will take ptyalin, the enzyme contained in the saliva,
that converts the starch of the food, which is insoluble, into sugar,
which is soluble. If starch is mixed with saliva and the whole kept at
body temperature, the starch gradually dissolves, being changed to
sugar. Thru the action of the ptyalin, the complex starch molecule has
been cleaved, or split, into the simpler molecules of sugar. If starch
is mixed merely with water, instead of saliva, this change will not
occur.

The ptyalin is not itself altered by this process, for, if more starch is
added and the resulting sugar removed, the process may be repeated
many times. However, heating the enzyme above a certain tempera-
ture destroys it. At freezing temperature its action ceases, tho the
enzyme is not destroyed, for on warming it becomes active again.
Ptyalin acts best in a neutral or slightly alkaline solution and is
destroyed by the presence of much acid, while some other enzymes act
only in acid solutions. Each of the enzymes of digestion is capable of
acting on only one of the groups of nutrients — on proteins, on carbo-
hydrates, or on fats.

Digestion in the mouth. — Not only is the food prepared for swallow-
ing in the mouth, but in most animals the first step in digestion occurs
here, thru the action of ptyalin on the starch in the food. The saliva
of cattle and dogs, however, contains little or no ptyalin, and that of
horses but little. The saliva of swine contains a fair amount, and that
of man, monkeys, rabbits, rats, and mice has the greatest starch digest-
ing power.

Digestion in the simple stomach. — With such animals as the horse
and pig, which have simple stomachs, the food passes directly from the
mouth thru the gullet to the single stomach. The glands in the walls
of the stomach secrete the digestive fluid called gastric juice. This
contains the enzymes pepsin and rennin, and from 0.2 to 0.5 per ct. of
hydrochloric acid. If the food became acid as soon as it reached the
stomach the action of the ptyalin of the saliva would cease at once.
However, the first part of the stomach does not secrete any acid,

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM

23

and so the action of the ptyalin on starch continues in this part of that
organ. The intestinal or rear end of the stomach, on the other hand,
secretes much acid. Here the action of the ptyalin ceases and pepsin
digestion becomes active.

Pepsin, which acts only in weak acid solutions, converts the very
complex proteins into soluble and simpler, tho still complex, products

Fig. 8. — Longitudinal Section of Stomach of the Horse

A, Q'^sopliagiis, or gullet; b, oesophageal region of stomach, in which no gastric
juice is secreted; c, entrance of gullet; d, left extremity of stomach; e, boundary
between oesophageal region and portion of stomach secreting gastric juice; f. g,
fundus gland region and pyloric gland region, in which gastric juice is secreted;
h, pylorus, or ring of muscles closi'ng the stomach; i, entrance of pancreatic and
bile ducts. (From Sisson, "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")

known as proteoses and peptones. Bennin, the other enzyme of the
gastric juice, changes milk into a solid curd. Were it not for this,
milk would pass on quickly into the small intestine before its proteins
had been digested by pepsin.

Soon after the food reaches the stomach, its walls begin a series of

24 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

regular contractions which pass in waves toward the intestinal end.
When digestion has progressed sufficiently, as a contraction reaches
the rear end of the stomach, the ring of muscles which keeps the
stomach shut off from the small intestine relaxes and allows a small
quantity of the semi-liquid contents of the stomach to spurt thru into
the intestine. After this the ring of muscles again contracts, closing
the entrance. The stomach now slowly relaxes, and soon the prpcess
is repeated. By this means the fluid matter is squeezed out and
carried into the small intestine, while the more solid portions remain
behind for further action by the gastric juice. Little or no digestion
of fat takes place in the stomach.

Stomach digestion of ruminants. — Tho the first three stomachs of
ruminants secrete no enzymes, but only water, they are highly
important in digestion. The nutrients of plants are enclosed within
the cell walls, and where these are of hard, thick cellulose, as in hay
and straw, the digestive fluids can not easily reach and attack the
nutrients locked within. As we have seen, when ruminants swallow
solid food it passes chiefly into the paunch. Here it is softened by the
moisture, slowly but thoroly mixed by muscular contractions, and
ground against the rough lining. All this prepares the food for easy
digestion farther on.

A considerable amount of actual digestion also occurs in these first
stomachs, especially in the paunch, thru the action of bacteria. The
bacteria attack the cellulose and pentosans of the feed (for which
Nature has provided no other means of digestion) and break them
down with the production of heat and the formation of organic acids
and of gases, including marsh gas, carbon dioxid, and hydrogen. The
acids serve as food, the same as do the sugars, but the gases are useless
and are excreted. In this bacterial action the cell walls of the feed
are broken down, setting free the nutrients contained within. Not only
do the bacteria digest cellulose and pentosans, but they may also attack
starch and sugar. This action is detrimental, for these nutrients
would be digested more efficiently later on in the small intestine, while
in the bacterial digestion a considerable part of their feeding value is
lost thru the heat and gases produced in the fermentations. When
fresh, easily fermented forage, such as green clover or alfalfa, is eaten,
the bacterial action may then be so great that gas is produced faster
than it can be carried away, and "bloat" results.

After rumination, the reswallowed food passes chiefly into the
manyplies, or third stomach, where it is further ground between the
muscular folds before being forced into the fourth, or true stomach.
In the latter the digestive processes are similar to those in the simple
stomach, as previously described.

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 25

Dig'estion in the small intestine. — When received into the small
intestine, the partially digested food is a semi-liquid mass. As yet,
the fats in the food have not been digested, and the digestion of the
proteins and carboh3'drates is far from complete. Here the work of
digestion proceeds even more vigorously than in the stomach, all classes
of nutrients being attacked. The small intestine receives near its
upper part digestive fluids from two outside organs, the liver and the
pancreas, and another digestive juice is secreted in the wall of the
intestine itself. Immediately on entering the small intestine the
inpouring material is changed from an acid to an alkaline character
thru the rapid addition of bile and pancreatic juice, both alkaline.
This stops the action of the pepsin, which works only when acid is
present.

The pancreatic juice. — The pancreatic juice is produced by the
pancreas, or sweetbread, a slender gland lying just beyond the stomach
and connected with the small intestine by a duct. The chief enzymes
it contains are trj-psin, amylase, and lipase. Trypsin, like pepsin,
changes protein into proteoses and peptones, and is also able to break
some of these partially digested substances further into amino acids.
It is believed that before the food protein can be absorbed and used by
the animal body it must all be cleaved into amino acids, which, as we
have seen in Chapter I, are the simple "building stones" from which
proteins are formed. Amylase changes starch into sugar. Lipase
splits fats into fatty acids and glycerin. The fatty acids unite with
alkalies in the bile to form soaps, and are absorbed from the intestine
in this form.

The bile. — The bile, secreted by the liver, the largest organ in the
body, is a greenish or golden colored fluid, alkaline and extremely
bitter in taste. It contains no enzymes but is nevertheless exceedingly
important in digestion, as it furnishes the alkalies necessary to change
the fatty acids formed by lipase into soaps. It also aids in emulsifying
the undigested fat; i.e., breaking it up into very minute droplets, so
that it can be more readily acted on by the lipase. Furthermore, in
some manner the bile increases the digestive power of the pancreatic
and intestinal juices. After performing its work, much of the bile is
absorbed from the intestine and, passing back to the liver, is used once
more.

The intestinal secretion. — The digestive fluid secreted by the mucous
membrane of the small intestine contains several enzymes, the most
important of which are erepsin and the invertases. Erepsin attacks
the proteoses and peptones which have escaped the action of trypsin
and breaks them up into amino acids. It can not act on protein which
has not already been split into proteoses and peptones. The invertases

26

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

(sucrase, maltase, and lactase) change cane sugar, malt sugar, and
milk sugar into the simpler glucose-like sugars.

Due to the vigorous action of the enzymes in the small intestine,
digestion is very thoro and under ordinary conditions little that is
useful is lost. The larger portion of all the digested matter is absorbed
from the small intestine, thus entering the body proper, as is shown
later in this chapter.

The large intestine. — From the small intestine the undigested
material passes into the large intestine. Little, if any, digestive fluid
is produced here, but a small amount of digestion may go on owing to
digestive enzymes carried in from the small intestine and to the action
of bacteria. The bacteria may not only attack cellulose but also may
cause the putrefaction of undigested protein, in which action foul-
smelling substances are formed which are poisonous if absorbed in
large quantities. The waste, or feces, is finally expelled from the
large intestine. Besides undigested matter, the feces contain residues
of the digestive juices and countless bacteria or their remains. If
the large intestine is not functioning normally, the contents may
remain for an undue time, and excessive putrefaction may take place,
injuring the animal thru the absorption of the poisonous products
formed.

Special provision for the horse. — As has been mentioned before, the
horse has a large caecum, or blind gut, in partial compensation for its

small stomach and lack of
a paunch. The incom-
pletely digested matter
from the small intestine,
together with the enzymes
mixed with it, passes into
the caecum. Here the en-
zyme action continues and
the cellulose of the feed is
also attacked and digested
by bacteria, as in the
paunch of ruminants.
Due to this, the horse is
able to digest such feeds
as hay and straw quite
thoroly, tho less com-
pletely than can cattle
and sheep.

Palatability. — The palatability of feeds is a factor of no small
mportance in the feeding of stock. Experiments have shown that the

Fig. 9. — Caecum of Horse

The entrance of the small intestine is desig-
nated ( I ) . The opening of the caecum into the
large intestine is hidden from view. ( From Sis-
son, "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 27

mere sight or smell of well-liked food will cause a marked flow of saliva
and even cause some flow of the gastric juice. It is reasonable to
believe, therefore, that well-liked feeds are digested better than others
which may be equally nutritious but are less palatable.

Even with farm animals palatability is greatly influenced and con-
trolled by familiarity and habit or custom. When corn silage is first
placed before cows, not infrequently, after sniffing it, they will let it
alone for a time. They then usually begin nibbling at it, and later
may gorge themselves thereon if permitted. In such cases food that at
first seems unpalatable becomes palatable.

In his early experience the senior author was feeding two lots of
fattening steers, one on shelled corn and the other on shelled corn
ground into meal, both receiving wheat bran in addition. After some
weeks of successful feeding, the rations for the two lots were reversed.
The steers changed from corn meal to whole corn showed a strong dis-
like for the new ration, eating so little at first that they shrank in
weight. From this the general conclusion might have been drawn that
shelled corn is less palatable than corn meal for fattening steers. But
the steers given corn meal in place of shelled corn were equally dis-
satisfied. This shows that custom and habit — something entirely
extraneous to the food — are possible factors in palatability. Every
practical stockman knows that to get the best results he must at all
times provide feed for his animals which is palatable and altogether
acceptable. This may be accomplished in considerable degree by
steadily using the same feeds and feed combinations, and in always
avoiding sudden and violent changes in their character and in the
manner of feeding.

Ill, Metabolism

We have learned how digestion prepares the various nutrients for
the nourishment of the body. Let us now consider the manner in
which" the digested nutrients are brought from the alimentary tract
into the body proper, and what becomes of them. Chemists and
physiologists, working together with skill and great patience, have
been able quite fully to explain the processes of digestion. When the
nutrients leave the alimentary tract and enter the body, the difficulties
of following them and learning what becomes of them are much greater.
Many of the changes that occur in the body have been revealed by
persevering scientists, but concerning others only little of a definite
nature can yet be told.

Metabolism. — The processes by which the digested nutrients of the
food are absorbed and used for the production of heat, work, and milk,
or built up into the living matter of the body, in turn being broken

28

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

down and once more becoming non-living matter, are termed
metaholism.-

The circulatory canals of the body. — The body of the animal is
made up of innumerable cells, which, grouped and modified in myriads
of ways, form all its organs and parts. Everywhere among the cells
are minute spaces called lymph spaces, which are connected with the
lymphatics, a set of vessels which permeate most parts of the body.
In some respects the lymphatics resemble the veins, but they are
thinner and more transparent and drain in only one direction — toward
the heart. "Within these vessels is a clear fluid called lymph. These
vessels unite with one another, forming a network in many places.

Fig. 10. — Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood

1, Tlie heart; 2, artery carrying blood to tlie liead and fore limbs; 3, circula-
tion thru the upper portion of tlie body; 4, vein carrying blood from upper part
of body back to the heart; 5, artery carrying venous blood to lungs; G, circula-
tion thru lungs; 7, vein carrying arterial blood back to heart; 8, artery carrying
blood to lower portion of body; 9, circulation thru rear extremities; 10, vein
carrying blood to heart from rear extremities; 11, artery carrying blood to in-
testines; 12, circulation thru intestinal capillaries; 13, portal vein carrying
blood to liver; 14, circulation thru liver. (From Smith, "Manual of Veterinary
Physiology.")

Here and there a trunk subdivides into five or six smaller vessels, and
the latter enter a nodule-like body called a lymphatic gland. From
this gland come several small vessels, which, after a short space, again
unite to form a trunk. Gradually these trunks unite, forming larger
trunks until a large duct and another smaller one are formed which
enter veins in the neck.

The arteries and the veins are the other set of canals. These perme-
ate every portion of the body, the former carrying the blood away from
the heart, and the latter carrying it to the heart. At the extremities
of the arteries are still more minute tubes, called capillaries, which con-

2 Constructive metabolism, or the building-up processes, is termed anabolism,
while the breaking-down and wasting processes are called catabolism.

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 29

nect them with- the veins. If one extends his arms in front of him with
his finger tips touching, his body will represent the heart, while one
arm will represent an artery carrying blood from the heart, and the
other a vein conveying blood to the heart. The touching fingers will
correspond to the capillaries connecting the arteries- with the veins, and
the space all about the fingers will represent the surrounding body
tissues. In general, neither the veins nor the arteries allow any sub-
stance within them to escape thru- their walls proper. It is thru- the
capillaries that the nutritive matter carried by the blood finds its way
into the body tissues for their nourishment, and thru the" capillaries and
the lymphatics, in turn, the waste of the body drains back into- the blood
circulation.

The tissues of the body are thus everywhere permeated by the ducts
of the lymphatic system and the capillaries of the blood system. The
cells are bathed by lymph, which is the fluid that receives and tem-
porarily holds all the nutritive substances and the body wastes.

The digested nutrients are absorbed into the circulation chiefly thru
the walls of the small intestine. The mucous membrane lining it has a
velvety ap.pearanee, caused by innumerable minute, eone-like projec-
tions, or tongues, called villi, which project into the interior of the intes-
tinal tube, thereby coming into intimate contact with its fluid contents.
Within each villus are lacteals, or drainage tubes o-f the lymphatic
system, and capillaries of the blood system.

Digestion and absorption of fat. — In discussing the manner in which
the various nutrients are absorbed, let us at the same time review their
digestion, tracing just what becomes of eaeh after entering the mouth.

The fats of food undergo no appreciable digestion until they reach
the small intestine. Here thru the aid of the bile they are split by the
lipase of the pancreatic juice into fatty acids and glycerin. The
alkalies in the bile then unite with these fatty acids to form soaps.
It is believed that practically all of the fats are absorbed in the form
of soaps and glycerin ; these are then reunited into fats in the intestinal
wall. Some of the fatty acids and glycerin formed by the action of
the lipase may perhaps be absorbed directly, without the fatty acids
being first changed to soaps. In the villi of the intestinal Avail the
fats enter the lacteals, forming, with the lymph a milky substance called
chyle. This is carried by the lymphatics and poured into a vein near
the shoulder, thus entering the blood circulation.

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. — Carbohydrate diges-
tion begins in the mouth, where the ptyalin in the saliva changes starch
into malt sugar. This action continues in the first part of the stomach,
but ceases when the food becomes acid in the rear end of that
organ. Simple, glucose-like sugars may be absorbed directly from the

30

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

-Villi op

In-

stomacli in small amounts, but nearly all the carbohydrates are carried
on into the small intestine. Here the starch which escaped being acted
upon in the mouth or stomach is changed into malt sugar by amylase,
an enzyme in the pancreatic juice. The compound cane, malt, and
milk sugars are then split into simple glucose-
like sugars by the action of the invertases, en-
zymes in the intestinal juice. These simple,
glucose-like sugars, which are the only carbo-
hydrates that can be used in the body, are ab'-
sorbed thru the walls of the small intestine, and,
entering the capillaries, pass into the veins and
thence to the liver. Here they are for the most
part withdrawn from the blood and temporarily
stored in this organ as glycogen, a carbohydrate
which is closely related to starch and, having
the same percentage composition, is sometimes
called animal starch. Normally from 1.5 to 4.0
per ct, of the weight of the liver consists of
glycogen. The glycogen stored in the liver is
gradually changed back into glucose, and then
given out to the system as required, the amount
of glucose in the blood being kept at about 1 part
in 1,000. In addition to the liver, all the tissues
of the body, especially the muscles, have some
power to change glucose into glycogen.

The cellulose and pentosans in the feed are
attacked by bacteria in the first three stomachs
of ruminants, in the caecum of horses, and to
some extent in the large intestine of other animals. These bacteria
break down the cellulose and pentosans into organic acids and also
gases (marsh gas, carbon dioxid, and hydrogen), heat being produced
in the process. The gases are of no value but the organic acids serve as
food the same as sugars.

Digestion and absorption of protein. — The proteins of the food
are first attacked in the stomach by pepsin, which splits them into
proteoses and peptones. These are soluble and are simpler in com-
position than the proteins, but are still very complex in structure.
The proteoses and peptones, together with protein which escapes action
by pepsin, pass into the small intestine. There trypsin, an enzyme in
the pancreatic juice, not only splits the undigested protein into pro-
teoses and peptones, but also digests them further, splitting them into
amino acids, which are much simpler than the proteoses and peptones.
Erepsin, an enzyme in the intestinal juice, also acts on the proteoses

Fig. 11

THE Small

TESTINE

A, Lining cells of
intestine; b, net work
of capillaries; c, lac-
teals. For the sake
of simplicity the mus-
cle fibers in the villi
are not shown in this
diagram. (After

Cadiat. )

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 31

and peptones and splits them into amino acids. Thus thiii the action
of the trypsin and erepsin all the protein which can be digested is split
into amino acids. The amino acids are absorbed thru the walls of the
small intestine and pass into the blood. They are then carried into the
general circulation, and from the blood each of the parts of the body —
muscles, organs, etc. — absorbs a certain amount to be used for repair or
in growth.

A good picture of what takes place in protein digestion can be had
by likening the food proteins to a house being taken down by a builder
in order that he may construct another from the materials. An animal
eating protein compounds cannot use them just as they are, but must
first take them apart to a greater or less extent, and from the parts
reconstruct other kinds of protein suitable for its own use. In other
words, the proteins must have a different architecture from those in
the plants. The proteoses and peptones may be likened to the roof
and walls of the house. These walls and roof can be separated into
bricks and tiles, which are represented by the amino acids ; and from
these the animal, beginning anew, can construct new proteins of the
exact kind its body ma.y require.

Mineral matter; water. — The mineral matter in feeding stuffs is not
acted upon by any enzymes, but is dissolved in its passage thru the
digestive tract, especially in the stomach by the acid in the gastric juice.
It is absorbed chiefly from the small intestine.

Water requires no digestion and is absorbed chiefly from the small
intestine, but also to some extent from the stomach and large intestine.

Distribution and use of absorbed nutrients. — We have seen that the
digested fats which are to nourish the body are poured into the blood
current by way of the lymphatics, while the glucose and the amino acids
enter the blood directly thru the capillaries and veins. The veins from
the small intestine unite and become the portal vein, which passes the
blood thru the liver and on into the heart. The various nutrients,
having been mingled with the blood, are carried thru the circulation to
the capillaries.

These are so constructed that, when the blood finally reaches them,
the nutrients it carries pass thru their walls and into the lymph that
bathes the body cells. In this manner all the nutrients, having been
especially prepared and transported, nourish every part of the body.

The nutrients may be oxidized, or burned, to warm the animal, or to
produce energy to carry on the vital processes and to perform work, as
shown in the following chapters. In case more nutrients are supplied
than are required for these purposes, the excess may be built into body
tissue proper, as shown in Chapter V. The glucoses may be converted
into fats and stored as body fat, as may also the fats derived directly

32 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

from the food fats. The amino acids may be built up into body protein
or, if not needed for this purpose, a portion of their carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen may be changed into fat, while the nitrogen is excreted
from the body. The highest use of the proteins, however, is the forma-
tion of nitrogenous tissues.

Disposal of waste. — As we have seen, the undigested food, together
with some other w^aste material, is voided in the feces. Nearly all of
the nitrogenous waste resulting from the breaking down of protein in
the body is excreted in the urine thru the kidneys, tho a trace is given
off in the sweat and some in the feces. In mammals this waste takes
the form principally of urea. Some of the mineral matter, especially
calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus, is excreted in the feces. The
rest is voided in the urine.

In breaking up the food nutrients within the body for the produc-
tion of heat and in the changes which occur in building them into body
tissues, carbon dioxid is evolved. Most of this is absorbed from the
stomach and intestines and is carried in the blood to the lungs, where
it is passed out in breathing. Some of the marsh gas produced by
fermentations in the stomach of herbivora is absorbed into the blood and
thrown out by the lungs.

Summary. — In Chapter I we learned how the various inorganic
compounds taken by plants from earth, air, and water are built into
organic plant compounds, and how in such building the energy of the
sun becomes latent or hidden. In this chapter we have learned how
the animal, feeding on plants, separates the useful from the waste by
mastication and digestion, and how the digested nutrients, after under-
going more or less change, are carried from the alimentary canal to
the body tissues and used for building the body, for warming it, or in
perforaiing work. All the energy manifested by living animals and
the heat produced in their bodies represent the energy of the sun orig-
inally stored in food substances by plants. "With the breaking down of
the nutrients in the bodies of animals, and in the decay of the animal
substance itself, the organic matter loses the condition of life and falls
back to the inorganic condition, once more becoming a part of the earth,
air, and water. After this it is again gathered up by the plants and
once more starts on the upward path. Such is the eternal round of
Nature, in which plants, animals, the energy of the sun, and the mys-
terious guiding principle of life all play their parts.

QUESTIONS

1. State two fundamental differences in the composition of plants and animals.

2. How does the composition of an animal's body change as it grows? As it
fattens ?

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 33

3. Define digestion, digestible nutrient, ration, and balanced ration.

4. Describe tlie alimentary canal of the ox.

5. How does a cow chew her cud?

6. Define enzymes and describe the action of saliva on starch.

7. Describe digestion in (a) the mouth, (b) the simple stomach, (c) the
stomach of ruminants, (d) the small intestine, (e) the large intestine.

8. What special provision has the liorse for digesting roughages?
!). Define metabolism.

10. Describe the circulatory canals of the body.

11. Describe the digestion and absorption of (a) fat, (b) of carbohydrates, (c)
of protein.

12! How is the body waste disposed of?

CHAPTER III

MEASUEING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS

I, Digestibility op Feeds

In determining the relative usefulness of different feeding stuffs to
the animal, it is necessary to find a means of measuring the amount of
nutrients which each actually furnishes. The most simple method is
to determine the digestibility of the various nutrients ; i. e., the per-
centage of the total crude protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat
in the feed which is digested by the animal. The digestible matter is
obviously the only portion of the feed which is of use, since the
remainder passes out in the feces without ever having really entered
the body.

A digestion trial. — In studying the digestibility of a given feed the
chemist first determines by analysis the percentage of each nutrient it
contains. The animal is then fed the feed to be tested for a pre-
liminary period of a few days, in order that all residues of former feed
may pass from the alimentary canal. Weighed quantities of the feed
are then given to the animal and the feces voided during a stated
period are collected and weighed, and samples are analyzed. The dif-
ference between the amount of each nutrient fed and that found in
the feces resulting therefrom represents the digested portion.

To show the manner in which the digestibility of a feed is deter-
mined, let us suppose that during a 10-day trial a cow was fed 20 lbs. of
clover hay each day, containing the amounts of nutrients shown in the
table. During this time she excreted, on the average, 47.3 lbs. of feces,
containing the amounts of undigested dry matter, crude protein, fiber,
nitrogen-free extract, and fat shown in the table :

Digestion trial with coiv fed clover hay; average for 1 day

Fed 20 lbs. hay, containing

Excreted 47.3 lbs. feces, containing

Digested

Per ct. digested

_ _

Crude
protein

Carboh

ydrates

matter

Fiber

N-free
extract

Fat

Lbs.

17.4

7.1

Lbs.
2.6
1.1

Lbs.
.5.1
2.4

Lbs.

7.7
2.6

Lbs.
0.62
0.28

10..3
.59.2

1 .5

57.7

2.7
52.9

5.1
66.2

0.34

54.8

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS

35

Subtracting the amounts of dry matter and of the difiPerent nutrients
in the feces from the amounts in the feed, we find the amounts digested.
From this we compute the percentage of each which is digested. For
example, there was 17.4 lbs. of dry matter in the 20 lbs. of hay the cow
ate each day. Of this, 7.1 lbs. was excreted in the feces, leaving 10.3
lbs., or 59.2 per ct., as the part digested.

Some feeds cannot be fed alone, as was done in this trial. For
instance, horses and ruminants are not fed concentrates alone without
hay or other roughage. Again, while pigs may be fed on grain only,

Fig. 12. — A Steer in a Digestion Stall

In digestion trials tlie feces may be collected in seA'eral ways. A common man-
ner is by means of the liarness and rubber duct here shown. When it is merely
desired to determine the digestibility of a feed, the urine need not be collected.
In other nutrition studies the urine must be collected, as is being done in this
trial. (From Armsby, Penn. Sta.)

such feeds as tankage and linseed meal are too rich in protein to be
so fed. The digestibility of such feeds must, therefore, be found by
difference, instead of directly. To illustrate, a horse is first fed hay
for several days and the digestibility of the hay determined. Oats
may then be added to the ration, and the total amounts of nutrients
digested from both feeds are found, just as in the preceding method.
The amount of digestible nutrients coming from the hay is then sub-
tracted from the total, leaving the amount assumed to be digested from
the oats.

36 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Digestion coefficients. — The average percentage of each nutrient
digested in a feeding stuff is termed the digestion coefficient, or
coefficient of digcstihility, for that nutrient in the feed. In Appendix
Table II are given the digestion coefficients for some of the leading
American feeds, selected from the extensive table in the unabridged
edition of ' ' Feeds and Feeding. ' ' This table shows that feeds which
contain little fiber, such as corn and wheat, are highly digestible,
because the cell walls are thin and easily penetrated by the digestive
juices. The higher the fiber content of feeds, the thicker and more
resistant are the cell walls, and consequently the less digestible are the
feeds, as a rule. Thus, oats and wheat bran are less digestible than
corn or wheat, and the roughages, such as hay and straw, have still
lower digestion coefficients. In general, the nitrogen-free extract of
feeds is slightly more digestible than the crude protein or fat, and
much more digestible than the fiber.^

Digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs. — To find the digestible
nutrients in any feeding stuff the total amount of each nutrient in
100 lbs. of it is multiplied by the digestion coefficient for that nutrient.
For example, 100 lbs. of dent corn contains 10.1 lbs. of crude protein
(See Appendix Table I), of which 74 per ct. is digestible, as shown in
Appendix Table II. Accordingly, there are 10.1 X 0.74 or 7.5 lbs. of
digestible protein in 100 lbs. of dent corn. In this manner the authors
have computed the data in Appendix Table III, which show the
digestible nutrients in the important American feeding stuffs. (This
table is condensed from the exhaustive and complete table in the
unabridged edition of "Feeds and Feeding.") For purposes of illus-
tration, the following examples are presented on the next page.

In Appendix Tables I and II the fiber and nitrogen-free extract are
given in separate columns, for, tho of the same chemical composition,
these components often differ widely in digestibility. In preparing
tables of digestible nutrients, the digestible fiber and digestible nitro-
gen-free extract are determined separately and the results combined

1 In digestion trials it is commonly assumed tliat all matter appearing in tlie
feces represents the part of the food which is actually indigestible. This is only
approximately correct, for the feces always contain some waste from the body
itself, such as bile residues, matter coming from the walls of the alimentary
canal, and unabsorbed digestive juices. Also, as we have seen in the preceding
chapter, thru the action of bacteria in tlie paunch and large intestine, some of
the nutrients, especially the fiber, are broken down into gas, which has no nutri-
tive value. Yet this is usually included in the amount considered to be diges-
tible. Furthermore, in digestion studies the ether extract, or so-called fat, is
extracted by ether, which dissolves not only the true fat, bvit also the chloro-
phyll, wax, bile residues, and other substances which are not true fat. Due to
this, and because the fats in feeding stuffs are usually in relatively small amount,
errors are liable to occur in finding their digestibility.

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS

37

Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. of typical feeding stuffs, from Appendix
Table III

Feeding stuff

Concentrates —

Dent corn

Oats

Wheat

Wheat bran

Linseed meal, old process

Roughages —

Timothy hay

Red clover hay

Oat straw

Kentucky bluegrass,

green

Corn silage

IMangels

Total

dry

matter

Lbs.

Digestible nutrients

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat

Total
(inc. fat
X2.25)

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

S9.5

7.5

67.8

4.6

85.7

90.8

9.7

52.1

3.8

70.4

89.8

9.2

67.5

1.5

80.1

89.9

12.5

41.6

3.0

60.9

90.9

30.2

32.6

6.7

77.9

88.4

3.0

42.8

1.2

48.5

87.1

7.0

39.3

1.8

51.0

88.5

1.0

42.6

0.9

45.6

31.6

2.3

14.8

0.6

18.5

2G.3

1.1

15.0

0.7

17.7

9.4

1.0

6.1

0.1

7.3

1:10.4
1: 6.3
1: 7.7
1: 3.9
1: 1.6

1:15.2
1: 5.7
1:44.6

1: 7.0
1:15.1
1: 6.3

under the term carbohydrates, as is done in this table. The digestible
carbohydrates in dent corn are computed as follows: According to
Appendix Table I, 100 lbs. of dent corn contains 2.0 lbs. of fiber, 57
per ct. of which is digestible, as shown in Appendix Table II. Like-
wise there are 70.9 lbs. of nitrogen-free extract, 94 per ct. of which is
digestible. Multiplying in each case and adding the products, we have
67.8 lbs., the amount of digestible carbohydrates in 100 lbs. of
corn.

To show the entire amount of digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. of each
feed, the fifth column gives the sum of the digestible crude protein and
carbohydrates, plus the fat multiplied by 2.25, because fat will produce
2.25 times as much heat in the body as carbohydrates or protein.

The table shows the wide differences in the amounts of digestible
nutrients these typical feeds furnish. Corn and wheat are high in
digestible carbohydrates and rather low in digestible protein, while
wheat bran and linseed meal are high in digestible protein but low in
digestible carbohydrates. The roughages range lower in digestible
nutrients than the concentrates. Oat straw is especially low in digest-
ible protein, ^while immature and actively growing pasture grass will
contain nearly as much digestible protein as wheat bran, if cut and
dried to the same water content.

Nutritive ratio. — As protein serves special uses in the body, in dis-
cussions of feeding stuffs and rations the term nutritive ratio is used to

38 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

show the proportion of digestible protein they contain. By nutritive
ratio is meant the ratio which exists in any given feeding stuff between
the digestible crude protein and the combined digestible carbohydrates
and fat. It is determined in the following manner: The digestible
fat in 100 lbs. of the given feed is multiplied by 2.25, because fat will
produce 2.25 times as much heat on being burned in the body as do the
carbohydrates. The product is then added to the digestible carbo-
hydrates and the sum is divided by the amount of digestible crude
protein, the quotient being the second term of the ratio. The manner
of computing the nutritive ratio of dent corn is as follows :

Second terra of
Diges fat Heat equiv. Diges. carbohv. nutritive ratio

(4.0 X 2.25) + r.7.8 _ ^^ ^

7.5
Diges. crude protein

Nutritive ratios are expressed with the colon, thus, 1 :10.4. The
nutritive ratio of dent corn is therefore 1:10.4 (read 1 to 10.4) ; i. e.,
for each pound of digestible crude protein in corn there are 10.4 lbs. of
digestible carbohydrates or fat equivalent. A feed or ration having
much crude protein in proportion to carbohydrates and fat combined is
said to have a narrow nutritive ratio; if the reverse, it has a wide nutri-
tive ratio. Oat straw has the extremely wide nutritive ratio of 1 :44.6,
because of its low content of digestible protein compared with the
carbohydrates and fat ; oats the medium one of 1 :6.3 ; and protein-rich
linseed meal the very narrow ratio of 1 :1.6, the carbohydrates being
less than twice the crude protein.

When the total digestible nutrients (including fat X 2.25) in a feed
or ration are given, as in Appendix Table III and the preceding table,
the nutritive ratio may be computed by simply subtracting the diges-
tible crude protein from the total digestible nutrients, and dividing
the remainder^by the digestible crude protein. For example, the
nutritive ratio of dent corn is found thus : (85.7 — 7.5) ^- 7.5 = 10.4,
second term of nutritive ratio.

The term carbonaceous feed is a convenient designation for a feed-
ing stuff having a wide nutritive ratio. Similarly, the term nitro-
genous feed designates a feeding stuff having a narrow nutritive ratio.

II. The Energy of Food

Tables of digestible nutrients tell what part of the food may be
digested and absorbed, and thus really enter the body of the animal,
but they throw no light on the use made of the nutrients when once
they are within the body. To obtain such information the respira-
tion apparatus and the respiration calorimeter have been devised.

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS

39

The respiration apparatus. — This is an air-tight chamber, ar-
ranged with such devices that all that enters and comes from the body
of the animal placed within it can be accurately measured and studied.
In some cases mechanical work is performed, while in others the
animaj is at rest. Everything which passes into the animal — air, food,
and water — is carefully measured and analyzed so that the exact in-
take of the body is known. The air is in turn drawn from the cham-

FiG. 13.

-The Respiration Calorimeter at the Pennsylvania
Station

Calorimeter chamber in tlie corner of the room at the left. Thru tlie use of
this apparatus much light has been thrown on the value of different classes of
feeds for farm animals. (From Armsby, Pennsylvania Station.)

ber and analyzed, and the feces and urine passed by the animal are
likewise weighed and analyzed. If the intake is larger than the outgo,
the animal has increased in body substance ; if less, it has lost. For
example, if the feed given a steer during 24 hours contains 0.75 lb. of
nitrogen and the feces and urine voided during the same day cpntain
0.64 lb., the steer has stored 0.11 lb. of nitrogen in its body during the
day in the form of protein tissue. Similarly, if the feed contains

40 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

13 lbs. of carbon and the steer voids 12.25 lbs. during the day in the
feces and urine, and in the carbon dioxid in the air breathed out of
the lungs, then 0.75 lb. of carbon must have been stored in his body.
Some of this will be in the protein tissues built during the day, while
the remainder will have been stored as fat. Thru such trials scientists
have been able, in some measure, to tell what becomes of the food
animals consume.

The respiration calorimeter. — A still more accurate means of
measuring the usefulness of feeds is furnished by the respiration
calorimeter. This is an improved and exceedingly complicated form
of the respiration apparatus, in which not only the feces, urine, and
gaseous waste products can be collected, but in which the heat given
off by the animal can also be accurately measured. By means of
this apparatus, it is possible to find exactly how much of the energy
or fuel value of the feed the animal has been able to use in growth,
fattening, or work. The first and only respiration calorimeter built
in this country for carrying on experiments with large animals
was erected by Armsby at the Pennsylvania Station some years
ago.

Fuel value of feeds. — A mature animal may be compared to a
steam engine, in which a part of the power derived from the fuel is
used for the operation of the engine itself, while the surplus may
perform useful work. The steam engine derives its energy from coal
or wood ; the animal, from the feed it consumes. Both re(iuire a
small amount of repair material — steel, brass, etc., for the engine, and
protein and mineral matter for the animal — but the largest demand
with engine and mature animal alike is for fuel. It is therefore both
important and interesting to consider the relative value of feeds in
terms of the fuel they can furnish the body.

The value of any feeding stuff as fuel for the animal depends on
the amount of energy which it will furnish when burned. As with
coal, the fuel value of a feed is determined by burning a weighed
quantity of it in pure oxygen gas under pressure in an apparatus
called a calorimeter. The heat given off is taken up by water
surrounding the burning chamber and is measured with a ther-
mometer, the units of measure employed being the Calorie and the
therm.

A Calorie (C.) is the amount of heat required to raise the tem-
perature of 1 kilogram of water 1° C, or 1 lb. of water nearly 4° F.
A therm (T.) is 1,000 Calories.

The fuel value of 100 lbs. of various substances, or the heat evolved
on burning them, is as follows:

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 41

Therms
Anthracite coal 358.3

Timothy hay, containing 15 per ct. moisture 175.1

Oat straw, containing 15 per ct. moisture 171.0

Corn meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 170.9

Linseed meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 196.7

Pure digestible protein 263.1

Pure digestible carbohydrates 186.0

Pure digestible fat 422.0

The table shows that, on burning, 100 lbs. of anthracite coal yields
358.3 therms, or enough heat to raise the temperature of 358,300 lbs. of
water 4° F. One hundred pounds of timothy hay likewise burned
yields 175.1 therms, or about half as much as coal. Linseed meal
has a higher fuel value than corn meal because it contains more oil.
Digestible protein yields considerably more heat than the carbo-
hydrates, and fat over twice as much as the carbohydrates.

Available energy. — The fuel value of any feed does not necessarily
measure its nutritive value to the animal, because feeds which yield
the same number of heat units in the calorimeter may vary in the
amount of available energy which they can furnish to the body. This
is because:

1. A part of the food consumed passes thru the alimentary tract
undigested. This may be compared to bits of coal dropping thru the
grate of the boiler unburned.

2. The carbohydrates, especially woody fiber, undergo fermenta-
tions in the intestines and paunch, combustible gases, especially
methane or marsh gas, being formed, which are without fuel value to
the animal. Even in well-constructed engines a similar loss of energy
occurs in the combustible gases which escape thru the chimney with-
out being burned.

3. When the protein substances in the body are broken down they
form urea, a nitrogenous compound which is excreted by the kidneys.
Urea has fuel value which is lost to the body. Again we may liken
this loss to that which occurs in the boiler thru the creosote which,
tho having fuel value, is not burned in the fire box but escapes or is
deposited in the chimney.

The fuel value of an}'' food which remains after deducting these
three losses represents the available energy of the food. This is the
portion which the animal can use for body purposes.

Net energ-y. — The available energy of the food measures its value
for heat production in the animal, but does not represent its true
value for other purposes. The animal must spend a part of the total
available energy of any food in the work of masticating and digest-

42

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

ing it and assimilating the digested nutrients. The energy so
expended finally takes the form of heat, but is wasted so far as other
uses are concerned. That portion of the energy which remains after
masticating, digesting, and assimilating the food is termed the net
energy of the food. This net energy is used by the animal, first of
all, in the work of the heart, lungs, and other internal organs, and in
ease a surplus of net energy then remains, such surplus may be used
for producing growth, fat, milk, or wool, or in the performance of
external work.

The losses of energy due to mastication, digestion, and assimilation
may be compared to the losses which would occur if a gasoline engine
had to distil its own gasoline from crude petroleum and then get rid of
the impurities which it could not use.

Net energy of feeding stuffs. — Our knowledge of the net energy
value of diiterent feeds has been obtained largely thru the pains-
taking experiments conducted by Kellner in Germany and Armsby
in this country. The following table sets forth some of their findings
with reference to what becomes of the digestible nutrients and three
common feeding stuffs when fed to the ox :

Net energy from 100 lbs. of digestible mitrients and common
feeding stuffs

Total
energy

Energy lost

Nutrients or
feeding stuffs

In feces

In
meth-
ane

gas

In
urine

In pro-
duction
proc-
esses

Total
loss

Net en-
ergy- re-
maining

Digestible nutrients

Peanut oil (fat)

Wheat gluten (protein) . .
Starch (carbohydrate) . .

Common feeding stuffs

Corn meal

Timothy hay

Therms

399.2
263.1
186.0

170.9
179.3
171.4

Therms

0.0
0.0
0.0

15.7
87.7
93.9

Therms

0.0
0.0
18.8

15.9

6.8
15.5

Therms

0.0

49.2

0.0

6.6
5.5
4.3

Therms

174.4
118.3
68.7

62.0
52.9
47.4

Therms

174.4

167.5

87.5

100.2
152.9
161.1

Therms

224.8
95.6

98.5

70.7
26.4
10.3

The first column of the table shows the total amount of energy which
would be produced on burning 100 lbs. of the digestible nutrients or
of typical feeding stuffs. With the digestible nutrients no further
loss occurs in the feces, but all are absorbed out of the small intestine
and go into the body proper. The oil contained no nitrogen, and so
no nitrogenous waste from it appeared in the urine, nor did any of it
form methane (marsh) gas in the intestines. To digest and assimilate
this 100 lbs. of oil required 174.4 therms of energy, leaving 224.8
therms as the net energy value for growth, fattening, work, or miik
production.

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 43

When 100 lbs. or 263.1 therms of wheat gluten, which is principally
protein, was digested and absorbed into the body, a loss of 49.2 therms
occurred in the urine, this loss coming from the breaking down of this
protein nutrient within the body, or from the breaking down of body
tissue which was replaced by new protein from this source. In all,
167.5 out of 263.1 therms in 100 lbs. of gluten were lost either in the
urine or in carrying on the work of mastication, digestion, and
assimilation, leaving 95.6 therms which might be temporarily or
permanently stored in the body. This amount of protein was avail-
able for building* protein tissues or lean meat, which would be its
highest use, or it could serve for the production of body fat, etc.

Studying the data for the feeding stuffs, we observe that 100 lbs.
of corn meal contains 170.9 therms of total energy. Of this, 15.7
therms is lost in the undigested matter of the feces. In the methane
gas formed in the fermentations in the paunch there was a loss of
15.9 therms. A further loss of 6.6 therms occurred in the urine.
Adding these losses together and subtracting the sum from the total
energy value, 170.9 therms, we find that 132.7 therms remained.
This is the amount of available energy in 100 lbs. of corn meal.
Further los.ses of energy, amounting to 62.0 therms, take place thru
the production processes; i.e., masticating the corn, digesting it and
assimilating the digested nutrients. This brings the total loss to
100.2 therms, leaving 70.7 therms as the net energy value of the
100 lbs. of corn meal. The same weight of timothy hay furnishes
but 26.4 therms of net energy and of wheat straw but 10.3 therms.
About one-half of the total fuel value of these feeds passes off as
undigested matter, never having been inside the body proper.

Such roughages as straw, hay, and corn stover, because of their
coarse, woody character due to the fiber they contain, place much
work on the animal in digesting them and passing the waste out of
the body. This means an evolution of heat. Therefore where the
animal, such as an idle horse in winter, is doing no work and needs
little net energy, no harm but rather economy in cost of keep may
result from living on such roughages, because the large amount of
heat necessarily produced in the digestion and assimilation of this
food helps keep the animal warm. On the other hand, animals at
hard work and those producing milk or being fattened cannot profit-
ably live chiefly on coarse forage but must have liberal allowances of
concentrates, such as corn or oats, for they need large amounts of net
energy in their rations.

Due to the immense amount of work required in each individual
trial, the net energy values have as yet been determined for only a
small number of feeds. Thus, as we shall see in Chapter VIII, our

44 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

present knowledge of the net energy value of feeds is far from com-
plete. However, tho many of the values are not exact and final, they
are of great value in showing approximately what portions of the
food consumed by animals are lost at each step in its progress thru
the body, and what part is finally available for growth, fattening,
work, or milk production. The marvel is that scientists have been
able to go so far in solving these most complicated problems.

III. Factors Influencing the Nutritive Value of Feeds

Variations in composition of feeding stuffs. — The figures given in
Appendix Table I for the composition of any feed are in most
instances averages of all analyses of normal samples of that feed
which have been reported by the various stations. It is obviously
important to learn what variations from these averages may be
expected in the case of samples of a given feed from different sections
of the country, grown in different years, or when gathered at different
stages of maturity. The composition of a crop may be influenced to
a limited extent by the amount of available plant food in the soil on
which the crop is grown. Climate and stage of maturity are, how-
ever, the most important factors affecting the composition of a given
feed. Of the cereals, wheat is the most variable in composition, its
protein content being profoundly influenced by climate. While the
average crude protein content of wheat from the northern plains
states is 13.5 per ct., wheat from the Atlantic states contains only 11.7
per ct. and that from the Pacific states but 9.9 per ct. crude protein.
Climate has little effect on the chemical composition of corn, providing
the crop matures.

The roughages are even more variable in composition than the
cereals, owing to the fact that, besides climate, their composition is
influenced by the stage of maturity, the manner of curing, and the
moisture content. Analyses of corn fodder and corn stover show a
water content ranging from over 50 per ct. in field-cured material in
wet seasons down to 10 per ct. or less in arid regions or where cured
under cover in a dry season. To show the difference in nutritive
value of these extremes it may be stated that corn fodder or stover
containing 10 per ct. water will carry 80 per ct. more nutrients per
100 lbs. than a sample of the same forage containing 50 per ct. water !
To overcome this error so far as possible, separate averages are given
for very dry and for ordinary field-cured samples of these feeds in
Appendix Table I.

When plants are immature a much larger percentage of the dry
matter consists of protein than when they are mature. For example,
dried alfalfa from plants cut when three inches high may contain over

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 45

30 per ct. crude protein, while the dry hay from alfalfa cut when in
bloom will contain only half as much. On the other hand, immature
plants are more watery, and thus contain less total digestible nutrients.

It is shown in later chapters that as the grasses and legumes mature
their content of fiber materially increases, and as a consequence the
feed becomes less digestible and usually of lower value. However,
the large accumulation of starch which occurs in the corn plant as it
ripens gives the more mature form of that plant a greater total feed-
ing value.

Influence of preparation of feed. — It is often assumed that by
cutting, grinding, and cooking feed much labor is saved the animal,
to the advantage of the feeder. This idea is based on the theory that
the less work the animal does in mastication and digestion the larger
the net production of work, flesh, or milk. On the contrary, we
know that the muscles of the body do not grow strong thru idleness,
and that work and activity are necessary to bodily health, growth,
and strength. Likewise, the organs of mastication and digestion
should be kept working at their normal capacity. When cutting,
grinding, cooking, or pulping brings more satisfaction to fattening
animals soon to be slaughtered, and causes them to consume heavier
rations, such preparation may pay, as it may also with exceptionally
hard-worked animals that have but limited time for taking their
rations. Ordinarily, making feeds fine and soft so they may be
swallowed with little chewing not only fails to pay for the cost of
such preparation but may actually lower the value of the feed. The
economy of the different methods of preparing feed for each class of
stock is discussed in detail in the respective chapters of Part III,
but a summary of these conclusions will be helpful in showing the
principles which should govern the feeder in deciding how far to
employ such methods of preparation.

Grinding- or crushing grain. — Grinding, crushing, or rolling grain
increases the digestibility only when animals fail to masticate the
whole grain. In fact, grinding grain so finely that it is bolted with
little chewing may sometimes decrease the digestibility because of
imperfect mixture with the saliva. For all animals, such hard grains
as bald barley or rice should be ground, and for all classes of animals,
except perhaps sheep, small seeds, such as millet, grain from the
sorghums, or weed seeds, should ordinarily be ground. For animals
with poor teeth or for 3'oung animals before their teeth are well
developed, grinding grain in general is advisable. Ordinarily, horses
can grind their own oats and corn, and idle horses should always
do so. For horses which are hard-worked and spend much of their
time away from the stable the grain may be ground and mixed with

46 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

a small allowance of moistened chaffed hay. A cow yielding a large
flow of milk is a hard-worked animal, and her grain should usually
be ground. Where pigs follow fattening cattle to gather up any
grain which escapes mastication and digestion there is no advantage
in grinding corn or even shelling it, except perhaps toward the close
of the feeding period when the cattle may be induced to eat more by
grinding. Where no pigs run with cattle, it is usually economical to
grind or crush the corn before feeding. Except in the case of small
or hard seeds, sheep with good teeth should grind their own grain.
While it pays to grind the small grains for pigs, there is no appreciable
advantage in grinding corn for pigs weighing 150 lbs. or less. For
older animals such preparation may sometimes be profitable.

Cutting or chaffing forage. — Passing such coarse forages as corn
or the sorghums thru a feed cutter or shredder is usually profitable,
not because the portions consumed are digested more completely but
because the animals waste less of the feed and the cut forage is more
convenient to handle. Where hay is palatable and consumed with
little waste, it is ordinarily not economical to cut or chaff it for cattle
or sheep, unless it is desired to mix the good-quality hay with other
less palatable feed so that the whole wall be consumed. Such prepara-
tion will often pay with poor roughage, as the animals will then con-
sume it with less waste. In establishments where many horses are kept,
the hay is often cut. Not only is less wasted then, but the concen-
trates may be mixed with a part of the cut hay, forcing the horses to
eat them more slowly. Roughage should not be cut so fine that the
animals will swallow it without chewing, or, in the case of ruminants,
that it will escape rumination.

Soaking feed. — AVhen grain with hard or small kernels can not be
conveniently ground or crushed, it should be softened by soaking
before feeding, care being taken that the meal does not become stale
by long standing.

Cooking feed. — Only_60 years ago scientists believed that cooking
feed greatly increased its value for stock. Numerous careful trials
have since shown that, in general, cooking either grain or roughage
does not increase its digestibility or nutritive value, and may even
decrease the digestibility of the protein. While cooking feed for
cattle w^as abandoned years ago, it is still practiced to some extent
for swine. Fortunately, this question has also been settled by nu-
merous tests at several experiment stations. These showed conclu-
sively that, rather than there being a gain, there was in most eases an
actual loss from cooking. The only exceptions are a few feeds, such
as potatoes and field beans, which can be successfully fed to pigs
only after being cooked. When such small and hard grains as wheat

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 47

and rice can not be ground they should be cooked or soaked. Musty
hay and corn fodder are made more palatable and safe by steaming.
In winter it is often advantageous to give vi^arm feed to pigs, but this is
entirely different from cooking the feed.

Curing and ensiling forage. — If green forage is cured without
waste and in a manner to prevent fermentation, the mere drying does
not lower its digestibility. Ordinarily, however, in curing forage
much of the finer and more nutritious parts is wasted, and dews, rain,
and fermentations effect changes which lower digestibility. The
large amount of work done in masticating dry forage and passing it
thru the alimentary tract is another reason why green forage may
give better results and hence appear more digestible than dry forage.
The long storage of fodders, even under favorable conditions,
decreases both their digestibility and palatability.

Ensiling green forage tends to decrease the digestibility. The
exceedingly favorable results from silage feeding must therefore be
due to the palatability of the silage, its beneficial effect on the health
of the animals, and to the fact that less feed is wasted than when
dry fodder is used.

Influence of amount of feed eaten on digestibility. — Animals tend
to digest their food somewhat more completely when given a main-
tenance ration than when on full feed. This may be due to the more
rapid movement of the food thru the digestive tract or to a less com-
plete absorption of the digested nutrients when present in large
amount. Under normal conditions, in feeding farm animals for the
production of meat, milk, or work, other economic factors, which will
be treated in later chapters, more than offset the slightly better utili-
zation of feed when a scant ration is fed.

Influence of proportion of the different nutrients. — The addition
of a large quantity of easily digested carbohydrates, such as sugar
and starch, to a ration containing much roughage may reduce the
digestibility of its crude protein, fiber, and nitrogen-free extract.
Such depression of digestibility occurs with ruminants when less than
1 part of digestible crude protein is present to every 8 parts of
digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (carbohydrates plus fat X 2.25).
With swine the nutritive ratio may be wider before the digestibility is
affected. An explanation offered for this lessened digestibility is that
when a large proportion of soluble or easily digested carbohydrates
is fed, the bacteria in the digestive tract which normally decompose
cellulose to secure food then attack instead the more readily available
sugars and starch. Not only is the digestibility of the cellulose, or
fiber, consequently lowered, but also that of the crude protein and
nitrogen-free extract, for the unattacked cellulose cell walls protect

48 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

the proteins and carbohydrates contained therein from the action of
the digestive juices. This depression does not occur when nitrog-
enous feeds, such as oil meal, are added along with the starch or
sugar, thus preserving the balance between protein and non-
nitrogenous nutrients. It is assumed that this is due to a stimula-
tion of the bacteria by the addition of more protein, so that, invig-
orated, they attack the fiber of the food again.

Adding nitrogenous feeds to roughages, such as hay, straw, etc., does
not increase the digestibility of the roughage. Neither does the addi-
tion of fat to a ration increase the digestibility of the other con-
stituents. When too much fat is fed it may cause digestive disturb-
ance. Salt does not affect digestion, tho it may cause animals to
eat more food and may improve nutrition.

Class of animal, age, breed, and miscellaneous factors. — Cattle
and sheep digest concentrates and good quality roughage equally
well, but cattle digest poor roughage, such as straw, somewhat better
than sheep. Horses and pigs digest fiber less completely than do rumi-
nants. While there is little difference in the digestibility of con-
centrates by these animals, horses cannot digest roughages as com-
pletely as do cattle or sheep, and pigs utilize roughages still less
effteiently.

In general, age does not, in itself, influence digestibility, tho young
farm animals cannot utilize much roughage until their digestive tracts
are developed. The digestion of old animals is often indirectly
injured by poor teeth, which make the proper mastication of their
food impossible. Breed has no influence upon digestibility. Animals
may, however, show considerable difference, one from another, in
their ability to digest the same ration, tho ordinarily the digesti])ility
of a given ration by different animals of the same race will not vary
more than 3 to 4 per ct.

Neither the frequency of feeding, the time of watering, nor the
amount of water drunk appears to influence digestibility. Moderate
exercise tends to increase digestibility, but excessive work lowers it.

The flow of saliva and the other digestive juices is checked by fright.
On the other hand, kind treatment and palatability of food should
favorably influence digestion. Under skillful care animals show
remarkable relish for their food, and it is reasonable to conclude that
better digestion results.

Summary. — The preceding discussions make it evident that average
figures for the composition of any feeding stuff are but approximately
correct when applied to a particular lot of the feed. This likewise
applies to the expression of its nutritive value, whether stated in terms
of digestible nutrients or net energy. In other words, different lots

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 49

of any feeding stuff vary in feeding value, the same as different
samples of coal vary in fuel value. Owing to the expense of obtaining
analyses it is out of the question for any but the most extensive feeders
to have their particular feeds analyzed, just as only the large manu-
facturer can afford to have samples of coal analyzed to determine their
fuel value before purchasing. With the cereals and the roughages
the general feeder must, therefore, rely on that average given in tables
of digestible nutrients or net energy which corresponds most closely
in his judgment to the feed at hand. In purchasing commercial con-
centrates, sold in vast quantities everywhere, it is now fortunately
possible in most sections of the country to secure standard brands,
whose composition is fully guaranteed by the manufacturer. (Chap-
ter XI.)

QUESTIONS

1. What are digestion coefficients and liow are they found in a digestion trial?

2. In a digestion trial a steer ate in one day 25 lbs. of red clover hay con-
taining 86.4 per ct. dry matter, 12.5 per ct. crude protein, 25.2 per ct. fiber, 38.3
per ct. nitrogen-free e.vtract, and 3.3 per ct. fat. During tlie same day he voided
in the feces 8.9 lbs. dry matter, 1.3 lbs. crude protein, 2.9 ll)s. fiber, 3.3 lbs. nitro-
gen-free extract, and 0.4 lb. fat. Find the digestion coefficients for dry matter
and the various nutrients.

3. Define nutritive ratio and show how it is calculated.

4. Describe a respiration apparatus.

5. Define available energy and net energy.

6. Thru what diflTerent means is energy lost when a cow eats corn meal?

7. Why may considerable straw be fed advantageously to an idle horse but not
to one at hard work?

8. What factors influence the composition of feeds?

9. Discuss the value for stock of (a) grinding grain, (b) cutting hay, (c)
soaking feed, (d) cooking feed.

10. How is the value of forage aflFected by curing; by ensiling?

11. What factors affect the digestibility of feeds?

CHAPTER IV

MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS

I. Requirements for Body Fuel

Farm animals are given food in order that they may convert it
into useful products, like meat, milk, wool, and work. Just as a
factory must be supplied with power to keep the machinery in motion
before any product can be turned out, to make continued production
possible with the animal enough food must first be provided to main-
tain all necessary life processes. This amount of food, which is
required merely to support the animal when doing no work and yield-
ing no material product, is called the maintenance ration. When an
animal is receiving a maintenance ration its body will neither gain
nor lose protein, fat, or mineral matter.

On the average, fully one-half of the feed consumed by farm ani-
mals is used simply for maintenance, only the remaining half being
turned into useful products. Thus, it is just as important to under-
stand the principles governing the maintenance requirements of farm
animals as those controlling the production of meat, milk, or work.

To maintain an animal at rest without losing or gaining in weight,
sufificient food must be supplied to furnish: (1) Fuel to maintain
the body temperature; (2) energy to carry on such vital functions as
the work of the heart, lungs, etc.; (3) protein to repair the small
daily waste of nitrogenous tissues; (4) mineral matter to replace the
small but continuous loss of these materials.

Maintaining the body temperature. — The body temperature of the
larger farm animals ranges from 98.4° to 105.8° F. To keep the
body at these high temperatures, heat must be continuously produced
within it. We have seen that, especially with ruminants, much heat
is generated in the digestive tract by the breaking down of cellulose
and other plant compounds. The remainder is produced in the tissues
of the body in the following manner: Thru breathing, the oxygen
of the air is brought to the blood. Floating in the blood stream, are
myriads of microscopic bodies called red blood corpuscles, which owe
their color to hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein. This hemo-
globin absorbs the oxygen and holds it loosely. As the blood, now
laden with oxygen, passes thru the capillary system, it gives up the
oxygen to the living body cells. Here, in some marvellous manner

50

MAINTAINING FAKM ANIMALS 51

some of the body nutrients are oxidized, or slowly burned, with the
result that heat is formed. Unlike the burning of fuel in a stove,
the oxidations in the body take place at a comparatively low tem-
perature. As a result of these oxidations, where there were before
glucose, fats, and proteins in the tissues, there now remain carbonic
acid gas, water, and urea. The latter is the form in which the nitrog-
enous waste of the body, resulting from the breaking down of protein,
is chiefly excreted.

As shown in the preceding chapter, all the energy used up in the
various forms of internal work of the body is finally changed to heat.
The this energy is lost so far as useful production is concerned, the
heat formed helps to maintain the body temperature. The amount of
heat so produced is considerable. Even with such an easily digested
feed as corn, over one-third of the total energy which the digestible
nutrients furnish is converted into heat in the work of masticating,
digesting, and utilizing it. With roughages like hay and straw the
proportion is much larger. However, in the case of animals exercis-
ing normally the larger part of the body heat is produced in the
muscular tissues, since all muscular contraction is caused by the oxida-
tion, or burning, of nutrients in the muscles. Even when the
muscles are not actively contracting, some heat is being generated in
them.

Heat regulation. — Not only must heat be continuously produced in
the body, but the temperature must be kept constant under varying
external conditions and with supplies of food differing from day to
day in amount and heat producing power. This is done by the
unconscious regulation of both the production and the loss of heat.
The production of heat is governed by decreasing or increasing the
oxidations going on in the body tissues. On cold days, for example,
we are inclined to eat more heartily and walk more briskly than in
warm weather. When chilled, there is also an involuntary rise in
heat production, brought about thru a "shivering" of the muscles.
The loss of heat from the body is regulated in part by varying the
circulation of the blood near the surface of the body. When the
temperature of the body is too high, more blood is pumped to the
surface, where some of the heat passes off into the air. The produc-
tion of sweat and the giving off of water vapor from the lungs are
also important means of governing the loss of heat. In addition, the
clothing of man and the thick skin, hair, wool, and feathers of animals
prevent too rapid loss of heat.

Heat and energy required for maintenance. — In maintaining a
mature animal at rest a certain amount of net energy must be fur-
nished by the feed to carry on the internal work of the body. How-

52

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

ever, the greater part of the food is required merely as fuel to keep up
the body temperature. Hence, except for the pig, maintenance rations
for the larger farm animals may consist largely of cheap roughages,
such as hay and straw, which furnish abundant heat but do not yield
much net energy. This has great practical importance, for it shoAvs
M^hy idle horses and stock cattle can be carried thru the winter on
roughage alone, without grain.

It is commonly assumed in computing rations that the amount of
feed required to maintain an animal depends on its body weight.

Fig. 14. — Heavily-fed Animals Ordinarily Have an Excess of Heat

Heavily-fed fattening steers thrive best with .no shelter except an open shed,
but animals being carried thru the winter on scanty rations need warmer quar-
ters. (From Prairie Farmer.)

Strictly speaking, however, the maintenance requirement depends not
on the live weight, but on the body surface. This is due to the fact
that the loss of heat from the body is proportional to the body sur-
face and not to its weight. A 1,600-lb. steer does not have twice the
body surface of" an 800-lb. one, and hence will not require twice as
much feed for maintenance. Individual animals of the same kind
and size may also differ somewhat in their requirements. For
example, a quiet animal uses up less body fuel than a nervous, active
one. Due chiefly to increased muscular action, an animal when stand-

MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 53

ing' may produce 30 per ct. more heat than when lying down.
Exposure to cold winds, especially with animals having scanty coats,
increases the need for body fuel. Animals with coats wet by rain or
snow lose still more heat from their bodies, for the cold water must be
warmed and evaporated by heat produced thru the burning of food in
the body. With heavily-fed fattening animals this may not cause
any waste of food nutrients, for much more heat is being produced in
the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of their heavy rations
than is ordinarily needed to warm the body. On the other hand,
animals being carried thru the winter on scanty rations have no siich
excess of heat, and hence much feed may often be saved by protecting
them from cold winds and storms.

II. Requirements for Protein

Protein required for maintenance. — The demands of the body for
fuel and energy can be met thru feeding carbohydrates and fat.
However, an abundant supply of these nutrients alone will not pre-
vent starvation, for there must also be a supply of protein to replace
that lost each day from the body ; that is, to repair the protein tissues.
In view of the high cost and relatiye scarcity of protein in feeding
stuflt's, it is important to know the smallest amount of this nutrient
which will maintain animals in good health. When plenty of carbo-
hydrates and fat were supplied to serve as body fuel, animals have
been maintained for long periods on surprisingly small amounts of
protein. For example, at the Pennsylvania Station ^ Armsby main-
tained steers on only 0.4 to 0.6 lb. of digestible protein daily per
1,000 lbs. live weight without harm. It is not well, however, to
supply only the theoretical minimum of protein to animals for long
periods. Some allowance must be made for the difference in com-
position of feeding stuffs and the varying abilities of animals to
digest the same feeds. We should further remember that the various
proteins differ in composition and that some are so unbalanced as to
have but low value for repairing body tissues. In numerous experi-
ments animals have never been successfully maintained on gelatin, a
protein which lacks two amino acids and contains only small amounts
of others. Besides supplying protein to replace the daily waste from
the tissues and organs of the body, there should be provision for the
growth of the hair, hoofs, and wool — all of a protein nature. In gen-
eral, protein is a cell stimulant and a supply somewhat above the
minimum promotes the health of the animal.

The wisdom of not limiting the protein supply to the theoretical
minimum for long periods has been shown by the experience of

1 Principles of Animal Nutrition, 1903, p. 142.

54 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Haecker of the Minnesota Station.^ He found that dairy cows under
good care and otherwise liberal feeding continued a good flow of milk
for long periods on a verj^ small allowance of crude protein. After
some years of such feeding, however, the vitality of these cows was so
undermined that they became physical wrecks long before their time.
Even when sufficient protein is fed to insure good health, the amount
required to maintain mature resting animals is not large compared
with the need for carbohydrates and fat for bt)dy fuel. The main-
tenance rations for such animals may therefore have a relatively wide
nutritive ratio. For example, rations for maintaining full-grown
steers may have as wide a nutritive ratio as 1 :10 or even 1 :16 and
for horses as wide as 1:8 or 1:9. (See Appendix Table V.)

AVhen more protein is fed than is needed to repair the tissues of the
body, the nitrogen is split off the excess portion and excreted in the
urine. The non-nitrogenous part wdiich remains is not wasted, but
may be used for hody fuel just as are carbohydrates and fat, or it may
be changed into glucose and possibly finally stored as fat in the
body.

Can amids replace protein? — Whether the group of nitrogenous
compounds, more simple than the proteins, which are included under
the term amids (see Page 10), can serve the same purpose in the
body as the true proteins, is still a disputed question. Numerous
trials have shown that animals cannot live on a single amid as the
sole source of nitrogen. However, it is reasonable to believe that
when a mixture of amids in a feeding stuff contains all the different
amino acids (the protein building-stones) needed to form body pro-
tein, these amids can then be used in the same manner as true protein
for the repair of body tissues and for the formation of new protein
tissue. This belief is upheld by the following: Nearly half the
nitrogen in corn silage and only about 15 per et. of that in dried corn
forage is in amid form. Yet, based on the dry matter content, corn
silage is somewhat more valuable than dry corn forage as a feed for
dairy cows, which require a liberal supply of crude protein. Like-
wise, the amids are abundant in grass, roots, and silage, which are
especially useful for growing and pregnant animals and for those
producing milk or wool — all of which are in particular need of abun-
dant protein.

III. Requirements for Mineral ]\Iatter

Importance of mineral matter. — The necessity for an ample supply
of mineral matter is shown by feeding animals rations freed as far
as possible from it. Even tho the rations contain an abundance of

2 Minn. Buls. 71, 79, 140.

MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 55

protein, carbohydrates, and fat, the animals will die thru mineral
starvation, and generally the end will come more quickly than if no
food at all is given. Mineral matter is found in all the vital parts of
the body. The life centers of all the cells are rich in phosphoims
and the skeleton is largely composed of calcium (lime) combined with
phosphorus. As we have seen, the power of the blood to carry oxygen
is due to hemoglobin, an iron-protein compound in the red blood
corpuscles. In the stomach, the pepsin acts only in the presence of
hydrochloric acid, a mineral compound derived from mineral salts
in the blood.

A simple experiment often performed in the laboratory will illus-
trate the manner in which mineral salts control life processes. If the
heart, still beating, is removed from a frog and placed in a solution
of pure sodium chlorid (common salt), its beats soon fade out. Now,
if a small amount of a calcium salt (lime) be added to the solution,
the heart will at once begin to beat again, and will continue in rhyth-
mical contraction for several hours. Unless a small amount of a potas-
sium salt is likewise added, the beat will not, however, be normal, the
heart failing to relax quickly and completely enough after each eon-
traction. The relaxations will become more and more feeble, until
the heart stops in a contracted state. Not only must potassium be
present, but there must be a correct proportion between the amounts
of calcium and potassium. If too much potassium is added, the heart
will fail to contract properly and finally will again stop beating, but
this time in a state of complete relaxation.

The common feeding stuffs contain all the necessary mineral salts,
at least in small amounts. As a rule, the roughages, except some of
the straws, are much richer than the grains in mineral matter.
Moreover, the body is probably able to use many of the mineral com-
pounds over and over again, taking them back again into the circula-
tion after having been used. Therefore, for animals which have
finished their growth, the usual rations containing roughage furnish
sufficient mineral matter, except common salt. As shown later, it is
advisable to supply farm animals common salt in addition to that in
their feed. Since large amounts of calcium (lime) and phosphorus
are needed to build the skeleton, these elements may fall short in
rations for young animals.

Calcmm and phosphorus. — Over 90 per ct. of the mineral matter
in the skeleton consists of calcium and phosphorus. When the supply
of either of these is low in the feed, the skeleton acts as a storehouse,
doling out these mineral elements so that the life processes of the body
may continue normally for a time. But such withdrawal of mineral
matter from the bones makes them porous and brittle. Indeed, in

56

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

certain localities where the haj^ and other roughages are unusually
low in calcium and phosphorus, due to the poverty of the soil in these
elements, the bones of farm animals may become so brittle that they
break with surprising ease. Growing animals, whose bones are
rapidly increasing in size, suffer from a lack of these mineral elements
sooner than mature animals. Because they are fed chiefly on the
cereal grains, which are low in calcium, pigs fail to receive enough
calcium more often than do calves, colts and lambs, which eat hay
and other roughage as well. Of grown animals, those carrying their
young or producing a heavy yield of milk are most apt to suffer froirj
a lack of calcium or phosphorus.

Fig. 15. — Farm Animals Need an Ample Supply of Mineral
jMatter

Over 90 per ct. of the mineral matter in tlie skeleton consists of calcium and
phosphorus. In certain rations tlie amount of these mineral elements may be in-
sufficient for health. ( From Ellenberger. )

Fortunately, roughage from the legumes, such as clover, alfalfa,
and cowpea hay, is rich in phosphorus and especially in calcium.
Thus animals fed legume hay commonly receive plenty of these
mineral elements. Straw, chaff, the various root crops, molasses, and
the cereals and their by-products, such as bran or middlings, are
generally low in calcium. Beet pulp, potatoes, molasses, straw, and
chaff are low in phosphorus, while the cereals and brans, oil cakes,
and slaughter-house and fish waste carry it in abundance. When
there is danger of a deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus, it is

MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 57

wise to add a supply to the ration. Calcium may be furnished
cheaply in ground limestone or wood ashes, and both calcium and
phosphorus in ground rock phosphate, ground bone, or bone ash. As
shown in Chapter XXVII, it is wise to keep a supply of mineral
matter before pigs at all times, especially when confined to pens.

Common salt. — In spite of the well-known hunger of herbivorous
animals for salt, practical men have differed as to the necessity or
advantage of adding it to the ration. It is now agreed, however, that
salt should be supplied regularly to farm animals. It not only serves
as a spice to whet the appetite and add to the palatability of many
feeds, but it also stimulates the digestive glands and prevents digestive
disturbances. At least for cows in milk, a supply of salt in addition
to that contained in the feed is absolutely necessary for health. This
was shown in experiments by Babcock and Carlyle at the Wisconsin
Station ^ in which dairy cows, well fed otherwise, were given no salt
for periods as long as a year. After varying lengths of time, a com-
plete breakdown occurred, marked by loss of appetite, lusterless eyes,
a rough coat, and a rapid decline in body weight and milk yield.
When salt was supplied, recovery was rapid.

Animals allowed free access to salt or supplied with it at frequent
and regular intervals will take only enough to meet the needs of the
body. Animals that have not been supplied with salt for some time
and are then allowed all they will eat, may consume too much. This
creates an abnormal thirst and causes excessive drinking, which may
lead to digestive disturbances. Cows in milk and sheep show the
greatest need of salt, horses, fattening cattle, dry cows, and stock
cattle require less, and pigs but little. The needs of each class of
farm animals for salt are discussed in the respective chapters of
Part III.

IV. Additional Requirements of Animals

We have thus far considered in detail only the requirements of
farm animals for crude protein, carbohydrates, fat and mineral
matter. However, just as vital as the demands for fuel and repair
material, which are met by these nutrients, is the need for air and
water.

Air. — ^While animals survive starvation for considerable periods,
lack of air brings immediate death, since a continuous supply of
oxygen is required for all vital processes. Each hour a cow breathes
in about 117 cubic feet of air, making over 2,800 cubic feet each
21: hours. For health, a stable where animals are confined should
not contain more than 3.3 per et. of air which has been previously

3 Wis. Rpt. 1905.

58 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

breathed. To provide cows with air of this purity, there should pass
into the stable for each cow not less than 85,000 cubic feet of air each
24 hours.* These figures show the necessity of providing some ade-
quate system of ventilation when animals are confined in closed
stables, as are horses and dairy cattle during the winter in the north-
ern states.

Water. — Animals can live much longer without solid food than
without water. An abundant supply of water is necessary for all the
vital processes of the body, such as the digestion and absorption of
food nutrients and the removal of waste from the body. As already
shown, water is also an agent in regulating the body temperature,
both thru the vapor given off by the lungs and the evaporation of
sweat from the surface of the body.

Scientists agree that farm animals should have all the water they
will drink at regular intervals, for they do not take it in excess unless
they are forced to live on watery foods or are given salt irregularly.
The water for stock must be fresh and pure to avoid disease. AH
water drunk must be raised to the temperature of the body, thus con-
suming heat. AA^arming cold water taken into the body does not
necessarily mean that more food must be burned, for animals pro-
duce a large amount of heat in the M'ork of digesting food and con-
• verting the digested matter into body products or work. Due to this,
many animals create an excess of body heat. Comfortably housed and
well-fed steers and dairy cattle may produce more heat thru this means
than is needed to warm their bodies and the excess may go to warm
the water they drink, so that no food is directly burned for that
purpose. However, when animals are watered but once a day they
then drink a large amount. In M'inter if the water is cold this makes
a sudden demand for a large amount of heat, which may exceed the
amount of excess heat being produced in the body. Food must then
be burned simply to warm the water, even tho thereafter an excess of
heat may be produced in the body. For this reason, feed may be
saved by watering frequently animals unduly exposed to cold and
those fed scanty rations, or else by warming the water. During
severe winter weather cows producing a heavy yield of milk need mdre
water than they are apt to drink if it is supplied too cold. Under
such conditions their water should be warmed.

Commonly unappreciated factors in food. — AVithin recent years
evidence has been accumulating which shows that the classes of
nutrients previously discussed — proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and
mineral matter — are not all that is needed to make a satisfactory
ration. It has long been known that when humans live for long

4 From King, Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools, and Stables.

MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 59

periods on a diet containing no fresh vegetables or meat, scurvy is
apt to result, even tlio an abundance of the common nutrients is fur-
nished. The addition to the diet of fresh vegetables readily prevents
this disease. In districts of the Orient where the inhabitants live
mainly on polished rice, there is often found a serious disease known
as beri-bein, characterized by general weakness and even paralysis.
Where unpolished rice, carrying the germ and part of the husk, is
eaten instead, this disease is not found. In experiments by various
scientists a similar condition has been produced in animals fed almost
exclusively on polished rice, while the unpolished grain did not have
such an effect. Tho many attempts have been made to determine the

Fig. 16. — Commonly Unappreciated Substances Are Needed for

Growth

Hoth rats were fed "balanced rations" containing an abundance of suitable pro-
tein and mineral matter. The rat on the right, given butter fat in addition, grew
tluiftily, wliile the one on the left, fed cottonseed oil, wliich lacks the mysterious
substance present in butter fat, failed to grow. (From McCollum, Wisconsin
Station.)

mysterious substance in the rice husk or germ which exerts such a
marked influence on health, but little is yet known regarding its
composition.

Another important development in recent years has been the find-
ing that some of the substances included in the ether-extract, or
so-called "fat," of feeds are necessary to the well-being cf animals.
Animals fed upon feeds which contain an insufficient amount of these
unknown substances fail to grow and eventually die. If there is
added to the same ration some food which is rich in these materials,
such as butter fat, for example, normal growth can then be made.
These substances are not true fats, but compounds of unknown nature

60 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

which are soluble in fats and also in the ether which the chemist uses
to dissolve the fat from a feed.

Studies of this character are beginning to open up new fields of
investigation in animal nutrition. It is yet too early to predict in
what manner or to what extent the results may modify our present
practices in feeding farm animals. These fragments are, however,
most interesting to the student in showing the limitations to our
present understanding of the feeding of animals and in pointing out
the possible path of future development.

Feeding concentrates alone to animals. — By reason of their high
ability to digest coarse roughage, ruminants are especially adapted to
convert the coarse plant materials of no value for human food into
useful products. Tho ordinarily it would be unprofitable to feed
such animals solely on concentrates, the question whether they can
be so maintained is of scientific interest. Dry dairy cows have been
kept thru the winter in fair condition on corn meal with no hay. At
first they were restless, *but soon quieted down and rumination, or
chewing the cud, ceased. A 2-year-old steer was fed for nearly eight
months exclusively on grain, and sheep are not infrequently fed only
grain and roots. We may therefore conclude that mature ruminants
can be maintained for considerable periods, if not indefinitely, on
concentrates alone. With young ruminants Nature is less yielding,
for all attempts to raise calves on milk and grain without hay or other
roughage have ended in failure. Apparently some coarse feed is
needed to fill the first three stomachs so they may develop properly.

Efforts to keep horses on oats alone were unsuccessful, the horses
refusing the oats after a few days. Evidently horses cannot live on
concentrates alone, even oats with their straw-like hulls. On the other
hand, pigs can be maintained without roughage. A 23-lb. sow pig
was raised solely on milk and when about 1 year old gave birth to a
litter of vigorous pigs.

Succulent feeds. — Numerous scientific trials and common farm
experience have abundantly demonstrated the value of adding succu-
lent feeds to the rations of farm animals. The beneficial effects of
succulence, whether supplied as pasturage, silage, soilage, or roots,
are many. Just as our own appetites are stimulated by fruits and
vegetables, succulent feeds are relishes for the animals of the farm,
inducing them to consume more feed and economically convert it into
useful products. It is reasonable to hold that such palatable feeds
stimulate digestion and it is well known that their beneficial laxative
effect aids in keeping the digestive tract in good condition. Among
the most important contributions of the experiment stations are their
demonstrations of the economy of feeding silage to milch cows, fatten-

MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS

61

ing cattle and sheep, and of the possibilities of cheapening the cost of
producing pork thru the utilization of suitable pasture. The merits
of the various forms of succulence for the different farm animals are
discussed in later chapters.

Exercise; light. — For the maintenance of health, exercise is essen-
tial. The only exceptions to this rule are fattening animals, soon to
be marketed, which make more rapid gains if not allowed to move
about too freely. Abundant exercise is of special importance with

Fig. 17. — Comfortable Quarters, 8unny and "Well-ventilated, In-
crease Profits

Comfortable, well-lighted, and well-ventilated quarters, and quiet and regularity
in feeding are nearly as important as supplying balanced rations. (From Guern-
sey Breeder's Journal.)

breeding animals. The exercise requirements of the various farm
animals are discussed in the respective chapters of Part III.

Sunlight is an effective germicide. To prevent the contraction and
spread of disease, it is therefore important that the stables be well-
lighted. For fattening animals the quarters may be darkened some-
what, as this tends to keep them quiet and thus favors fattening.

Quiet and regularity. — Farm animals are creatures of habit, and
once accustomed to a routine of living show unrest at any change.
The stable and feed lot should be free from disturbance, and the

62 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

administration of feed and water should be uniform in time and
manner. Animals soon learn the feeding hour, and as it approaches
the secretions pour from the various digestive glands in anticipation of
the coming meal. Changes should be made gradually and only for
good reason, for in all feeding operations a changing period is usually
a losing one.

QUESTIONS

1. Define a maintenance ration. Wliat four body needs must it meet?

2. Describe the production of heat in tlie body and state how it differs from the
burning of fuel in a stove.

3. How do farm. animals regulate the temperature of their bodies?

4. In maintaining a mature animal for what is most of the food used?

5. How wide nutritive ratios may rations for maintaining mature animals
have?

6. What sort of feeds would you give a mature, idle horse?

7. Are aniids and true proteins of the same value?

8. What mineral elements are most apt to be deficient in rations?

9. Name some feeds that are low and others that are high in calcium and
phosphorus?

10. If a ration did not contain enough calcium or enough pliospliorus, what
would you add?

11. How has it been shown that cows must be supplied with common salt?

12. Why is a good system of ventilation necessary in stables?

13. How much water should farm animals be given? For what animals
should it be warmed in winter?

14. Can animals be maintained on concentrates alone?

15. Discuss the value of succulent feeds, exercise, light, and quiet and regu-
larity.

CHAPTER V

GROWTH AND FATTENING

I. Growth

We have seen in the preceding chapter that for maintaining mature
animals but relatively little protein and mineral matter are needed to
replace the small daily waste of these substances from the body. The
requirements for young, growing animals are far different, for their
bodies are increasing rapidly in both protein and mineral matter.

i

m

'I?

mjm

1

iP-'C ril ■■■■1

Fig. 18. — Young Animals Need Abundant Protein and Mineral

Matter

Since the skeleton and protein tissues are steadily increasing in size during
growth, young animals require feeds rich in protein and mineral matter. ( From
Fuller, Wisconsin Station.)

In the growing body and its organs considerable fat is also stored,
especially if the animal is well fed. Therefore the growing animal,
in addition to being supplied with enough food to maintain its weight,
must receive additional nutrients to provide for the building of its
body.

63

64 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Requirements for growing animals. — The skin, muscles, ligaments,
tendons, and internal organs of animals are almost wholly protein, as
is a large part of the nervous system and the organic portion of the
bones. During youth, all these parts steadily increase in size, and at
the same time much mineral matter is built into the skeleton or is
retained in the vital parts of the body cells. It is therefore clear
that the rations for growing animals should contain a much larger
proportion of protein and mineral matter than is needed in those for
maintaining mature animals. After growth is completed, but little
storage of protein or mineral matter can take place, for the skeleton,
the muscles, and the internal organs have reached full development.
However, if an animal is healthy but has poor muscular development,
some increase in the size of the muscles can be made thru suitable
exercise and an ample supply of protein. Beyond this, the only
storage of protein which can occur is in the growth of the nitrog-
enous hair and hoofs, and the small amount of protein stored in the
fatty tissues.

We have seen that maintenance rations may consist chiefly of
roughage, which furnishes little net energy. On the other hand, for
thrifty growth, the ration must be more concentrated (that is, must
furnish more net energy) to provide for the energy stored in the
growing tissues of the body in the form of protein and fat.

Milk the natural food for young mammals. — Since milk is Nature 's
food for the young of all mammals, it is reasonable to hold that it con-
tains all the nutrients necessary to sustain life in the young, and that
these are in proper proportion. A study of the composition of milk,
as given in the following table,^ will therefore aid in showing the re-
quirements for growth.

Composition of colostrum and normal milk

..,-., X Nutri-

Animal and character w-^i^i: Protein Fat Sugar Ash live

of milk ratio

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.

Cow, colostrum 75.1 17.2 4.0 2.3 1..5 1:0.7

Cow, normal 87.3 3.4 3.7 4.9 0.7 1:3.9

Ewe, colostrum 61.8 17.1 16.1 3.5 1.0 1:2.3

Ewe, normal 80.8 6.5 6.9 4.9 0.9 1 :3.1

Sow, colostrum 70.1 15.6 9.5 3.8 0.9 1:1.6

Sow, normal 84.1 7.2 4.6 3.1 1.1 1:2.0

The first milk yielded by the mother, called colostrum, is thicker
anch far higher in protein and often richer in ash than ordinary milk.
Colostrum is laxative and highly important for cleansing the alimen-

iKonig, Chem. Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. I, 1903.

GROWTH AND FATTENING 65

tary canal of aeeumulated waste matter and properly starting the
work of digestion. During the week following birth the composi-
tion of the milk gradually changes to normal.

Tho normal milk is lower in protein than colostrum milk, it eon-
tains an abundant supply compared with the cereals. For example,
Appendix Table III shows that the nutritive ratio (i.e., the propor-
tion of protein to other nutrients) is 1:4.4 for cow's milk, while it is
1 :10.4 for corn. Milk is also much richer in ash, or mineral matter,
than are the cereal grains. While only 1.7 per ct. of the dry matter
of corn and 3.9 per ct. of the dry matter of oats is mineral matter, the
dry matter of cow 's milk contains 5.5 per ct. The supply of calcium
(lime) and phosphorus, needed in large amounts in the growing skel-
eton, is especially liberal, these two constituents forming over half the
total mineral matter.

These studies of the composition of milk teach that after weaning
young animals should be given feeds similar to milk in composition;
i.e., rich in protein and mineral matter. For this reason, such feeds
as hay from clover, alfalfa, or other legumes and protein-rich concen-
trates, like wheat bran, wheat middlings, and linseed meal, are of high
value for growing animals.

Protein must be of proper quality. — Only a few years ago scien-
tists believed that an ample quantity of protein was all that was neces-
sary for normal growth. ]\Iany recent experiments show, however,
that not only must the qiiantity of protein in the food be abundant,
but it must also be of the proper Mnd or quality, if the animal is to
grow thriftily. We have seen in Chapter I that the proteins are
made up of many different amino acids (the protein building stones)
and that tlie amounts of these different amino acids in various plant
proteins differ widely. Some are well-balanced, containing consid-
erable amounts of all the amino acids, while in others certain of the
amino acids may be entirely lacking. All the different amino acids
are needed to form the proteins of the body, but animals are able to
manufacture only one of these amino acids in their bodies from other
compounds of the food. Therefore, for normal growth the food must
furnish all the necessary amino acids, with the possible exception of
a single one.

The following illustration will show the conditions an animal may
meet in forming body proteins from the mixture of amino acids re-
sulting from the digestion of the food protein : Suppose we are build-
ing a brick wall in a certain pattern which requires that 1 brick in 10
have a green end. If we are using as our source of material a pile
of bricks resulting from the taking down of another wall, in which
only 1 brick in 50 had a green end, it is evident that we will soon

66 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

have to stop rebuilding, tho having many perfect bricks left, because
none have the green end required for the pattern.

Some proteins, such as the principal ones of wheat, furnish as much
as 40 per ct. of a single amino acid, which forms only 14 per ct. of the
animal proteins. "When such protein alone is given to growing ani-
mals, obviously a considerable part will be wasted and growth will be
checked. Proteins which entirely lack some of the necessary amino
acids will produce no growth whatever when fed alone. However, if
the necessary amino acids are added to the ration, the animal will be
able to continue growth.

The various incomplete or unbalanced proteins do not all lack the
same amino acids. Hence, when two incomplete proteins are com-
bined one may supplement the deficiencies of the other and better
growth be made than on either alone. For example, experiments
with pigs - have shown that when corn alone was fed but 23 per ct. of
the protein was built into body protein, and when only linseed meal
was fed, but 17 per ct. When a mixture of three-fourths corn and
one-fourth linseed meal was given, the results were considerably better
than on either feed alone, 37 per ct. of the protein being used in
growth. This indicates that corn and linseed meal are not deficient
in the same amino acids, and that when combined one feed helps to
correct the deficiencies of the other. It is doubtless partly due to this
fact that better results are often secured in practice when a variety of
feeds is used than when but one or two are fed. The greater variety
lessens the danger of a deficiency in the proteins furnished.

The various chapters of Part III show the combinations of feeds
which have been most successfully used for growing animals of the
various classes.

Mineral matter required for growth. — It has already been shown
that the young animal, growing rapidly in skeleton and body tissues,
needs a liberal supply of mineral matter, especially calcium (lime)
and phosphorus. Enough must be furnished not only to provide for
the growth of the muscles, bones, etc., but to replace the small daily
loss from the body.

The injurious effects of a lack of mineral matter are shown in a
trial at the Wisconsin Station ^ in which one lot of growing pigs was
fed wheat bran from which most of the phosphorus had been removed
by washing, together with wheat gluten and rice, both of which feeds
are extremely poor in mineral matter. Other lots were fed the same
ration plus ground rock phosphate or bone ash, which supplied ample
calcium and phosphorus. For a considerable period all the pigs

2McCollum, Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, p. .323; information to the authors.
3 Hart, McCollum and Fuller, Wis. Res. Bui. 1.

GROWTH AND FATTENING 67

throve fairly well, but as time went on those fed the ration poor in
mineral matter fell behind the others. They had no appetite and
disliked to stand up ; later they lost control of their hind quarters and
had to be carried to the trough at feeding time. When the pigs were
slaughtered, it was found that those fed insufficient phosphorus had
light, weak bones, while those receiving ground rock phosphate or
bone ash had strong, heavy ones.

Since the common feeds which are high in protein are also rich in
phosphorus, probably plenty of phosphorus will be furnished when
rations are balanced according to the usual feeding standards. The

Fig. 19. — Pigs Fed a Ration Low in Phosphorus

These young pigs, fed a ration very low in phosphorus at the Wisconsin Station,
are stunted and have lost control of their hind quarters. Pigs fed the same ra-
tion with ground rock phosphate in addition grew thriftily. (From Hart, Wis-
consin Station.)

calcium supply for calves and lambs will usually be ample when hay
and the cereals form the greater part of the ration. Deficiencies may
occur in regions where the roughages are unusually low in calcium, or
when large amounts of such roughages as wheat straw, barley straw,
or timothy hay are fed. Where pigs are fed exclusively on the cereal
grains, especially corn, the calcium supply will usually be too low.
As shown in the preceding chapter, when calcium alone is lacking,
it may be supplied in legume hay or in the form of ground limestone.
If only phosphorus, or if both calcium and phosphorus are lacking,
these may be furnished in ground rock phosphate, ground bone, or
bone ash.

Utilization of food by young animals.— The gains made by thrifty,
well-fed young animals are much larger and more economical, based
on live weight and food consumed, than those of mature animals. For
example, an unweaned calf may gain 2 to 3 lbs. daily for each 100 lbs.
of body weight, while a daily gain of 0.3 to 0.4 lb. per 100 lbs, of

68 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

body weight is large for a mature fattening steer. The more rapid
gains of young animals are due to several causes. They consume
more food per 100 lbs. live weight and thus have more food left to
make gain after their bodies are maintained. Young lambs fed cow's
milk have even stored nearly three-fourths of the protein, over 90
per ct. of the calcium, and about three-fourths of the phosphorus sup-
plied in their food. The flesh of young animals is more watery than
that of older ones. Hence, each pound of the gain they make con-
tains less dry matter than in the case of older animals.

II. Fattening

The object of fattening. — ^Ye all know that the lean meat from a
well-fattened animal is better flavored and more juicy and tender than
from a lean one. This improvement in the quality of the lean meat,
and not the storage of thick masses of fat, is the main object in fat-
tening animals before they are slaughtered for meat. To some extent
during growth, and especially during fattening, fat is stored in the
lean-meat tissues, chiefly between the bundles of fibers of which the
muscles are composed. This storage of fat, which forms the so-called
"marbling" of meat, adds to its tenderness, juiciness, and flavor, be-
sides increasing the digestibility and nutritive value.

What fattening is. — The fattening of animals is what the term im-
plies, chiefly the laying on of fat. Many years ago Lawes and Gilbert
of the Eothamsted (England) Station,* by analyzing the bodies of
animals slaughtered at various stages of fattening found that the in-
crease of steers when nearly full grown was about two-thirds fat, and
only 7.7 per ct. protein and 1.5 per ct. mineral matter. With pigs
the proportion of fat was even greater. The younger the animals are
when they are fattened, the greater will be the storage of protein and
mineral matter. This is shown in the following table, which shows
the results of experiments at the IMissouri Station.^ There is first
given the composition of the carcass of a 748-lb. steer in thrifty grow-
ing condition, followed by the composition of the gains made by sim-
ilar steers during fattering.

Composition of un fattened steer and gains during fattening

Fat Protein Ash Water

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.

Carcass of unfattened steer 18.6 18.8 5.7 56.4

First 500 lbs. of gain 48.6 11.9 2.0 37.6

Second 500 lbs. of gain 75.6 5.2 1.5 17.8

4 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1860.

5 Waters, Mumford, and Trowbridge, information to the authors.

GROWTH AND FATTENING 69

While the carcass of the steer killed before fattening contained only
18.6 per ct. fat, the first 500 lbs. of gain was nearly half, and the last
500 lbs. over three-fourths fat. During the first 500 lbs. of gain, 11.9
per ct. of the increase was protein, but in the last 500 lbs. of gain only
5.2 per ct. was protein. The storage of ash was likewise less as the
animal matured.

How body fat is formed. — Since fattening is chiefly a storage of
body fat, in studying the feed requirements of fattening animals it is
most important to learn from what substances in the feed this body
fat may be formed. By numerous feeding experiments it has been
shown that after enough nutrients have been supplied to maintain the
body, any excess — no matter whether fat, carbohydrates, or protein — •
may be transformed into body fat.

The fat in the food is not commonly stored in the body without
being altered. As a result, even when all are fed the very same feeds,
the fat formed by the steer, sheep, and pig will differ considerably in
chemical properties. All the digested fat taken into the body beyond
that required for maintenance cannot be deposited as body fat, since
considerable losses always occur thru the energy used up in digestion
and assimilation. The largest part of the fat stored in the body is
undoubtedly formed from the carbohydrates of the food, for these are
the most abundant nutrients in all common rations. When more pro-
tein is furnished than is needed for the repair of the body tissues, the
remainder may, after the nitrogen is split off, also be changed into
body fat.

The ration for fattening. — Since the fattening of mature animals
consists mainly in the storage of fat, there is no demand for a large
supply of protein for fattening animals. However, it is not advis-
able to feed a ration having a wider nutritive ratio than 1 :10 or 1 :12,
for, as we have seen in Chapter III, when less protein than this is fed
the digestibility of the ration is decreased. Since any excess of pro-
tein can be changed into fat, where protein-rich feeds are cheaper
than those of a carbonaceous character, it may be profitable to feed
rations having a narrow nutritive ratio. For example, in the South,
where cottonseed meal is frequently the only concentrate used, fatten-
ing steers are often fed rations having nutritive ratios of 1 :4, or even
narrower. Animals in thin flesh should at first receive a liberal sup-
ply of protein so that their muscular tissues may develop.

Because young animals make the most economical gains, most of
the meat-producing animals in this country are fattened and mar-
keted before maturity. Such animals add not only fat but also con-
siderable lean meat to their bodies as they fatten, and therefore re-

70 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

quire more protein than mature animals. From a survey of the many
feeding- trials carried on by the experiment stations of this country,
the authors believe that 2-year-old steers should not be fed rations
wider than 1 :7 or 1 :8 when being fattened. Depending on their age,
fattening lambs should not be fed rations wider than 1 :5 to 1 :8.
(See Appendix Table V.)

Factors influencing fattening. — The storage of fat in an animal
depends primarily upon the quantity of food consumed in excess of
maintenance and growth requirements. Fattening may take place at
any age, tho the tendency of young animals to grow greatly reduces
the proportion of food usually available for fattening. Supplying an
abundance of feeds that are palatable, concentrated, and largely di-
gestible aids rapid fattening, because a large surplus of nutrients
then remains after supplying the body needs.

The disposition of an animal to fatten depends upon breed and
temperament. While a wild animal, nervous and active, can be fat-
tened only with difficulty, domesticated animals are more quiet and
usually fatten readily. The restless animal is rarely a good feeder,
while the quiet one, which is inclined to eat and lie down, will show
superior gains. This is not due to difference in digestive powers, but
rather to the fact that the quiet animal has, from a given amount of
feed, a greater surplus of nutrients for fat building. Fattening ani-
mals must not be allowed to exercise too much as this wastes nutrients
which they might store in their bodies.

Returns from feed. — The following table ^ shows the amount of
food suitable for man returned by the different classes of farm ani-
mals from each 100 lbs. of digestible matter consumed :

Human food produced from 100 lbs. of digestihle matter consumed

Marketable Edible Marketable Edible

Animal product solids Animal product solids

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

Cow (milk) 139.0 18.0 Poultry (eggs) .... 19.6 5.1

Pig (dressed) 25.0 15.6 Poultry (dressed) . 15.6 4.2

Cow (cheese) 14.8 9.4 Lamb (dressed) ... 9.6 3.2

Calf (dressed) 36.5 8.1 Steer (dressed) .... 8.3 2.8

Cow (butter) 6.4 5.4 Sheep (dressed) ... 7.0 2.6

The table, which presents one side of a most complicated problem,
shows that for 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients consumed the cow
yields about 139 lbs. of milk, containing 18 lbs. of solids, practically
all digestible. She easily leads all farm animals in her power to eon-
vert the crops of the field into human food. The pig produces about
25 lbs. of dressed carcass. Allowing for water, bone, and gristle,
there remains over 15 lbs. of edible dry meat. The steer and sheep

6 Jordan, The Feeding of Animals.

GROWTH AND FATTENING 71

yield less than 10 lbs. of dressed carcass, nearly half of which is water.
Deducting this and the bone and gristle, there remains only from 2.6
to 3.2 lbs. of water-free edible meat.

The economy of gains by animals when young is evident on compar-
ing the figures for the calf with those for the steer, and those for the
lamb with those for sheep. It should also be noted that the pig ex-
cels all other meat-producing animals in the eflficiency with which he
produces human food. This is largely because he eats more feed per
100 lbs. live weight, and also because his food is more concentrated and
digestible. Both these factors increase the proportion of the food con-
sumed which can be used for producing gain.

III. Studies on Grov^th and Fattening

Feeding pigs corn only. — In 1884 Sanborn of the Missouri Agricul-
tural College ' carried on trials in which growing pigs fed exclusively
on corn meal were compared with others fed on corn meal and either
wheat middlings or dried blood. The corn-meal ration furnished an
abundance of easily digested carbohydrates and fat, but was deficient
in protein and mineral matter. The addition of dried blood or wheat
middlings to corn meal formed a ration rich in protein and mineral
matter as well as in carbohydrates and fat. Compared with the corn-
fed pigs, those getting rations rich in protein had a larger muscular
development and more blood, and some of their internal organs were
larger.

Realizing the fundamental importance of Sanborn's studies, the
senior author ^ conducted numerous trials at the Wisconsin Station in
which dried blood, wheat middlings, field peas, and skim milk, with
or without corn meal, were fed in opposition to corn meal alone.
Similar trials were conducted at the Kansas and Alabama Stations
and in France. Thus at 5 widely separated points pigs were fed ra-
tions rich in protein and mineral matter, usually containing some
corn meal, in opposition to corn meal alone, which is rich in carbo-
hydrates and fat but low in protein and mineral matter.

Feeding corn alone not only greatly decreased the gains of the pigs
but • also greatly modified the composition of their bodies. As a
rule, the pigs getting only corn had a smaller amount of blood and
smaller livers and other internal organs per 100 lbs. of carcass than
did those fed the rations containing ample protein and mineral mat-
ter. The bones of the corn-fed pigs were also abnormally weak. In
the first Wisconsin trial their thigh bones broke at an average pres-
sure of 380 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of carcass, while those fed milk, dried

TMo. Bills. 10, 14, 19. 8 Wis. Rpts. 1886, '87, '88, '89.

72 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

blood, and middlings broke at about 500 lbs. — a difference of 32 per ct.
in favor of the rations rich in protein and mineral matter. The pigs
given the protein-rich feeds had nearly 30 per ct. more blood for
each 100 lbs. of carcass than those fed corn alone, and their livers,
kidneys, and tenderloin muscles were also larger, showing that a supe-
rior muscular development was associated with the larger internal
organs, more blood, etc. The carcasses of the corn-fed pigs, on the
other hand, contained a greater proportion of fat.

Fig. 20. — ^PiGS Fed Corn Alone Do Not Develop Normal Carcasses

Upper TOW, cross sections of carcasses of pigs fed for lean; i. e., on well-bal-
anced ration, by the senior autlior at the Wisconsin Station. Left, section at
shoulder; middle, section between fifth and sixth ribs; right, section at loins.
Lower row, carcasses of pigs fed corn alone. Note larger size of muscles of pigs
fed well-balanced ration.

These experiments show the plastic nature of the bodies of young,
growing animals. Immature animals living on such unsuitable food
may survive for a long time, but they develop bodies that are dwarfed
in size and made unnaturally fat. Nature's plan is first to grow the
body framework and afterwards to lay on the fat, if food be abundant.
The experiments point to the reasonable, important, and far-reaching
conclusion that if a pig or other young animal is improperly fed so as
to injure its bones, muscles, and vital organs even a very little, and

GROWTH AND FATTENING 73

the process is repeated during several generations, the effects will be-
come marked and permanently injurious. The practical lesson is
taught that young animals should be fed a combination of feeding
stuffs that will allow normal growth. This calls for a ration con-
taining crude protein and mineral matter not only in ample amount,
but also of suitable composition for the rapid formation of body tis-
sues. When growth is completed, the food supply may then consist
largely of carbohydrates and fat, which are the cheap and abundant
sources of animal fat.

Growth under adverse conditions. — Extensive experiments carried
on at the j\Iissouri '' and Kansas ^"^ Stations are of much interest in
showing what happens when young animals are fed only enough feed
to maintain their weights. Due to the impulse toward growth, young
steers fed scanty rations continued to grow in height, tho not gaining
in weight. In this effort the fat stored in the body was withdrawn
and used up as body fuel, the animals becoming thin in flesh as the
scanty feeding progressed.

For 70 to 120 days, depending on how vigorous they were and how
much fat they carried, young steers fed only enough to maintain their
weight gained as rapidly in height as others on full feed. After this
period the increase in height became less rapid, ceasing altogether in
from 6 months to a year and half, by which time the animals had be-
come quite thin and had burned up all the fat in their bodies which
was not absolutely necessary to life. Growth on scanty rations is not
due directly to the fat re-absorbed from the body. The animal burns
its stored fat to support the body, and the scanty protein supply in its
food is used for building body tissue.

As a result of these studies Waters of the Kansas Station points
out that a young animal may reach normal size by any or all of the
following ways:

1. By growing steadily from birth to maturity.

2. By storing fat during a period of abundant food supply, which
will help to tide over a limited period of sparse food supply without
serious checking of growth.

3. By prolonging the growth period.

4. By an increase in the rate of growth during a period of liberal
feeding following a period of scanty feeding and low^ gain.

5. By using its food more efficiently. Apparently when an animal
is kept for a long period on scanty food, it gets on a more economical
basis than when liberally fed. A ration which is at first insufficient

9 Waters and Trowbridge, Proc. Prom. Agr. Sci. 1908; information to the
authors.
10 Waters, Cochel, and Vestal, Kansas Industrialist, May 10, 1913; Apr. 18,
1914; and information to the authors.

74

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

to maintain an animal may be capable later of keeping the same animal
at a constant body weight, and still later of causing a small gain.

Effects of checking growth. — Numerous experiments have been
carried on at the Kansas Station to determine the effect on the later

Medium Ration

IT

GROWTH OF STEERS
Full Rations

Scant Rations

Fig. 21. — Scant Feeding Stunts Growing Animals

Tlie steer in the middle row of pictures, fed a full ration, weijjlied 1,!)05 lbs. at
47 months. The steer at the left, fed a medium ration, weijihed only 1,224 ll)s..
and the one at the right, fed a scant ration, but 1,042 lbs. Note the' stunted ap-
pearance of the latter steers at the end of the trial. (From Missouri Station.)

development of pure-bred beef steers of checking their growth by
under-feeding. It was found that supplying a young, growing ani-
mal with a scant ration for only a short period will have no perma-
nent effect on its development. Even when insufficient feeding is

GROWTH AND FATTENING

75

continued for a year or longer, the animal will recover to a surprising
extent when placed on liberal feed, making unusually rapid and
economical gains.

However, while a steer whose growth has been checked for a year
or more may grow nearly as tall as one always well fed, it is almost
certain to have a smaller digestive capacity, narrower hips, flatter
ribs, heavier shoulders, and lighter hind quarters, even when well
fattened. The blocky form of the highly developed beef animal has
evidently been caused by broadening the animal thru liberal feeding
while young. If the feed is insufficient to distend the digestive tract

i/.i Mo. i-/ Mo. ^^ Mo.

Fig. 22. — Round Steaks from Steers Variously Fed

Left, from steers fed medium ration; middle, from steers fed full ration;
right, from steers fed scant ration. Xote large size and well-marbled appear-
ance of muscles from the full-fed steers and the scarcity of fat in the meat from
tlie steers fed the scant ration. (From IMissouri Station.)

and force out the ribs and hips while the body is yet plastic, then the
animal will never later reach the desired conformation of the true
beef type.

These studies on growth are highly significant to the stockman.
They show that under certain conditions it may be profitable to carry
growing animals thru the winter on roughages alone, even tho they
lose slightly in weight, for on a return to good pasture, animals in
spare but thrifty condition make exceedingly economical gains. How-
ever, the breeder of any class of stock who seeks to develop his animals
toward an ideal must supply ample feed during the whole growth
period.

QUESTIONS

1. How do the requirements for growing animals differ from those for main-
taining mature animals?

2. Show by an example' why the protein supply for growth must be not only
ample in quantity but also of the right quality.

76 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

3. What is the effect of feeding rations deficient in mineral matter to growing
animals?

4. Compare the economy with which yovmg animals and mature ones use their
food.

5. What is the object of fattening meat producing animals?

6. What is the composition of tlie gains during fattening?

7. From what materials may body fat be formed?

8. Discuss tlie food requirements of fattening animals?
n. What factors influence fattening?

10. Name the various farm animals in the order of their efficiency in making
human food.

11. Describe the efTects of feeding pigs corn alone.

12. What are the effects of supplying scanty rations to growing animals?

CHAPTER VI

PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL

I. Production of Work

It has long been known that muscular exertion or external body
work greatly increases the amount of food material broken down in
the body, but scientists have disagreed as to whether one or all of the
nutrients — protein, carbohydrates, or fat — furnishes the energy.

The source of muscular energy. — By painstaking trials it was fi-
nally proved that all the organic nutrients, not only the carbohy-
drates and fats, but also the proteins and apparently the pentosans,
may serve as sources of muscular work. Under normal conditions,
the carbohydrates and fats of the food are first drawn upon, no more
protein being broken down than during rest. Should. these not fur-
nish enough energy for the work, the body fat is next used. If this
is still insufficient or is much diminished by continued work, then,
as the last resort, the muscles or other protein tissues will be called
upon for the needed energy.

Production of muscular energy. — AVe know that in doing work the
muscles of the body contract, that is, become shorter and thicker.
However, we do not yet understand in just what manner the energy
of the nutrients is converted into the energy of muscular action, tho
we do know some of the processes which take place in the working
muscles.

In some marvelous manner the nutrients are suddenly broken down
in the cells of the muscles, and part of the energy they contain is
changed into mechanical work, while another part is set free as heat.
In this change oxygen is taken up from the blood and carbon dioxid
is given off, just as occurs when fuel is burned. The production of
mechanical energy in the muscles is in a way similar to the production
of power by a gasoline engine, where the fuel undergoes such a rapid
breaking down that it becomes an explosion. As in the muscle, part
of the energy of the fuel is turned into useful work and part is set
free as heat. This latter part yields no useful work.

During rest, glycogen, or animal starch, is stored in the muscles,
forming from 0.5 to 0.9 per ct. of the weight of well-nourished muscle
when resting. A smaller amount of glucose is also stored in the
muscles. ]\Iost of the energy produced in work is doubtless formed

77

78

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

thru the oxidation of these two carbohydrates. Tho the supply in the
body tissues at any one time is small, glucose is continuously being
formed from the food nutrients or body tissues, to replace that used
up during work.

The animal as a machine. — Numerous experiments have shown that
animals at moderate work can convert into external work from 29 to
37 per ct. of the total energy expended. On the average, about one-

FiG. 23. — The Muscular System of the Horse

The work done yearly in this country by horses and mules is worth over $2,-
000,000,000. (From Eilenberger.)

third of the energy used by men or animals in muscular exertion is
recovered as useful work. The rest takes the form of heat within the
body, and is lost so far as the production of work is concerned. These
figures do not take into account the energy lost in the excreta, that
expended for digestion and assimilation, or that used in maintaining
the body when at rest. Allowing for all of these, a man actually con-
verts about 20 per ct. of the fuel of his food into external work. The
best steam engines have about the same efficiency, w'hile the average

PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK AND WOOL 79

engine falls below 10 per ct. Gasoline engines range in efficiency
from 10 to 27 per ct. Thus, as a mere machine for mechanical work
the animal body compares favorably with the best modern engines.
In addition to performing external work, the body must prepare and
transport its own fuel, store it until needed, make all repairs, and
maintain a definite temperature, as well as direct, move, and control
itself. When all these functions are considered, the marvelous per-
fection of the animal body as a machine becomes apparent.

By processes still unknown the animal body produces heat, light,
electricity, and muscular energy with an efficiency greater than any
machine made by man. With animals the fuel is burned at low tem-
peratures. The glow worm and fire fly produce light without sensible
loss of heat or other energy, and the torpedo fish and electric eel gen-
erate electricity by means unknown. Such mysterious and wonderful
processes which continuously occur in the animal body baffle scientists
and inventors alike.

Factors influencing energy required for work. — The amount of
energy required to produce a given amount of useful work depends
upon many factors. Practice in doing a certain kind of work lessens
the amount of energy expended. In one instance, training for two
weeks decreased by over 20 per ct. the energy used b}^ a man climbing
a tower. On the other hand, fatigue greatly increases the energy
required to do a given task. This is largely due to the fact that with
increasing fatigue the muscles normally used, and which are tlms most
efficient in performing the given work, are put out of use. Then other
less used muscles are called upon to a constantly increasing degree,
and these cannot perform the work so economically. Increasing the
speed at which the work is done also lessens the efficiency with which
it is performed. Tliis is because the work of the heart is increased,
the body temperature rises, and much heat is lost by the evaporation
of water thru the skin and lungs. This decreases the amount of work
which a given quantity of feed will produce.

The part of the expended energy appearing in useful work varies
with the build of the animal, the development of its muscles, and the
structure of its limbs. For example, a lame horse may use nearly
twice as much energy in traveling a certain distance as one with sound
legs. An animal which is able to perform one kind of work most
economically may have to expend undue energy at other kinds of
work. Thus, horses bred for generations to the saddle can carry the
rider with a smaller expenditure of energy than those whose breed-
ing and form specially fit them for draft purposes.

Additional discussions of the factors influencing the production of
work, as applied to horses, are given in Chapter XVIII.

80

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

II. Pkoduction op Milk

Secretion of milk. — ]\Iilk, the marvelous fluid designed by Nature
for the nourishment of the young of all mammals, is secreted by special
organs, called the mammary glands. Scientists disagree as to the
exact process by which the milk is formed in the small, sac-like bodies,
known as alveoli, in the udder. However, we do know that the blood,
laden with nutrients, is brought by the capillaries of the udder to
these alveoli. The nutrients then pass thru the walls of the capillaries
into the alveoli. There, by one of Nature's wonderful processes, they

are converted into milk,
which differs entirely
in composition from
the blood whence it
originates. The chief
proteins of milk —
casein and milk albu-
min— differ from all
other proteins of the
body, and the milk fat
likewise has entirely
different properties
from the body fat of
the same animal. IMilk
sugar, the carbohy-
drate of milk, is found
nowhere else in the
body. While the blood contains much more potassium than sodium,
in milk the sodium predominates.

From the alveoli the milk passes into the network of milk ducts.
In some animals the large milk ducts open directly on the surface of
the teat, but in others, including the cow, they open into a small cavity,
called the milk cistern, which is just above the teat. Most of the milk
yielded at one milking is secreted during the milking process, for the
udder has room for the storage of but a small part of the total product.
Tho the secretion of milk is involuntary and cannot be prevented
by the animal, any more than can breathing or the circulation of the
blood, the flow may be reduced by nervousness caused by fright, an
unfamiliar attendant, or other unusual circumstance. The animal
has considerable power to "hold up" the milk already secreted in the
udder, by contracting the ring of muscle which partially separates
the milk cistern from the teat, and similar muscles guarding the milk
ducts.

Fig. 24. — Mammary Gland of Cow

Small portion of
alveoli, in which mill
c, larger milk duct.

gland, greatly magnified. A,
is secreted: b, small milk duct;
(After Klein.)

PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK AND WOOL 81

Source of fat in milk.— For many years it was believed that the
cow could form the fat of milk only from the fat in her food. This
was disproved in an ingenious experiment at the New York (Geneva)
Station.^ For over 3 months a cow was fed on hay, cornmeal, and
oats, from which the fat had been extracted by naphtha, as is done in
one method of extracting the oil from flax seed. During this time
the cow received only 5.7 lbs. digestible fat in her feed, but yielded
62.9 lbs, of fat in her milk. She was fatter at the end of the trial
than at the beginning and so could not have converted her body fat
into milk fat. From the amount of digestible protein in her feed, it
was computed that not over 17 lbs. of the milk fat could possibly have
come from the food protein. Thus, the larger part of the fat must
have been formed from the carbohydrates of the feed.

Nutrients required for milk production.— A study of the nutrients
the cow yields in her milk will aid in showing the kind and amount of
nutrients her ration should furnish. A dairy cow of no unusual
ability should yield annually 8,000 lbs. of milk of average quality.
Taking the composition shown in a previous table (Page 64), we find
that she will produce in her milk 272 lbs. of protein, 296 lbs. of fat,
392 lbs. of milk sugar, and 56 lbs. of mineral matter. This is 56 per
ct, more protein, 30 per ct. more non-nitrogenous nutrients (fat and
carbohydrates), and 19 per ct. more mineral matter than is contained
in the entire body of a fat 2-year-old steer weighing 1,200 lbs.

Thus, each year the cow yields more protein and mineral matter
than has been built into the body of the steer during its life. At the
same time she may be storing considerable protein and mineral matter
in the developing body of her unborn calf. It is therefore evident
that, far different from the requirements of the mature horse at work
or of a mature fattening animal, the cow needs a liberal supply of
protein and mineral matter. Just as in the case of growing animals,
this must not only be ample in quantity, but also of the proper kind or
quality. Furthermore, the high-producing cow is working just as
truly as the horse pulling a load, and hence needs a liberal supply of
concentrates rich in net energy. Energy used up in the mastication,
digestion, and assimilation of such feeds as straw takes the form of
internal heat and is of no value for the formation of milk.

Since most of the scientific studies of the factors influencing the
production of milk have been conducted with the dairy cow, the dis-
cussion of milk production by that animal is continued in Chapters
XX and XXI. The requirements of the mare, ewe, and sow for the
production of milk are also treated in the respective chapters of
Part III.

1 Jordan and Jenter, N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 132.

82

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

III. Wool Production

Composition of wool. — Aside from moisture and dirt, "wool" is
made up of pure wool fiber and yolk, the latter including the suint and
the wool fat. The wool fiber is practicallj^ pure protein, and is of the
same chemical composition as ordinary hair, but differs in being
covered with minute overlapping scales. The suint,
chiefly composed of compounds of potassium with
organic acids, comprises from 15 to over 50 per ct.
of the unwashed fleece, being especially high in the
Merino breed. As suint is soluble in water, most
of it is removed by washing the unshorn sheep or
the fleece, and less is present in the wool of sheep
exposed to the weather. The fat, often incorrectly
lalled yolk, is a complex mixture of fatty sub-
stances, insoluble in water, and may make up from
S to 30 per ct. of the weight of a washed fleece.

Requirements for wool production. — Owing to
tlie large amount of j)rotein stored by sheep in their
tleeces, their rations should contain somewhat more
protein than rations for cattle or swine at the same
stage of maturity. This is taken into consideration
in the various feeding standards for the different
classes of animals. (See Appendix Tables IV and
V.) With ewes which are either pregnant or suck-
ling lambs, there is a double demand for food pro-
tein, which makes a liberal supply especially ad-
visable.

When sheep are fed insufficient food to maintain
their weight, the yield of wool is considerably di-
minished. On the other hand, the production of
wool fiber and wool fat is practically no greater
when a full-grown sheep receives a liberal fatten-
ing ration than when it is maintained in ordinary condition. Feeding
lambs liberally produces a larger body and consequently a heavier
fleece.

The strength of the wool fiber is dependent on the breed, the quality
of the individual sheep, and the conditions under which they are
raised. Conditions which check the growth of the wool, such as insuffi-
cient feed, undue exposure, or sickness, will produce a weak spot in
the fiber. The feed and care for the flock should therefore be liberal
and as uniform as possible.

Fig. 25.— Wool
Fibers

Appearance of
fibers, greatly mag-
nified, after dirt
and yolk have been
removed. Left,
fiber of jMerino
wool; right, fiber
of Down wool.
Note the overlap-
ping scales cover-
ing the fibers.

PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK AND WOOL 83

QUESTIONS

1. What is the source of muscular energy?

2. Tell wliat is known about the way muscular energy is produced.

3. How do animals compare with engines in the efficiency with which they
perform work ?

4. Discuss the effects of speed, training, fatigue, and build of animal on the
economy with which work is produced.

5. What is known about milk secretion?

6. How has it been shown that milk fat may be formed from the carbohydrates
of the feed?

7. Wliat are the food requirements of cows in milk?

8. Of what is wool composed?

9. Why should sheep be fed a larger proportion of protein than beef cattle or
pigs?

10. In what manner does the feed influence the quantity and quality of wool?

CHAPTER VII

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS

I. Early Feeding Standards

To guide the farmer in selecting rations for his stock, scientists
have drawn up feeding standards. These are tables showing the
amounts of each class of nutrients which, it is believed, should be pro-
vided for farm animals of the various ages and classes for the best
results.

Early feeding standards. — At the beginning of the last century
almost nothing was known about the chemistry of plants and animals,
and the farmer gave his stock hay and grain without knowing what
there was in this feed that nourished them. In 1859, when chemistry
had thrown some light on the composition of feeds, Grouven, in Ger-
many, proposed the first feeding standard for farm animals. This
was, however, very imperfect, for it was based not on the amount of
digestible nutrients required, but on the total crude protein, carbo-
hydrates, and fat in feeding stuffs.

In 1864 Wolff, a famous German scientist, presented the first table
of feeding standards based on the digestible nutrients contained in
feeds. These set forth the amounts of digestible crude protein, carbo-
hydrates, and fat required daily by the different classes of farm
animals. The Wolff standards were brought to the attention of
American farmers 10 years later and were further introduced by
Armsby's ''Manual of Cattle Feeding," which appeared in 1880.
The value and importance of these standards were soon recognized
and with their adoption came the first wide-spread effort toward the
rational feeding of farm animals. In 1896 the Wolff standards were
modified by Lehmann, as scientific trials had then thrown further
light on stock feeding.

The numerous feeding experiments which have been carried on since
the Wolff -Lehmann standards were presented have given us more com-
plete knowledge of the nutrients required by the various classes of farm
animals than was possessed by these pioneers in the field of animal
nutrition. Naturally such results show that these early standards
are in some respects inaccurate. Taking these facts into considera-
tion, later scientists have drawn up other standards which are pre-

84

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS

85

sented later in this chapter. The Wolff-Lehmann standards are, how-
ever, briefly explained first on account of their historical and founda-
tional importance.

The Wolff-Lehmann standards are given in full in Appendix
Table IV. From this the following examples are taken for purposes of
study :

Digestible nutrients required daily per 1,000 lbs. live ireight

Dry
matter

Digestible nutrients

Nutri-

Animal

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat

tive
ratio

Ox, at rest

Lbs.
18
30
29
24

Lbs.

0.7
2.5

2.5
2.0

Lbs.
8.0
15.0
13.0
11.0

Lbs.

0.1

0.5

0.5

0.6

1:11.8

Fattening cattle, 1st period. .
Cow, yielding 22 lbs. milk. . .
Horse, at medium work ....

1: 6.5
1: 5.7
1: 6.2

The table shows that according to the Wolff-Lehmann standards a
1,000-lb. ox at rest, neither gaining nor losing in weight, requires
for 1 day's maintenance 18 lbs. of dry matter containing the follow-
ing digestible nutrients: 0.7 lb. crude protein, 8.0 lbs. carbohydrates,
and 0.1 lb. fat, with a nutritive ratio of 1 :11.8. When the animal is
growing, fattening, giving milk, or doing external work, a larger
quantity of nutrients must be supplied than for maintenance, as the
table shows.

Careful experiments carried on since the Wolff-Lehmann standards
were proposed have conclusively shown that dairy cows, work horses,
and fattening cattle, sheep, and pigs all need considerably less crude
protein than is recommended in these standard. As protein-rich feeds
are usually the highest in price over much of our country, following
these standards is frequently decidedly uneconomical. The authors
have therefore drawn up the "Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards,"
which are discussed later in this chapter and given in Appendix
Table V. As these are based upon the many feeding trials carried
on in recent years, they furnish more accurate information on the
requirements of farm animals than the original standards.

Altho it is advisable in the actual feeding of stock to follow one of
the more recent feeding standards described later in this chapter, both
students and stockmen should, first of all, familiarize themselves with
the Wolff-Lehmann standards because of their historical interest and
the great help they have been to animal husbandry in the past. Hav-
ing considered the Wolff-Lehmann standards, one is prepared for the
study of other more accurate standards now in the process of formation.

86 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

II. Calculating Kations for Farm Animals

General requirements of satisfactory rations. — The various feeding
standards make recommendations only in regard to the amounts of
dry matter, of the various nutrients, and, in the case of the Kelhier
and Armsby standards, of the net energy whicli the ration should
supply. However, the following highly important factors should also
be taken into account in computing rations for farm animals.

Suitability of feeds. — The feeds selected for any animal should be
such that they will not injure its health or the quality of the product
yielded. Feeds which are suited to one class of farm animals may

Fig. 26. — A ** Balanced" Ration Which Is Unsatisfactory and
Expensive

This ration of 20 lbs. timothy hay, 2 lbs. corn meal, 5 lbs. wheat bran, and
2 lbs. linseed meal, meets the standards for a 900-lb. dairy cow yielding 20 lbs.
of 5 per ct. milk. However, the timothy hay is not palatable, and the ration
is not only unsatisfactory but expensive. Cost 26 cents. ( From Humphrey, Wis-
consin Station.)

not be adapted to others. Again, a given feed may give satisfactory
results only when combined with certain other feeds. A few examples
of such conditions are furnished in the following: Cottonseed meal
in moderate amount is an excellent feed for cattle, sheep, and horses,
yet it is frequently poisonous to pigs. Timothy hay, the standard
roughage for horses, is unsatisfactory for dairy cows, and may cause
serious trouble with sheep on account of its constipating effect. Feed-
ing cows a heavy allowance of ground soybeans produces unduly soft
butter, while an excess of cocoanut meal makes the butter too hard.
It is often highly beneficial to add wheat bran or linseed meal to the
ration because o? their slightiv laxative effect. When animals are

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 87

alreacV receiving laxative feeds, such as corn silage, pasture grass, and
legume liay, the use of bran or linseed meal may be unwise.

In computing rations one should therefore always learn whether the
feeds under consideration are satisfactory for the given animals. The
value and suitability of all important feeds for the various classes of
stock are discussed in Part II of this book and more detailed informa-
tion concerning their use with each kind of stock is given in Part III.

Bulkiness of ration. — AVe have already seen in Chapter IV that at
least Avith the horse and with young ruminants the ration must contain
some roughage to distend the digestive tract properly. Furthermore,
for the best results, the proportion of concentrates and roughages in

Fi(3. 27. — A Ration "Which Is Fair, But Lacks Succulence

This ration of 20 lbs. red clover hay, 4 lbs. corn meal, and 3 lbs. oats furnishes
no more digestible nutrients tlian the previous one, but will give better results,
because tlie clover hay is more palatable to cows than timothy hay. Cost 22
cents. (From Humphrey, Wisconsin Station.)

the ration should be regulated according to the kind and class of animal
to be fed and the results desired. Cattle, sheep, and horses can be
wintered satisfactorily on roughages alone, if of suitable quality, and
even brood sows may be maintained chiefly on legume hay, when not
suckling their young. On the other hand, a considerable part of the
rations for growing and fattening animals and those at work or in
milk should consist of concentrates. To fatten animals rapidly con-
siderably more concentrates must be fed than when they are fattened
more slowly. Similarly, horses at hard work should be given more
grain and less roughage than those working but little.

88 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

The present feeding standards recognize these facts in the amount of
dry matter they prescribe in the rations for the different classes of
animals. Obviously, when the requirement of digestible nutrients or
of net energy is high compared with the total amount of dry matter
advised, the proportion of concentrates in the ration must be large to
meet the standard. On the other hand, for the mere maintenance of
animals the standards call for a much smaller amount of digestible
nutrients or of net energy compared with the amount of total dry
matter.

In computing rations, the following summary is helpful in showing
the proportion of concentrates and roughages to feed the various classes
of animals :

Mature idle horses mid mature cattle and sheep being maintained at constant
weight may be fed chiefly or entirely on roughage, unless it is of poor quality,
when some grain must be used.

Horses at icork should be given 2 to 3 lbs. of feed (roughages and concentrates
combined) daily per 100 lbs. live weight, tlie allowance of concentrates ranging
from 10 to 18 lbs., depending on the severity of the work.

Dairy cows in milk should be fed about 2 lbs. of dry roughage or 1 lb. of dry
roughage and 3 lbs. of silage daily per 100 lbs. live weight, with sufficient con-
centrates to bring the nutrients up to the standard.

Fattening steers need 2.1 lbs. or more of concentrates and dry roughage (or
the equivalent in silage) daily per 100 lbs. live weight, the allowance of con-
centrates ranging from less than 1 lb. to 1.7 lbs. or more, per 100 lbs. live weight,
depending on the rate of gain desired and the kind of roughage.

Fattening lambs will consume about 1.4 lbs. of dry roughage daily when fed
all the grain they will eat, and up to 2.3 lbs. or over when the grain allowance is
restricted. Silage may replace a corresponding amount of dry matter in dry
roughage.

Pigs can make but limited use of dry roughage, e.xcept in the case of brood
sows not suckling young.

Mineral matter. — In the various feeding standards no statement is
made as to the amount or kind of mineral matter required by the
different classes of animals, the supposition being that a ration which
provides the proper amount of protein and other nutrients will also
furnish enough mineral matter. In some cases, especially with the
pig, the mineral supply may be deficient in amount or unbalanced in
character in rations which meet the ordinary standards. In computing
rations the special requirements of the various classes of animals, as
set forth in the preceding chapters, should therefore be kept in mind.

Palatability. — As has already been pointed out in Chapter IV, the
palatability of the ration is an important factor in stimulating diges-
tion and in inducing the animal to consume heavy rations. The wise
feeder will utilize feeds of low palatability chiefly for such animals as
are being merely maintained, and will feed growing and fattening ani-

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 89

mals, milch cows, and horses at hard work rations made up, for the
most part at least, of well-liked feeds. Some concentrates, such as malt
sprouts and dried distillers' grains, which may not be relished when
fed alone, are entirely satisfactory if given in mixture with other bet-
ter-liked feeds. Similarly, such roughages as straw and marsh hay,
which are of low palatability, may be given in limited amount even to

Fig. 28. — An Excellent and Economical Ration

This ration of 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. rod clover hay, 3 lbs. corn meal, 3
lbs. wheat bran, and 1 lb. cottonseed meal furnishes no more n\itrients, yet it is
much superior to the two previous ones, for the feeds are all palatable and suit-
able for dairy cows, and the silage provides succulence. Cost 20 cents, nearly one-
fourth less than the first ration. (From Humphrey, Wisconsin Station.)

animals fed for production, a practice widely followed by European
farmers. While the largest gains are made on rations composed en-
tirely of exceedingly palatable feeds, it should be remembered that one
of the chief functions of our domestic animals is to consume and con-
vert into useful products materials which would otherwise be wasted.

Variety of feeds. — Skilled feeders usually believe that a ration con-
taining several feeds will give better results than when a smaller num-
ber are employed, even tho the latter ration supplies the proper amount
of protein, carbohydrates, aiid fat. From the discussions in the pre-
ceding chapters, in which it has been pointed out that the protein fur-
nished by certain feeds is unbalanced in composition, it is evident that
a larger variety of feeds may, by the law of chance, furnish a better
balanced mixture of proteins than one or two feeds alone. It woi,ild
therefore seem wise, in choosing supplements for a ration low in pro-
tein, to select those which will supply protein from different sources.
For example, it is injudicious, if other supplements are equally avail-
able, to use corn by-products, such as corn gluten feed or gluten meal,
in balancing the ration of pigs otherwise fed corn only.

With dairy cows, espeeiallj^ in the case of high-producing animals
being forced on official test, skilled feeders place emphasis on having

90 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

variety in the ration, tho this does not imply changes in the ration from
day to day. Indeed, sudden changes in kinds of feed are to be avoided.
At least for horses and fattening animals, a simple ration, providing
it is well-balanced and palatable, is as satisfactory as one containing a
large variety of feeds. For example, oats and timothy hay for the
horse, and corn and skim milk for the fattening pig, furnish rations
which can scarcely be improved from the standpoint of production and
health, tho other combinations may perhaps be cheaper.

Cost of the ration. — Most important of all, for the farmer who
depends on the profits from his stock for his income, is the cost of the
ration. In devising cheap, yet efficient rations, lies a great opportunity
for exercising foresight and business judgment on every farm where
animals are fed. The wise farmer-feeder will consider the nutrient
requirements of his animals in planning his crop rotations. Thru the
use of grain from corn or the sorghums, combined with legume hay and
such cheap succulence as corn or sorghum silage, it is possible in most
sections of the country to go far toward solving the problem of pro-
viding a well-balanced, economical ration.

Feeding standards only approximate guides. — In Chapter III it
has been shown that the composition of a given feeding stuff is not
fixed, but is materially influenced by such factors as climate, stage of
maturity when harvested, etc. Furthermore, individual animals differ
in their ability to digest and utilize their feed. It should therefore be
borne in mind that tables of digestible nutrients and likewise feeding
standards are averages and approximations — something quite different
from the multiplication table. While feeding standards are not to be
followed blindly, they are exceedingly valuable guides when supple-
mented by business judgment and a practical knowledge of feeds and
animals.

The allowance of protein set forth in the various standards is the
minimum recommended by the scientists. Where protein-rich feeds
are lower in price than those carbonaceous in character, as is alfalfa in
the great alfalfa districts of the West and cottonseed meal in the cotton
belt, it is often economical to furnish more protein than called for by
the standards. Except with very young animals, it is, however, not
advisable to feed rations having a nutritive ratio narrower than 1 : 4
or 1 : 4.5. Where protein-rich feeds are high in price it may be eco-
nomical to feed a wider ration than advised even by the more modern
standards, tho it is rarely wise to depart far from them.

Maintenance ration for steers. — Having discussed the general fac-
tors which should be considered in computing rations for farm animals,
let us now calculate the feed required, according to the Wolff-Lehmann
standard, to maintain a 1,000-lb. ox at rest in his stall when neither

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS

91

gaining nor losing in weight. Since mature animals can be main-
tained largely on roughages, let us see how nearly field-cured com
stover and oat straw will meet the requirements. As the standard calls
for 18 lbs. of dry matter, we will first try quantities of these feeds
which supply slightly less than this amount.

If for the trial ration it is decided to feed 10 lbs. of com stover and
10 lbs. of oat straw for roughage, then, using the values for digestible
nutrients given in Appendix Table III, the calculations for dry matter
and digestible nutrients would be as given below:

Corn stover, field-cured
In 100 In 10

pounds pounds

Dry matter 59.0 -f- 100 X 10 = 5.90

Crude protein 1.4 ^ 100 X 10 = O.U

Carbohydrates 31.1 -^ 100 X 10 = 3.11

Fat 0.6 H- 100 X 10 = 0.06

Oat straw
In 100 In 10

pounds pounds

88.5 -^ 100 X 10 = 8.85
1.0 -^ 100 X 10 = 0.10

42.6 -f- 100 X 10 = 4.20
0.9-^ 100 X 10 = 0.09

Arranging these results in tabular form, we have :

First trial ration for maintaining IfiOO-lb. ox at rest

Dry
matter

Digestible nutrients

Nutri-

Feeding stuffs

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat

tive
ratio

Corn stover, 10 lbs

Lbs.
5.90

8.85

Lbs.
0.14
0.10

Lbs.
3.11
4.26

Lbs.
0.06
0.09

Oat straw, 10 lbs

First trial ration

Wolff- Lehmann standard...

14.75
18.00

0.24
0.70

7.37
8.00

0.15
0.10

1:32.2
1:11.8

Excess or deficit

—3.25

—0.46

—0.63

+0.05

This trial ration contains only about one-third the digestible crude
protein called for and also falls below the standard in dry matter and
carbohydrates. To improve it let us substitute 5 lbs. of clover hay,
which is high in protein, for the same weight of com stover, and add
0.5 lb. of protein-rich linseed meal. We then have :

Second trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lh. ox at rest

Dry
matter

Digestible nutrients

Nutri-

Feeding stuffs

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat

tive
ratio

Clover hay, 5 lbs

Lbs.
4.36
2.95
8.85
0.45

Lbs.
0.38
0.07
0.10
0.15

Lbs.
1.96
1.56
4.26
0.16

Lbs.
0.09
0.03
0.09
0.03

Oat straw, 10 lbs

Linseed meal, 0.5 lb

Second trial ration

Wolff-Lehmann standard . . .

16.61
18.00

0.70
0.70

7.94
8.00

0.24
0.10

1:12.1
1:11.8

Excess or deficit

—1.39

0.0

—0.06

+ 0.14

92 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

This ration closely approaches the standard. It falls below by more
than 1 lb. of dry matter, but this deficiency is unimportant. The
WolfiP-Lehmann standards were devised to cover the common systems
of feeding in Europe, where some straw or other low grade roughage is
commonly included in rations for horses and ruminants. AVhen only
such high grade roughages as silage and legume hay are used, rations
which supply enough digestible nutrients will fall below the standard
in dry matter. If the ration furnishes sufficient bulk to distend the
digestive tract properly, no further attention need be paid to such a
deficit. The excess of fat in this case will more than make up the
trifling deficit of carbohydrates, for fat has 2.25 times the heat value of
carbohydrates. The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1:12.1, which is
close to the standard. American rations will usually furnish an excess
of fat over the standard, in which case the carbohydrates may fall
somewhat below, as an offset.

III. The Armsby Net Energy Values and Feeding Standards

In Chapter III it has been pointed out that the total quantity of
digestible nutrients in a feeding stuff is not theoretically the true
measure of its feeding value, as is assumed in the Wolff-Lehmann
feeding standards. Experiments by Kellner and Zuntz in Germany
and by Armsby' in this country have shown that to find the true net
value of a feed for production it is necessary to deduct from the total
energy furnished by the digestible nutrients in the feed, the energy
lost in the urine and the gases produced in the digestive tract and that
spent in the work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation.

Net energy values. — Kellner was the first to prepare tables showing
the net energy values of feeding stuffs. In these he took 1 lb. of
digestible starch as his unit and expressed the net energy values of
different feeds in terms of "starch values." He then drew up feedhig
standards based on these starch values, which are now quite largely
used in Germany.^ We will not discuss these in detail, but will con-
sider instead Armsby 's net energy values and feeding standards, which
are chiefly used in this country by those desiring to compute rations
according to the net energy system.

Based chiefly on Kellner 's studies, Armsby has drawn up a table
showing the net energy values of some of the leading American feeds,
expressed in therms, and also giving the total amount of dry matter
and the amount of digestible true protein (not digestible crude protein)

1 For Kellner's starch values and feeding standards see liis books, Erniihrvng
der Land. Nutztiere and Futterungslchre, and the English translation of tlie
latter book, The Scientific Feeding of Animals.

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 93

in the various feeds. This is given in full as Appendix Table VII of
this book.

Of all the cereals listed, it is shown that wheat has the highest net en-
ergy value, 91.82 therms per 100 lbs. Due chiefly to the large amount
of fiber contained in the hulls, the net energy value of oats is only
67.56 therms per 100 lbs. The roughages, which are high in fiber and
thus require much energy in mastication and digestion, furnish much
less net energy than the concentrates. Wheat straw is the lowest in
net energy of the dry roughages listed, having a value of only 7.22
therms per 100 lbs.

The Armsby feeding standards. — Armsby has drawn up feeding
standards, based on his net energy values, for maintaining horses,
cattle, and sheep, for growing cattle and sheep, for milch cows, and for
fattening cattle. These are given in Appendix Table VIII, together
with Kellner's standard for work horses, converted from starch values
to therms, which is recommended by Armsby. Armsby has presented
no standards for fattening sheep or lambs, for growing horses, or for
pigs. In these standards, as will be noted, the requirements of the
various classes of animals are expressed in terms of digestible true
protein and therms of net energy.

In the AVolff-Lehmann standards it is assumed that the require-
ments for maintaining animals depend on the live weight, the standards
giving the nutrients required per 1,000 lbs. live weight. Armsby in
his standards recognized the fact that the maintenance requirements
depend not strictly on body weight but on body surface. (See Page
52.) He therefore gives separate figures for animals of various
weights. It will be noted that for maintaining a 500-lb. horse 0.6 lb.
digestible protein and 4.4 therms of net energy are required, while for
a 1,000-lb. horse only 1.0 lb. of digestible protein and 7.0 therms of net
energy are needed. Tho the second horse weighs twice as much, it does
not take twice as much feed to maintain him.

Bull and Emmett of the Illinois Station ^ have recently made a com-
prehensive study of the American investigations in fattening lambs,
and have presented feeding standards based thereon. These standards,
which are given with the Armsby standards in Appendix Table VIII,
are similarly expressed in therms of net energy, but give the amount of
digestible crude protein required, instead of the amount of digestible
true protein.

Ration for maintaining the steer. — To illustrate the method of using
the Armsby standards and table of net energy values, let us compute
a ration for maintaining a mature steer weighing 1,000 lbs., when
neither gaining nor losing weight, assuming that there are available

2 111. Bui. 166.

94

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

corn stover, oat straw, dent corn, and cottonseed meal. According to
the standard, an animal of this weight requires 0.5 lb. digestible protein
and 6.0 therms of net energy. As corn stover and oat straw are much
cheaper than the concentrates, let us first see how nearly a ration of
these roughages alone will meet the requirements. Suppose that we
select for a trial ration 8 lbs. of oat straw and 10 lbs. of corn stover.
The calculations will then be as follows :

Calculations for trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lh. steer

Corn stover
In 100 lbs. In 10 lbs.

Oat straw
In 100 lbs. In 8 lbs.

Dry matter . . .81.0 ^ 100 X 10 = 8.10 Dry matter 88..5 -f- 100 X 8 = 7.08

Dig. protein... 1.6^100X10 = 0.16 Dig. protein 0.8^100X8 = 0.06

Net energy... 31.62 -MOO X 10 = 3.16 Net energy 34.81 -MOO X 8 = 2.78

First trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lh. steer

Feeding stuffs

Total
dry matter

Digestible
protein

Net energy
value

Corn stover, 10 lbs

Oat straw, 8 lbs

Lbs.
8.10
7.08

Lbs.
0.16
0.06

Therms
3.16

2.78

First trial ration

Standard requirement . . .

15.18

0.22
0.50

5.94
G.OO

Excess or deficit

— 0.2S

—0.06

This ration furnishes enough net energy but is deficient in digestible
protein. Corn, which is high in net energy but low in protein, will not
improve the ration, while cottonseed meal, which is rich in protein, will
make up the deficiency. Let us therefore substitute 1 lb. of choice
cottonseed meal for 2 lbs. of oat straw. We then have :

Second trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lh. steer

Feeding stuffs

Total
dry matter

Digestible
protein

Net energy
value

Corn stover, 10 lbs

Oat straw, 6 lbs

Cottonseed meal, 1.0 lb... .

Lbs.
8.10
5.31
0.92

Lbs.
0.16
0.05
0.35

Therms
3.16
2.09
0.93

Second trial ration

Standard requirement

14.33

0.56
.50

6.18
6.00

Excess or deficit

+0.06

4-0.18

This ration agrees closely with the standard in digestible protein and
net energy value. Thus, according to the Armsby standard, a satis-
factory ration for maintaining a 1,000-lb. steer may be composed of
10 lbs. corn stover, 6 lbs. oat straw and 1 lb. choice cottonseed meal.

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 95

Discussion of the net energy systems. — Determining the net energy
values of feeds is an important advance in our knowledge of their val-
ues for productive purposes. Unfortunately, owing to the immense
amount of labor required for each determination, data of this kind can
be secured but slowly. In his years of study Kellner determined the
starch values for only about a dozen feeds and in 14 years Armsby has
been able to study only 10 feeds, several determinations of course hav-
ing been made upon each. While the results for these few feeds are
helpful in estimating the probable net energy values of other feeds
not yet tested, such computed results are more or less rough estimates
of the true net energy values.

Moreover, both Kellner and Armsby have practically worked only
with the steer, and the extent to which the values thus secured apply to
other classes of animals is a question. It has been shown that they
are too low for the dairy cow and too high for steers near the close of
the fattening period. AVith cattle upwards of 17 per ct. of the heat
value of the digested food is lost thru the fermentations which take
place in the digestive tract, especially the paunch. On the other hand,
there is but a small loss of this kind with horses or pigs. Hence, net
energy values found in trials with steers are more or less inaccurate
for horses and pigs. As Kellner himself states, in spite of the vast
amount of study given to the subject, there are still many gaps in our
knowledge of the actual net energy values of the different feeding
stuffs. While the present values are not exact measures of the value of
feeds for all classes of animals, they are, however, most helpful in
teaching great principles in the feeding of live stock.

IV. The Scandinavian Feed-Unit System

A system of feed equivalents, based mainly on extensive experiments
with milch cows at the Copenhagen Station, has been adopted in Den-
mark and other Scandinavian countries, especially by cow-testing asso-
ciations, for measuring the relative efficiency of milk production by
different herds and individual cows. The system is also occasionally
used with pigs, but rarely for other stock. It has been exceedingly
useful in co-operative efforts to improve dairy cattle and their feed-
ing— lines in which the Scandinavian farmers are leaders.

The feed unit. — In the feed-unit system the value of the different
feeds is compared with the value of 1 lb. of standard grain feed, such as
corn and barley, which are taken as the unit of value. The amounts of
the various feeds required to equal 1 feed unit are given in Appendix
Table VI.

The table shows that corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, the dry

96 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

matter in roots, etc., are all considered to have about the same value for
the dairy cow, 1 lb. equaling 1 feed unit. On this basis it requires
1.1 lbs. of wheat bran or oats, or 1.5 to 3 lbs. of alfalfa or clover hay to
equal 1 feed unit. Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, dried distillers'
grains, gluten feed, and soybeans are rated at a higher value than the
same weight of corn or wheat, less than a pound of these concentrates
being required for a feed unit.

The feed-unit values are not true expressions of net energy, for in
this system feeds rich in protein are given a higher value than feeds
low in protein which furnish the same amount of net energy. For
example, in the feed-unit system, only 0.8 lb. of cottonseed meal or
0.9 lb. of linseed meal is required to equal 1 feed unit. Yet the real
net energy of these feeds is lower than that of corn. Again, the energy
value of timothy hay is about the same as that of clover or alfalfa hay,
but in the feed-unit system timothy hay is rated 50 per ct. below the
legume hays. When added to rations too low in protein, feeds rich in
protein will have a higher value than those supplying an equal amount
of net energy but which are low in protein. But as has been pointed
out in Chapters IV and V, when the ration already contains plenty of
protein, any additional amount will have no higher value for the forma-
tion of fat or the production of milk or work than an equal amount of
net energy supplied by carbohydrates or fat.

The value of any feed to the stockman depends on the other feeds
which he has at hand. When he has an abundance of cheap car-
bonaceous feeds, protein-rich feeds to balance the ration will be worth
much more to him than an additional supply of carbonaceous feeds.
On the other hand, in the West with its cheap alfalfa hay and in the
South with its low-priced cottonseed meal, feeds low in protein and rich
in carbohydrates may often be worth more than those rich in protein.
The feed-unit system has been developed in a comparatively small
region, where similar crops are grown on the different farms and the
price of purchased feeds is quite uniform thruout the entire district,
hence this difficulty has not arisen there. No arbitrary values for feed-
ing stuffs, expressed in terms of feed units, money, or other fixed units,
can be devised which will hold good under such widely differing condi-
tions as are found in the various sections of the United States.

Measuring economy of cows in feed units. — The chief value of the
feed unit system for dairymen is for comparing the efficiency with
which individual cows and different herds produce milk and butter
fat. The method of making such comparisons is as follows :

If during a month a cow has consumed 240 lbs. of hay, 750 lbs. of
silage, 60 lbs. each of barley and ground corn, and 90 lbs. of linseed oil
meal, the calculation based on the valuation table would be as follows:

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 97

Feed consumed Lbs. for 1 unit Feed units

240 lbs. hay ^ 2.5 z= 96

750 lbs. silage H- CO = 125

120 lbs. corn and barley -f- 1.0 — 120

90 lbs. oil meal -^ 0.9 — 100

Total feed units = 441

It is shown that the cow consumed 441 feed units during the month.
If in that time she yielded 850 lbs. of milk, containing 30.6 lbs. of fat,
each 100 feed units produced :^= 193 lbs. of milk, containing ^=
6.9 lbs. butter fat. If the fat brought 30 cents per pound, 100 feed
units would return 6.9 X $0.30 = $2.07. Similar comparisons pf the
economy of production of various cows and herds may be made on the
basis of the therms of net energy or the pounds of total digestible
nutrients consumed.^

V. American Standards for Dairy Cows

The Haecker standard.— As the result of long years of study at the
Minnesota Station,* Haecker has made an important advance in the
computing of rations for the dairy cow. He has shown that the nutri-
ents required for her nourishment should vary not only with the quan-
tity of milk yielded, as is taught in the standards previously discussed,
but also with the quality of the product. The allowance of crude pro-
tein recommended is also considerably lower than that set forth in the
AVolff-Lehmann standard. In his standard Haecker first sets down the
total digestible nutrients daily required to maintain the 1,000-lb. cow,
independent of the milk she produces, as follows : Crude protein 0.7 lb.,
carbohydrates 7.0 lbs., and fat 0.1 lb. For each 100 lbs. live weight the
cow may exceed or fall below the 1,000-lb. standard there is added or
subtracted one-tenth of the standard ration.

To this maintenance provision the further allowance set forth in the
table is added.

a Hansson has proposed the following feeding standard for dairy cows accord-
ing to the feed unit system. This is not of niucli interest to American dairymen,
however, for it is less accurate than the standards of Haecker, Savage, or Eckles,
which are described later, and which recognize the important fact tliat the feed
requirements of dairy cows depend not only on the quantity but also on the
richness of their milk.

For maintenance, feed 0.65 lb. digestible protein and 0.6 feed units daily per
1,000 lbs. live weight.

For each poimd of milk produced add to the maintenance requirement 0.045
to 0.05 lb. digestible protein and 0.33 feed unit.

4 Minn. Buls. 71, 79, 130, 140.

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Haecker's feeding standard for the dairy cow

Daily allowance of digestible nutrients

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat

For support of the 1,000-lb. cow

Lbs.
0.700

0.047
0.049
0.054
0.057
0.060
0.064
0.067
0.072
0.074

Lbs.
7.00

0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36

Lbs.
0.100

To the allowance for support add:

For each lb. of 3.0 per ct. milk

For each lb. of 3.5 per ct. milk

For each lb. of 4.0 per ct. milk

For each lb. of 4.5 per ct. milk .'

For each lb. of 5.0 per ct. milk

For each lb. of 5.5 per ct. milk

For each lb. of 6.0 per ct. milk

For each lb. of 6.5 per ct. milk

For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk

0.017
0.019
0.021
0.023
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.029
0.031

To illustrate the use of the table there are computed below the re-
quirements of a 1,100-lb. cow producing 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily :

Digestible nutrients required daily hy the above cow

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat

For maintenance . . .
For 25 lbs. of 4 per ct.

milk '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.

Lbs.
0.77
1.35

Lbs.
7.70
6.00

Lbs.
0.11
0.52

Total

2.12

13.70

0.63

In the above there is first set down the maintenance allowance for
the 1,000-lb. cow, increased by one-tenth because this cow weighs 100
lbs. more than the standard; this is 0.77 lb. crude protein, 7.7 lbs.
carbohydrates, and 0.11 lb. fat, all digestible. The previous table shows
the daily nutrient allowance for each pound of 4 per ct. milk to be
0.054 lb. crude protein, 0.24 lb. carbohydrates, and 0.021 lb. fat, all
digestible. Since this cow is yielding 25 lbs. of milk daily, the fore-
going numbers multiplied by 25 are placed in the second line of the
table. Adding these nutrients to those for maintenance, we have
2.12 lbs. of protein, 13.7 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.63 lb. of fat as
the quantity of digestible nutrients required daily to nourish a 1,100-lb.
cow properly when giving 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily.

The WoU-Humphrey standard. — At the Wisconsin Station Woll and
Humphrey prepared convenient tables showing the feed requirements
of cows of different weights and producing various amounts of butter
fat per day. To simplify the computation of rations, in these tables
the requirements are stated in terms of di*y matter, digestible crude

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 99

protein, and total digestible nutrients, the latter term including the
digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates, and the digestible
fat X 2.25. This simplification agrees with the uses made of the dif-
ferent nutrients in the animal body, for, as we have already learned,
carbohydrates and fat in general perform the same functions in the
body. Likewise, after there has been supplied the minimum amount of
protein needed for the repair of body tissues and the formation of milk
protein, any additional amount serves the same purposes as do the
carbohydrates and fat. The requirements of a 1,000-lb. cow, according
to this system,^ are shown in the following table. The allowance for
maintenance is the same as in the Haecker standard :

W oil- Humphrey standard for 1,000-lb. dairy cow

Digestible Total

Dry crude digestible

matter protein nutrients

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

Dry COW 12.5 0.70 7.9

Cow yielding 1.0 lb. fat per day 22.3 2.02 15.4

Cow yielding 1.5 lbs. fat per day 27.3 2.86 19.2

Cow yielding 2.0 lbs. fat per day 30.9 3.42 23.0

This system of expressing the requirements of dairy cows has been
found convenient in practice. It is not strictly accurate, however,
when applied to milks varying widely in the percentage of fat con-
tained. Haecker 's table places the requirements for a pound of butter
fat in rich milk considerably lower than for a pound in milk low in fat.
For example, for 100 lbs. of 3 per ct. milk there are required 4.7 lbs.
protein, 20.0 lbs. carbohydrates, and 1.7 lbs. fat, while for 50 lbs. of
6 per ct. milk, containing the same amount of fat, only 3.3 lbs. protein,
16.0 lbs. carbohydrates, and 1.4 lbs. fat are required. This is due to
the fact that, tho the 6 per ct. milk contains twice as much fat as the
3 per ct. milk, it is not twice as rich in sugar and protein.

The Savage standard. — From trials at the New York (Cornell)
Station ° Savage concludes that for maximum production the nutritive
ratio of rations for dairy cows should not be wider than 1 :6. He has
accordingly modified the Haecker standard by increasing the protein
requirement per pound of milk from 18 to 20 per ct. His standard
is also simplified by being stated in terms of dry matter, digestible
crude protein, and total digestible nutrients (or as Savage terms it
"total nutriment"), in the same manner as in the Woll-Humphrey
standard. The requirements according to this standard are shown in
the next table.

5 Table as revised by Humphrey, unpublished data.
6N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 323.

100

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

The Eckles standard. — From experiments at the IMissouri Station ^
and from the work of Savage and Armsby, Eckles has drawn up a
standard according to the Armsby system, showing the requirements
of cows producing milk containing various percentages of fat. This
also is given in the next table.

Comparison of standards for dairy cows. — In the following table
the Haecker, Savage, and Eckles standards are brought together for
comparison. Haecker 's figures have been converted into total digest-
ible nutrients as in the Savage standard. The Woll-Humphrey stand-
ard cannot be included for it is not based on the percentage of fat in
the milk, but upon the daily yield of fat.

Feeding standards for dairy cows compared

Haecker standard

Savage standard

Eckles standard

Diges'ble

Total

Diges'ble

Total

Diges'b'.e

Net
energy

crude

digestible

crude

digestible

true

protein

nutrients

protein

nutrients

protein

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Therms

For maintenance of 1,0001b.

0.700

7.925

0.700

7.925

0.500

6.00

To aUowance for mainte-

nance add:

For each lb. of 2.5 per ct. milk.

0.045

0.254

0.053

0.257

For each lb. of 3.0 per et. milk.

0 047

0.284

0.U57

0.287

O.OSO

0'.26

For each lb. of 3.5 per ct. milk.

0.049

0.313

0.061

0.319

0.052

0.28

For each lb. of 4.0 per ct. milk.

0.054

0.343

0.065

0.350

0.055

0.30

For each lb. of 4.5 per ct. milk.

0.057

0.372

0.069

0.379

0.058

0.33

For each lb. of 5.0 per ct. milk.

0.060

0.398

0.073

0.405

0.062

0.36

For each lb. of 5.5 per ct. milk.

0.064

0.424

0.077

0.431

0.066

0.40

For each lb. of 6.0 per ct. milk.

0.067

0.451

0.081

0.457

0.070

0.45

For each lb. of 6.5 per ct. milk.

0 072

0.480

0.085

0.484

0.075

0 50

For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk.

0.074

0.502

0.089

0.508

....

The Haecker and Savage standards agree in the requirements for
maintenance. Savage's digestible crude-protein requirement for pro-
duction is higher in each ease, as already pointed out. In total digest-
ible nutrients he agrees quite closely with Haecker. As Eckles'
standard is expressed in digestible true protein (not crude protein)
and therms, it cannot be directly compared with the others. By com-
puting the amount of true protein and crude protein in typical good
dairy rations, it will be found that if Eckles' figures were changed into
crude protein they would be even higher than Savage's. Similar com-
parisons show that Eckles' standard calls for about the same amount of
total digestible nutrients for milk low in fat, but up to one-fifth more
for rich milk.

From the foregoing w^e may conclude that when protein-rich feeds
are high in price compared with those low in protein, it will usually be
economical to feed no more protein than is called for by the Haecker
standard, at least to cows of average production. On the other hand,

7 Mo. Res. Bui. 7.

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 101

when protein-rich feeds are comparatively cheap, the dairyman may
well feed as heavy an allowance as Savage and Eckles recommend.
Even these amounts are lower than called for in the original Wolff-
Lehmann standards. The skilled dairyman will adapt the amount of
concentrates fed to the productive ability of each cow, not compound-
ing a different ration for each animal, but will balance the ration for
the average of the herd and then feed the cows as much roughage as
they will consume and concentrates in proportion to the milk or butter
fat produced by the several cows, as is explained in Chapter XX.

VI. ^Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standards

Methods of computing rations compared.— In this chapter it has
been pointed out that valuing feeds for productive purposes on the
basis of their net energy content, is theoretically more accurate than
the Wolff-Lehmann method of comparing them in terms of the
digestible nutrients they furnish. Unfortunately, the net-energy
values have been determined for but a few feeds, and with these only
for the fattening steer. For other feeds and other classes of animals,
the values which may be computed are but approximations. On the
other hand, during the last half-century scores of thousands of analyses
of feeding stuffs have been made, as shown in Appendix. Table I, and
large numbers of digestion experiments have been conducted in which
the coefficients of digestibility have been determined, as given in Appen-
dix Table II. Thus, the values for digestible nutrients in the various
feeding-stuffs, given in Appendix Table III, rest on a reasonably secure
basis, tho we must remember that different kinds of animals digest
somewhat different percentages of feeds, especially of roughages.

The value of a concentrate and of a roughage for productive purposes
cannot be compared on the basis of the digestible nutrients each fur-
nishes, for in the roughage, containing more fiber, a larger part of the
energy in the digested nutrients is used up in the non-productive work
of mastication, digestion, and assimilation. In the ordinary rations
for each class of animals, concentrates and roughages are, however,
usually fed in about the same proportions. This tends to lessen any
error due to inaccuracy in computing rations according to the Wolff-
Lehmann method.

Furthermore, in this method a definite amount of dry matter is pre-
scribed. If a ration contains sufficient digestible nutrients to meet the
Wolff-Lehmann standards, but carries too much dry matter, obviously
too much roughage or concentrates too high in fiber have been used,
and the net-energy value will consequently be too low. On the other
hand, if the content of digestible nutrients satisfies the standard, while

102 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

the ration does not contain the dry matter called for, it shows that feeds
more concentrated in character than necessary have been used. In this
case some roughage or feeds higher in fiber may be substituted till the
dry-matter content is brought up to the standard. AVith this simple
check errors of any importance in the net-energy value of the ration
can be avoided.

Necessity for modifying the Wolff-Lehmann standards. — It has
already been shown in this chapter that in several instances the original
Wolff-Lehmann standards do not set forth the actual requirements of
farm animals as revealed by the many experiments which have been
carried on since these standards were drawn up. We know, for
example, that the allowance of digestible crude protein prescribed is
higher than is needed by fattening animals, dairy cows, and work
horses. Yet, these standards are to-day more commonly employed in
this country, except perhaps with the dairy cow, than any other system
for formulating rations. Indeed, the authors have recently found
feeders, annually fattening hundreds and even thousands of animals,
who were balancing rations according to the original Wolff-Lehmann
standards by the addition of unnecessary amounts of high-priced
protein-rich concentrates.

Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards. — With these facts in mind the
authors have attempted to combine in one standard what appear in
their judgment to be the best guides we have at present in the formu-
lation of rations for various classes of animals. To make the computa-
tions as easy as possible, the standards, which are given in detail in
Appendix Table V, are expressed simply in terms of total dry matter,
digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. Realizing that
feeding standards are but approximations, in most cases minimum and
maximum figures are given for dry matter, digestible crude protein,
and total digestible nutrients. Since progressive feeders thruout the
country now appreciate the significance of the nutritive ratio of a
ration, the approximate upper and lower advisable limits of nutritive
ratios for the different classes have been stated. To correspond with
these standards, Appendix Table III contains a column showing the
total digestible nutrients furnished in 100 lbs. of each feed. Likewise,
so that one may see at a glance which feeds are high and which are low
in protein, compared with carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio
for each feed has been computed and is given in the table. With these
aids it is hoped that the standards presented may be of real assistance
to students and feeders who desire to compute rations substantially in
accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann method, while recognizing the
results of the later investigations in animal feeding.

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS

103

Ration for a work horse. — To illustrate the manner of using the
Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards, let us compute a ration for a
1,400-lb. horse doing medium work. The standard for horses at
medium work calls for 16.0-24.0 lbs. of dry matter, 1.4—1.7 lbs. digest-
ible crude protein, and 12.8-15.6 lbs. total digestible nutrients per
1,000 lbs. live weight. (See Appendix Table V.) The nutritive ratio
should not be wider than 1 :7.8-l :8.3. Multiplying the requirements
for 1,000 lbs. by 1.4, we find that this 1,400-lb. horse will require
22.4^33.6 lbs. dry matter, 2.0-2.4 lbs. digestible crude protein, and
17.9-21.8 lbs. total digestible nutrients.

Let us suppose that this is to be a corn-belt ration and that dent
corn is the cheapest grain available. For roughage we have plenty of
timothy hay and good, bright, clover hay. According to the rule on
Page 88, horses at work should be given 2 to 3 lbs. of feed (roughages
and concentrates combined) daily per 100 lbs. live weight, with 10 to
18 lbs. of concentrates per head daily, depending on the severity of the
work. As it is costly to feed more grain than necessary, we take for a
trial ration 10 lbs. of corn and 18 lbs. of timothy hay, making 28 lbs.
in all, or 2 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight. Computing the dry matter,
digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients in these allow-
ances, we have :

First trial ration for

1,400-lb. horse at medium work

Feeding, stuffs

Dry

matter

Dig.
crude
protein

Total
dig. nu-
trients

Nutri-
tive
ratio

Dent corn, 10 lbs

Lbs.
8.95
15.91

24.86

Lbs.
0.75
0.54

Lbs.
8.57
8.73

Timothy hay, 18 lbs

Total

1.29

17.30

1:12.4

This ration furnishes nearly as much total digestible nutrients as is
called for in the standard, but falls far short in crude protein, having
the very wide ratio of 1 :12.4. . We can bring the crude protein up to
the standard by substituting protein-rich concentrates for a consider-
able part of the corn, but this will add to the expense, for we have
assumed that corn is the cheapest grain available. Tho timothy hay is
more commonly fed to horses than any other in the northeastern United
States, good, bright, clover hay, which is rich in protein, is practically
as satisfactory for work horses. Let us then see how near we will
come to meeting the standard if we substitute clover hay for half the
timothy hay. Arranging the results as before, we will have :

104

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Second trial ration for 1,400-lh. horse at medium work

Feeding stuffs

Dry

matter

crude
protein

Total
dig. nu-
trients

Nutri-
tive
ratio

Dent corn 10 lbs

Lbs.
8.95
7.9(1

7.84

Lbs.
0.75
0.27
0.68

Lbs.
S.57
4.36
4.58

Timothy hay, 1) lbs

Clover iiay 9 lbs

Total

24.75

1.70

17.51

1:9.3

Tho much better, this ration is still somewhat below the standard
both in digestible crude protein and total digestible nutrients.
Eighteen lbs. of hay is all that should be fed to a horse of this weight
at medium work. Therefore, instead of adding clover hay to the ration,
we must increase the digestible crude protein and total digestible
nutrients by adding a small amount of some protein-rich concentrate.
Let us try 1 lb. of choice cottonseed meal, when we will have :

Third trial ration for 1,400-lh. horse at medium work

Feeding stuffs

Dry

matter

crude
protein

Total
die:, nu-
trients

Nutri-
tive
ratio

Dent corn 10 lbs

Lbs.
8.95
0.92
7.96

7.84

Lbs.
0.75
0.37
0.27
0.68

Lbs.
8.57
0.78
4.36
4.58

Cottonseed meal, choice, 1 lb

Timothy hav, 9 lbs

Clover iiay, 9 lbs

Total

25.67

2.07

18.29

1:7.8

This ration meets tbe standard in all particulars and wall give good
results in practice. It should not be fed blindly, however, for some
horses are hard and others easy keepers. Therefore, if the horse loses
weight on this ration, increase the allowance of corn gradually. On
the other hand, if he is an easy keeper and becomes too fat, cut down the
amount of corn. Other protein-rich feeds, such as wheat bran, dried
brewers' grains, or linseed meal, could be used just as satisfactorily as
cottonseed meal in balancing the ration, the choice depending on the
prices of the various feeds available.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the essentials of a satisfactory ration?

2. Compute a ration for a 1,400-lb. horse at medium work according to the
Wolff-Lehmann standard. In this and the following problems use feeds avail-
able in your local district and find the cost of the ration at local prices.

3. Wherein do the Armsby and Kellner standards differ from the Wolff-
Lehmann standards?

PEEDIKG STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 105

4. Compute a ration for maintaining a 1,200-lb. steer according to the Armsby
standard.

5. During a month a cow produced 920 lbs. of milk containing 3.8 per ct.
butter fat. She ate 360 lbs. of alfalfa hay, 900 lbs. corn silage, 120 lbs. corn
meal, and 60 lbs. wheat bran. How much milk and how much butter fat did
she yield per 100 feed units?

6. What are the distinguishing features of the Haecker standard for dairy
cows?

7. Wherein does the WoU-Humphrey standard differ from the Haecker
standard ?

8. Compare the amounts of protein and total digestible nutrients recom-
mended in the Savage and Eckles standards with the Haecker standard.

9. How do the Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards differ from the original
Wolff- Lehmann standards ?

10. Compute a ration for a 1,400-lb. horse at hard work according to the
Modified Wolff-Lehmann standard. How does this ration differ from the one
given in the book for the horse at medium work?

11. Compute rations for fattening 2-year-old steers on full feed (a) for the
first 50 days when the steers average 1,100 lbs. in. weight, (b) for the second
50 days when they average 1,210 lbs., and (c) for the last 50 days when they
average 1,320 Iba.

CHAPTER VIII

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK

I. Selecting Economical Rations

To secure the largest returns, the stockman must, first of all, under-
stand the fundamental principles governing the feeding of the various
classes of live stock, discussed in the preceding chapters. He must
next study the possibilities of his farm for crops, paying attention to
both their probable yield and their value for feeding to stock or for
sale. It is also necessary to consider the feeding value and compare
the prices of the many feeds v^hich can be secured on the market.
With this knowledge he is in a position to plan his rotations so that
from the crops raised, supplemented by purchased feeds when it is
economical, well-balanced rations may be provided at the least expense.
As a rule it is wise to raise all roughage on the farm. Owing to the
demand for the cereal grains for human consumption, it is often eco-
nomical to sell more or less of the farm-grown grains and replace them
with purchased concentrates which may economically supplement the
feeds raised on the farm.

Market prices not guides to value. — The market price of a feed is
often no index of its value to the individual stockman, as a few
examples will illustrate : In the northeastern states timothy hay is
generally higher in price than clover hay, tho much inferior for all
animals except the horse. In the South cottonseed hulls usually cost
more than the sum for which an equivalent amount of corn silage, a
much more palatable feed, can be produced on the farm. Owing to
their popularity, some feeds, such as linseed meal and wheat bran, are
often high in price compared with other concentrates which are entirely
satisfactory substitutes. At the other extreme, low grade concentrates,
such as trashy corn and oat feed, cottonseed feed, and inferior mixed
feeds, often sell for as much or but slightly less than high grade con-
centrates.

How to select feeds for economical rations. — Many attempts have
been made to assign a definite money value to 1 lb. of digestible crude
protein, digestible carbohydrates, and digestible fat, and then compute
the value of different feeds on the basis of the amount of these nutrients
they contain, similar to the manner of arriving at the money value of

106

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 107

fertilizers. (See Chapter XVII.) While such a system may be of
limited value for a short period of time and when applied to small
districts where the systems of farming do not differ widely, no such
set of values can be applied generally thruout the United States. This
is because the value of any given feed to the stockman depends on the
nature and composition of the other feeds he has on hand at the par-
ticular time. If his chief roughage is alfalfa hay, protein-rich concen-
trates are often worth less to him than those rich in carbohydrates.
On the other hand, if his roughage is mostly corn or sorghum silage,
low in protein, then protein-rich concentrates will be of higher value to
him than those of carbonaceous character.

In comparing the relative cheapness of different feeds, it is reason-
able to value marketable farm-grown feeds at the market price less the
cost of hauling to market. Feeds not marketable may be assigned a
value based on the cost of production. To the price of any purchased
feeds should be added any cost of hauling to the farm, tho often they
may be brought to the farm on a return trip from market with little
or no additional expense. In selling crops and buying feed the prudent
farmer-stockman will always take into account the value of the fertility
gained or lost in the transaction.

In planning economical rations for any class of animals the stock-
man should first choose a combination, containing the proper propor-
tion of concentrates and roughages, which will supply the necessary
total amount of nutrients at the minimum expense. If this ration is
too low in protein, the supply should be brought to the desired amount
by substituting protein-rich feeds for those lower in protein. On the
other hand, if the ration is too rich in protein, then carbonaceous feeds
should be substituted until the nutritive ratio is widened sufficiently.

To determine which feeds are the cheapest supplements to balance a
ration low in protein, it will be found convenient to compute the cost
of the different feeds per pound of digestible crude protein.

A comparison of corn-belt feeds for milk production. — To show
how the prices of the available feeds should be studied in computing
rations, let us assume that a dairyman in the corn belt has available
the following : Ground dent corn at $20, ground oats at $25, ground
barley at $26, timothy hay at $16, red clover hay at $12, and corn
silage from well-matured corn at $3.50 per ton. He can purchase
hominy feed at $26, high-grade gluten feed at $30, wheat bran at $25,
corn and oat feed at $25, choice cottonseed meal at $34, old-process
linseed meal at $34, and alfalfa meal at $22 per ton. For convenience
we will arrange in tabular form the data from Appendix Table III for
these different feeds, and compute the cost per pound of digestible
crude protein and the cost of 1 lb. of total digestible nutrients in each.

108

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Comparison of the economy of various feeds at the stated prices

Feeding stuff

Dry

matter

in 100

lbs.

Dig.
crude
protein
in 100

lbs.

Total
dig.
nutri-
ents in
100 lbs.

Nutri-
tive
ratio

Price
per

ton

Cost
per lb.
of dig.
crude
protein

Cost of
1 lb. of
total
dig.
nutri-
ents

Concentrates

Dent corn

Hominy feed

Gluten feed, high grade. .
Wheat bran, all analyses.

Oats .'

Corn and oat feed

Barley, ground

Cottonseed meal, choice..

Linseed meal, old-process.

Distillers' grains, dried,

from corn

Roughages
Timothy hay, all analyses

Alfalfa meal

Red clover hay, all analyses
Corn silage, recent analyses

89.5
89.9
91.3
89.9
90.8
88.6
90.7
92.5
90.9

93.4

SS.4
91.2
87.1
20.3

Lbs.

7.5

7.0

21.6

12.5

9.7

7.3

9.0

37.0

30.2

22.4

3.0

10.2

7.6

1.1

Lbs.

85.7
84.6
80.7
60.9
70.4
75.6
79.4
78.2
77.9

48.5
50.7
50.9
17.7

1:

10.4
11.1
2.7
3.9
6.3
9.4
7.S
1.1
1.6

3.0

15.2
4.0
5.7

15.1

Dollars

20.00
26.00
30.00
25.00
25.00
25.00
26.00
34.00
34.00

31.00

16.00

22.00

12.00

3.50

Cents

13.33
18.57
6.94
10.00
12.89
17.12
14.44
4.59
5.63

6.92

26.67

10.78

7.8!)

15.91

Cents

1.17
1.54
1.86
2.05
1.78
1.65
1.64
2.17
2.18

1.74

1.65
2.17

1.18
0,99

This {able does not assume to represent average conditions in any
district of the country, but shows how any stockman may compare the
relative economy of the different available feeds at local prices. The
last column shows clearly that, for the feeds given and with prices as
stated, com is by far the cheapest source of total digestible nutrients
among the concentrates. Of the roughages, corn silage supplies total
digestible nutrients most cheaply, followed by clover hay. For balanc-
ing a ration low in protein, cottonseed meal will furnish digestible
crude protein at 4.59 cts. per pound, linseed meal at 5.63 cts., dried dis-
tillers' grains at 6.92 cts., gluten feed at 6.94 cts., red clover hay at
7.89 cts., and wheat bran at 10.00 cts. In supplj^ing protein these
feeds will of course also furnish carbohydrates and fat as well, which
are included in the total digestible nutrients.

A corn-belt ration for milk production. — From the feeds listed let
us now formulate the most economical ration which will be satisfac-
tory for a 1,200-lb. cow yielding daily 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk. For
this cow there will be required, according to the IModified Wolff-Leh-
mann standard (Appendix Table V), a minimum daily allowance of
2.31 to 2.67 lbs. digestible crude protein and 18.99 lbs. total digestible
nutrients. The ration should contain from 25 to 30 lbs. of dry matter,
and should have a nutritive ratio no wider than 1 :6.1 to 1 :7.2.

Altho com silage is the cheapest roughage available, some dry

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK

109

roughage should be fed with it to dairy cows. Of the dry rough-
ages, clover hay is the cheapest. Let us then follow the general rule
of feeding 1 lb. of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage per 100 lbs. live
weight. To this allowance of roughage, we will add enough corn to
bring the total digestible nutrients up to the amount advised in the
standard, for corn is the concentrate which furnishes total digestible
nutrients most cheaply. Tabulating the results we will have :

First trial ration for corn-ielt dairy cow

Feeding stuflf

Dry

matter

Dig. crude
protein

Total dig.
nutrients

Cost

Nutri-
tive
ratio

Clover hay, 12.0 lbs

Corn silage, 36.0 lbs

Corn, dent, 8.0 lbs

Lbs.

10.45

9.47

7.16

Lbs.
0.912
0.396
0.600

Lbs.
6.108
6.372
6.856

Cents
7.20
6.30
8.00

Total

27.0S

1.908

19.336

21.50

1:9.1

This ration, which costs 21.5 cts., meets the standard in total digest-
ible nutrients and dry matter, but is decidedly deficient in protein.
We could narrow the nutritive ratio by feeding less silage and more
clover hay, but corn silage is the cheapest feed available. Therefore
we should substitute protein-rich concentrates for a part of the corn.

If 1.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal was substituted for the same weight
of corn, the ration would furnish about 2.3 lbs. of digestible crude
protein, the minimum amount recommended in the standard. Ground
corn and cottonseed meal are, however, both heavy feeds, weighing
about 1.5 lbs. per quart. (Appendix Table IX.) It is hence desir-
able to add some bulky concentrate which is also high in protein.
Dried distillers' grains are about as bulky as wheat bran and furnish
protein much more cheaply. Alfalfa meal is not so economical as dis-
tillers' grains, and gluten feed is a somewhat heavier feed. Let us
then substitute 0.5 lb. of cottonseed meal and 2.0 lbs. of dried dis-
tillers' grains for 2.5 lbs. of corn, and again tabulate the results:

Second trial ration for corn-helt dairy cow

Feeding stuff

Dry
matter

Dig. crude
protein

Total dig.
nutrients

Cost

Nutri-
tive
rati*

Clover hay, 12.0 lbs

Corn silage, 36.0 lbs

Corn, dent, 5.5 lbs

Cottonseed meal, 0.5 lb. . .

Distillers' grains, dried,

2.0 lbs

Lbs.

10.45
9.47
4.92
0.46

1.87

Lbs.
0.912
0.396
0.412
0.185

0.448

Lbs.

6.108

6.372

4.714

0.391

1.778

Cents
7.20
6.30
5.50

0.85

3.10

Total

27.17

2.353

19.363

22.95

1:7.2

110

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

This ration, which costs 22.95 cts., supplies the minimum amount of
protein recommended by the standard, and is slightly above it in
total digestible nutrients. Tho costing 1.45 cts. more than the first
ration, it will be more economical, for it should produce much better
results.

It was explained in Chapter VII that the lower amounts of digest-
ible crude protein advised for the dairy cow in the ]\lodified Woltf-Leh-
mann standards are the amounts recommended by Ilaecker, while the
higher figures are those set forth by Savage. (Appendix Table V.)
Cows of pronounced dairy temperament may be advantageously fed
as much protein as called for by the higher figures, providing this does
not greatly increase the cost of the ration. Let us then see how
cheaply a ration can be provided which will supply 2.67 lbs. of digest-
ible crude protein, the higher figure advised by the standard. The
protein can be added most cheaply by substituting more cottonseed
meal for corn, but instead of merely using more cottonseed meal, let
us feed 1 lb. of wheat bran, which will lighten the still somewhat
heavy concentrate mixture and which is much relished by the cow.
At the prices given, bran is an expensive source of protein, since it is
not high in that nutrient. The price per pound of total digestible
nutrients is, however, slightly lower than that of cottonseed meal.
Arranging the results as before, we will have :

Third trial ration for corn-helt dairy cow

Feeding stuff

Dry

matter

Dig. crude
protein

Total dig.
nutrients

Cost

Nutri-
tive
ratio

Clover hay, 12.0 lbs

Corn silage, 36.0 lbs

Corn, dent, 3.5 lbs

Cottonseed meal, 1.5 lbs

Distillers' grains, dried, 2.0 lbs.
Wheat bran, 1 0 lb

Lbs.

10.45
9.47
3.13
1.39
1.87
0.90

Lljs.

0.912

0.39 G

0.202

0.555

0.448

0.125

Lbs.

G.108

6.372

3.000

1.173

1.778

0.609

Cents
7.20
6.30
3.50
2.55
3.10
1.25

Total

27.21

2.698

19.040

23.90

1:6.1

This ration, which has a nutritive ratio of 1:6.1, costs about 1 cent
more than the preceding ration. The concentrate mixture will be
preferred by many dairymen, for it is more bulky, weighing 1.1 lbs.
per quart. Whether this ration will produce enough more milk to
pay for the increased cost will depend on how pronounced is the dairy
temperament of the particular cow getting the ration.

A cotton-belt ration for milk production. — In the preceding exam-
ple, corn among the concentrates and corn silage among the rough-
ages furnished total digestible nutrients most cheaply. Therefore,

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 111

the greater the amount of protein-rich feeds used in the ration, the
higher was the cost. Often conditions are just opposite to this. For
example, let us suppose that a southern dairyman has the following
concentrates available : ground corn at $30, oats at $35, and cotton-
seed meal at $25. By computing the cost per pound of total digestible
nutrients, as on Page 108, it will be found that at these prices cotton-
seed meal, which is extremely rich in protein, furnishes total digest-
ible nutrients most cheaply. Accordingly the cheapest ration that
could be computed would be one in which cottonseed meal was the
only concentrate fed.

However, it is not safe to feed cows such a large amount of cotton-
seed meal as this would require. Cottonseed meal is not only poison-
ous when fed in too large amounts, but it is too rich in protein and
too heavy to be fed as the sole concentrate to dairy cows. It would
therefore be necessary to substitute feeds which were lower in protein
and bulkier for some of the cottonseed meal, even tho this would
slightly increase the cost of the ration.

II. Adapting Systems of Feeding to Local Conditions

Amount of protein to supply. — The illustrations given in the pre-
ceding articles show clearly that rations should be adapted to the local
conditions. Feeding standards set forth approximately the amount
of protein and total nutrients, which, it is believed, should be fur-
nished for the maximum production of flesh, milk, work, etc., and for
maintaining the highest well-being of the animal. It will be noted
that in the Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards a range is indicated
in the amount of digestible ct"ude protein advised for most classes of
animals. For example, for 2-year-old steers on full feed from 2.0 to
2.3 lbs. of digestible crude protein per 1,000 lbs. live weight are recom-
mended for the first 50-60 days of fattening. When protein-rich
feeds cost but little or no more than carbonaceous feeds, it is well to
feed at least as much protein as indicated by the higher figures. On
the other hand, when corn or the other grains are relatively cheap it
may be better economy to feed no more protein than called for by the
lower figures. For example, corn and clover hay alone make a fairly
well-balanced ration for fattening cattle and sheep. However, the
gains are usually slightly increased and a higher finish secured when
a small allowance of some suitable nitrogenous concentrate is added
to the ration. Whether such addition will be profitable or not de-
pends on the prices of the feeds and on whether the market will pay
a better price for the more highly finished animal. Rarely is it ad-
visable to feed a materially smaller allowance of protein than the
lower figures, for the production will be thereby lowered.

112

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

AVhen protein-rich feeds are cheaper than those carbonaceous in
character, as in the cotton belt and the alfalfa districts of the West,
it will be economy to feed much more than the minimum amounts of
protein set forth in the standards. However, protein should not be
supplied in such excess as to injure the health of the animals.

Proportion of concentrates and roughages. — To meet the stand-
ards for fattening cattle and sheep and for milch cows, fairly liberal
amounts of concentrates are required. When concentrates furnish
total digestible nutrients nearly as cheaply as do roughages it is ad-
visable to feed as large a proportion of concentrates as is called for
bv the standards. On the other Jiand, in many of the alfalfa districts

Fig. 29. — Fattening Beef Cattle on Grass in ^he Corn Belt

On high-priced land, with few acres nnsiiited for tillage, the stockman has gen-
erally found it more profitable to fatten feeder cattle brought from the ranges
than to raise his own feeders.

of the West, grain is usually high in price compared with alfalfa hay.
Here it may be more profitable to restrict the grain allowance, even
tho gains are slower.

With dairy cows much depends on the productive capacity of the
animal. Except when concentrates are unusually high in price, the
cow of good dairy temperament will pay for at least a fair amount of
concentrates. On the contrary, for a cow of low productive capacity
the most economical ration may be silage and legume hay with no con-
centrates.

Roughing growing animals thru the winter. — The recommenda-
tions of the standards for growing cattle and sheep are based upon
continuous thrifty growth, and hence call for a limited allowance of
concentrates in addition to roughage. The breeder of pure-bred ani-

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 113

mals who wishes to develop the best there is in his y.oung stock will
feed the concentrates needed to keep them growing rapidly. On the
other hand, the western beef producer may find it most profitable to
carry young stock thru the winter on roughage alone or with but a
small allowance of concentrates. Thus fed, they will gain in frame,
and, tho losing in flesh, will be thrifty enough in the spring to make
good gains on the cheap pasturage.

Finish animals to meet demands of the market. — The wise stock-
man will keep in close touch with the demands of the market and ad-
just his feeding operations accordingly. If the market pays a suf-
ficient premium for thoroly fattened animals, he will finish his stock
well before marketing them. On the other hand, for local markets

l£L._

»

m

M^

H

Bm

wm

iiif,"

r

Hi«e-wtd«s«wiw-^.

:4

l^v

Fig. 30, — ^A Beef Farm in Northeastern Kansas

On this farm the bottom lands are in corn and the sloping hillsides in hay,
while the broken limestone hills in the background are suitable for pasture.
Here beef calves are raised and also fattened for market. (From U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.)

which pay no more for a prime carcass than for one carrying less fat,
it will not pay to prolong the fattening process or to feed as heavy an
allowance of concentrates as is necessary to make the carcass "ripe,"
or thoroly fat.

Adapt type of farming to local conditions.— It is outside the field
of this volume to discuss in detail the many factors which the stock-
man should take into consideration in deciding the type of live-stock
husbandry in which to engage and the systems and methods to follow.
The foregoing paragraphs serve to illustrate how the farm operations
and practices should be suited to local conditions, taking into consid-
eration prices of land and labor, nearness to market, and available
crops. For example, the beef producer on high-priced land in the

114 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

eastern part of the corn belt will generally crowd his calves to rapid
growth on a heavy allowance of grain and fatten them as baby beef.
Or he will raise no cattle, but fatten feeder steers from the western
ranges on a liberal allowance chiefly of corn. On the other hand, in
the West, where pasture is cheap compared with grain, the stockman
will usually follow a less intensive system, roughing his growing stock
thru the winter and marketing them from grass as 2- or 3-year-olds,
having been fed little grain at any time.

Milk for our cities must come from the surrounding districts which
are within shipping distance. Dairymen maintaining herds on hig'.i-

FiG. 31. — ^Beef Cattle on the Western Range

In the range districts of tlie West pasturage is cl\eap, but concentrates are high
in price. Hence beef cattle are raised on the range and sold as feeders to be
fattened in the corn belt or other grain raising districts. (From Breeder's
Gazette. )

priced land to meet this demand properly tend to use a minimum
acreage as pasture, relying largely on corn silage or soilage during
the summer months. They often buy much of their concentrates, for
grain can be produced on land farther from market and shipped in
at less expense than it may be possible to grow it on their farms.
Such a system is not, however, economical for the dairyman remote
from the large markets, whose milk is used in the manufacture of
butter or cheese. He must adopt a less intensive system of dairying,
where the herd is maintained largely on pasture in the summer, since
with him land is relatively less expensive than labor.

The student will realize as he goes on in this book that, while there
are no hard and fast rules for successfully managing live stock, a clear
understanding of the principles of the nutrition of animals is essen-
tial to the highest success. This must be supplemented by good judg-

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 115

ment and by a thoro knowledge of the farm animals themselves, which
can only be gained by actual experience. He will further find that
expensive buildings for housing stock and complex devices for feed-
ing and caring for them are not necessary; that there are no ''best"
feeds for all conditions; that elaborate and laborious preparation of
feed is often wasted; that patent stock foods guaranteed to w^ork
miracles enrich, not the farmer, but the manufacturer.

On the other hand, he will come to appreciate that a proper bal-
ancing of the rations for his stock not only benefits the animals, but
also increases his profits; that comfort for farm stock can be secured
in inexpensive, easy ways, and that the operations of preparing and
administering feed are really simple when once understood. He will
further come to the deep and fundamental realization that animal
husbandry under normal conditions is most successful when combined
with general farming and the raising of farm crops ; that it rests
upon pasture lots which are fertilized so as to produce abundant
forage and upon tilled fields which are so managed that the fertility is
maintained and bumper crops are grown, a large part of which is
marketed thru the animals of the farm.

Having discussed in the preceding chapters the fundamental prin-
ciples governing the rational feeding and care of the various classes
of farm animals, let us now consider in detail the value of the many
different feeding stuffs for live stock.

QUESTIONS

1. Using local prices for feeds, see if you can find instances where the market
price of a feed does not represent its actual feeding value compared with oilier
feeds which are available.

2. Find the local prices for at least six concentrates and four roughages
suitable for feeding dairy cows, and compute the cost per pound of digestible
crude protein and total digestible nutrients, as on Page 108. Using this data,
compute the cheapest ration which will be well balanced and satisfactory in
other respects for a 1,000-lb. cow producing 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily.

3. How would you adapt the amount of protein in the ration to local con-
ditions?

4. When would you feed less concentrates than called for in the feeding
standards?

.5. Under what conditions would you rough growing beef cattle thru the
winter?

6. Discuss other ways in which you would adapt your type of farming to
local conditions.

Part II
FEEDING STUFFS

CHAPTER IX

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS

I. Corn and Its By-Products

The prime importance of Indian corn, or maize, as a grain crop in
the United States is shown by the fact that in acreage, in total yield,
and in value, it exceeds all other cereals combined. Corn is grown in
every state of the Union, but flourishes best in the great region be-
tween the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountain Plateau. .A heat
loving plant, it thrives best where the nights are warm during the
growing season.

Corn as a feed. — Corn is the great energizing, heat-giving, fat-fur-
nishing feed for the animals of the farm. No other cereal yields, on
a given space and with a given ex-
penditure of labor, so much food
in both grain and forage. On mil-
lions of farms successful animal
husbandry rests upon this imperial
crop.

The corn grain is pre-eminently
a carbohydrate bearer, every 100
lbs. containing over 70 lbs. of
nitrogen-free extract, which is
nearly all starch. In addition,
corn is higher than all the other
common cereals in fat, or oil, con-
taining 5 per ct. of this energy-rich
nutrient. Due to this abundance
of starch and oil, it excels as a
fattening feed. Being so rich in corn,
carbohydrates, corn is naturally

low in crude protein. Moreover, the crude protein is somewhat un-
balanced, more than half of it consisting of a single kind which lacks

117

R

^^^^Vb^^l

■■Ki

^

Fig. 32. — The King op Cereals

On millions of farms the success of
animal husbandry depends largely on

118 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

some of the amino acids necessary for animal growth. Corn is also un-
usually low in mineral matter, especially lime (calcium), which is
needed in large amounts by growing animals. Indeed, there is but 0.2
lb. of lime in 1,000 lbs. of the grain. In feeding corn we must bear in
mind these important facts concerning its composition, and correct its
deficiencies by supplementing it with feeds high in protein and cal-
cium. Fortunately, the legume hays, as alfalfa and clover, are rich in
the lacking nutrients, and go far toward balancing a heav}^ allowance
of corn. For fattening cattle and sheei3 corn and legume hay alone
malve quite a satisfactory, well-balanced ration.

A possible explanation of the great fondness of farm animals for
corn lies in its richness in oil. Again, on mastication the kernels
break into nutty particles which are more palatable than meal from
tlie wheat grain, for example, which turns to a sticky dough in the
mouth.

The corn grain is the chief basis of the production of beef, pork,
and mutton thruout the corn belt. For all classes of fattening ani-
mals corn may form most of the concentrate allowance, only sufficient
of such protein-rich feeds as linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or wheat
bran being added to balance the ration. Corn meal is excellent for
dairy cows, when mixed with feeds which are bulkier and richer in
protein. Trials have shown that when fed to work horses in properly
balanced rations corn is a satisfactory substitute for oats. With grow-
ing and breeding animals it is especially necessary that corn be sup-
plemented by feeds which contain an abundance of protein and mineral
matter.. The manner in which corn should be used for feeding the
various classes of animals is discussed in detail in the respective chap-
ters of Part III.

While corn should be ground for dairy cows, such preparation does
not generally pay for horses or pigs. When pigs follow fattening
cattle to pick up the grain that escapes mastication and digestion, the
steers are most commonly fed ear or snapped corn, or even shock corn.
Sheep with good teeth can always grind their own corn.

Races and types of corn. — Three races of corn — dent, flint, and
sweet — are of interest to the stockman. In dent corn the starch is
partly hornlike and partly floury, rendering the kernel easy of mas-
tication. In flint corn the starch is mostly hornlike and flinty, mak-
ing the kernel more difficult for the animal to crush. There is but
little difference in the composition of dent and flint com, and they
have the same feeding value. Chemical analysis and experience op-
pose the assertion, often heard, that yellow corn is more nutritious
than white, or the opposite. In fact, the coloring matter of yellow
corn is so minute in quantity as to be unweighable.

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 119

In sweet corn the starch is hornlike and tough. Before hardening,
the milky kernels of this race carry much glucose, which is changed to
starch as they mature into the shrunken grain. Sweet corn has some-
what more crude protein and fat and less carbohydrates than the
other races.

The length of the growing season exerts a deep influence upon the
type of corn. In the South the tropical corn stems, 4 or 5 months
from planting, carry great ears burdened with grain so high that a
man can only touch them by reaching far above his head. At the
other extreme, the Mandan Indian in the country of the Red River
of the North developed an early maturing race which reached only to
the shoulders of the squaw, with tiny ears borne scarcely a foot from
the ground on pigmy stalks.

Storage and shrinkage of ear corn. — While old ear corn rarely
contains over 12 per ct. of water, freshly husked corn may contain 36
per ct. Ear corn carrying 20 per ct. or more of water will rarely
keep if any considerable (juantity is stored together. On twisting
such ears they will be found to be loose grained and "sappy." Corn
is stored mostly on the husked ear in the North, but in the South the
husks are left on the ears because of the weevil, a beetle that lives in
the kernels unless they are protected. Shelled corn does not keep
well in bulk, especially in the summer, and so corn is held in ear
form as long as possible.

Seventy lbs. of dry dent ear corn of good varieties yields 1 bushel,
or 56 lbs., of shelled corn, but in the early fall buyers frequently de-
mand 75 or 80 lbs., according to the estimated water content. Flint
varieties have a larger proportion of cob to grain than does dent corn.

Soft corn.— Corn frosted before the grains mature contains too
much water for storage or shipment, and is best utilized by immediate
feeding. Soft corn has been fed successfully to swine, and for steers
a pound of dry matter in soft corn is equal in feeding value to a
pound of dry matter in hard corn.

A late-maturing variety of corn should not be planted in a locality
having a short growing season, with the hope of getting a larger yield.
The corn will usually not mature, there is great danger of its heating
and molding, and the shrinkage is large. As has been shown in
Chapter I, the most rapid storage of food in the corn kernels takes
place when they are approaching maturity.

Corn meal; corn chop; corn feed-meaL — The term corn meal, as
applied to feeding stuffs, is most correctly used for the entire ground
corn grain, from which the bran, or hulls, have not been removed by
bolting. In preparing corn for human food the grain is ground
coarsely and the fine sif tings and also the bran are removed. The

120 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

milled product, which is likewise called com meal, has a more attrac-
tive appearance than the entire ground grain, but contains somewhat
less protein and fat. Much of the commercial corn meal, particularly
in the Mississippi valley, is made from the part of the kernel left
after the manufacture of cracked corn or table meal. It is most cor-
rectly called corn feed-meal, and is equal in feeding value to com
meal from the entire grain. Corn chop is a name sometimes applied
to ground corn, and also to mixtures of ground corn and corn by-
products. On grinding corn the oil it carries soon becomes rancid
and gives the meal a stale taste. Hence this grain should never be
ground far in advance of use.

Corn cobs; corn-and-cob meal. — When ear corn is ground the
product is called corn-and-cob meal. Because of the rubber-like con-
sistency of the cobs, much power is required to reduce ear corn to
meal. If the cob particles in corn-and-cob meal are coarse, the animal
will not usually eat them, but when finely ground corn-and-cob meal
proves satisfactory with most farm animals. Corn cobs contain over
30 per ct. fiber and furnish little more digestible nutrients than oat
straw. Any benefit from including the cobs in grinding is therefore
not due chiefly to the nutrients the cobs furnish, but to the fact that
they make the meal more bulk3^ This causes it to lie loosely in the
stomach, thus aiding the action of the digestive fluids. If the cost of
grinding is small, corn-and-cob meal may be preferable to corn meal
when fed with heavy concentrates, especially for dairy cows and
horses. Including the cobs is not profitable for sheep or pigs.

Composition of the corn kernel. — Before discussing the value of
the various corn by-products resulting from the manufacture of
human food, it will be helpful to consider the composition of the
different parts of the corn kernel. The floury starch in the middle
of the kernel forms nearly half the total weight. Over 80 per ct. of
this portion is starch, with but 7 per ct. crude protein, less than 1
per ct. fiber, and but a trace of fat and ash. The hornlike starch at
the sides and base of the kernel, which forms about one-fourth of its
weight, likewise consists mostly of starch, but carries more protein
than the floury starch. The hulls and tip caps, which make up 7
per ct. of the kernel, are also composed largely of carbohydrates, tho
containing less starch and about 15 per ct. fiber. The hornlike gluten
(8 per ct. of the kernel), just under the hull, is rich in crude protein,
and the germ (12 per ct. of the kernel) is high in crude protein, ash,
and fat.

Starch and glucose by-products. — In the manufacture of commer-
cial starch and glucose from corn, the grain is cleaned and then

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS

121

softened by soaking in warm water, slightly acidified with sulfurous
acid. Next it is coarsely ground and the mass passed into tanks con-
taining "starch liquor." Here the germs, which are lighter on
account of the large amount of oil they carry, rise to the surface, and
are removed. After washing, the residue is then finely ground, and

Fig. 33. — Diagram op a Kernel op Dent Corn

A, Hull; b, hornlike gluten; c. floury starch; d, horny starch; e, embryo, or
germ; f, embryo stem; g, embryo root; h, tip cap.

the coarser part, the bran, separated by silk sieves. The remainder,
called "starch liquor," which contains the starch, gluten, and fine
particles of fiber, is then passed slowly thru shallow, slightly inclined
troughs where the starch settles like wet lime, while the lighter ingre-
dients— the gluten, fiber, etc. — are carried off in the current of water.
In this process there are thus obtained, (1) the germ, from which

122 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

corn oil and germ oil meal are secured, (2) the bran, consisting of
the hulls, (3) the starch, and (4) the gluten. The bran, together with
some light weight and broken germs, was formerly dried and sold as
corn hran. Now, however, the bran and gluten are usually united
while still wet, and then dried and ground, the product being sold as
corn gluten feed, or corn starch hy-product with corn hran, as it is
sometimes called. The term corn gluten feed is used to distinguish
this feed from ''Continental Gluten Feed," a proprietary name for
certain dried distillers' grains.

Corn gluten feed. — Gluten feed contains about 25 per ct. crude pro-
tein, 7 per ct. fiber, 53 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, and 4 per ct. fat.
It is thus a protein-rich feed. The ash content ranges from less than
1 per ct. to 5 or 6 per ct., depending on whether the steep water in
which the corn is softened is evaporated and the residue added to the
gluten feed or not. This residue consists of such substances as the
soluble protein and phosphates which are dissolved out of the kernels
during the soaking process. Gluten feed is extensively used for dairy
cows. As it contains about 9 per ct. more digestible crude protein and
also furnishes more total digestible nutrients than wheat bran, it is
worth considerably more than this feed. It may also be satisfactorily
fed to beef cattle, sheep, and swine to supplement carbonaceous con-
centrates.

Gluten meal. — This by-product, now sometimes called corn hy-
product without corn hran, is one of the richest of concentrates in
crude protein and fat, while ^0.h' in carbohydrates and low in mineral
matter. It is a heavy feed, ami, as mentioned before, is usually mixed
with corn bran to form gluten feed.

Germ oil meal. — The corn germs removed in the manufacture of
starch are dried, crushed, and much of the oil pressed out, leaving the
residue in cakes. This is exported as corn oil cake, or ground and
sold in this country as germ oil meal or corn germ meal. This feed
contains somewhat less protein than the usual gluten feed, but carries
a much larger amount of fat.

Hominy feed, meal, or chop. — This by-product, variously called
hominy feed, hominy meal, or hominy chop, is a mixture of the bran,
the germ, and a part of the starchy portion of the corn kernel obtained
in the manufacture of hominy or brewers ' grits. It is a carbonaceous
feed, similar to corn in composition, but somewhat bulkier, slightly
lower in nitrogen-free extract, and considerably higher in fat. In
feeding value it is equal to corn meal and has the advantages of being
kiln dried and keeping better in storage. As it is bulkier than corn
meal, it is preferred for dairy cattle, and it has also proven superior
to corn meal for fattening pigs.

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 123

II. Wheat and Its By-Products in Milling

Due to its wide-spread use for human food, wheat is commonly too
high in price to be fed in any considerable amount to stock. How-
ever, wheat which is frosted, shrunken, or otherwise damaged can be
profitably utilized. Tho the market price of such grain is low, it is
often equal to wheat of good quality for feeding. Salvage grain,
slightly charred or damaged by smoke, may also have its value for
stock feeding but little injured.

Wheat as a feed. — Compared with corn, wheat carries slightly more
carbohydrates in the form of starch, is higher in crude protein and
mineral matter, and contains much less fat. Tho wheat is richer than
corn in protein, the protein is unbalanced in composition, as in corn.

1

■

1

1

T^^^^^H

H^) ) %

i^^^^^^H vfl^^^H

■KPs if

K^^^^^^^^^^Bl

1

^B'^fll

^w-'t«|

if^>j;pf^: ^^^-"'--'^

1

n

Fig. 34. — Heads of Different Types of Wheat

From left to right: 1, bearded winter wlieat (Turkey Red) ; 2, beardless spring
wheat (Blue Stem); 3, bearded spring wheat (Velvet Chaff); 4, Durum, or
macaroni wheat; 5, club wheat.

Like corn, wheat should be supplemented by feeds rich in protein and
lime. Fed in properly balanced rations, it is about equal to corn for
dairy cows, beef cattle, sheep, and pigs. It should not be fed in large
amounts to horses, as it may cause digestive disturbances. Since the
kernels are small and hard, wheat should be ground, or better, crushed

124 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

or rolled, except for sheep. Finely ground meal or wheat flour forms
a pasty mass in the mouth, which can be prevented by mixing with it
such materials as bran or coarse corn meal.

There is no appreciable difference in feeding value between spring
and winter wheat. Durum or macaroni wheat, extensively grown in
the northern plains states, has practically the same composition and
feeding value as ordinary wheat.

Flour manufacture. — The wheat kernel is covered with three straw-
like coats or skins. Beneath these comes the aleurone layer, high in
crude protein. The germ, or embryo plant, in each kernel is rich in
oil, crude protein, and mineral matter. The remainder of the kernel
consists of thin-walled cells packed with starch grains. Among the
starch grains are protein particles called ''gluten," that give wheat-
flour dough the tenacity needed in bread making. In producing flour
the miller aims to secure all the starch and gluten possible from the
wheat grains, while avoiding the bran, which makes the flour brownish,
and the germs, which soon turn rancid and injure the keeping quality.

In modern milling, flour is produced by passing the thoroly cleaned
wheat thru a series of steel rollers, each succeeding pair being set a
little nearer together, so that the kernels are gradually crushed into
smaller and smaller particles. The flour is removed by sifting or
passing the material over bolting cloth, and finally only the by-
products remain. These form 25 to 33 per ct. of the weight of the
entire grain.

The names of the various mill products differ somewhat in various
sections of tbe country, but those most commonly used are given in
the articles which follow.

Wheat bran. — Bran, which consists of the outer coatings of the
wheat kernel together with the aleurone layer, is one of the most
popular of the cereal by-products for stock feeding. It is fairly rich
in digestible protein, and is fair in digestible carbohydrates and fat.
It is a most palatable feed, and, being bulky, is excellent to mix with
such heavy concentrates as corn, wheat, or barley meal. It also has a
beneficial laxative effect, due to a certain phosphorous compound.
Bran from mills lacking machinery for perfect separation of the starch
from the bran coats is somew^hat lower in protein and correspondingly
higher in starch than bran from large mills. The difference in feed-
ing value is but slight.

Bran is rich in phosphorus, needed in large amounts by growing
animals and those producing milk, but it is deficient in calcium (lime).
Due to this lack, horses heavily fed on bran sometimes suffer from
"bran disease," which seriously affects their bones. When large
amounts of bran are used, it should therefore be fed with feeds rich

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS

125

in lime, such as legume hay, or lime may be supplied as ground lime-
stone or wood ashes.

Owing to its bulky nature and also because it is often high in
price compared with other con-
centrates, bran is not com-
monly fed to farm animals as
the only concentrate, but is
mixed with other feeds to add
volume or to balance rations
low in protein. Its richness in
protein and phosphorus, and
its beneficial laxative action
make it valuable as part of the
concentrate allowance for dairy
cows, breeding animals of all
classes, and young, growing
animals. With all horses it is
useful, especially on idle daj^s,
because of its bulk and laxa-
tive effect. It is frequently
supplied at least once a week
in the form of a bran mash,
wet or steamed. It is too bulky
and too laxative to form a
large part of the ration for
hard-worked horses. Bran is
often mixed with corn and
other heavy concentrates in
starting fattening cattle or
sheep on feed. It is valuable
for brood sows not getting pas-
ture or legume hay, tho too
bulky for young pigs or fatten-
ing hogs.

Due to its widespread popu-
larity, bran is often high in
price compared with other

nitrogenous concentrates which can be used with equally good results
and many of which carry more protein.

Wheat middlings. — Middlings vary in quality from red dog flour,
which contains considerable flour, to standard middlings, or shorts,
which may contain but little. To some extent standard or irown
middlings and shorts are interchangeable terms. Standard wheat

Fig. 35.

-DiAGRAk OF Wheat
Kernel

A, three bran coats; b, aleurone layer;
c, cells filled with starch grains; d, em-
bryo, or germ; e, embryo leaves; f, em-
bryo root. (Partially after Neumann.)

126 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

middlings comprise the finer bran particles with considerable flour
adhering. Shorts too often consist of ground-over bran and the
sweepings and dirt of the mills, along wnth ground or unground weed
seeds. Flour or white middlings are of somewhat higher grade than
standard middlings, for they contain considerable low-grade flour and
carry slightly more crude protein and less fiber. Middlings are highly
useful with swine of all ages. They should not be fed alone, but
always with more carbonaceous feeds, as corn or barley. Mixed with
other feeds they are satisfactory for dairy cows. IMiddlings may also
be fed to horses in small amounts when mixed w^ith other feeds to
avoid colic.

Red dog flour. — Ked dog flour, or dark feeding flour, generally con-
tains the wheat germs and is therefore rich in crude protein and fat.
Such flour differs little in composition and feeding value from the best
flour middlings.

Wheat mixed feed. — "Wheat mixed feed, or shipstuff, is, strictly
speaking, the entire mill run of the residues of the wheat kernel left
after separating the commercial flour. The term is also used for
various mixtures of bran and red dog flour or middlings. The value
of wheat mixed feed will depend on the proportions of bran, middlings,
and flour present, a good grade being superior to wheat bran.

Screenings. — In cleaning and grading wheat at the elevators and
mills, there remain great quantities of screenings, consisting of broken
and shrunken wheat kernels having high feeding value, mixed with
weed seeds and more or less trash. The weed seeds differ widely in
feeding value and different lots of screenings var}^ in the proportions
of wheat and trash contained. The best heavy screenings are but little
inferior to wheat. Farmers who seek to keep their land free from
noxious weeds should see that before feeding the screenings are finely
ground to kill all weed seeds. Screenings are now mostly used along
with molasses and various other bj^-products in the manufacture of
proprietary feeding stuffs. The feed control laws of several states
require that when screenings are present in feeds the fact be indicated
on the label and in some cases the percentage must be stated.

III. Oats and Their By-Products

Next to corn, oats are the most extensively grown cereal in the
United States. The oat grain is richer than corn in crude protein,
and contains nearly as much fat. Due to the woody hull, it contains
over 10 per ct. fiber, with correspondingly less nitrogen-free extract
than corn or wheat, and accordingly is lower in digestible nutrients
and net energy. The hulls of oats form from 20 to 45 per ct. of their

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS

127

total weight, the average being about 30 per et. As light-weight oats
contain more hull and less kernel than plump, heavy oats, their feeding
value per pound will be correspondingly less. To increase the weight
per bushel and thus make the oats appear to be of a higher grade, the
hulls are sometimes "clipped" at the pointed end by machines.

Oats as a feed. — Owing to their bulky character, oats are the safest
of all feeds for the horse, in this respect being in contrast to corn.
Because of the mettle so characteristic of the oat-fed horse, it was long
held that there is a stimulating substance in the oat grain. All claims

h'lG. 86. — Heads of Oats, Emmer, and Spelt

From left to riglit: 1, Variety of oats with open or spreading panicle; 2, side
oats; 3, emmer; 4, spelt.

of the discovery of this compound have, however, melted away on
careful examination, and rations containing no oats have given as
good results as where oats were fed. For dairy cows there is no better
grain than oats, but their use is restricted by their high price. Oats
are often mixed with heavy concentrates in starting fattening cattle
and sheep on feed. As fattening progresses more concentrated feeds
should be substituted for all or most of the oats. Ground oats with
the hulls sifted out provide a most nourishing and wholesome feed
for young calves and pigs. For breeding swine, whole oats in limited
quantity are always in place.

128 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

In recent years the bleaching of low-grade oats and barley with
sulfurous acid fumes to whiten the grain has become common. Such
grain should be avoided, as it injures the health of animals so fed.

Oat by-products. — In the manufacture of oatmeal and other break-
fast foods, after the light-weight grains are screened out, the oat hulls
are removed from the remainder, a vast quantity resulting. So com-
pletely are the kernels separated that the chaff-like hulls, which con-
tain about 30 per ct. fiber, are worth but little, if any, more than oat
straw as a feed. If fragments of the kernels adhere, their value is of
course thereby improved. The hulls are used in the manufacture of
various proprietary feeds. The addition of a limited amount of hulls
to a mixture of heavy concentrates may be beneficial. However, in
buying mixed feeds one should not pay as muc"h for a low-grade feed,
consisting largely of oat hulls, as for high-grade concentrates.

After the oats are hulled, they are freed from the small hairs on the
outer end of the kernel. With fragments of the kernels these hairs
form the product called oat dust, vrhich contains considerable protein
and fat, with about 18 per ct. fiber. This feed is usually sold in mix-
tures with other concentrates, as its light, fluffy nature makes it unsuit-
able to feed alone. This product is worth somewhat more than a mix-
ture of equal parts of oat middlings and oat hulls. Oat shorts or
middlings, consisting of the outside skins of the kernels, closely
resemble wheat bran in composition, but carry more fat. Oat feeds
are mixtures, varying widely in composition, of ground oat hulls, oat
middlings, and other by-products ; they should be purchased only on
guarantee of composition and from reputable dealers. The fiber con-
tent of any lot indicates the relative amount of hulls contained.
Clipped oat ty-product, or oat clippings, is the by-product obtained in
the manufacture of clipped oats. This material, which consists of
chaffy material broken from the ends of the hulls, empty hulls, light
immature oats, and dust, is used in various proprietary feeds.

Ground corn and oats. — This feed, variously called ground corn
and oats, ground feed, and provender, is extensively employed in the
eastern and southern states for feeding horses and dairy cows. In
composition it ranges from a straight mixture of good-grade corn and
oats to one containing a large proportion of low-grade materials, such
as oat hulls and ground corn cobs. The best guide to the purity of this
feed is the fiber content ; when it contains over 7 per ct. fiber, it either
has been adulterated or was made from poor-quality oats.

IV. Barley and Its By-Products in Brev^ing
Barley is the most widely cultivated of the cereals, growing in
Alaska and flourishing beside orange groves in California. Once the

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 129

chief bread plant of many ancient nations, it is now used almost wholly
for brewing, pearling, and stock feeding. The hull of the grain of
ordinary brewing barley or of Scotch barley constitutes about 15 per ct.
of its total weight. California feed barley, grown extensively in some
sections of the West, has more hull and weighs 45 lbs. or less per
bushel; while the usual weight of common barley is 48 lbs. Bald or
hulless barley, also grown in the western states, has hard kernels, con-
tains less fiber owing to the absence of the hull, and is as heavy as
wheat. Barley has less digestible crude protein than oats, and more
than corn. The carbohydrates exceed those of oats and fall below
those in corn, while the oil content is lower than in either.

Barley as a feed. — On the Pacific slope, where corn or oats do not
flourish in equal degree, barley is extensively used as a feed for ani-

FiG. 37. — Heads op Different Varieties of Barley and of Rye

From left to right: 1, TAVo-rowed barley; 2, common six-rowed Jbarley, or so-
called four-rowed barley; 3, true six-rowed barley; 4, California feed barley; 5,
beardless barley; 6, rye.

mals. For horses barley is slightly less valuable than oats. This grain
is the common feed for dairy cows in northern Europe. Fed with
legume hay to fattening steers and lambs, barley has given nearly as
good returns as corn. In Great Britain and northern Europe it
takes the place of corn for pig feeding, leading all grains in producing
pork of fine quality. Somewhat more barley than corn has been

130 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

required for 100 lbs. gain with fattening pigs. Owing to its more
chaffy nature California feed barley is lower in value than common
barley. Tho higher than corn in crude protein, barley is still decid-
edly carbonaceous in character, and should be fed with legume hay
or with a nitrogenous concentrate for the best results.

The malting process. — In making malt the barley grains are steeped
in warm water until soft and kept warm until they begin to sprout.
The amount of diastase, the enzyme which converts starch into malt
sugar, now increases greatly, and when sufficient diastase has been
formed in the grain, it is quickly dried. The tiny, dry, shriveled
sprouts are then separated from the grains, and put on the market as
malt sprouts. The dried grains remaining form 7}ialt. In the manu-
facture of beer, the malt, after being rolled, is moistened and usually
mixed with cracked corn which has been previously cooked. The dias^
tase in the malt now converts the vstarch in the corn and the malt into
malt sugar. This, together with some of the nitrogenous and mineral
matter, is then extracted from the mass and fermented by yeast, which
forms the alcohol in the beer. The freshly extracted residue consti-
tutes wet brewers' grains, which on drying in a vacuum are called
dried hreivers' grains or brewers' dried grains.

Dried brewers' grains. — Dried brewers' grains, which keep indefi-
nitely, contain over 70 per ct. more digestible crude protein and twice
as much fat as wheat bran, but are lower in carbohydrates, which are
largely pentosans. They are nearly as bulky as wheat bran. Dried
brewers ' grains are widely fed to dairy cows and serve well as part of
the concentrate allowance for horses, especially for those at hard work,
and needing an ample supply of protein. On account of their bulk,
they are not well suited to pigs.

Wet brewers' grains. — Owing to their volume, watery nature, and
perishable character, wet brewers' grains are usually fed near the
brewery. Containing about 75 per ct. water, they have slightly over
one-fourth the feeding value of an equal weight of dried grains.
Supplied in reasonable quantity, 20 to 30 lbs. per head daily, and fed
while fresh in clean, water-tight boxes and along with nutritious hay
and other roughage, there is no better food for dairy cows than wet
brewers' grains. However, the wet grains should never be fed to
dairy cows ufiless extreme care is taken to prevent the mangers and
surroundings from becoming foul. In Europe the wet grains are con-
sidered excellent for fattening cattle and swine when used with dry
feed and furnishing not over half the nutrients in the ration. On
account of their "washy" nature, they are not commonly used for
horses and sheep.

Malt sprouts. — The tiny, shriveled sprouts separated from the dried

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 131

malt grains form a bulky feed which is rather low in carbohydrates
and fat, but carries about 20 per ct. digestible crude protein, one-third
of which is amids. At ruling prices they are an economical source of
protein, but, not being relished by stock, should be given in limited
quantity mixed with other concentrates. Malt sprouts are especially
valuable for dairy cows, tho they will not usually eat over 2 or 3 lbs.
daily. In Europe horses have been fed as high as 5 to 6 lbs. per head
daily with good results, and sheep 0.5 lb. daily per 100 lbs. live weight.
Since malt sprouts swell greatly when they absorb water, they should
be soaked for several hours before feeding.

Barley feed. — This by-product from the manufacture of pearl barley
or flour has about the same feeding value as wheat bran, being some-
what lower in protein and higher in nitrogen-free extract.

V. Rye and Its By-Products

Rye, the principal cereal of north Europe, is not extensively grown
in America. Tho it repays good treatment, this "grain of poverty"
thrives in cool regions on land that will not give profitable returns
with other cereals. It furnishes about one-third of the people of
Europe with bread, and when low in price or off-grade is commonly
fed to stock.

Rye and its by-products. — Tho farm animals show no fondness for
rye, they take it willingly when mixed Avith other feeds. Fed alone
or in large amounts it is more apt to cause digestive disturbances than
the other cereals. In northern Europe it is a common feed for horses
and swine. Fed in large allowance to cows rye produces a hard, dry
butter.

The by-products in the manufacture of rye flour are rye 'bran and
rye middlings, which are usually combined and sold as rye feed. All
have about the same feeding value as the corresponding wheat feeds,
the rye feeds containing less fiber and being somewhat lower in protein
and higher in nitrogen-free extract.

VI. Emmer

Emmer, often incorrectly called "spelt" or "speltz," was intro-
duced into America from Germany and Russia. It is a member of the
wheat family, altho in appearance the grain resembles barley. Being
drought resisting, emmer is valuable in the semi-arid regions of Amer-
ica. In 1909, 12,700,000 bushels were grown, mostly in the northern
plains states.

Emmer as a feed. — In composition emmer resembles oats. It may
be fed with success to all classes of farm animals, its value being some-

132 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

what lower than corn or barley. Like oats, it is rather bulky to use as
the sole concentrate for fattening animals, and gives better results
when mixed with corn or barley.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the strong and the weak points of corn as a feed?

2. Discuss the diflferences in composition and feeding value of the three types
of corn.

3. How should soft corn be utilized and what is its value?

4. Discuss the composition of the different parts of the corn grain and draw
a diagram showing tlieir location in the kernel.

5. Describe the manufacture of starch from corn and name the by-products
resulting.

6. What is the feeding value of gluten feed and hominy meal?

7. Compare wheat and corn for stock feeding.

8. Draw a diagram of the wheat kernel and discuss the manufacture of
flour.

9. Discuss the value and uses of wheat bran, wheat middlings, red dog flour,
wheat mixed feed, and wheat screenings.

10. What are the composition and value for feeding of oats, oat hulls, and
oat middlings?

11. Describe the malting process and discuss the feeding value of barley,
dried brewer's grains, and malt sprouts.

12. What is the value for stock of rye, rye middlings, and emmer?

CHAPTER X

MINOR CEREALS, OIL-BEARING AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS
AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS

I. Rice and its By-Products

The production of rice is steadily increasing in Louisiana, Texas,
and Arkansas, where over 95 per ct. of the entire crop of the United
States is produced. Like wheat, this cereal is used almost entirely for
human food, only the by-products from the manufacture of polished or
table rice being fed to farm animals.

Rice and its by-products. — In preparing rough rice for human food,
first the hulls and next the bran, or outer skin of the kernel, are
removed. The kernels are then ''polished" to remove the creamy out-
side layer, rich in protein and fat, and to produce an attractive lustre.
The resulting floury particles form rice polish.

Bough rice and hulled rice are commonly fed to stock only when of
low grade. The kernels being hard, these feeds should be ground.
Rough rice may replace corn in stock feeding, being worth about 7
per ct. more than that grain. Hulled rice is the richest of all cereals
in carbohydrates, but relatively low in crude protein and fat. It is
worth about 16 per ct. more than corn.

Rice hulls, woody and tasteless, should never be fed to farm animals,
for their sharp, roughened, flinty edges and needle-like points are
irritating and dangerous to the walls of the stomach and intestines,
and may even cause death. They are sometimes used by unscrupulous
dealers to adulterate commercial feeding stuffs, and are even ground
and sold as "husk meal" or "Star bran."

Bice hran, when pure, consists of the outer layer of the rice kernel
proper, the germs, and a small amount of hulls not separated in the
milling process. When adulterated with hulls, it is called "commer-
cial bran. ' ' Unadulterated rice bran is a highly nutritious feed, con-
taining about as much protein as wheat, 11 per ct. fat, and not over
13 per ct. fiber. It may form half the concentrates for horses and
mules, is satisfactory for fattening steers, and may be fed to dairy cows
and pigs as part of the concentrates. Too large an amount injures the
milk of dairy cows and produces soft pork in pigs. The fat in rice
bran soon becomes rancid, and the feed may then be distasteful to
stock.

133

134

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Rice polish, equal to corn in feeding value, carries slightly more
protein and considerably more fat, but correspondingly less nitrogen-
free extract.

Fig. 38. — A Field op Rice in Arkansas

Eice is usually grown on low, level o;round under irrigation, tho certain varieties
can be grown on upland without irrigation. Note that this field is flooded.
(From The Southivest Trail, Rock Island Lines.)

II. Sorghums and Millets

Numberless millions of people in India, China and Africa rely on
the sorghums and millets for their bread. In India more land is
devoted to growing these crops than to wheat, rice, and Indian corn
combined. In Africa the sorghums are the one ever-present, crop, from
tropical jungle to desert oasis and mountain valley.

The sorghums. — The sorghums may be divided into two classes^
the saccharine sorghums, having stems filled with sweet juices, and the
non-saccharine or grain sorghums, with more pithy stems and sour or
only slightly sweet juice. The Indian corn plant never gives satisfac-
tory returns if its growth is once checked. The sorghums may cease
growing and their leaves shrivel during periods of excessive heat and
drought ; yet when the soil becomes moist again, they quickly resume

MINOR CEREALS

135

growth. This group of plants is thus of vast importance as grain
crops for the southern portion of the semi-arid plains region. Between
1899 and 1909 the acreage in the United States of kafir and milo grown
for grain increased from 266,000 to 1,635,000 acres.

Most of the grain sorghum produced in the United States is grown
in the Great Plains region, east of the Rocky Mountains, extending
from southwestern Nebraska to northwestern Texas, a limited amount
also being grown in Arizona, Utah, and California. Thruout much of

Heads op Different Types op Grain Sorghums

From left to right: 1 and 2, yellow milo; 3, white Kaoliang: 4, brown Kaoliang
5, feterita; G, red kafir; 7, pink kafir; 8, black-hnlled kafir. (From Breeder'.
Gazette.)

the grain sorghum belt these crops are more sure, and, even on good
soil, give larger yields than corn. The grain sorghums commonly
yield 25 bushels per acre, with maximums of 75 bushels for kafir, 46 for
milo, and 80 for feterita.^

Grain sorghums as feeds. — The non-saccharine, or grain, sorghums
include 'kafir, milo, feterita, kaoliang, and the less important diirra and
shallii. The seeds of the various sorghums are similar in composition,

1 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 273.

136 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

carrying about as much protein and nitrogen-free extract as corn, but
1.5 per ct. less fat. Properly supplemented with, protein-rich feeds,
they are excellent for all classes of animals. Tho less palatable than
corn, their nutritive value ranges from fully equal to this grain to
15 per ct. less. For horses, fattening cattle, dairy cows, and pigs the
grain is usually ground, being then called "chop." Grinding for
sheep is unnecessary. Often the unthreshed heads are fed, or the
forage carrying the heads is supplied, especially to idle horses, colts,
and young stock. The product obtained by grinding the entire heads,
called "head chop," resembles corn-and-cob meal in composition.

Kafir. — The kafirs lead the sorghums in both grain and forage pro-
duction in eastern Kansas and Oklahoma. They are stout-stemmed,
broad-leaved plants, having slightly sweet juice and long, erect, cylin-
drical heads carrying small egg-shaped seeds. The kafirs do not
sucker, nor do they lodge or shatter the grain. In good seasons and
on fertile soil yields of 50 bushels or over are secured. As kafir grain
is astringent and constipating, it is best fed with alfalfa or clover hay,
or other laxative feeds.

Milo. — Next to kafir, milo is the most important of the grain
sorghums. It is less leafy than kafir, and hence is not as valuable for
forage. The heads are short and thick, goose-necked in most varieties,
and with large flat seeds. As it is earlier, milo outyields kafir in the
extreme west of the sorghum belt. Unlike kafir, milo has a slight laxa-
tive effect.

Feterita. — This type has erect heads and slender stems with more
leaves than milo but less than kafir. It yields as much grain as kafir,
tho less forage, and is of importance for the eastern part of the grain
sorghum belt. Unfortunately, it stools and lodges badly.

Kaoliang. — These early-maturing sorghums from northern China
are especially suited to the northern plains district, where the other
types will not mature. The kaoliangs yield as much grain as the milos
and will stand drought better, but the forage is scanty and of poor
quality, the stalks being pithy and the leaves few.

Sweet sorghumjf. — The sweet sorghums, or sorghos, are forage rather
than grain producers, and are therefore discussed more fully in Chap-
ter XII. For grain production they are surpassed by corn in the
humid regions and by the grain sorghums in the plains districts. The
seed is not as palatable nor of as high feeding value as kafir or milo.

Millets. — The millets chiefly grown in this country are : ( 1 ) , the
foxtail millets, all resembling common foxtail or pigeon grass in
appearance; and (2), the broom corn, proso, or hog millets, which have
spreading or panicled heads, wide hairy leaves, and large seeds. The
forage types are considered in Chapter XIII. In humid regions mil-

OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND BY-PRODUCTS 137

lets are chiefly sown in early summer as catch crops, owing to the short
period required for growth. In the northern plains district, where
The growing season is too short for the sorghums, they are of increasing
importance for grain production. The yields reported range from
16 to over 30 bushels per acre. Ground millet seed has been success-
fully used for fattening cattle, lambs, and pigs, tho usually of some-
what lower value than corn.

III. Buckwheat and its By-Products

Altho rarely used for feeding stock, buckwheat has a fair value for
such purpose, its nutrients running somewhat lower than those in the
leading cereals.

Buckwheat by-products. — The black, woody hulls of the buckwheat
grain have little feeding value. On the other hand, buckwheat mid-
dlings, that part of the kernel immediately under the hull, which is
separated from the flour on milling, contains 28 per ct. crude protein
and 7 per ct. fat, with little fiber, and is equal to dried brewers' grains
in value. To dispose of the hulls, millers usually mix them with the
middlings, selling the combination as huclicheat bran or feed. The
value of such feed depends entirely on how much hulls are present.
This can be told from the amount of fiber it contains. Buckwheat
by-products are nearly always used for dairy cows, but should not be
fed as the only concentrate or the quality of the milk may be injured.

IV. Oil-Bearing Seeds and their By-Products

The annual crop of cotton in the United States now amounts to over
34,000,000 bales of 500 lbs. each, with not less than 7,000,000 tons of
cotton seed as a by-product, since for each pound of fiber, or lint, there
are 2 lbs. of seed. Before 1860 the seed of the cotton plant was largely
wasted by the planters, who, ignorant of its worth, often allowed it to
rot near the gin house, while meat and other animal products which
might have been produced from it were purchased at high cost from
northern farmers. The utilization of the cotton seed and its products
as food for man and beast furnishes a striking example of what science
is accomplishing for agriculture.

Cotton seed. — The cotton seed carries about 19 per ct. fat, or oil,
and nearly 20 per ct. crude protein. Formerly much seed was fed in
the South, especially to steers and dairy cattle. Now little is fed
before the oil is extracted, both on account of the value of the oil and
because cottonseed meal usually gives better results. Owing to the
high oil content, cotton seed sometimes has an unduly laxative effect.
"Wet, moldy cotton seed or that which has heated should never be fed.

138

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Cottonseed cake and meal.— At the oil mills the leathery hulls of
the cotton seed, which are covered with short lint, are cut by machinery,
and the oily kernels set free. These kernels are crushed, heated, placed
between cloths, and subjected to hydraulic pressure to remove the oil.
The residue is a hard, yellowish, board-like cake about 1 inch thick, 1 ft.
wide, and 2 ft. long. For the trade in the eastern and central states
the cake is generally ground to a fine meal, for the western trade it is'
often broken into pieces of pea or nut size for cattle and coarsely

Fig. 40. — Pickers in a Field of Cotton

Over 2.500,000 tons of cottonseed meal are produced annually in this country
as a by-product of the cotton crop. Used rightly, this rich concentrate is one of
the most valuable feeds for stock. (From Louisville and Nashville Railroad.)

ground for sheep, while the export cake is commonly left whole. For
feeding out of doors the broken cake is preferable to meal as it is not
scattered by the wind. Unadulterated cottonseed meal of good quality
should have a light yellow color and a sharp, nutty odor. A dark or
dull color may be due to age, to adulteration with hulls, to overheating
during the cooking process, or to fermentation — all of which injure its
feeding value.

Cottonseed meal is one of the richest of all feeds in protein and
carries over 8 per ct. of fat. Since the protein and fiber content vary
considerably, depending chiefly on how thoroly the hulls are removed

OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND BY-PRODUCTS 139

from the meal, manufacturers and feed control officials have agreed on
the following classification :

Choice cottonseed meal must be perfectly sound and sweet in odor, yellow,
not brown or reddish, free from excess of lint, and must contain at least 41
per ct. of crude protein.

Prime cottonseed meal must be of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and
must contain at least 38.6 per ct. of crude protein.

Good cottonseed meal must be of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and
must contain at least 36 per ct. of crude protein.

Cottonseed feed is a mixture of cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls, con-
taining less than 36 per ct. crude protein.

Owing to its wide variation in composition, cottonseed meal should
be purchased on guarantee whenever possible.

Cottonseed feed. — On northern markets cottonseed feed, consisting
largely of hulls, is often sold for only a little less than choice cotton-
seed meal. Yet average cottonseed feed contains but 24.5 per ct. crude
protein, and is thus worth only 60 per ct. as much as choice cottonseed
meal. Since it is impossible to tell finely ground cottonseed feed from
the best cottonseed meal by its appearance alone, the wise feeder will
always buy cottonseed meal from reliable dealers.

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake. — Cold-pressed cottonseed cake, or
"caddo" cake, is produced by subjecting the entire uncrushed,
unheated seed to great pressure. In this cake there is a larger propor-
tion of hull to meal than in the usual cottonseed meal, with correspond-
ingly lower feeding value. This product is usually sold in nut or pea
size but is sometimes ground to a meal. The crude-protein content of
cold-pressed cake is a reliable guide to its feeding value.

The poison of cotton seed. — Experience and scientific trials unite in
showing that cotton seed or cottonseed cake or meal is not always a
safe feed. After about 100 days steers closely confined and heavily
fed on meal often show a staggering gait, some become blind, and death
frequently ends their distress. Cottonseed meal is most poisonous to
swine. Pigs getting as much as one-third of their concentrates in the
form of cottonseed meal thrive at first, but after a few weeks they
become sick and may die.

During the past 20 years numerous attempts have been made to find
the cause of the poisonous effect, and many different reasons have been
advanced by scientists. Further work has, however, failed to prove
that the fatal effect is due to any of the causes assigned. Recently,
Withers of the North Carolina Station ^ has attributed the poisonous
quality to a substance called "gossypol, " which is formed in certain
cells of the seed. It is to be hoped that further work may reveal

2 Jour. Agr. Res., 5, 1915, pp. 261-88.

140 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

methods by which this rich feed can be used with safety for all classes
of animals.

Feeding cottonseed meal and cake. — Cottonseed meal is one of the
most valuable of feeds when properly fed, often being the cheapest
available source of protein, and thru it, of nitrogen for maintaining
soil fertility. It does not have the beneficial laxative effect of linseed
meal, but instead is somewhat constipating. ]\Iore care is necessary
in feeding it, tho when given in proper combination with other feeds
equally good results may be secured with dairy cows, horses, fattening
cattle and sheep as with linseed meal. The amounts which may be
safely fed to each kind of stock are fully discussed in the respective
chapters of Part III. The most extensive use of cottonseed meal is by
dairymen, for comparatively heavy allowances may be fed to milch
cows without harm. Fed in too large amounts, cottonseed meal pro-
duces hard, tallowy butter, light in color and poor in flavor. A limited
quantity has little effect, and is even helpful with cows whose milk
produces a soft butter.

For fattening steers and sheep cottonseed meal, in limited amount,
is one of the most satisfactory of nitrogenous supplements. Great
numbers of steers are fattened at the oil-mill factories, often on a
ration of 6 to 8 lbs. of cottonseed meal with cottonseed hulls or corn
silage for roughage. In restricted amounts, mixed preferably with
bulky feed, cottonseed meal has been fed to horses and mules with
entire success. Altho cottonseed meal is especially poisonous to swine,
some feeders, guided by experience, use it in small amounts and for
short periods with little loss. Calves are easily affected by its poison-
ous properties. Cottonseed meal having a dull color due to improper
storage, and that from musty and fermented seed should never be used
for feeding stock.

This most nutritious feed, the richest in fertilizing constituents of
all our common feeds of plant origin, is often spread directly on the
land as a fertilizer in some parts of the country. To secure the full
value, the meal should first be fed to animals and the resulting manure
applied to the soil.

Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls, which contain somewhat less
digestible nutrients than oat straw, are extensively employed in the
South as roughage for cattle feeding. Low in crude protein, but a
small part of which is digestible, they have a nutritive ratio of 1 :122,
the widest of any common feeding stuff. Obviously, they should be
used with feeds which are rich in protein. Cottonseed hulls are best
suited to beef cattle, large numbers of steers being fattened on cotton-
seed hulls and cottonseed meal, with or without silage. They are

OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND BY-PRODUCTS 141

not well adapted to dairy cows, corn stover having a higher feeding
value.

Flax seed and linseed oil manufacture.— Over 95 per ct. of the flax
seed crop of the United States is produced in jMinnesota, the Dakotas,
and Montana. Because of the valuable oil it yields, flax seed is rarely
used for feeding stock other than young calves. Well-matured flax
seeds contain no starch, the reserve plant food being stored largely as
oil and pentosans, instead.

The oil of the flax seed is either extracted by the "old process,"
thru crushing and pressure, as in the production of cottonseed oil, or
by the "new process," when it is dissolved out of the crushed seed with
naphtha, the residue in either case being called linseed oil meal, linseed
meal, or simply oil meal. In the United States nearly all the linseed
oil meal is made by the old process.

In the manufacture of new-process oil meal the crushed and heated
seed is placed in large cylinders or percolators, and naphtha poured
over the mass. This drains out at the bottom carrying the dissolved
oil. After repeated extractions all traces of the naphtha are driven off
by letting steam into the percolator.

Old- and new-process oil meal. — Since the oil is extracted much
more thoroly by the naphtha process, new-process meal contains only
about 2.9 per ct. of oil or fat, but carries slightly more digestible pro-
tein. Old-process meal is preferred by feeders, since it apparently
has a more laxative action and a more pronounced effect in making the
coats of animals soft and sleek, due probably to its higher oil content.

Linseed meal as a feed.— There is no more healthful feed for limited
use with all farm animals than linseed cake or meal, with its rich store
of crude protein, slightly laxative oil, and its mucilaginous, soothing
properties. Its judicious use is soon apparent in the pliable skin, the
sleek, oily coat, and the good handling quality of the flesh of animals
receiving it. It is therefore very useful as a conditioner for run-down
animals and in fitting animals for shows. A small amount is helpful in
the rations of horses and dairy cows. Opposite in effect to cottonseed
meal, linseed meal tends to produce soft butter. Fed to fattening
cattle, sheep, or swine, the meal regulates the system and helps to
ward off ill effects from the continued heavy use of concentrates. Kich
in protein and all the necessary mineral elements, linseed meal is well
suited to growing animals. Owing to its popularity, this feed is often
expensive compared with other protein-rich concentrates, and it is
then not economical to employ it as the chief source of protein in the
ration, but to restrict its use to amounts sufficient to produce the
diesired tonic and regulative effects.

142 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Unfortunately the American farmer usually insists that oil cake be
ground to a meal. Except where it is desirable to mix the meal thoroly
with other concentrates, or feed it as a slop to pigs, cake which has
been ground only to nut or pea size is preferable. In such form the
feed is more palatable, and there is less chance for adulteration.
European farmers buy the cake in slab form and grind it to nut size
just before feeding.

Other flax by-products. — Flax feed, which consists of flax screen-
ings, is chiefly used in mixed feeds. As in the case of wheat screenings,
its value is uncertain, depending on the relative amounts of inferior
flax seed, weed seeds, and other refuse. Containing only half as much
protein as linseed meal and often having a bitter taste due to weed
seeds, it is rarely economical at the prices asked.

Flax plant by-product, sometimes sold incorrectly as "flax bran,"
consists of flax pods, broken and immature flax seeds, and portions of
the stems. Owing to its low value, it is rarely sold alone, but is used
as a "filler" in certain proprietary feeds.

Unscreened flax oil-feed, or "laxo" cake meal, is the by-product
obtained in extracting the oil from unscreened flax seed. The value is
lower than that of linseed meal, depending on how much screenings it
contains.

Soybean. — The soybean is one of the most important agricultural
plants of northern China and Japan. The bean-like seeds, which carry
from 16 to 21 per ct. of oil, are used for human food and for feeding
animals. The oil is also used for human food and in the arts, and the
resulting soybean meal is employed as a feed for animals and for fer-
tilizing the land, the same as cottonseed meal. This plant produces
the largest yield of seed of any legume suited to temperate climates,
tho now grown in this country chiefly for forage. No other plant so
little grown in the United States at this time promises so much to
agriculture as the soybean, which not only yields protein-rich grain
and forage but builds up the nitrogen content of the soil. Soybeans
are adapted to the same range of climate as corn, and, on account of
their resistance to drought, are especially suited to light, sandy soils.
When grown for seed, they commonly yield 12 to 40 bushels per acre.

The seeds contain as much protein and over twice as much fat as
linseed meal, and are of nearly as high feeding value as cottonseed
meal. Owing to their richness in protein, soybeans should always be
fed with carbonaceous concentrates. They are satisfactory for dairy
cows and growing and fattening stock of all classes. In the South
pigs are often grazed on the nearly mature beans, saving the labor of
harvesting. Fed in large amounts, they make soft butter and pork.
Soybeans should be ground for horses and cattle. Owing to the high

OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND BY-PRODUCTS 143

price the seed commands, soybeans have not yet been extensively fed to
live stock in this country, most of the crop being used for seed or for
forage. (See Chapter XIV.)

Soybean cake or meal. — The residue after the oil has been extracted
from soj'beans carries as much digestible protein as choice cottonseed
meal, and furnishes slightly more total digestible nutrients. During
recent years a considerable amount has been imported from the Orient
to the Pacific coast states, where it is highly esteemed for feeding
poultry and dairy cattle. In Europe the unground cake is used and in
this country the meal. Tho high in price, soybean meal is greatly- es-
teemed by western dairymen, and is often fed in large amounts to cows
on official tests.

The peanut and its by-products.^The peanut, or earth nut, is of
growing importance for stock feeding in the southern states. The
underground seeds, or nuts, are commonly harvested by turning swine
into the fields when the seeds are ripe, and allowing them to feed at
will. While a heavy allowance of peanuts makes soft fat and inferior
pork, entirely satisfactory ham and bacon are produced when pigs are
fed partially on peanuts. On exposure to the air, shelled peanuts.spdn
become rancid. The vines with the nuts attached may be gkthered/aud
cured into a nutritious, palatable hay useful with all kinds of stock.
The use of this plant for stock feeding should be vastly extended thru-
out the South.

Peanut meal or cale, resulting from the manufacture of peanut oil,
is a common feed in Europe, being satisfactory for all classes of stock.
]Meal from hulled nuts is richer in protein than choice cottonseed meail.
But little peanut meal is sold in this country, and this is chiefly from
unhulled nuts, containing about 28 per ct. protein and. 2|!^per cti fiber.

Peanut hulls, sometimes ground and used for adulteratrfigfee'd^flg
stuffs, are over half fiber and less valuable than common straw.

Sunflower seed and oil cake. — The sunflower is grown in consider-
able quantities in Russia but has never assumed any importance in this
c'ountry, chiefly because corn yields much more feed per acre. Oil cake
from sunflower seed has proved satisfactory for all classes of stock in
Europe, being nearly equal to linseed meal.

Cocoanut meal. — This residue in the manufacture of oil from the
cocoanut is lower in crude protein than the oil meals previously dis-
cussed, but higher than wheat bran. It is used to some extent by
dairymen in the Pacific coast states and produces butter of good quality
and firmness. It may also be fed with success to horses, sheep, and
swine. On account of its tendency to turn rancid it can be kept but a
few weeks in warm weather.

144 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

V. Oil-free Leguminous Seeds

The Canada field pea. — The common field or Canada pea succeeds
best where the spring and snmmer heat is moderate, as in Canada, the
northern states, and in several of the larger Rocky JMountain valleys.
No other widely known grain plant of equal possibilities has been so
generally neglected by the farmers of the northern United States.
Field-pea grain contains twice as much crude protein as the cereals
and is high in phosphorus. Fed with corn, peas may form as much as

Fig. 41. — Cowpeas Are of Great Importance to the Southern
Stockman

The cowpea, the most important loguine in the cotton belt, grows on all types
of soil, increasing the fertility of the land and furnishing rich feed. (From the

Southern Cultivator.)

one-half the concentrates for dairy cows. They are relished by horses
and are excellent for sheep and pigs, being of especial value, for grow-
ing and breeding animals.

Cowpea. — This bean-like plant from India and China holds an
important place in southern agriculture because of its large yield of
forage, and early varieties are now grown as far north as Illinois.
Since the seed pods ripen unevenly, they must be gathered by hand.
For this reason the crop is mostly used for hay, silage, and grazing.

OIL-FREE LEGUMINOUS SEEDS 145

(See Chapter XIV.) The seed, which resembles field peas in composi-
tion, may be fed to all classes of animals.

The common field bean. — ]Many varieties of the common field bean
are grown in this country for human food, and the cull beans damaged
by wet are used for animal feeding. They are fed whole in large
quantities to sheep, producing a solid flesh of good quality. For swine,
beans should be cooked in salted water and fed in combination with
corn, barley, etc. ; fed alone they produce soft pork and lard with a low
melting point.

QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the value of rice and its by-products for stock feeding.

2. Why are the sorghums important in the semi-arid districts? Into what
two classes are they divided?

3. Name four types of grain sorghums and discuss their value.

4. Describe the process of making cottonseed oil and cottonseed meal. Into
what classes is cottonseed meal divided?

5. How would you use cottonseed meal in stock feeding?

6. What is the difference between old- and new-process linseed meal?

7. Compare linseed meal and cottonseed meal as feeds.

8. Discuss the value of soybeans and soybean meal.

9. What is the chief use of peanuts for stock feeding?

10. Name three oil-free leguminous seeds and state their use for farm animals.

CHAPTER XI

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES— FEEDING STUFFS
CONTROL— CONDIMENTAL FOODS

I. Cow 'S ]\IlLK AND ITS BY-PrODUCTS

Milk is unexcelled as a food for young animals, because it contains
all the nutrients in proper proportion to produce rapid growth. The
proteins are unusually well-balanced in composition and are thus more
efficient for growth than those of the cereal grains. For the best profits
from dairying, the by-products — skim milk, buttermilk, and whey —
must be fed in such a manner as to secure their full value.

Whole milk. — Because of the high value of w'hole cow's milk for
human food it is not commonly fed to stock, except to young calves for
the first few weeks. However, one should not hesitate to employ whole
milk for rearing an orphan foal or lamb or in fitting young stock for
exhibition.

Whole milk contains from 2.5 to 4.0 per ct. protein, which consists
chiefly of casein, with 0.4 to 0.9 per ct. albumin and traces of other
proteins. It carries from 4 to 5 per ct. of milk sugar, a carbohydrate,
which is onl}' slightly sweet and has about the same feeding value as
starch. AVhen milk sours, some of the sugar is changed to lactic acid,
which curdles the casein. As is shown in Chapter XX, the fat content
of cow 's milk varies widely, depending chiefly on breed, individuality,
and the portion of the milk drawn, the strippings being much the
richest in fat.

Experiments by Beach at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station^ show
that for calves, lambs, and pigs milk rich in fat is less valuable per
pound of total diy matter than milk poor in fat, or even skim milk.
Rich milk may cause digestive troubles, especially with very young
animals.

Skim milk. — Being rich in protein and mineral matter, skim milk
excels in building the muscles and bones of young animals. Separator
skim milk contains 3.8 per ct. protein, 5.2 per ct. nitrogen-free extract,
and 0.1 to 0.2 per ct. fat. It is thus a protein-rich feed, having the
narrow nutritive ratio of 1 :1.5. Therefore, even for young animals it

iConn. (Storrs) Bui. 31.

146

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES

147

should be fed with such carbonaceous feeds as corn, rather than with
protein-rich feeds like wheat middlings and linseed meal. Careful
dairj^men raise just as thrifty calves when skim milk is gradually sub-
stituted for whole milk during the first 4 to 6 weeks, and only skim
milk given thereafter, as when ex-
pensive whole milk is fed longer.
For swine, especially young pigs,
skim milk is unsurpassed as a sup-
plement to the carbonaceous grains.
From 500 to 600 lbs. of skim milk,
properly combined with concen-
trates, is equal in feeding value to
100 lbs. of grain for pigs. Foals
whose dams furnish insufficient
milk thrive on skim milk. It may
also be fed to horses and poultry.
Skim milk is most valuable for
young animals when it comes sweet
and warm from the separator.

Buttermilk. — This by-product,
much like skim milk in composi-
tion but usually richer in fat, is
about equal to skim milk for pigs.
Sometimes calves are reared on it,
but extreme care is necessary in ac-
customing them to it and in keep-
ing all utensils clean. Buttermilk
diluted at the creamery with water
has its value reduced. If kept in
dirty tanks it ferments and be-
comes dangerous.

Whey. — Whey contains the sugar, albumin, and a large part of
the ash of milk, while the casein and most of the fat go into the cheese.
As it contains only 0.8 per ct. protein and has a nutritive ratio of 1 :6.8,
whey should be fed with protein-rich feeds to young animals. IMore
watery than skim milk, it contains only 6.6 per ct. dry matter. Whey
is usually fed to pigs, for which it has about half the value of skim
milk. At best, it is a poor feed for calves, and can be successfully used
only by exercising the utmost care and cleanliness. Slightly soured
whey gives as good results as when sweet, but decomposing whey kept
in filthy vessels is unfit for stock.

Spreading disease thru dairy by-products. — Since milk from many
farms is mixed at the creamery and cheese factory, unless the skim

Fig. 42.— Skim ]\Iilk Is Ideal for
Young Animals, as It Is Kioli in
Protein of the Highest Quality
and in Mineral Matter. (From
Wisconsin Station.)

148 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

milk, buttermilk, and whey are thoroly pasteurized at a temperature
of 180° F. before being taken back to the farms, bovine tuberculosis
and other diseases may be widely spread from possibly a single diseased
herd. The pasteurized product also keeps better and is less likely to
produce scours.

A trial at the Iowa Station ^ shows how readily tuberculosis may be
spread thru skim milk. Forty pigs, supposedly free from tuberculosis,
were divided into 4 lots. Two lots were kept on separate pastures and
two in dry lots. Corn and pasteurized skim milk were fed to all. How-
ever, the germs of tuberculosis were put into the milk of one lot on
pasture and one lot in the yard, just before feeding. After 196 days
the pigs were slaughtered. It was found that every animal in the 2 lots
receiving infected milk, 20 in all, was tuberculous, while of those not
given infected milk, 2 were tuberculous and 18 free from the disease.

II. Packing House By-Products

The packing house by-products, tankage or meat meal, meat scrap,
dried blood, and meat-and-bone meal, are extremely rich in highly
digestible, well-balanced protein. Most of them are also rich in cal-
cium and phosphorus, since they contain more or less bone. As they
are high in price, the feeder should understand their nature and eco-
nomical use.

Tankage or meat meal. — At the packing plants waste meat, scrap
bones, and fat trimmings are thoroly steam-cooked under high pressure.
The fat, while yet liquid, is drawn off and the residue is then dried and
ground to a fine meal. The resulting tankage, also called meat meal,
contains from 40 to 60 per ct. protein and from 1 to 10 per ct. fat.
The variation in protein is due chiefly to the amount of bone present.
On account of the wide range between different grades, tankage should
always be purchased on guarantee of composition, for the value
depends primarily on the protein content. Being thoroly cooked under
pressure, tankage is sterilized, so that it cannot carry disease to animals
fed on it. In the manufacture of the best grades of tankage, carcasses
condemned because of disease are not used.

Tankage or meat meal is generally fed to pigs and poultry, ranking
next to skim milk as a supplement for corn and other carbonaceous
grains. Owing to its richness in protein, 10 per ct. of tankage fed with
90 per ct. of corn or other cereals is sufficient to balance the ration
for pigs over 100 lbs. in weight, but younger ones need somewhat more.
Mixed with other feeds, it may be fed to cattle, sheep, and horses,

2 Iowa Bui. 92.

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 149

especially eolts. If much bone is present, the product is termed meat-
and-bone meal. This is used chiefly for poultry. The lower grades
of tankage are sometimes adulterated with hair or peat.

Meat scrap. — Meat scrap, used for poultry feeding, consists chiefly
of meat trimmings which have been cooked to extract as much of the
fat as possible and then ground to varjang degrees of fineness. It
resembles tankage in composition, the content of protein and mineral
matter varj-ing quite widely, clue chiefly to the amount of bone present.

Pork cracklings. — This residue from the manufacture of lard is not

Fig. 43. — A Portion op the Union Stock Yards at Chicago

The Chicago Union Stock Yards occupy an area of 500 acres, and have 25 miles
of streets and 300 miles of railway tracks. The vards would hold at one time
75,000 cattle, 125,000 sheep, 300,000 hogs, and 6,000 horses and mules. Some of
the large packing plants may be seen in the background at the right.

commonly found on the market but may often be obtained cheaply
from local slaughter houses. Pork cracklings contain over 30 per ct.
fat and about 7 per ct. less protein than the best grades of tankage.
They are fully as valuable as tankage for swine.

Blood meal. — Blood meal or dried blood (sometimes called blood
flour when finely ground) carries over 80 per ct. protein, but no bone,
and is therefore low in ash. It is usually high in price and is not fed
extensively except to young pigs or calves as a milk substitute, and to
sickly animals. One to 2 lbs. per head daily has been found satis-
factory for dairy cows.

Dried fish; fish meal. — In Europe dried fish and fish meal, which
are nearly as high in protein as tankage, are often used for feeding
stock. Given in reasonable amounts to dairy cows, they have no bad
effect on the milk.

150 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Bone meal. — ^When rations lack calcium and phosphorus, these vital
mineral nutrients may be furnished in the form of bone meal, also
called ground bone. Ground rock phosphate is usually a cheaper
and probably as effective a mineral supplement. Bone meal is used
chiefly for pigs and poultry.

III. Sugar Factory By-Products. Other Feeds

In making beet sugar the beets are first washed and then cut into
V-shaped strips. Next the juice is extracted, leaving the by-product
known as wet deet pulp. The juice is then purified and evaporated
until the sugar crystallizes. Finally, the grains of sugar are sepa-
rated from the residual molasses by centrifugal force.

Wet beet pulp. — This watery feed which contains only about 10
per ct. of solids spoils rapidly on exposure to the air, and is therefore
usually fed as soured or ensiled pulp. It may be ensiled in an ordi-
nary silo, in earthen pits, or in large heaps above the ground where
the decay of the outside layer protects the interior from the air.
Tho carrying only 1 to 2 per ct. of sugar, wet beet pulp contains con-
siderable of other easily digested carbohydrates. Like roots, it should
be fed with dry feeds. IMost of the mineral matter is extracted from
the beets along with the sugar and the pulp is also low in protein.
Therefore, when heavy allowances of pulp are fed, one should see that
the animals are supplied with sufficient mineral matter and protein.
Fortunately, the pulp is commonly fed with legume hay, which is
high in both protein and mineral matter.

Thousands of cattle and tens of thousands of sheep are annually
fattened near the western beet-sugar factories on wet, soured, beet
pulp, fed with alfalfa hay and a limited allowance of grain. The
wet pulp is also excellent for dairy cows, producing good-flavored
milk when not fed in excess. It may also be fed to idle horses.

Dried beet pulp. — Many beet-sugar factories are now equipped
with machinery for drying the pulp. Dried beet pulp, which contains
about 60 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, is worth nearly as much as corn
or barley for dairy cows, beef cattle, or sheep. Since it is low in pro-
tein it should be fed, like corn, with protein-rich feeds.

Because dried beet pulp absorbs a great deal of water, it is advis-
able to moisten the dried pulp with 2 to 3 times its weight of water
before feeding, when large amounts are used. Sometimes the mois-
tened pulp is fed as a substitute for corn silage to dairy cows, tho
usually the latter is more economical. Dried beet pulp is excellent
for dairy cows on official test which are receiving a heavy concentrate
allowance, as it is a bulky feed and also has a slightly laxative effect.

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES

151

Beet molasses. — Molasses from beet-sugar factories, whieli contains
about 66 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, nearly all sugar, is a valuable
carbonaceous feed, if properly used. The feeding value of the mo-
lasses is about three-fourths that of corn. Both beet and cane molasses
are low in crude protein, and the small amount present is of low
nutritive value. Molasses should thus be used with protein-rich
feeds. Because of its laxative nature animals should be gradually
accustomed to this feed, and the amount given daily per 1,000 lbs. live
weight should be limited as follows: Driving horses may be fed 2.5

Fig. 44. — Cattle Fattening on Wet Beet Pulp in the West

The beet pulp is brought to the feed lots on the tramway. Note the beet-
sugar factory in the background.

lbs. and draft horses 4 lbs. or even more; dairy cows up to 3
lbs. ; fattening cattle to 8 lbs. ; fattening sheep to 5 lbs. ; and fattening
swine to 10 lbs. Breeding animals should receive less than fat-
tening ones, and but little for some weeks before delivery. Because
of its sticky nature, the molasses is usuall,y distributed over hay or
straw, and large feeders in the West use machines for mixing it with
cut roughage.

Molasses-beet pulp. — Beet molasses is sometimes combined with
beet pulp and dried, forming dried molasses-beet pulp. This feed is

152 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

somewhat more palatable and digestible than ordinary dried pulp and
has equal or slightly higher feeding value.

Beet tops. — Beet tops, consisting of the leaves and upper portion of
the beet root, are often fed either fresh or ensiled to animals. They
may be ensiled in pits or silos in alternate layers with straw, or mixed
with cut dry corn fodder or stover. The leaves have about half the
feeding value of roots. As they tend to purge the animals, they
should be fed only in limited amounts and always with dry roughage.
Kellner advises furnishing 3 ounces of chalk or ground limestone for
every 100 lbs. of leaves, as otherwise the oxalic acid they contain may
prove harmful.

Cane molasses. — Cane molasses, or blackstrap, a by-product of the
manufacture of cane sugar, is much relished by farm animals and
does not have the purging effect of beet molasses when fed in large
amounts. In the South cane molasses is often one of the cheapest
feeds and is extensively fed to horses, mules, and other animals. In
the North it is usually so high in price that corn meal and similar
feeds are more economical sources of carbohydrates. For improving
unpalatable feeds, as a tonic for unthrifty animals, and as a colic pre-
ventive for horses, from 2 to 3 lbs. of molasses daily is helpful. Like
beet molasses, blackstrap is largely used in mixed feeds.

Molasses feeds. — INIolasses feeds consist of molasses combined with
a wide variety of products, from high-protein feeds like cottonseed
meal to such low-grade, trashy refuse as peanut hulls. Many contain
screenings but these are now usually so finely ground as to destroy all
weed seeds. Deception is easy in such feeds because the molasses
masks the other ingredients and permits low-grade waste products to
be sold at a price that should buy high-grade concentrates. If sold
at prices which are reasonable as compared with the cost of equal
amounts of nutrients in high-grade straight concentrates, nothing can
be said against the use of reliable feeds of this class. They should be
purchased only from trustworthy dealers and on definite guarantee
of composition. Especial attention should be paid to the fiber guar-
antee, for this shows to what degree low-grade products have been
used.

Molassine meal consists of molasses absorbed by sphagnum moss or
peat. Peat has no nutritive value for farm animals and the moss but
little. Almost the only nutriment is in the molasses, which can be
purchased cheaper and mixed with better roughage on the farm.

Sugar. — Tho the nutritive value of sugar is no greater than that of
starch, animals show great fondness for it and it is often useful for
stimulating the appetite and in fitting animals for shows.

Dried distillers' grains. — In the manufacture of alcohol and dis-

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 153

tilled liquors from cereals, after being ground the corn, rye, etc., are
treated with a solution of malt to change the starch to sugar, which
is then changed to alcohol by the action of yeast. The alcohol is next
distilled off leaving a watery residue known as distillers' slops. The
solid matter from this is dried to form dried distillers' grains, which
contain the portions of the grain not acted upon during the fermenta-
tions; that is, the crude protein, fiber, fat and the more insoluble
carbohydrates. Distillers' grains from corn usually contain about 30
per ct. protein and rank between gluten feed and linseed or cotton-
seed meal in feeding value. Those from rye contain about 23 per ct.
protein, and are thus of considerably lower value.

Because of their bulky nature and high nutritive value, dried dis-
tillers' grains are one of the best high-protein concentrates for dairy
cows. Not being especially palatable, they should be mixed with
better-liked feeds and the allowance restricted to 2 to 4 lbs. per head
daily. Tho the grains are not relished by horses, they may form
one-fourth the concentrate allowance. They serve well as part of the
concentrates for fattening steers and sheep, but are too bulky for ex-
tensive feeding to pigs.

Salvage grain. — Grain damaged by fire, smoke, or water in ware-
house fires is known as salvage grain. Its value depends on how
much it is damaged and on the amount of screenings present.

Cocoa shells. — This by-product of the manufacture of cocoa and
chocolate consists of the hard outside coating, or bran, of the cocoa
bean. The shells, which are dark brown and brittle, are used in a
few proprietary feeds. They are of low digestibility and worth not
over half as much as corn meal.

Proprietary and mixed feeds. — There are now on the market a host
of mixed feeds, chiefly sold under proprietary names. Their compo-
sition differs widely, some containing only high-grade concentrates
like wheat bran, cottonseed meal, malt sprouts, gluten feed, etc.
Others contain more or less screenings or light-weight grain, which
will in general be of lower value than good-quality grain. Most of
these feeds contain such low-grade by-products as oat hulls, ground
corn cobs, flax plant by-product, etc., and some consist largely of such
material. Altho the percentages of crude protein, fat, and fiber in
any given brand are usually kept at the same figure from month to
month, the amounts of the separate ingredients in the feed are seldom
guaranteed. Thus the feed put out this year under a certain propri-
etary name may not be the same as that sold next year under the same
name and guarantee. For this reason practically no trials to deter-
mine the values of these mixtures have been conducted by the experi-
ment stations.

154 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Many mixed feeds are the result of honest and intelligent efforts to
furnish a ready-mixed "balanced" concentrate mixture for the vari-
ous classes of farm animals. Such have won good reputations among
intelligent feeders. Others are merely attempts to delude the pur-
chaser into paying as much for mixtures of low-grade, trashy by-
products as high-class concentrates would cost. All mixed feeds
should be purchased not on the strength of a "fancy" name, but on
the guarantee of the amounts of crude protein, fat, and fiber present
in the mixture. By comparing the fiber guarantee with the fiber con-
tent of well-known unmixed concentrates, as given in Appendix Table
I, one may estimate the extent to which such refuse as oat hulls and
ground corn cobs have been added. Such materials, high in fiber,
furnish little nutriment, tho they may give bulk to an otherwise heavy
mixture. Before buying mixed feeds, the wise feeder will compare
the amount of nutrients he can secure for each dollar in these feeds
and in the unmixed standard by-products.

IV. Commercial Feeding Stuffs Control

Because it is often impossible for the stockman to tell from the ap-
pearance of a commercial feed whether it is of standard quality or
has been adulterated, laws have been enacted to protect honest dealers
and manufacturers and the users of commercial feeds alike.

Regulation of commercial feeds. — Many of the states now have laws
which require that each package of concentrated feed bear a label,
tag, or statement giving the percentages of crude protein and fat the
feed contains. Some states wisely require that the maximum amount
of fiber be guaranteed. (This means that the feed must not contain
more fiber than the guarantee states.) In others all ingredients in
mixed feeds must be stated.

Large users of commercial feeds are usually experienced buyers
who purchase only the better grade of standard feeding stuffs at
close prices, or secure such materials as screenings, etc., knowing fully
their composition and value. It is the small buyer, often feeling the
pinch of poverty, who is most easily ensnared by the extravagant
claims and catchy names of the low-grade, trashy articles. In his at-
tempt to secure something that sells for less than is demanded for
standard goods, he forgets that these cheap commercial feeds are
really more like roughages than concentrates, and roughages can be
produced on most farms far more economically than they can be pur-
chased in bags from the feed dealer. Low-grade feeding stuffs, no
matter what their names, will bring hardship to the animals fed on
them, and to the owners of such animals as well. When in doubt as

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 155

to the merits of a feeding stuff, one should consult the feed control
officials of his state, or buy only the pure, unmixed grains, straight
milling or factory by-products, or high-grade proprietary feeds that
have won good reputations.

A guide in purchasing commercial feeds.— Before purchasing com-
mercial feeding stuffs, the guaranteed composition should be obtained
and compared with the average composition given for the same feed in
Appendix Table I. If the feed is much lower in crude protein or fat.
or noticeably higher in fiber than there shown, it should be viewed
with suspicion. The feed should also be free from mold and rancid-
ity.

V. CONDIMENTAL OR StOCK FOODS

Millions of dollars are annually spent by the farmers of the country
for various proprietary articles styled "stock foods," ''condition
powders," etc., which often cost 10 to 30 cents or more per pound.

Composition of stock foods.— The better class of stock foods have
as their basis such substances as linseed meal or wheat middlings,
while the cheaper ones contain ground screenings, .low-grade milling
oft'al, the ground bark of trees, etc. To this "filling," is added a
small percentage of materials like common salt, charcoal, copperas,
fenugreek, gentian, pepper, epsom salts, etc. Claims are made that a
tablespoonful of the compound with each feed will cause stock to
grow faster, fatten quicker, yield richer milk, etc., etc. Yet this
amount supplies only an insignificant part of the dose of these drugs
which is prescribed for ailing animals by competent veterinarians.
Farm animals managed with reasonable care have appetites that do
not need stimulating. Sick animals or those out of condition require
specific treatment, not a cure-all. A good manager of livestock has
no use for expensive conditioners and a poor one will never have fine
stock by using them. In rare cases the only feeding stuffs available
may be of such poor quality that some condiment may cause the ani-
mals to eat more heartily, and where animals are in low condition
some spice may prove helpful. To cover such cases the formula for
two "stock foods" or "spices" are presented below:

First formula Lbs. Second formula Lbs.

Fenugreek 2 Ground gentian 4

Allspice 2 Powdered saltpeter 1

Gentian 4 Ground ginger 1

Salt 5 Powdered copperas 1

Saltpeter 5

alts 10

Linseed meal 100

156 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

In the first formula linseed meal is not necassary if the other in-
gredients are thoroly mixed, and a tablespoonful given with each
meal, along with some rich concentrate, like linseed meal, wheat mid-
dlings, or ground oats. At ordinary prices this formula can be made
up for about 5 cents per pound, or one-fourth what is charged for
something no better. The second formula should be given at the rate
of one tablespoonful daily mixed with the feed for 10 days, then omit
for 3 days, and give again for 10 days.

The flattering testimonials for many of the stock foods may be ex-
plained without granting any special virtue to the food. These foods
are usually accompanied by directions which advocate liberal feeding
and good care of animals getting the food in order to "secure the
benefits of the tonic." Following this advice, the farmer feeds and
cares for his stock better than ever before, and obtains better results,
due not to the stock food, but to the directions which accompanied it.
The wise feeder will not purchase advice along with costly condi-
mental foods but will secure it in standard agricultural books and
palmers, or from the experiment stations and the United States De-
partment of Agriculture.

QUESTIONS

1. Give the average composition of cow's milk and tell of the uses of skim
milk, buttermilk, and whey in feeding.

2. Why should dairy by-products be pasteurized before feeding?

3. How is tankage produced and what are its uses for feeding?

4. Tell something about the other animal by-products fed to stock.

o. How is wet beet pulp obtained and what are the uses of both the wet
and the dried beet pulp?

6. Discuss briefly the properties and value of both beet and cane molasses.

7. Tell how dried distillers' grains are produced and discuss their feeding
value.

8. What liave you learned about proprietarj' feeds?

9. What is meant by feeding stufTs control and what are its advantages to
the stockman?

10. Would you buy stock foods? State j'our reasons.

CHAPTER XII

• INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE

I. Indian Corn

Indian corn, the imperial agricultural plant of America, produces
under favorable conditions from 10 to 25 tons of green forage per
acre, containing from 4,000 to 10,000 lbs. of dry matter. When
grown in a dense mass but little seed forms, and we have a rank grass
which cures into a bright, nutritious, coarse hay. If the plants grow
some distance apart, a large yield of grain results, with excellent
forage as a secondary product. Were a seedsman to advertise In-
dian corn by a new name, recounting its actual merits while in-
geniously concealing its identity, either his claims would be discred-
ited or he would have an unlimited demand for the seed of this sup-
posed novelty.

To fix in mind the manner in which corn grows and elaborates food
for animals, before proceeding with the further study of this crop the
student should review the study of an acre of corn given in Chapter
I. The importance of corn as a cereal has already been discussed in
Chapter IX.

Corn as a forage plant. — The entire fresh green corn plant may be
fed as a soiling crop, it may be ensiled or cured as fodder corn, or the
grain may be removed and the remaining stover used for feed. As
shown later, ensiling is by far the most satisfactory means of pre-
serving the entire crop as forage.

The term corn fodder or fodder corn is applied to corn plants,
either fresh or cured, Avhich have been grown primarily for forage,
with all of the ears, if any, originally produced. Shock corn and
'bundle corn are terms used for fodder corn which carries much grain,
but which is fed without husking. Corn stover is the term applied
to cured shock corn from which the ears have been removed. The
terms fodder and stover are also applied to such crops as the sorghums.
For example, kafir forage is called either kafir fodder or kafir stover,
depending on whether or not the heads have been removed.

Like the corn grain, corn forage is low in crude protein compared
with carbohydrates and fat. As shown in Appendix Table III, the
nutritive ratio of corn silage is 1 :15.1, and that of fodder corn 1 :15.7
to 1 :17.1, while corn stover has the very wide nutritive ratio of 1 :21.0
or over. Hence, these roughages should be supplemented by feeds

157

158 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

rich in crude protein. Corn forage is fair in phosphorus and high in
lime, compared with corn and the other cereal grains.

Thickness of planting. — How thiciv to plant corn for forage to se-
cure the highest feeding value, has been studied at several experiment
stations. The following table shows the results secured at the Illinois
Station^ where corn was planted on good prairie soil from 3 to 24
inches apart in the row, all rows being 3 feet 8 inches apart:

Results of planting corn kernels various distances apart in rows

Good Poor Qtovpr '^°*^' Stover

Distance between ears ears Tier digestible for each

kernels in row per per ' ^ nutrients lb. of

acre acre per acre corn

Bu. Bu. Tons Lbs. Lbs.

3 inches 13 46 4.8 6,218 3.6

6 inches 37 39 3.7 5,980 1.9

9 inclies 55 22 3.1 5,539 1.5

12 inches 73 16 3.0 5,593 1.3

15 inches C3 11 2.9 5,180 1.4

24 inches 49 6 2.5 4,207 1.5

AVith the kernels but 3 inches apart in the row there were 46 bushels
of "nubbins," or poor ears, and only 13 bushels of sound ears per
acre. However, this thick planting gave the largest returns in di-
gestible nutrients — over 6,000 lbs. per acre, and there was the largest
amount of stover for each pound of corn. The largest yield of sound
ear corn was secured by planting the kernels 12 inches apart in the
row, the returns being 73 bushels of sound and 16 bushels of poor ears
per acre, with only 600 lbs. less digestible matter than from planting
the kernels 4 times as thickly. These and other trials show that
when corn is to be grown for forage, the seed should be planted so
thickly that but few good ears form. If the chief object is grain,
with stover secondary, the kernels should be planted at such a dis-
tance apart that all plants may produce full-sized ears. No general
rule can be given as to the definite amount of seed to be planted per
acre, for this varies greatly and is determined by local conditions.
One should know accurately the capacity of his land for corn, and
seed accordingly.

Nutrients in grain and stover. — Even when grown for the grain, a
considerable part of the feeding value of the corn crop is in the stover.
In trials at 4 northern stations - an average yield of 4,415 lbs. of ear
corn and 3,838 lbs. of stover was secured per acre. The stover con-
tained one-fourth of the digestible crude protein and over one-third
of the total digestible nutrients in the crop. The amount of total di-
gestible nutrients it contains measures the value of the stover for

iHunt and Morrow, 111. Bui. 13.

2 Summarized by Armsby, Penn. Rpt. 1887.

CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 159

merely carrying animals thru the Avinter. For fattening animals,
dairy cows producing heavy yields of milk, and horses at hard work,
a more accurate measure of its value is the net energy it supplies.
Yet, even on this basis the stover furnished one-fourth the net energy
of the crop. This shows clearly the loss of animal food which occurs
each year when unnumbered acres of corn stover are allowed to decay
in the fields.

Corn silage. — Indian corn is pre-eminently a silage plant. The
solid, succulent stems and broad leaves when cut into short lengths

Fig. 45. — ^Large, Well-made Shocks op Corn Lessen the "Wastage

To lessen the loss from weathering, corn fodder and stover should he placed
in large, well-made shocks. Ea'ch then a greater loss usually occurs than when
the corn is ensiled.

pack closely and form a solid mass which not only keeps well but fur-
nishes a product that is greatly relished by stock and is consumed
with little waste. Altho with enlarging experience the use of other
crops for silage is increasing rapidly, by far the greater portion of
all the forage stored in silos in this country is corn. The use of
corn silage has practically revolutionized the feeding of dairy cattle
over a large part of the United States, and is fast becoming almost
equally important in the feeding of beef cattle and sheep. Thru its

160 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

use the cost of producing milk and meat may be materially lowered
all over the corn belt. Not only is corn silage excellent for cattle and
sheep, but it may be used in a limited way with horses that are idle or
at light work. The yield of silage per acre varies widely with the
soil and season. A 50-bushel crop of corn should make from 8 to 10
tons of silage, depending on the size and leafiness of the stalks. The
importance of corn silage on American farms and the methods of
feeding it are discussed further in Chapter XVI and in the respective
chapters of Part III.

Corn silage vs. corn fodder. — Ensiling is the best method of pre-
serving corn forage, for less nutrients are lost than when the crop is
cured as corn fodder, and corn silage also has a higher feeding value
than the same amount of dry matter in cured corn fodder. Even
when cured in well-made shocks, corn fodder or stover standing in
the field for a few months loses at least 15 per ct. and usually nearer
20 per ct. of the dry matter it contains, due to weathering and to
fermentations which gradually waste the forage. The losses fall
chiefly on the most valuable parts of the plant — the protein, sugar,
and starch — which are less resistant and more soluble than the fiber.

Losses also occur when corn is ensiled, but, omitting the waste at
the top and bottom of the silo, the losses in dry matter need not ex-
ceed 10 per ct. if the silage is well made. As with corn fodder, the
losses fall on the best portions of the silage. Considerable of the pro-
tein is changed to amids, and some of the starch and sugar is de-
stroyed, while the fiber is not diminished. However, not as large a
part of the nutrients is lost by ensiling as when the crop is pre-
served as dry corn fodder. Including all the waste in the silo, in 10
trials at 4 experiment stations 15.7 per ct. of the dry matter was lost
when com was ensiled, and 20.0 iper ct. when the crop was cured in
shocks. Over 45 per ct. more crude protein was lost in the dry fodder
than in the silage.

The feeding trials with dairy cows and steers reported in Part III
show that silage gives better results than a corresponding amount of
dry fodder. This is doubtless due to the fact that cattle usually
reject the dry butts of the corn stalks, even when finely cut, w^hile in
silage they are eaten. Moreover, owing to the great palatability of
this succulent feed, silage-fed animals consume a larger ration, and
more nutrients are hence available for milk or flesh production after
supplying the wants of the body. Just as important as these advan-
tages is the fact that, like other succulent feeds, silage has a bene-
ficial laxative effect, and is a valuable aid in keeping farm animals
thrifty.

The corn for silage. — In earlier years corn was usually ensiled

COKN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 161

before the kernels were in the glazing stage. Experience has shown,
however, that much sweeter silage is produced when corn is not ensiled
until the kernels have hardened and glazed. (With the dent varieties
when they are well dented.) The rapid storage of high-quality
nutrients, pointed out in Chapter I, which takes place during the
glazing stage and later, is an even more important reason for waiting
until the corn is nearly mature. The crop should, however, be cut for
silage while most of the leaves are yet green.

In the North the question arises as to whether to grow for silage the
smaller northern varieties of corn, or the tall, late southern kinds
which will not mature before frost. Trials have shown that these
rank growing varieties will yield a larger amount of digestible nu-
trients per acre than the smaller ones, but such immature corn makes
silage which is sour and contains but little grain. The stockman with
plenty of hay, straw, and stover to feed will wish to fill his silo with a
richer feed than the southern corn yields, and will therefore use north-
ern dent or flint varieties which mature. To secure a large tonnage,
he will plant the crop somewhat more thickly than for grain produc-
tion, but yet so as to secure a relatively large proportion of grain to
roughage. He will thus secure a rich silage which will materially
reduce the amount of concentrates required for his stock.

In late seasons it is best to let corn stand till after frost rather than
ensile it too green, for satisfactor.y silage can be made from frosted
corn, and the crop may mature to a considerable extent before a
severe frost comes. If the crop is killed by frost, it should be ensiled
quickly, for the storm which usually soon follows will wash out much
luitriment from the frosted forage, and the wind will soon whip off
the dried, brittle leaves. If the plants dry out before all the crop can
be ensiled, water should be added as the silo is filled to insure the
necessary fermentations that preserve the silage.

Corn fodder or stover silage. — In recent years it has been found
that silage can be made from cured corn or sorghum forage. When
cut into the silo, thoroly moistened, and well-packed, it will undergo
fermentation similar to that which occurs with green material, and
will thus be preserved in a satisfactory manner. Tho usually less
palatable than silage from green fodder, this product has an aromatic
silage odor and is readily consumed by stock with less waste than is
dry fodder or stover. This method is now followed by many farmers,
especially in the plains region, some filling their silos three times
a year — in the fall with green corn or sorghum, and later with the
cured forage. It is necessary to add enough water so that the material
will pack well and then to tramp it down with especial thoroness ;
otherwise the mass will spoil. Tho the water may be added to the

162 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

cut material in the silo, it can be distributed more evenly if a stream
is run into the blower, and then more water sprinkled over the cut
fodder in the silo as it is filled. Due to the widely varying water con-
tent of field-cured corn forage, it is impossible to state definitely the
amount of water to be added. Some recommend adding about an
equal weight of water to the forage, others add just enough so that
water may be squeezed out of the cut material.

Dry corn fodder. — Tho not as palatable and valuable as corn silage,
corn grown thickly and cured as dry fodder while the leaves are yet
green makes a coarse hay of high feeding value. Such fodder, with
bright, nutritious leaves and small palatable ears that are easily mas-
ticated, has a value not as yet appreciated by most stockmen. Over-
looking the splendid qualities of corn as a forage plant, too many
farmers have become accustomed to growing this giant grass for the
grain it yields, using the stover as a straw to be fed or wasted as acci-
dent determines.

As it is low in protein, corn fodder gives the best results when
legume hay forms part of the roughage, such combination giving
excellent results with dairy cows, beef cattle, and sheep. Com fodder
is also an economical substitute for timothy hay with idle horses,
brood mares, and growing colts. Com fodder and stover should be
placed in large, well-made shocks, to reduce the losses by weathering.
Since the stalks stand almost vertical in the shocks, as the leaves wilt
there is ample room for the upward passage of air currents, which
rapidly dry the interior and check molds and fermentations. When
shock corn is pronounced "dry" by the farmer, it usually carries
more water and consequently less dry matter than hay, a fact which
should not be overlooked when feeding this forage. Care must be
taken that corn fodder or stover is well-cured before it is stacked, and
especially before it is stored in the mow, for musty, moldy forage is
not only unpalatable but even dangerous. In districts of the South
where it is exceedingly difficult to cure corn forage, the silo is par-
ticularly useful.

Shock corn, — Rather than husking corn and feeding the grain and
stover separately, it is often more profitable to feed shock corn, the
animals doing their own husking. This is especially true for animals
which need only a small grain allowance, such as cattle being carried
thru the winter and idle horses. Shock com may also be successfully
fed to fattening cattle and sheep, particularly at the beginning of
the fattening period, and to a less extent to dairy cows. It is true
that when fed unhusked some com passes thru the animal unbroken,
but feeding trials show that, despite such waste, there is often little or
no profit in husking the ear and reducing it to meal. A little study

CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 163

will determine the amount of grain the shocks carry, so that the feeder
can properly adjust the proportion of grain to roughage by supplying
either ear corn or corn stover, as the animals may require.

Corn stover. — The forage which remains after removing the ears
from shock corn has a higher feeding value than is usually believed.
Stover produced in the northern portion of the corn belt is superior in
nutriment and palatability to that grown in the South. As soon as
fairly well cured, stover should be placed under cover or stacked,
rather than left to waste away in the field. When fed with alfalfa or
clover hay, good corn stover may often profitably form half the
roughage allowance for fattening cattle or sheep. For stock cattle
and breeding cows it may be utilized to even a larger extent, and it is
also satisfactory for breeding ewes. While corn stover alone will not
quite maintain the weight of growing steers during the winter, stover
and legume hay with no grain will make fair gains. This cheap feed
is also a satisfactory roughage for horses doing but little work. J\Iost
of the roughage of dairy cows should be more palatable and nutri-
tious in character, but corn stover may often be economically fed even
to them.

Shredding or cutting stover or fodder. — When shock corn is
husked by machinery, the stover is usually cut or shredded at the same
operation. Corn fodder is also often passed thru a feed cutter before
feeding. This finer material is no more digestible than the uncut
forage. However, cutting or shredding usually reduces the waste,
as it induces the cattle to eat a greater part of the stalks, unless they
are coarse and woody. The cut or shredded forage is also easier to
handle, and the waste is in better shape for bedding.

Corn for soilage. — Corn ranks high as a soiling crop on account of
its palatability, the high yield of nutrients, and the fact that it remains
in good condition for feeding for a much longer period than many
other crops grown for soilage. On farms lacking summer silage, feed-
ing corn forage in the green stage as soilage should become general,
for during the late summer and early fall pastures are often too
scanty to enable animals to do their best. In the case of dairy cows
such a shortage of feed will cause a decrease in milk flow, which often
cannot be recovered by subsequent liberal feeding. An acre of ripen-
ing corn fed in early fall may return twice as much profit as if it were
held over until winter. For early feeding sweet corn may often be
advantageously used.

II. The Sorghums

In the dry-farming districts, from Nebraska to Texas and Arizona,
the sorghums, both the saccharine sorghos and the non-saccharine

164

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

grain sorghums, are of great and increasing importance as forage
crops, because they are far more drought resistant than corn and the
leaves remain green late in autumn. The sorghums, mainly the
sorghos, are valuable in the southern states for hay, soilage, and silage,
and are also grown in the northern states, chiefly for soilage.

Three tons of air-dry fodder is a good and 6 tons a large return from
the sorghums, while maximum yields may reach 10 tons of dry fodder

Fig. 46. — A Field of Kafir in the Texas Panhandle

Because of their resistance to drought, the grain sorghiims and tlie sorghos are
of great importance as forage crops in the semi-arid districts. (From The
Southwest Trail, Eock Island Lines.)

or 40 tons of green material.^ Under Kansas conditions the sorghums
produce one-third to one-half more forage per acre than corn.*

Sorg-hum fodder and stover. — Thruout regions of scanty rainfall
the sorghums are most commonly grown in drilled rows of sufficient
width to allow cultivation, by which the moisture is conserved and
larger yields obtained. When grown in drills, not too thickly, much
seed is produced and the stalks are somewhat coarse. Sorghum forage
is more palatable when cut before full maturity, but the seed should
be allowed to reach the early dough .stage, for if cut earlier the plants

3 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 269.

4 Reed, Kan. Cir. 28.

CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 165

are watery and contain little nutriment. The crop is cured in shocks,
the same as Indian corn, but in the case of the juicy-stemmed sorghos,
which cure with difficulty, the shocks should be small. In sections
with ample rainfall the seed is often broadcasted, and the fine-stemmed
plants cut and cured the same as the meadow grasses. In the South
where the rainfall is ample and on irrigated lands 2 to 3 cuttings of
sorghum may be secured in the season, if the crop is cut before it
matures ; in the dry-farming districts it is usually cut but once.

The various types of grain sorghums have been described in Chap-
ter X. The kafirs excel in yield and value of forage, for they are
leafy and the stems are more succulent than those of milo, feterita, or
kaoliang. Kafir fodder and stover compare favorably in composition
and feeding value with that from corn. Feterita ranks next to kafir
for forage, while milo, kaoliang, and shallu are less leafy and have
more pithy stems. The dwarf types of the grain sorghums are often
harvested with a grain header, and stock grazed on the standing
stalks.

The sorghos, with their juicy stalks rich in sugar, are grown chiefly
for forage. Early varieties, such as Amber cane, ripen earlier than
kafir or milo, and may be grown wherever corn will mature. The
palatable leaves, sweet stalks, and freedom from dust make sorgho
forage a desirable roughage for stock, especially horses.

The sorghums for grazing, soilage, and silage.— Especially in the
southern states, the sorghums, mainly the sorghos, are widely used as
summer pasture for horses, cattle, and swine, since they are available
at a time when other crops are exhausted or immature. Owing to the
danger from prussic acid poisoning, extreme care must be taken in
pasturing second growth or stunted sorghums. By feeding the green
crop as soilage it is utilized more completely than when pastured.
Tho sorghum may be cut at any time after it reaches a height of
2 to 3 feet, a greater yield of nutrients will be secured when it is
allowed to head. The early varieties of sorghos are admirable soiling
crops for the northern states.

The sorghums formerly had the reputation of producing much
sourer silage than corn. However, numerous experiments have now
shown that when sufficiently matured both the sorghos and the grain
sorghums make excellent silage. To determine when cane or kafir is
ready to ensile twist a stalk with the hands. AVhen it is so mature
that only a little juice will run out the proper stage has been reached.^
As with corn, it is preferable to let the crop of cane or kafir stand till
after frost, rather than ensile when too green. The bagasse or waste
of the sorghum syrup factories should not be wasted, but may be

5 Reed, Kan. Cir. 28.

166 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

satisfactorily ensiled, as may the leaves removed before running the
stalks thru the mill,

QUESTIONS

1. Define corn fodder, shock corn, and corn stover.

2. What is the effect of thickness of planting corn on the yield of ears, stover,
and total nutrients?

3. What part of the digestible crude protein, total digestible nutrients, and
net energy of a corn crop grown for grain is in the stover?

4. Discuss corn as a silage crop and compare corn silage with corn fodder.

5. How should the corn crop be handled for silage so as to secure the best
returns ?

6. How is silage made from dry corn fodder?

7. Discuss the value of dry corn fodder and state how it should be preserved.

8. Under what conditions should corn be fed for soilage?

9. Discuss the value of forage from kafir, feterita, milo, and sorgho.
10. What is the value of the sorghums for grazing, soilage and silage?

CHAPTER XIII

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING

I. The Smaller Grasses

Unlike the great grain-bearing grasses — corn, wheat, rye, barley,
oats, rice, and the sorghums, which are all annuals — the smaller
grasses are nearly all perennials. Hence they thrive without cultiva-
tion, producing roughage of good quality with little expense for labor.
For building up the soil by adding humus and binding it together the
smaller grasses are also of great importance. In summertime in
regions where the smaller grasses flourish the animals of the farm
largely feed themselves, and meat, milk, and wool are produced at the
minimum expense.

The smaller grasses are divided into two classes — the sod-formers
and the non-sod-formers. The sod-formers, which spread by creeping
rootstalks, either above or below ground, making a smooth turf, include
our most valuable pasture and lawn grasses, such as Kentucky blue-
grass and Bermuda grass. The non-sod-formers, such as orchard
grass, grow in tufts or bunches and increase only by seed or stooling,
except in the case of a few, such as timothy, which also increase to
some extent by forming new bulbs at the base of the stems.

Nutrients in grasses at different stages. — Few stockmen realize the
great difference in composition between young, immature grass and
the same grass as it is usually cut for hay. The Kentucky Station
found that bluegrass, rye, wheat, and oats cut when only 5 to 8 inches
high contained as high a percentage of protein as green alfalfa or
clover. This shows that immature grasses, such as are gathered by
grazing animals, are protein-rich feeds and explains the favorable
results secured by feeding only corn, a highly carbonaceous feed, to
fattening animals at pasture. On the other hand, when cut for hay,
the smaller grasses are relatively low in protein compared with carbo-
hydrates and fat, and hence hay from the grasses should always be
fed with feeds rich in protein. Tho immature grass is richer in pro-
tein, a larger yield of dry matter and a larger total amount of protein
is secured if the grass is not cut until nearly mature. Thus, when
grass is cut for hay at the usual stage, more feed is usually secured
p(3r acre than if the same field were grazed by stock.

167

168 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Bluegrass. — Kentucky bluegrass, or June grass, easily ranks first
for lawn and pasture in the northeastern United States. By its
persistence it often even drives out other grasses and clovers from the
meadows and pastures. The fact that bluegrass is one of the richest
of grasses in digestible protein helps explain the fondness for it shown
by stock. Differing from most grasses of the humid regions, mature
dried bluegrass is quite readily grazed by animals, thus resembling
some of the grasses of the western ranges.

With the coming of spring, bluegrass pushes forward so vigorously

l^'^IH

■b

^^

^igfl

^^

||

m

^

s

*'.

Fig. 47.— Beef Cattle Fattening on Bluegrass Pasture

In the northeastern United States, Kentucky bluegrass is by far the most im-
portant pasture grass.

that early in IMay the fields bear a thick, nutritious carpet of green.
"With seed bearing, the plant's energies become exhausted, and blue-
grass enters a period of rest which lasts several weeks, and if a mid-
summer drought occurs the plants turn brown and appear to be dying.
However, they quickly revive with the coming of the fall rains, and
each plant is once more busy gathering nourishment for the coming
season's seed bearing. The observant stockman soon learns the folly
of relying on bluegrass pasture for a steady and uniform feed supply
for his cattle thruout the season. Accordingly, he understocks the
pasture in spring so that the excess of herbage during May and June

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 169

may remain to be drawn upon during the mid-summer dormant period,
or he fully stocks it and makes up the later shortage by supplying
silage or soilage. Because of its low, carpet-like growth, bluegrass is
primarily a pasture, rather than a hay grass.

Timothy. — The acreage of timothy in the United States nearly
equals that of all other cultivated hay plants combined, including
clover and alfalfa. This cool-weather grass is of especial importance
in the northeastern states, where it furnishes probably three-fourths
of all hay marketed in the cities. The popularity of timothy is due
to the following points: The seed is cheap and generally of good
quality. A field of timothy is quickly established and usually holds
well. The grass seldom lodges, may be harvested over a longer period
than most grasses, and is easily cured into bright, clean hay which is
quite free from dust and can be handled with little waste.

For horses timothy hay is the standard roughage, being preferred
especially by city buyers. However, mixed clover and timothy hay,
or even legume hay alone, if of good quality, may be successfully used
in place of timothy. For dairy and beef cattle and for sheep timothy
is greatly inferior to hay from the legumes, for timothy is low in pro-
tein and is also not so well-liked by these animals as is clover or alfalfa.
^Moreover, the yield of timothy is not large, for it produces but little
aftermath. Therefore, on most farms where timothy is now exten-
sively grown, greater use should be made of the legumes, which not
only yield more hay, but at the same time increase the fertility of the
land. Red or alsike clover should alwaj's be sown with timothy, except
when the hay is to be grown for sale and the demand is for pure
timothy, for the combination furnishes more and superior hay, even
for horses. Grown together, the hay of the first season will consist
largely of clover. With the close of the second season most of the
clover disappears and the decaying clover roots nourish the timothy
which remains, so that a much larger yield of that grass is obtained.
Fodder corn and hay from the cereals — oats, wheat, or barley — are
economical substitutes for timothy hay in many cases.

When to cut timothy. — In trials during 3 seasons at the jMissouri
Station ^ cutting timothy when the seed had just formed gave the
largest yield of dry matter, closely followed by cutting when the seed
was in the dough. However, when the hay was cut later than full
bloom it was less digestible, and therefore the yield of digestible nu-
trients was greatest when the crop was cut at full bloom. After this
the yield of both digestible protein and carbohydrates fell off mark-
edly. This decrease in total digestible nutrients as the hay matures,
which is opposite to what occurs in the corn crop, is due to the partial

1 Waters and Schweitzer, Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1010, pp. 71-98.

170

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

loss of the lower leaves as the plants ripen, to leaching by rain, and
to the storage of nutrients in the bulbs at the base of the stems. In
maturing corn the nutrients are stored in the kernels, which are easily
masticated and highly digestible. In the smaller grasses, tho a similar
storage occurs in the seeds, they are so small and have such hard seed
coats that they escape mastication and their nutrients are largely lost.
Based on the yield of digestible nutrients alone, full bloom appears
the best time to cut timothy for hay, but other factors must be con-
sidered. Such immature grass is difficult to cure, the weather early in

Fig. 48. — Cutting a Fine Field of Timothy

On most farms where timothy is now extensively gro\^■n, gr£ater use should
be made of tlie legumes, which not only yield more hay, but also increase the
fertility of the land.

the season is usually more unsettled, and the ground cooler. Also,
haying must often be delayed in the corn belt until the corn has been
cultivated. In general, timothy should be cut early for dairy cows,
young stock, and sheep, since these animals do not relish hay that is
woody and lacks aroma, as does most late-cut hay. For horses and
fattening cattle late cutting is favored, since these animals get much
of their nourishment from concentrates, and the hay they eat serves
more as ''filling." In any event, cutting should not be delayed until
the grass becomes tough and woody and the seeds shatter.

Red top. — This grass is probably suited to a wider range of climatic
and soil conditions than any other cultivated grass. A couple of years

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 171

after seeding it forms a close, well-knit, smooth sod, almost as dense as
bluegrass turf. There is no better grass for marshy and damp lands,
and at the same time it will withstand considerable drought. It
endures on poor uplands and on soils too acid for most other grasses.
Tho not so well liked as bluegrass, red top gives good pasture and
yields a fine-stemmed hay, rated somewhat below timothy in value.

Orchard grass. — Tho it does well in full sunlight, this grass thrives
better than most others in partial shade. It endures hot weather
better than timothy and is well suited to the southern border of the
timothy belt. As it starts early in the spring, endures drought well,
and continues growth late in the fall, it furnishes valuable pasturage,
tho stock prefer bluegrass. While late-cut orchard grass makes harsh,
wood}' hay, that cut in early bloom is equal to the best of the hay
grasses. Orchard grass grows in tufts, forming an uneven sod, and
hence should be sown with clovers or other grasses, both for hay and
pasture. Ripening two weeks before timothy, it fits in well with red
clover.

Brome grass. — In that part of the great plains region stretching
from South Dakota to Saskatchewan, brome is the most important
cultivated grass. It furnishes good crops of hay, fully equal to
timothy in feeding value, for three or four years after seeding, by
v/hich time it usually becomes sod bound and should be renewed by
harrowing or shallow plowing. Brome is one of the most palatable of
pasture grasses and endures heavy grazing. Tho the most drought-
resistant of the cultivated grasses, brome is usually less productive
than the native prairie grasses in the drier parts of the dry-farming
belt.

The millets. — The millets are rapid growing hot-weather annuals of
many races and varieties. Of these, the foxtail millets are the type
most grown for forage in the United States. In this group are com-
mon millet, the earliest and most drought-resistant ; the less drought-
resistant, shorter stemmed Hungarian millet, the seeds of which are
mostly purplish ; and German millet, late maturing and with nodding
heads, which yields more hay, but not of quite such good quality.
The foxtail millets are especially valuable as hay crops on dry-farms
in the northern plains region. In the more humid regions they are
grown chiefly as catch crops. Millet should be seeded thickly for hay
and should be cut as soon as the blossoms appear. Such hay is useful
for cattle and sheep feeding, tho usually less palatable and inferior in
feeding value to timothy hay or even bright, fine corn or sorghum
fodder. Since millet hay is sometimes injurious to horses, it should be
fed sparingly.

Japanese harnyard millet, a close relative of the common barnyard
grass, has often been advertised as ' ' billion dollar grass. ' ' Tho yield-

172 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

ing large crops of coarse forage under favorable conditions, it is
usually inferior to the foxtail millets for hay, and to corn for soilage.
The 'broom-corn millets, previously described, are grown chiefly for
seed production, as the yield of forage is low and the stems woody.
Vearl millet, also called pencillaria or cat-tail millet, is adapted to the
same conditions as the sorghums, which have proven more valuable
and have largely displaced it in both the semi-arid regions and the
South. As a soiling crop this tall growing grass has value in the
southern states, yielding three or more cuttings in a season. It should
be cut when 3 to 4 feet high, before the stems become hard.

Teosinte, a giant millet resembling sorghum, requires a rich, moist
soil and is too tropical to have value north of the southern portion of
the Gulf states. The culture of this grass is decreasing in the United
States, because on moderately fertile soils it yields less than sorghum,
and on rich land less than Japanese cane.

Cereal grains for forage. — All the small grains are suitable for hay,
soilage, and pasturage. Over four million acres of small grains were
cut for hay in 1909, half of this area being in the Pacific coast states.
More than 40 per ct. of the hay grown in the southeastern coast states
is from the small grains. Cereals should be cut for hay when the
grains are in the early milk stage, and the bearded grains before the
awns harden.

In the North fall-sown rye or wheat furnishes excellent late fall and
early spring pasture and soilage, while spring-sown oats or barley
provide green forage in early summer. Barley, being more rust resist-
ant, is the best cereal grass for late summer seeding. In the South
fall-sown grains may be pastured moderately thru the winter and will
still yield considerable hay or grain. Green rye gives a bad flavor to
milk unless the cows are pastured on it for but two or three hours
after milkiiig. A field sown to rye, wheat, oats, or barley for tem-
porary pasture may be changed to a permanent one by sowing clover
and grass seed thereon early in spring. The grass and clover plants
will then begin growth under shelter of the young grain. Stock may
graze on the cereal plants regardless of the young grasses and clovers
but should be kept ofl: the fields after rains. As the cereal plants
gradually die, the grasses and clovers spread until they form a dense,
permanent sod.

If ensiled when the kernels are just past the milk stage or slightly
earlier, the cereals make fair to good silage. The crop should be run
thru a silage cutter and unusual care taken in tramping down the
mass to force the air out of the hollow stems.

Bermuda grass. — This low-growing, creeping grass is to the cotton
belt what bluegrass and timothy combined are to the northeastern

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW

173

states. Bermuda forms a dense sod and serves best when closely
grazed, as otherwise it becomes tough and wiry. It drives out most
other grasses, but lespedeza or white clover will flourish in spots and
improve the pasture. It furnishes pasturage from April to October
and in winter, when it is dormant, the sod may be seeded with bur
clover, hairy vetch, or Italian rye grass. Tho primarily a pasture
plant, on rich soil Bermuda yields from three to four tons per acre
of hay equal to timothy in value, tho the average is not over one ton.
Johnson grass. — In the South this plant is the worst weed of the

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49.— Sudan <

-A New Croi' of Mrcii Promise

This close relative of the sorghums is giving excellent results as a hay crop
in the semi-arid districts and may prove superior to the millets as a catch crop
in the northern states. (From U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

cotton planter and yet the best meadow grass for many sections. Its
vigorous creeping rootstalks make it difficult to eradicate when once
established and it is therefore not usually sown on clean fields. From
two to three tons per acre is the average yield of Johnson grass cut for
hay, but 6 tons per acre has been reported. It should be cut before
maturity. Tho too coarse for pasture, Johnson grass may be cut once
a month during the summer for soilage.

Sudan grass.— This close relative of the sorghums was introduced
into this country by the United States Department of Agriculture

174 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

in 1909. It closely resembles Johnson grass, but fortunately has no
creeping rootstalks, and thus cannot become a pest. Tho a tall, rank-
growing grass, the stems are comparatively slender, seldom being
larger than a lead pencil. It yields hay similar to timothy in com-
position and somewhat superior to millet in feeding value. It gives
one cutting in the northern states and tAvo or more in the South.
Being drought resistant and adapted to the same conditions as the
sorghums, it is an important forage crop for the western portion of
the plains region. As it is a heat loving plant, Sudan grass does not
flourish at high altitudes or in the extreme North. Neither does it
thrive along the humid Gulf coast. Yields of 1.25 to 5 tons of hay
per acre have been secured in the great plains district, even with
unusually severe drought, and under irrigation in the Southwest
yields of 8 to nearly 10 tons have been obtained. Sudan grass is also
a valuable soilage crop.

Japanese cane ; sugar cane. — Because of its heavy yields, Japanese
cane, a slender stemmed variety of the common sugar cane, is one of
the cheapest forage crops that can be grown in the Gulf states, and
possibly in southern California. In Florida it furnishes good pasture
for cattle and hogs from November to March, but is killed by grazing
after growth starts in the spring. The crop may be cured as dry
fodder and makes good silage. Yields of 25 to 30 tons of green forage
per acre are not unusual.

The tops and leaves of common sugar cane, removed on harvesting
the cane, make satisfactory forage for live stock, and may be ensiled.
It is a wasteful practice not to utilize this bj'-product by feeding to
stock.

Wild and marsh grasses. — Along parts of the Atlantic coast are
extensive salt marshes, the best of which are cut for hay at low tide,
yielding 0.5 to 1 ton per acre. Such hay is from 10 to 18 per ct. less
valuable than average mixed hay from the cultivated grasses for dairy
cows. In all humid regions of the country are fresh water marshes,
some of which are covered with the more nutritious true grasses, while
in others the rushes and sedges predominate. Such marsh hay as blue
joint, cut before maturity, nearly equals timothy in value. The
prairies of the Great Plains and the grazing ranges of the West sup-
port numerous native grasses that furnish excellent pasturage and
hay equal to timothy.

Mixed grasses. — No matter how valuable a single variety of grass
may be, it should never be grown alone in permanent meadows and
pastures, but always in combination with other grasses and the clovers.
In the North an excellent combination is timothy, red top, and orchard

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 175

grass, with alsike and medium red clover. The variety and proportion
of grasses and clovers to be included in any mixture depend on climatic
and soil conditions. Before sowing, one should consult the experi-
ment station of his state, as well as observe what varieties of grasses
and clovers thrive best in his particular locality.

The abuse of pasturage. — Too many stockmen rely entirely upon
pastures for the maintenance of their cattle during half the year, not
realizing that if drought prevails during the summer months the ani-
mals may suffer from hunger. In addition, there is the heat of ' ' dog
days" and the ever-present annoyance of blood-sucking flies. Stock-
men who turn their cattle to pasture in spring, allowing them to forage
as best they can until winter, are guilty of barbarism as truly as were
the early Britons, who forced their stock to live on natural herbage
not only in summer but in winter as well. If the animals died from
starvation it was "an act of God." The stockman of today amply pro-
vides for winter's rigor, but he can never expect his flocks and herds
to yield their best returns unless he also makes ample provision against
the possibility of drought-ruined pastures in summer.

In America we have not begun to use our pastures as efficiently as
is done in Europe, where stock is still economically grazed on land
worth several hundred dollars an acre. By proper fertilization,
reseeding, and keeping down of brush and weeds, the productivity of
pastures may be greatly increased. In humid regions unless grasses
are pastured so closely as to be killed out thru tramping, heavy graz-
ing is often better than pasturing too lightly, for weeds are then kept
from encroaching on the grasses.

Because of over-stocking and consequent over-grazing under the
system of free grazing, the carrying capacity of many of the western
ranges has been seriously reduced. The day of the " all-3'ear-round "
open range is almost past, and in its place has come a system under
which, by the use of supplemental feed for periods of summer drought
and winter storm, the natural forage is used much more wisely than
before. With ranges thus handled, the enormous losses of cattle and
sheep from starvation, which were all too common in the old range
days, are prevented. Fencing or otherwise restricting the range,
developing convenient water supplies, protecting the range during
periods of seed ripening and germination, and preventing soil erosion,
will greatly increase the amount of feed produced. In one instance a
range of 25 square miles, 6 j^ears after fencing, not only carried twice
as many cattle as before but also kept them in much better condition.^

2Thornber and Griffith, Ariz. Bui. 65.

176 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

II. Straw and Chaff

As plants mature, the nutrients which have been built up in the
green portions are in large part transferred and stored in the ripening
seed, thus largely exhausting the stems and leaves of easily digested
nutrients and leaving in them the resistant woody fiber, or cellulose.
All straws are, therefore, worth much less than the same plants cut for
hay before maturity. The feeding value of each class of straw may
differ widely, depending on the stage at which the crop was cut, the
care with which it was cured, and the amount of the more nutritious
grasses and weeds present.

Straw and chaff of the cereals. — Being low in protein, nitrogen-
free extract, and fat, and high in fiber, straw furnishes less digestible
nutrients and much less net energy than good hay. Accordingly, it
should not form any large part of the roughage for animals at hard
work, fattening rapidly, or giving a large flow of milk. On the other
hand, a considerable portion of the roughage for idle horses and ani-
mals being carried over winter without gaining materially in weight
may consist of straw. When much straw is fed, the additional protein
needed should be supplied in other feeds. Growing steers, wintered
on good straw as the only roughage, with 1 or 2 lbs. of cottonseed meal
per head daily, will more than maintain their weight. A small amount
of straw satisfies the desire for dry roughage of steers fattening on
com silage, corn, and cottonseed meal just as well as will clover hay.

In Canada and Europe pulped roots and meal are often mixed with
cut or chaffed oat straw, and the moist mass allowed to soften. It is
then readil}^ consumed by cattle and sheep. In many districts of
Europe horses are fed cut straw mixed with their concentrate allow-
ance, small amounts being thus utilized even for horses at hard work.

Oat straw with its soft, pliable stems is the most nutritious, followed
by barley straw. "Wheat straw, being coarse and stiff, is not so readily
eaten, and rye straw, harsh and woody, had better be used for bedding.
The chaff of wheat and oats contains more crude protein than does the
straw, and is a useful roughage when not loaded with dust, rust, or
mold.

Straw from legumes and other plants. — Straw from the legumes
contains more crude protein and less fiber than that from the cereals,
and is more digestible. Field pea straw, with its fine stems and often
carrying some seed, has a higher value than the coarser straw from
field beans or soybeans, tho even these are better than oat straw if
well cured. Clover straw may be fed to cattle or sheep, but is too
dusty for horses.

While not especially desirable, flax straw may be fed in the absence

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 177

of better roughage. The statement that the stringy fiber of flax forms
indigestible balls in the stomachs of farm animals is unwarranted,
since it is digested the same as other fibrous matter. Green-colored
straw from immature flax plants should be fed with extreme caution,
ds it may contain enough prussic acid to be poisonous. Buckwheat
straw has little value, and may cause digestive disturbances if fed in
large amount. Properly cured rice straw is excellent for stock.

III. Hay-Mx\king

Converting green forage into hay was probably the first step in
changing the wandering herdsman into the farmer-stockman. To-day
over seventy million tons of hay are produced annually in the United
States, and thruout the temperate zone hay is the common roughage
for all the larger animals of the farm.

Nutritive value of dried grass.— Trials have shown that grass dried
under perfect conditions has as high nutritive value as when fed in
the fresh state. However, in actual haymaking more or less of the
nutrients are always lost, due to loss of leaves and exposure to sun-
light, dew, and rain. Meadow hay exposed to prolonged rain may lose
as much as 18 per et. of the total dry matter, and legume hay still more.
In a trial at the Colorado Station ^ alfalfa hay exposed to 3 rains,
aggregating 1.8 inches, lost 31.7 per ct. of the total dry matter. The
actual damage was even greater than this, for, while practically all of
the fiber remained, 60 per ct. of the crude protein, 41 per ct. of the
nitrogen-free extract, and 33 per ct. of the fat was lost.

Hay-making-. — The ends sought in making hay are to reduce the
water content to about 15 per ct., so that the hay will keep when placed
in the stack or mow, and yet to secure bright green color, good aroma,
and freedom from dust, and to retain the leaves and other finer parts,
which, especially with legumes, easily fall off. During the process
fermentations produced by enzymes occur, which develop a charac-
teristic aroma.

A good but rather expensive method of securing prime hay is to mow
the grass as soon as the dew is off, allow it to lie in the swath until dry
on the surface, then turn by hand or tedder, or rake into loose wind-
rows. Before the dew falls make into cocks, and, if dry enough so
that it will not mold, allow it to remain in the cock till it has passed
thru the "sweat." With legumes it is well to protect the cocks from,
rain by hay caps. After the sweat, open the cocks in large flakes.
The hay will then soon dry out enough to be hauled to the barn or
stack. Where the grass is green or damp when cocked, it may be

3Headden, Colo. Bui. IIL

178 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

necessary to open the cocks the next morning to avoid molding, and
then recock the hay toward night, if not yet dry enough to store.

By this system the curing grass is exposed but little to the bleaching
action of the sun and dew, and there is no marked loss of aroma,
which, tho unweighable, has real value in rendering hay palatable.
Before the partly dried plants are piled into cocks, the leaves will
have dried out more than the stems. As the leaves and stems remain
alive for some time after the grass has been cut, if the material is
cocked before the leaves are entirely dried out and thereby killed, thej^
will continue to draw water from the stems. Partially curing in the
cock is especially important with the legumes, which usually have
thick, succulent stems that dry slow^ly, while the leaves dry rapidly,
and become brittle and shatter badly. Partially cured grass cocked
in the afternoon entraps much warm air, which helps to continue the
giving off of moisture during the night.

Hay put into the barn when so dry that it will not pack well, is not
in first class condition. It should be mowed away with just that
amount of moisture which allows it to settle compactly when trodden
down. Salt and lime scattered over damp hay when put into the mow
tend to prevent fermentation and check the grow'th of molds. Damp
hay may also be improved by placing it in alternate layers with dry
straw, which absorbs moisture as well as aroma from the hay, so that
cattle the more readily eat both straw and hay. New-made hay, which
is laxative and may cause colic in horses, should not be fed until the
sw^eat in the mow is over and it has cooled off.

Making hay on a large scale. — AYhere large acreages of hay are
made, it is often unprofitable to cure the crop in cocks, owing to the
extra labor, even tho better hay is secured. Frequently the crop is
mown in the morning and by frequent tedding and turning it is
housed before the dew falls at night. In favorable weather even clover
and alfalfa, when dry on the surface, of the swath, are often raked
directly into small windrows by a side-delivery or other rake, without
previous tedding. After curing here for a few hours, the hay is loaded
from the swath by the hay loader, or in the West is hauled to the
stack with a sweep rake.

Another method is to cut the crop late in the afternoon so that the
dew will not materially affect the plants during the night, because they
are but little wilted. Even should rain come it will cause far less
injury than if the plants were partially cured. The following day,
by aid of tedder or rake the drying is hastened and the hay placed
under cover or stacked before night.

When these methods are followed wnth the legumes, it is impossible
to avoid much loss of the leaves, by far the most valuable part of the

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 179

plant, for when curing in the swath or windrow the leaves become dry
and brittle long before the stems are dry enough to allow the hay to be
stored. When clover or alfalfa hay is carelessly made and allowed to
become too dry most of the leaves may be lost, carrying a large part of
the feeding value of the crop. To avoid this the wilted material
should be raked into windrows before it has cured too much in the
swath.

Measurement and shrinkage. — In computing the amount of hay in
a mow, it is commonly assumed that after settling 420 cubic feet of
timothy or 500 of clover hay equals 1 ton. To find the amount of hay
in a stack, the following rule may be used : *

Multiply the width of the stack in feet by the "over" {i.e., the distance from
the base on one side of the stack over the stack and to the base on the other
side), divide the product by 4, and multiply the quotient by the length. This
gives the contents of the stack in cubic feet. To find the number of tons for
hay that has stood for less than 30 days, divide by 512; for 30 to 60 days, by
422; over 60 days, by 380.

Hay stored in the mow will shrink in weight, due to drying out, and
also to fermentations taking place during the sweating process, in
which nutrients are broken down into carbon dioxid and water. The
shrinkage will vary, depending on the water content of the hay when
]3laced in the mow, and may reach 20 per ct. or over. When hay is
stacked, the shrinkage is greater, since the outside of the stack is
exposed to the weather. A stack 12 feet in diameter has about one-
third of its contents in the surface foot.

QUESTIONS

1. When does grass contain the largest percentage of protein and at what
stage does it yield the most dry matter and total protein?

2. What are the merits of Kentucky bluegrass?

3. Why is timothy the great hay grass of this country and what are its bad
points? When should it be cut for hay?

4. Discuss the value of red top, orchard grass, brome grass, and the millets.

5. Wliat is the importance of the cereal grains for forage?

6. Name and discuss the value of four grasses adapted to the South.

7. What mixtures are most successful in your own locality for pasture and
permanent meadow ?

8. Discuss the abuse of pasturage.

0. How may straw be used in stock feeding? Compare the value of the dif-
ferent kinds of straw.

10. Describe the method followed to secure the best hay. How is hay made
on a large scale?

4 Barnes, Western Grazing Grounds, p.

139.

CHAPTER XIV

LEGUMES FOR FORAGE

The cereal grains, forage from corn and the sorghums, and hay
from the smaller grasses are all low in protein compared with carbo-
hydrates and fat. Therefore, when only these crops are raised, the
stockman must purchase large amounts of expensive protein-rich con-
centrates to provide balanced rations for his stock. Fortunately, the
great group of legumes furnish bounteous crops of protein-rich, palat-
able roughage that greatly reduces the need for purchased concen-
trates. Indeed, for many classes of animals merely legume hay and
the farm-grown grains furnish a most satisfactory and well-balanced
ration. The high feeding value of the legumes is due not only to their
richness in protein, but also to the abundance of lime they contain.
Tho this is required in large amount by growing animals and those
which are pregnant or giving milk, it is low in the cereal grains and
present in only fair amount in forage from corn and the other grasses.
Equally important is the fact that the legumes are able to increase the
supply in the soil of nitrogen, the most expensive plant food. Their
abundant and systematic growth on every farm is thus necessary for
the economical maintenance of soil fertility. Due to these excellencies,
the legumes are the best crop allies of tlie stockman in reducing his
bills both for purchased feed and for commercial fertilizers.

In considering the legumes it must be kept in mind that they flourish
and build up the nitrogen content of the soil only when the proper
nodule-forming bacteria are present. AVhere these nitrogen-fixing
bacteria are lacking in the soil, it is necessary that it be inoculated by
some means.

I. Alfalfa

Importance of alfalfa. — Tho alfalfa is especially adapted to the
semi-arid plains and the irrigated districts of the West, it can be
profitably grown in most districts of the United States where the soil
is deep, well-drained, and rich in lime. The acreage of alfalfa in this
country doubled from 1899 to 1909, and increased over eight-fold in
the states east of the Mississippi. The reason for this surprising
advance is revealed in the following table, which shows the average
yield per acre in 1909 thruout the United States of four of our most
important crops.

180

LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 181

Average returns per acre from alfalfa and other crops

Digestible Total

Yield crude digestible Net

per acre protein nutrients. energy

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Therms

Alfalfa hay 5,040 534 2,601 1,734

Clover hay 2,580 196 1,313 890

Timothy hay 2,440 73 1,183 819

Com (ears and stover) . 3,440 14G 2,256 1,762

This average for the United States shows that alfalfa produced by
far the largest yield per acre, with over 2.7 times as much digestible
crude protein as clover and nearly four times as much as corn. It
excelled even corn, the king of forage crops, in yield of total digestible
nutrients, tho, due to the high net energy value of the corn grain, the
corn crop surpassed alfalfa in yield of net energy.

Much larger yields of alfalfa than the average shown in the table
are easily secured under favorable conditions, even in the eastern
states. When amply watered by irrigation, alfalfa furnishes 2 to 5
cuttings a season, yielding as high as 5 tons of nutritious hay per acre.
In the hot irrigated districts of the Southwest 9 or even more cuttings
have been secured in a season. AVhen high temperature is combined
with a humid climate, alfalfa generally fails unless the soil is unusually
favorable. AVhere both soil and climate are suitable, this long-time
perennial returns good crops for many j-ears without reseeding.

Alfalfa for hay.— Tho alfalfa hay is richer in protein than red
clover hay, it contains slightly less carbohydrates and is lower in fat.
Alfalfa hay is thus somewhat more valuable than clover hay in balanc-
ing rations low in protein, but when fed with concentrates containing
ample protein is not superior to clover. The chief superiority over
clover lies not in a higher feeding value per ton but in the fact that
where alfalfa thrives it j'ields more tons of hay per acre.

Alfalfa should be cut for hay as soon as new shoots are well started
at the crown of the plant. Cutting later than this reduces the yield of
the next crop, for many of the longer shoots will be clipped by the
mower. By harvesting the crop at this early stage the maximum
yield for the whole season is obtained, and the hay is more leafy and
palatable. It also contains more protein and is more digestible than
if cut later, when it contains more fiber. Early-cut hay is preferable
for all farm animals except the horse, for which late-cut is better
since, tho less nutritious, it is less washy. In certain sections of the
West the first cutting often contains much wild foxtail, or squirrel-
tail grass, which has coarse beards that are in.jurious to stock if the
hay is cut at the usual stage. In such eases the alfalfa may be cut
earlier, when the young foxtail will make good hay, or the crop may
be ensiled, which will soften the beards.

182 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Feeding alfalfa hay. — Since it is rich both in protein and in mineral
matter, especially lime, which is needed in large amonnt in milk pro-
duction, alfalfa hay is a most excellent feed for dairy cows. ]\lore-
over, it is highly palatable and has a beneficial laxative effect. The
statement sometimes made that alfalfa hay is equal to wheat bran for
dairy cows is not true, however. It supplies only about nine-tenths as
much digestible crude protein as bran, contains nearly 3 times as much
fiber, and furnishes only 70 per ct. as much net energy. Altho much
less concentrates are needed when alfalfa hay is fed than when a

Fig. 50. — Cutting Alfalfa in a Western Irrigated District

Wherever it thrives, the acreage of alfalfa is_ rapidly increasing, clue to tlie
large yield of excellent hay it produces. (From'U. S. Reclamation Service.)

roughage like timothy hay is used, all the concentrates in the ration
cannot be replaced, even by this most valuable roughage, without
reducing the milk yield of the cows.

The fattening of cattle and sheep in the western states has been
revolutionized by the use of alfalfa hay, due to the large and econom-
ical gains secured when this protein-rich roughage is fed with the
carbonaceous grains and perhaps silage or wet beet pulp. Breeding
cattle and young stock wintered on alfalfa hay, preferably with silage
in addition, will more than maintain their weight. For breeding ewes,
alfalfa hay is equally satisfactory. Owing to the fondness of horses

LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 183

for this roughage, the allowance should be restricted, lest they overeat.
Fed in proper amount, alfalfa hay has given satisfaction as the only
roughage, even for horses at rapid work. Alfalfa hay can be largely
used in maintaining breeding sv*^ine in winter, and even for fattening
pigs a limited amount may aid in producing cheap gains.

Pasturing alfalfa. — Alfalfa is not primarily a pasture plant, for,
particularly in humid regions, grazing is apt to injure the stand.
Moreover, cattle, and especially sheep, run risk from bloat when on
alfalfa pasture. Nevertheless, it furnishes such nutritious feed that
it is grazed on many farms even in the humid eastern states. To
avoid serious injury to the stand, the fields should not be pastured
until the stand has become well established, and animals should be
kept off when the ground is soft, muddy, or frozen. Heavy stocking
of the pasture is decidedly injurious, especially with horses and sheep,
which gnaw the plants to the ground. Except where the winters are
mild, alfalfa should be allowed to grow to a height of 6 to 12 inches
in the fall for winter protection.

Alfalfa pasture is excellent for horses and pigs, which are not sub-
ject to bloat. For colts and young horses the succulent alfalfa, rich
in protein and mineral matter, is especially helpful. On thousands of
farms it is the foundation of cheap pork production. The danger to
cattle and sheep from bloat varies greatly with climate and other fac-
tors. Tho there is always some risk, in such districts as the hot irri-
gated sections of the Southwest but little loss is experienced. Where
cattle or sheep are grazed on alfalfa the following precautions should
be taken : ^

For permanent pasture sow with alfalfa, bluegrass, brome grass or some
other grass adapted to your particular conditions. Use upland in preference to
lowland for pastiu'e, and have a constant supply of water for the stock. Frosted
alfalfa is especiallj' dangerous, but in the late fall after the crop has dried it may
be grazed again. Before turning animals on alfalfa for the first time, allow
them to fill up on grass pasture, Avith grain in addition if they have been ac-
customed to it. Then in the middle of the forenoon, when they do not care to
graze longer, turn them on the alfalfa. Tlio some advise allowing the stock
to graze only a few minutes the first day and gradually increasing the length
of time on the following days, it is probably safer to keep them on the pasture
continuously, for they will then never consume undue amounts at one time.
Watch the stock closely for the first few days and remove permanently those
animals which show symptoms of bloat, for individuals differ in their suscepti-
bility to the trouble. A method used in the San Joaquin valley, California,
when starting cattle on alfalfa pasture is to cut part of a field and turn the cattle
on this portion after the alfalfa is half dry. Then after they are well filled they
are allowed to eat whatever of the green crop they wish.

1 Partly adapted from Coburn, The Book of Alfalfa, pp. 109-119; and Wing,
Alfalfa Farming in America, pp. 338-344.

184 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Alfalfa for soilage. — Alfalfa is one of the most valuable of all soil-
ing crops, owing to the large yields and to the fact that under proper
management it will furnish rich succulence thruout the entire summer.
Much more forage, even twice as much in some cases, is secured from
a given acreage as soilage than when it is pastured. In certain hot
irrigated sections of the West where no grasses make satisfactory
summer pasture dairy cows are often maintained chiefly on alfalfa
soilage during much of the year. Whether it is profitable to feed
alfalfa as soilage rather than to pasture it will depend on the relative
cost of land and labor.

Alfalfa silage.— In some instances alfalfa is ensiled with success,
tho often a poor, vile-smelling silage is produced. The difficulty seems
due to the high protein content of the crop compared with the small
amount of sugars, from which the acids necessary to preserve the silage
are formed. Owing to the palatability of good alfalfa hay, there is
little reason for ensiling the crop, except when it cannot be cured in a
satisfactory manner. Alfalfa should be ensiled as soon after mowing
as possible and cut into short lengths so that it may be well packed.
When it is impossible to avoid partial curing, it should be ensiled
with the dew on or water should be added. Better silage is made when
alfalfa is ensiled along with crops rich in sugars, such as rye or wheat
cut when just past the milk stage, or green corn or sorghum.

Alfalfa meal and feed. — The manufacture of alfalfa meal (ground
alfalfa hay) and various feeds containing more or less of this material
has increased rapidly of late. For animals having good teeth and
time to chew their food, grinding hay does not increase its digestibility
or feeding value. For such animals the only advantages of the meal
are that it may be easier to transport and there is somewhat less waste
in feeding it. The bulky meal is also helpful in diluting heavy con-
centrates, which might cause digestive troubles if carelessly fed. Hay
can, however, be readily chopped sufficiently fine for this purpose on
the farm by merely running it thru a silage cutter. Unless good
alfalfa meal sells at an appreciably lower price than wheat bran, its
purchase cannot be recommended, for its feeding value is lower.
Ordinarily, the stockman can produce roughage cheaper on his farm
than he can buy it in feed sacks. Often one cannot tell by its appear-
ance whether the meal has been made from nutritious, early-cut hay
or from over-ripe, stemmy material. It should therefore be bought
on a guarantee of composition, and the fiber content should not be over
about 30 per ct.

Molasses, either beet or cane, is frequently mixed with alfalfa meal,
the product being sold as "alfalmo" or under other names. The mix-
ture is well-liked by stock, but its economy as a feed must be deter-

LEGUMES FOR EORAGE

185

mined by comparing- the composition and price with those of other
feeds. Many mixed feeds, discussed in Chapter XI, contain more or
less alfalfa meal.

II. Red Clover

Medium red clover. — This clover, commonly known simply as red
clover, is the most important legume in the humid sections of the
northern two-thirds of the United
States, where, grown in rotation
with corn and the cereals, it so
helpfully serves for hay and pas-
ture productiosi and for the main-
tenance of soil fertility. Clover is
chiefly seeded in combination with
timothy, 19,542,000 acres of mixed
clover and timothy being grown
for hay in the United States in
1909, compared with only 2,443,-
000 acres of clover alone. Red
clover does best on well-drained
soils rich in lime, not thriving on
a water-logged or acid soil. But
few plants live over 3 j-ears, and
the crop is usually treated as a bi-
ennial.

Red clover generally yields a
heavy first crop of hay, with a
lighter second cutting, which is
often allowed to mature for seed.

In the southern states, where it does not thrive dviring the heat of
summer, red clover is sometimes grown as a winter annual, the first
crop being cut in the spring and the second in early summer. The av-
erage yield of clover hay per acre, according to the census of 1910, was
1.29 tons, but under favorable conditions much higher returns are se-
cured, the yield in 2 cuttings ranging from 2 to 4 tons or even more per
acre. Where it flourishes, alfalfa out-yields red clover. However, red
clover is better adapted for short-time rotations with other crops like
corn and the cereals than the longer-lived alfalfa, which is often diffi-
cult to establish and is therefore grown in the same field for many
3'ears, if possible. In their eagerness to grow alfalfa many eastern
farmers are unfortunately neglecting the clovers, which are vitally
helpful in keeping up the fertility of the whole farm thru short-time
rotations. In many cases the growing of red or mammoth clover has

Fig. 51. — A Young Red Clover Plant,
Sliowing the Tubercles on the
Roots. (From U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

186 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

been abandoned on account of failure to secure stands. Such ''clover
sickness" of the soil may be due to certain diseases, but in most cases
it means that lime, phosphate, and possibly potash are needed. Farm-
ers who willingly prepare fields thoroly for alfalfa often fail to make
reasonable efforts to get good stands of clover.

Red clover for hay. — Clover yields the largest amount of hay per
acre, and also more crude protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat when
cut at full bloom. After this period only the fiber increases, the other
nutrients growing less, due to the withering and dropping of the lower
leaves and the leaching of the plants by rains. This shrinkage of
nutrients as clover matures is similar to that in the smaller grasses
and opposite to what occurs in the corn crop. While full bloom is
theoretically the best time to cut clover for hay, practical experience
shows that it is best to wait until about one-third of the blossom heads
have turned brown. This is because at any earlier date the plant is
so soft and sappy that it is difficult to cure it into good hay. Delaying
until all the heads are dead makes haying still easier, but means a
poor, woody, unpalatable product.

Clover for hay. — Well-cured clover hay, bright and with leaves in-
tact, is an excellent roughage for all farm stock. Tho dusty clover
hay is to be avoided for feeding horses, that of good quality is suc-
cessfully and economically used with both farm and city horses.
Mixed clover and timothy hay is preferred by many to clear clover hay
for horse feeding, since it usually is freer from dust.

No investigations of the experiment stations in animal husbandry
have been more helpful than those showing the great value of the
legumes for fattening cattle and sheep. By adding clover hay to the
ration, the grain requirement can be materially reduced and the fat-
tening period shortened — both matters of great importance in these
days of high-priced concentrates. For the cow, clover hay is unex-
celled as a roughage, unless by alfalfa. Where well-cured clover hay
furnishes one-half or more of the roughage, the dairyman is able to
cut the allowance of concentrates and materially reduce the cost of the
ration. This roughage has the same high place for feeding breeding
ewes, wintering cattle, and especially for young animals. Early-cut
clover hay ranks next to alfalfa for swine, being especially valuable
for breeding stock.

Clover for pasture, soilage and silage. — Clover pasture is helpful
and important for all farm animals. It about maintains pigs, so that
all the grain fed goes to make gain. Pigs on clover are healthy and
have good bone and constitution — points of special importance with
breeding stock. Tho there is somewhat less danger from bloat with
clover than alfalfa, cattle and sheep should not be turned on clover

LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 187

pasture for the first time while hungry or before the dew has risen.
Dry forage, such as hay or straw, should also be placed in feed racks
in the pasture.

Clover is particularly valuable for soilage, ranking next to alfalfa,
and furnishes 3 or 4 cuttings annually if the weather is favorable.
In some cases clover has made good silage, but so many failures have
occurred that this plant cannot be recommended for such purpose,
except where weather conditions prevent its being properly cured into
hay. The same precautions should then be taken as with alfalfa for
silage.

III. Other Clovers and Leguminous Forage Plants

Mammoth clover. — This clover grows ranker than medium red
clover, has coarser stems, and blooms 2 to 3 weeks later. It usually
lives 3 years or more and thrives better on poor or sandy soil than
does red clover. As it is coarser, the hay is more difficult to cure and
somewhat less palatable. Since it yields but a single cutting during
the season, this clover is frequently pastured for several weeks in the
early spring. After the stock is removed the plants shoot up and are
soon ready for the mower.

Alsike clover. — Alsike clover flourishes on land too acid or too wet
for other clovers and is a hardier, longer-lived plant, enduring 4 to 6
years on good soil. Since it j^ields but one cutting, it is excelled by
red clover where the latter thrives. However, as alsike will grow on
"clover-sick" soil, it is replacing red clover on many fields. It should
be seeded with timothy or other grasses to support the weak stems.
Alsike hay is fine-stemmed and fully equal to red clover in value.

White clover. — This creeping perennial thrives in almost any soil
from Canada nearly to the Gulf of ^Mexico, if moisture is ample. In
the North it is important in mixed pastures, forming a dense mat of
herbage thruout the growing season. In the South it nearly disap-
pears in summer, but reappears in the fall furnishing winter pas-
turage, and thus combines well with Bermuda grass. Owing to its
low growth it does not yield hay.

Sweet clover. — White sweet clover is a biennial widely distributed
along roadsides and in waste places over southern Canada and a large
part of the United States, thriving best on soils rich in lime. It will
grow in soil so poorly drained or so worn and low in humus that al-
falfa or red clover will not live. Where these more valuable legumes
do not thrive, sweet clover, which was once viewed as a weed, is of
considerable value. It may be used for pasture, hay, and soilage, and
has occasionally been ensiled. At first animals usually refuse sweet
clover, for all parts of the plant contain cumarin, a bitter compound

188 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

with a vanilla-like odor. In spring the herbage is less bitter and ani-
mals of all classes can generally then be taught to eat it. When the
clover is cured a large part of the cumarin is volatilized, the hay thus
being less bitter than the green plants.

Sweet clover seed should be thickly sown so that the stems will not
grow coarse, and especially in the second year the crop should be cut
when the first blossoms appear, or even before, since after this stage
the plants rapidly grow woody. The first season 1 cutting and the
second 2 can be secured in the North, and often 3 in the South. The
crop should be cut about 6 inches from the ground, for the new shoots

Fig. 52. — A Field op Crimson Clover in Bloom

Crimson clover, grown cliiefly as a green manure and a winter cover crop, is
also used for pasture and hay. (From Coxivtry Gentleman.)

grow out not from the crown, as in alfalfa, but from the stems. Sweet
clover makes good hay for horses, cattle, and sheep, and furnishes good
pasture for pigs. It should be closely grazed to keep the plants from
l)ecoming woody. The yellow-flowered sweet clover is two weeks ear-
lier and smaller in growth than the white variety.

Crimson clover.— This annual, adapted to mild climates, is grown
chiefly in the Atlantic seaboard states from New Jersey southward.
Sown in the late summer or early fall, it blossoms the following spring
and dies by early summer. It is grown chiefly as green manure and a
winter cover crop, but is also used for pasture and hay, and to some

LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 189

extent for soilage. Crimson clover thrives on both sandy and clay
land, if well drained, and has the advantage that the crop may be
harvested or plowed under as manure early enough so that other crops
may be raised the same year. When grown for hay it is important
that crimson clover be cut by the time the flowers at the base of the
most advanced heads have faded. After this, the minute barbed hairs
of the blossom heads and stems become hard and wiry. If hay from
over-ripe clover is fed to horses or mules these hairs sometimes mat
together in the digestive tract, forming felt-like masses which plug
the intestines, causing death. Cut at the right stage, crimson clover
hay is about equal to that from red clover.

Bur clovers. — The southern hur clover and the California hur
clover are winter annuals that furnish valuable pasturage in mild re-
gions. The former, which is the hardier, is found chiefly in the south-
ern states, and the latter in California and Texas. They are admir-
able supplements to Bermuda pasture, furnishing feed when that
grass is resting and reseeding unless grazed too closely. Even on
land where summer cultivated crops are grown, bur clover, if once
sown, volunteers in the fall.

The common field-pea vine.— The common field pea, discussed as a
grain crop in Chapter X, is grown in Canada and the northern states
to some extent for forage. Peas and oats, if cut early, make nutritious
hay well liked by all classes of stock, and also silage of good quality.
The combination is frequently sown as a spring soiling crop, espe-
cially for dairy cows, or as pasturage, chiefly for swine. In some of
the irrigated Rocky Mountain valleys field peas, usually with a small
quantity of oats or barley, are sown extensively and grazed when
nearly mature by sheep and pigs.

Pea-cannery refuse.- — Formerly the bruised pea vines and empty
pods from the pea canneries were used only for manure. This rich
by-product is now usually preserved in silos or in large stacks, where
the decaying exterior preserves the mass within. The silage has a
strong odor but is relished by all farm animals, especially dairy cows,
fattening cattle, and sheep.

Cowpea. — This hot weather annual is the most important legume in
the cotton belt, furnishing grain for humans and animals, tho chiefly
grown for forage and green manure. It flourishes on all types of soil
and with but little attention, increasing the fertility of the land and
furnishing rich hay, pasturage, soilage, and silage. Sown at corn
planting or later, early varieties mature the first pods in 70 to 90
days. The crop may be then cut for hay, or the harvesting consid-
erably delayed without loss. Cowpeas yield from 1 to 3 tons of hay
per acre which is equal to red clover or alfalfa in value and is an

190

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

excellent roughage for horses, cattle, and sheep. When cowpea hay is
fed to dairy cows or fattening steers the concentrates maj' be re-
duced to one-half the amount needed when a carbonaceous roughage,
such as corn stover or hay from the grasses, is fed. To support the
vines, cowpeas are often grown with corn or sorghum. Frequently,
some of the cowpea seed is picked by hand, and the remainder of the
crop grazed by cattle, sheep, or pigs. Cowpeas and corn or sorghum
also make palatable protein-rich silage. Thru greater use of cow-
peas and the other legumes which flourish there the live-stock industry
of the South may be enormously increased.

Soybean. — Soybeans, which mature sufficiently for hay wherever
corn may be grown for silage, and are not injured by slight frosts,
are better adapted to the northern part of the corn belt than cowpeas.
Tho more drought-resistant than cowpeas, they will not thrive on
such poor land. The plants, which are bushy, should be cut for hay

Fig. 53. — Soybeans Which Yielded 2.5 Tons of Hay Per Acre

Soybeans are adapted to the same range of climate as corn and, because of
their resistance to drought, are especially suited to sandy soils. (From Breeder's
(Jazette.)

when the pods are well formed but before the leaves begin to turn
yellow, for soon thereafter the stems become woody and the leaves
easily drop off. The crop yields from 1 to 3 tons per acre of ha}^
equal to cowpea or alfalfa hay in feeding value. While soybeans
alone make rank smelling silage, 1 ton of soybeans ensiled with 3 to

LEGUMES FOR FORAGE

191

4 tons of corn or sorghum forage makes a satisfactory product. For
this purpose the soybeans and corn or sorghum may be mixed as en-
siled, or they may be grown together. In the South soybeans alone or
soybeans and corn are often grazed by hogs. For this purpose the
beans should be planted in rows to lessen the loss by tramping, and the
hogs should not be turned in until the pods are nearly mature. In
the northern states the chief value of soybeans is for sandy land or
as a catch crop when clover or other crops fail.

Vetch.— Of the vetches, only the hairy or sand vetch, and the com-
mon vetch are important in the United States. Both are ordinarily
annuals, tho the hairy vetch especially may live more than a year.

'Miir'ci

Fig. 54. — Hairy Vetch and Rye in Virginia

As liairy vetch has weak vines wliich grow from 4 to 10 feet in a tangled
mass, it is usually grown with the cereals for hay. (From U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

Being cool-weather plants, in mild climates they are usually sown in
the fall. While common vetch is killed by zero temperatures, hairy
vetch usually endures the winter in the northern states if well estab-
lished in the fall. Hairy vetch may be grown in poorer soil than its
relative and is markedly drought resistant. It is chiefly grown for
hay, being usually sown with the cereals, which support the weak
vines that grow from 4 to 10 feet in a tangled mass. Where the win-
ters are mild and the soil rich, common vetch is preferred, as the seed

192 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

is cheaper and the vines grow less tangled. The vetches yield from
1.5 to 2.5 tons or more of hay per acre and furnish excellent pasturage
for cattle, sheep, and swine.

Lespedeza. — Japan clover, commonly called lespedeza in the South,
is a summer annual which has now spread over most of the territory
from central New Jersey westward to central Kansas and south to the
Gulf. Here, even on the poorest soils, it appears spontaneously in
mixed pastures, and unless closely grazed reseeds freely. On the
poorer lands of the cotton belt lespedeza is perhaps the most valuable
pasture plant, adding nitrogen to the soil, binding it together, pre-
venting washing, and furnishing pasturage well-liked by all stock.
This legume has not been known to cause bloat. Only on rich soil
does it grow tall enough for hay.

Velvet beans.— The tropical velvet bean flourishes south of a line
drawn from Savannah, Georgia, to Austin, Texas. The vines, which
run on the ground from 15 to 75 feet, are difficult to cure into hay,
and are mostly used for grazing. As high as 30 bushels of shelled
beans per acre have been secured. The beans are commonly fed in
the pod, 1.5 tons of pod beans being worth as much as 1 ton of cot-
tonseed meal for dairy cows. When fed exclusively, velvet beans
produce poor quality pork.

Beggar weed. — This annual legume, which has rather woody stalks
3 to 10 feet high bearing abundant leafage, is used for green forage
and hay production in the sub-tropical regions of our country. Cut
at the beginning of bloom, when 3 to 4 feet high, it yields from 2.25
to 4 tons of excellent hay per acre.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the advantages of leguminous rougliages?

2. Compare alfalfa hay with timothy hay and discuss its importance for
stock feeding.

3. How would you use alfalfa for pasture?

4. Discuss the use of alfalfa for soilage; for silage.

5. What is the value of alfalfa meal?

6. Summarize the advantages of red clover in farming and stock feeding.

7. Treat briefly of the value of the other clovers — mammoth, alsike, white,
sweet, crimson, and bur.

8. How are field peas used as a forage plant?

9. Discuss the value and uses. of cowpeas, soybeans, vetch, lespedeza, and velvet

CHAPTER XV

ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES

I. Roots and Tubers

In northern Europe and in eastern Canada root crops are exten-
sively grown for stock, but in this country they have never been
widely used. Indeed, in 1909 over 5,000 acres of corn were raised in
the United States for each acre of roots grown for feeding. This dif-
ference is natural, for northern Europe, with its cool summers, is
well suited to growing roots but not corn. In most parts of our
country the summers are hot and this imperial grain and forage crop
thrives, furnishing in corn silage a palatable succulent feed cheaper
than roots. Therefore, growing roots for stock is advisable only in
those districts where the summers are too cool for corn, and on farms
in the corn belt where too few animals are kept to use silage econom-
ically, or where roots serve as a relish for show animals or dairy cows
on official test or for swine or poultry.

Use and value of roots. — Since the dry matter of roots is as di-
gestible as that of the grains, roots should not be regarded as rough-
ages, but as watered concentrates. For dairy cows a pound of dry
matter in roots is as valuable as a pound of dry matter in corn or
barley, and roots can replace half the concentrates ordinarily fed,
without reducing the yield of milk or butter. In addition to the
nutrients they furnish, roots and other succulent feeds have a bene-
ficial tonic effect upon animals, and are especially helpful in keeping
breeding cattle, sheep, and swine in thrifty condition. Many suc-
cessful stockmen recommend roots highly for animals being fitted for
show and for dairy cows crowded to maximum production on official
tests.

In this country the daily allowance of roots per 1,000 lbs. live
weight is from 25 to 50 lbs. or less, while in Great Britain it is often
100 lbs. or more. Roots are usually chopped or sliced before feeding
and often meal is sprinkled over them in the feed box. Considerable
straw and other low-grade roughage may be advantageously fed with
roots by following the English practice of pulping the roots, spread-
ing them in layers with chaffed straw or hay and shovelling the
mass over, and then feeding after several hours, when the roughage

193

194 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

is moistened and softened. In the northern states, roots must be
stored in winter in well-ventilated pits or cellars; in mild climates
they may remain in the fields until fed. In Great Britain sheep are
often grazed on root crops, saving the labor of harvesting.

Roots vs. corn silage. — To grow, harvest, and store an acre of roots
costs considerably more than to grow an acre of corn and ensile it,
because root crops require more thoro preparation of the soil and far
more hand labor in cultivation, harvesting, and storage. IMoreover,
trials at three stations show that corn silage will yield on the average
from 68 to 92 per ct. more dry matter per acre than mangels, sugar
beets, or rutabagas. Where corn thrives corn silage will furnish dry
matter at half the cost of roots or less, and in trials with dairy cows
the dry matter of corn silage has proven fully as valuable as that of
roots. AVe should remember that roots are much more watery than
silage and that 100 lbs. of roots are therefore worth correspondingly
less than 100 lbs. of corn silage. Trials with fattening lambs show
100 lbs. of corn silage is equal to 150 lbs. of roots in feeding value.

The mangel. — The mangel, or mangel wurzel, is the most watery of
roots, containing but 9.4 per ct. dry matter. Yet, due to its enor-
mous yield — 20 to 30 tons per acre on good soil and sometimes more
— it produces a large amount of dry matter per acre. Because it
stands well out of the ground, this root is much more easily culti-
vated and harvested than the sugar beet and it keeps better in winter.
Mangels are useful for all farm animals, except possibly horses.
However, if fed to rams or wethers for long periods, both mangels
and sugar beets produce dangerous calculi, or stones, in the urinary
organs. Mangels should not be fed until after storage for a few
weeks, as freshly harvested roots may cause scouring. Half-sugar
mangels, crosses between sugar beets and mangels, are richer in dry
matter than mangels.

Sugar beet. — This root has been so developed for sugar production
that some strains now contain 16 per ct. or more of sugar. The yield
is smaller than that of mangels, but, due to the higher sugar content,
sugar beets generall}^ produce as much dry matter per acre. They
demand more labor in cultivating and harvesting than mangels, as
they set deep in the ground. They are well-liked by stock and are
often fed to dairy cows on test.

Where beets are grown for sugar factories, the cull beets and the
tops and leaves should be fed to stock. The tops and leaves may be
fed fresh or they may be ensiled, either alone or with an equal weight
of dry corn fodder, water being added in the latter case so that the
mass will pack well.

Rutabaga. — The rutabaga, or swede,, extensively grown in Great

ROOTS AND TUBERS

195

Britain and Canada, ranks next to the mangel in ease of cultivation,
and sheep prefer it to all other roots. Like other turnips, rutabagas
may taint the milk of cows, and should therefore be fed immediately
after milking. ,

Turnip. — The turnip is more watery than the rutabaga and does
not keep so well. Maturing early, turnips are used chiefly for early
fall feeding, and often yield large crops, even when sown as a catch
crop and without cultivation. Tho used mainly for sheep, they can
also be fed to cattle.

Fig. 55. — Sugar Beets in a Western Irrigated District

While but relatively few acres of sugar beets are grown for stock feeding in
tliis country, the raising of sugar beets for the beet sugar factories is an im])or-
tant industry in certain sections, especially in some of the irrigated districts of
the West. (From U. S. Reclamation Service.)

Carrot. — Under favorable conditions stock carrots yield heavily.
They are relished by horses, but should be fed sparingly to hard-
worked or driving horses. They are also useful for other stock, espe-
cially dairy cows.

Parsnip, — Parsnips, the favorite root with dairy farmers on the
islands of Jersey and Guernsey, contain about as much dry matter as
sugar beets. They are little grown in this country, on account of the
low yield and the difficulty of harvesting.

Potato. — In Europe heavy-yielding varieties of potatoes are ex-

196

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

tensively grown for stock, but in this country potatoes are not usually
fed to stock, unless low in price or too small for marketing. They
are fed chiefly to pigs, but can also be given in limited amounts to
cattle, sheep, and* horses as a partial substitute for grain. For pigs
they should be steamed or boiled. The heavy feeding of raw potatoes
is not advisable as it induces scouring. The bitter tasting water in
which potatoes are cooked should be thrown away, likewise all unripe
tubers and the sprouts, which nmy contain considerable solanin, a
poison. German experience shows that half the dry matter in rations

Fig. 56. — Sweet Potatoes after the Vines Have Nearly Covered
THE Ground

Sweet potatoes are one of the best root crops for pigs for fall and early winter
feeding in tlie Soiitli. and may also be fed to cattle or horses. (From U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.)

for fattening cattle and sheep, and one-fourth in those for horses,
may be furnished in potatoes. Feeding over 35 lbs. per head daily
to dairy cows injures the quality of the butter.

Jerusalem artichoke. — The tubers of this hardy perennial, which
resemble the potato in composition, are sometimes grown for stock.
'The tubers live over winter in the ground and enough are usually left
to make the next crop. They may be harvested like potatoes, or pigs
may be turned in to gather the crop, being fed grain in addition.

ROOTS AND TUBERS 197

Tho the artichoke has been highly praised, nowhere in this country
does it seem to be grown continuously — a significant fact.

Sweet potato. — This southern crop, which may be grown as far
north as New Jersey and Illinois, serves chiefly for human food, but
is also fed to stock, especially pigs, which do their own harvesting.
The crop is especially suited to sandy land. Tho the average yield
is 90 bushels per acre, some farmers raise 200. Sweet potatoes are one
of the best root crops for pigs for fall and early winter grazing, and
may also be fed to cattle or substituted for half the corn in rations for
work horses. The vines, tho difficult to gather, are often fed in the
green state.

Chufa. — The chufa sedge, frequently a weed on southern farms,
produces small, chaffy tubers that are relished by pigs, which are
turned in to harvest the crop. They are low in digestible protein and
should be supplemented by protein-rich feeds. In one trial a good
crop of chufas produced 592 lbs. of pork per acre, after allowing for
the other feed consumed by the pigs.

Cassava. — The cassava, a bushy plant growing from 4 to 10 feet
high, yields fleshy roots, like those of the sweet potato. Tropical
varieties carry much prussic acid and must be heated before feeding,
but those grown in this country are not poisonous. The culture of
cassava in the United States has declined in recent years, due to the
fact that sweet potatoes give larger yields at less expense.

II. jMiscellaxeous Succulent Feeds

Rape. — Dwarf Essex rape, a member of the turnip and cabbage
family, now widely grown thruout the United States, stores its nutri-
ment in the numerous leaves and stems. Bird seed rape is worthless
for forage. AVhile rape may be used for soiling, it is best to let stock
harvest the crop. The plants should never be grazed so closely that
only the bare stalks remain, or the yield of new leaves will be reduced.

The seed, which is inexpensive, may be sown from early spring to
August in the North and even later in the South, either broadcast or
in drills and cultivated. It may also be sown in corn previous to the
last cultivation. In 6 to 12 weeks after seeding the crop is large
enough for use. As it endures quite severe frosts, rape is excellent
for late autumn feed.

Rape ranks high as a pasture crop for sheep and pigs, for which it
is chiefly used. To avoid tainting the milk of dairy cows, it should
be fed or grazed only directly after milking. Cattle having the run
of a rape field in the fall will go into winter quarters in high condi-
tion. Access to clover or bluegrass pasture when on rape is advan-

198 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

tageous to stock, especially cattle and sheep, as it reduces the danger
from bloat. Animals on rape should be freely supplied with salt, as
this tends to check any undue laxative effect.

Cabbage. — Cabbage is little grown for stock feeding in this coun-
try, because of the labor required in its cultivation. It is sometimes
fed to milch cows, and is a favorite with shepherds when preparing
stock for exhibition.

Kohlrabi. — Tho yielding less than the rutabaga, kohlrabi, another
member of the cabbage family, can be grown wherever the former
thrives. Since the thickened, turnip-like stem stands well above
ground, it is readily pastured by sheep. Kohlrabi has not been known
to taint the milk, when fed to dairy cows.

Kale. — This cabbage-like plant, which does not form heads, is grown
extensively in AVashington and Oregon, where it is considered the
best soiling crop for dairy cows. Yields of 35 to 45 tons and even
more are secured on rich soil. In the mild climate of that section
kale is fed from October to April, as it endures frost. Unless fed
after milking it may taint the milk of cows. Kale is also excellent
for sheep and swine.

Pumpkin, squash, and melon. — Pumpkins are often planted in
corn fields and the fruits used as relishes for stock. For dairy cows
2.5 tons of pumpkins, including seeds, are equal to 1 ton of corn
silage. . Tho often cooked for pigs, raw pumpkins give just as good
results. The seeds of pumpkins, sometimes removed thru a mistaken
idea that they are harmful, are full of nutriment and should not be
wasted. With pigs, they act as a vermifuge and put the digestive or-
gans in good condition. As the seeds are rich in protein and oil, eat-
ing an excess may cause digestive disturbances. Squashes and
melons, especially citrons, are also fed to stock.

Apples and other fruits. — Windfall apples, pears, peaches, plums,
oranges, figs, etc., may often be fed advantageously to stock, and with
an unprofitable fruit market even sound fruit may be thus utilized.
The chief nutrients of fruits are the sugars, and, since they are all
low in protein, they should be fed with protein-rich feeds. For dairy
cows apples have 40 per ct. of the value of corn silage, while apple
pomace is almost equal to it. When fed with shorts and skim milk
to pigs, 100 lbs. of apples have equalled from 9 to 15 lbs. of concen-
trates.^

Sagebrush, saltbush, and the greasewoods. — These plants of the
desert flourish on the western plains where drought, alkali, and com-
mon salt shut out most of the ordinary forage crops. On many ranges
they furnish much of the feed consumed by stock. The Australian

lUtah Bui. 101.

ROOTS AND TUBERS

199

saltbiish, introduced into California and Arizona, will produce 15 to
20 tons of green forage per acre under favorable conditions, or 3 to 5
tons of coarse hay which has about the same digestibility as oat
hay.

Cacti.— During periods of drought the cacti, especially prickly
pears, are a boon to stockmen of the arid western regions. Because
of their peculiar structure and habits, cacti can survive long droughts,
tho they make little growth at such times. Prickly pear cacti may be
fed where they stand by first singeing otf the spines with a gasoline

Fig. 57. — Singeing Prickly Pear with a Gasoline Torch

After the spines liave been singed off cattle can feed on prickly pear without
harm. Another method is to cut the cacti and run them thru machines which
chop them, rendering the spines comparatively harmless. (From U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.)

torch, or they may be gathered and run thru machines which chop
them in such a manner that the spines are comparatively harmless.
Cacti grow but slowly on the range, and can usually be harvested but
once in 5 years, even under favorable conditions.

Prickly pear cacti contain about 16.5 per ct. dry matter, being less
watery than roots, and cane cacti contain somewhat more dry matter.
Since they are low in protein, all the cacti should be fed with a pro-
tein-rich concentrate or roughage. Cacti alone do not maintain stock.
Tho desert cattle sometimes subsist on them for 3 months of the year,

200 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

they become very emaciated. Fed in large amounts with no dry feed
cacti tend to produce scours.

Spineless cacti, long known, but of late exploited as a novelty, have
only limited usefulness for stock feeding, both because they do not
survive where the temperature falls below 20° F., and because on the
open range cattle readily destroy them. IMoreover, in the West, they
must be enclosed bj^ rabbit-proof fences.

The chief importance of cacti will undoubtedly be to furnish emer-
gency forage for stock in the semi-arid plains regions. For this pur-
pose plantations of the spiny cacti may be established on the open
range, where they will be able to grow and hold their own until drawn
upon in time of serious drought, for cattle will not graze them when
other feed is reasonably abundant. All cacti have little value in
humid regions.

III. Poisonous Plants

Only the briefest mention can be made of the leading plants poison-
ous to stock.' One in trouble should send suspected specimens to the
experiment station of his state, or to the United States Department of
Agriculture.

Plants carrying prussic acid. — Prussic acid, a deadly poison, is
found in many plants. The leaves of the wild cherry, especially
when wilted, are particularly fatal to cattle. AVhen the sorghums,
both sweet and grain varieties, are stunted by drought, enough prus-
sic acid ma}^ develop to kill cattle grazing on them. Caution should
be used in feeding stunted or second-growth sorghum, kafir, Johnson-
grass, etc. Wilted or cured sorghum and sorghum silage are not
poisonous.

Ergot. — The seeds of rye and many of the grasses are sometimes
attacked by a fungus which produces poisonous black masses known
as ergot. Atfected animals should have their feed changed to remove
the cause, and be warmly housed and liberally fed.

Forage poisoning. — During recent j^ears serious losses of stock
have occurred from forage poisoning, or "blind staggers," caused by
eating moldy feed or drinking water that has passed thru moldy
vegetation. Horses and mules succumb most easily but cattle are also
affected. The mortality is high in well-developed cases; therefore,
animals showing the slightest symptoms should have their feed
changed. If moldy feed must be given, it should be fed sparingly
and mixed with other feeds of good quality.

Cornstalk disease. — All efforts to determine the cause of a mj'steri-
ous and fatal ailment, called corn-stalk disease, which attacks cattle
turned into stalk fields during fall and winter in the West, have

ROOTS AND TUBERS 201

failed. Danger can be avoided by cutting and shocking the corn and
feeding the fodder or the stover after husking.

Corn smut.— Since cows have been fed as much as 10 lbs. of corn
smut daily for considerable periods without harm, it is reasonable to
hold that it is not generally dangerous to cattle.

Loco poisoning. — In Colorado alone a million dollars has been lost
annually thru "loco" poisoning, brought on by eating various plants,
mostly legumes, which in certain regions may contain barium salts.
The trouble is most prevalent in the spring, when the emaciated range
animals are forced because of scanty forage to eat plants they would
ordinarily reject.

Castor beans. — Castor beans and castor pomace contain a deadly
poison, which may be destroyed by exposing the castor oil cake or the
seeds to the air for 5 to 6 days, or by cooking them for 2 hours.

Miscellaneous poisonous plants. — The common horsetail, water hem-
lock, poison hemlock, death camas, several species of larkspur, cockle
bur, woody aster, and many other plants are more or less poisonous
to stock. However, animals seldom eat poisonous plants unless forced
to do so by hunger. When grazing is short, stock should be kept away
from areas definitely known to be infested with sucli plants.

QUESTIONS

1. Discuss tlie uses of roots for stock feeding.

2. Compare the value and economy of roots and corn silage.

3. Name the five most important root crops for tlie Nortli and discuss thoir
value.

4. Of what value are potatoes for stock?

5. Name three root crops grown only in the South and state tiieir merits.
G. State tlie value and uses of rape for stock.

7. Discuss tlie value of three otlier memhers of the cabbage family.

8. What are the uses of sagebrush, saltbush, the greasewoods, and the cacti?

9. Name some of the plants poisonous to stock.

CHAPTER XVI

SILAGE— SOILAGE

I, Silage and the Silo

The preservation of green forage by placing it in pits or heaps and
covering with earth has long been practiced in Europe. However,
silos — special structures built mainly above ground to contain such
material — have been in use only during the past 40 years. From
1879, when the first silo was built in this country, the use of silage has
increased rapidly, until now it is a factor of vast importance in Amer-
ican agriculture.

How ensiling preserves forage. — When green forage is packed
firmly in a chamber with air-tight walls, such as a silo, fermentations
take place, caused both by the enzymes contained in the plant cells and
by bacteria and yeasts carried into the silo on the forage. During these
fermentations much of the sugar in the forage is broken down into
organic acids, chiefly lactic acid (the acid in sour milk) and acetic acid
(the acid in vinegar). In these changes oxygen is taken up and car-
bon dioxid (carbonic acid gas) given off. At first the oxygen in the
air which has been entrapped in the ensiled mass is used up, but if
the forage has been well packed, this is soon exhausted. The enzymes
and bacteria then obtain the oxygen for these decompositions from the
oxygen-containing compounds in the forage — chiefly the sugars.
When the sugar in the forage has been changed into acids the fermen-
tation is checked, for the other carbohydrates are attacked to only a
small extent. It is due to this that corn or sorghum makes less acid
silage when well matured than if ensiled when the plants contain
more sugar. Even tho much sugar is present, the fermentation fi-
nally comes to an end, for sufficient acid is produced to prevent both
the further growth of the bacteria and yeasts and the action of the
plant enzymes. During the fermentation the temperature rises some-
what, but rarely reaches 100° F. if the mass has been well tramped to
exhaust the air.

The acid in silage prevents the growth of undesirable putrefying
bacteria, such as cause the decaying of meat. The foul-smelling silage
often obtained from alfalfa, clover, and other legumes is largely due
to the fact that not enough sugar is present in such plants to form
sufficient acid to check the growth of these putrefying bacteria.

202

SILAGE— SOILAGE

203

After a few days the silage-making processes cease, and no appre-
ciable changes will take place so long as the air is excluded. In-
stances are on record where silage made 12 to 14 years before has been
found to be of excellent quality. Tho the conversion of sugar into
acids is the chief change in good silage, a considerable part of the
protein is also broken down into amino acids. Since this splitting of
the protein into simpler compounds is similar to digestion in the ani-
mal, it probably does not lessen the nutritive value.

Fig. 58.

-Silos have Revolutionized Stock Feeding in iMany
Districts

The silo provides high-quality succulent feed for any season of the year, with a
low expense for labor and a minimum wastage of nutrients.

Advantages of silage. — The widespread use of the silo for the
preservation of forage is easily explained when we consider the ad-
vantages this system offers, the more important of which are :

1. At a low expense silage furnishes high-quality succulent feed
for any desired season of the year. The cost of silage per ton will
vary widely, depending on the price of labor, the yield of forage per
acre, and the rent of the land. However, when average yields are
secured the cost of corn silage should not be over $3.50 to $4.00 per

204 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED

ton, including land rental, cost of manure or fertilizers, seed, labor
and other expenses in growing and harvesting the crop, as well as in-
terest and depreciation on machinery. For winter feeding, silage is
far cheaper than roots and as efficient, except possibly in the case of
animals being fitted for shows and milch cows on forced test. In
summer silage furnishes succulent feed with, less bother and expense
than do soiling crops.

2. When crops are properly ensiled, less of the nutrients are wasted
thru the fermentations which take place than are lost when the forage
is cured as hay or dry fodder.

3. Silage, even from plants with coarse stalks, such as corn and the
sorghums, is eaten practically without waste. On the other hand,
from 20 to 35 per ct. of dry corn fodder, even if of good quality, is
usually wasted. The use of silage thus permits the keeping of more
stock on a given area of land.

4. Crops may be ensiled when the weather is unfavorable for curing
them into dry fodder. In some sections of the South the corn crop
can not be preserved satisfactorily as grain and stover on account of
the dampness and also because rodents and weevils ruin the stored
grain. Ensiling the crop overcomes both difficulties.

5. Weedy crops, which make poor hay, may make silage of good
quality, the ensiling process killing practically all weed seeds.

6. The product from a given area can be stored in less space as
silage than as dry forage. A cubic foot of hay in the mow, weighing
about 5 lbs., contains approximately 4.3 lbs. of drj^ matter. An aver-
age cubic foot of corn silage from a 30-foot silo, weighing about 39.6
lbs., will contain 10.4 lbs. dry matter, or nearly 2.5 times as much.

7. Ensiling the corn crop clears the land early so it ma}^ be prepared
for another crop.

Crops for the silo. — The suitability of the leading crops for silage
has been discussed in the preceding chapters. Indian corn is the best
silage plant, sorghos and the grain sorghums ranking next in value
and importance. Green cereals are fairly satisfactory for silage, if
ensiled before the stems become woody, and if the cut forage is well
tramped to force the air out of the hollow stems.

The legumes have proved disappointing for silage. Better results
have been secured with alfalfa and clover when they are ensiled with
other plants which carry more sugar, such as green rye, wheat, corn,
or sorghum. Whenever these legumes can be cured into satisfactory
hay, there is little need of ensiling them, for more reliable silage crops^
may usually be gro^A-n. When ensiled with corn or the sorghums,
cowpeas and soybeans produce silage of high quality, rich in protein.
The refuse of pea canneries makes a silage much relished by stock.

SILAGE— SOILAGE 205

Such substances as beet pulp, beet tops, apple pomace, the waste
from sweet corn canneries, and sorghum bagasse may be successfully
preserved in silos, or placed in heaps and covered with earth, or even
massed in large heaps without covering, in which case the outside por-
tion on decaying forms a preserving crust. Weeds and other waste
vegetation may sometimes be advantageously ensiled. Cabbage, rape,
and turnips make unsatisfactory silage, ill-smelling and watery.

Silage on the stock farm.— Over a large part of the United States
the use of silage is a most important means of lowering the cost of
producing milk and meat. Apart from the nutrients it contains, this
succulent feed aids in keeping stock in thrifty condition so that they
will make the most from their feed. Since it furnishes at any time of
the year a uniform supply of succulent feed nearly equal in palatability
and nutritive effect to the pasturage of early summer, silage is unex-
celled for dairy cows, beef cattle, and sheep. With an abundance of
silage and legume hay the amount of concentrates which must be pur-
chased or grown may be greatly reduced. Silage is especially valuable
for breeding stock and young animals, keeping them in better condition
than if wintered on dry forage alone. On too many farms stock cattle
barely hold their own during winter. This means that for half of each
year all the feed consumed goes for body maintenance, returning
nothing to the owner, and serving only to carry the animals over to
pasture time, when they once more may gain in weight and really
increase in value. By the use of corn silage, combined with other
cheap roughages, young cattle may gain steadily all winter at small
cost, and by spring they will be in condition to make the largest pos-
sible gains from pasture. Silage is a valuable succulence for sheep,
but must be fed in moderation to ewes before lambing or weak, flabby
lambs may result. Good silage may also be used in a limited way with
idle horses and those not hard worked in winter, especially brood
mares and colts.

Spoiled, moldy silage should always be discarded, and special care
taken to feed no such material to sheep or horses, which are much more
easily affected by it than cattle. Silage which is very sour is apt to
cause digestive disturbances with sheep. For all animals only as much
silage should be supplied as will be cleaned up at each feeding. Care
should be taken to remove any waste, for it spoils in a short time on
exposure to the air. Frozen silage must be thawed before feeding.

The amount of silage commonly fed per head daily to the various
classes of stock is about as follows:

Dairy cows, 30 to 50 lbs. for those in milk, with somewhat less for
dry cows ; dairy heifers, 12 to 20 lbs. ; beef breeding cows, 30 to 50 lbs. ;
fattening 2-year-old steers, 25 to 30 lbs. at the beginning of the fat-

206 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

teniug period, the allowance decreasing as they fatten until only 10 to
15 lbs. is fed; brood mares and idle horses, 15 to 30 lbs.; breeding
ewes, 2 lbs. (sometimes as much as 3 to 4 lbs. is safely fed) ; fattening
lambs. 1.5 to 3 lbs.

Summer silage. — Many farmers who fully appreciate the value of
silage for winter feeding do not realize its value for supplementing
dried-up pastures in the summer, or as a partial substitute for pas-
turage on high-priced land where all the stock possible must be kept
per acre. In a 3-3'ear comparison of soilage crops and corn silage as
.summer supplements to pasture for dairy cows, at the Wisconsin
Station,^ silage proved fullj- as efficient in producing milk and butter
fat as soilage, and was far cheaper and more convenient. To provide a
succession of green feed by means of soiling crops, it is necessary to fit
and plant comparatively small areas to various crops at different times.
As the cut soilage will quickly heat and become unpalatable in warm
weather if placed in piles, a supply must be harvested each day, or at
least every two or three da^'S. Harvesting in small quantities and in
all sorts of weather is inconvenient and expensive, and the work must
be done at the busiest season of the year. On the other hand, when
corn or the sorghums are grown for silage the large fields are fitted,
planted, cultivated, and harvested with labor saving machinery at
minimum expense, and feeding the silage takes but a few minutes daily.

Corn and sorghum return greater yields of nutrients than many of
the crops it is necessary to include in a soiling system. Silage fur-
nishes feed of uniformly high quality thruout the season, a goal which
is difficult to reach by soiling, for one crop is often exhausted or too
mature before the next is in prime condition for feeding. The years
when drought is severe and pastures unusually short are the veiy times
when soiling crops will be scant or may even fail. By means of the
silo, the crop may be carried over from one year to the next, thus pro-
viding insurance against drought. In summer feeding, at least two
inches of silage and preferably more should be removed from the sur-
face each day, or the exposed material will decay.

Filling the silo. — Especially with such coarse material as corn or
sorghum forage, silage keeps much better when cut into short lengths
and is therefore usually run thru a silage cutter. The cut material is
also easier to remove from the silo. "When filling the silo the inpouring
material should be thoroly mixed and evenly spread, so it will settle
uniformly. The material should be especially well tramped near the
wall and kept higher than at the center, as the friction at the wall re-
tards the settling. If the forage is too dry to pack well, w^ater should
be added to the mass in the silo or to the cut forage as it passes thru the

1 WoU, Humphrey, and Oosterliuis, Wis. Bui. 235,

SILAGE— SOILAGE 207

blower. The forage will settle considerably after the silo is filled, and
more may then be put in, any spoiled surface material being first
removed. If feeding is not to begin immediately, the surface should
be wet down thoroly and tramped well several times the first week,
when the rotting forage will fonn a layer on top that protects the rest.
To lessen the waste, it is well to remove the ears from the last few loads
of forage and cover the top witli cheap refuse such as straw or weeds,
wet with water. "When feeding begins, all spoiled silage should be
discarded.

On going into the silo after an intermission in filling, one should
always beware of the danger from carbon dioxid. This may accumu-
late in sufficient quantities to prove fatal. If a lighted lantern or
candle lowered into the silo continues to burn, it is safe, but if the
light goes out it means death to one entering. Opening a door low
down in the silo or pouring in a lot of fresh cut forage will soon drive
out the deadly gas.

Types of silos. — Silos may be constructed of wood, solid concrete,
concrete blocks, brick, stone, glazed tile, or sheet steel. In the semi-
arid regions pit silos, preferably with cement lining and curb, are
extensively used, but these are impracticable in humid climates. In
the southwestern states silos are sometimes built of adobe, reinforced
with wire and plastered with cement. The choice between the various
types of construction, all of which make good silos when well-built,
will depend upon local conditions. This work presents only the pri-
mary principles relating to silo construction, advising those interested
to secure from the state experiment stations or the United States
Department of Agriculture instructions concerning materials and man-
ner of construction suited to their locality.

Requisites of a good silo. — The satisfactory silo meets the following
conditions: 1. Air-tight walls: The silo w^alls must be air-tight and
the doors fit snugly, for if air gains entrance the fermentations will
continue and molds will grow, spoiling the silage.

2. Cylindrical shape. In the early silos, which were rectangular, it
was exceedingly difficult to pack the mass in the corners so that it
would not spoil. The cylindrical silo has no comers, the sides are
strong and unyielding, and it provides the largest possible cubic
capacity for a given amount of building material.

3. Smooth, perpendicular, strong iralls. Unless the walls of the silo
are smooth and perpendicular, cavities will form along the walls as
the mass settles and the adjacent silage will spoil. The walls must be
strong and rigid, for while the silage is settling a great outward pres-
sure is developed.

4. Depth. By making the silo deep the great pressure compacts all

208

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

but the uppermost layers so that the losses thru fermentation are
reduced to a minimum. While over 30 per ct. of the dry matter may
be lost in the layer of silage near the surface, the loss in the rest of the
silo should be less than 10 per ct.

Capacity of the silo. — The following table - shows the approximate
capacity of cylindrical silos for well-matured com silage two days after
filling. The depth indicated is the actual depth of the silage, not the
height of the silo wall. It is therefore necessary to have the silo about
five feet higher than the depth given to allow for settling. The table
shows, for example, that a silo 15 feet in diameter, which contains
20 feet of silage after settling, will hold about 59 tons of cut corn silage.

Approximate capacity of cylindrical silos in tons of corn silage

Inside diameter in

feet

in feet

10

12

14

15

16

18

20

22

24

26

20

26

38

51

59

67

85

105

127

151

177

21

28

40

55

63

72

91

112

135

161

189

22

30

43

59

67

77

97

120

145

172

202

23

32

46

62

72

82

103

128

154

184

216

24

34

49

67

76

• 86

110

135

164

195

229

25

36

52

71

81

91

116

143

173

206

242

26

38

55

75

85

97

123

152

184

219

257

27

40

58

79

90

102

130

160

194

231

271

28

42

61

83

95

109

137

169

205

243

285

29

44

64

87

100

114

144

178

216

256

300

30

47

67

91

105

119

151

187

226

269

315

31

49

70

96

110

125

158

196

237

282

330

32

51

74

100

115

131

166

205

248

295

346

34

56

80

109

126

143

181

224

271

36

61

87

118

136

1.55-

196

243

293

40

70

101

138

160

180

228

282

340

Proper size of the silo. — In determining the size of silo to build,
the diameter should be gauged by the amount of silage to be fed daily.
In the cooler part of the year at least 1.5 inches, and preferably
2 inches, should be removed from the entire surface each day to keep it
from spoiling, and in summer somewhat more. Knowing the number
of animals to be fed and the amount for each daily, one can readily
calculate how much silage will be fed each day. To remove two inches
from the surface daily the silo should not have a larger diameter than
shown in the following table. For example, if about 1,000 lbs. of silage
is to be fed daily, the diameter of the silo should not be over 14 feet.

When the diameter for the desired silo has been determined, the
total amount of silage required for any particular feeding period may

2 Chiefly from King, Wis. Bui. 59.

SILAGE— SOILAGE 209

be computed and from this the right dimensions found by referring
to the table in the preceding article.

Minimum amount of silage to he fed daily from silos of various
diameters

Diameter Minimum amount Diameter Minimum amount

of silo of silage of silo of silage

Lbs. Lbs.

10 feet 520 18 feet ■. 1,680

11 feet 625 20 feet 2,075

12 feet 745 22 feet 2.510

1-t feet 1,015 24 feet 2,085

16 feet 1,325 26 feet 3,505

II. Soilage

Soilage means supplying forage fresh from the field to animals in
confinement. This system, which had been long practiced in Europe,
was brought to attention in this country nearly 100 years ago thru the
essays of Josiah Quincy on "The Soiling of Cattle."

Advantages and disadvantages of soilage.— Compared with allow-
ing animals to gather their food by grazing, soiling has the following
advantages. (1) A larger yield, even of the grasses, is secured by
allowing the plants nearly to mature before harvesting than by pas-
turing them. (2) With a properly planned succession of soiling
crops, an abundance of palatable feed may usually be supplied thru-
out the season, so that the production of the animals will not decline if
pastures become parched in midsummer. (3) None of the forage is
wasted thru being tramped down by the animals or fouled with manure.
(4) Less fencing is required. ('5) In bad weather cattle will be more
comfortable when fed soiling crops in the stable than when grazing.
Quincy reports that he maintained 20 cows in stalls, allowing exercise
in an open yard, on the soilage from 17 acres of land, where 50 acres
had been required when the land was pastured. In a trial by the
senior author at the Wisconsin Station ^ 1 acre of soiling crops pro-
duced as much milk when fed to dairy cows as 2.5 acres of good blue-
grass pasture.

The chief disadvantages of soilage are the greater expenditure for
labor, seed, and fertilizer in producing the crops and for labor in
cutting and carrying them to the animals. In warm weather soilage
will ferment and mold in a short time if left in piles. AVhen but few
animals are fed, the green forage may be spread thinly on the barn
floor, where it will keep, but soilage thus handled dries out and is less
palatable. Where a considerable quantity is harvested at one time,
much labor may be saved by using the mower and horse rake. During

3 Wis. Ept. 1885.

210

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

wet spells the palatability of the soilage is reduced, and it is difficult
to harvest and cart the food to the animals without injury to the land.
On the other hand, pastures also suffer if grazed while wet.

The place of soilage on American farms. — It has been shown pre-
viously in this chapter that silage is a more economical means of
supplying succulent feed in summer than is soilage. On farms where
too few animals are kept to prevent the molding of the surface of the
silage as it is fed off in summer, or where a silo is not available, soilage
should be provided to prevent the usual midsummer shrinkage in milk

[^

-^KT'-^.

Ik

.

'■w .-.

1

-^^

t±

X ■■■.'

'■,-:' '"" "~~"

^^^^p^f%

■J,--w. rt-i-atnTitliifirr.-^

'p.^^^y^

-^.a--:?:5.vv-:r-.-.v

■ -:-:..:^^jmsmi^'^^

Fig. 59. — Soilage Is Usually Less Economical than Silage

Providing succulent feed in summer by a succession of soiling crops is usually
more expensive than the use of silage, chiefly because it requires more labor.
(From Wisconsin Station.)

flow with cows, and in flesh with beef cattle or sheep. Under this
system animals may be housed in darkened stables away from the flies
during the heated portion of the day and fed liberally with fresh cut
soilage, being turned to pasture at night for exercise and grazing.
It is also wise to supply extra green forage in the fall, if the pastures
do not furnish plenty of feed.

Because of the high price of labor in this country, it is not usually
economical, in regions where good summer pastures may be provided,
to maintain cattle in summer on soilage or silage with no pasturage.
On high-priced land where it is desired to keep as many animals as

SILAGE— SOILAGE 211

possible on a given area, such a system may be the most profitable.
In Europe, where labor is relatively cheap compared with land, a much
wider use can economically be made of soilage than in the United
States.

Crops for soilage. — Among the crops well suited for soilage are the
various legumes, such as alfalfa, the clovers, field peas, cowpeas, and
soybeans; the cereals, as rye, wheat, barley, and oats; the smaller
grasses ; and especially corn — sweet corn for early feeding and field
corn later — and the sorghums. The adaptability of all these for soilage
has been discussed in the preceding chapters.

Soiling crops should not be fed until reasonably mature. Green,
immature plants are mostly water, and often cattle cannot consume
enough of them to secure the needed nourishment. Where quite green
crops must be fed, some dry forage should be supplied. Wherever
soilage is practiced, a succession of crops must be carefully planned so
that a continuous supply of green forage of the proper stage of
maturity will be available over the period desired. It is helpful to
prepare a soiling chart which shows the area of each crop to be grown,
the date of seeding, the period of feeding, and the estimated yield.
Any such attempt will be more or less imperfect at first, but may l)e
modified from growing experience and close study to meet the local
conditions.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the changes that take place wlien green forage is ensiled.

2. Give seven advantages of silage.

3. Summarize the suitability of various crops for silage. Wliat ones are used
in your locality?

4. Discuss the importance of silage for feeding the various classes of stock.

5. What are the advantages of summer silage compared with soilage crops?

6. Mention the points to be observed in filling the silo.

7. What are the requisites of a good silo?

8. A farmer wishes to provide corn silage for a herd of 15 Holstein cows, 8
yearling heifers. 2 idle horses, and 30 breeding ewes during a winter feeding
period of 6 months. What size of silo would you recommend?

9. Define soilage and state its advantages and disadvantages.

CHAPTER XVII

MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS

Unless the plant food removed from the soil by the growth of crops
is returned in some form, the land will sooner or later be so reduced
in fertility that profitable crops eainiot be grown. Already the soil in
many once productive areas of this country has been so "mined"
that good crops are possible only when commercial fertilizers are
liberally applied. In 1913 over $8,000,000 worth of commercial fer-
tilizers were sold in the South Atlantic states alone. While the use of
commercial fertilizers is wise in some cases, in general farming they
should be used to supplement deficiencies only after all the fertility in
the feeding stuffs fed to the live stock has been fully utilized.

Farm manure as a fertilizer. — Farm manure, like commercial fer-
tilizers, is valued on the basis of the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, and potash it contains. This is because these are the only plant
food constituents removed from the soil by crops which need ordinarily
be replaced. The necessary nitrogen may, as we have seen, be
indirectly obtained from the air by growing legumes, but in practice
much is purchased along with phosphoric acid and potash.

Not only does farm manure supply plant food, but the vegetable or
organic matter it contains also helps to increase the productivity of
the soil. As this vegetable matter gradually breaks down, the acid
products formed help dissolve and make available to plants some of
the otherwise insoluble plant food in the soil. Furthermore, the humus
formed from the organic matter of manure helps retain moisture,
improves the soil texture, renders it more resistant to wind action, and
favors chemical and bacterial action which make plant food available.
On fields lacking in humus such crops as rye are often grown and
turned under as green manure, for the sole purpose of increasing the
humus content.

Experiments have shown that the fertilizing constituents in farm
manure have as high a value as in such high-grade fertilizers as tank-
age, bone meal, and muriate of potash. In computing the fertilizing
value of feeding stuffs and farm manure, we will therefore use the
average market prices of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in com-

212

MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS

213

mercial fertilizers when bought in large quantities, i.e., nitrogen 18,
phosphoric acid 4.5, and potash 5 cts. per pound.^

Fertilizing constituents recovered in manure.— The animal creates
nothing of fertilizing value, for it voids only that which it has eaten
or drunk. Part of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash of the
food may be retained in the body during growth or may go into the
milk. All the rest is excreted in the urine and feces. The value of
the manure therefore depends, first of all, on the kind of feed the ani-

FiG. 60a. — Such Losses of Fertility Occur on ]\Iany Farms

When manure is loosely piled under the eaves, heavy losses of fertility occur
thru fermentation and leachino:. Note that every hard rain will leach fertility
from the manure pile to tlie ditch in tlie foreground. (From Wisconsin Station.)

mal gets. Only feeds rich in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash
make rich manure.

The proportion of the total fertilizing constituents supplied in the
feed which is recovered in the manure depends on the age and kind of
animal. Mature horses at work store no nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or
potash, but merely repair their body tissues as they are broken down.
Hence, they excrete all the fertilizing constituents contained in their

1 Owing to the European war, prices of some fertilizers are at present much
higher than here indicated.

214

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

feed. When animals which are nearly mature are fattened, but little
nitrogen or mineral matter is stored in the body, over 95 per ct. being
put out in the manure. Pigs fattened while still growing and storing
nitrogen in their lean meat tissues return in the manure but 85 per ct,
of the nitrogen in their feed. Very young animals, growing rapidly
in bone, muscle, and body organs, will store in their body most of the
fertilizing constituents of their feed. As milk is rich in nitrogen and
mineral matter, the cow in milk returns in the manure but about 75
per ct. of the nitrogen and 90 per ct. of the mineral matter of her feed,
the rest going into the milk.

Considering the proportion of the various classes and ages of ani-

FiG. 60b. — Result op Allowing Manure to Waste Away

When manure is allowed to waste away as in the preceding illustration, not
only is much of the weight of the manure lost, but that which remains contains
much less fertility per ton than fresh manure. The pile of corn at the left was
grown on a plot fertilized with manure which had been exposed to the weather
over winter. The large pile at the right was grown on a plot fertilized with
the same amount of fresh manure. (From Wisconsin Station.)

mals on the average farm, probably about 80 per ct. of the nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, and potash of the feed is recovered in the feces and
urine.

Fertility and manurial value of feeds. — In buying or selling feeds
far too few farmers consider their value as fertilizers as well as their
feeding value. The amounts of fertilizing constituents in all important
feeds are given in Appendix Table III. For comparison, the data for

MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS

215

typical feeds and animal products are given in the following table.
The fertility value of each has been computed at the rates for nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, and potash previously given. The last column gives
the average manurial value of the feed ; i.e., 80 per ct. of the fertility
value. On the average, the manure resulting from feeding 1 ton of the
feed will have this value, if so cared for as to prevent loss.

Fertilizing constituents

in feeding stuff

s and animal products

Fertilizing constituents in 1,000 lbs.

Fertility
value
per ton

Manurial

Nitrogen

Phosphoric
acid

Potash

value
per ton

Concentrates
Bent corn .... ....

Lbs.

16.2

19.8
19.8
25.6
70.6

9.9
20.5

5.8
3.4

23.3
17.7

5.8
1.2

Lbs.

6.9

8.1

8.6

29.5

26.7

3.1
3.9
2.1
1.6

15.5
6.5
1.9
0.4

Lbs.

4.0
5.6
5.3

16.2
18.1

13.6

16.3

15.0

4.4

1.8
1.4
1.7
0.4

Dollars

6.85
8.42
8.43
13.49
29.63

5.20
9.36
3.78
1.81

9.96
7.10
2.43
0.51

DoUars
5.48

Oats

Wheat

Wheat bran

Cottonseed meal, choice . . .

Roughages

Timothy hay

6.74

6.74

10.79

23.70

4.16

Red clover hay

Oat straw

Corn silage

Animals and products

Fat ox

7.49
3.02
1.45

Fat pig

Milk

Butter

Y.94

As shown in the fourth column, the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and
potash removed from the soil in a ton of corn grain would cost about
$6.85 if bought in commercial fertilizers. On account of its richness
in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, the fertility value of a ton of
wheat bran is $13.49, while that of wheat is only $8.43. Because the
legumes usually obtain much of their nitrogen from the air, only a
part of the fertility in a ton of clover, worth $9.36, may have been
taken from the soil. Clover hay is 80 per ct. richer than timothy hay
and about 2.5 times as rich as oat straw in fertility.

Of the feeds listed, cottonseed meal has the highest fertility value,
$29.63 per ton; this explains why it has often been used directly as a
fertilizer. Millions of dollars worth of this feed, one of the richest
and best for dairy cows and fattening cattle, are annually applied to
southern cotton fields to make another crop of cotton. The farmers of
New England also spread thousands of tons of this valuable feed on
their fields. Where the meal is first fed to live stock, the milk or flesh
produced should easily pay its cost, and under good management also

216

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

for much of the labor of feeding. AVith proper care and application,
the manure resulting from each ton of meal fed would be worth $23.70,
the manurial value, as surely as would the application to the same land
of commercial fertilizers worth this amount. This would be nearly
clear profit.

Selling fertility. — The preceding table further shows that those who
sell such crops as hay, corn, and wheat, part with far more fertility
for a given sum than do those who sell animals or their products. The
farmer who sells 1.000 lbs. of clover hay, worth $5 to $8, parts with

Fig. 61. — Saving the Fertility in Feedlno Sti j fs

Where possible, the manure should be drawn directly to the fields and spread
each day. (From Breeder's Gazette.)

about as much fertility as if he had sold 1,000 lbs. of fat ox or fat pigs,
worth $60 to $75, or more. Based on the selling price, milk carries
considerable fertility from the farm, and butter practically none.
Farm crops may be regarded as raw products, while farm animals,
milk, wool, butter, etc., represent manufactured products. A large
amount of raw material in the form of grass, hay, corn, etc., is put
into animals, and the heavy waste or by-product resulting in the form
of manure conserves most of the fertility, when carried back to the
fields. The farmer who feeds his crops to live stock is a manufacturer

MA.NLUUAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 217

as well as a producer, with two possible profits instead of one, while
his farm should lose little of its fertility. The farmer who grows and
sells grain, hay, and straw is selling a large amount of fertility, the
need of which will surely be apparent as time goes on and his fields
give smaller and smaller returns. Such a farmer is slowly but surely
mining phosphorus and potash from his soil, which can be replaced
only by some purchased material.

Virgin soils as a rule contain great quantities of available fertility,
and the pioneer farmers in America, drawing upon Nature's store,
have given little consideration to how their crops are fed, and have not
realized that they are steadily' and often wastefully drawing on the
fertility which is their principal capital. The western farmer, when
marketing corn or wheat, or the southern planter, W'hen selling seed
cotton, considers he is selling labor and rent of land. Rarely does he
realize that he is also selling fertility, to replace which would cost a
considerable part of all the crop brings. Rather than to reckon the
value of his crop at the market price, he should recognize that its true
value when sold from the farm is really the market price minus the
value of the fertility which the crop removes from the soil.

In Great Britain, Miiere many of the farmers are long-period tenants,
the manurial value of feeding stuft's is recognized by law. AVhen a
tenant vacates his leasehold he is paid for the manurial value of feeds
which he has recently purchased and fed on the farm, and, under cer-
tain conditions, for the manurial value of grain produced on the farm
and fed to stock. Similar provisions should be drafted into farm leases
in this country'.

Composition and value of fresh manure. — Tho the value of the
manure produced by each class of animals varies with the nature of the
feed supplied, it is important to study the average composi|j,ori of
manure for each class, as given in the following table.^

Composition of one ton of average manure from farm animals

Phosphoric

Water Nitrogen acid Potash Value

Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dols.

Horse manure 78 14 5 11 3.30

Cow manure 86 12 3 9 2.74

Sheep manure 68 19 7 20 4.74

Pig manure 87 10 7 8 2.52

Horse or sheep manure contains less water than that of cows or pigs,
and these are known as "hot manures" because their low water content
permits rapid fermentation, or heating, when stored. On the other
hand, the voidings of the cow and pig form "cold manures," the high

2 Adapted from Van Slyke, Fertilizers and Crops, p. 291.

218

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

water content cheeking fermentation. Sheep manure has the highest
value per ton, based on the fertility it furnishes, and pig manure the
lowest. Mixed farm manure contains about 10 lbs. of nitrogen, 5 lbs.
of phosphoric acid, and 10 lbs. of potash per ton.

The total value of the fertilizing constituents in the manure voided
annually by the various farm animals per 1,000 lbs. live weight is about
as follows : horse, $30.12 ; cow, $36.14 ; sheep, $29.70 ; and pig, $38.08.

Losses in farm manures. — While manure is one of the most valuable
products of the farm, many farmers who freely purchase commercial

Fig. 62. — A Manure Shed and Pit

When manure is packed solidly in such a shed as this, with concrete founda-
tion, tliere is but little loss from fermentation and none from leaching. (From
Hoard's Dairyman.)

fertilizers allow much of the value of the manure produced by their
live stock to be washed away in streams or otherwise needlessly lost.
It is most important to realize that manure is a highly perishable
product, and that unless proper care is taken of it over half its value
may be lost. Plant food may be wasted thru: (1) Loss of urine,
(2) loss by leaching, (3) loss of nitrogen by fermentation. Tho all
the phosphoric acid is excreted in the feces, on the average over 40
per ct. of the nitrogen and 60 per ct. of the potash voided by farm
animals is in the urine. Pound for pound, the urine has a greater

MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 219

fertilizing value than the feces, except with the pig, which voids a
watery urine. The fertility in urine is also in solution and much more
readily available to plants than that in the feces. Obviously, plenty
of bedding should be used to absorb this valuable fertilizer.

A manure pile under the eaves, against the side of the barn, or
manure lying for months in an open barn yard, is a sight all too com-
mon on American farms. When manure is exposed to the leaching
action of rains, the losses are great, even amounting to half of the total
value in periods of 2 to 5 months. Unfortunately, the loss falls on the
constituents which are most soluble and therefore most quickly available
to plants.

Thru fermentation a large share of the nitrogen in the manure may
be lost as ammonia or gaseous nitrogen. The strong smell common in
close horse stables is due to the escaping ammonia produced by the
breaking down of nitrogen compounds in the urine. In the hot fer-
mentations which take place in dry, loosely-packed manure, the tem-
perature may rise high enough to cause "fire fanging," when as much
as 80 per ct. of the nitrogen may be lost. Phosphoric acid and potash
are not lost thru fermentation, but heavy losses may occur thru
leaching.

Care of manure. — To prevent loss in manure, the urine should be
saved by having tight gutters and using plenty of bedding. If possible,
the manure should be drawn directly to the fields and spread each day.
When this cannot be done it should be stored, preferably under cover,
in well-packed piles kept moist to prevent hot fermentation. If hogs
or cattle have access to the shed, they aid in firming the pile. In
Europe manure is often stored in pits or cisterns. When it is necessary
to leave manure out of doors, the pile should be made high and com-
pact, so that rains will not soak thru, and should be built with the sides
perpendicular and the top sloping toward the center. It is impossible
to prevent all waste in caring for manure, but under proper manage-
ment not over 10 to 20 per ct. of the nitrogen and practically none of
the phosphoric acid and potash will be lost.

QUESTIONS

1. How is the fertilizing value of feeding stuffs and farm manures computed?

2. About what part of the fertilizing constituents do mature work horses void
in the manure; fattening pigs; dairy cows?

3. Give examples of feeds wliich are rich and of others which are low in fer-
tilizing constituents.

4. What is the manurial value of a feed?

5. A farmer who intends to fatten some steers has on his farm shelled corn,
corn silage, and clover liay. To provide a well-balanced ration, he sells 10 tons
of corn and buys as much cottonseed meal as he can with the proceeds. Using

220 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

local market prices and assuming that the cottonseed meal is worth enough

nTore t^ him than the corn to pay'for hauling, find the gain or loss an manur.al

value from the exchange. t r j. •„a.

G. Compare the fertility lost in selling a ton of corn and a ton of fat pigs,

a ton of butter.

7 What are "hot" and "cold"' manures?

8. What is the average amount of fertility in mixed f^J^^ J^'^;"";;^^ ^e cared

9. How may losses occur in farm manure and how should manure be carea

for to lessen loss?

Part III
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

CHAPTER XVIII

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES

I, Factors Influencing the Work Done by Horses

While practically every farmer has horses or mules to perform work
on the farm, comparatively few have large numbers. Perhaps for this
reason, most of us do not realize the true rank of the horse industry
in this country. The 1910 census shows that more than 27,000,000
horses and mules, valued at over $3,000,000,000, were owned in the
United States. Indeed, the value of these animals is greater than that
of all the dairy and beef cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs combined.

To feed these work animals costs over $2,000,000,000 each year. Yet
the scientific and economical feeding of this class of live stock usually
receives scant attention. ]\Iany a farmer, for example, will carefully
determine which feeds furnish most cheaply a well-balanced ration for
his dairy cows. But he will continue to feed his horses the usual ration
in his locality, such as oats and timothy hay, no matter how expensive
these feeds may be. As is shown in Chapter XIX, by careful selection
of feeds for horses, it is often possible to save one-third of the feed bill,
with no injury, and in some cases even a benefit to the animals.

Before a detailed study of feeds for horses and of the methods of
feeding and care is begun, we will briefly consider the factors which
influence the work they perform. Since 83 per ct. of our work animals
are horses, the following discussions usually treat of the horse. How-
ever, the same feeds may be used for mules and the same principles of
feeding and care applied.

Work done by horses. — In measuring work, the units used are the
foot-pound and the foot-ton. A foot-pound is the amount of work done
in lifting one pound one foot against the force of gravity ; and a foot-
ton the amount done in lifting one ton one foot against gravity. The
rate at which work is performed is measured in terms of horse-power.
A horse-power is the power required to lift 33,000 lbs. at the rate of 1

221

222 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

ft. per minute, or to lift 1 lb. at the rate of 33,000 ft. per minute. To
illustrate, a horse drawing up a loaded bucket weighing 100 lbs. from
a well 330 feet deep in one minute exerts a force equal to 1 horse-
power.

The work which horses can do depends on their weight, muscular
development, and endurance. On the average, a 1,000-lb. horse work-
ing steadily 10 hours a day can develop about 0.67 to 0.83 horse power
and do 6,600 to 8,200 foot-tons of work a day. A 1,600-lb. horse will
produce 1.06 to 1.33 horse power and do about 10,500 to 13,200 foot-
tons of work daily. An ox can draw as heavy a load as a horse of the
same weight, but ordinarily at only two-thirds the speed. A man will
do about one-fifth as much work as the average horse, tho for a minute
or two he can exert a full horse power or even more.

The character of the road bed is a most important factor in determin-
ing how heavy a load a horse can draw. While only 25 to 67 lbs. of
draft are required to haul a load of a ton (including weight of wagon)
on a good pavement, the draft on a common earth road is 75 to 224 lbs.

True value of feeds for work. — To be able to feed horses economic-
ally, it is necessary to understand the true value of different feeds
for the production of work. We have learned in Chapter III that only
the net energy of the feed can be used to produce such external work
as propelling the body, carrying a burden, or pulling a load.

The most extensive investigations on the work yielded by various
feeds are those of the German investigators, Wolff and Zuntz, Some
of their results are presented in the following table, which shows how
much work 1 lb. of different feeds may yield if fed to a horse already
receiving enough to maintain his body when idle.

Possible work from 1 lb. of various feeds wJien fed to the horse

Total Nutrients Net Possible

Crude digestible required for nutrients work from

Feeding stuff fiber nutrients mastication remaining 1 lb. of

and digestion feed

Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ft.-tons

Corn 1.7 0.785 0.082 0.703 G07.7

Linseed cake 9.4 0.G90 0.125 0.5(55 4S8.4

Oats 10.3 0.615 0.124 0.401 424.4

Meadow hay ....2G.0 0.391 0.209 0.182 157.3

Glover hay 30.2 0.407 0.239 0.168 145.2

Carrots 1.6 0.113 0.021 0.092 79.5

Wheat straw 42.0 0.181 0.297 -0.116 -100.3

Fiber, the woody material of plants, is less digestible than the other
nutrients and, moreover, much energy is used up in masticating and
digesting feeds containing much of it. Therefore, the higher a feed
is in fiber, the less work it will yield per pound. While each pound of
corn yields 607.7 foot-tons of work, meadow or clover hay produces

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES

223

only one-fourth as much, and more energy is actually spent in digesting
and masticating wheat straw than it supplies. Hence, it has a negative
value for producing work, tho it may aid in keeping a horse warm.
Carrots yield but a small amount of work per pound, due to their
watery nature. It is clear from this table that the harder a horse
works, the greater must be the proportion of concentrates, such as corn,
and oats, in his ration, and the smaller the proportion of roughages, as
hay and straw.

Types of work performed by the horse.— It is evident that the horse
at work must receive a larger supply of nutrients than when idle, and
that the amount needed will depend on the severity of the work done.
Let us then consider what
types of work the horse per-
forms. His work usually con-
sists of a more or less complex
combination of the following
simple kinds: (1) Locomotion,
or traveling along a level
course without a load; (2)
raising the body, with or with-
out a load, against the force
of gravity in ascending a
grade; C3) carrying a load;
(4) draft, or hauling a load.
A horse drawing a load up a
hill combines all of these types.
He is (1) advancing and at the
same time (2) raising his body.
Likewise, he is (3) carrying

the harness and (4) hauling the load. In descending the hill the
horse will be called upon to perform even a fifth type of labor, brac-
ing himself to prevent too rapid a descent.

The amount of nutrients required in each of these types of work has
been determined in careful experiments. However, the results are of
theoretical rather than practical interest, for the work of most horses
varies greatly from day to day and is usually of a complex nature,
difficult to divide into these simple types. All that can commonly be
done is to estimate whether the horse is performing light, medium, or
heavy work, and then compute a ration which meets the standard for
this degree of labor. As we have seen in Chapter VI, normally the
carbohydrates and fats furnish the energy used in producing work, and
no more protein is usually broken down during work than during rest.
Hence, the nutrient requirements of horses at work resemble those of

Fig. 63.— Tlie conformation of the draft
horse, developed by years of breeding, fits
him to haul heavy 'loads at a relatively
slow pace.

224 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

fattening animals. With both these classes, after growth is completed
the ration may consist largely of carbohydrates and fat, with only
sufficient protein to ensure complete digestion of the ration.

It is not necessary, and is often not advisable nor economical, to
furnish as much digestible crude protein in the ration as stated in the
^Yolff-Lehmann standard. (See Appendix Table IV.) Horses at hard
work have been fed for considerable periods without harm on rations
having nutritive ratios as wide as 1:28.0. However, as shown on
Page 47, when the nutritive ratio is wider than 1 :8.0 or 1 :10.0, the
digestibility of the ration is decreased and feed is wasted.

Feeding standard for horses. — From a study of American and
European investigations, the authors have prepared the following
standard (given also in Appendix Table V), which states in simple
terms the nutrient requirements of idle horses, and of those performing
light, medium and heavy work.

Modified Wolff -Lehmann standard for horses

Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight

Dry Disrestible

matter crude
protein

Lbs. Lbs.

Idle horses 13.0-18.0 0.8-1.0

Horses at light work . . 15.0-22.0 1.1-1.4

Horses at medium work lG.0-24.0 1.4-1.7

Horses at heavy work . 18.0-2G.0 2.0-2.2

It will be noted that while only 5 to 8 lbs. more dry matter is advised
for the horse at hard work than for one which is idle, he requires 8.9 to
10.5 lbs. more total digestible nutrients. This means that the idle horse
can be maintained on such feeds as hay alone, which is low in total
digestible nutrients, and furnishes but relatively little net energy.
However, the ration for the hard-worked horse must be more concen-
trated in character, containing a much smaller proportion of hay or
other roughage. As the work becomes harder, a slightly narrower
nutritive ration is advisable. The amount of protein here stated is the
tninimum advisable, and considerably more may lie supplied if protein-
rich feeds are lower in price than carbonaceous feeds.

Influence of speed on work. — The horse is at his best for drawing
loads when moving at a rate of 2 to 2.5 miles per hour. If held to a
slower pace and especially if urged to move faster, his efficiency
decreases. AVhen worked at the rate of 11.25 miles per hour, he
accomplishes less than one-tenth of the amount of work of which he is
capable. \A^hen trotting with no load the horse expends nearly twice
as much energy per mile of travel as when walking. Among the rea-
sons why more energy is recpiired to perform a certain amount of work

Total

Nutritive

digestible

ratio

nutrients

Lbs.

1:

7.0- 9.0

8.0-9.0

10.0-13.1

8.0-8.5

12.8-15.6

7.8-8.3

15.9-19.5

7.0-8.0

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 225

at a fast pace are: (1) In trotting or galloping the rise and fall of
the body are much greater than in walking. Energy is wasted in these
movements, and hence a smaller amount is available for onward move-
ment. (2) At a rapid pace the work of the heart is increased, the
temperature rises, and much heat is lost thru the evaporation of water
from the skin and lungs in the eti'ort to keep the body temperature
normal. The proportion of the food which produces heat is thus
increased, while less can be converted into work.

To keep mail-coach horses, which were pushed at top speed, in con-
dition, they could often be worked but one hour a day, traveling only
eight miles even on good roads. AVhile a pound of additional load
makes but little difference to a draft horse, with running horses the
requirement of speed makes it necessary that the weight carried (rider
and saddle) be as small as possible. An ounce of additional loading
may make a difference of a yard or more in half a mile of running.

Influence of grade. — In going up a grade, the horse must not only
propel his body and the load over the ground but must also raise them
against the force of gravity. In ascending a grade of 10.7 ft. in 100 ft.
the horse expends three times as much energy per mile as when travel-
ing on a level road. The steeper the grade, the greater the energy
required.

On the other hand, in going down a gentle incline, owing to the
force of gravity less energy is required than on a level road, which
results in a saving of nutrients. If the grade is steeper than 10 feet
in 100, however, the horse must expend energy in bracing himself and
the load against a too rapid descent and hence uses as much as when
traveling on the level. On a still steeper downward slope more energy
is expended than on a level course. Obviously, a great saving of feed
may be effected by a proper use of wagon brakes in a hilly country.

II. Preparation of Feed ; Water ; Salt

Chaffing hay. — With horses at ordinary farm work, which have
abundant time to chew their feed thoroly, cutting or chaffing hay prob-
ably does not result in sufficient saving to warrant the expense. How-
ever, in stables w'here large numbers of horses are kept, the hay is
frequently chaffed. Somewhat less is then wasted, especially if it is of
rather poor quality, and dust may be easily laid by sprinkling with
water. The grain allowance is often mixed with part of the chaffed
hay, which forces the horses to eat the grain more slowly and chew it
more thoroly. A common practice in Europe is to mix cut straw with
chaffed hay, more straw thus being eaten than w'ould otherwise be the
case.

226 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Grinding grain. — Where oats are mixed with chaffed hay, there is no
advantage in crushing the grain if the horses have good teeth. It is
also doubtful if it pays to crush or grind oats when fed alone, except
perhaps for hard-worked horses which have but little time in the stable,
or for those which bolt their grain or have poor teeth. All small, hard
grains, such as wheat, barley, rye, and kafir, should be ground or, bet-
ter, rolled. Com is preferably fed on the cob.

Soaking or cooking grain. — AVhen such grains as wheat and l^arky
cannot conveniently be rolled or ground, thej^ should be soaked ^efore
feeding, to soften the kernels. Ear corn that is so dry and flinty as to
injure the horses' mouths should also be soaked or ground.

The custom of cooking even a small portion of the feed given to
horses has almost ceased, since experiments have shown that uncooked
feed gives just as good results.

Watering the horse. — Extensive tests have shown that horses may be
watered before, after, or during a meal without interfering with the
digestion or absorption of the food eaten. Therefore, individual cir-
cumstances and convenience should determine the time of watering,
but when a system is once adopted it should be rigidly adhered to, for
a change from one system to another lessens the appetite. A horse long
deprived of water or having undergone severe exertion should be
Avatered before being fed, but it is dangerous to allow a horse much
water when very warm. A moderate drink taken slowly will refresh
him and do no harm.

About 10 to 12 gallons, or 100 lbs., of water should be provided daily
for each horse. In warm weather and when at hard work, horses will
drink more water than at other times, owing to the greater evaporation
of water from the body. The nature of the feed also affects the quan-
tity of water drunk.

Salt. — The horse shows great fondness for salt and thrives best when
regularly supplied with it. A reasonable allowance is two ounces per
head daily.

III. Hints on Feeding and Caring for Horses

General hints on caring for horses. — There is great truth in the
Arab saying, "Rest and fat are the greatest enemies of the horse."
Regular exercise or work is necessary for health and a long period of
usefulness. A mature horse should travel not less than 5 to 6 miles
daily and the highly-fed colt should have abundant exercise. When-
ever a horse is not working, reduce the grain, even to one-half, to
avoid digestive troubles.

To maintain health, horses should be housed in well-ventilated quar-

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES

227

ters and be protected from drafts. Previous to 1836 the annual loss of
horses in the French army was enormous. When the stables were
enlarged and properly ventilated the loss was reduced to one-seventh
the former figures. A cool, well-ventilated stable is far preferable to
warm, close quarters.

It is important to blanket the horse in cold weather whenever his
work ceases and he is forced to stand in the cold for even a short time.
Tlforo and careful grooming is necessary to remove the solid matter
left on the animal's coat when the perspiration evaporates, and to keep
the pores open and the skin healthy. This should be done with a dull
currycomb, a brush being used on the tender head and legs. The horse

Fig. 64. — Speed Decreases the Work that can be Performed

A pound of additional load makes but little difference to a draft horse, but

Avith tlie race horse the load must be made as light as possible.
Horseman.)

(From Western

will rest much more comfortably after a hard day's work if groomed
at night. Bedding the stall well is just as important.

The good horseman always cares for the teeth of his charges and
sees that no sharp points and ragged edges prevent proper chewing of
the food. He also sees that the collar and harness fit well and that the
horses' feet are properly shod. He makes any change in the ration
gradually, for a sudden change may bring on colic. In starting the
day's work he gradually warms the horse to his work, so that his collar
will be shaped to his shoulders, his muscles in proper trim, his bowels
relieved, and breathing and heart action quickened before he is put to
extreme effort. At the end of a trip or the day's work he likewise
cools his horse off gradually before returning to the stable.

The work horse. — The regularity of work, feeding, and rest usually
brings a long life of usefulness to the work horse. In the previous
paragraphs we have discussed the principles of feeding and caring for

228 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

the work horse. The amount of feed necessary will depend on the size
of the horse and the nature and severity of the work. As a rule, from
10 to 18 lbs. of concentrates should be fed daily, the total allowance of
grain and hay ranging from 2 to 3 lbs. for each hundred pounds live
weight. The proportion of concentrates to roughage should depend on
the severity of the w'ork. The morning meal should be light, not over
one-third the daily concentrate allowance being given at this time, with
a small amount of hay. The mid-day meal is sometimes omitted,
especially with horses on the street all day, tho most horsemen believe
that some grain should be fed then. The heaviest allowance of the
concentrates and most of the roughage should be fed at night. The
concentrates may well be mixed with a peck of moistened chaffed hay,
and the rest of the hay fed long. To avoid digestive trouble it is highly
important that the allowance of concentrates be reduced on idle days.
It is also well to feed some bran at such times, either dry or as a bran
mash.

On coming to the stable at noon, the work horse should have a drink
of fresh, cool water, care being taken, if he is warm, that he does not
drink too rapidly, or too much. Before going to work he should be
watered again. If possible, an hour should be given for the mid-day
meal and the harness removed. When the horse comes in after the
day's labor, give him a drink, unharness at once, and when the sweat
has dried brush him well.

Wintering the farm horse. — The farm horse when idle during the
winter may be economically wintered wholly, or in part, on roughages.
Such feeds as the refuse stems from clover or alfalfa hay which has
been fed to dairy cattle or fattening cattle or sheep can often be fed
with advantage to such horses. It is preferable to turn idle horses out
daily into a lot, protected from the wind, rather than keep them closely
confined. At shedding time, feed some grain even to idle horses.
Light grain feeding should begin a few weeks before the spring work
starts, for horses are soft after a W'inter of idleness.

The mule. — It is often stated that mules require less feed than horses
to do a given amount of work, but there appears to be no foundation
for this statement. At 3 years of age, when shedding his milk teeth,
the mule is especially susceptible to digestive disorders. At other times
he is an excellent feeder, as a rule being more sensible in eating and
less likely to gorge himself than the horse, and hence less subject to
colic or founder. The mule is not particular in his taste and consumes
roughages which the horse will refuse. He also endures hot weather
better, and because of the peculiar shape of the hoof and its thick,
strong wall and sole is less subject than the horse to lameness of the
foot. However, the lack of weight and the small size of his foot some-

. FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 229

what unfit the mule for heavy draft in the city, as he does not get a good
hold on the pavements.

Tho the mule will endure more neglect than the horse, good care and
feed will prove profitable. For feeding the mule the same feeds are
available as for the horse, and the same principles apply in suiting the
feed to the size of the animal and the severity of the work performed.

Fattening horses. — As the markets demand draft horses in high flesh,
in certain districts their fattening has become an important industry.
The horses are usually purchased in the fall after farm work is over
and gradually accustomed to a heavy grain ration, getting all they will
clean up when on full feed. At this time some of the heaviest feeders
will consume nearly twice as much as when at hard work, or about
2 lbs. of grain for every 100 lbs. live weight. The chief concentrates
used are corn and oats, often with moderate allowances of such protein-
rich feeds as wheat bran, linseed meal, or cottonseed meal added to
balance the ration. Clover or alfalfa hay is commonly fed, for these
hays are much superior to timothy hay. In addition, silage of good
quality may be advantageously fed. At the Illinois Station ^ a ration
of 8.6 lbs. corn, 8.6 lbs. oats, 2.4 lbs. wheat bran, 0.4 lb. oil meal, and
13.7 lbs. clover hay gave excellent results iii fattening horses. A most
successful ration for 1,450-lb. horses at the Pennsylvania Station - was
12.3 lbs. shelled corn, 1,4 lbs. cottonseed meal, 16.9 lbs. corn silage,
and 10.5 lbs. mixed hay. Horses thus fattened require about the same
amount of feed as fattening cattle for 100 lbs. gain in weight.

Formerly the horses were usually allowed no exercise, great care then
being necessary to avoid digestive troubles and to keep their legs from
becoming stocked. Now many feeders allow the horses to run in pad-
docks. Due to the forced feeding, surprising gains are often secured.
Instances are reported where horses have gained 4 lbs. or even more
per head daily for periods of about 2 months. While at present horses
must be thus fattened to bring top prices, such rapid and excessive
fattening is of little benefit and may even be injurious. When put to
hard w^ork, the horse quickly loses much of the soft flesh gained by such
forcing.

Feeding the carriage and saddle horse. — Style and action are of the
greatest importance with these horses, economy of feeding standing
second. Good drivers in this country still assert that the oat-fed horse
exhibits mettle as from no other feed. Tho oats easily excel any other
single grain or concentrate, there are numerous instances in which a
properly combined concentrate mixture has given just as good results,
as is shown in the following chapter. From 8 to 10 lbs. of oats or

lObrecht, 111. Bui. 141. 2 Cocliel, Penn. Bui. 117.

230

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

their equivalent, divided into 3 feeds, should suffice for concentrates,
the evening meal being the largest. In case the horse is at all con-
stipated, bran should be fed, dry or as a mash. The hay is usually
fed long, for the carriage horse has ample time for his meals. From
10 to 12 lbs. of hay is a liberal allowance, bringing the total ration
vs^ithin 18 to 22 lbs. The carriage horse must be trim in body and so
cannot consume much bulky feed, yet some roughage is always neces-
sary. With this class of horses the feeder must also guard against

Fig. 65. — Profit-Making Brood Mares and Foals

A team of such brood mares would bring added profits to many farms where
no colts are now raised. They will not only raise profitable foals but will also
do no small part of the farm work. (From Breeder's Gazette.)

feeding too large amounts of such laxative feeds as clover and alfalfa
hay or bran. Carriage horses are usually overfed and exercised ir-
regularly or too little, and mainly for these reasons their period of
satisfactory service is often brief. On daj'^s when they are not driven,
the usual amount of roughage may be fed but the amount of grain
should be reduced.

Feed and care of the brood mare. — Many farmers who raise no colts
would find it profitable to keep a good team of brood mares to do part
of the work and also to raise colts each year. The brood mare must,

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 231

however, have proper feed, care and management. Recent statistics
show that only 60 per ct. of the brood mares that are bred each year
produce living foals ; this enormous loss is largely due to neglect and
carelessness. Idleness must be avoided. Mares which work regu-
larly are more certain to bring good foals than idle ones, yet judg-
ment must always be used in working them. Pulling too hard, back-
ing heavy loads, wading thru deep snow or mud, or other over-
exertion is dangerous. When not worked, the mare should be turned
out daily for exercise. As foaling time approaches, the work should
be lightened, and preferably discontinued 3 days to a week before
foaling. When laid off, the mare should still be allowed exercise.
Mares heavy in foal are apt to be cross and quarrelsome, but they
should always be handled gently.

Feeding a working brood mare is simpler than feeding an idle one.
The essentials are a well-balanced ration of good-quality feeds, con-
taining a liberal supply of protein, lime, and phosphorus, which are
needed for the growth of the fetus. An abundance of these nutrients
is especially needed by pregnant mares that have not yet finished their
own growth, and those that are suckling foals, for there is then a
double draft on the mothers. All feeds should be free from dust,
mold, or decay, which might cause abortion. Mares used only for
breeding purposes do well without grain when on nutritious pasture.
With insufficient pasture and in winter some grain should be given.
The feed should not be concentrated in character but should have
considerable bulk or volume. The bowels should be kept active thru
a proper combination of such feeds as bran, linseed meal, roots, etc.

Gestation period and foaling time. — The average period of gesta-
tion for the mare is about 11 months, or 340 days, tho it may vary
quite widely. Shortly before foaling the grain allowance should be
decreased and laxative feeds more freely used. To avoid infection
which may cause navel ill and joint disease, the stall in which the
mare is to foal should be thoroly cleaned and disinfected. The mare
should be given a half bucket of water before foaling, and when on
her feet again she will need a drink of water or, better, of gruel made
from half a pound of fine oatmeal in half a bucket of lukewarm water.
A light feed of bran is good for the first meal and this may be fol-
lowed by oats, or by equal parts by bulk of corn and bran. After
foaling the mare should be confined for a few days, her ration being
simple and not too abundant. With favorable conditions, after 4 or
5 days she may be turned to pasture, and in about 2 weeks, or even
before if work is urgent and the mare has fully recovered, she may go
back to light work.

Only the quick-maturing draft filly should under any cireum-

232 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

stances be bred as a 2-year-old; all others when past three. Altho *
the natural and customary foaling time is in the spring, when the I
mare must do a hard season's work or she fails to get in foal from
spring service she may be bred to foal in the fall.

The foal. — The thrifty, well-fed foal should make more than half
its entire growth during its first year. If stunted during this time,
rarely will it reach full size. It is therefore of the greatest importance
that the foal start life full of vigor and be kept growing thriftily.
Immediately after birth it should take a good drink of the colostrum,
or first milk, of the dam. This natural purgative removes the fecal
matter which accumulates in the alimentary canal before birth.
Otherwise, a dose of castor oil or a rectal injection is necessary. On
account of the great danger from navel and joint disease, the stump
of the navel cord should be carefully disinfected.

If the dam does not supply the proper amount of milk, feed should
be given her which will stimulate the milk flow. Good pasture grass
is, of course, the best, but in its absence a liberal allowance of grain
should be fed. On the other hand, an oversupply of milk or milk too
rich in fat may cause indigestion in the foal. The dam's ration
should then be reduced and some of her milk drawn, the foal being
allowed the first portion, which is the poorest in fat.

Feeding the foal.— By placing the feed box low, when 3 or 4 weeks
old the foal will begin nibbling from the mother's supply and will
soon acquire a taste for grain. The earlier the foals so learn to eat,
the more independent they become, and the mare will then be able
to do more work. Crushed oats or oatmeal, with bran, are excellent
feeds, as is a mixture of 4 parts of crushed corn, 3 of bran, and 1 of
linseed meal. Colts should be given good clover, alfalfa, or other
legume hay as soon as they will eat it, and all the clean, pure water
they want. Watchfulness should always detect the first appearance
of such ailments as constipation or diarrhea. In all such troubles the
food for both dam and foal should at once be lessened, since nothing
assists Nature more than reducing the work of the digestive tract.

If the dam cannot furnish enough milk for the foal, cow's milk is
the best substitute. The poorer the milk is in butter fat the better,
for mare's milk contains only about 1.1 per ct. fat. Should the mare
die or have no milk, the foal may with proper care be raised on cow's
milk modified by the addition of sugar and lime water.

When the mare is worked, the foal should not follow the dam but
should be left in a cool, dark stall during the day, where it will be safe
and not bothered by flies. The mare should be brought to the barn to
suckle the colt in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon. Allow
the mare to cool of£, and perhaps draw some of the milk by hand

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 233

before turning her into the stall with the foal. Brood mares at work
and nursing- strong foals should be heavily fed to sustain a good milk
flow. If the mare is worked during the day, it is well to turn both
dam and foal onto grass pasture at night, and in addition feed a
liberal allowance of grain.

When dams and foals are running at pasture, a pen should be made
in the pasture near where the horses are inclined to loiter, building
it so high that the mares will not try to jump it, and with sufficient
space from the ground to the bottom rail to. allow the foals to pass
under. Put in a handy gate, then an ample feed trough. After the
mares have eaten together in the pen a few times the foals will visit
this "creep" regularly after their dams are shut out. To induce the
dams to loiter about, keep a large lump of rock salt near by and occa-
sionally give a feed of oats at the pen. If flies torture the foal, it is
better to confine the mare and foal in a darkened stall during the day
and turn to pasture only at night.

Weaning. — At from 4 to 6 months of age, the foal should be weaned.
When the mare is bred soon aftet- foaling, or if for any reason the
dam and foal are not doing well, it is best to Avean comparatively
early. On the other hand, if the mother has a good flow of milk and
her services are not needed, the foal may be allowed to suckle 6
months. If the foal has been fed increasing quantities of grain as it
developed, weaning will cause little, if any, setback to either dam or
foal. In parting dam and foal keep them well separated, else all
must be done over again. The grain ration of the mare should be
reduced till she is dried off.

The education of the colt should not be postponed until it is sought
to "break" him as a 3-year-old, and then attempt to l)ring the inde-
pendent animal under man's guidance all at once. The young foal
should be taught to lead at the halter, stand tied in the stall, and
display proper stable manners.

After weaning. — The foal should be kept growing vigorously after
weaning by an ample allowance of feed. To make good bone and
strong muscle, feeds rich in protein, calcium, and phosphorus should
be chosen. Nothing is superior to bluegrass or other good pasture,
and oats. Among the concentrates, wheat bran, cottonseed meal, lin-
seed meal, buckwheat middlings, wheat middlings, soj^beans, cowpeas,
and Canada field peas are rich in protein, which goes to build muscle,
and in phosphorus, needed in building the skeleton. All the legume
hays — alfalfa, clover, cowpea, etc. — are rich in calcium. A combina-
tion of such concentrates and roughages as these should furnish
abundant bone- and muscle-forming material. Corn, barley, kafir,
milo, and emmer may. be used as part of the ration, when properly

234 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

l)alaneed by protein-rich feeds. When fed large amounts of alfalfa
hay, colts will relish a little timothy or prairie hay, straw, or corn
fodder occasionally. If maximum growth is desired it will be neces-
sary to feed some grain even on good pasture. The young horse which
is not developing the proper skeleton may be fed substances especially
rich in phosphorus and calcium, such as 2 or 3 ounces daily of tankage
containing ground bone, or 1 ounce daily of ground bone or ground
rock phosphate (floats).

Cost of raising horses. — According to estimates received by the
United States Department of Agriculture from 10,000 farmers in
various parts of the United States, the average cost of raising colts
to the age of 3 years was $104.06. Deducting the value of the work
done before the third year, the net cost was $96.54. The average
selling price of the colts when three years old was $136.17. About
54 per ct. of the total cost of raising the colt was for feed, 16 per ct.
for care and shelter, and the remainder for the service fee of the
stallion, time lost by the brood mare, veterinary services, and miscel-
laneous expenses.

Harper ^ estimates that up to 3 years of age a colt will eat 2.25 tons
of grain and 4.75 tons of hay, in addition to pasture for 15 months.

The stallion. — Nothing so vital to the well-being of the stallion is
so commonly neglected as is proper exercise. The best exercise is
honest work ; there is no better advertisement of a stallion than letting
him be seen at work on the road or farm. Even during the breeding
season a half day's work regularly is beneficial. When real work is
impossible he should travel on the road at least 5 miles daily.

The ration of the stallion should consist of first class, wholesome
feeds, supplying ample protein and mineral matter for thrift and
vigor. The choice of feeding stutit's will depend on the particular
locality, the same principles applying as in the case of the work horse.
The following concentrates are well-suited to feed with timothy hay or
prairie hay: oats; oats 4 parts, corn 6 parts, and bran 3 parts by
weight; oats 4 parts, corn 6 parts, and linseed meal 1 part; corn 7
parts, bran 3 parts, linseed meal 1 part. When some alfalfa or clover
is fed, a smaller proportion of protein-rich concentrates is needed.

No specific directions as to the total amount of feed required can
be given, since this depends on the exercise the animal gets and
whether he is a " hard " or " easy ' ' keeper. A safe rule is to keep the
stallion in good flesh but not "hog fat," for this will injure his breed-
ing powers. Most horsemen advise that in the breeding season he be
kept gaining just a bit, rather than be allowed to run down in flesh.
While some recommend feeding 3 times a day, 4 is preferred by others.

3 Management and Breeding of Horses, p. 337.

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 235

QUESTIONS

1. Define foot-pound, foot-ton, and horse-power.

2. Compare the amounts of work possible from 1 lb. each of corn, oats, clover
hay, and wheat straw.

3. What four types of work does a horse do?

4. Compute the cheapest satisfactory ration you can from feeds available
locally for a 1,500-lb. horse at medium work. Use the method illustrated in
Chapter VIII in selecting the cheapest feeds.

5. What are the effects of speed and of grade on the energy required for a
given amount of work?

C. Discuss the value of chaffing hay, grinding grain, and soaking or cooking
grain for horses.

7. When should a horse be watered?

8. Discuss the feeding of work horses.

9. How sliould idle farm horses be wintered?

10. What feeds are chiefly used for fattening horses?

11. Mention some important points to be observed in feeding and caring ror
carriage, and saddle horses.

12. Briefly discuss the feed and care of the brood mare.

13. How would you feed a foal before and after weaning?

14. Discuss the feed and care of atalliona.

CHAPTER XIX

FEEDS FOR HORSES

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates

in most localities the usual ration for horses is restricted to but
one or two kinds of grain with no more variety in the roughages.
Due to custom and prejudice many insist that these particular feeds
are by far the most economical and satisfactory ones which can be
fed. Yet in traveling from one district or country to another we find
a large number of feeds all successfully used for horses. In the
northern Mississippi valley the ration is quite generally corn and
oats, while in the South corn is the chief concentrate, with dried corn
leaves, legume hay, and other roughages. On the Pacific coast crushed
barley is the common grain used, with hay from the cereals. In
Europe various oil cakes and beans are often fed. In Arabia, Persia
and Egypt barley is the only grain, while in sections of India, a kind
of pea, called gram, is the usual food. In some districts horses are fed
such unusual feeds as the leaves of limes and grapevines, the seeds
of the earob tree, bamboo leaves, and dried fish.

As further shown in this chapter, a long list of feeds are well-
suited to horses. Hence, to feed these animals economically, due atten-
tion must be given to the prices of the various feeds which are locally
available, and a combination selected which will maintain them in good
condition at a minimum expense.

Oats. — This grain, so keenly relished by horses, is the standard with
which all other concentrates are compared. Oats are the safest of
all feeds for the horse, due to the hull, which, tho furnishing little
nutriment, gives the grain such bulk that not enough can be eaten
at one time to cause digestive trouble from gorging. Oats form a
loose mass in the stomach, which is easily digested, while such heavy
feeds as corn tend to pack, causing colic. It does not pay to crush
or grind oats except for horses with poor teeth, for foals, and possibly
for horses worked extremely hard. New or musty oats should be
avoided, as they may cause colic.

Substitutes for oats. — Due to the widespread demand, oats are
quite commonly so high in price that they are not an economical feed.
Fortunately, both science and practice show that other single grains or

236

FEEDS FOR HORSES

237

mixtures of concentrates may be substituted with no detrimental
effects. The Arab horse, so renowned for mettle and endurance, is
fed no oats, but chiefly barley. After experiments covering 35 years
with over 30,000 horses, Lavalard, the great French authority on the
feeding of horses, concluded that other feeds could be substituted for
oats with a great saving in cost of feed and witliout lowering the
efficiency of the horses. The many grains and by-products which may
be used in place of oats are discussed in the following paragraphs.
From the data there given one can easily determine what feeds are

Fig. 66. — Oats ake I nexcelled j^uk Carriage or Saddle Horses

While oats excel any other single grain or concentrate for such horses, a proper
combination of other concentrates Avill give just as satisfactory results.

most economical for him to use, considering the local prices. In sub-
stituting other feeds for oats, due care must be taken to balance the
ration to meet the feeding standards, as given on Page 224.

Indian corn. — Next to oats, Indian corn is the grain most com-
monly used for horses in America. Millions of horses and mules
derive their strength from this grain, never knowing the taste of
oats. Because it costs less and has a higher feeding value than oats
per 100 lbs., it is extensively used where large numbers of horses must
be fed economically. As corn is a heavy, highly-concentrated feed,
care must be taken to limit the amount fed to the needs of the animal.

238 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

When corn forms a large part of the concentrate allowance, the ration
should be balanced by concentrates or roughages rich in protein and
mineral matter, in which this grain is deficient. AVith legume hay,
which supplies the lacking protein and ash, for roughage, com may be
successfully fed as the only concentrate to mature horses at general
farm work. Such an unbalanced ration as corn and timothy or
prairie hay, all feeds low in protein, is not satisfactorj-. This is shown
by the following results secured at the Kansas Station ^ with 1,150-lb.
artillery horses, performing more severe labor than the average farm
horse.

Corn and carbonaceous hay requires supplement

Average ration
Lot I

Gain or loss
in weight

Lbs.

Nutritive
ratio

Daily cost of

feed per

1,000 lbs.

live weight

Cents

Oats, 12 lbs. Prairie hay, 14 lbs. . .

16.3

1:7.9

20.3

Lot II

Shelled corn, 12 lbs. Prairie hay, 14

lbs. —29.3

1:11.5

17.5

Lot III

Shelled corn, 6 lbs.

Wheat bran, 3 lbs.

Linseed meal, 1 lb. Prairie hay, 14

lbs. ..3.9

1:8.4

16.7

In winter, when the weather was cold and the work moderate,
there was no apparent difference between the horses in Lots I and II.
However, as the weather grew warmer and the w^ork more severe, the
horses in Lot II, fed the unbalanced ration of corn and prairie hay, lost
weight, tho their endurance, wind and spirit were not injured. The
well-balanced ration fed Lot III was fully as satisfactory as the oat
ration and cheaper than even the straight com ration. Similar re-
sults were secured in France with 17,000 army horses. Tho the
officers were at first prejudiced against corn, they finally had to
admit that when it formed a large part of the concentrates the horses
showed as much energy and vigor as those fed oats, with no more
sickness. The objections often raised that horses fed corn lack nerve
and action, sweat easily, and wear out earlier are probably due to
feeding too heavy an allowance of this grain or failure to balance the
ration properly.

Thruout the corn belt the grain is usually fed on the cob or shelled.
Ear corn is safer to feed than shelled for it keeps better, and the
horse eats it more slowly, chewing it more thoroly. If corn is ground
for horses with poor teeth or those working long hours, it should be
ground coarsely, for fine meal forms a mass in the stomach which is

iMcCampbell, Kan. Bui. 186.

FEEDS FOR HORSES 239

difficult to digest and may cause colic. Changes from oats or other
feeds to corn should be gradual. New corn may produce indigestion.

The other cereals.— On the Pacific coast, and in Europe, Africa,
and many parts of the Orient, barley is extensively fed to horses.
Pound for pound, it is slightly less valuable than oats. While the
high price of sound wheat usually prohibits its use for stock feeding,
damaged grain may be fed to horses with economy, if not moldy.
Only moderate amounts should be fed and the crushed wheat should
be mixed with a bulky concentrate like bran or with chaffed hay or
straw, to avoid digestive disturbances, as it tends to pack in the
stomach. Rye may also be used for horses, the same precautions being
taken to prevent digestive trouble as with wheat. Since these grains
are hard and small, they should be crushed or rolled. If finely
ground they form a pasty, unpleasant mass when mixed with the
saliva in the mouth.

In the southwestern states, kafir, milo, and the seeds of other sor-
ghums are extensively used for horse feeding. Being small and hard,
they should be ground or chopped. They may also be fed unthreshed
in the head along with the forage.

Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Thruout the sugar-
cane districts cane molasses is often the most economical source of
carbohydrates for work animals. On 47 plantations, employing over
5,000 work animals, chiefly mules, an average of 9.5 lbs. of molasses
was fed per head daily with excellent results. The molasses was
usually mixed with the concentrates or with cut hay, but was some-
times fed in troughs or poured on uncut roughage. Due to the high
price of molasses in the northern states, it is rarely economical to feed
it in any large amount, tho a quart or so a day may often be profitable
as an appetizer for horses out of condition.

As beet molasses is very laxative, not over 4 to 5 lbs. should be fed
pier head daily to draft horses, and but 2.5 lbs. to driving horses. In
these amounts and thinned and mixed with other feed, it is well liked
by horses and has given excellent results. Molasses feeds of good
quality are satisfactory for horses, when economical in price.

Rough rice is an economical and satisfactory feed for horses and
mules in the southern states, when low in price compared with the
other cereals.

Dried beet pidp is often refused by horses when fed alone, but may
be used as a portion of the ration when mixed with other concentrates.

II. Protein-rich Concentrates

Wheat bran. — Bran is one of the most useful feeds for horses, be-
cause of its bulky nature and mild laxative properties. If not more

240

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

freely provided, its use once a week, perhaps in the form of a mash,
is desirable. As the immediate effect of a bran mash is somewhat
weakening, it should be given at night and preferably before a day
of rest. When low in price, bran may be profitably fed in larger
amounts as a partial substitute for oats. Fed with timothy hay, a
mixture of equal weights of bran and corn has been found equal to
one of half oats and half corn.
Wheat middlings ; shorts. — Due to their heavy, concentrated nature,

Fig. 67. — Good Care and Management Are as Necessary as
Proper Feed

Regularity' in working, watering, and feeding liorsos, housing them in well-
ventilated stables, and caring for them intelligently go far toward ensuring a
long life of usefulness. (From Prairie Farmer.)

middlings or shorts should be fed to horses only in small amounts
and mixed with bulky concentrates or chaffed roughage. AVithout
these precautions the danger from colic is great, especially with some
horses.

Dried brewers' grains. — This concentrate, extensively fed to dairy
cows, is satisfactory' for horses and can often be substituted for oats
with profit. A New Jersey market gardener saved $150 a year in
feeding 8 horses when he used dried brewers' grains in place of oats,
with corn and hay. Pound for pound, dried brewers' grains are about

FEEDS FOR HORSES 241

equal to oats. Not being especially palatable, they should be mixed
with other concentrates.

Linseed meal. — Linseed meal, rich in protein and having tonic and
somewhat laxative properties, is an excellent supplement for rations
poor in protein. Not over 1 to 1.5 lbs. per head daily is ordinarily
fed, due both to its high price and its laxative effect. Linseed meal
is useful for bringing into condition rundown horses with rough coats,
and gives bloom and finish in fitting horses for show or sale.

Cottonseed meal. — While it is unsafe to- feed large amounts of
cottonseed meal to horses, good results are secured when this feed is
properly used. Being a heavy feed and not particularly relished by
horses, it should be mixed with better-liked bulky concentrates, such as
whole or crushed oats, dried brewers' grains, or corn-and-cob meal.
It may also be sprinkled on silage or on moistened hay or stover. A
safe rule is to feed not over 0.2 lb. of cottonseed meal for every 100
lbs. live weight of animal, distributed over 3 daily feeds. Horses
should be accustomed to the meal gradually, not over one-fourth
pound being given at each feed for the first 2 or 3 weeks.

Leguminous seeds. — Like the horse bean and other beans so widely
fed in Europe, the field pea in the northern states and the eowpea and
soybean farther south are useful in balancing rations low in protein.
All should be ground, and, on account of their wealth of protein,
should never be fed as the sole concentrate.

Miscellaneous protein-rich concentrates. — Various oil cakes and
meals, such as peanut, cocoanut, sunflower seed, and rapeseed meal, are
fed to horses in Europe in quantities of 2 to- 4 lbs. per head daily
with good results. Dried distillers' grains have given excellent re-
sults when forming one-fourth of the concentrate allowance. Tank-
age and Mood meal are useful for rundown horses, 1 to 2 lbs. of
tankage or 1 lb. of blood meal being fed.

III. Carbonaceous Roughages

Too much roughage injurious. — ^While the horse cannot live on
concentrates alone, even on oats with their strawlike hulls, too much
roughage is also injurious. On account of the small capacity of his
stomach, we cannot expect the horse at work to secure most of his
nourishment from roughages. Thru carelessness or mistaken kind-
ness, the mangers are often kept filled with hay. The horse may then
eat far too much, with digestive disturbances, labored breathing, and
quick tiring as the results. There should always be a definite, limited
allowance of hay, fed mostly at night when there is ample time for
mastication and digestion.

242 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Timothy hay. — Altho not rich in digestible nutrients, timothy hay
is the standard roughage for the horse thruout the northeastern
United States. Its popularity is due to its freedom from dust, its
palatability, and the fact that it can be secured on almost any market.
While timothy cut too green makes "washy" hay, it should not be
allowed to stand until it becomes woody and indigestible. A reason-
able allowance of timothy hay is 1 lb. daily per 100 lbs. of animal.

Cereal hay. — On the Pacific coast, especially in California, the
cereal hays — barley, wild oat, wheat, etc. — are extensively employed
as roughages for horses, and in the Rocky mountain region oat hay is
of considerable importance. Hay from the cereals can often be ad-
vantageously employed in many other sections of the country, as it
is fully equal to timothy.

Other carbonaceous hays. — Prairie hay from the wild grasses is an
excellent roughage for the horse thruout the western states, being but
slightly less valuable than timothy. Brome hay, a common roughage
in the northern plains region, is fully equal to timothy. Millet hay
from Hungarian grass, Japanese millet, etc., can often be fed ad-
vantageously to horses. The amount should be limited and it should
be fed with grain and preferably with other roughage, as otherwise
serious kidney trouble may result. Bermuda hay and Johnson-grass
hay are southern roughages well suited to horses and equal to timothy
in feeding value.

Corn fodder and corn stover. — Thickly grown fodder corn and
corn stover, when properly cured and cared for, are among the best
of roughages for the horse, for they are palatable and usually quite
free from dust. For stallions, brood mares, idle horses, and growing
colts good corn forage is usually an economical substitute for timothy
hay. In a trial at the New Hampshire Station ^ corn stover was suc-
cessfully used as the only roughage for farm horses doing light work
in winter. When the yield and feeding value of fodder corn are com-
pared with that of the timothy hay from a like area, the usefulness
and economy of this much neglected forage are apparent.

Sorghum fodder or hay. — Forage from the sweet sorghums, when
properly cured, is superior to corn forage for horses. It usually
deteriorates rapidly in value after midwinter unless well cured and
kept dry. Moldy, decayed sorghum forage is especially dangerous to
horses. Kafir, tho not so palatable as the sweet sorghums, is exten-
sively and profitably used in the southwestern states.

Straw. — Owing to its large content of fiber and consequent low
value for the production of work, but little straw can be fed to hard-
worked horses. On the other hand, horses doing little or no work and

2 Burkett, N. H. Bui. 82.

FEEDS FOR HORSES

243

having ample time for chewing and digesting their feed may be win-
tered largely on bright straw instead of costly hay. Farm horses
should not be wintered in the barnyard on straw and com stover only,
without grain, for they will then be in no condition for the severe
work of spring. The saving thru the use of straw and other cheap
roughages is well shown in a trial at the IMichigan Station,^ where
the cost of feed for horses doing moderate work during the winter
was 29.6 cents per head daily when fed timothy hay and oats. When
shredded corn stover and oat straw was substituted for three-fourths
of the timothy-hay, and roots, ear corn, and a mixture of equal parts

Mules at Work on a Corn Belt Farm

The mule is the chief work animal on southern farms and is increasing in
popularity in the corn states.

of bran, dried beet pulp, and linseed meal replaced most of the oats,
the feed bill was lowered over 40 per ct. and the horses better main-
tained their weights.

Carbonaceous roughages require supplement. — It is important to
remember that liay from the grasses, corn fodder and stover, sorghum
and kafir forage, and straw, are all low in protein. Therefore, when
these roughages are fed with such grains as corn, barley, wheat, and
kafir, some protein-rich concentrate should be added to balance the
ration.

3 Norton, Mich. Bui. 254.

244 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

IV. Legume Hay

Legnme hay. — AVhen given in moderation, well-cured legume hay
can be satisfactorily fed to horses. The widespread prejudice against
legume hay for horse feeding is largely due to these rich roughages
having been fed to excess or to the poor quality of the hay used.
Since alfalfa and clover hay are more like concentrates in nature
than is timothy hay, less should be fed to replace a given amount of
timothy. Horses are especially fond of good legume hay and must
not be allowed to eat all they desire. It is important that legume hay
for horses be bright and well-cured, for that which is loaded with dust
and otherwise injured in quality may cause heaves. The following
statements regarding clover and alfalfa hay will apply in general to
hay from other legumes, such as cowpeas and lespedeza.

Clover hay. — Because clover hay is often carelessly made and
loaded with dust, it is disliked by many horsemen, particularly for
feeding roadsters. This objection does not apply to clean, properly-
cured clover hay. For driving horses, clover hay may be mixed with
timothy hay or bright straw, while for horses at ordinary farm work
it may form the only roughage: The value of this hay for farm
horses is shown by a trial at the Illinois Station * with 6 teams of
1,400-lb. horses, one in each team getting clover hay and the other
timothy, with the results shown in the table.

Clover vs. timothy hay for horses

Gain in Daily

Average ration weight work

Lbs. Hours

Clover-fed horses

Corn, O.n lbs. Oats, 7.3 lbs.

Oil meal, 0.40 lb. Bran, 0.61 lb.

Clover hay, 15.6 lbs 15.5 7.3

Timothy-fed horses

Corn, 0.8 lbs. Oats, 7.2 lbs.

Oil meal, 0,53 lb. Bran, 0.60 lb.

Timothy hay, 15.6 lbs 3.0 7.3

Altho most of the teamsters were prejudiced in favor of timothy
hay at the beginning, they later reported that they could observe no
difference in the spirit of the horses or their ability to endure hot
weather.

Alfalfa hay. — On thousands of farms and ranches thruout the
West, alfalfa hay is the only roughage fed horses. Its use is also
rapidly increasing in other sections of the country with the spread
of alfalfa growing. Alfalfa hay for horses should be free from dust

4 0brecht, 111. Bui. 150.

FEEDS FOR HORSES 245

or mold and should not be cut until fairly mature, as hay cut at the
stage usually advised for cattle is too "washy" for horses. The
allowance of alfalfa hay should always be limited, not over 1.2 lbs.
daily per 100 lbs. live weight being given work horses, for when too
much of this protein-rich food is eaten not only is the stomach over-
distended but the kidneys are overworked in excreting the large excess
of nitrogenous material.

That alfalfa hay may be used successfully even for horses doing
hard work at a rapid pace is shown by a trial with artillery horses
carried on by the Kansas Station.^ These horses worked harder than
the average farm team does thruout the year, performing a consider-
able part of their work at the trot and no small part at a gallop. One
lot of horses was fed alfalfa hay and another timothy hay, with the re-
sults shown in the table.

Alfalfa vs. timothy hay for horses

Daily cost of
Av. gain or feed per

Average ration loss per 1,000 lbs.

head live weight

Lbs. Cents

Alfalfa- fed horses

Shelled corn, S lbs.

Oats, 2 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs 25.6 12.95

Timothy-fed Jiofses
Corn, 4 lbs.
Oats, 8 lbs. Timothy hay, 14 lbs '. . . .—7.7 19.21

The alfalfa-fed horses, getting 2 lbs. less grain and 4 lbs. less hay
than those fed timothy, showed no shortness of wind, softness, or lack
of endurance and gained in weight while the others lost. The cost
of the alfalfa-hay ration was only about two-thirds that of the tim-
othy-hay ration. Alfalfa with no grain, but often with an unlimited
amount of straw, is a common ration for idle horses thruout the West.

Alfalfa meal. — When good quality alfalfa hay is available it is not
economical to pay a higher price for alfalfa meal, for horses waste but
little of such hay when properly fed. IMoreover, alfalfa meal is dusty
and disagreeable to handle, and while the dust may be laid by wetting
this takes considerable time.

V. Pasture and Other Succulent Feed

For horses receiving but little exercise succulent feeds are especially
beneficial on account of their ''cooling," laxative effect. A limited
amount of succulent feed is often employed thruout the year in
Europe for work horses and even for drivers.

sMcCampbell, Kan. Bui. 186.

246 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Pasture. — Horses at pasture not only obtain succulent feed, but
must exercise to secure it. Good pasture will maintain idle horses
satisfactorily ; for those at hard work pasture without grain is insuffi-
cient. Not only do the various tame and wild grasses furnish pasture
for horses but as these animals are not subject to bloat they may
graze the legumes as well. City horses are often turned on pasture
so that their feet may recover from the ill effects of hard pavements.

Corn silage. — Until recent years little corn silage has been fed to
horses and mules, but it is now being used with success on many
farms. It should not be the only roughage but should serve as a
partial substitute for hay. While horses at hard work can not con-
sume much silage, because of its bulky nature, it is well suited to idle
horses, brood mares, and growing colts. Since poisoning may result
from feeding moldy silage to horses, only that of good quality should
be used, and this fed under intelligent supervision.

Roots; tubers; fruits. — The only importance of roots for horse
feeding in most sections of this country is as an aid to digestion, for
the cereals generally furnish nutriment at lower cost. Carrots,
especially relished by horses, are great favorites with horsemen when
cost of keep is not considered. It requires about 350 lbs. of carrots
or 400 lbs. of rutabagas to replace 100 lbs. of good meadow hay.
Potatoes may be fed, cooked or raw, in amounts up to 17.5 lbs. per
head daily. Fresh fruit may sometimes be profitably fed in moderate
amounts when there is no market for it, and dried fruits, slightly
injured and thereby unsalable, have been successfully used for horses.

QUESTIONS

1. How should corn be used for horse feeding?

2. What is the value of the other cereals for horses?

3. Name and tell the value of other carbonaceous concentrates suitable for
horses.

4. Discuss the use and value of at least six protein-rich concentrates suitable
for horses. Which are used most commonly in your section?

5. Why is timothy hay a favorite for horses?

G. What is the value of cereal hay, prairie hay, brome hay, millet hay,
Bermuda hay, and Johnson-grass hay?

7. Discuss the use of corn fodder and stover, sorghum fodder, and straw.

8. What precautions should be observed in feeding legume hay to horses?

9. Show by examples how clover or alfalfa hay may be substituted for
timothy hay.

10. Discuss the value for horses of succulent feeds — pasture, corn silage, and
roots.

CHAPTER XX

FEEDING AND CARE OP DAIRY COWS

I. The Dairy Cow as a Producer of Human Food

As the price of land, labor, and feed increases, the dairy cow will
more and more displace the strictly meat producing animals, for she
produces human food far more
economically than does the
steer, sheep, or pig. That this
change is already taking place
is brought out by recent cen-
sus statistics. These show that
between 1900 to 1910 the num-
ber of dairy cows in the United
States increased about 20 per
ct., while the number of other
cattle decreased.

Cow and steer compared. —
The great economy with which
the dairy cow converts the
products of the fields into hu-
man food is evident from the fact that she yields in her milk 18 lbs. or
more of edible solids for every 100 lbs. of digestible matter in her
feed. This is over 6 times as much human food as is produced by a
steer from the same amount of feed. (See Chapter VI.)

A dairy cow producing 1 lb. of butter fat per day uses about 47
per ct. of her food for the support of her body, 24 per ct. in the work
of converting food nutrients into milk, and actually yields in her
milk about 29 per ct. of the digestible nutrients in her feed.^ This
shows her to be a more efficient machine than either the horse or the
steam engine. (See Chapter VI.)

Dairy vs. beef type. — When in full flow of milk, a high-producing
dairy cow is generally spare and shows an angular, wedge-shaped
form, a roomy barrel, spacious hindquarters, and a large udder.
This conformation is in strong contrast to that of the low-set, blocky,
beef animal, with its compact, rectangular form, and broad, smooth
back. These two types are the result of careful breeding with oppo-

Fig. 69.— Tilly Alcartra, the Holstein
cow holding the world's record for milk
production. The milk cans represent her
average weekly production, 08 gallons.
Her year's record was 30,451.4 lbs. of milk.
(From Country Gentleman.)

iHaeeker, Minn. Bui. 140.

247

248 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

site objects in view. The beef animal has been developed to store in
its carcass the largest possible amount of meat. On the other hand,
for generations the dairy cow has been bred for the primary object of
producing large yields of milk and butter fat. As a result, tho a
good dairy cow will put on flesh when she is dry, the impulse to milk
production is so strong when she is in milk that even under liberal
feeding she shows little or no tendency to fatten but uses all the sur-
plus feed above maintenance for the manufacture of milk.

In view of the widely differing nature of milk and flesh production,

Fig. 70. — The Dairy Type and the Beep Type Are
Widely Different

A high-producing dairy cow is generally spare and angular and sliows a wedge-
shaped form, viewed from the side, from the front, or from the top of the
withers. She has a roomy barrel, spacious hindquarters, and a large, well-shaped
udder. (From Humphrey, Wisconsin Station.)

it is not surprising that both can not be developed to the highest de-
gree in the same animal. As a rule, the most perfect beef cows are
not economical milkers, and the best dairy cows are not satisfactory
beef makers. In a trial at the Minnesota Station ^ cows of the beef
type required 47 per ct. more feed per pound of butter fat produced
than those of good dairy type. Cows which are not of the beef type,
but yet lack in depth of body, are also not generally economical pro-

sHaecker, Minn. Bui. 35.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS

249

ducers, for they cannot consume enough feed to make a large yield
of milk possible.

The superiority of cows of the dairy type is further shown by the
"cow censuses" conducted by Hoard's Dairyman on farms in many
states.^ Data from over 17,000 cows showed that the annual yield
of butter fat by those of good dairy type was 189 lbs., compared with
138 lbs. for those lacking dairy type. Yet, the annual cost of feed
was but $1.94 more for the good cows. While the cows lacking dairy

Fig. 71. — The Beep Type, AVith Compact, Rectangular Form

The beef type is the result of careful breeding to secure an animal which will
store in its body the largest possible amount of high-priced meat. This beef cow
has the low-set, blocky, rectangular form, and broad, smooth back of the beef
type. (From Humphrey, Wisconsin Station.)

type returned only $2.03 each per year over the cost of their feed,
those of good dairy type brought in $17.38 over cost of feed.

Good and poor producers. — Cows producing a large amount of
milk and butter fat will naturally eat more feed than those yielding
less, just as hard-worked horses require more than those at light
work. However, the yield of the high-producing cows is so much
larger that it more than offsets the higher cost of their feed. They
therefore produce milk and butter fat much more cheaply than the
poorer cows.

3 Compiled in U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Anim. Indus., Bui. 164.

250 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

The relative profits from good and poor producers are well sliown
by trials at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station* where for 5 years the
cost of feed and the yield of milk and fat for the 5 best and the 5
poorest cows in the Station herd were compared. The average annual
cost of feed for the best cows was $57.81 per head, over $8 more than
for the poorest cows. But the best cows averaged 360 lbs. of butter
fat per year and returned $39.67 each over the cost of feed, while the
poorest cows averaged 215 lbs. of fat and returned only $7.44 over
the cost of the feed. The feed-cost of 1 lb. of fat was 23.6 cents
with the poorest cows, and but 16.2 cents with the best ones. The com-
parison would be even more striking were it not for the fact that
these "poorest cows" were really better producers than the average
cows on American farms. For the first two years of the trial the 5
poorest cows did not pay for their feed, but by gradual selection the
herd was so improved that during the last year the 5 poorest cows
returned $17.67, on the average, above the cost of feed.

Weed out unprofitable cows. — Even in the leading dairy states,
probably one-fourth or more of the dairy cows fail to pay for their
care and feed, due chiefly to the fact that the owners do not know
which return a profit and which are "boarders." Tho good pro-
ducers are usually of the dairy type and poor producers are not, even
experts are often unable to tell from appearance whether a cow is
profitable or not. The only reliable way of finding this out is from
records of the actual amount of milk and fat she yields.

Fortunately, such records may now be easily secured by the use of
the milk scales and the Babcock fat test. Knowing the production of
each cow and the approximate amount of feed she has consumed in a
given period, the dairyman can discard the unprofitable animals, and
gradually build up a herd of high producers at small expense by using
a bred-for-production sire and keeping all heifer calves from the best
cows. By this means the average yield of fat for the herd can be
gradually increased year by year, until it is raised to 250 lbs., later
to 300 lbs., and then even higher. As good cows sometimes have "off
years" in production, animals should not be discarded after a single
year's trial if there is good reason to believe they will do better in the
future.

Keeping records of production. — The most satisfactory way to find
out the value of each cow is to weigh and record each milking from
every animal. This does not require much work, if a convenient
spring balance and handy milk sheets for entry of the records are
provided. For determining the fat content of the milk, it is sufficient
to take a sample covering 3 to 5 days of each month. Reasonably ac-

* Beach, Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 29.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 251

curate records may be obtained by weighing and sampling the milk
of each cow regularly on 3 consecutive days each month thruout the
year. The average yield of milk and fat for this period is taken as
the average for the month. Another method of less value, but better
than no testing, is to record the production of each cow for 7 con-
secutive days at intervals of 3 months. Tests covering only a week
or even a month of the year are unreliable, for cows differ widely in
persistence of milk yield. A cow which gives a good flow of milk for
a time but goes dry relatively soon may be much less profitable than a
persistent milker that never yields as much fat in any one week as
does the first cow.

Cow-testing associations.— The remarkable development of dairy-
ing in the Scandinavian countries of northern Europe has been largely
due to the work of cow-testing associations. In these organizations a
trained tester is employed, who spends a day every month with each
of the herds in the association. Arriving on the farm in the after-
noon he weighs and samples the milk from each cow at milking time.
He furthermore weighs the concentrates given each cow and also the
roughage which several get and then estimates the approximate
amount given to each cow in the herd. The following morning this
is repeated, after which the samples of milk are tested for butter fat.
From this day's record he computes the milk and fat production and
cost of feed for each cow for the current month. While such records
are not as exact as if every milking were weighed, careful studies have
shown the results to be within 2 per et. of the actual production of
the cow. The tester also studies the local feed market and aids the
dairyman in working out economical rations. Many dairymen who
would not test their herds themselves are glad to secure this service
at small expense as a member of the association. The improvement
wrought by these associations is marvelous. In Denmark, largely due
to their work, the average annual yield of butter per cow has increased
from 112 lbs. in 1884 to 224 lbs. in 1908. Cow-testing associations are
now increasing rapidly in the United States and have already accom-
plished much good. The first association in this country was organ-
ized in Michigan in 1905. During the first 8 years the average yield
of butter fat per cow in 7 herds which had been in the association from
the beginning, was increased from 231.1 to 284.7 lbs., and the average
net returns over cost of feed were more than doubled.

Official tests and advanced registry of dairy cows. — The estab-
lishment by the dairy breed associations of advanced registers for
pure-bred cows is another important development of the dairy indus-
try. Cows are entitled to advanced registry only when their yield in
tests conducted by representatives of the state experiment stations or

252 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

of the breed associations has reached a standard set by the association.
Entry in these registers increases the money value, not onl}^ of the
given cow, but also of her relatives, for progressive breeders in buy-
ing animals now rely more and more on records of production and
less upon show-ring successes.

Records of great cows. — Thru skilled breeding combined with
expert feeding, truly marvelous records of dairy production have
been secured. The world's records have been steadily raised during
recent years until now Duchess Skylark Ormsby, a 5-year-old, pure-
bred Holstein, has produced 1,205.09 lbs. of butter fat in a single year,
and Tilly Alcartra, another Holstein, holds the record for milk pro-
duction, with 30,451.4 lbs. of milk to her credit in one year when a
5-year-old. These records, thought impossible a few years ago, show
how far the breeding and feeding of dairy cows has advanced.

II. Factors Influencing the Composition and Yield of Milk

Composition of milk. — The milk of different breeds of cows and
even of individual cows of the same breed varies quite widely in com-
position. While the fat content may range from less than 3 per ct.
to 7 per ct. or over, there is much less range in the other constituents.
The milk sugar commonly ranges from 4 to 5 per ct., the casein from
2 to 3 per ct., the albumin from 0.4 to 0.9 per ct., and the mineral
matter from 0.6 to 0.9 per ct.

The average composition of milk from the different breeds is shown
in the following table: ^

Composition of milk of different hreeds

Breed Total solids Fat

Per et. Per ct.

Jersey 14.70 5.35

Guernsey ' 14.71 5.16

Devon 14.50 4.60

Shorthorn 13.38 4.05

Brown Swiss 13.27 4.24

Ayrshire 12.61 3.06

Holstein-Friesian 11.85 3.42

The Jerseys and Guernseys give the richest, and Ayrshires and
Holstein-Friesians the poorest, milk. However, the breeds which
give the richest milk usually yield a smaller quantity, so that the
total amount of fat and total solids is nearly the same for all dairy
breeds. Not only does the composition of milk depend on the breed
but it is also influenced by the several factors discussed in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.

5 Chiefly from Wing, Milk and Its Products, p. 33.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 253

Influence of individuality.— Cows of the same breed differ one from
another, both in the amount of milk they produce and in its composi-
tion, especially the percentage of fat. Indeed, cows of the same breed
may yield milk differing- as much in fat percentage as the average
differences between the several breeds. The milk from an individual
cow may also vary considerably in fat percentage from day to day,
due to changes in health, change of milkers, excitement, variations in
weather, and, in small degree, to changes in feed.

First and last drawn milk.— The first milk drawn from the udder
is very poor in fat, each succeeding portion increasing in richness.
In a trial at the New York (Geneva) Station ^ the first portion of milk
drawn from a Guernsey cow contained but 0.76 per ct. fat ; the second,
2.60 per ct. ; the third, 5.35 per ct. ; and the last 9.80 per ct. The
percentages of casein and albumin vary but little, decreasing slightly
as the milk becomes richer in fat.

Effect of period between milMngs. — When the intervals of time
between milkings are unequal, cows generally yield a smaller amount
of milk after the shorter period, but this milk is slightly richer in fat
and total solids. For this reason the evening milk is usually richer
than that drawn in the morning. AA^here the intervals are equal there
is no regular difference in quality with cows milked twice a day.
When they are milked 3 times daily the mid-day milking is usually
the richest.

Effect of age. — The richness of milk yielded by cows remains prac-
tically constant until after the third lactation period, after which
there is a slow, gradual decline in fat percentage. The total yield
of milk and fat by a heifer normally increases until she is 5 years old.
A 2-year-old may be expected to give about 70 per ct. as much milk
and fat as when mature, a 3-year-old about 80 per ct., and a 4-year-
old about 90 per ct. A cow may make her best record when 10 or II
years old, altho she usually does her best somewhat earlier. Cows
that breed regularly, usually show no marked decline in yield until
at least 12 years old.^

Effect of advancing" lactation. — For a few weeks after freshening
cows usually give somewhat richer milk than during the following
month or two. The fat percentage then remains fairly constant until
toward the close of the lactation period, when it gradually increases.
The most marked effect of advancing lactation is upon the yield of
milk. In well-managed herds the normal monthly shrinkage in milk
flow is about as follows: From the second to the seventh month the
shrinkage varies irregularly, ranging from 4 to 9 per ct. per month,

6 Van Slyke, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 30, p. 1173.

7 Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 153.

254 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

based on the yield of the -given cow for the previous month. The
average monthly decrease during this period is about 6 to 7 per et.
After this the decrease becomes more rapid, being 9 to 11 per ct. for
the eighth month, 12 to 18 per ct. for the ninth mouth, and 12 to 23
per ct. for the tenth month, after which the cows are generally dried
oft". The farther advanced a cow is in lactation, the larger is the
amount of feed required for 100 lbs. of milk or fat.

Influence of condition at calving. — When a good dairy cow calves
in a fat condition she will often yield milk containing 1 to 2 per ct.
more fat than normal, losing markedly in weight meanwhile.^ This
is due to her strong dairy temperament, which impels her to withdraw
fat from her body and put it into her milk. The yearly yield of fat
may thus be increased by having cows calve in good condition. Also,
when a cow calves in high condition, a seven-day record of fat produc-
tion secured shortly after calving is no index to her ability as a long-
time producer. Yearly records are therefore far more reliable guides
to the value of dairy cows.

Influence of feed on richness of milk. — Until recent years it was
believed that milk varied in percentage of fat from milking to milk-
ing, according to the daily feed and care the cow received. We now
know that if the cow receives sufficient nutrients to maintain her body
weight, the percentage of fat can not be materially altered for any long
period of time by greater or less liberality of feeding or by supplying
any particular kind of feed. Cows starved or greatly under-fed may
produce milk somewhat poorer in fat than normal. In some experi-
ments adding to the ration palm-nut meal, cocoanut meal, or fats,
such as cottonseed oil, linseed oil, or corn oil, has slightly increased
the percentage of fat in the milk for 2 or 3 weeks, after which it again
became normal. In other cases, feeding fat did not even temporarily
increase the richness of the milk. Conflicting results have also been
secured in trials where cows were fed more protein than actually re-
quired for body maintenance and milk production. Even where im-
provement resulted from feeding a large amount of protein, the rich-
ness of the milk was increased by only one or two-tenths of one
per ct.

The Jersey cow gives milk relatively rich in fat, and the Holstein
milk that is relatively low in fat. No kind of feed or care will cause
the Jersey to give milk like that of the Holstein, or the reverse. Were
a piece of skin, clothed with yellow hair, taken from the body of a Jer-
sey cow and grafted on the body of a Holstein cow, we should expect
the grafted portion to continue growing yellow, Jersey -like hair. In
the same way, were it possible to graft the udder of a Jersey cow

sWoll, Wis. Rpts. 1902, p. 117; 1903, p. 115; Eckles, Mo. Bui. 100.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS

255

on to the body of a Holstein, we would then expect the Holstein to give
Jersey-like milk. It is not the feed, nor the body, nor the digestive
tract of the cow, but the glands of her udder, which determine the
characteristics of the milk yielded by each individual. After all, this
is what we should expect, for if milk varied with every slight change
of food and condition, the life of the young, dependent on such milk,
would be in constant jeopardy.

While the kind of feed given the cow does not materially change the
percentage of fat in her milk, in some cases it does alter the character
or nature of the fat. The fat of milk is composed of several kinds

USE OF FEED BY COWS

LIBERAL RATION FED TO
GOOD DAIRY COW

THREE-FOURTHS RATION

HALF RATION

LIBERAL RATION FED TO
BEEF COW

FOR MAINTENANCE FOR MILK FOB GAIN
PRODUCTION IN WEIGHT

Fig. 72. — It Pays to Feed Good Dairy Cows Liberally

When fed liberally a good dairy cow can use half her feed for milk production.
When fed a three-fourths ration she can use only one-third of her feed for pro-
ducing milk, and when fed a half-ration she needs all her feed to maintain her
body. A heef cow, if fed a liberal ration, will turn part of her surplus feed into
fat instead of milk. (After Van Norman.)

of fat — palmitin, olein, stearin, butyrin, etc. When a cow is given
feeds rich in vegetable oils (which contain much olein), the milk fat
will then contain more olein than normal. This usually tends to
make the butter softer, for olein is a liquid fat, but in some instances
this tendency is offset by still other changes in the composition of
the fat. Cottonseed and cocoanut meal produce firm, hard butter.
A change from dry feed to pasture generally produces fat higher in
olein, resulting in softer butter.

Influence of feed on yield of product.— Tho the kind and amount
of feed do not materially affect the richness of the milk, the amount
of milk a cow will yield, and hence the total yield of fat, depends on
her feed and care, until her full capacity for milk production is

256 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

reached. The typical beef cow usually has a very limited capacity
for producing milk and yields only sufficient for her calf, even tho
her feed be abundant. Any surplus of nutrients is stored in her
body as fat. On the other hand, in the well-bred dairy cow the im-
pulse to produce milk is so strong that with abundant and suitable
feed and good care she yields much more milk than her calf requires.

Many dairymen make the serious mistake of failing to supply good
dairy cows with sufficient feed for the most economical production of
milk. As shown in Figure 72, a good dairy cow fed a liberal ration
requires about half her feed to maintain her body and uses the other
half to make milk. If she receives less feed, the proportion which
she can use to produce milk will be decreased. For example, if fed
three-fourths of a full ration, she can use only one-third of what
she eats to make milk. Should she be fed but half of a full ration,
she will still need as much as before to maintain her body and no
feed will remain for milk production. Any milk she then yields
would be made by robbing her body of nutrients. The true dairy
cow thus produces milk most economically when fed a liberal ration,
while a cow of beef type or one lacking in dairy temperament, when
liberally fed, will store a considerable part of the food nutrients in
her body as fat, instead of turning them into milk. A safe rule is
to feed such a cow only what she will eat without gaining in weight.

The increase in production due to good feed and care is shown in a
striking manner by a trial at the New York (Cornell) Station." A
herd of cows poorly fed and cared for by their owner, was taken
from a farm to the Station where they were liberally fed for 2 years.
Then the cows were returned to their owner and fed by him as be-
fore. During the time the cow^s were at the Station they gave 42
per ct. more milk and 51 per ct. more fat than when with the farmer.

Turning to pasture; temperature; weather. — AVhen cows are
turned from wdnter stables to spring pastures usually both the yield
of milk and its richness are slightly increased, but after 2 to 4 weeks
the percentage of fat falls to normal. Especially when the grass is
soft and lush, cows lose in weight for a short time when first turned
to pasture.

The tendency is for cows to give richer milk when the temperature
falls and poorer milk as it rises, and so they generally yield slightly
poorer milk in summer than in winter. Cows exposed to cold rains
shrink in milk flow and may yield milk poor in fat.

Exercise and grooming. — Moderate exercise tends to increase the
yield of milk and the richness of all constituents except casein, while
too much exercise decreases the yield and injures the quality of the

owing and Foord, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 222.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 257

milk. In some trials grooming increased the flow of milk 4 to 8 per
ct. while in others where the ungroomed cows were not allowed to
become filthy, it brought no increase. Tho grooming may not in-
crease the yield of milk, it does improve its quality by lessening the
number of bacteria contained and may improve the health of the
animals.

Milking machines. — Because of the difficulty of securing efficient
hand milkers, the use of milking machines is certain to increase.
Several types of machines have now been greatly improved and long-
continued trials at various stations show that when cows are milked
with the best machines by careful operators and with well-adjusted
teat cups there is no injurious effect on the yield or quality of the
milk, or on the health of the animals. While with most cows the
machine does not draw quite all the milk from the udder and it is
necessary to strip by hand, considerable time is saved by machine
milking. When the machines are properly cleansed and the rub-
ber tubing kept in an antiseptic solution, the sanitary condition of
the milk is improved over that ordinarily obtained by hand milking.
Owing to the first cost of the machines and the .labor involved in their
operation and cleansing, various authorities consider machine milk-
ing economical under usual conditions only where at least 15 to 30
cows are milked thruout the year.

Regularity and kindness. — For the best results with dairy cows,
as with other farm animals, they should be treated with kindness at
all times, and regularity in feeding and care should be observed.
The highest yielding cows are usually of nervous temperament, and,
especially with such animals, excitement usually causes a sharp de-
crease in yield. Cows being driven should not be hurried and at-
tendants should never strike or otherwise abuse them. Good dairy-
men now realize the fact brought to public attention by W. D.
Hoard of Wisconsin that dairying is based on the maternity of the
cow, and treat their animals accordingly. As Haecker writes," "If
you so handle the cows that they are fond of you, you have learned
one of the most important lessons that lead to profitable dairying.
... A cow's affection for the calf prompts the desire to give it milk;
if you gain her aff^ection she will desire to give you milk."

While milking is usually regarded as a simple task which anyone
can do, there may be a great difference in the returns which different
milkers get from the same cow. A cow should be milked quietly
with the dry hand, and stripped out thoroly, the milker bearing
in mind that the last-drawn milk carries about 10 times as much fat
as that drawn first.

10 Minn. Bui. 130.

258 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Minor points. — Dehorning cows causes a small temporary decrease
in milk flow but is repaid a hundred fold in the greater comfort of
the herd thereafter. Subjecting cows to the tuberculin test has
practically no effect on the yield of milk or fat. Tho milking three
times a day may cause a slightly larger flow of milk, it is not profit-
able except with very heavy milkers and cows on official test.

Flavor, odor, and color. — The flavor and odor of milk and its
products are highly important. Due to minute quantities of volatile
oils they contain, onions, leeks, turnips, rape, etc., give an objec-
tionable flavor to milk, unless fed immediately after milking so that
the volatile oils may escape from the body before the next milking.
When cows are first turned to pasture, we at once note a grass flavor
in the milk and butter, which soon disappears or which we fail to
notice later.

Experiments at the Missouri Station ^^ show that the yellow color
of butter fat is due to a substance called carotin, so named because it
is the same coloring matter found in the carrot. Cows can not make
this coloring matter in their body but secure it from feeds which
contain it. The yellowness of cream and butter in summer is due
to the fact that green feeds are rich in carotin, tho we can not see it
because the green chlorophyll masks its color. Bright green hay
and yellow roots also contain much carotin, while most concentrates
and dry roughages are poor in this coloring matter.

Butter and cream from Guernsey and Jersey cows is yellower than
that from other breeds, not because these cows can manufacture
carotin, but because they can transfer to their milk a larger part of
the carotin in their feed. They also store the yellow carotin in their
body fat, in winter transferring some of it to their milk.

III. Feeding for Milk Production

Imitate pasture conditions the year around. — Every daiiyman
knows that his herd normally reaches maximum production when on
luxuriant pasture in late spring or early summer. As Eckles points
out,^- to secure the largest yield during the other months of the year
the following summer conditions should be imitated as closely as
possible: (1) An abundance of feed; (2) a balanced ration; (3) suc-
culent feed; (4) palatable feed; (5) a moderate temperature; (6)
comfortable surroundings; (7) reasonable exercise. Upon the ability
of the dairyman to maintain these favorable conditions for his herd
thruout the year, depend in large measure his profits.

11 Palmer and Eckles, Mo. Res. Buls. 9, 10, 11, 12; also Cir. 74.

12 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 257.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS

259

The proper concentrate allowance. — A good dairy cow in full
flow of milk is expending fully as much energy as a horse at hard
work, and hence should not be expected to get all her nourishment
from roughages, even if of good quality. How much concentrates
to feed is a question of great economic importance to dairymen, for
in most eases roughages are the cheap and concentrates the costly
part of the ration. The amount of concentrates advisable depends
first on the quantity and quality of the roughages furnished ; and
second, on the productive capacity of the cows. For the most

Fig. 73. — Imitate Summer Conditions the Year Round

The most successful dairymen imitate summer conditions as closely as possible
during the rest of the year.

economical production and the largest profit, cows of good dairy
temperament should generally receive at least 6 to 8 lbs. of concen-
trates, in addition to all the good roughage, such as legume hay and
corn silage, that they will consume. Exceptional producers can use
more concentrates with profit, but, if concentrates are high-priced,
cows of only low productive capacity may not pay for any grain in
addition to good legume hay and corn silage. The dairyman who
persists in giving his cows only such low grade roughages as tim-
othy hay, corn stover, etc., must pay the penalty by feeding them

260

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

from 10 to 12 lbs. of expensive concentrates daily to secure a reason-
able flow of milk.

Cows should be fed individually. — Even when fed liberally, cows
of marked dairy temperament rarely lay on flesh when in full flow

of milk, provided their ration is
well balanced. But cows of ordi-
nary capacitj^ may easily be over-
fed, in w'hich case they lay on fat
instead of increasing their milk
production. Since even in well-
bred and well-selected herds the
different cows vary widely in pro-
ductive ability, to secure the most
profit they must be fed as individ-
uals, instead of giving both high
and low producers the same ration.
It is not necessary, hoAvever, to
compute a balanced ration for each
animal. All that is needed is to
determine what amounts and pro-
portions of roughages and concen-
trates should be used to make the
most economical ration that meets
the requirements for the average
cows in the herd, after the man-
ner shown in Chapters VII and
YIII. For example, the ration on
Page 110 meets the average require-
ments for cows producing 30 lbs.
of 3.5 per ct. milk daily. In feed-
ing the herd, each cow should be given all the roughage she will eat,
which will usually be about 2 lbs. of dry roughage daily per 100 lbs.
live weight, or 1 lb. of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage. Then the
amount of concentrates for each cow may be determined from one of
the following rules :

Tig. 74. — The milk scales and the
Babcock test enable the dairjinan to
weed out the unprofitable cows and
to feed his good cows individually
in proportion to their production.
(From Wisconsin Station.)

1. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each pound of butter fat the cow
produces per week, or

2. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each 3 to 4 lbs. of milk, depending
on its richness, or

3. Feed as much as the cow will pay for at the ruling prices for feeds and
products, increasing the allowance gradually until she fails to respond by an
increase in production which will cover the increase in cost.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 261

The first 2 rules apply only when abundant roughage of good
quality is supplied. Heavy producers require a narrower nutritive
ratio than ordinary animals, and hence it may be advisable to alter
the character of the concentrate mixture for them. It is also wise
to feed a more nitrogenous concentrate allowance to cows showing a
tendency to fatten, while those losing flesh should receive a larger
proportion of the carbonaceous concentrates, such as the farm-grown
grains. Since heifers in milk are still growing in addition to giving
milk, they should be fed more liberally than mature cows yielding
the same amount of milk.

Feeding concentrates on pasture. — The economy of feeding con-
centrates to cows on good pasture depends on tbe relative cost of
pasturage and concentrates, the price secured for dairy products,
and the productive capacity of the cows. While the animal giving
only an average quantity of milk may not pay for such addition, the
heavy-yielding cow can not long continue her high production with-
out some concentrates, unless the pasture be unusually luxuriant.
Eckles ^^ concludes that a Jersey giving 20 lbs. or a Holstein yielding
25 lbs. of milk or more daily, should be fed some concentrates on
pasture, the amount being left to the business judgment of the dairy-
man. Feeding a moderate amount of concentrates on pasture is
often advisable, even when it does not increase the yield enough to
return an immediate profit, for the cows are kept in better condition
and will yield more the following months. This is especially true
with heifers which are still growing and require liberal feed in order
to reach full development.

Supplementing short pasture. — It is of great importance that ad-
ditional feed be given daiiy cows when pastures become parched and
scant in midsummer. Otherwise, the milk flow will surely decrease,
and even should the pastures improve later, the cows can not be
brought back to their normal flow of milk. Corn or sorghum silage
usually furnishes the cheapest feed for this purpose, but where this
is not available soiling crops should be specially grown.

The ration should be properly balanced. — Because milk is rich in
protein and mineral matter, especially lime and phosphorus, the
ration of the dairy cow should contain an ample supply of these
nutrients. (See Chapter VI.) Fortunately, legume hay is rich in
all these constituents, which explains its high value for milk produc-
tion. As pointed out in Chapter VIII, the amount of protein it will
pay to feed depends on the relative prices of protein-rich and car-
bonaceous feeds. Even when the former are high in price, the pro-
tein allowance should not fall far below the minimum shown in

13 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 256.

262 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Appendix Table V. In districts where protein-rich feeds are the
cheapest, cows have been fed rations as narrow as 1:4 without
harm.

Succulent and palatable feed. — Numerous trials have shown the
importance of providing succulent feed, either corn silage or roots,
for winter feeding to take the place of summer pasture. The value
of succulence is due in no small measure to its beneficial laxative
effect and to its palatability, which undoubtedly tends to stimulate
digestion. Not only should succulent feed be supplied, but the rest
of the ration for cows yielding a good flow of milk should be as
palatable as possible. Such roughages as timothy hay, straw, and
corn stover may be used in limited amount, but should not form the
chief roughage. Concentrates not relished when fed alone may be
mixed with well-liked feed. The concentrate allowance should be
composed of two or more feeds, for a mixture is relished better than
a single kind of grain or roughage. It is also well to feed at least
two kinds of roughage.

Shelter and comfort. — In wdnter, the steer, gorged with feed and
every day adding to the heat-holding layer of fat just beneath the
skin, prefers the yard or open shed to the stable. The dairy cow
stands in strong contrast, her system being severely taxed thru the
annual drain of maternity and the daily loss of milk. The cow should
be comfortably housed in a well-lighted, well-ventilated stable, hav-
ing a temperature ranging from 40° to 50° F. in winter. To preserve
the health of the herd as Avell as for sanitary reasons, it is advisable
to have not less than 4 square feet of window glass for each animal.
It is well to disinfect the stable thoroly at least once a year, to check
any possible spread of disease. As the dairy cow is a sensitive,
nervous animal the wise dairyman will provide comfortable stalls or
swinging stanchions, and see that the cows are well bedded.

Water. — Cows in milk require about 100 lbs., or 12.5 gallons, of
water per head daily, and heavy yielding cow^s even more. As cows
are creatures of habit, those of ordinary productive capacity will
have their needs supplied if once each day they can easily secure
all the water they can then drink. High-producing animals should
have water at least twice a day. The supply should be of good
quality and close by, so the cows will not be forced to travel far.

Opinions differ as to the advisability of warming water for cows
in winter. Owing to the heavy rations cows in milk consume, there
is a large amount of heat produced in their bodies thru the energy
expended in the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the feed.
When comfortably housed, probably little or no nutrients need be
burned in the body for warming the water drunk in winter, provided

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 263

it is no colder than that from a deep well. However, it is advan-
tageous to warm the water for heavy-yielding cows, for unless this is
done they may not drink enough to make possible the maximum pro-
duction of milk. In regions with severe winters cows should be
watered indoors when the weather is so bad that it is not desirable
to turn them out for exercise.

Salt. — We have already seen in Chapter IV that dairy cows re-
quire salt to thrive. An allowance of 0.75 ounce daily per 1,000 lbs.
live weight, with 0.6 ounce in addition for each 20 lbs. of milk is
generally sufficient.^* The salt may be regularly mixed with the
feed, or the cows may be allowed free access to it.

Preparation of feed. — Since 'the cow giving a large flow of milk is
working hard, her grain should be ground or crushed if not otherwise
easy of mastication and digestion. Corn and oats should generally,
and wheat, rye, barley, kafir, and milo always, be ground or crushed,
and roots should be sliced or pulped. There is no advantage in cook-
ing or soaking ordinary feeds.

Frequency and order of feeding. — On account of the large
capacity of the cow's paunch and the considerable time needed for
rumination, the common practice of feeding cows twice daily, with
possibly a little roughage at noon, is a reasonable one. In the roomy
paunch hay and grain, eaten separately, are thoroly mixed by the
churning action and gradually softened in the warm, abundant
liquid the paunch contains. This true, the particular order of feed-
ing roughages and concentrates is not important, tho the same order
should be followed from day to day and the cows should be fed at
regular intervals. Hay and other dry forage is usually not fed till
after milking, because they fill the air with dust. Silage, turnips,
cabbage, or other feeds with a marked odor should be given only
after milking.

Cows need a rest. — Dairymen agree that it is best to give the dairy
cow a rest by drying her off 6 to 8 weeks before freshening, for she
will then produce more milk annually than if milked continuously.
To avoid injury to the udder she should be dried off gradually. She
should also be in good condition at calving, for this insures a good
flow of milk and lessens the trouble i,n calving. Only sufficient con-
centrates should be fed to put her in proper flesh, and if she has been
heavily fed with rich concentrates while giving milk, a helpful change
may now be made to a ration which will rest and cool the digestive
tract. Just previous to calving the feed should be slightly laxative,
tho if on pasture no especial attention need be given to this point.
For cows that freshen while housed nothing is better than legume

i4Babcock and Carlyle, Wis. Rpt. 1905.

264 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

hay and silage, with a couple of pounds of concentrates added, if
necessary.

Calving time. — The gestation period of the cow is from 280 to 285
days. At calving time she should be kept in a clean, comfortable,
well-bedded box stall unless on pasture, and should not be molested
unless assistance is required. In winter her drinking water should
be lukewarm for 2 or 3 days after calving, and she should be pro-
tected from cold drafts, for her vitality is then low. The feed for
the first few days should be limited in amount and of cooling, laxa-
tive nature. Besides legume hay and silage, she may be given such
feeds as bran, often fed as a mash, oats, and linseed meal. High-
producing cows should be watched closely for signs of milk-fever,
and the air treatment, the great boon to dairymen, used if necessary.
The yearly production of the cow depends in a considerable measure
on the feed she receives during the first month after calving. The
concentrate allowance, small at first, should be increased gradually,
at the rate of a half-pound every other day until the full allowance is
reached, for heavy feeding immediately after calving may lead to
digestive disturbances. If the udder is swollen and hard, even more
care should be used in getting the cow to the full ration.

By having cows freshen in the fall a larger annual yield of milk
is possible, for they give a good flow during the winter and are
stimulated to high production again when turned to pasture in
spring. Spring-fresh cows yield most of their milk when dairy prod-
ucts are low in price and when the dairyman is busiest with his crops.
When cows freshen in the fall more time can be given to the raising
of the calves, and there will be less trouble from scours than in
summer. Fall-dropped calves are large enough by spring to make
good use of pasture and are better able to stand the hot weather.

IV. The Cost op IMilk Production

Annual feed requirement. — The following table shows the amount
and cost of feed consumed annually by dairy cows and the returns in
milk and fat, as shown by trials at 10 widely separated American
stations.

At the IMassachusetts Station the cows were fed soilage in the
summ.er, only the dry cows being turned to pasture. In New Jersey
they were likewise maintained in summer almost wholly on soilage
and silage. At the other stations the pasture period ranged from 131
days in Minnesota to 191 in Missouri. The great value of alfalfa
hay in reducing the amount of concentrates fed and the cost of keep
is shown by the Utah and Montana reports. The prices of feed have

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS

265

advanced materially since these results were reported, but from the
data in the table one can readily estimate the yearly cost of feed at
local market prices. IMilk and butter are commonly produced at much
less expense in summer when the herd is on pasture, than when in
winter quarters.

Feed requirement of the dairy coiv as found hy ten stations

No. of
years

Feed eaten

Av. cost
of feed
per cow

Retu

rns

Stations

Pas-
ture

Concen-
trates

Silage,
roots,
soilage

Hay

Milk

Pat

Da.vs

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Dols.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Massachusetts i

G

38

2,149

4.938

5,105

90.04

6,036

306

Connecticut 2 . .

5

152

2,029

8,694

1,830

53.46

5,498

279

New Jersey s . .

0

lUS*

2.G24

1G,753

1,825

44.68

6,165

277

Michigan 4

1

139

2,774

3,G38

3,986

35.96

7,009

260

Wisconsin s ...

3

180

1,914

9,448

1,200

37.68

7,061

299

Wisconsin e ...

4

150*

2,010

8,318

1,490

48.82

8,036

344

Minnesota 7 ...

1

131

3,435

5,30G

2,029

37.82

6,408

301

Missouri ** ....

1

191

3,027

3,480

35.30

5,927

248

Utah 9

5

153

1,305

4,518

21.43

5,601

237

Montana i*' ....

2

150

1.1G9

6,4 G8

32.45

5,993

250

Nebraska n ....

2

187

1,979

3,692

2,347

31.61

8,783

339

1 Bui. 145. 2 Bui. 29. 3 Rpts. 1897-1904. 4 Bui. 166. 5 Rpts. 1905-7. 6 Buls. 167,
187,217. 7 Bui. 35. 8 Bui. 26. 9 BuL 68. 10 Rpt. 1905. 11 Bui. 101.
* Pasture limited in amount.

Cost of keeping cows. — In addition to the cost of feed, the dairy
cow should be charged with: (1) depreciation, interest, and taxes on
the cow herself; (2) depreciation, interest, and taxes on buildings;

(3) depreciation and interest on barn tools and dairy implements;

(4) cost of perishable tools and supplies, including bedding, ice, salt,
brushes, record sheets, etc.; (5) proportionate cost of pure-bred sire;
(6) cost of labor in caring for cow. These are estimated by various
authorities at $56 to $73 per head annually, but will vary greatly
for the different sections of the country, depending on the price of
labor, the shelter required, etc. These figures will, however, give an
approximate idea of the amount which should be added to the cost
of feed to obtain the total cost of maintaining a cow for a year.
In turn, the cow should be credited not only with the value of her
product, either milk, or butter fat and skim milk, but also with the
value of her calf and of the manure she produces.

QUESTIONS

1. Compare the economy with which the cow and the steer produce human
food.

2. What is meant by dairy type and beef type?

3. How do good and poor producers compare in economy of production?

266 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

4. How would Tou build up a herd of high-producing cows?

5. Discuss the keeping of records of production and the work of cow testing
associations.

6. What is the common range in composition of milk?

7. What is the average percentage of total solids and fat in Jersey, Guernsey,
Ayrshire, and Holstein milk?

8. Discuss the influence of individuality, portion of milk drawn, period be-
tween milkings, age of cow, advancing lactation, and condition at calving on
the composition and yield of milk.

9. What influence does the feed have: (a) on the richness of milk; (b) on
the amount of milk produced?

10. How do turning to pasture, temperature, weather, exercise, grooming,
milking machines, and regularity and kindness affect milk production?

11. What causes the yellow color of butter fat?

12. Name seven pasture conditions which should be imitated during the rest
of the year.

13. How much concentrates should be fed to dairy cows: (a) in winter; (b) on
pasture? Would you feed the same amount to all the cows in the herd?

14. Discuss the importance of properly balanced rations, succulent and pala-
table feed, shelter and comfort, water, salt, preparation of feed, and frequency
and order of feeding.

15. How should cows be fed and cared for before calving and at calving
time ?

16. Find the actual amounts and cost of feed given dairy cows in a good herd
in your vicinity and compare with the figures in this chapter.

CHAPTER XXI

FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW

I. Caebonaceous Concentrates

With the high prices now ruling for feed and labor, on many
farms, even where good dairy cows are kept, milk is being produced
at little or no profit to the owner. Yet, by a wise selection of feeds
other dairymen secure goodly profits from cows no better. This
shows emphatically that the feeding of the herd should be given most
careful study, and the system of farming so planned that a ration
both well balanced in chemical nutrients and otherwise satisfactory
may be provided at minimum expense.

Indian corn. — Thruout the corn belt Indian corn, a grain highly
relished by the cow, is usually the cheapest carbonaceous concentrate
available. Owing to its wide nutritive ratio, corn should be used
as the sole concentrate only when leguminous roughages supply the
lacking protein, and even then more variety in the ration is advis-
able. The poor results secured when corn is not properly balanced
by protein-rich feeds are shown in the following table. This gives
the results of a trial at the Illinois Station ^ in which one lot of cows
was fed a well-balanced ration, in which gluten feed and clover hay
furnished the necessary protein, while a second lot was fed corn
as the only concentrate, with corn silage, timothy hay, and a small
amount of clover hay.

Corn requires supplement for feeding dairy cows

Average ration
Lot I, balanced ration
Ground corn, 3.3 lbs.
Gluten feed, 4.7 lbs.

Lot II, unbalanced ration
Ground corn, 8 lbs.

Nutritive
ratio

Averaee daily yield
Milk Fat
Lbs. Lbs.

Clover hay, 8 lbs.
Corn silage, 30 lbs. . .

.... 1: 6

30.1 0.96

Timothy hay, 5 lbs.
Clover hay, 3 lbs.
Corn silage, 30 lbs. . .

1:11

20.5 0.69

During the trial the cows in Lot I produced 47 per ct. more milk
and 39 per ct. more fat than those in Lot II, fed the same weight

iFraser and Hayden, 111. Bui. 159.

267

Fig. 75. — Champion Cows of the Variot^s Dairy I^heeds

Upper, left. — Holstein cow. Duchess Skylark Ormsbv. Record at 5 years of
age, 27,761.7 lbs. milk, containing 120o.09 lbs. butter fat. (World's record for
butter fat production.) Owned by John B. Irwin, Minneapolis. Minn.

Upper, right. — Holstein cow, Tilly Alcartra. Record at 5 years of age, 30,4o2.6
lbs. milk, containing 951.20 lbs. butter fat. (World's record for milk production.)
Owned by A. W. Morris and Sons. Woodland, Cal.

Middle, left. — Guernsey cow, Murne Cowan. Record at 8 years of age, 24,008.0
lbs. milk, containing 1,098.18 lbs. butter fat. Owned by 6. C. Barlber, Akron,
Ohio.

Middle, right. — Jersey cow, Sophie 19th. of Hood Farm. Record at 7 years of
age, 17,557.8 lbs. milk, containing 999.14 lbs. butter fat. Owned by C. L Hood,
Lowell, Mass.

Loicer, left. — Ayrshire cow, Lily of Willowmoor. Record, 22,596 lbs. of milk,
containing 955.56 lbs. butter fat. Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wash.

Loicer right. — Brown Swiss cow. College Bravura. Record, 19,460.0 lbs. milk,
containing 798.16 lbs. butter fat. Owned by Michigan Agr. College. (Photo
from Hoard's Dairfiman.)

FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 269

of concentrates and roughages, but in an unbalanced ration. This
shows the folly of expecting profitable production from such un-
balanced combinations of feed, even tho they may be palatable.

Corn is commonly ground for dairy cows, but sometimes ear or
shock corn is fed. When other bulky concentrates are not furnished
it may be advisable to feed com in the form of corn-and-cob-meal.

Hominy feed. — This by-product, quite similar to corn in composi-
tion, compares favorably with it in feeding value. Like corn, it
should be supplemented by feeds rich in protein.

Oats. — This grain, which supplies somewhat more protein than
does corn or wheat, is an excellent feed for the dairy cow, but, owing
to their high price, it is usually not economical to use any large
amount of oats. The various concentrate by-products are generally
cheaper sources of crude protein, while corn furnishes carbohydrates
at less expense.

Barley, wheat, rye, emmer.— Barley is quite widely fed to dairy
cows in Europe, and has a reputation for producing milk and butter
of excellent quality. Judging from trials with other animals, barley
is slightly lower in value per pound than corn. Wheat, which is
usually too high priced for feeding except when of poor quality,
has about the same value for cows as corn. Large allowances of
rye produce a hard, dry butter, but 2 to 3 lbs. per head daily mixed
with other feeds has given good results. Emmer is about 13 per
ct. less valuable than corn or barley for dairy cows. All these small
grains should be ground, or, preferably, rolled.

Kafir, milo, and sorghum. — These grains are of great importance
to dairymen in the semi-arid Southwest, being the cheapest concen-
trates available. Meal from the sweet sorghums is only 10 to 15
per ct. less valuable than corn, and kafir and milo probably approach
corn even more closely in value.

Dried beet pulp. — On account of its slightly laxative and cooling
effect, this bulky, carbonaceous concentrate has become popular with
dairymen, especially for cows on forced test. It is about equal to
corn in value. Where silage is not available, dried beet pulp, mois-
tened before feeding, as it should always be when fed in large amount,
is a satisfactory, tho usually an expensive, substitute.

II. Protein-Rich Concentrates

Wheat bran. — This palatable, bulky concentrate is one of the most
esteemed feeds for the dairy cow, since it is fairly high in crude pro-
tein, rich in phosphorus, and has a beneficial laxative effect on the
digestive tract. Owing to its popularity, bran is often high in price,

270 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

considering the amount of crude protein it furnishes. Other by-
products, such as gluten feed, dried brewers' grains, and cottonseed
meal, wliich are richer in digestible crude protein, are therefore
usually more economical supplements for rations low in protein.
Hence, it is often best to feed bran only in limited amount for its
beneficial effect on the health of the animals, rather than attempt to
balance the ration with bran alone. This concentrate is especially
valuable for cows just before and after calving, for those on official
test, and for young, growing animals.

Wheat middlings or shorts; wheat mixed feed. — Tho higher in
digestible crude protein than wheat bran, middlings or shorts are
less palatable and are heavy, rather than bulky feeds. They should
hence be fed to dairy cows only in limited amounts, mixed with other
concentrates. Due to its higher content of digestible crude protein
and carbohydrates, a good grade of wheat mixed feed is worth about
10 per ct. more than wheat bran.

Corn gluten feed; gluten meal; germ oil meal. — Gluten feed, which
carries about twice as much digestible crude protein as wheat bran,
is a valuable concentrate for the dairy cow. In a trial at the Ver-
mont Station - when 4 lbs. of gluten feed replaced an equal weight
of a mixture of wheat bran and corn meal, the yield of milk was
increased 15 per ct. Gluten meal contains as much digestible crude
protein as linseed meal, and is also satisfactory for cows. Germ oil
meal and wheat bran, mixed in equal parts, proved superior to a
mixture of 1 part cottonseed meal, 1 part linseed meal, and 2 parts
wheat bran in a trial at the Vermont Station.^

Dried brewers' grains. — This bulky concentrate is widely fed to
dairy cows. It is somewhat superior to wheat bran, as we should
expect, for it contains over 70 per ct. more digestible crude protein
and slightly more total digestible nutrients.

Malt sprouts. — Tho not especially palatable, malt sprouts may be
successfully fed to dairy cows when mixed with other feeds, and are
often a cheap source of protein. In a trial at the Massachusetts
Station * 1.5 lbs. of gluten feed proved equal to 2 lbs. of malt sprouts.
As malt sprouts swell greatly on absorbing water they should be
soaked before feeding to avoid digestive disturbances, when over 2
lbs. daily is fed. Feeding more than about 3.3 lbs. of malt sprouts
per head daily may give a bitter taste to the milk, and large allow-
ances may even cause abortion.

Cottonseed meal. — Experience has shown that cottonseed meal may
be fed to dairy cows in properly balanced rations for years with no

2 Cooke, Vt. Ept. 1892. 4 Lindsey, Mass. Bui. 94.

3 Hills, Vt. Ept. 1901.

FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 271

ill effect. This is most fortunate, since this highly nitrogenous feed
is usually the cheapest source of protein in the South and often like-
wise in the North. Owing to its richness in protein, cottonseed meal
is even more valuable than linseed meal for balancing rations low in
this nutrient, and is worth considerably more than gluten feed or
dried distillers' grains. Since cottonseed meal is constipating it
should be fed with laxative concentrates, such as linseed meal or wheat
bran, or with succulent feed, such as silage or roots. The milk of
cows heavily fed on cottonseed meal yields a hard, tallowy butter,
light in color and poor in flavor. If a moderate allowance is fed in
a properly balanced ration, the quality is not injured and may
even be improved if the other feeds tend to produce a soft butter.
Some authorities recommend feeding no more than 2 to 3 lbs. of
cottonseed meal per head daily. However, when this highly nitrog-
enous, heavy feed is mixed with others which are bulky and lower
in protein and the cows are fed silage or other succulence, as much
as 6 lbs. of the meal has been fed daily to large cows with good
results. At the North Carolina Station ^ a mixture of equal parts
cottonseed meal, dried beet pulp, and dried distillers' grains was
highly satisfactory when fed with corn silage. A mixture of cotton-
seed meal, corn meal, and wheat bran also gave good results.

Linseed meal.— This slightly laxative, cooling, protein-rich concen-
trate is one of the best dairy feeds, but its popularity usually makes
it more expensive than some of the other protein-rich feeds which
are usually available. Nevertheless, 1 to 2 lbs. per head daily is
often advisable on account of its tonic and laxative effect, especially
with cows out of condition and those soon to freshen. Linseed meal
tends to produce a soft butter and therefore may be advantageously
added to rations that produce a tallowy product.

Dried distillers' grains.— Dried distillers' grains, which are about
as bulky as wheat bran, are extensively employed for feeding dairy
cows, bom distillers' grains are slightly more valuable than gluten
feed, but furnish less protein than cottonseed meal or linseed meal.
The rye distillers' grains are of lower value than those chiefly from
corn. At the Kentucky Station « it was found that some cows would
not eat large allowances of dried distillers' grains until they became
accustomed to the slightly sour smell and taste.

Soybeans; soybean meal or cake.— Ground soijheans have proved
slightly superior to cottonseed meal when not over 2 to 3.4 lbs. were
fed mixed with other concentrates. Too large an allowance of soy-
beans makes soft butter. This fault can be corrected by feeding
them with cottonseed meal.

5Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1914. 6 Hooper, Ky. Bui. 171.

272 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Soybean meal or cake, from which the fat has been extracted, does
not make soft butter, and is slightly more valuable than cottonseed
meal.

Cocoanut meal. — When no more than 3 to 4 lbs. per head daily
is fed, cocoanut meal produces a firm butter of excellent quality.
More may make too hard a butter. Cocoanut meal is about equal to
gluten feed for dairy cows.

III. Hay from the Legumes

Legume hay for the dairy cow. — Over much of this country the
Indian-corn plant provides the cheapest, most abundant, and most
palatable carbohydrates the farmer can produce, but it falls short in
furnishing protein, so vital in milk production. Happily, wherever
corn flourishes at least one of the legumes — alfalfa, clover, cowpeas,
vetch, etc. — can be grown to meet this deficiency. High in crude
protein and mineral matter, especially lime, the legume hays aid
greatly in reducing the amount of expensive protein-rich concen-
trates needed to provide a properly balanced ration for dairy cows.
The following articles show that when plenty of good legume hay and
silage from nearly matured and well-eared corn is supplied, only half
as much concentrates need be fed as when only carbonaceous rough-
ages are used.

Alfalfa hay. — Good alfalfa hay heads the list of roughages suitable
for the dairy cow, on account of its high content of protein and its
palatability. Leafy, early-cut alfalfa hay is the best for dairy cattle.
The value of this hay in balancing rations otherwise low in protein
is shown in a trial at the Ohio Station ^ in which 2 lots each of 6 cows
w^ere fed the rations shown below for 56 days:

Alfalfa hay as source of protein for dairy cows

Average ration
Lot I

Average
Milk
Lbs.

daily yield
Fat
Lbs.

Nutritive
ratio

Alfalfa hay, 11.6 lbs.
Corn silage, 27.8 lbs.

Corn meal, 5.9 lbs 22.0

0.87

1:7.0

Lot II

Corn stover, 5.6 lbs.
Corn silage, 29.3 lbs.

Cottonseed meal, 3.1 lbs.

Wheat bran, 3.1 lbs.

Corn meal, 3.1 lbs 20.5

0.90

1:5.7

The ration fed Lot I — alfalfa hay, corn silage, and corn meal^---
would undoubtedly have been improved had a greater variety of
concentrates been fed, yet with alfalfa hay as the sole supplement,

7 Caldwell, Ohio Bui. 267.

FEEDS FOK THE DAIRY COW 273

a well-balanced ration was provided which produced substantially as
good results as that fed Lot II, in which wheat bran and cottonseed
meal furnished most of the protein. While Lot II was fed 9.3 lbs.
of rich concentrates, Lot I received only 5.9 lbs. of corn meal.

Similar results have been secured in other trials where alfalfa hay
has replaced half or even somewhat more of the concentrates usually
fed.

Substituting alfalfa hay for all the concentrates. — In a still more
drastic trial of the value of alfalfa hay for milk production at the
New Jersey Station ^ all the concentrates for one lot of cows were
replaced by alfalfa hay, as shown in the table :

Replacing all the concentrate allowance with alfalfa hay

Average ration

Average

daily yield

Feed cost

Milk

Fat

per 100
lbs. milk *

Lbs.

Lbs.

Cents

Ration I

Corn stover, 6.8 lbs. Distillers' grains, 4.6 lbs.

Corn silage, 40.0 lbs. Wheat bran, 4.2 lbs.

Cottonseed meal, 0.5 lb. 24.6 1.07 83.7

Ration II

Alfalfa hay, 17.5 lbs.

Corn silage, 35.0 lbs. No concentrates 20.4 0.88 94.4

* Cost of feeds per ton: alfalfa hay, $16; corn silage, $3; corn stover, $4; distillers' grains,
$30; wheat bran, $24; and cottonseed meal, $34.

In this trial when the cows were fed Ration II, containing a heavy
allowance of alfalfa hay with no concentrates, the yield of milk was
17 per ct. and of fat 18 per ct. less than when Ration I, containing
over 9 lbs. of purchased protein-rich concentrates, was fed. With
feeds at the prices stated, milk was produced more cheaply on Ration
I. The relative economy of such rations obviously depends on the
price of alfalfa hay compared with concentrates.

The preceding trials show that alfalfa hay can be substituted for
a large part of the concentrates in the ration of the dairy cow with-
out materially reducing the yield of milk or fat. However, when all
the concentrates are so replaced the yield of cows of good productive
capacity is markedly decreased. This is reasonable, for, tho stand-
ing at the head of all roughages, alfalfa haj^ is nevertheless a rough-
age and not a concentrate. It contains about 3 times as much fiber as
wheat bran and furnishes but 70 per ct. as much net energy. Bearing
in mind the productive capacity of his cows and the price of legume
hay compared with concentrates, each dairyman must decide for him-
self to what extent it is economical to substitute legume hay for
concentrates.

8 Billings, N. J, Bui. 204,

274

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

In some sections of the West, owing to the cheapness of alfalfa
\my, dairy cows are given this feed alone, possibly with green alfalfa
soilage or pasturage in addition during the summer. Complaints
are made that this unbalanced ration, which is too high in protein
and too low in net nutrients, does not always maintain the animals
in as good health as w^here concentrates or even roughages lower in
protein are added.

Alfalfa meal. — In view of the palatability of alfalfa hay to the
dairy cow and its thoro mastication during rumination, alfalfa meal

-

1 ,>;^^|^^^^|^'

■ip^vl^l-^^^^X^I

JH as__:2& --^ . : ^2. :_

Fig, 76. — Dairy Cows Utilizing Land Unsuited for Tillage

One of the great advantages of live stock is that they can graze upon land
unsuited for tillage. (From Kimball's Dairy Farmer.)

is ordinarily not economical when good alfalfa hay is available, for
the fine grinding does not increase its value.

Clover hay. — Hay from the clovers, cut while yet in bloom, is
one of the best roughages for dairy cows. Tho somewhat lower than
alfalfa hay in protein, red clover hay furnishes a slightly larger
amount of net energy. By the use of clover hay — red, alsike, or
crimson — the amount of concentrates needed to supply a well-balanced
ration can be reduced just as when alfalfa hay is used. For example,

FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 275

in a trial at the New Jersey Station ® cows fed 16.4 lbs. of crimson
clover hay and 30 lbs. of com silage per head daily with no con-
centrates gave 15 per ct. less milk than when fed 6 lbs. of wheat bran,
5 lbs. dried brewers' grains, 30 lbs. corn silage and 5 lbs. mixed hay.
Replacing the concentrates by crimson clover hay, however, effected
a saving of over 18 cents in the feed cost of producing 100 lbs. of
milk.

Hay from other legumes. — In the South, the cowpea, which thrives
on all types of soil, is of great importance to the dairy industry, as
it furnishes palatable hay rich in protein. This may be used just like
alfalfa or clover hay in replacing protein-rich concentrates. In a
trial at the New Jersey Station " a ration of 17 lbs. cowpea hay and
36 lbs. corn silage produced but 2 lbs. less milk and 0.13 lb. less fat
per cow daily than a ration of 9 lbs. of protein-rich concentrates,
36 lbs. com silage, and 5 lbs. corn stover. ]\lilk was produced cheap-
est on the home-grown ration. Where they thrive soybeans, vetch,
and field peas all furnish excellent protein-rich hay for dairy cows.

IV. Carbonaceous Roughages

Corn fodder. — Tho inferior to com silage, good corn fodder, espe-
ciall}^ that from thickly planted corn, is relished by cows and is a
satisfactory substitute for hay from the grasses. In a trial at the
Pennsylvania Station ^^ corn fodder proved practically equal to
timothy hay, and twice as much can ordinarily be produced on a given
area. Rather than being fed as the sole rougliiage, it should prefer-
ably be used with legume hay.

Corn stover. — In trials at the AViseonsin Station ^- 1 ton of mixed
clover and timothy hay proved equal to 3 tons of uncut corn stover,
and clear clover hay was somewhat more valuable. Thirty-four per
ct. of the coarse, uncut stover was left uneaten. Had the material
been cut, the cows would have wasted somewhat less and the stover
would then have had a higher value. These trials show the heavy
losses in feeding dry corn forage, while if the forage were ensiled,
practically all would be consumed.

Timothy hay. — While timothy hay is a standard roughage for the
horse, it is unsatisfactory for the dairy cow. It lacks protein, is not
very palatable to cows, and has a constipating effect quite opposite to
the beneficial action of legume hay. The value of mixed clover and
timothy hay for cows will depend on the proportion of clover present.
To show the poor results secured when timothy hay is fed with

9 Lane, N. J. Bui. 161. ii Hunt and Caldwell, Penn. Rpt. 1892.

10 Lane, N. J., Bui. 174. 12 The senior author, Wis. Rpt. 1884.

276 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

other feeds likewise low iu protein, the Illinois Station ^^ conducted
a trial on a dairy farm wdth 2 lots, each of 8 cows. They were fed
10 lbs. of either timothy or alfalfa hay per head daily with 10 lbs.
corn stover and 12.5 lbs. of a concentrate mixture of 2.5 parts of com
meal and 1 part of wheat bran. When fed the alfalfa hay ration,
which had a nutritive ratio of 1 : G.6, the cows produced over one-
sixth more milk than on the unbalanced timothj^ hay ration, the
nutritive ratio of which was 1 : 10.2. The timothy-fed cows lost in
weight and were in poor condition generally. The production would
have been even lower had not a small amount of bran been fed. This
trial shows clearly that when hay from any of the grasses must be
fed it should be supplemented by concentrates high in protein.

Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls contain a fair amount of di-
gestible carbohydrates, but are very low in crude protein and are
rather unpalatable to cows. Southern dairymen can supply roughage
for their herds more cheaply in the form of corn silage than by buy-
ing cottonseed hulls. Silage is also more palatable and stimulates a
larger flow of milk. Tho good corn stover is worth fully as much as
cottonseed hulls, southern dairymen often leave the corn stalks in the
field and purchase the hulls for roughage.

Other carbonaceous roughages. — Brome hay and upland prairie
hay equal timothy in value. Hay from other grasses and from the
cereals is likewise used for feeding dairy cows. In the plains states
fodder and stover from the sorghums are common feeds, resembling
the forage from corn in feeding value. Straw is inferior to corn
stover and is usually not fed in any large amount to dairy cows in
this country. A limited amount of good bright oat straw, however,
often may be fed with economy even to dairy cows. The cows may be
allowed to pick over the straw and the remainder used for bedding.

V. Succulent Feeds

Corn silage. — The importance of succulent feeds for milk produc-
tion has been pointed out in the preceding chapter. Thruout the
chief dairy sections of the United States, corn silage furnishes the
cheapest form of succulence. Due largely to the fact that the silage
made during earlier years was frequently of poor qualit}^ and fed in
a careless manner, a widespread belief existed that silage injured
the flavor of the milk. For many years the largest milk condensing
company in the country prohibited the use of silage by its patrons.
Experience has now abundantly demonstrated that when good silage
is fed under proper conditions the quality of the milk is improved,

isFraser and Hayden, 111. Bui. 146.

FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 277

rather than injured. Like other feeds, silage may be abused. Only
that which is well made should be used, and this should be fed directly
after milking and be eaten up clean at each feeding, none being left
scattered on the floor of the stable. The air of the stable should be
kept pure and wholesome by proper ventilation. Under such con-
ditions no one need fear ill effects from feeding silage to dairy cows,
for when so fed even the milk condensing factories no longer object
to its use. The daily allowance of silage usually ranges from 20 to
40 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight. A common rule is to feed cows
3 lbs. of silage and 1 lb. of dry roughage per 100 lbs. live weight.

In 9 trials at various stations in which corn silage was compared
with corn fodder, on the average 7.4 lbs. more milk was produced from
each 100 lbs. of dry matter in the rations containing silage than in
those containing fodder corn. Since silage is no more digestible than
dry fodder, its superiority must be largely due to the fact that while
good-quality silage is eaten with little or no waste, a considerable
part of the com fodder is usually left uneaten. Another reason is
that cows getting the succulent, palatable silage consume a heavier
ration than those fed the dry fodder and hence have a larger amount
of nutrients available for milk production after the maintenance
requirements of the body have been met.

Trials at the ]\Iaine and Vermont Stations ^* show that 280 to 350
lbs. of corn silage is worth rather more than 100 lbs. of mixed hay.
At the Utah Station ^^ 310 to 320 lbs. of corn silage replaced 100
lbs. of alfalfa hay when fed in rations containing ample protein.

Silage other than corn. — Silage from the grain sorghums and the
sweet sorghums, cut at the proper stage of maturity, is but little
inferior to that from corn. These crops are of great importance to
the dairymen of the southwestern states. Clover and alfalfa are
sometimes ensiled, tho there is far less certainty of securing good
silage from them than from corn or the sorghums. Such combina-
tions as field peas with oats, soybeans or cowpeas with corn or the
sorghums, and vetch with oats, wheat, or barley, make satisfactory
silage, rich in protein.

Roots. — Tho roots are excellent for dairy cows, they are little used
in this country because corn silage furnishes much cheaper succulence.
Tho nearly 90 per ct. of the dry matter in roots is digestible and only
66 per ct. of that in corn silage, in actual feeding trials the dry matter
of silage has proven fully as valuable as that in roots. Since corn
silage contains more dry matter than roots, it is worth considerably
more per ton. Sugar beets and mangels are the roots most commonly

14 Jordan, Maine Rpt. 1889; Hills, Vt. Rpt. 1901.

15 Carroll, information to the authors.

278

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

fed to dairy cows, the former having the higher value per ton on ac-
count of their less watery nature. Rutabagas and turnips should be
fed immediately after milking to avoid tainting the milk.

Many breeders esteem roots highly for cows which are being forced
to the utmost production on official tests. They have a "cooling"
effect on the digestive organs, helping to prevent digestive trouble when
cows are fed all the rich concentrates they will consume. In addition,
adding roots even to a palatable ration containing good corn silage
seems to slightly increase the yield of milk and fat. This small in-

FiG. 77. — Feeding Green Corn to Keep Up the Milk Flow

If additional feed is not supplied when pastures become parched in mid-
summer, the milk flow will surely decrease and it will not be possible to bring
the cows back to their normal yield even should the pastures improve later.

crease may make such feeding of roots advantageous for breeders seek-
ing high records. The practice will rarely be economical for dairy-
men in general, for the Michigan Station ^*' has shown that the addi-
tional milk produced thereby will not pay for the roots fed.

Potatoes. — A heavy allowance of potatoes produces milk of poor
flavor. They may be used with success, however, when not over
about 33 lbs. of cooked potatoes are fed per head daily, or somewhat
less of the raw tubers.

16 Shaw and Norton, Mich. Bui. 240.

FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 279

Wet beet pulp. — Wet beet pulp is liked by cows and produces milk
of good quality when not fed in excess. In a trial at the New York
(Cornell) Station/^ good results were secured when cows were fed 50
to 100 lbs. of wet beet pulp per head daily with 8 lbs. of grain and 6
to 12 lbs. of hay. As it contains only 9 to 10 per ct. dry matter, wet
beet pulp is worth about one-third as much as corn silage per ton.

Soilage.— Trials at the Wisconsin ^^ and Nebraska ^'^ Stations show
that corn silage furnishes just as satisfactory and much cheaper feed to
supplement short summer pasture than does a succession of soiling
crops, such as red clover, peas and oats, sweet corn, and field corn.
Where too few cows are kept to consume the silage fast enough to pre-
vent its spoiling or where silage is not available for any other reason,
the wise dairyman will provide a well-planned succession of soiling
crops to keep up the milk flow when pastures are scant.

QUESTIONS

1. With what other feeds should corn or the other cereals be combined for
dairy cows?

2. How does the value of hominy feed, oats, barley, wheat, rye, emmer, kafir,
and dried beet pulp compare with that of corn?

3. Compare the value for cows of wheat bran, gluten feed, cottonseed meal,
linseed meal, and dried distillers' grains.

4. Name five other protein-rich concentrates used for dairy cows and discuss
their value.

5. Show by giving the results of feeding trials how legume hay may be sub-
stituted for expensive concentrates.

6. What is the value of corn fodder, corn stover, timothy hay, and cottonseed
hulls for cows?

7. Discuss the value of corn silage for milk production.

8. What other crops furnish satisfactory silage for dairy cows?

9. Under what conditions should roots be fed to cows?
10. Compare soilage and silage for summer feeding.

17 Wing and Anderson, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 183.

18 Woll, Humphrey and Oosterhuis, Wis. Bui. 235.

19 Frandsen, Hoard's Dairyman, 47, 1914, p. 403.

CHAPTER XXII

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE

I. The Skim-milk Calf

The profits of dairying depend largely on carefully rearing the
heifer calves from the best cows in the herd. Starting with common
cows, in a few years one may easily and economically build up a high-
producing herd by using good pure-bred sires and steadily replacing
the inferior cows wath home-raised heifers of greater productive
capacity. On the other hand, the dairyman who replenishes his herd
by purchases must pay high prices for cows and heifers, which, tho
of good appearance, are too often poor producers. Another important
reason for raising the heifers is that under this system it is far easier
to keep the herd free from such diseases as tuberculosis and contagious
abortion. The prudent dairyman accordingly^ first sees that the
calves are well-bred and then so feeds and cares for them that they
are not stunted, but reach full development.

Raising- calves on skim milk. — The fat of milk is so valuable that
but few dairy calves are now raised on whole milk. Scientific trials
and practical experience alike show that with proper feeding calves
changed to skim milk when but a few weeks old develop into just as
good cows as those fed whole milk until weaning time. Due to the
removal of most of the fat, skim milk contains a much larger propor-
tion of protein than whole milk, and has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 1.5
compared with 1 : 4.4 for unskimmed milk. Accordingly, in choosing
supplements to feed with skim milk the need is not for additional pro-
tein, but for an abundance of energy-giving, easily digested carbohy-
drates or fat to replace the fat removed from the whole milk. "While
various fats and oils may be used to supplement skim milk, the cereal
grains, rich in carbohydrates, are cheaper and more satisfactory for
calf feeding.

Starting the calf on whole milk. — The skim-milk calf is usually
allowed to get its milk from the dam for 2 or 3 days, tho many dairy-
men claim that if never allowed to draw milk from the mother, it
learns more readily to drink from the pail. In any event, the calf
should always get the first milk, or colostrum, which is designed by
Nature for cleansing the bowels and starting the digestive functions.

280

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE

281

If the cow is a heavy milker the calf should not be allowed to gorge
lest scours result. After each feeding the cow should be stripped
clean. When the cow's udder is caked, leaving the calf with her will
aid in reducing inflammation.

The calf is best taught to drink milk from the pail by using the
fingers. If it goes 12 to 24 hours without being fed, or until it be-
comes genuinely hungry, much less difficulty will be experienced in
the first lesson. Many of the calf feeding devices on the market are
unsatisfactory, and all are dangerous unless extreme care is exer-
cised in cleansing and sterilizing them.

Fig. 78. — Thrifty, Promising Heifers Raised on Skim Milk

With proper feeding and care, sl-cim millc calves develop into just as good cows
as those fed whole milk until weaning time. (From Wisconsin Station.)

The young calf has a small stomach and naturally takes milk fre-
quently and in small quantities. Too large an allowance of milk
produces indigestion and scours. For the first day or two only 5 to
6 lbs. should be fed, or somewhat more for a large, lusty calf, the
allowance being divided between 2 feedings, tho some advocate feed-
ing 3 or 4 times a day at first. The milk should be as fresh as pos-
sible and at blood heat, as determined by a thermometer. The allow-
ance of milk should be gradually increased, but over-feeding, a com-
mon cause of poor success in calf rearing, should be avoided. A

282 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

safe rule is alwaj^s to keep the calf a little hungry. Calves should be
fed individually, the allowance for each being measured or weighed,
and the amount fed depending on the size and vigor of the individual.
Guernsey and Jersey calves require not over 8 to 10 lbs. daily for the
first 3 to 4 weeks, and those of the larger breeds not over 10 to 12 lbs.

Feeding skim milk. — When the calf is from 2 to 4 weeks old, skim
milk may gradually replace the whole milk at the rate of 0.5 to 1 lb.
per day, a week or 10 days being required for the change. With very
rich milk, some prefer to dilute with skim milk from the start. A
few breeders feed some whole milk for as long as 2 months.

After changing to skim milk the allowance may be increased grad-
ually, but should not exceed 18 lbs. daily until the calf is 6 weeks old,
and only in rare cases should over 20 lbs. daily be fed. Skim milk is
at its best when, still warm, it goes at once from the farm separator to
the calf. ]\Iilk held for any length of time or chilled should alwa^'s
be warmed to blood temperature, or about 100° F., before feeding.
When the calf is 3 to 4 months old it may be accustomed to cooler
milk provided the temperature is reasonablj^ uniform. The pails in
which the milk is fed should be kept scrupulously clean. Feeding
cold skim milk or that which is sour, stale, and swarming with unde-
sirable bacteria is the common cause of scours. Patrons of creameries
should insist that all skim milk be pasteurized before it is returned
to the farm. This precaution not only keeps the milk sweet longer
but it kills the disease-producing bacteria, thereby lessening trouble
from scours and preventing the possible introduction of tuberculosis.
Skim-milk feeding should usually continue for 8 to 10 months, but
when the supply of milk is scant a thrifty calf may be weaned after
3 months, provided good substitutes for milk are fed, as shown later.

At feeding time hand-reared calves should be confined in stanchions,
to remain for a time after the milk is drunk until they consume their
concentrate allowance and overcome the desire to suck each other's
ears or udders. When this precaution is neglected, the shape of the
udder may be injured or a heifer may later persist in sucking herself
or others.

Feeding concentrates. — When 1 to 2 weeks old the calf should be
taught to eat concentrates. Such feeds as corn meal, sieved ground
oats, barley meal, kafir meal, wheat bran, red dog flour, and linseed
meal, alone or in mixture, may be placed in the bottom of the pail
after the calf has finished drinking its milk. Some add the concen-
trates to the milk, but this is inadvisable for the meal is then less
thoroly mixed with the saliva. The addition of such concentrates as
bran or linseed meal to the farm grains may be helpful in teaching
the calf to eat. The dull calf may be taught to eat the meal by rub-

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE

283

bing a little on its muzzle when it is thru drinking milk. Having
learned the taste of the meal, the calf should be fed its allowance dry
from a convenient feed box. Until it becomes accustomed to the new
article of diet, a supply of meal may be kept before it. After this,
only as much should be fed as will be eaten up, and the feed box
should be cleaned out regularly. At 6 weeks the calf will usually
eat 0.5 lb. of concentrates a day ; at 2 months, about 1 lb. ; and at 3
months, 2 lbs. Unless it is desired to push the animal ahead rapidly
no more than this need be fed the skim-milk calf up to 6 months.^

Home-Made Stanchions for Calves

Calves should be confined in stanchions at feeding time until they eat their
concentrates and overcome the desire to suck each others ears or udders. ( From
Wisconsin Station.)

Concentrates for skim-milk calves. — Since skim milk is very rich
in protein, it is not necessary to use protein-rich feeds, such as linseed
or flaxseed meal, as concentrates for skim-milk calves. The farm-
grown grains, such as corn, oats, barley, and kafir, give fully as good
results and are ordinarily the cheapest concentrates available. ]\Iix-
ing small amounts of such well-liked feeds as linseed meal or bran
with the grain may sometimes be advantageous to make the ration
more palatable. In teaching calves to eat, ground grain is usually
fed, but later whole corn or oats gives as good or even better results

1 Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 184.

284 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

than the ground grain. When the calves are several months old, they
chew their feed less thoroly and grinding oats or corn may then
be profitable. Barley and kafir should always be ground.

The following list by Otis ^ will aid dairymen in selecting feeds for
skim-milk calves:

"1. Corn meal gradually changed in 4 to 6 weeks to slielled corn with or
without bran.

"2. Whole oats and bran.

"3. Whole oats and corn chop, the latter gradually replaced by shelled corn
in 4 to 6 weeks.

"4. Ground barley with bran or shelled corn.

"5. Shelled corn and ground kafir or sorghum.

"6. Whole oats, ground barley, and bran.

"7. A mixture of 20 lbs. of corn meal, 20 lbs. of oat meal, 20 lbs. of oil meal,
10 lbs. of blood meal, and 5 lbs. of bone meal, changed to corn, oats, and bran
when calves are 3 months old.

"8. A mixture of 5 lbs. whole oats, 3 lbs. bran, 1 lb. corn meal, and 1 lb. of
linseed meal."

Ground soybeans are unsatisfactory for calves on account of their
laxative action. Cottonseed meal is not a safe feed for young calves,
but after they are 6 to 8 months old they may be started on an allow-
ance of 0.5 lb. per head daily and this may be gradually increased to
2 lbs., when fed with silage and such feeds as shredded corn stover
and oat straw. Dried blood is helpful for sickly calves.

Hay for calves. — Calves begin to eat hay at about the same age as
they do grain, consuming nearly the same quantity of each at first.
As they grow and the paunch develops, the proportion of roughage to
concentrates should be increased until when 6 months old they will be
consuming about 3 times as much hay as grain. The majority of
dairymen prefer clover or alfalfa hay, but the allowance of these
should be restricted when the calves are young, to avoid scouring.
Some prefer bluegrass, native, or mixed hay for the first two or three
months because with these there is less danger from scours. The
growing heifer should be encouraged to eat a goodly amount of hay
in order to develop the roomy digestive tract desired in the dairy cow.
Uneaten roughage should be removed from the rack or manger before
the next feeding time, for calves dislike hay which has been "blown
on."

Succulent feeds. — A small amount of silage from well-matured
corn, free from mold, may be fed to calves when 6 to 8 weeks old, only
the leaves being offered at first. From a handful twice a day the
allowance of silage may be gradually increased until the calves are
getting 10 lbs. per head daily when a year old.

2 Wis. Bui. 192.

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE

285

Roots are also a satisfactory succulent feed, and pasture is excellent
for calves old enough to make good use of it. To avoid scours, they
should be accustomed to grass gradually, being turned to pasture for
only an hour the first day. Another method is to accustom them to
green feed by giving increasing allowances of soilage before turning
to pasture. It is well not to turn spring or summer calves to pasture
until they are 2 to 4 months old, for there is less trouble from scours
and the young things suffer less from the flies and heat.

Birth weights and gains of calves.— The average birth weight o£
calves of the leading dairy breeds is as follows : Jersey, 55 lbs. ; Guem-

FiG. 80. — Ractk and Trough for Feeding Hay and Grain

The growing heifer should be encouraged to eat plenty of roughage in order to
develop a roomy digestive tract. (From Hoard's Dairyman.)

sey, 71 ; Ayrshire, 76 ; and Holstein, 89. Bull calves are heavier than
heifers, and calves from mature cows are somewhat heavier at birth
than those from heifers.

Properly fed on skim milk, along with suitable grains and roughage,
the thrifty calf should gain about 1.5 lbs. daily for the first 4 to 6
months. The aim should be not to fatten the calf but to keep it in a
vigorous, growing condition.

Calves should be amply supplied with pure, fresh water, a point
which is often neglected, and as soon as they begin to eat grain and
hay they should get salt, the same as do older animals.

286 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

II. Raising Calves on Skim-milk Substitutes

"With dairymen who produce milk for city consumption, for cheese
making, or for the condenseries, the rearing of calves on skim-milk
substitutes is of great importance.

Buttermilk and whey. — Fresh buttermilk is perhaps the best sub-
stitute for skim milk, but the watery slop sometimes obtained from
creameries, often from filthy tanks, is almost sure to cause scours.
The whey usually obtained from the cheese factory, acid and often
loaded with germs that cause indigestion, is unsuited for calf feeding.
Sweet, undiluted whey which has been pasteurized may give fair re-
sults when fed under the strictest rules as to quantity, regularity of
feeding, and cleanliness of the vessels employed. It should be re-
membered that, instead of being a protein-rich food like skim milk,
whey is relatively poor in this nutrient. Accordingly, instead of
the cereal grains, feeds high in protein, such as wheat bran, wheat
middlings, and linseed meal, should be fed with it.

Feeding a minimum amount of milk. — In trials at the Illinois
Station ^ it was found that after the dam 's milk was usable calves
could be raised successfully on a total of only 137 to 167 lbs. of whole
milk and 378 to 491 lbs. of skim milk, with good clover hay and such
concentrates as bran, oats, linseed meal, and corn. The method used
was as follows :

The calves were fed whole milk for the first 4 days, and then, starting with
the fifth day, 10 lbs. of whole milk and 2 lbs. of skim milk was fed daily per
calf for about 10 days, after which the whole milk was gradually replaced with
skim milk at the rate of 1 lb. per day. Each calf was then fed 12 lbs. of skim
milk per day for 20 days, or until 45 days old, when the allowance was
reduced 1 lb. each day, no milk being fed after the calves were about 56 days
old. The calves were rather thin for a time, but after being kept on pasture
with a limited allowance of grain until 6 months old all were in good tlirifty
pondition, and later several developed into good-producing cows.

Substitutes for milk. — ^Various concentrate mixtures have been
ased successfully as substitutes for milk, the calves being fed whole
milk for only a few days and then being gradually changed to the
substitutes. The Pennsylvania Station* secured good results with a
home-mixed calf meal, composed of 30 parts wheat flour, 25 parts
coeoanut meal, 20 parts skim-milk powder, 10 parts linseed meal, and
2 parts dried blood, the mixture costing about 3 cents per pound.
One pound of the mixture was added to 6 lbs. of hot water, and after
stirring was cooled to blood heat before feeding. A mixture of equal
parts of hominy meal, linseed meal, red dog fiour, and blood meal has

3 Fraser and Brand, 111. Bui. 164. 4 Hayward, Penn. Bui. 60

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 287

proven excellent at the Indiana Station."^ As calves grow older, farm-
grown grains, as corn and oats, should be fed in addition to the calf
meal, and finally replace it. There are on the market several calf
meals, which are more or less complex mixtures of such feeds as lin-
seed meal or flaxseed meal, ground cereals, and wheat by-products,
with or without dried milk, casein, and mild drugs. They are fairly
satisfactory substitutes for skim milk, but often give no better returns
than home-mixed meals that are less expensive.

Scours. — -The most frequent trouble in raising calves by hand is
indigestion, or common scours. This is usually caused by over-feed-
ing, by the use of cold milk or that laden with disease germs, by dirty
pails or feed boxes, by keeping calves in dark, dirty, poorly-ventilated
stalls, or by feeding improper concentrates, or allowing uneaten feed
to spoil in the feed box. Each animal should be watched closely for
signs of scours, for a severe case gives the calf a set-back from which
it recovers but slowly. At the first indication of trouble the ration
should be reduced to less than half the usual amount. Such remedies
as castor oil, formalin, and a mixture of salol and bismuth subnitrate
are used with success by dairymen.

Common scours should be distinguished from contagious, or white,
scours, also called calf cholera, vv^hich is due to an infection of the
navel soon after birth. This serious disease may usually be avoided
by providing that the calf be dropped in a clean stall or on pasture.
When the calf is born in the barn, it is best to wet the navel thoroly
with a disinfectant, such as a weak solution of creoline, zenoleum, or
bichloride of mercury.

III. Dairy Heifers j The Bull

Feed and care of heifers.— Rearing heifers after they are 6 to 8
months old is an easy task, and doubtless for this reason many are
stunted for lack of suitable attention and fail to develop into as profit-
able cows as they otherwise would. Heifers on good pasture usually
require no additional feed. In winter there is no better ration than
legume hay, silage, and sufficient grain to keep them thrifty and grow-
ing without becoming fat. The ration should supply an abundance
of protein and mineral matter, and hence unless legume hay forms
the roughage the concentrate allowance should be richer in protein
than advised for skim-milk calves. From 2 to 3 lbs. of concentrates
with 8 to 10 lbs. of legume hay and 12 to 20 lbs. of silage, or 12 to 15
lbs. of legume hay alone, if no silage is available, will keep them grow-
ing thriftily the second year when not on pasture.

5 Caldwell, information to the authors.

288 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

The age at which heifers should drop their first calf depends on
the breed and the size and development of the individual. Jerseys
and Guernseys which have been well-fed are usually bred to calve at
24 to 30 months of age, while the slower maturing Holsteius, Ayr-
shires, or Brown Swiss should not calve until 30 to 36 months old.

The cost of raising heifers will varj' in different regions, depending
on the prices of feed, labor, etc. In trials in Connecticut "^ and Wis-
consin ^ the total cost of raising grade heifers to 2 years of age, includ-
ing cost of calf, feed, labor, and barn rent, insurance, and taxes, but
allowing credit for the value of the manure produced, was from $61 to
over $66 per head. Some of these items are often not taken into con-
sideration by the dairyman in estimating how much it costs to raise
heifers. These trials show that while it certainly pays to raise well-
bred heifer calves, it is far from profitable to raise those from inferior
dams and sires.

The bull. — The same principles apply in raising bull calves as to
heifers, except that after 6 months of age they should be fed some-
what more grain. The bull should be sufficiently mature for very light
service at 10 to 12 months of age. He should be halter broken as a
calf and when about 1 year old should have a stout ring inserted in
his nose. He should be so handled from calfhood that he will recog-
nize man as his master and should never be given an opportunity to
learn his great strength. Stall and fences should always be so
strongly built that there is no possibility of his learning how to break
loose.

Feed and care of the bull. — The ration for the bull in full service
should be about the same as for a dairy cow in milk. He should be
given good legume hay or hay from mixed legumes and grasses and
fed from 4 to 8 lbs. of concentrates, supplying an ample amount of
protein. When idle or but in partial service less concentrates will lie
required. The bull may be fed 10 to 15 lbs. of good com silage each
day ^ but more is said to injure his breeding powers. The bull should
be tied by a strong halter to one end of the manger and by his ring
to the other end, so that the attendant may approach him from either
side without danger. The bull should be dehorned and should always
be handled with a strong, safe staff. Even with a quiet, peaceable bull
safety lies only in handling him without displaying fear and yet as
if he were watching for an opportunity to gore his attendant. Nearly
all the accidents occur with "quiet" bulls that have been too much
trusted.

eTrueman, Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 63.

7 Bennett and Cooper, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 49.

s Hoard's Dairyman, 46, 1914, p. 339.

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 289

To maintain health and virility, the bull must have ample exercise.
This is perhaps most conveniently furnished by a tread power, where
he may run the separator, pump water, do other useful work, or run
the power for exercise only. Many declare that the purchase of a
tread power merely to furnish exercise for the bull is a wise invest-
ment. Others fix a long sweep on a post and tie the bull at the end,
allowing him to walk around the circle. Another device is a light
cable stretched between 2 high posts, the bull being attached to it by a
sliding chain so that he is able to walk back and forth the length of
the cable. The bull may also be harnessed and hitched to cart or
wagon for such odd jobs as hauling manure or feed.

QUESTIONS

1. Why should dairymen rear the heifer calves from their best cows?

2. Describe the manner in which you would feed a skim-milk calf from birth.

3. Name several concentrates or mixtures of concentrates satisfactory for
feeding to calves being raised on skim milk.

4. Tell about the hays and succulent feeds useful for calf feeding.

5. What is the average birth weight of calves of the four leading dairy breeds,
and hoAv large gains should well-fed calves make?

6. Name the most common causes of trouble with skim-milk fed calves.

7. Discuss the feeding of buttermilk and whey to calves.

8. How may calves be raised on l)ut a minimum of milk?

9. Give the ingredients in a satisfactory calf meal.

10. How may common scours and contagious scours usually be prevented?

11. Discuss the feeding and care of dairy heifers; of the bull.

CHAPTER XXIII

FEEDIiNG AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE

I. Factors Influencing Beef Production

In 1900 there were about 660 cattle, other than milch cows, per
1,000 inhabitants in this country, but in 1910 the number had de-
creased to 450, and later estimates indicate a further failure of beef
cattle to keep pace with population. Among the reasons for this con-
dition are the breaking up of the western ranges into farms, the high
prices for grain and the consequent tendency of farmers to sell their
crops rather than feed them to stock, the increase of tenant farmers,
who often lack capital to stock their farms properly, the expansion of
dairying due to the increasing demand for dairy products, and the
fact that not infrequently the fat steer is sold at a loss.

Fortunately for the American public, which is loath to give up beef
as a common article of diet, our experiment stations are pointing out
how the cost of beef production may be brought down to where it may
yield a reasonable profit to the farmer without the finished product
being unduly costly to the consumer. The trials reviewed in these
chapters show how the breeding herd may be maintained cheaply by
utilizing the roughage which w^ould otherwise be wasted on the farm,
and the steer finished for market on a smaller allowance of concen-
trates than was formerly believed necessary.

Phases of beef production. — Tho many cattle are still fattened by
the farmers who raise them, beef production has naturally become
separated to a considerable extent into two distinct phases. In re-
gions where the land is unsuited for tillage, due either to its rough
nature or the scant rainfall, breeding herds are maintained and the in-
crease, raised chiefly on the cheap pasturage, sold as feeder steers.
On the other hand, in the corn belt, w^here corn is cheap compared
with pasturage, the majority of the steers fattened are shipped in
from the range districts, where they can be raised at less cost. Altho
many steers are still fed by farmers who handle only a few head
each year, the business has largely passed into the hands of pro-
fessional feeders, who fatten from one to many carloads of animals
annually. In many instances the large operators make but little

290

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 291

use of the manure produced and purchase much of their feed. On
such a basis the enterprise is largely speculative.

Margin. — Under usual conditions, the feed consumed by fattening
cattle or sheep per 100 lbs. of gain costs more than the selling
price per cwt. of the finished animal. With normal market condi-
tions, this difference is offset by the fattened animals selling for a
higher price per 100 lbs. than was paid for the same animals as
feeders. The difference between the cost per cwt. of the feeder and
the selling price per cwt. of the same animal when fattened is called
the margin. The principle of the margin may be illustrated thus:
If a 1,000-lb. steer costs $7.00 per cwt. when placed in the feed lot,
its total cost is $70.00. If during fattening it gains 400 lbs. at a feed
cost of $;36.00, each cwt. of gain has cost $9.00. Assuming that the
manure produced pays for the labor, the steer, now weighing 1,400
lbs., has cost $106.00 and accordingly must bring $7.57 per cwt. at
the feed lot to even the transaction. Here the margin will be $0.57,
the difference between $7.57 and $7.00. On account of the high
cost of the gains, a margin must usually be secured in fattening
cattle or sheep to make a profit or "break even."

The factors which determine the margin needed in fattening are:
(1) the initial cost of the cattle; (2) their initial weight; (3) the cost
of the gains; and (4) the expense of getting the steers to the feed
lot and then to the market, when finished.

Other conditions remaining the same, the higher the initial cost
or purchase price of the feeder the narrower, or smaller, is the neces-
sary margin. For example, let us assume that a feeder steer weigh-
ing 1,000 lbs. is fed until he has reached a weight of 1,300 lbs., the
gain costing 10 cents per pound for feed. If the feeder costs $4.00
per cwt. in the feed lot, it will have to sell for $70.00, or $5.38 per
cwt., to break even. The necessary margin is $5.38 — $4.00 ^$1.38.
Had the feeder been bought for $7.00 per cwt., no money would be lost
if it were sold for $100.00, or $7.69 per cwt. at the feed lot. In
this case the necessary margin is only $0.69.

The heavier the animal is when placed on feed the narrower will
be the necessary margin, for the increased selling price is secured for
a greater number of pounds of initial weight. This factor may be
offset, as is shown later, if the heavier cattle are older and hence
make more expensive gains.

It is evident that any factor which increases the feed cost of the
gains makes necessary a wider margin. The necessary margin is
thus greater when feeds are high in price, and also with mature
animals than with younger ones, which make more economical gains.
Since gains made on grass are usually cheaper than in the dry lot, a

292 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

wider margin is required for winter feeding than in fattening ani-
mals on pasture. The higher the degree of finish, or fatness, the
more expensive the gains become and the wider the necessary margin.
Feed requirements for fattening cattle. — In Chapter V we have
already seen that with mature animals there is comparatively little
storage of protein or mineral matter during fattening and that the
ration may have a relatively wide nutritive ratio. However, most of
the beef cattle in this country are now fattened before they are full-
grown. For the fattening of such animals sufficient protein must be
provided for the growth in muscle and other protein tissues which
takes place as the animals fatten. From an extensive survey of feed-
ing trials at the experiment stations, the authors believe that for the

Fig. 81. — Championship Yearling Fat Steers at nn:
International

Yearlings usually make less expensive gains than older steers, but require a
somewhat longer feeding period to reach the same finish.

most rapid gains in fattening 2-year-old steers the nutritive ratio
should not be wider than 1:7 to 1:7.8. (See Appendix Table V.)
When protein-rich feeds are lower in price than carbonaceous feeds,
it may be economical to feed much narrower rations than this. For
example, good results are secured when cottonseed meal is fed as the
only concentrate, the nutritive ratio then being as narrow as 1 : 3.8.
As is shown later in this chapter, the amount of concentrates to be
fed will depend on the rapidity with which it is desired to fatten the
cattle, and the degree of finish or fatness which the demands of the
market make most profitable.

Influence of age on cost of fattening. — In Chapter V we have al-
ready seen that young, growing animals make much larger gains

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 293

from each 100 lbs. of feed than those which are more mature. As
this subject is of much importance in beef production, many trials
have been conducted to compare the economy of gains and the profits
from fattening calves, yearlings, 2-year-olds, and older cattle. The
following table averages the results secured in two trials of this
nature at the Indiana Station ^ with well-bred beef steers fed until
they were thoroly fattened.

Fattening calves, yearlings, and 2-year-olds

Calves Yearlings 2-yr.-olds

Av. initial weight, lbs 518 888 1,067

Length of feeding period, months 9 6.5 6

Av. daily gain, lbs 1.88 2.22 2.6

Av. total gain, lbs 508 431 471

Feed per 100 lbs. gain by steers:

Shelled corn, lbs 596 704 * 681

Cottonseed meal, lbs 88 111 108

Clover hay, lbs 168 165 160

Corn silage, lbs 385 660 573

Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain * $7.74 $9.09 $9.37

Pork per bushel of corn fed to steers, lbs.* 1.00 1.85 2.50

* Av. of 3 trials.

While it required only 6 months to make the 2-year-old steers
fat enough to sell as prime beeves, it took 9 months to finish the
rapidly growing calves equally well. Tho the daily gain per head
increased with the age of the steers, the older ones required con-
siderably more feed per 100 lbs. gain, and thus made more expensive
gains. Other trials have shown that the gains of 3-year-olds are
still more expensive than those of 2-year-olds. As is usual, the older
steers in this trial masticated the shelled corn less thoroly, and hence
the pigs following them made more pork from each bushel of corn
fed the steers.

Calves usually cost more per 100 lbs. as feeders than do yearlings
or 2-year-olds, but when fat sell at about the same price per 100
lbs. as the older animals. This may entirely offset the cheaper gains
made by them. For example, in these trials the 2-year-olds returned
the largest and the calves the smallest profit per head. In addition,
greater care and skill are required to fatten calves, they do not stand
severe weather so well, and must be fed a larger proportion of grain
to roughage than the more mature . feeders. For these reasons, the
great majority of experienced farmers who buy feeder steers to
fatten prefer 2-year-olds. On the other hand, many farmers who
raise their own steers on high-priced land find it most profitable to
produce baby beef, selling the animals when 18 months old or less.

1 Skinner and Cochel, Ind. Bui. 146.

294

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Influence of degree of finish.^Impelled by a hearty appetite,
under liberal feeding the steer at first lays on fat rapidly, storing it
everywhere within the body. When it has become fairly well-fleshed
the appetite loses its edge, and the steer shows a daintiness in taking
his food not at first noticed. Every pound of increase now takes
more feed than formerly. This is not only because the steer eats
less feed per 1,000 lbs. body weight and hence has less available for
making body tissue, but also because gains at the close of the fattening
period are more concentrated ; i.e., contain less water and a larger
proportion of fat. The fattening process may be likened to inflating

Fig. 82.

-Championship 2-Year-Old Fat Steers at the
International

The great majority of experienced farmers ^Yho buy feeder steers to fatten
prefer 2-year-olds. Many of those who raise their own feeders on high-priced
land find it more profitable to fatten the animals as baby beef.

a football — the operation, easy and rapid at first, grows more and
more difficult until the limit is reached.

Tho the large markets demand well-fatted steers, to meet the de-
mand it is not necessary to carry them to extreme fatness, which
means exceedingly expensive gains. The wise feeder will therefore
watch the market and sell his animals as soon as they are sufficiently
finished to meet its demands, unless a probable decided advance in
price warrants holding them longer. At this stage sufficient fat will
have been deposited between the bundles of muscle fibers to give the
characteristic "marbled" appearance and make the meat more tender
and palatable. As we have seen in Chapter V, this is the primary
object of fattening meat-producing animals.

Length of feeding period. — The length of the feeding period

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 295

needed to finish cattle depends on the method of feeding followed
and on the age and condition of the cattle when placed on feed.
When the steers are fed roughage with only a limited allowance of
concentrates, the fattening process will take considerably longer than
where they are rapidly brought to full feed and then crowded with
all the concentrates they will eat. Obviously, much less time is re-
quired to finish steers already in good flesh when started on feed than
those in leaner condition. Such fleshy feeders are commonly "short-
fed;" i.e., fed for 90 to 100 days or less on a heavy allowance of con-
centrates. Thin steers must be "long-fed;" i.e., fed for a consider-
ably longer period, during the first part of which often little or no
grain is fed other than that in the silage.

Fig. 83. — Championship 3-Year-Oi d Snrr- w mi International

Steers of this age are continually becoming more scarce on the market, due
to the fact that they produce beef less ecoaomically than younger animals.

As we have already seen, the younger the steers are, the longer
they must be fed to reach a given finish. While it ordinarily re-
quires 3 to 4 months to finish mature steers and 4 to 7 months for 2-
year-olds, it takes 9 months or longer to fatten calves.

Limiting the concentrate allowance. — To reduce the amount of
grain required, cattle are often fed hay and silage during the first
part of the fattening period, with but little or no concentrates, even
if they are later finished on all the concentrates they will eat.
Whether this .system will be more profitable than bringing the cattle
rapidly to a full fe'ed of concentrates, depends on the relative cost
of roughages and concentrates. In three trials at the Indiana Sta-
tion ^ the steers in one lot were fed only clover hay and corn silage,

2 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 153, 1G3, 167.

296 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

during the first 60 to 70 days, or else clover hay, corn silage, and 2,5
lbs. of cottonseed meal per 1,000 lbs. live weight in addition to balance
the ration, and were then finished on the same feeds with all the corn
they would eat. Another lot was fed an unlimited allowance of corn
from the first. Tho the steers in the first lot made slightly cheaper
gains, they returned less profit than those fed all the corn they
would eat. On the other hand, in trials at the Pennsylvania ^ and
Iowa* Stations, limiting the allowance of concentrates during the
first of the fattening period returned larger profits. In former years
steers were commonly finished on all the corn or other concentrates
they would eat, but now with concentrates far higher in price it is
often more profitable to restrict the allowance, even during the
last of the fattening period. The amount of concentrates to be fed
should be governed by the relative price of concentrates and rough-
ages, and by the time it is desired to have the cattle ready for market.
In some sections of the West where alfalfa hay is abundant and the
market does not pay a higher price for well-finished animals than for
those in fair flesh, fattening cattle are fed alfalfa hay alone or alfalfa
hay and other roughages with little or no grain. Tho steers can not be
made really fat by this method, it results in the greatest profit to
the feeder.

Value of breed in beef making, — Experience teaches that "blood
tells" in beef production, but the reasons commonly given for the
superiority of beef-bred animals are not all valid. Occasionally, the
claim is yet made that well-bred beef cattle eat less than scrubs.
Feeding trials have shown instead that they are heartier eaters, for
they have greater ability to digest feed and economically convert it
into meat, and consequently make more rapid gains than scrubs.
Dairy-bred steers, especially those of the larger breeds, may make
as large gains as beef-bred steers. This is reasonable, for in de-
veloping both beef and dairy breeds one of the chief objects has been
to secure animals with large capacity for utilizing feed. In this the
scrub is apt to be lacking. Feeding trials have failed to show that on
the average beef -bred steers require less feed for 100 lbs. of gain than
healthy, vigorous animals which lack beef type and breeding.

Experienced feeders know that beef -bred steers "mature" or be-
come well fattened earlier than others. Indeed, only blocky calves
of beef conformation are suited for early fattening as baby beef.
Tho dairy steers grow rapidly, they do not become well finished at
an early age. Other important points of superiority for beef-bred

3 Cocliel, Penn. Bui. 118; and Tomhave and Severson, information to the
authors.

4 Pew, Evvard, and Dunn, Breeder's Gaz., 69, 1916, p. 1290.

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 297

steers over scrubs and those of the dairy breeds are that they yield
a higher percentage of dressed carcass, with less internal fat, which
brings a low price, and a somewhat higher percentage of loins and
ribs, the most valuable cuts. ]\Ioreover, the thick-fleshed cuts from
well-finished beef steers are superior in quality to the thin-fleshed
cuts of steers lacking beef blood, and consequently bring a higher
price on discriminating markets.

For the beef producer who raises the animals he fattens, it is evi-
dent that well-bred specimens of the beef breeds are the most profit-
able. The question is more complicated for one who purchases feed-
ers on the market. He must consider the price at which he can se-
cure the various grades and their probable selling price when fat-
tened. Opportunities for larger profits and larger losses as well lie
with the better grades of feeders. The beginner is therefore wise in
first handling feeders of the commoner kinds, which must be pur-
chased at correspondingly lower prices, since the margin for profit
in feeding low-grade cattle is usually small.

Shelter. — Trials at several stations in which steers have been fat-
tened in open sheds with adjacent yards in comparison with others
housed in barns show that the fattening steer, consuming an abundant
ration, a considerable portion of which is roughage, has no need for
warm winter quarters. With such animals sufficient heat is produced
in the body thru the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the
food to keep them warm under all ordinary weather conditions, with-
out diminishing the amount of net nutrients available for fattening.
A reasonable degree of cold is a benefit rather than a detriment, pro-
viding the coats of the animals are kept dry. Feeding in open yards
with no shelter other than windbreaks is common in western sections
with little rainfall, even in regions with rigorous winters. For humid
regions with severe winters an open shed should be provided where
the animals may find shelter from storms. In the South where the
winters are mild the saving thru providing shelter may not be suffi-
cient to warrant the expense.

The self feeder. — By the use of a self feeder, a large box or bin
so arranged that the grain passes down into the feed trough as
rapidly as it is consumed, it is necessary to supply fattening cattle
with concentrates only twice a week. In a trial at the Illinois Sta-
tion ^ one lot of steers was fed whole clover hay and a concentrate
mixture of 7 parts ground corn and 1 part linseed meal separately
at regular feeding periods twice daily, while another was supplied
chaffed (cut) hay mixed with the concentrates, the whole being fed
in a self feeder to which the cattle had access at all times.

sMumford and Allison, 111. Bui. 142.

298

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

The self-fed steers consumed a heavier concentrate allowance and
were brought to full feed in a shorter time without any set back
from over-eating. Tho consuming more feed than Lot I, this was
more than offset by their larger gains. Even after adding the cost
of chaffing the hay, the self-fed steers made the cheaper gains. Both
systems required about the same amount of labor, but by the use of
the self feeder the necessity for a man skilled in feeding was reduced.
In a trial at the Iowa Station ^ 2 lots of 996-lb. steers were fed for

Fig. 84. — Quiet Is Highly Important in IMaking Beef

Cattle which "eat and lie down" make much more economical gains than those
which are restless and active. (From Breeder's Gazette.)

160 days on shelled corn, linseed meal, corn silage, and alfalfa hay,
one lot being fed the com in a self feeder and the other by hand.
The self-fed steers made slightly the larger gains and returned the
most profit over cost of feed.

Water; salt. — Fattening cattle should have an abundant supply
of pure water at all times. Separate water troughs should be pro-
vided for pigs running with the steers. While it is best to have water

6 Pew, Evvard, and Dunn, Breeder's Gaz., 69, 1916, p. 1290.

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 299

before cattle at all times, they readily adapt themselves to taking a
fill once daily and thrive. The water provision should not be less
than 10 gallons per day per head for mature cattle.

Animals consuming large quantities of rich, nutritious food, as are
fattening steers, show a strong desire for salt, and this craving should
be reasonably satisfied.

Hints on fattening cattle. — In fattening cattle it is important that
they be accustomed to corn or other concentrates gradually or di-
gestive trouble will result. At first give all the roughage they will
clean up, with but 2 lbs. of concentrates per head daily, increasing
1 lb. or less each day until 10 lbs. is fed. Any further increase should
be still more gradual. The majority of cattlemen feed concentrates
and roughage twice a day in winter and once a day on pasture in
summer.

The best results are secured only when the cattle are fed at regular
hours and when the attendant is quiet and kind at all times, so that
the animals trust rather than fear him. In parts of the corn belt
the feed lot in winter is often a sea of mud. Under such conditions
the steers cannot be expected to make the best gains. Cattle of the
same age, or at least those of equal size and strength, should be fed
in the same enclosure. Weak animals, and those unable for any
reason to crowd to the feed trough and get their share, should be
placed where they can eat in quiet. The expert stockman quickly
notes any tendency to scour, and checks it by reducing the allowance
of concentrates. He has a quick eye which takes in every animal
in the feed lot at a glance, and a sound judgment which guides in
dealing out feed ample for all, but not a pound in excess.

Pigs following- steers/ — Pigs are usually kept with fattening cat-
tle to utilize the undigested corn or other grain in the droppings.
The number of pigs per steer varies with the kind of feed and the age
of the cattle being fed. The range is 2 to 3 pigs per steer on snapped
corn, about 1.5 per steer on husked ear corn, 1 per steer on shelled
corn, and 1 pig to 2 or 3 steers on crushed or ground com. The
younger the steers, the better they masticate and utilize their feed
and the smaller are the gains made by the pigs following. The best
pigs for following cattle weigh from 50 to 150 lbs. and when they
become fat they should be replaced. Any extra grain given the pigs
should be fed in nearby separate pens before the cattle are fed, so
that they will not crowcl around the feed troughs or under the wagon
and team when the cattle are being fed. The margin in cattle feed-
ing is frequently so narrow that the gains made by the pigs return
the only profit. Therefore, except in the case of young cattle being

7 Largely adapted from Waters, Mo. Bui. 76.

300 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

fed for bab}^ beef on ground grain, it is best not to undertake to fatten
cattle unless pigs can follow them and utilize the waste feed.

Cost of fattening. — JMumford * estimates that one man and team
can care for and feed 200 cattle and the pigs following. From this
the cost of labor can readily be computed at local prices. Under
favorable conditions the gains of pigs following steers fed whole
corn will offset the labor cost of caring for both the fattening steers
and the pigs. Another reasonable assumption is that when farm-
grown crops are charged to the steers at market prices, the labor of
feeding them to the cattle is no greater than that of hauling them to
market. The manure produced by steers during 6 months' feeding
ranges from 3 to 4 tons, worth on many farms from $9.00 to- $18.00
per steer. This alone should repay the labor cost of fattening the
cattle.

Preparing for shipment; shrinkage. — A day or two before ship-
ment the cattle should be fed hay only, preferably hay from the
grasses or mixed hay, rather than clear clover or alfalfa hay, which
are too laxative. For feed while on the road good, sweet hay, with no
grain, is best. The shrinkage of either range cattle or fat cattle in
transit 36 hours or less is 3 to 4 per ct. ; when in transit 70 hours or
over the shrinkage is 5 to 6 per ct. of their live weight.'-* When
cattle are fed succulent feed up to the time of shipping, the shrinkage
is much greater.

II. Raising Beef Cattle

In establishing a breeding herd, the first step should be to select
well-bred individuals of the beef breeds, having the conformation
which indicates that their off-spring will make economical gains,
mature early, and yield carcasses with a large percentage of high-
priced cuts of meat. AVhere cows are kept only for raising calves for
beef, the cost of their keep for an entire year must be charged against
the fatted steer. In reducing the cost of beef production, it is there-
fore essential that the breeding herd be maintained as cheaply as pos-
sible, yet kept in vigorous breeding condition.

The breeding cows. — Cows kept solely for beef production are
commonly grazed on pasture during the growing season, the suckling
calves running with their dams. Usually the pastures thus utilized
will be land least suited to tillage, and no concentrates will be fed on
pasture. Where land is high-priced and tillable the herd may often
be maintained most cheaply on limited pasturage supplemented by
summer silage. Pure water, salt, and shade should be supplied the
herd at pasture.

8 Beef Production, pp. 33-4. 9 Ward, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 25.

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 301

The herd may be wintered on legume roughage alone, or on car-
bonaceous roughages with some such nitrogenous concentrate as cot-
tonseed or linseed meal to balance the ration. They should be kept
in good flesh else they will not produce vigorous calves and nourish
them with a good flow of milk.

At the Illinois Station/° an average ration of 16.7 lbs. com silage,
3.5 lbs. clover hay, and 9.6 lbs. oat straw proved excellent for winter-
ing 860-lb. beef cows, while one of 8.7 lbs. shock corn, 3.5 lbs. clover
hay, and 10.8 lbs. oat straw was satisfactory, but not as good as the
first ration. At the Pennsylvania Station, ^^ 1,160-lb. beef cows, sev-
eral of which were suckling calves, were wintered satisfactorily on 58
lbs. of corn silage and 1 lb. of cottonseed meal per head daily. Dur-
ing the remainder of the year the cows, with the calves at foot, grazed
a pasture too rough for tilled crops.

At the Hays, Kansas, Sub-station,^- 900-lb. beef cows were wintered
on 20 to 35 lbs. of kafir silage or 26 to 27 lbs. of kafir fodder or stover
per head daily, with 1 lb. of cottonseed meal and what wheat straw
they would eat, amounting to 10 to 17 lbs. daily for each animal.
The feed cost for 100 days ranged from $4.4-1: per head with kafir
silage to $9.91 with kafir fodder. These -.trials show the possibilities
of maintaining beef breeding cows chiefly on cheap roughages.

The beef bull. — On the range the bulls run with the cows, but
under farm conditions it is best to confine the bull during the sum-
mer, preferably in a well-fenced pasture lot. It will then be possible
to keep a record of the date when the cows are due to calve, and the
bull so handled can serve a larger number of cows a year. The same
general principles apply to the feed and care of the beef bull as
with the dairy bull. (See Chapter XXII.)

The beef calf. — Under the simplest method of beef production, as
on the range, the calves are dropped in the spring and run with their
dams during the summer. Under farm conditions some prefer to
allow the calves to suck only at stated intervals, 3 times a day at
first, and later twice. Where the calf remains with the dam her
udder should, for a time, be stripped night and morning lest neglect
bring garget and destroy her usefulness. The greatest danger under
this system comes at weaning time, when, if the calf has not been
taught to eat solid food, it pines and loses weight. To avoid this,
before weaning it should be taught to eat shelled corn, whole oats,
wheat bran, linseed meal, hay, etc. The first departure from this

10 Miimford, 111. Bui. 111.

11 Cocliel, Tomhave, and Severson, Penn. Bui. 118, and information to the
authors.

i2CocheI, Kan. Bui. 198.

302

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

simple and primitive method is putting two calves with each cow,
which is feasible where she yields a good flow of milk. Suckling
calves should gain 2 lbs., or over, per head daily if their dams are
good milkers.

"While in some districts it is best to rear the beef calf on whole
milk from dam or pail, over large sections of the country it is more
profitable to sell the fat of the milk in butter or cream and rear the
calf on skim milk with proper supplements. This method involves
increased labor, skill, and watchfulness on the part of the feeder,

K&Ji

'^d^i^miB^^i^'i . '

^^ - ■ -^-^m ■ -^-^i^

Fia. 85. — A Farm Herd op Beef Cows and Calves

The next few years should see good beef breeding herds established on thou-
sands of farms, to utilize land unsuited for tillage or such cheap feeds as corn
silage, corn stover, and straw. (From Breeder's Gazette.)

but its success has been widely demonstrated. The method to be em-
ployed is like that already given for the rearing of the dairy calf,
except that the beef calf should be fed more liberally. Calves that
fail to thrive when sucking the cow or when fed on rich milk should
have their allowance reduced or should be given part skim milk.

After weaning, growth should be continuous. If the calves are not
at pasture, they should be fed plenty of good roughage, with sufficient
concentrates to produce the desired gains. As with dairy heifers,
for young beef cattle nothing excels good legume hay, rich in pro-
tein and bone-building mineral matter. Where this is not available

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 303

nitrogenous concentrates should balance the ration. The majority
of beef producers prefer to have calves dropped in the spring, as the
cows may then be wintered more cheaply, with less shelter and less
care.

Veal production. — For the highest grade of veal whole milk is
essential, and growth must be as rapid as possible, the whole process
being completed before there is any tendency in the flesh to take
on the coarser character of beef. Such veal commands a high price
in some of the European markets, and the butchers are extremely
expert in judging whether the calf has received any other feed than
whole milk. In this country such veal can be profitably produced
only for special markets. A less expensive method is to feed a limited
amount of whole milk supplemented by grain, or skim milk may be
gradually substituted, as with dairy calves. With the latter method,
considerable skill is necessary to feed the calves so they will gain
rapidly without going off feed.

Growing- beef cattle. — Except where calves are being fattened for
baby beef, growing beef cattle are not ordinarily given any feed in
addition to good pasture, unless the pasture becomes short. Then
summer silage, soiling crops, or specially grown annual pasture crops
may be supplied. Considerable fall pasturage is furnished by after-
math on meadows or by the stubble fields, especially where rape seed
is sown with the spring grain.

The ration needed to carry growing cattle thru the winter in good
condition will depend on their age, and on whether it is desired to
have them make substantial gains or merely come thru the winter
in thrifty enough condition to make maximum gains on pasture the
following summer. While yearlings and 2-year-olds may be win-
tered on good roughages only, for calves 1 to 3 lbs. of concentrates
per head daily is needed in addition, for it is important to keep the
calf growing steadily. Calves do not thrive on such coarse rough-
age as may be fed to older cattle. At the North Platte, Nebraska,
Substation,^^ beef calves were wintered satisfactorily on 2 lbs. of
corn and oats with alfalfa hay or half alfalfa and half prairie or sor-
ghum hay. Poorer results were secured with prairie or sorghum hay
and the same amount of grain. At the Kansas Station,^* beef calves
made good growth in winter on silage from corn, kafir, or sweet sor-
ghum, and 1 lb. of cottonseed or linseed meal per head daily. The
second winter, if the cattle are not to be fattened on grass the fol-
lowing summer, the aim should be to grow as large a framework as
possible, but not to fatten, for cattle that are lean but thrifty in the
spring make larger gains on summer pasture than do fleshy ones.

"Snyder, Nebr. Buls. 105, 117. h Cochel, information to the authors.

304 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

If the cattle are to be fattened on pasture the following summer,
feeding a moderate amount of concentrates in addition to legume
hay and silage rich in ear corn will start fattening and help to
shorten the summer feeding period.

Trials at the IMissouri Station,^^ show that yearling steers fed clover,
alfalfa, or cowpea hay with 5.5 to 6.0 lbs. of corn per head daily gained
1.4 to 2.0 lbs. per head daily. Half clover hay and half corn stover
gave nearly as good results, but with corn stover, or timothy, sor-
ghum, or millet hay as the only roughage, the results were much
poorer. Yearlings wintered on 13.6 lbs. clover hay and 13.6 lbs.
corn stover per head daily or on ensiled corn stover alone gained
about half a pound per head daily. On cured corn stover alone they
lost weight. At the Tennessee Station ^*^ steers were wintered satisfac-
torily on corn silage, corn stover, or straw, with 1 to 2 lbs. of cotton-
seed meal in addition.

III. Methods of Beep Production

Fattening cattle on pasture. — ^^\^hether the feeder should finish
his cattle during the wdnter and spring in the dry lot or carry them
thru the winter to be fattened on pasture in the summer will depend,
first of all, on the cost of pasturage compared with hay, silage, and
other roughage. In the grazing regions cattle are conunonly sold at
the close of the pasture season when, if the grass has been good, many
are fat enough for the block, while the rest go into feed lots to be fat-
tened further. Where land is high-priced, the tendency is to fatten
feeders in the dry lot, since under these conditions corn silage is
often cheaper than pasturage.

According to data collected by the experiments stations ^^ from
successful cattlemen, the gains of cattle in the corn belt on grass and
receiving no grain should range from 1.2 to 1.7 lbs. per head daily
for yearlings and 1.3 to 1.9 lbs. for 2-3^ear-olds during the grazing
season. It was found in Indiana that on the average thruout the sea-
son each grain-fed steer required 1.1 acres of pasture, and when no
grain was given each steer required 2 acres. From these figures and
the price at which pasture land rents, the cost of gains on pasture
may be calculated. When cattle are fattened on pasture less grain
and less expensive supplements like cottonseed and linseed meal are
required than when finished in the winter feed lot. Cattle fatten
more rapidly and more uniformly on pasture, and the pigs following
them make larger gains. Labor is saved when cattle are fattened on

15 Waters, Mo. Bill. 75.

16 Willson, information to the authors.

iTMumford and Hall, 111. Cir. 79; Waters, Mo. Cir. 24.

FEEDING AND CARE OP BEEF CATTLE 305

pasture. In summer the grain only is drawn; it is usually fed but
once a day; there is no roughage to handle; and the manure is dis-
tributed by the cattle themselves.^^

Feeding concentrates on pasture. — Cattle being finished on pas-
ture may be fed no concentrates at all, a small allowance may be
given during the entire pasture period, concentrates may be fed
during only the last few weeks, or, finally, an unlimited allowance of
grain may be given thruout the entire period. Except under range
conditions and in certain districts, as in the bluegrass region of Vir-
ginia, where the grasses are unusually nutritious, it will usually pay
to feed some grain in addition to pasture. The cheap gains made on
grass alone are usually offset by the low selling value of such cattle,
because they are usually not well finished. When grain has been fed
to cattle during the winter, it should be continued after turning to
pasture until they become accustomed to grass, otherwise they may
shrink in weight. If cattle are nearly finished when the pasture sea-
son opens, they had best be finished in the dry lot, for if turned to
pasture they usually make poor gains.

Since immature grass, such as is usually eaten by grazing animals,
is much richer in protein than grass at the stage when cut for hay,
corn and bluegrass pasture alone make a fairly well-balanced ration
for the fattening steer. Experiments at the Missouri Station ^^ show,
however, that it is usually advisable to add some protein-rich sup-
plement during the last of the feeding period to keep the steers from
going off feed and making smaller gains.

Baby beef. — The most intensive method of beef production is fat-
tening calves for baby beef. Under this system beef -bred calves are
fattened as they grow, reaching a good finish when 16 to 18 months
old and weighing about 1,100 lbs. or less. In the production of
baby beef, first of all, blocky calves of good beef type and conforma-
tion must be selected, for scrub or dairy-bred calves will not usually
reach the desired maturity and finish at this early age. Profitable
baby beef production requires a high degree of experience, judgment,
and skill and it is a mistake for the inexperienced to dip heavily into
this art. Calves for baby beef should be fattened as they grow, never
being allowed to lose their "calf fat." In winter roughage of high
quality, such as clover or alfalfa hay and silage, should be supplied
and during summer the calves should be on good pasture. Shelled,
crushed, or ground corn should be fed, together with linseed meal,
cottonseed meal, or other protein-rich concentrates. When whole
corn is given, hogs may profitably follow. Oats are one of the best
of feeds with which to start the calf on its way to fattening. In

18 Waters, Mo. Cir. 24. is Mumford, Mo. Bui. 90.

306 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

baby beef production the calves must be fattening all the time;
this can only be accomplished by the most liberal and judicious feed-
ing, since it is extremely difficult to get calves and yearlings suffi-
ciently fat for the market requirements. Heifer calves mature more
quickly and may be marketed earlier than steers. It is seldom pos-
sible or profitable to get spring calves ready for the baby beef market
before July of the following year and more frequently they are not
marketed until October, November, or December, when approximately
18 months o-ld. This system of beef production is best suited to corn-
belt farms where pasture is relatively expensive and corn is cheaper
than in other sections of the country.

Fattening yearlings. — Less extreme than the feeding of calves for
baby beef is finishing steers as yearlings ; i.e., before they are 2 years
old. Spring calves may be carried thru the first winter on roughage
with a small allowance of concentrates, the ration being such as to
keep them growing steadily. The second summer good pasture alone
will suffice to put them in condition for the feed lot in the fall.

Calves to be fattened as yearlings should be taught to eat grain
before being weaned, so that there may be no loss of condition at this
time. To fatten yearlings properly requires 8 to 10 months, even
if they are of good beef type. Trials at the Indiana Station -" show
that it is ordinarily more profitable to complete the fattening of year-
lings in the feed lot, than to turn them out to grass in the spring,
when half finished.

Fattening cattle 2 years old or older. — Where pasturage is cheap,
cattle are usually not marketed until 2 years old or older, in which
case they may be carried thru the first winter chiefly on roughage
with 1 to 3 lbs. of grain per head daily. The following summer
they will grow well on good pasture without grain. The second
winter no grain need be fed, if the cattle are not to be sold until fall
or until after finishing in the winter feed lot. If they are to be fin-
ished on grass early in the summer, a moderate allowance of concen-
trates will be needed during the preceding winter to start fattening.

According to Cochel of the Kansas Station,^^ the system of beef
production usually most profitable in western Kansas is to raise the
calves on pasture the first summer ; winter them on kafir, milo, or
sorghum silage, alfalfa hay and straw or stover from the sorghums,
with perhaps some cottonseed meal in addition ; pasture the yearlings
the second summer without feeding grain; carry them thru the sec-
ond winter as before ; and market the third summer from grass. With
good pasture such cattle should reach a weight of about 1,050 lbs. and
be fat enough to sell as fleshy feeders or fair killers. In other sec-

20 Skinner and Cochel, Ind. Bui. 142. 2X Information to the authors.

FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 307

tions of the western grazing district a still less intensive system is
followed, the steers not being sold until 3 years of age. However,
the tendency is ever toward hurrying the beef animal to the block,
and while 4- and 5-year-old steers were once common on the range,
but few now reach that age.

QUESTIONS

1. Into what two phases is beef production largely divided?

2. Define margin and show by example the margin necessary to prevent loss
in fattening steers. What factors influence the margin required?

3. Discuss the food requirements of fattening cattle.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fattening 2-year-olds com-
pared with calves or yearlings?

5. How does the degree of finish affect the cost of gains?

6. What factors affect the length of time required to fatten cattle?

7. Discuss the effects of limiting the allowance of concentrates during the
fattening period.

8. Wherein do beef-bred steers excel scrubs and dairy-bred steers for beef
production?

9. Briefly discuss each of the following: (a) shelter for fattening cattle; (b)
the self feeder; (c) water and salt requirements; (d) pigs following steers;
(e) cost of fattening.

10. How should beef breeding cpws be fed and cared for?

11. Describe various methods of raising beef calves.

12. How should calves be fed for veal?

13. Discuss the feeding of growing beef cattle.

14. What have you learned concerning fattening cattle on pasture?

15. Discuss the production of baby beef; the fattening of yearlings; the fatten-
ing of cattle two years old or over.

CHAPTER XXIV

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates

Indian corn. — Of all the concentrates, Indian corn is and will
continue to be the great fattening feed for cattle in the United States.
It excels not only because of its richness in starch and oil, but also
because no other concentrate is so palatable to cattle. Numerous
trials have clearly shown, however, that corn is too low in protein,
even for fattening animals, and should therefore be fed with legume
hay or else with some protein-rich concentrate, such as linseed or
cottonseed meal, when only carbonaceous roughages are used. The
value of legume hay for supplementing corn is shown in the follow-
ing table, which summarizes the results of 8 trials, averaging 144
days in length, where corn was fed with carbonaceous roughage,
such as timothy hay, prairie hay, corn stover or kafir stover, to one
lot of 2- or 3-year-old steers, while corn and clover or alfalfa hay
were fed to a second lot.

Legume hay as a supplement to corn

Average ration
Lot I, unbalanced ration

Initial
weight
Lbs.

Daily
gain
Lbs.

Feed for
Concen-
trates
Lbs.

100 lbs. gain
Rough-
age
Lbs.

Corn, 15.2 lbs.

Carbonaceous roughage, 13.0 lbs...

.. 9.59

1.7

930

832

Lot II, balanced ration

Corn, 15.4 lbs.

Legume hay, 1.3.2 lbs

.. 952 •

2.3

689

575

While the steers in Lot II, fed corn and legume haj^ gained 2.3
lbs. per head daily, those in Lot I, getting the unbalanced ration of
corn and carbonaceous roughage, gained only 1.7 lbs., and re(|uired
35 per ct. more corn and 44 per ct. more roughage for 100 lbs. gain
than the others.

The following table shows clearly the importance of adding some
protein-rich concentrate to balance the ration when corn is fed with
carbonaceous roughage. This summarizes the results of 4 trials, aver-

308

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 309

aging 132 days, in which one lot of steers was fed only com and
carbonaceous roughage, while linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten
feed was added to the ration of the other lot. /^

Protein-rich concentrates as supplements to corn

Lot I, unbalanced ration

Initial

weight

Lbs.

Daily

gain
Lbs.

Feed for 100 lbs. gain

Concen- Rougb-

trates age

Lbs. Lbs.

Corn, 16.3 lbs.

Carbonaceous roughage, 8.3 lbs.. .

. . 995

1.6

1,082

522

Lot II, balanced ration

Corn, 16.7 lbs.

Protein-rich concentrate, 2.1 lbs.
Carbonaceous roughage, 8.6 lbs..

. . 1,002

2.2

862

402

Lot I, fed only corn and carbonaceous roughage, gained but 1.6
lbs. per head daily, while Lot II, receiving 2.1 lbs. of protein-rich
concentrates in addition, gained 2.2 lbs. per head daily and required
about 20 per ct. less feed per 100 lbs. gain. When the corn allow-
ance is properly balanced, not only is the feeding value of this grain
greatly increased with both the cattle and the pigs Avhich follow the
steers, but it keeps the animals more healthy, shortens the feeding
period, and gives a higher finish than can be secured with unbalanced
rations.

Adding a protein-rich concentrate to corn and legume hay. —
Whether it will pay to add a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of
corn and legume hay will depend on the relative prices of corn and
the other feeds. During the early part of the fattening period
steers given all the legume hay they will clean up eat enough of it to
balance their ration quite well. Later, when they eat niore corn and
less hay, the ration becomes too low in protein, and adding a protein-
rich concentrate will then cause larger gains. With feeds at usual
prices, it ordinarily pays to give at least 2 lbs. of linseed or cotton-
seed meal per head daily, or an equivalent amount of other protein-
rich feeds, when steers are fed corn and clover hay. With alfalfa
hay for roughage, there is less advantage in adding protein-rich con-
centrates, since alfalfa is higher in protein than clover.

Preparation of corn for beef cattle. — The practice of successful
stockmen in the corn belt and trials at the experiment stations show
that, in general, getting corn to cattle in the simplest manner and
with the least preparation and handling is the most economical, when
pigs follow the steers to consume any grains which escape mastica-
tion. The majority of feeders accordingly feed shock corn, husked

310

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

or unhusked ear corn, or shelled corn, but few using corn meal or
eom-and-cob meal thruout the fattening period. To induce young
animals to eat sufficient com to overcome their tendenc}^ to grow
ratlier than to fatten, more preparation is warranted than for older
animals. Many skilled feeders seek to ' ' keep the feed better than the
cattle," i.e., prepare the feed more as the cattle gain in flesh. Thus,
they may start the steers on shock corn, then as they require more
concentrates, add snapped corn or ear corn; still later the ear corn
is broken or shelled ; and toward the close of the fattening period, to
tempt them to consume a heavier allowance of grain, corn meal or

Fig. 86. — Fattening Steers Eating Shock Corn

Feeding shock corn is an economical practice, especially during the first of the
fattening period. Later, more preparation of the corn may be profitable. (From
Successful Fanning.)

corn-and-cob meal is employed. Silage from well-matured corn is
the most palatable form in which the entire corn plant can be offered
to the steer. In addition to the grain in this succulent feed, some
com should be fed, usually in the form of shelled corn or ear com.

Since com long stored in the crib becomes dry and hard, for sum-
mer feeding the grain should be soaked or shelled, or possibly ground.

Other cereals. — In sections of the West where com does not thrive
harley is of much importance for fattening cattle. This grain is
equal to or but slightly lower than corn in value.

Wheat is seldom fed to cattle except when off grade or unusually
low in price. As wheat is less palatable than corn, steers may not

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 311

eat so much, and hence they may make slightly smaller gains. Other-
wise, the feeding value of wheat is as high as that of corn.

Since oats are usually high in price compared with other grains,
they are seldom used as the chief concentrate for fattening, tho they
are well liked by cattle and produce beef of good quality. Oats are
excellent for growing cattle, and are also useful for mixing with
corn in starting cattle on feed, especially calves being fattened for
baby beef.

For the northern part of the Great Plains region emmer ranks
high as a grain for fattening cattle. Tho in one trial ^ it proved fully
equal to corn, its usual value will probably be slightly lower than that
of corn.

The grain sorghums are of great and increasing importance for
beef production thruout the southern portion of the Great Plains
region. When fed with alfalfa hay to balance the ration, kafir or
milo grain nearly equals corn in feeding value.

The seed of hog- or hroom-corn millet, which is a reliable grain
crop on the northern plains, is a satisfactory feed for fattening cattle,
being worth about three-fourths as much as corn per 100 lbs.

In the South low grade rough rice is sometimes an economical feed
for beef production, being worth slightly more than corn.

Since all of these grains are low in protein, they should be fed
with legume hay or protein-rich concentrates. All should be ground
or crushed for fattening cattle, even when pigs follow, for the grains
that escape mastication are too small to be readily recovered by the
pigs.

Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — In the vicinity of
western beet-sugar factories thousands of cattle are fattened annually
on ivet heet pulp with alfalfa hay, which admirably supplements this
protein-poor feed, and usually with a small allowance of grain in
addition. In a trial at the Colorado Station - 1 ton of wet beet pulp
was equal to 620 lbs. of alfalfa hay or 220 lbs. of ground corn.
Animals should be accustomed gradually to the pulp, later getting
all they will clean up. Care should be taken that refuse pulp does
not accumulate in the troughs and decompose.

In the sugar districts of the South cane molasses is an economical
carbonaceous concentrate for cattle. When replacing not more than
half the corn in a ration, it proved slightly more valuable, pound for
pound, than this grain, in a trial at the Texas Station.^ Owing to the
high price of molasses in the North, as much as 5 lbs. per head daily
is not ordinarily economical, tho a small amount mixed with other

1 Wilson, S. D. Bui. 160. 3 Burns, Tex. Bui. 110.

2 Carlj'le and Griffith, Colo. Bui. 102.

312 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

feed may be profitable in stimulating the appetite or in getting ani-
mals to eat roughage which they would otherwise refuse.

The use of heet molasses is greatly increasing in the beet-sugar
districts. It is spread over hay or cut straw, either undiluted or
thinned with water. Owing to its laxative effect, not more than 4
to 8 lbs. of beet molasses should be fed per head daily to fattening
cattle.

II. Protein-rich Concentrates

Cottonseed meal. — This protein-rich concentrate is the basis of the
fattening of beef cattle in the South and is widely used in the north-
ern states to supplement rations deficient in protein. Trials at the
Indiana Station,* show that about 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily
per 1,000 lbs. live weight is sufficient to balance a ration of shelled
corn, corn silage, and oat straw or clover hay. However, in the South,
owing to its cheapness cottonseed meal is commonly fed as the sole
concentrate, along with cottonseed hulls, corn silage, or other rough-
age. Since cottonseed meal is poisonous to fattening cattle when fed
in excess, they should be accustomed to it gradually and the meal
should be mixed with roughage so a greedy steer cannot over eat.
Trials at the Tennessee Station ^ show that it rarely pays to feed
more than 4 or 5 lbs. during the first of the fattening period, in-
creasing to 6 or 7 lbs. later. Results at the North Carolina Station ^
show that where the market demands highly finished animals it may
be profitable to feed as much as 10.5 lbs. per head daily. With
cottonseed hulls for roughage, this amount could be fed only 120 to
130 days before poisonous effects began to show, while with corn
silage for roughage the fattening could be continued for 30 to 60
days longer without harm. Owing to its protein-rich nature, cotton-
seed meal tends to produce growth rather than to fatten young steers ;
hence, 2- or 3-year-olds are best suited for heavy cottonseed meal
feeding.

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake is relished by cattle even better than
cottonseed meal. In a trial at the Iowa Station ^ 133 lbs. of this
cake proved more than equal to 100 lbs. of cottonseed meal.

Linseed meal. — Thruout the northern states linseed meal is widely
used as a protein-rich supplement for fattening beef cattle. In trials
at the Nebraska Station * linseed meal was slightly superior to cotton-

4 Skinner and King, Ind, Buls. 153, 167, 178.
sWillson, Tenn. Bui. 104.

6 Gray and Curtis, information to the authors.

7 Kennedy and Bobbins, Breeder's Gaz., 58, 1910, p. 303.

8 Smith, Nebr. Bui. 100.

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 313

seed meal as a supplement to eoru and prairie hay or corn stover, and
produced considerably larger gains than when the ration was sup-
plemented by wheat bran.

Wheat bran. — Since wheat bran is lower in protein than linseed
or cottonseed meal, a correspondingly larger amount is needed to
balance a ration deficient in this nutrient. It is therefore frequently
an expensive supplement for fattening cattle. However, this bulky
feed is helpful in starting cattle on feed, even tho it is not continued
thruout the fattening period.

Soybeans; cowpeas. — These protein-rich seeds are well suited to
supplement corn and the other cereals. In trials at the Indiana Sta-
tion " ground soybeans gave good returns when 2.5 to 3.0 lbs. was
fed per head daily to supplement a ration of shelled corn, corn silage,
and oat straw or clover hay. They were somewhat less satisfactory
than cottonseed meal, however, for the steers fed soybeans were more
apt to go off feed near the end of the fattening period, due undoubt-
edly to the large amount of oil the beans contain. With soybean meal,
which contains much less oil, this condition would probably not result.

In the southern states it is possible to grow a winter crop of small
grain and harvest it in time to plant soybeans, cowpeas, or corn, thus
securing 2 crops each year from the same land. At the Tennessee
Station ^° in a 7-year trial an acre of winter barley, followed by
soybeans grown for grain and stover, produced 508 lbs. of gain
when fed to steers, while an acre of barley followed by cowpeas gave
451 lbs. of gain. These returns show the great possibilities of thg
South for beef production when more than a single crop is grown on
the same land each year.

Miscellaneous protein-rich concentrates. — Tho most commonly
fed to dairy cows, gluten feed, dried distillers' grains, and dried
brewers' grcvins are all satisfactory protein-rich concentrates for beef
cattle. Whether to use these feeds in place of those already dis-
cussed will depend on their relative price.

III. Legume Hay and Other Dry Roughages

Value of legume hay. — The great importance of hay from the
legumes in balancing the carbonaceous grains, such as corn, barley,
and wheat, has been pointed out earlier in this chapter. Even when
a ration of com and such oarbonaceaus roughages as timothy hay,
prairie hay, or corn fodder is properly supplemented by linseed or
cottonseed meal or some other protein-rich concentrate, smaller gains

9 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 167, 178; information to the authors.

10 Quereau and Willson, information to the authors.

314 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

will nearly always be produced than when the ratioii consists of corn
and legume hay. This is shown in the following- table, which sum-
marizes the results secured in 4 trials in which 2-year-old 942-lb.
steers were fed for periods averaging 158 days:

Legume hay vs. carbonaceous roughage plus protein-rich supplement

Feed for 100 lbs. gain
Daily Concen- Roughage

Average ration gain trates

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

Lot I

Legume hay, 9.3 lbs. Corn, 17.9 Iba 2.3 77S 405

Lot II

Carbonaceous roughage 8.0 lbs. Corn, 16.4 lbs.

Supplement, 2.2 lbs 2.0 916 387

Lot I, fed legume hay and corn, gained on the average 0.3 lb, more
per head daily and required 15.1 per ct. less concentrates and about
the same amount of roughage as Lot II, fed the equally well-balanced
but less palatable ration in which the roughage was prairie hay,
timothy hay, or corn stover with a small amount of oat straw. Onl^^
when silage, appetizing as well as nutritious, is fed is it possible to
provide, a ration which will equal one where the roughage is legume
hay. Even on farms where much Legume hay is raised, considerable
carbonaceous roughage, such as corn and sorghum stover, straw, and
hay from the grasses, is normally produced. Tho such roughage is
inferior to legume hay when fed alone, satisfactory and cheap gains
may be secured when it is fed with legume hay as part of the roughage.

Legume hays compared. — Trials at the Indiana Station " show that
when fed in rations containing ample protein clover and alfalfa hay
have about equal value. However, since alfalfa hay is considerably
richer in protein than clover hay, it is more valuable for balancing
rations low in this nutrient.

In a trial at the. South Dakota Station ^- sweet clover hay was prac-
tically equal to alfalfa hay for fattening steers. Cowpea hay, of
much importance in the South, proved fully equal to clover hay in a
trial at the Missouri. Station.^'^ Cowpeas are often sown in corn at the
last cultivation and the vines and corn forage grazed after the ear
corn has been gathered. Such practice tends to soil improvement as
well as cheap meat production.

Corn fodder; corn stover. — Tho there is more waste in feeding
com fodder than corn silage, where the crop can not be ensiled corn

11 Skinner and King, Ind. Bui. 178; information to the authors.

12 Wilson, S. D. Bui. 160.

13 Waters, Mo. Bui. 76.

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE

315

fodder is a cheap and satisfactory roughage for fattening cattle, giv-
ing especially good results when used with legume hay. Wlien thus
fed, bright corn stover may form half the roughage allowance with
excellent results. In 2 trials at the Nebraska Station " steers fed
half corn stover and half alfalfa hay with corn made as large gains
as others fed alfalfa hay and corn.

Roughages for the plains district.— In the semi-arid districts fod-
der and stover from both the sweet and the grain sorghums are most

Fig. 87. — The Type op Calves for Baby Beef Production

Blocky calves of good type and conformation must be selected for baby beef
production, as others will not usually reach the desired maturity and finish at
this early age.

useful feeds in beef production, when combined with legume ha}' or
with sufficient nitrogenous concentrates to balance the ration.

At the Hays, Kansas, Substation ^'^ 4 lots of yearling heifers were
wintered on 1 lb. of linseed meal, 10 lbs. silage, 2.6 lbs. straw, and
either kafir stover, sorghum stover, damaged alfalfa hay, or
Sudan hay in addition. Tho the cost of feed and labor was but 5.7
to 6.3 cts. per head daily, the heifers made large enough gains to put
them in condition to make good use of pasture the next summer.
This trial well shows the possibilities in beef production when wise

1* Smith, Nebr. Buls. 90, 93, 100.

15 Cochel, Kan. Industrialist, May 1, 1915.

316 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

use is made of bj^-product roughages that are commonly wasted in
grain farming.

Cottonseed hulls. — For many years cottonseed meal and cotton-
seed hulls formed the standard ration for fattening cattle in the
South. On this combination steers made suiTorisingly good gains.
For example, at the Texas Station ^^ yearling steers given these feeds
made nearly as large gains as others fed corn-and-cob meal and al-
falfa hay. Trials at the southern stations have shown, however, that
corn silage and cottonseed meal usually make slightly larger and con-
siderably cheaper gains than cottonseed hulls and cottonseed meal.

IV, Succulent Feeds

Silage in beef production. — The use of silage is fast revolutioniz-
ing the feeding of beef cattle, just as it has the feeding of milch cows
in the leading dairy sections of our country. Breeding cows and
stock cattle may be maintained in winter in good condition on silage
from well-matured com or the sorghums, with a limited amount of
legume hay or a small allowance of such nitrogenous concentrates as
cottonseed or linseed meal. For growing animals this palatable suc-
culence can not be excelled, when fed in proper combination with
legume hay or concentrates rich in protein.

On well-balanced rations in which silage is the chief roughage the
steer will fatten rapidly and reach a high finish on a moderate allow-
ance of expensive concentrates. By feeding, during the first stages
of fattening, only silage and either legume hay or a small allowance
of some nitrogenous concentrate to balance the ration, the feed cost
of the gains may usually be still further reduced. At first it was
thought that silage-fed cattle shrank more in shipment than those fin-
ished on dry roughage. Trials have now abundantly shown, how-
ever, that if silage is withheld for the last day or two before shipment
and dry roughage fed instead, cattle thus fattened will not shrink
any more than those receiving no silage.

Corn silage. — Silage from well-matured corn, carrying an abun-
dance of ears and a high proportion of grain, is the best of all silage
for beef cattle. Such silage aids materially in reducing the amount
of concentrates which need be supplied in addition. To show the
good results from feeding corn silage there are summarized in the
following table the results of 10 trials where corn silage was added to
the already excellent ration of shelled corn, cottonseed or linseed
meal, and clover or alfalfa hay. In these trials 2-year-old steers
averaging 1,006 lbs. in weight were fed for an average of 162 days.

16 Craig, Tex. Bui. 76.

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 317

Value of corn silage ivhen added to an already excellent ration

Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed cost

Daily Concen- of 100

Average ration gain trates Hay Silage lbs. gain

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars
Lot I

Legume hay, 10.7 lbs.
Shelled corn, IS.O lbs.
Supplement, 2.8 lbs 2.47 849 435 ... 11.56

Lot II

Corn silage, 23.6 lbs.
Legume hay, 3.8 lbs.

Shelled corn, 15.0 lbs.

Supplement, 2.9 lbs 2.51 716 152 952 10.18

The steers in Lot II, given a heavy allowance of silage, consumed
23.6 lbs. per head daily and ate 3 lbs. less corn and 6.9 lbs. less legume
hay than those in Lot I. The silage ration did not produce ap-
preciably larger gains than did legume hay fed as the sole roughage.
The principal advantage from feeding silage is shown in the feed
required per 100 lbs. gain and in the feed cost of the gains. The
saving in concentrates and hay made by feeding silage reduced the
feed cost of the gains $1.38 per 100 lbs., a sum which often repre-
sents the difference betw^een a loss and a fair profit. The silage-fed
steers were slightly better finished on the average and sold for 3 cents
more per 100 lbs. than those fed no silage.

Supplement needed with unlimited silage allowance. — We have
seen earlier in this chapter that when steers are fed corn with clover
or alfalfa hay as the only roughage, they eat sufficient of such pro-
tein-rich hay to balance their ration fairly well. Hence, adding a
supplement, such as cottonseed or linseed meal, does not greatly in-
crease the gains. However, if the steers are given all the corn silage
they will eat in addition to corn and legume hay, owing to the palata-
bility of the silage, they will then generally eat but 3 to 6 lbs of hay
per head daily. Trials at the Indiana Station ^^ show that when clover
hay is fed, the small amount eaten is not sufficient to balance the
ration properly and that about 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal or the
equivalent of other protein-rich supplements should be fed. Other
trials show that there is less advantage in adding a supplement to a
ration of alfalfa hay, com silage and com, doubtless due to the rich-
ness of this hay in protein.^®

Silage as the sole roughage. — AVhether steers fed corn silage only
for roughage will make as large gains as those supplied some other
dry roughage in addition is important to the cattle feeder. In each

17 Skinner, Cochel, and King, Ind. Buls. 129, 153, 167, 178.

18 Bliss and Lee, Nebr. Bui. 151 and information to the authors; Rusk, III.
Station, Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1041.

318 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

of 9 trials at 5 different stations one lot of 2-year-old steers was fed
corn and cottonseed or linseed meal with corn silage as the only
roughage, while another lot was fed clover or alfalfa hay in addition.
The steers fed silage as the sole roughage gained 0.12 lb. less per
head daily on the average, but the feed cost was 74 cents less per
100 lbs. of gain than with the steers fed legume hay in addition.
However, the steers fed legume hay were slightly better finished and
brought on the average 7 cents more per 100 lbs. than the others. In
some of the trials they sold for enough more to offset the more expen-
sive gains, so that they returned a greater profit.

In later trials at the Indiana Station ^^ it was found that oat straw
satisfied the desire of silage-fed steers for dry roughage as well as did
clover hay. The gains were no larger on a ration of shelled com,
cottonseed meal (2.5 lbs. daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight), corn silage,
and clover hay than when oat straw was substituted for the clover
hay. It should be pointed out that these results would not have been
secured had not sufficient cottonseed meal been fed to balance the oat
straw, corn silage, and corn ration. These extensive trials teach that
steers will usually make larger gains and reach a higher finish when
fed a small amount of dry roughage in addition to silage. An im-
portant fact is that this dry roughage may consist of such cheap
material as oat straw, rather than the more expensive legume hay,
when a nitrogenous concentrate is fed to balance the ration.

Silage with small concentrate allowance. — It has already been
pointed out that it is often profitable to feed only roughage during
the first part of the fattening period, or else roughage with 2 or 3
lbs. of some protein-rich concentrate, if this is needed to balance the
ration. Especially good results are secured under this system where
the chief roughage is silage from well-eared corn. The following
table, summarizing a trial at the South Dakota Station -^ with 648-lb.
steers fed 146 days, shows that good gains may be secured with corn
silage Avhen only a small amount of concentrates is fed thruout the
entire fattening period.

Fattening steers on silage with a small concentrate allowance

Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed
Daily Conceu- Corn cost of 100
Average ration gain

Lbs.

/, Linseed meal, 3.0 lbs. Silage, 48.3 lbs 2.4

//, Cottonseed meal, 3.0 lbs. Silage, 41.3 lbs 2.0

///, Dried distillers' gr., 3.0 lbs. Silage, 44.0 lbs. .2.2

* Linseed meal and cottonseed meal, $32.00; dried distillers' grain
silage, $4.00 per ton.

19 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 163, 167.

20 Wilson, S. D. Bui. 148.

trates

silage

lbs. gain.*

Lbs.

Lbs.

Dollars

120

1,970

5.86

1.50

2,120

6.64

130

2,030

5.50

grains,

$24.00;

and corn

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE

319

The silage was of poor quality, for it was cut after having been
thrice frosted and when most of the ears were in the milk stage.
Yet, with only 3 lbs. of concentrates per head daily and this poor
silage as the sole roughage, these steers made surprisingly good gains.
With feeds at the high prices indicated the gains were exceedingly
cheap. This trial shows the possibilities of producing cheap beef

.-'^--

mn

-fl

y^ ^^f^ .**i-, _.4t,i|y|

=;:>?»? ""^

Fig. 88. — The Use of Silage Is Ketvolutionizing Beef Making

Baby beeves fattening on kafir silage and cottonseed meal in a Texas feed lot.
(From The Southwest Trail, Rock Island Lines.)

thru the use of corn silage and but a small amount of high-grade con-
centrates. Tho steers so fattened may not yield "prime" beef, year-
lings such as these will furnish meat of a quality which will please
all but the most exacting.

Corn silage vs. shock corn. — The superiority of corn silage over
shock corn or corn fodder is well shown in a trial at the Illinois

320 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Station -^ in which growing beef calves were fed either corn silage or
shock corn from the same field, with 2 lbs. of oats and 4.0 to 4.6 lbs.
of mixed hay per head daily. The silage-fed calves made slightly
larger gains, but the chief advantage lay in the fact that more of the
shock corn was wasted and hence the corn from a much larger area
was needed to feed the steers getting shock corn than for those fed
silage. Taking everything into consideration, the corn silage from
an acre was worth 30 per ct. more than the shock corn from the
same area. In a trial at the ]\Iissouri Station -^ with fattening steers
the difference was still greater, silage being worth over 50 per ct.
more than the shock corn from the same area.

Silage from other crops. — In silage from the sorghums the feeder
of the semi-arid regions has an admirable substitute for corn silage.
In 3 trials at the Kansas Station 23 steer calves were wintered on about
26 lbs. of corn, kafir, or sweet sorghum silage per head daily, with 1
lb. of cottonseed meal or 1 lb. of corn and 1 lb. of linseed meal in
addition. All lots made satisfactory gains and the several kinds of
silage had about the same feeding value. The feeder in this section
should grow for silage whichever crop will yield the greatest tonnage.

The southern beef producer has available not only corn silage but
also silage from sweet sorghum, corn or sorghum grown with cowpeas
or soybeans, and, in the Gulf region, Japanese cane.

Roots. — Wherever corn or the sorghums thrive, silage from these
crops provides cheaper succulence than do roots. In northern dis-
tricts where root crops flourish but where corn will not mature suffi-
ciently for silage, roots are a valuable feed for beef cattle. When
only 6 to 9 lbs. was fed per head daily, roots proved fully equal,
pound for pound, to good corn silage in a trial at the South Dakota
Station. 2* At the Ontario Agricultural College,-^ where larger al-
lowances of roots were fed, silage had a somewhat higher value per
100 lbs. than roots, due to the larger percentage of dry matter it con-
tains.

In Great Britain roots are extensively used for fattening cattle,
from 35 to as much as 150 lbs. per head daily being fed along with
6 to 7 lbs. protein-rich concentrates, such as linseed meal, cottonseed
meal, dried brewers' and distillers' grains, and peanut cake. The
roots are commonly pulped and mixed with the concentrates and hay
or straw before feeding. By this means large amounts of cheap
roughages are utilized. On this small allowance of concentrates and

21 Mumford, 111. Bui. 73.

22 Allison, Mo. Bui. 112.

23Cochel, Kan. Bui. 198; Kan. Industrialist, Apr. 18, 1914, May 1, 1915.

24 Wilson, S. D. Bui. 137.

25 Day, Ont. Agr. Col., Rpts. 1901, 1902.

FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 321

heavy allowance of roots the cattle make excellent gains and reach
a satisfactory finish. With the high prices for concentrates now
prevailing in this country, our feeders may wisely adopt a similar
system of beef production, employing silage from corn and the
sorghums instead of the roots which are the basis of English feeding.

QUESTIONS

1. What do feeding experiments show as to the adA'antage of supplementing
corn with legume hay or protein-rich concentrates for fattening cattle?

2. Discuss the preparation of corn for beef cattle.

3. How do barley, wheat, oats, the grain sorghums, millet, and rough rice
compare with corn in value for fattening cattle?

4. Would you use cane or beet molasses in fattening cattle in your locality?

5. Discuss the use of cottonseed meal for fattening cattle, especially the
amounts to be fed under various conditions.

6. State the value of other protein-rich concentrates important in beef pro-
duction.

7. How does a ration of corn and legume hay compare in value with one of
corn, carbonaceous haj% and a protein-rich supplement?

8. Discuss the use of corn fodder, corn stover, and cottonseed hulls for cattle.

9. What are the advantages of feeding silage to fattening cattle?

10. What have trials shown concerning (a) the need of a supplement when
corn silage is fed, (b) the use of silage as the sole roughage?

11. How does an acre of cured corn forage compare in value with the silage
from the same area?

12. What other crops furnish valuable silage for beef cattle?

13. Tell how roots are used for feeding cattle in Great Britain.

14. Using feeds available in your section, compute tlie most economical ration
according to the Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standard for fattening 2-year-old
steers averaging 1,100 lbs. in weight. Follow the method given in Chapter VIII
and compute the ration for the second 50-60 days of the fattening period.

CHAPTER XXV

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP

I. General Problems in Sheep Husbandry

The sheep is the plant scavenger of the farm. Because of its dainty
manner of nibbling herbage, we might suppose that its likes were few
and dislikes many, j-et no domestic animal is capable of living on more
kinds of food. Grasses, shrubs, roots, and cereal grains, leaves, bark,
and in times of scarcity fish and meat, all serve as food for this won-
derfully adaptive animal. While horses and cattle eat only about
half the plants considered weeds, less than one-tenth of them are

^^£^_^

Fig. 89. — A Profit-Making Flock Cleaning Up the Farm Lane

On many farms where most of the income is derived from other sources a
flock of sheep would bring additional profits, since they consume much food
wliicli would otherwise be wasted. (From Breeder's Gazette.)

refused Iw sheep. They even prefer some weeds, when yet succulent,
to the common grasses. Sheep graze more closely than other stock,
and if many are confined to one field every green thing is at length
consumed. When closely pastured on cut-over timber lands they
derive much nourishment from the leaves, bark, and twigs, destroying
the brush nearly as effectively as goats. The feces of the sheep show
the finest grinding of any of the farm animals, and as they relish

322

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 323

most weed seeds this further fits them as weed destroyers. As sheep
graze, their droppings are distributed more uniformly than with
other stock. At nightfall they instinctively seek the higher, usually
poorer, land and thus leave their droppings where most needed.
Thru increasing the fertility of the pastures it grazes, this animal has
won the title of "The Golden Hoof."

Only a relatively small investment is necessary to start in sheep
husbandry, since the foundation animals cost but little and the flock
increases rapidly. Sheep require neither expensive barns nor im-
plements and only a minimum of care and attention during the busy
summer season. In wool and in the flesh of her off-spring, the ewe
gives double returns each year. With fair prices, the wool pays for
her maintenance, leaving as profit all income from the lamb or lambs,
after deducting the small cost of the additional feed and care they
require. Returns come quickly, for lambs may be marketed 8 or 9
months after the ewes are bred. While surpassed by the pig in econ-
omy of meat production, the lamb requires less feed per pound of
product than the steer. Because sheep readily consume food which
would otherwise be wasted, a flock will prove profitable on many
farms where most of the income is derived from other sources. On
rough or hilly land that cannot be economically tilled sheep may often
be the main live stock of the farm. Tho the cost of maintaining them
may be lowered thru their utilization of feed that would otherwise
be wasted, one must not expect profitable production from such feed
alone.

Types of sheep. — The original fine-wool or ^Merino sheep were de-
veloped primarily for the production of wool and have bodies which,
like that of the dairy cow, are inclined to be angular in form. At the
other extreme we have the mutton sheep, comprising the middle- and
long-wooled breeds, which were developed in Great Britain primarily
for the production of meat, with wool secondary. In shape of body
these breeds resemble the beef breeds of cattle, being blocky and
compact. During recent years the Delaine-Merinos and the Ram-
bouillets have been developed from the original Spanish Merinos with
the object of securing a fine-wool sheep that would furnish more mut-
ton. These are of dual-purpose type, between the two extremes in
form of body.

Size of flock.— In the grazing districts of the West thousands of
sheep carrying more or less INIerino blood are held in single bands
where the range furnishes suflicient feed, and tens of thousands may
be successfully fed together, as is still done with range sheep which
are brought to feeding points in the western states and in the
Mississippi valley.

324 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

In the humid regions, however, two hundred sheep of the mutton
breeds are as many as can usually be successfully managed in one
flock, for when the farm is heavily stocked with sheep, the troubles
from stomach worms and other parasites are greatly increased. The
beginner had best begin with a flock of 25, increasing the number as
experience grows.

Fattening sheep of different ages. — The following table, giving
the results of an 88-day trial at the Montana Station,^ shows that
lambs make much more economical gains than do older sheep :

Fattening range sheep of different ages

Average ration Av. wt. Av. Av. Feed for 100

Clover at be- daily total lbs. gain

Age when fed Barley hay ginning gain gain Barley Clover

hay

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

Lambs 0.7 2.1 G3 0.27 23.7 253 763

One-year-old wethers 0.7 3.8 95 0.27 23.5 256 1,413

Two-year-old wethers 0.7 4.1 116 0.28 24.3 248 1,469

Aged ewes 0.7 2.3 92 0.18 15.6 387 1,320

It will be observed that all lots, except the aged ewes, made prac-
tically the same daily and total gains. All were fed the same amount
of grain, but the lambs ate only about half as much hay as the year-
lings or 2-year-olds. Hence, the gains of the lambs were much more
economical. In other trials at the same Station, lambs made not only
more economical but also more rapid gains than yearling wethers.

Not only do lambs make cheaper gains, but thej^ also bring a higher
price per 100 lbs., due to the fact that their tender, juicy, well-
flavored meat is popular with Americans. Moreover, when the
animals are fattened as lambs the money invested is sooner returned,
and there is less risk from death and accident. Therefore, but few
lambs are held over to be fattened as yearlings or 2-year-olds. Owing
to their tendency to grow, lambs fatten more slowly than do mature
wethers. Since they are making not only fat but also lean meat, the
ration should be somewhat narrower; that is, contain more protein,
than is needed for fattening mature sheep. However, a ration which
is too narrow will unduly stimulate growth, and not fatten them
properly. The food requirements of fattening lambs of various
weights are given in Appendix Table V, as are also feeding standards
for maintaining mature sheep and for breeding ewes.

Shelter and exercise. — Above every other animal on the farm, the
sheep should be kept dry as to both coat and feet to avoid disease.
With dry winter quarters sheep will stand severe cold without injury.
One thickness of matched boards makes the barn or shed where sheep

1 Shaw, Mont. Bui. 35 ; see also Mont. Buls. 47, 59.

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 325

are confined sufficiently warm in the northern states, except for win-
ter lambs. Ample ventilation is of great importance, but drafts
must be avoided. On the western plains, it is even more necessary to
protect sheep from cold winds than from rain. Sunshine, good drain-
age, and conveniences for feeding are the other requisites of a good
sheep barn.

In late spring and early summer the flock should be sheltered from
cold rains, if possible, for exposure is dangerous, especially to young-
lambs. In summer, if there is no natural shade in the pastures, the
flock should have access to a darkened but well-ventilated shed. A
fringed curtain thru which the sheep may pass will keep back flies
from this retreat. In winter an open shed is the only shelter needed
even in the northern states for fattening lambs and sheep, heavy-
coated and filled with rich grain and roughage. A dry, littered yard,
having a sunny exposure and provided with a well-bedded, com-
fortable shed opening to the east or south, extending along the wind-
ward side, is ideal for fattening. In the arid regions, protection from
driving winds and sandstorms is all that is essential. Even in the
South the sheep should be protected from winter rains.

For the breeding flock abundant exercise thruout the year is essen-
tial. Fattening animals, however, make better gains if allowed only
moderate exercise.

Water; salt. — Opinions as to the water requirements of sheep vary
more than with any other domestic animal. In countries with heavy
dews and ample succulent feed in summer, and where roots are
largely used in winter, water may possibly be denied sheep, but or-
dinarily it is a necessity. Because of the danger of infestation with
internal parasites, drinking from stagnant pools must be avoided.
On the arid ranges of the Southwest, when grazing on certain succu-
lent plants like singed cacti, sheep sometimes go two months without
water. The wise shepherd will under all usual conditions supply his
sheep with water daily, providing from 1 to 6 quarts, according to
feed and weather. Ewes suckling lambs, and fattening sheep require
more water than those being simply carried thru the winter.

Sheep especially require salt, which should be available at all times,
for an irregular supply induces scouring. In winter it may be given
in a trough used only for this purpose. In summer salt may be ren-
dered doubly useful by scattering it on sprouts growing about stumps,
on brush patches, or over noxious weeds.

Grinding grain; cutting or grinding hay.— Of all farm animals,
the sheep is best able to do its own grinding, and with few exceptions
only whole grain should be furnished. The common saying of feed-
ers, ' ' a sheep which cannot grind its own grain is not worth feeding, ' '

326 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

is true. Valuable breeding sheep with poor teeth may be continued
in usefulness if given ground grain. Small, hard grains, such as
wheat, bald barley, and millet, should be ground, or better, crushed
for sheep.

Trials at the Colorado Station ^ show that cutting or grinding good-
quality alfalfa hay is not profitable. With poor-quality hay, cutting
into three-fourth inch lengths may be profitable, provided the cost
is not more than $1 per ton, for less will be wasted. Even grinding
may be warranted, if the cost is not more than $3 to $4 per ton.

Self feeders; feed racks. — To save time and labor some feeders
place grain sufficient for a week or more in a self feeder, and allow
fattening sheep or lambs to eat at will. From trials with lambs and
yearling wethers ^ F. B. Mumf ord concludes that fattening lambs by
means of a self-feeder is an expensive practice, since more feed is then
required for 100 lbs. gain. The advantage of a self feeder, even with
corn at a low price, is small, as it is necessary to feed by hand the first
5 or 6 weeks of the feeding period to accustom the sheep to a full
feed of grain before them all the time. Numerous observations show
that the death rate is higher when self feeders are used. The more
concentrated the grain, the greater the danger in feeding it thru the
self feeder. Bulky wheat screenings have been satisfactorily fed in
self feeders.

Morton * reports that under Colorado conditions, when lambs are
fattened in the open, self -feed hay racks, costing $1 per running foot
and accommodating 4 lambs per foot, 2 on a side, saved sufficient hay,
compared with feeding it on the ground outside the pens, to pay their
cost in 3 seasons.

Grain and roughage should be fed separately to sheep. If sheep are
fed in close quarters the hay should be supplied daily, since they dis-
like provender that has been "blown on," as shepherds say. In feed-
ing sheep in open lots, as is done thruout the West, racks sufficiently
large to hold roughage for several days are often used. Grain troughs
should have a wide, flat bottom, forcing the sheep to eat slowly. Fif-
teen inches of linear trough space should be provided for each animal.

II. Hints on Feeding and Caring for Sheep

Feed and care of ewes. — Experienced shepherds have found that
ewes which are gaining rapidly in flesh at breeding time are more
apt to produce twins or triplets than if they are poor in flesh. Hav-
ing more than one lamb per ewe is most profitable, except on the

2 Morton, Colo. Buls. 151, 187. * Colo. Bui. 187.

3 Mich. Bui. 128: Mo. Bui. 115

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 327

western ranges, where but little attention can be given the individual
ewes. Accordingly, with the farm flock it is advisable to "flush" the
ewes for 2 or 3 weeks before they are bred ; i.e., to supply an abun-
dance of palatable, nutritious feed, such as rape, cabbage, good clover
pasture, or grain. This is especially needed if the ewes have run
down in flesh during summer thru suckling their lambs.

Breeding ewes which are in good condition in the fall need little
or no grain in winter until about a month before lambing, if given all
the bright legume hay they will eat with an allowance of silage or
roots in addition. At that time, or sooner if they are not in thrifty,
vigorous condition, they should be given a limited amount of concen-
trates, up to 0.5 per head daily, with good roughage. When legume

Fig. 90. — Exercise Is Essential for the Ewe Flock

In winter the ewes may be forced to exercise by scattering roughage over a
nearby field. (From Kleinheinz, Wisconsin Station.)

hay is fed, a considerable part of the concentrates may be corn, bar-
ley, oats, kafir, and other carbonaceous grains. Mixed with these
should be such feeds as wheat bran, linseed meal, and dried brewers'
grains.

The best roughages for ewes are the legume hays — clover, alfalfa,
cowpeas, and vetch — all of which are palatable and rich in protein,
and help ward off constipation, a serious danger to the ewe. Other
roughages which are useful to feed with legume hay are bright corn
fodder or corn stover, oat hay, prairie hay, and oat straw. Timothy
hay is too constipating for ewes. Two to 3 lbs. of corn silage or
chopped roots per head daily aids greatly in keeping the ewes thrifty.
Too much succulent feed may produce weak, flabby lambs. One-half
pound of grain, 3 lbs. of legume hay and 2 to 3 lbs. of roots or silage

328 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

daily should keep ewes of average size in good condition during
the winter.

To insure a crop of strong, healthy lambs, exercise for the ewes in
winter is essential. They should have access to a dry, sunny yard,
well protected from wind and storm, and on all fair days should be
forced to exercise by scattering roughage over a nearby field. When
the snow is deep, paths should be broken out with snow plow or stone
boat. On stormy days the sheep should remain indoors.

To avoid udder troubles, ewes should be given but little grain for
two or three days after 'lambing, and the allowance gradually in-
creased with the demand for more milk by the lamb. With good
roughage not over 2 lbs. of concentrates per ewe daily is necessary.
Legume hay and succulent feeds are essential at this time, and more
silage or roots may be safely fed than before lambing. After being
turned to pasture the ewes need no additional feed, if grazing is good.

The ram. — For a good lamb crop, it is essential that the ram be
kept in thrifty, vigorous condition. He needs no grain while on good
pasture during summer, but beginning at least a month before breeding
time some concentrates should be fed. During the breeding season
he should be fed such muscle-forming foods as bran, oats, peas, and
oil meal, and not be allowed to run down thru insufficient feed or
over use. On the other hand, he should never become fat.

In winter the ram may be kept thrifty on a daily allowance of 0.5 to
1.0 lb. of concentrates, with good roughage. Some succulent food
is desirable but mangels and sugar beets should be avoided. Lack of
exercise injures the ram's breeding powers. Ram lambs need liberal
rations of muscle-building foods, but should be given little fat-form-
ing food.

Lambingf time.— In about 147 days after the ewes are bred the
lambs may be expected. During 24 years, at the Wisconsin Station ■"'
the average birth weight of lambs of the mutton breeds was 9.1 to
10.6 lbs. for single lambs, 7.7 to 8.5 lbs. each for twins, and 5.5 to 8.2
for triplets. On the average, 161 lambs were yeaned each year per
100 ewes during this period, a result which can be secured only with
good feed and excellent care.

The shepherd should always be close at hand during lambing time
to assist the ewes or any weak lambs. It is wise to provide lambing
pens for the ewes and their newly born lambs. Here each ewe and
her young may remain for a couple of days until they are wonted to
each other and the lambs are strong enough to look out for them-
selves among the flock.

Raising the lambs. — After about 2 weeks the lambs begin to show

5 Kleinheinz, Wis. Rpts. 1902, 1907, and information to the autliors.

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP

329

a desire for feed in addition to their dam's milk and will be found
nibbling at the feed trough beside their mothers. They should now
be provided with both grain and hay at one end or corner of the
barn which is fenced off by means of a "lamb creep" thru which only
the lambs can enter. This may be made of two lx6-inch boards, to
which are nailed lx4-inch vertical strips about 3 feet long, spaced
just far enough apart to allow
the lambs to pass thru but keep
the ewes back. Within this en-
closure there should be a low,
shallow trough with an ob-
struction lengthwise" over the
top to prevent the lambs from
jumping into it. In this tro-ugh
should be sprinkled a mixture
of such feeds as ground oats,
wheat bran, corn meal, and lin-
seed meal. Fine alfalfa or
second-crop clover hay is also
excellent for young lambs.
The feed should never be al-
lowed to grow stale. Fresh,
clean water should also be pro-
vided.

The change tp pasture should
be gradual, the ewes and lambs
being turned on grass for only a few hours at first and then brought
back to shelter, where more feed awaits them. It is usually best to
feed the lambs concentrates in addition to pasture and the milk they
get from their dams. This may be provided by means of a "lamb-
creep" at some convenient point.

At 4 to 5 months of age* the lambs should be weaned, for their own
good and also to give their mothers a rest before another breeding
season. If possible, advantage should be taken of a cool spell and
the lambs and their dams should be so separated that neither can hear
the bleating of the other. For a few daj^s the ewes should be kept
on short pasture or dry feed to reduce their milk flow, and atten-
tion must be given their udders. The lambs should be put on the
best pasture, such as clover or rape, and given a liberal supply of
grain.

After weaning, lambs that are to be marketed early may profitably
be fed grain, but those to be fattened in winter and the ewe lambs to
be retained for the breeding flock need no grain when the grazing is

Fig. 91. — Meal time for the lambs.
Notice the lamb creep separating the ewes
in the background from the lambs. (From
Kleinheinz, Sheep Management, Breeds,
and Judging.)

330 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

good. Ram lambs should be given grain in fall to insure good de-
velopment.

Stomach worms. — East of the Mississippi stomach worms are a
serious menace to sheep raising, lambs being especially liable to at-
tack. The eggs of the parasite, which are scattered over the pastures
in the droppings of the sheep, soon hatch and the worms may be swal-
lowed by the sheep while grazing. Fields on which no cattle, sheep,
or goats have grazed for a year, and those that have been plowed and
cultivated since sheep grazed on them, are usually free from worms.
Old permanent pastures are apt to be infested, as are stagnant water
pools.

Trouble from stomach worms may be avoided by changing sheep
and lambs to fresh pasture frequently. It is especially necessary to
place the lambs on fresh, clean pasture when they are taken from
their dams at weaning time. Where sheep are suffering from the
worms, various drenches may be used. The most common one is 1
tablespoonful of gasoline for lambs and 1% tablespoonfuls for large,
older sheep, mixed with one-third pint of fresh cow's milk and 1
tablespoonful of raw linseed oil. The treatment should be repeated
each morning for three days, the sheep getting no feed over night.

Fattening lambs in the fall. — Finishing lambs for the market in
the fall is common with farmers who raise their own lambs and with
many who buy feeder lambs from the western ranges. Until cold
weather the lambs may be grazed on rape, stubble fields, or other
pasture, being fed grain in addition. Sometimes the lambs are
shifted to fields of standing corn after the stubble fields are well
gleaned. Here they feed on the lower leaves of the corn stalks and
on rape or turnips sown at the last cultivation, finally eating more
or less of the corn on the ears. Thrifty lambs placed on feed in the
early fall should be ready for sale by December or early in January,
a season when there is usually a scarcity of good lambs on the market,
since the grass-fed lambs have been marketed and those in winter feed
lots are not yet finished.

Fattening lambs in winter. — Most western lambs are fattened for
market in winter. As they usually have never had grain, they must
be started on feed slowly lest some be injured or even killed. At first
they should be given all the roughage they will eat, with a little grain
— not over 0.1 lb. per head daily — sprinkled thinly in the troughs.
The allowance may be gradually increased until in 2 months or less
they are on full feed.

Farm-raised lambs take grain more readily, and in some cases but
3 or 4 weeks need intervene between placing the lambs on feed and
full feeding. In all cases, before sheep are admitted to the fatten-

TEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP

331

ing pens they should be examined by an experienced shepherd, and
if any evidence of scab, lice, or ticks is found, the flock should be
dipped most thoroly.

With lambs which have received no grain on pasture, the feeding
period should last 12 to 14 M^eeks, depending on their condition and
the rapidity with which they fatten. For a 100-day feeding period
the gains should be 25 to 30 lbs. per head. This gain added to a lamb
weighing originally 55 to 65 lbs. brings it to the size desired by the

Fig. 92. — ^Lambs Fattening in

Many farmers find it profitable to fatten lambs in tlie fall on rape, stubble
fields, or standing corn. (From Breeder's Gazette.)

market, for the demand is now for plump lambs weighing only 80 to
90 lbs., or even less if from the western ranges. As soon as the lambs
are "ripe," or when the back and the region about the tail are well
covered with fat, they should be sold, for further gains can not be
made at a profit.

Sheep feeders do not begin operations at an early hour in winter,
preferring not to disturb the animals until after daybreak. Usually
grain is first given, followed by hay and water. The trough in which
grain is fed should be kept clean at all times, and sufficient space

332 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

should be provided so each animal may get its share of grain. Reg-
ularity and quiet are of especial importance with fattening lambs
and sheep.

Fattening in the corn belt and eastward. — In the corn belt and
eastward corn and clover or alfalfa hay are commonly used for fat-
tening lambs, wnth or without cottonseed meal, linseed meal, or wheat
bran. Thruout these districts it is usually most profitable to feed the
lambs all the grain they will eat after being brought to full feed.
Feeders frequently fatten two lots of lambs the same season, market-
ing the first in January and the second late in spring. Should the
weather grow warm before the lambs are finished, shearing results in
better gains. Shelter is required to protect the lambs from winter
storms. In the corn belt lambs are commonly allowed the freedom
of small yards with an open shed or barn adjacent, while in the East
a more forced system of fattening is often followed, the lambs never
being turned out from the barn or shed for exercise. In this system,
the grain troughs are protected by vertical slats in such a manner
that there is just room for a lamb to feed in each opening, and only
one space is provided for each lamb. The lambs are brought to full
feed as quickly as possible, and they are then given all the grain they
will clean up. With such heavy feeding and scant exercise, care
must be taken to keep the lambs quiet, and a feeding space must be
closed up whenever a lamb is removed from the pen, for excitement
and overeating cause heavy losses from apoplexy.

Fattening- in the West. — In the West, where hay is cheap compared
with grain, the allowance of grain is often restricted thruout the fat-
tening period so the lambs will eat more hay. Sometimes hay only is
fed, but sheep cannot be made fat enough for the large markets on
hay alone. Hence western feeders often give only hay during the
first part of the fattening period and later add grain to finish the
lambs and harden the flesh. With a light allowance of grain, the
lambs must, of course, be fed longer to reach a given finish than when
they are given all the grain they will eat. The feeds most commonly
used in the West are corn, barley, or other cereals, with alfalfa hay,
and with wet beet pulp in the vicinity of the beet-sugar factories.

In large feeding plants the corral, or enclosure, is commonly di-
vided into 2 rows of lots with a lane between, each lot accommodating
from 400 to 500 lambs. No shelter is provided, but windbreaks are
desirable. The hay is usually fed in the lanes, 12 to 14 feet wide,
extending between the lots. The low fences bordering the lanes have
a 7 or 8 inch space between the first and second boards, thru which
the lambs feed on the hay. About 1 running foot of lane fencing
aivd feed troughs is allowed each sheep. The hay from the stacks is

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 333

hauled down the lanes and piled along the fences, being pushed up to
them 2 or 3 times a day as it is eaten away.

All lots are provided with flat-bottomed troughs for feeding grain.
There is an extra or vacant lot at one end of each row of lots, likewise
provided with troughs. At feeding time grain is placed in the
troughs of this extra lot and the lambs from the adjoining lot are
turned in. As soon as a lot is vacated, grain is put in the troughs
of this lot, and the lambs enter from the next lot, and so on. At the
next meal feeding begins by using the vacant lot at the other end of
the row, reversing the process. The feeding yards are usually located
on streams or ditches which supply running water. Those on high
ground have watering troughs into which the water is pumped. Salt
is liberally furnished in troughs.

Feeding" small bands. — Fattening great numbers of lambs at a
single point reached its height years ago when corn and wheat screen-
ings ruled low in price, and the large operator had little competition
from the ranchman and farmer in finishing range lambs for the mar-
ket. Now the price of feed has increased, and the fattening of range
lambs in smaller bands has rapidly developed in the western states,
in the corn belt, and farther eastward. Most fortunately for a con-
servative agriculture, the large operator, who often receives no ben-
efit from the great accumulation of rich manure in the feed lot, can-
not compete with the farmer who fattens one or more carloads of lambs
and uses the manure for enriching his land. Prudent farmers rightly
hold that enough fertility is returned to their land thru the feed lot
to pay the entire labor cost of feeding. As sheep and lamb fattening
on range and farm increases, the gradual decline of the old feed lot is
assured.

Yield of dressed carcasses; shrinkage. — The slaughter tests at the
various stations show that lambs and yearlings dress from 48 to 57
per ct., depending on how completely they are fattened. Shaw "^
states that fattened lambs weighing over 100 lbs., when 4 daj^s in
transit, will shrink 7 to 8 lbs. per head ; 1-year-old wethers weighing
about 120 lbs., approximately 10 lbs. ; and aged wethers and ewes
about 12 lbs. per head. When sheep are marketed off pasture, es-
pecially rape, excessive shrinkage from scouring may be prevented by"
giving only dry feed for a day or more before shipping. The con-
centrate allowance should be decreased for the same reason, and oats
are the best grain for sheep in transit.

Hot house lambs. — During recent years an increasing demand has
developed for winter or "hot house" lambs. The term "hot house"
does not imply that the lambs are raised in artificially heated quar-

6 Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 365.

334

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

ters, but Is used because they are produced out of season, as are the
vegetable products of hot houses. The demand for winter lambs
comes from the last of December to Easter, and the ewes must ac-
cordingly be bred in the spring instead of in the fall, as usual
Dorset, Tunis, and Merino or Rambouillet ewes are commonly used
for raising winter lambs, for the other breeds rarely breed at the
right season. After lambing, the ewes are fed so as to yield an
abundant flow of milk, and the lambs are early taught to eat grain
and forced rapidly on such feeds as corn, oats, bran, and linseed meal,
with good legume ha.y and preferably either roots or silage in addi-
tion. Thus forced, the best lambs weigh 50 to 60 lbs. at 10 to 12

m^

^"^S?^

♦fV ' W' a ^sJ^.;*^- 'Wf-

mm

Fig. 93. — Angora Goats Clearing Land of Brush

Goats are especially fond of the leaves and twigs of brush and if pastured
closely enough will effectively kill the brush.

weeks, when they are ready for market. "Winter lambs must be fat,
for the condition of the carcass is more important than its size. To
be profitable, they must sell for not less than $5 per head, and the
best ones sometimes bring $12. This specialty can be conducted with
profit only by experts who have nearby markets that will pay the high
prices such products must command.

Spring lambs. — A less intensive system than the preceding is the
production of spring lambs, which are dropped from January to March
and are usually marketed in May and June, weighing 65 to 90 lbs., at
a time of the year when there is a good demand. Raising spring
lambs is especially profitable in Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 335

states to the southward, for here the ewes may be largely maintained
on pasture thruout the year, thus greatly lowering the feed bill.

Goats. — The raising of Angora goats for their mohair is an im-
portant industry in certain districts of the United States, especially
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Oregon, and California. In the west-
ern states the goats graze upon rough land, utilizing browse which
even sheep would refuse. In the cut-over districts of the North, An-
gora goats are useful in clearing land of brush at a low expense.

In Europe the milch goat is of importance as a milk producing
animal. By their habits they are peculiarly adapted to the needs of
the peasants, or poorer classes of these countries, and have hence
been appropriately termed "the poor man's cow." While the quality
of the milk may be injured if the goat is maintained largely on Aveeds,
kitchen waste, and other refuse, they can profitably utilize much feed
which would otherwise be wasted about the household. A good milch
goat should produce milk for 8 to 10 months, and yield 2 quarts or
more daily. The milch goat produces more milk, based upon body
weight, than the cow, often yielding 10 times her body weight an-
nually, and also requires less feed to produce 100 lbs. of milk, tho
the milk is higher in fat than average cow's milk. The milch goat
has not yet attained importance in this country, but it should have a
place in supplying fresh, pure milk for households in our cities. The
general principles of feeding and care which have been presented for
sheep also apply to goats.

QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the place of sheep on the farm, the types of sheep, and the size of
the llock.

2. Why are most sheep fattened as lambs?

3. What are the requirements of sheep for shelter, exercise, water, and salt?

4. Discuss the preparation of feed for sheep and the use of self feeders.

5. How would you feed and care for breeding ewes?

6. State how rams should be fed.

7. Tell briefly of the feed and care of lambs from birth.

8. Describe the method of preventing trouble from stomach worms and of the
treatment.

9. Outline the metiiod of fattening lambs (a) in the fall, (b) in the winter.

10. How are lambs fattened (a) in the corn belt, (b) in the eastern states, (c)
in the West?

11. What is the shrinkage of sheep in transit and the usual dressing per-
centage ?

12. Discuss the production of (a) hot house lambs; (b) spring lambs.

13. What is the importance of the two types of goats in this country?

CHAPTER XXVI

FEEDS FOR SHEEP
I. Concentrates for Sheep

In the following paragraphs, which discuss the value of various
feeds for sheep, especially for fattening animals, it will be noted that
nearly all the trials reviewed were with lambs. This is due to the
facts pointed out in the preceding chapter, that lambs make better
use of their feed than older animals and that their flesh is in greater
demand.

Indian corn. — Corn, the best single grain for fattening sheep, is
the cereal most commonly used in this country as far west as Col-
orado, beyond which barley and wheat are more generally fed. Since
legume hay, rich in protein, admirably supplements corn, the com-
bination of corn and clover or alfalfa hay has become a standard
ration for fattening sheep over a large district. In this chapter
other rations will, where possible, be compared with this successful
combination. To show the possibilities of these feeds, below are
averaged the results from 8 stations with 26 lots, including 527 lambs,
which were fed an unlimited allowance of shelled corn and either
clover or alfalfa hay, for periods averaging 90 days. The results are
also given from 4 stations at which 17 lots, including 1,180 lambs,
were fed a limited allowance of shelled corn (from 0.7 to 1.1 lbs. per
head daily) with the same roughages, in trials averaging 92 days.

Corn and legume hay for fattening lambs

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain

Average ration

weight

gain

Corn

Hav

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs

Corn allowance unlimited

Shelled corn, 1.3 lbs.

Clover or alfalfa hay, 1.4 lbs. . . .

67

0.32

400

436

Corn alloicance limited

Shelled corn, 0.9 lb.

Clover or alfalfa hay, 2.1 lbs. . . .

60

0.32

288

655

The lambs given a full feed of corn consumed an average ration of
1.3 lbs. shelled corn and 1.4 lbs. clover or alfalfa hay and gained 0.32
lb. per head daily, requiring 400 lbs. shelled corn and 436 lbs. hay per
100 lbs. gain. The lambs getting the limited corn allowance ate 0.9

336

FEEDS FOR SHEEP

337

lb. corn and 2.1 lbs. hay per head daily and required 655 lbs. of hay
and only 288 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain. From these averages,
the feeder may readily calculate the cost and possible profits of fat-
tening lambs under reasonably favorable conditions, and when the
fattening period is not too extended.

Hints on feeding- corn. — Being low in protein, corn should be sup-
plemented with some kind of legume hay, or if this is not available

il/i#i«Nr 1

1 A^^HHpP^E^R

j^JgmgKK/M

Fig. 94. Sheep on Western Range Grazed under the "Mass"

Method
From such grazing lands as these come the western lambs fattened in feed
lots in the western states, in the corn belt, and eastward. (From U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.)

then with some protein-rich concentrate, such as linseed or cottonseed
meal, when fed to fattening sheep or lambs. In each of 7 trials at
various stations corn and timothy or prairie hay was fed to one lot of
lambs and corn and clover or alfalfa hay to another. On the average,
the lambs fed the legume hay gained 0.32 lb. per head daily, while
those fed the unbalanced ration of corn and timothy or prairie hay
gained only 0.19 lb. and required 46 per ct. more grain and 15 per ct.
more hay per 100 lbs. gain. In 4 other trials, corn and timothy hay
were fed to one lot of lambs, while another received these feeds and 0.2

338

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

lb. of linseed or cottonseed meal per head daily. Balancing the ration
increased the gains over 30 per ct. and saved over 11 per ct. of the con-
centrates and 25 per ct. of the hay required for each 100 lbs. gain.

Trials at the lowa^ and Illinois- Stations show that it rarely pays
to grind corn for fattening lambs, except perhaps where they are
already fairly fat and it is desired to continue feeding them for some
time. Shelled corn is most commonly fed to sheep but ear corn and
broken ear corn are satisfactory. Excellent results are secured when

Fig. 95. Sheep on Eange Grazed under the "Open" Method

When sheep are grazed under this improved system more can be carried on
a given area than under the "mass" method. (From U. S. Department of Ag-
riculture.)

lambs are fed ear corn at first, changed to broken ear corn as the feed-
ing progresses, and finished on shelled corn or coarsely ground corn ;
i. e., increasing the preparation as the lambs fatten.

The other cereals. — Barley, wheat, and the grain sorghums are all
relatively low in protein and therefore, like corn, should be bal-
anced with legume hay or some protein-rich concentrate. Wheat and
bald barley should be, crushed or rolled for sheep, but there is not

1 Evvard, information to the authors.

2 Coffey, information to the authors.

FEEDS FOR SHEEP 339

enough gain from grinding the other grains to pay for the expense.

Barley is extensively used for fattening sheep and lambs thruout
the western range district, where but little corn is grown. Trials at
the western stations show that with alfalfa hay for roughage, lambs
fed good heavy Scotch or brewing barley make nearly as large gains
as those fed corn, and require but 5 per ct. more grain and 10 per ct.
more hay for 100 lbs. gain.

Wheat is rarely fed to sheep unless off grade or low in price. Grain
of good quality is slightly superior to barley and practically equal to
corn for fattening sheep.

The value of wheat screenings varies widely, heavy screenings being
equal to wheat, while the light, chaft'y grades are more like a rough-
age than a concentrate. Successful feeders wisely use screenings of
low grade in getting the lambs on feed and as fattening advances
change to the heavier screenings.

Oats are bulky and, being well liked by sheep, are widely used in
starting sheep on grain at the beginning of the fattening period.
They are also excellent for the breeding flock. Owing to their usual
high price and the fact that they induce growth rather than fatten-
ing, it is rarely economical to feed much oats to fattening sheep.
Trials at the Indiana Station^ show that after lambs are on full feed
corn as the only grain is as satisfactory as a mixture of corn and oats.
At the iMontana Station* lambs fed clover hay and oats required 6
l)er ct. more grain and 5 per ct. more hay than those fed barley and
clover hay, and at the South Dakota Station^ lambs fed on oats and
mixed hay required 16 per ct. more grain and 9 per ct. more hay per
100 lbs. gain than others fed corn and clover hay.

Emmer is an important grain for sheep and lambs in the northern
plains states. AVhen used as the only grain, it is worth but three-
fourths as much as corn per 100 lbs., tho its value is somewhat higher
when fed with barley or corn,

Kafir and milo, of increasing importance in the southern plains
region, are worth slightly less than barley for sheep feeding.

Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Dried beet pulp has
proved equal to corn for growing or fattening lambs, when fed as
part of the concentrate allowance. Beet molasses is sometifhes fed
to sheep in the vicinity of beet-sugar factories in the AVest. In some
cases no other concentrate is fed, and in others wet beet pulp and a
little cottonseed cake are added to the ration. To avoid smearing
the wool, the molasses is preferably mixed thoroly with cut hay or
straw.

3 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 168, 179; information to the authors.

4 Linfield, Mont. Buls. 47, 50. s s. D. Bui. 86.

340 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Linseed and cottonseed meal. — These protein-rich concentrates
are the supplements most commonly used with sheep for balancing
rations low in protein. In a trial at the Wisconsin Station^ the
value of the'se supplements for lambs was compared when added to a
ration of shelled corn, corn silage, and legume hay, a ration other-
wise low in protein. In addition to these feeds, one lot of 40 lambs
was fed 0.21 lb. of linseed meal per head daily, and another lot 0.16
lb. of choice cottonseed meal, which supplied the same amount of di-
gestible protein as the larger amount of linseed meal. The lambs in
both lots gained 0.37 lb. per head daily, but the gains of those fed
cottonseed meal were slightly cheaper, chiefly because less cottonseed
meal than linseed meal was required to balance the ration. Lambs
should not receive .more than half a pound of linseed or cottonseed
meal per head daily, and one-eightli or one-fourth pound in com-
bination with other concentrates will usually provide a well-balanced
ration. Linseed cake of pea size is better relished by sheep than the
finely ground meal.

Minor protein-rich concentrates. — Field peas and soybeans are
usually too expensive to form the entire concentrate allowance for
fattening lambs, but may be used with corn or other grain. Field
peas produce firm flesh and fed in combination with such feeds as
corn, oats, and bran are excellent in fitting sheep for shows.

Wheat bran should form no large part of the concentrate allow-
ance for fattening sheep, for, like oats, it induces growth rather than
fattening and is too bulky. When lambs are being started on feed,
bran is useful for mixing with corn and other heavy concentrates to
prevent digestive troubles. It is a most valuable feed for breeding
ewes.

Dried distillers' grains, dried brewers' grains, and gluten feed,
tho not commonly fed to sheep in this country, have given good re-
sults in Europe.

II, Roughages for Sheep

Legume hay. — The legumes furnish by far the best roughages for
sheep — in the East clover and alfalfa hay, thruout the West alfalfa
with clover and field peas in certain sections, and in the South the
eowpea, beggarweed, and other plants. It is more important for
sheep than for cattle that the hay be fine-stemmed and leafy.

The superiority of legume hay over carbonaceous hay for sheep
is shown in the following summary of 5 trials at 4 different stations,
in which rations of clover or alfalfa hay with corn as the sole con-

6 Morrison and Kleinheinz, unpublished data.

FEEDS FOR SHEEP

341

centrate have been compared with rations of timothy or prairie hay
and corn and cotton- or linseed meal, which were equally well bal-
anced so far as the amount of protein was concerned.

Legume hay vs. carbonaceous hay for fattening lamhs

Average ration

Legume hay

Clover or alfalfa hav, 1.5 lbs.

Initial

Daily
gain
Lbs.

Feed for
Concen-
trates
Lbs.

100

lbs. gain

Hay
Lbs.

Corn, 1.3 lbs

63

0.32

388

455

Carbonaceous hay

Timotliv or prairie hav, 1.0

lb.

Corn, 1.0 lb.

Cotton- or linseed meal, 0.2 lb. . .

63

0.24

505

422

Fig. 96. Fattening Lambs in a Western Feed Lot

In the western states no shelter except a windbreak is commonly provided
for fattening lambs. In the corn belt and eastward shelter is required to pro-
tect the lambs from winter storms. (From Wallace's Farmer.)

Tho the lambs fed timothy or prairie hay received a well-balanced
ration, those on clover or alfalfa made much larger gains and re-
quired less feed per 100 lbs. gain.

Fattening lambs given all the corn and legume hay they will eat
consume enough of the protein-rich hay, even toward the end of the
fattening period when on a full feed of grain, to balance the ration

342 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

quite well. Indeed, the data for 10 trials at various stations show
that adding linseed or cottonseed meal to a ration of corn and
legume hay increased the average daily gain only 0.01 lb. and did not
lessen the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain.

Legume hays compared. — Early-cut red clover hay is one of the
best roughages for sheep, both for fattening animals and for the
breeding flock. Alfalfa hay has about the same value as clover, ex-
cept that, being richer in protein, less is needed to balance a ration
otherwise low in this nutrient.

Cowpea hay gives good results with sheep, tho somewhat less val-
uable than alfalfa hay. Siveet clover hay is a satisfactory roughage
for sheep, but is inferior to alfalfa hay. In certain sections of the
West large numbers of lambs are fattened by grazing on field peas,
usually sown with a small quantity of oats or barley to support the
vines. The lambs are turned in the fields when most of the peas have
matured and are fattened in 70 to 120 days, commonly without other
feed. Sometimes the peas are cut, stacked, and fed to the lambs in
yards.

Timothy and other carbonaceous hay. — Timothy hay is unsatis-
factory for sheep, being both unpalatable and constipating. The dry
heads of this grass work into the wool, irritating the skin, lowering
the value of the wool and making shearing difficult. As has been
shown before, even when a nitrogenous supplement is added to tim-
othy hay and corn, the ration is still inferior to one of legume hay
and corn. Marsh hay is too coarse and woody for sheep, and millet
hay is also unsatisfactory. Bluegrass hay and bright oat straw are
preferable to any of these. Western prairie hay, tho more palatable
than timothy, is much inferior to alfalfa. Sorghum hay ranks with
corn stover, its value depending on its fineness.

Corn stover and corn fodder ; straw. — Next in value to hay from
the legumes come the dried leaves of the corn plant. For sheep feed-
ing, corn should be cut early and cured in well-made shocks. The
sheep will eat a little more of the stalks if shredded, but cutting does
not induce them to consume any of the coarser parts. Neither corn
stover nor straw should be fed as the only roughage, tho some may
often be utilized with profit when given with other more palatable
roughage, such as legume hay and corn silage. In a trial at the Ok-
lahoma Station '' lambs fed 0.8 lb. corji stover, 0.7 lb. alfalfa hay, 1.2
lbs. corn, and 0.4 lb. cottonseed meal per head daily, made nearly as
large gains as others fed 1.5 lbs. alfalfa hay and 1.6 lbs. corn, and
required but little more concentrates for 100 lbs. gain.

7 McDonald and Malone, Okla. Bui. 78.

FEEDS FOR SHEEP 343

III. Succulent Feeds

Roots. — Roots, silage, pasture and other succulent feeds are ex-
ceedingly beneficial to the flock because of their tonic and regulative
effect. Roots are universally fed in large amounts to sheep in Great
Britain, famed for mutton of the highest quality. While even lambs
are sometimes there fed over 20 lbs. of roots per head daily, in this
country it is not ordinarily profitable to feed over 4 or 5 lbs., and
even half this much, preferably pulped or sliced, will furnish the
needed succulence in the ration.

Averaging the results for 5 trials in which roots have been added
to a well-balanced ration of grain and alfalfa, clover, or mixed clover
and timothy hay, we find that the lambs fed roots (3.7 lbs. per head
daily) gained 22 per ct. more than those fed no roots. In these
trials 1 ton of roots replaced 174 lbs. of grain and 355 lbs. of hay.

At the Iowa Station ^ sugar beets ranked first in amount and
economy of gain, with mangels second, and turnips third. Since
mangels and sugar beets when fed to sheep tend to produce calculi,
or stones, in the kidneys or bladder, which are dangerous in the case
of rams and wethers, these roots should not be fed to males for
long periods. In the Iowa trials rams died after being fed, on
rations containing 4.4 lbs. of sugar beets or mangels for 5 to 6
months. Ewes are not so afi:'ected.

Corn silage. — Trials by American stations show that in most
parts of this country corn silage is as satisfactory and usually a
much more economical succulent feed than roots. In 2 trials lambs
fed corn silage, hay, and concentrates made as large gains as others fed
roots, hay, and concentrates ; in 1 trial, larger gains ; and in 4 trials,
somewhat smaller gains. On the average the lambs fed roots gained
only 0.02 lb. more per head daily than those fed com silage. Due
to the more watery nature of the roots, 1,000 lbs. of silage replaced
1,449 lbs. of roots.

The value of corn silage for fattening lambs is well shown in the
following table, which summarizes 7 trials in which it was added to
the already excellent ration of clover hay and shelled corn :

Value of corn silage when added to well-halanced ration

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain

Average ration -weight gain Corn Hay Silage

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

Lot I

Corn silage, 1.4 lbs.
Clover hay, 0.9 lb.

Shelled corn, 1.2 lbs 62 0.326 360 284 425

Lot II

Clover hav, 1.5 lbs.

Shelled corn, 1.3 lbs 62 0.323 394 471

8 Kennedy, Bobbins and Kildee, Iowa Hiil 110.

344 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

On the average, the lambs fed silage ate 0.6 lb. less hay and 0.1
lb. less corn daily, yet gained slightly more than those fed clover
hay and shelled corn. Adding silage to a ration of clover hay and
corn does not, however, always result in increased gain, for in 4
of these trials the lambs fed no silage made the larger gains. Its
advantage lies rather in the saving of corn and hay required for
100 lbs. of gain. In these trials 100 lbs. of corn silage saved 8.0
lbs. of corn and 44.0 lbs. of clover hay. With corn at a cent a
pound and clover hay at $10.00 per ton, the silage fed had a value
of $6.00 per ton, or nearly twice the cost of production on most
farms. Besides cheapening the gains, in these trials the addition
of silage to the ration usually resulted in higher finish and con-
sequently in a greater selling price. Corn silage of good quality is
as valuable for the breeding flock as for sheep being fattened for
market.

Hints on feeding silage.— Trials at the Indiana Station" show
that lambs fed corn silage as the sole roughage make considerably
smaller gains than where they are fed legume hay in addition, and
more care is required to prevent their going "off feed." In still
other trials ^° it was found best to allow the lambs all the silage
they will eat, both morning and night, with free access to legume
hay, rather than limiting the amount of silage fed.

It has already been shown in this chapter that adding a protein-
rich concentrate, such as cottonseed or linseed meal, to the already
well-balanced ration of corn and legume hay is not ordinarily profit-
able. When corn silage is added to a ration of corn and legume hay,
all being fed in unlimited allowance, the lambs will eat less of the
protein-rich hay, the ration thus becoming somewhat unbalanced.
In trials at the Indiana Station " feeding 1 part of cottonseed meal
to 7 parts of shelled corn increased the daily gains 0.02 lb. and
slightly decreased the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain.
Feeding more cottonseed meal than this did not increase the gains.
In some cases more profit was made when no cottonseed meal was
fed, owing to the fact that it was considerably higher in price than
corn. Whether to add a protein-rich concentrate to a ration of corn,
corn silage, and legume hay must be determined by each feeder for
himself, after taking into consideration the prices of feeds, the value
of the manure, and the time the animals should be ready for the
market.

9 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 168, 179.

10 Coffey, 111. Sta., information to the authors; Skinner and King, Ind. Bui.
168.

11 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 162, 168, 179; information to the authors.

FEEDS FOR SHEEP 345

The numerous instances in which sheep of all classes have died from
eating moldy or decayed silage show that greater care is necessary in
administering this feed to sheep than to cattle. As sour silage is apt
to cause colic and scouring, silage for sheep should be made from well-
matured corn.

Silage other than corn. — Sorghum silage from plants sufficiently
matured to produce silage low in acidity is satisfactory for sheep,
and may be used in the same manner as corn silage. Where the field
pea flourishes, the whole plant may be profitably ensiled for sheep
fattening. In the vicinity of pea canneries, fattening sheep and
lambs on ensiled pea vines and pods is an important industry, espe-
cially in Wisconsin. Some dry roughage, such as corn stover or hay,
is supplied in addition to the silage, and grain or screenings are fed,
particularly during the latter part of the fattening period.

Wet beet pulp. — This by-product is extensively fed to fattening
sheep in the vicinity of the beet-sugar factories in the western states.
Sheep are commonly given all the pulp they will eat, along with
alfalfa hay, which admirably supplements the pulp, low both in pro-
tein and lime. Feeding a limited allowance of corn, barley, or other
grain in addition, is usually advisable. At the Colorado Station,^'- 1
ton of wet beet pulp was equal to 200 lbs. of corn for fattening sheep.
Pulp is commonly fed to old ewes and wethers, but seems too bulky
for the best results with lambs. It is especially suited to old animals
with poor teeth. ^^

Pastures for sheep. — As sheep relish weeds and browse eagerly on
sprouts and brush refused by other stock, they are helpful in cleaning
up the farm, especially such by-places as lanes and fence corners.
Of the permanent pastures, bluegrass is the most common in the
upper ]\rississippi valley and eastward. Farther south red top is
prominent, and in the southern states Bermuda grass. In the West
the native grasses, especially the grama species, furnish much of the
grazing on the ranges, tho on mountain ranges the food is often mostly
herbs and the leaves and twigs of shrubs.^*

The clovers furnish valuable pasture, but great care is necessary
to prevent bloat when sheep are grazed on them. Alfalfa is especially
liable to cause bloat and can be recommended as a pasture plant for
but few sections, altho some skillful flockmasters suffer little loss.
In some parts of the West alfalfa is utilized for winter grazing, as it
is then so lacking in succulence that danger from bloat is practically
absent. In the humid regions care is always necessary to prevent
trouble from stomach worms when permanent pastures are used.

12 Colo. Bui. 76.

13 Morton, Colo. Sta., information to the authors.
"Beattie, Wash. Bui. 113.

346 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Experienced shepherds commonly grow annual crops to supplement
permanent pastures when they are short. The earliest grazing is
usually furnished by the cereals, the best of which, according to
Shaw,^^ is winter rye. Rye is also grown for fall grazing and in
sections with moderate winters winter wheat furnishes feed during
the colder mouths. The sorghums are useful in the plains region,
altho not especially relished by sheep. Where they flourish, field
peas, vetches, cowpeas, and crimson and Japan clover all furnish ex-
cellent pasture. Rape is the most widely useful member of the mus-
tard family, which furnishes several other grazing crops. At the
Wisconsin Station,^® rape proved much superior to bluegrass pasture
for lambs. The best results are secured when rape and bluegrass
are used in combination. In the mild climate of the Pacific coast
where it endures the winter, kale provides excellent spring feed. In
the fall kohlrabi and cabbage may be useful. Both rutabagas and
turnips are widely grown in Britain for grazing. Shaw suggests
these crops for winter grazing in the southern states.

QUESTIONS

1. About how large gains should good lambs make and about how much feed
will they eat per 100 lbs. of gain (a) when fed an unlimited allowance of corn
and legume hay; (b) when the corn allowance is limited?

2. What is the value for sheep of barley, wheat, wheat screenings, oats,
emmer, and kafir compared with corn?

3. State the value and uses for sheep of at least four protein-rich concen-
trates.

4. Discuss the importance of legume hay for fattening lambs.

5. Compare the value of four kinds of legume hay for sheep.

6. To what extent would you use carbonaceous roughages for sheep?

7. In your own section would you use roots or silage for sheep? Why?

8. DiScuss the use of corn silage for sheep.

9. What other kinds of silage are useful for sheep?

10. What is the value of wet beet pulp for sheep fattening?

11. What pasture crops are suitable for sheep in your district? State the
precautions you would take in grazing sheep on clover.

12. Using local prices for feeds, compute the ration you would recommend for
fattening Iambs weighing 75 lbs. per head. Follow the method described in
Chapter VIII and use the Modified Wolff -Lehmann Standards.

15 Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 171.

16 Craig, Wis. Rpt. 1897.

CHAPTER XXVII

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE
I. General Problems in Swine Husbandry

The pig- excels all other farm animals in the economy with which
he converts feed into edible flesh, requiring but 4 to 5 lbs. of dry-
matter to produce a pound of gain, while fattening cattle require
from 10 to 12 lbs. The pig yields from 75 to 80 per ct. of his live
weight as dressed carcass; the steer only 55 to 65 per ct. Moreover,
pigs will profitably utilize many by-products of the farm otherwise
lost, such as dairy by-products and kitchen and garden waste, as well
as grains that cannot otherwise be disposed of profitably. No other
line of stock farming can so quickly be brought to profitable produc-
tion with limited capital invested in stock and e(iuipment as can the
making of meat from the pig. Due to this efficiency in producing
human food, pigs steadily increase in importance as population becomes
more dense.

Practically every farmer should raise and fatten pigs, for family
consumption if not for market, in order to save feed that would other-
wise be wasted. In many cases he should not only fatten his pigs
but also slaughter them and market the cured products, obtaining
increased profits even tho the undertaking be a small one.

Rate and economy of gains by pigs. — The economy with which
pigs of different weights convert feed into meat is shown in the follow-
ing table, summarizing the data from over 500 feeding trials with more
than 2,200 pigs at many American experiment stations. In this table
6 lbs. of skim milk or 12 lbs. of whey is rated as equal to 1 lb. of con-
centrates.

Relation of we

ight of pigs to feed

consumed and rate of

gain

Wt. of pigs

Actual
av. wt.

No. of

animals

fed

Av. feed
eaten pet-
day

Feed eaten daily
per 100 lbs.
live weight

Av. gain
per day

Feed for
100 lbs. gain

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

L5 to 50

38

174

2.2

6.0

0.8

293

50 to 100

78

417

3.4

4.3

0.8

400

100 to 150

128

495

4.8

3.8

1.1

437

150 to 200

174

489

5.9

3.5

1.2

482

200 to 250

226

300

6.6

2.9

1.3

498

250 to 300

271

223

7.4

2.7

1.5

511

300 to 350

320

105

7.5

2.4

1.4

535

347

348 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

This table points out several facts of great importance to the pork
producer. While the amount of feed eaten per head daily increases
as the pigs grow larger, the amount consumed per 100 lbs. live weight
decreases rapidly. In other words, young pigs have a greater capacity
for consuming feed than older ones per 100 lbs. live weight. The
average gain per day started at 0.8 lb. for pigs weighing under 50 lbs.
and gradually increased until those weighing 250 to 300 lbs. showed
a daily gain of 1.5 lbs. The last column, perhaps the most important,
shows that as the pigs grow older, they require more and more feed
for 100 lbs. gain, the gains thus constantly becoming more expensive.
The greater production from the younger pigs is due chiefly to the
fact that they consume more feed per 100 lbs. live weight and conse-
quently have a greater surplus from which to make gain after their
bodies are maintained. Also, 100 lbs. of gain made by 150-lb. pigs
has somewhat less food value than the same amount made by 250-lb.
pigs, for the gain of the younger pigs contains more water and less
fat. Due to the increased cost of the gains as they mature, most pigs
are now marketed when weighing only 250 lbs. or less.

Nutrient requirements of swine. — Since pigs are commonly fattened
for market before maturity, they are growing rapidly as well as storing
fat in their bodies. Consequently their ration should supply ample
protein and mineral matter for normal growth. The requirements of
pigs of various ages, as shown in studies by the junior author of the
numerous trials at American experiment stations, are given in the
Modified Wolft'-Lehmann standards.

We have seen in Chapter IV that since horses, cattle and sheep eat
large quantities of hay, which is relatively rich in calcium (lime),
their rations ordinarily contain plenty of this mineral nutrient. Pigs,
however, are not fitted to consume much roughage and are fed chiefly
on the cereal grains, which are low in calcium. There is, therefore,
much more danger that their rations may not contain sufficient calcium
for thrifty growth of the skeleton and body tissues. Pigs on such pas-
ture as alfalfa, clover, or rape, and those fed skim milk or tankage as
supplements to corn or other grains, will ordinarily receive sufficient
calcium. When fed in the dry lot on cereal grains and their by-
products, they should be given additional calcium in the form of ground
limestone, bone ash, or ground rock phosphate. An abundant supply
of calcium is especially necessary for young pigs and brood sows.
When rations are so balanced that they furnish sufficient protein to
meet the feeding standards, they will also supply enough phosphorus
for rapid growth. This is due to the fact, brought out in Chapter V,
that the common feeds which are rich in protein are also high in
phosphorus.

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE

349

Grinding or soaking grain.— To find whether it was profitable to
prrind corn for fattening pigs, the senior author, at first alone and
later with Otis, conducted 18 trials at the Wisconsin Station^ during
10 consecutive winters with pigs averaging 175 lbs. in weight at the
beginning of the trials. In each trial one lot was fed a ration of two-
thirds 3'ear-old shelled dent corn and one-third wheat middlings, and

Fig. 97. — The Scoop Shovel Method of Preparing Corn for Pigs

For pigs under 1.50 lbs. in weight, shelling or grinding corn does not increase
its value. For older pigs the saving by grinding is only 4 to 6 per ct. (From
Iowa Station.)

the other lot wheat middlings and the same corn ground to meal. In
11 of the trials grinding the corn saved from 2.5 to 18.5 per ct. in the
amount of feed needed for 100 lbs. gain, while in the other 7 trials
shelled corn gave the best results. On the average, it required 501
lbs. of whole corn and wheat middlings and only 471 lbs. of ground
corn and middlings for 100 lbs. gain, a saving of 6 per ct. This means
that with corn worth 50 cents per bushel grinding saved 3 cents on
each bushel, allowing nothing for labor or expense. It was observed
that the pigs fed ground corn ate more in a given time and gained
faster than those getting shelled corn. This no doubt explains the

iWis. Rpt. 1906.

350 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

impression of many farmers that pigs do better on ground than on
whole corn.

Later trials at the Indiana - and Iowa ^ Stations show that until pigs
reach a weight of about 150 lbs. there is no appreciable benefit from
grinding com or even shelling it, ear corn producing the cheapest gains.
However, after pigs have reached this weight, they chew their feed
less thoroly and therefore usually make slightly more rapid gains
and require somewhat less feed per 100 lbs. gain if the corn is either
ground or soaked. Whether this saving, which will average 4 to 6 per
ct., will cover the cost of preparation must be decided by the feeder.

"With the small grains, such as wheat, barle}^, oats, and the grain
sorghums, more of the grain passes thru the animal unmasticated, and
therefore grinding pays, even for pigs under 150 lbs. in weight. In
9 trials at 5 stations in which pigs were fed whole or ground wheat,
rye, oatSj-'barlej^ or peas, there was an average saving of 12 per ct.
by grinding. Where the grain can not be conveniently ground, it
should be soaked for about 12 hours, but not allowed to ferment.

Cooking' feed. — Early agricultural authorities strongly advocated
cooking feed for swine, but numerous trials at several stations have
proved conclusively that, instead of a gain from cooking, there is in
nearly every case a loss. In 26 trials in which pigs were fed either
cooked or uncooked grain (corn, barley, rye, peas, or wheat shorts,
fed separatel}^ or in combination), 89.4 lbs. of uncooked grain was as
valuable, on the average, as 100 lbs. of the same grain when cooked,
a loss of over 10 per ct. by cooking. Some few feeds, such as potatoes
and field beans, are improved by cooking. In winter slop should be
warmed, but not cooked, for pigs in cold quarters.

Water required by pigs. — Dietrich,'* who has given the subject
careful study, concludes that the proper amount of water for pigs
ranges from 12 lbs. daily per 100 lbs. of animal at weaning time down
to 4 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight during the fattening period. Unless
pigs secure plenty of water in the form of slop, they should be supplied
with fre.sh water in a trough or by means of an automatic waterer.
Dietrich holds that pigs do not usually drink enough water in winter,
and should be forced to take more by giving it, warm if necessary, in
their slop.

There is generally no advantage in wetting feeds, unless the pigs
will not otherwise drink enough water. When wheat meal is fed, it
forms a past}^ gummy mass in the mouth, difficult to chew and swallow ;
feeding it as a thin slop largely prevents this trouble.

2 King, Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1913, pp. 22-31.

3 Kennedy and Bobbins, Iowa Bui. 106.

4 Swine, p. 156.

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE

351

Self feeders. — Eward of the Iowa Station ^ has conducted numerous
trials with self feeders for various classes of swine. His results show
that this method of feeding is well adapted to the quick fattening of
well-grown shotes, for fattening old sows, and for growing, fattening
shotes where it is desired to feed them an unlimited grain allowance.

Fig. 98. — Fattening Pigs with a Self Feeder

Pigs self-fed on corn and tankage, with or without other supplements, make
rapid and economical gains. (From Eward, Iowa Station.)

The self feeder should not be used when rapid gains are not wanted,
for instance, where it is desired to force pigs to make the maximum
use of pasturage by limiting the grain allowance. It should not be
used for pregnant sows except early in pregnancy or unless some
bulky feed, of which ground alfalfa is the best under corn-belt
conditions, is mixed with the grain. By decreasing or increasing the
proportion of corn the gilts or sows may be kept in the proper
condition.

The large and economical gains which may be secured with growing
pigs self-fed in dry lots on corn and suitable supplements are shown
in a trial in which 45-lb. pigs were allowed access to shelled corn and
various supplements in separate self feeders for 162 days. Salt, char-
coal, and ground limestone were supplied in addition. The pigs in

5 Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1014.

352 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

one lot, consuming an average ration of 6.0 lbs. shelled com, 0.08 lb.
oats, 0.10 lb. linseed meal, and 0.40 lb. tankage, gained 1.6 lbs. per
head daily. They reached an average weight of 316 lbs. at 248 days
of age, one of them weighing 405 lbs., an unusual record. This lot
required 417 lbs. of concentrates for 100 lbs. gain. Nearly as large
gains were made by a second lot, fed shelled corn, oats, and meat meal,
and by a third lot, fed shelled corn, oats, wheat middlings, linseed meal,
and meat meal.

Evvard states that pigs allowed free access to corn and supplements,
such as tankage, linseed meal, and wheat middlings, show a remarkable
ability to balance their own ration. At first about 75 per ct. of the
entire ration was corn and the remainder meat meal and other supple-
ments. As the pigs grew older they widened the nutritive ratio till
at the close about 99 per ct. of the feed eaten was corn. All lots ate
a larger proportion of oats during the first few weeks than later, con-
suming only an insignificant amount of this bulky feed when they
became well fattened. When pigs are not supplied all the corn they
will eat it is inadvisable to feed tankage in a self feeder, for because
of hunger they will eat more meat meal than is needed to balance
their ration.

Salt and correctives of mineral nature. — Tho pigs require less salt
than the other farm animals, they should be supplied with it regularly.
In a trial by Evvard at the Iowa Station " pigs allowed free access to
salt made better gains than those receiving no salt or others getting
allowances of one-sixty-fourth, one-thirty-second, or one-sixteenth
ounce per head daily. Salt may be supplied in a trough or a small
self feeder. If pigs have not had free access to salt they may at first
overeat.

Pigs, especially those kept 'in confinement, often show a strong
craving for seemingly unnatural substances — charcoal, ashes, mortar,
soft coal, rotten wood, soft brick, and other substances being greedily
devoured when offered. Such cravings should be satisfied by supply-
ing such materials as charcoal, air-slaked lime or ground limestone,
wood ashes, bone meal or ground rock phosphate, and copperas, with
or without salt. A mixture of correctives may be placed before the
pigs or they may be offered in separate compartments of a covered
trough or of a self feeder.

Shelter and exercise. — Even in the northern part of the corn belt,
where the winters are severe, inexpensive shelter is all that is necessary
for swine. The req^:iisites for healthful winter shelter are freedom
from dampness, good ventilation without drafts on the animals, sun-
light, reasonable warmth, and a moderate amount of dry bedding.

6 Information to the authora.

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE

353

The quarters should be located on well-drained ground and should
be so arranged that they may be easily and thoroly cleaned and
disinfected.

Swine may be housed in a central hog house having a number of pens
or in small movable "cabins" or colony houses. Many use a combina-
tion of the two systems, for in the northern states the central house
is well suited for winter shelter and spring farrowing, while the port-
able houses are particularly useful for housing pigs on pasture. Pigs

Colony houses, which are of several types, are especially useful for housing pigs
on pasture. Note the shade at the rear of this house. (From Fuller, Wisconsin
Station.)

wintered in colony houses, especially young ones, require considerably
more feed than those in warmer (|uarters. This is more or less offset
by the low cost of the cabins and by the ease with which they may
be shifted to prevent disease and parasites and to distribute the
droppings of the animals. In severe weather corn stalks, horse
manure, or other litter may be banked against the sides of the houseg.
AVith liberal bedding, all but very young pigs should then be com-
fortable. When litters come in severe weather a lantern hung in the
cabin will usually furnish sufficient warmth.

For breeding stock and growing pigs ample exercise is of the utmost

354 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

importance. To enforce exercise the animals may be fed at a point
some distance from the central house or the colony houses where there
are troughs and a feeding floor. When snow covers the ground, paths
to this place can be broken out with a snow plow. On the feeding
floor, which should be kept clean and should be covered if possible,
shelled corn and whole oats may be scattered thinly to force the sows
or pigs to pick up a grain at a time. In this way they may be kept
out of their beds and on their feet for hours at a time getting air
and exercise.

Types of swine; breed tests. — The principal breeds of swine are
of two distinct types, the lard type, of which the Poland-China, Berk-
shire, Chester-White, and Duroc-Jersey are the leading breeds, and the
bacon type, represented by the Tamworth and Large Yorkshire breeds.
The Hampshires, tho often classed as bacon hogs, really stand between
the extreme bacon type and the lard type. Lard hogs, which are the
type commonly raised in the United States, have compact, wide, and
deep bodies. Since the hams, back, and shoulders are the most valu-
able parts, the packer desires a hog furnishing a maximum of these
cuts. Usually being well-fattened, lard hogs yield a high percentage
of dressed carcass. Formerly heavy hogs were in largest demand,
but now pigs weighing 250 lbs. or less will command the highest price,
if well finished.

The bacon pig is raised chiefly in Denmark, Great Britain, and
Canada, where corn is not the main feed for swine. Pigs of the bacon
breeds are longer of body and of leg than those of the lard breeds, have
less thickness and depth of body, and are lighter in the shoulder, neck,
and jowl. For bacon the pigs should weigh from 160 to 200 lbs. and
carry but medium fat, which should be uniformly from 1 to 1.5 inches
thick along the back.

Breed tests have been conducted at several stations to determine
whether there is any difference in the economy of meat production by
the different breeds. There was no consistent and uniform difference
in gains or economy of production, a breed which ranked high in
some of the tests being surpassed bj'' other breeds in the rest of the
trials. The bacon breeds made as economical gains as those of the
lard type. We may conclude that there is no best breed of swine so
far as rate and economy of gains are concerned. One should select
the breed which seems best adapted to his conditions and suits his
fancy, and then be sure to secure and to maintain vigorous, well-bred
animals of that breed.

The brood sows. — The most important points in the feed and care
of brood sows are: (1) to provide rations which contain an abundance
of protein and mineral matter, needed not only for the proper nourish-

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE

355,

raent of their bodies but also for the development of the unborn young ;
and (2) to see that they have plenty of exercise.

Where sows raise but one litter of pigs a year, they need little or no
concentrates in summer after their litters are weaned, provided they
run on first class pasture, such as alfalfa, clover, or rape. Enough
grain should be fed to keep the sows in thrifty condition, and in any
event they should get some grain for several weeks before farrowing.
On protein-rich pasture the concentrates should be mostly carbo-
naceous in character, such as corn, wheat, barley, kafir and milo, with

Colony Houses Banked with Straw for Winter

Colony Iiouses thus protected provide comfortable winter quarters for all but
small pigs, even in the northern states.

enough protein-rich concentrates to balance the ration. Where sows
raise two litters a year they will require more feed, due to the added
draft on their bodies.

In winter the sows should be kept strong and thrifty by feeding
a ration containing plenty of protein and mineral matter. The amount
should be limited so they will not become too fat, but on the other
hand they must not be allowed to grow thin. If rich concentrates
only are given and the animals not overfed, the feed allowance will
not have enough bulk to distend the stomach and intestines properly,
and this leaves the animals unsatisfied, restless, and quarrelsome. To
correct this trouble and because such feed is both cheap and whole-

356 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

some, the sows should be fed some fine, well-cured legume hay or some
roots, or better, both hay and roots. If, unfortunately, neither is
available, then bran and oats, tho more costly, will be helpful in giving
bulk to the ration.

Sows fed corn alone will usually farrow small litters of weak pigs,
due to the deficiency of this grain in protein and mineral matter.
The ration should therefore always be balanced by the use of such
protein-rich feeds as alfalfa or clover hay, skim milk, tankage, linseed
meal, wheat middlings, and wheat bran, the nutritive ratio of the
ration being not wider than 1 : 6 or 1 : 7. In trials at the North Platte,
Nebraska, Sub-station,^ 340-lb. brood sows were wintered satisfactorily
on 1.1 lbs. shelled corn daily per 100 lbs. live weight with alfalfa hay
supplied in racks, the sows eating 0.7 lb. per head daily. Constipation
should be warded ofif by the use of such laxative feeds as linseed
meal, roots, and alfalfa or clover hay.

The age at which to breed young sows will naturally depend some-
what on the growth they have made. Seldom is it advisable to breed
them until they are 8 months old, and many stockmen prefer to wait
until they are 10 to 12 montlis old. Sows and boars of the larger
breeds should reach a weight of 250 to 300 lbs. at one year if rightly
fed and managed. Whether to raise 1 or 2 litters a year will depend
on local conditions, considering the winter climate and the feeds avail-
able. Where winters are long and severe and the sows and pigs can
not be given the best of feed and care, it is best not to attempt to raise
2 litters a year. Under the proper conditions, especially where dairj^
by-products are available, 2 litters a j^ear can be raised successfully
even in the northern portion of the country, the spring pigs coming
in March or April and the fall pigs in September or early October.

According to Coburn,® 3^oung sows carry their pigs from 100 to 108
days and old ones from 112 to 115, the average for all being 112 days.
From the records of 1,477 pure-bred sows of 8 breeds Rommel " found
that on an average there were 9 pigs to the litter, 50.1 per ct. being
males and 49.9 per ct. females. Likely sows that are kindly mothers
should be retained for breeders as long as 5 or 6 years if possible.
Those which produce litters of less than 5 should be discarded.

The boar. — The feed and care of the boar does not differ materially
from that of the sows. He should be kept in thrifty condition, neither
too fat nor run down in flesh, as either extreme may injure his breeding
powers. In summer the boar should run in a pasture lot, and in
winter he should have the freedom of a small yard adjoining the

7 Snyder, Nebr. Bui. 147.

8 Swine in America.

9\J. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Cir. 112.

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE 357

pen. About 1 lb. of concentrates daily per 100 lbs. live weight is
sufficient in summer for fairly mature boars on good pasture. Young
boars need enough concentrates to keep them growing thriftily. In
winter 2 lbs. of concentrates daily per 100 lbs. live weight with roots
and alfalfa or clover hay should suffice. During service the boar
requires more feed than at other seasons.

At farrowing time. — From one to three weeks before farrowing
the sow should be separated from the other hogs and placed in a sunny
farrowing pen to become accustomed to her surroundings. Her ration
should now be reduced and consist of cooling, laxative feeds, such as
roots, legume hay, and a slop made largely of wheat bran or shorts,
with perhaps linseed meal and ground oats. By enforcing exercise
for brood sows, preventing constipation, and keeping them thrifty
thru feeding a well-balanced ration, little trouble will be experienced
from sows eating their new-born pigs.

The farrowing place should be comfortable, dry, well-ventilated, and
so sheltered that a deep nest is not necessary to prevent the new-born
pigs being chilled, for they may be crushed in a deep, bird-like nest.
Cut straw or hay, chaff, and leaves are the best for bedding provided
they are reasonably free from dust. Long hay or straw may entangle
the pigs. A plank fastened with the edge against the wall, placed
about 8 inches from the floor and standing out 8 inches from the sides
of the farrowing pen lessens the danger of the mother crushing her
young. In the case of heavy, clumsy sows, separate the pigs from the
dam by placing them in a chaff -lined box or barrel for a couple of
days. Sows properly handled before farrowing will not usually re-
sent such separation. The pigs will then be safe, and the attendant
can pass them to the dam for nourishment at short intervals. A
chilled pig may be revived by immersion in water as warm as the
hand will bear.

The weights of the pigs at birth range from less than 1.5 lbs. to
over 8 lbs., about 2.5 lbs. being the average with our common breeds.

Care of sow and litter. — For the first 24 hours after farrowing only
lukewarm water should be given the sow unless she shows a decided
desire for feed, when a little thin, warm slop may be offered. The
ration for the following 4 or 5 days should be light, after which she
should gradually be brought to full feed, as her milk flow increases.
The coarse feeds, so useful at other times, must now largely give way
to rich concentrates, such as skim milk, tankage, heavy flour middlings,
ground oats, soybeans, cowpeas, and linseed meal, to furnish nitroge-
nous matter, and corn, barley, kafir, or milo meal in large proportion
to furnish the carbohydrates. Water should be liberally added to
form a thin slop. Sows with litters should be liberally fed, for at no

358 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

other time will feed go so far or give such large returns. Good moth-
ers with large litters will usually lose flesh in spite of the most liberal
feeding.

Feeding the litters. — When 2 or 3 weeks old the unweaned pigs
should be encouraged to eat with the mother by providing thin, sloppy
food in a shallow, low-set trough. Because the sucklings cannot fully
satisfy their hunger by such a provision, there should be further pro-
vided a separate, low trough which cannot be reached by the dam.
For young pigs dairy by-products, in combination with various ground
grains and milling by-products, are easily the best of all feeds. For
very young pigs there is nothing better among the grains than ground
oats, with the hulls sieved or floated out, and red dog flour. Corn,
barley, kafir, and milo meal, dark feeding flour, flour wheat middlings,
and ground emmer with the chaff removed, etc., may all be freely used
for sows and pigs as the young things come on. Soaked whole corn
thinly scattered over a feeding floor gives feed and enforces exercise.
Pigs well fed before weaning grow faster and draw less on the sow —
a matter of importance where the litters are large.

Where 1 litter of pigs is raised a year, the pigs may run with their
dams 10 or 12 weeks, or the sow may be allowed to wean her pigs her-
self. However, when 2 litters are to be raised, the pigs must be
weaned at the age of about 8 weeks. The sow should be separated
from the pigs, and only returned 2 or 3 times long enough for them
to empty the udders. On weaning, pigs of the same size should be
placed in groups of not over 20 in order that each may receive its
share of feed and proper care and attention.

The growing pigs. — Good pasture should always be provided for
spring pigs after weaning, for this not only makes them more vigorous
but also greatly reduces the cost of the gains made. In addition to
such pasture as alfalfa, clover, or rape, at least 2 lbs, of concentrates
daily per 100 lbs. live weight should be fed, except where pasture is
unusually cheap compared with grain, and the allowance of concen-
trates should never be less than 1 lb. daily per 100 lbs. live weight.
Pigs should gain at least one-half to three-fourths pound per day.

In winter the pigs should be liberally fed the finer parts of some
legume hay, such as alfalfa or clover. Roots are also an excellent
addition to the ration. These feeds are not only cheap but also help
to develop a roomy digestive tract capable of utilizing a large amount
of feed when the fattening period arrives. Moreover, legume hay is
rich in protein and lime, needed in large amounts by young animals.
But roughage alone is not sufflcient for the growing pig, and therefore
a reasonable supply of rich concentrates containing but little fiber
should be fed in addition. Corn, barley, milo, kafir, and the other

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE 359

cereal grains should be given to furnish heat and lay on fat, while a
supply of skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, soybeans, and other
nitrogenous feeds will furnish the protein for muscle building.

Fig. 101. — A Carload of Bacon Pigs at the Stock Yards

The Large Yorkshires, shown in the illustration, and the Tamworths have been
specially developed for the production of high-quality bacon. Note the length
of body and leg of these pigs.

The finishing period. — If the shotes have been fed enough concen-
trates to keep them growing rapidly and have been laying on a con-
siderable amount of fat at the same time, the finishing period need
not exceed 8 weeks, unless a rising market warrants feeding them
longer. The feeder should remember that after the first few weeks
of heavy feeding more and more feed is required to produce a given
gain, the cost thus steadily increasing.

Finishing the shotes is best accomplished by restricting the amount
of exercise, reducing the allowance of coarse feed, and giving all the
carbohydrate-rich concentrates, such as corn, barley, kafir, milo, and
emmer, that the pigs will consume, with sufficient protein-rich feeds
to balance the ration. Especially during the first part of the fattening
period, considerable use can be made of legume hay or pasture crops.
Fattening pigs should drink water freely, being forced to do so, if

360 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

necessarj^, by placing it in their feed. Ample mineral matter should
be provided, and correctives should be supplied, as recommended
elsewhere in this chapter. The pigs should be fed twice daily, and
possibly three times toward the close of fattening when on ground feed
and getting little or no roughage, or else they should be fed by
means of a self feeder. In the corn belt many pigs are fattened by
following steers fed corn. As shown in Chapter XXIII, those thin in
flesh, weighing 100 to 150 lbs., are best for this purpose.

Bacon production. — In northern Europe, especially Denmark and
Ireland, raising bacon-type pigs and feeding them so as to produce
the highest quality of bacon, is an industry of great importance. In
this country, however, nearly all the pigs are of the lard type, the
bacon on the market being obtained from lard-type pigs which do not
carry too much fat. For the production of high-quality bacon, the
carcass should show much less fat in proportion to lean meat than in
lard hogs, and the fat should be firm and solid. Soft pork unsuited
to the production of high-quality bacon is due on the part of the
animal to unthriftiness, lack of exercise, immaturity, and lack of
finish, and only in a small way to the breed. In general, improper
feeding stuffs and feeds improperly combined tend to produce low-
quality bacon. Corn, beans, soybeans, and peanuts all tend to produce
soft pork. Barley ranks first for bacon production, followed by oats
and peas. Skim milk and whey in combination with the cereal grains,
including corn in limited amount, make good bacon. Rape, roots,
and clover are helpful, but too much succulent feed should not be
used. For choice bacon, pigs should be fed slightly less than the full
ration.

QUESTIONS

1. Compare pigs with the otiier farm animals in economy of gains.

2. Discuss the nutrient requirements of swine.

3. Does it pay to grind corn or other grain for pigs?

4. Wliat feeds would you cook for pigs?

5. Tell about (a) the water requirements of pigs; (b) the requirements for
salt and mineral correctives.

(j. When would you use self-feeders for swine?

7. Discuss the subjects of shelter and exercise for swine.

8. Describe the types of swine.

9. Point out briefly the most important points in feeding and caring for
brood sows.

10. How would you feed the boar?

11. Tell about the feed and care of the brood sow before and after farrowing.

12. Discuss (a) the feeding of young pigs; (b) finishing shotes for market;
(c) bacon production.

CHAPTER XXVIII

FEEDS FOR SWINE

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates

The digestive organs of the pig are of limited capacity compared
with those of other farm animals, for pigs have neither the large four-
fold stomach of ruminants nor a caecum of large size, as has the horse.
While in cattle the digestive organs with their contents comprise over
14 per ct. of the total weight of the body, in pigs they make up but 7
per ct. of the body weight. Pigs therefore require feed that is more
concentrated and digestible and less woody than do horses, cattle, and
sheep. In nature the pig is an omnivorous feeder, living not only
on the seeds, leaves and tender stems and roots of plants, but on
animal matter as well. Moreover, he lives close to the earth, gather-
ing some of his food from beneath the surface and swallowing con-
siderable earthy matter in so doing. The intelligent swine feeder
bears all these facts in mind in feeding his herd.

Indian corn. — This imperial fattening grain is the common hog
feed in the great pork-producing districts of America. As has been
pointed out before, corn is low in protein compared with its wealth
of carbohydrates and fat, and is also deficient in mineral matter.
Hence, even for fattening well-grown pigs, much larger and more
economical gains are secured when this grain is properly supple-
mented by feeds rich in protein and mineral matter, especially cal-
cium, or lime. This is clearly shown in the following table, which
summarizes the results of 32 trials at various stations, averaging 82
days, in each of which one lot of pigs was fed corn alone and another
lot corn and a protein-rich concentrate, such as tankage, wheat
middlings, linseed meal, pea meal, or soybean meal.

Corn alone vs. corn and nitrogenous supplement for pigs

Average ration

Lot I, total of ISO pigs

Corn, 4.8 lbs

Initial
weight
Lbs.

115

Daily
gain
Lbs.

0.9

1.3

Feed for 100

lbs. gain

Lbs.

602

Lot II, total of 187 pigs

Corn, 4.3 lbs. Supplement, 1.4 lbs

117

441

Altho most of these pigs were well grown when placed on trial,

361

362 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

averaging over 100 lbs. in weight, Lot II, fed corn and a nitrogenous
supplement, made over 40 per ct. larger gains and required 27 per ct.
less feed for 100 lbs. gain. Had they been younger at the beginning
of the trials those fed corn only would have done even poorer. These
trials show that one cannot afford to feed corn alone to growing, fat-
tening pigs. Corn alone gives fair results for fattening mature sows,
l)ut even here the use of a supplement is advisable. As has been shown
in the previous chapter, for brood sows it is highly important that
feeds rich in protein and lime be fed with corn.

In the corn belt corn is usually fed on the cob. This is a wise
practice, for as we have seen in the previous chapter, there is no
appreciable advantage in shelling, grinding, or soaking corn for pigs
under 150 lbs. in weight, and it is doubtful whether even for older
ones the slight saving will pay for such preparation. Pigs do better
on ear corn than on corn-and-cob meal, for their digestive organs
can not well utilize a hard, fibrous material like corn cobs, even when
ground.

Hogging down corn. — In the corn belt many farmers turn pigs
into fields of standing corn, in which rape or other supplemental crops
have usually been sown, and let them do their own harvesting. In
three trials at the Minnesota^ and Iowa ^ Stations this "hogging
down" system was compared with feeding ear corn in a yard, either
wheat middlings or tankage being fed to all lots in addition. The
pigs hogging down corn in which rape or rye had been sown at the
last cultivation made larger gains and required 10 per ct. less con-
centrates for 100 lbs. gain than those fed ear corn in the yard.

In tests at the Iowa Station rape was grown in the corn field at an
additional cost of only $0.40 per acre, rape and pumpkins at $1.00,
rye, soybeans, or cowpeas at $3.33, field peas at $3.60, and hairy vetch
at $6.00 per acre. Feeding some protein-rich concentrate, such as
skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, or linseed meal, is always de-
sirable, and is especially important when no supplemental crops have
been grown in the corn field. Spring shotes, well grown on pasture
and forage crops, are generally used for hogging down. Provided
the ground is not muddy, pigs hogging down corn pick it up as closely
as is usually done in husking. The pigs should be confined to limited
areas by fencing, so that they will clean up each area in 20, or better,
in 14 days.

The other cereals. — In Europe barley is the most esteemed cereal
for the production of high quality bacon and in this country is im-
portant as a feed for pigs in the western states. In 6 trials at west-

1 Gaumnitz, Wilson, and Bassett, Minn. Bui. 104.

2 Evvard, Iowa Bui. 143.

FEEDS FOR SWINE

363

ern stations pigs fed ground barley and wheat middings made slightly
smaller gains than others fed ground corn and middlings, and re-
quired 10 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain.

Wheat is slightly superior to corn for fattening pigs ^ but when of
good quality it is usually too expensive to be fed to stock. Grain

Fig. 102. — Fattening Pigs Hogging Down Corn

Pigs hogging down corn in which rape or other supplemental crops liave been
sown make larger and cheaper gains than those fed ear corn in a dry lot. ( From
Evvard, Iowa Station.)

which is damaged in quality and is not suited for milling may be
worth nearly as much as sound grain for pig feeding.

Bye meal ranks a little below corn meal and is about equal to barley
meal as a feed for pigs.

Oats are too bulky to serve as the only grain for fattening pigs and
are usually costly compared with other cereals. In trials by the
senior author* one-third oats and two-thirds corn gave better results
than two-thirds oats and one-third corn. Toward the close of the
fattening period but little oats should be fed. For brood sows oats
are excellent, and for little pigs nothing excels ground oats with the
hulls sifted out.

Emmer is also too bulky to give the best results when fed as the

3 Weaver, Mo. Bui. 136; Eastwood, Ohio Bui. 268.

4 Wis. Rpt. 1889.

364 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

only grain to fattening pigs. A mixture of emmer and corn, how-
ever, gave nearly as good results as corn alone in a trial at the Ne-
braska Station,^ both lots getting alfalfa hay in addition to the grain.

The grain sorghums are of great importance for pork production
thruout the western plains states. In trials at the Kansas Station "
pigs fed ground milo or kafir with wheat shorts and tankage made
nearly as large gains as others fed corn, shorts and tankage, and re-
quired only 2 to 5 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain. Feterita and
kaoliang ranked somewhat below kafir or milo, and sorgho grain was
still less valuable, being rather unpalatable.

Seed from hog or hroom-corn millet is satisfactory for pigs when
ground and mixed with other feeds. At the South Dakota Station ''
pigs fed millet meal required 20 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain
than others fed barley meal.

As we have seen in the previous chapter, it pays to grind all the
smaller cereals for pigs, tho sometimes it is advisable to scatter whole
oats thinly on the ground or a feeding floor to force brood sows to
exercise. Barley, wheat, rye, and the grain sorghums are all low in
protein and, like corn, should be fed with protein-rich feeds, such as
skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, linseed meal, and soj^beans.

Hominy feed. — Trials at the Indiana ^ and Ohio ^ Stations show
that hominy feed is more valuable than corn for fattening pigs. Pigs
fed hominy feed with either tankage or wheat shorts required 14
per ct. less feed per 100 lbs. gain than others fed corn meal and the
same supplements.

Garbage. — Kitchen waste may be fed to swine, but care must be
taken that dishwater containing lye or washing soda, broken dishes,
etc., which are apt to cause death, be kept apart from the materials
having food value. As there is likewise danger of poisons resulting
from the decay of the garbage, the material should be thoroly cooked
in all doubtful eases.

II. Protein-rich Concentrates

Skim milk and buttermilk. — Rich in digestible protein and high
in mineral matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, skim milk and
buttermilk are ideal supplements to the cereals. Indeed, where skim
milk or buttermilk is used as a supplement to corn or other cereals

5 Burnett and Snyder, Nebr. Bui. 99.

6 Waters, Kinzer, Wright, and King, Kan. Bui. 192; Cochel, Kansas Indus-
trialist, May 1, 1915.

7 Wilson and Skinner, S. D. Bui. 83.

8 Skinner and King, Ind. Bui. 158.

9 Eastwood, Ohio Bui. 268.

FEEDS FOR SWINE 365

for growing, fattening pigs, the gains will usually be slightly larger
than where other protein-rich feeds, such as tankage, wheat middlings,
linseed meal, or soybean meal, are fed as supplements. These dairy
by-products are especially valuable for young pigs after weaning and
also for brood sows. If no water has been added, buttermilk is fully
equal to skim milk for pig feeding.

It has been emphasized before that skim milk, buttermilk, or whey
should always be pasteurized at the creamery or cheese factory before
being returned to the farm, in order to prevent the spread of disease,
especially tuberculosis, to which pigs are particularly susceptible.

Proper proportion of milk to grain. — Skim milk and buttermilk
are too watery and also too rich in protein to produce economical
gains when fed alone. They should therefore always be fed with the
cereals or such carbonaceous concentrates as hominy feed. The pro-
portion of skim milk or buttermilk to be fed with corn or other grain
will depend first on the age of the pigs and next on the relative price
of the feeds. After sufficient milk has been supplied to balance the
ration, any addition will not increase the rate of gain and may even
lower it if too much is fed.

Just after weaning 4 to 6 lbs. of skim milk to each pound of corn
will be sufficient, to make maximum gains with pigs in a dry lot. As
they grow older the proportion of skim milk or buttermilk needed to
balance the ration decreases as follows: Pigs weighing 50-100 lbs.,
3 lbs. milk to 1 lb. -corn ; pigs weighing 100-150 lbs., 2-2.5 lbs. milk
to 1 lb. corn ; pigs weighing 150-200 lbs. or over, 1.5-2.0 lbs. or less.
(See Appendix Table V.) Pigs on such pasture as alfalfa, clover,
or rape need less milk to balance the ration.

Considerably more milk may be fed than is here stated with satis-
factory results when a surplus is at hand ; tho it will not have so high a
value per 100 lbs. as when only sufficient is fed to balance the ration.
This is shown in trials by the senior author at the Wisconsin Sta-
tion 1^ in which a total of 88 pigs, usually weighing 100 lbs. or over,
were fed dii¥erent proportions of skim milk and corn meal. When
1 to 3 lbs. of skim milk was fed to 1 lb. of corn, 327 lbs. of milk saved
]00 lbs. of corn- However, with 3 to 5 lbs. of milk for each pound of
corn it required 446 lbs. of milk to save 100 lbs. of corn; and with
5 to 7 lbs. of milk per pound of corn, 574 lbs.

Money value of skim milk. — The money value of skim milk, com-
pared with corn at various prices, provided not over 1 to 3 lbs. of milk
is fed with each pound of corn, is shown in the following table, de-
rived from the studies of the senior author.

10 Wis. Rpt. 18i;5.

366 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

100 lbs. skim

milk is worth

Cents

Corn at $18 per ton or 50.4 cents per bushel 28

Corn at $20 per ton or 56.0 cents per bushel 31

Corn at $23 per ton or 64.4 cents per bushel 35

Corn at $26 per ton or 72.8 cents per bushel 40

Corn at $30 per ton or 84.0 cents per bushel 46

Those familiar with this feeding stuff and its worth for bone and

103. — Pigs Self-Fed Corn and Tankage on Alfalfa Pasture

On such a combination of feeds, growing pigs make large and economical gains.
Even on alfalfa pasture, it is advisable to feed tankage or some other supplement
with shelled corn. (From Wisconsin Station.)

muscle building know that in many cases, especially for young pigs
and brood sows, its value is even higher than stated.

Whey. — Pig-feeding trials at American stations and in Denmark
show that 1,000 lbs. of whey, such as is obtained from American
Cheddar cheese factories, will save 100 lbs. of grain when properly
combined with concentrates. Unlike skim milk and buttermilk, whey
contains only a fair amount of protein, having a nutritive ratio of
1 : 6.8. It should therefore not be fed with only corn or other cereals,
but along with some protein-rich concentrate like tankage, wheat
middlings, or linseed meal to balance the ration. Slightly sour whey
has as high value as sweet whey, but that which is allowed to putrefy
in filthy tanks is a dangerous feed.

FEEDS FOR SWINE 367

Tankage; meat meal. — The value of tankage or meat meal as a
supplement to corn and other carbonaceous concentrates has been
demonstrated in trials at many stations and by experience on many
farms. Rich in protein which is well-balanced in composition, and
likewise high in calcium and phosphorus, tankage is excelled only by
skim milk and buttermilk in producing thrifty growth and large gains.
Since tankage or meat meal for stock feeding is thoroly cooked under
pressure at a high temperature, there is no danger of spreading disease
by its use.

Trials at various stations show that when highgrade tankage, carry-
ing 55 per ct. of protein or over, is fed as the sole supplement to corn
to pigs over 100 lbs. in weight, not over 9 to 10 per ct. is needed to
balance the ration. With mature pigs even less tankage need be fed.
With young pigs soon after weaning it is advisable to feed as high as
20 per ct. of tankage, or better, 9 to 10 per ct. of tankage and sufficient
linseed meal, wheat middlings, etc., to provide the proper amount of
protein for animals of this age. Where a lower grade of tankage is
fed, the amount supplied should be correspondingly increased. For
pigs fed corn on such protein-rich pasture as alfalfa, clover, soybean,
cowpea, or rape, 5 per ct. of high grade tankage is usually sufficient
to balance the ration. When pigs are following steers being fattened
chiefly on corn, it will pay to feed the pigs one-fourth to one-third
pound of tankage per head daily.

Wheat by-products. — Wheat middlings, or shorts, are one of the
most popular nitrogenous supplements for pigs. They are rich in pro-
tein and phosphorus, but are relatively low in calcium. Hence, when
middlings are used as the only supplement to corn for pigs in dry
lots, it is important to supply additional calcium in the form of ground
limestone, slaked lime, etc. As middlings are not very high in pro-
tein, a relatively large amount must be fed to balance the ration if
they are the only supplement to corn. For example, pigs under 100
lbs. in weight should receive 2 lbs. of middlings or a trifle more to
each pound of corn, while those weighing 150 lbs. will need but 1 lb.
of middlings per pound of corn. Pigs fed corn and tankage will
usually make slightly larger gains than those fed corn and middlings,
but a combination of the three feeds excels even corn and tankage alone
in the rate of gains made.

Red dog ft our and flour wheat middlings are worth somewhat more
than standard middlings, as they contain more protein and also over
10 per ct. more total digestible nutrients. Red dog flour is especially
useful for quite young pigs, which need a highly digestible, palatable
feed containing little fiber.

Wheat bran is too bulky to be fed in large amounts to fattening

368 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

pigs, middlings being far preferable. "Where clover or alfalfa hay,
roots, or other cheap bulky feed are not available, a limited amount of
bran is excellent for brood sows, as it is bulky and also laxative.

Linseed meal. — Linseed meal is an excellent supplement to corn or
the other cereals, pigs fed this combination making: good gains and
yielding pork having firm, white fat. Because of its mucilaginous
character, linseed meal makes a slop of uniform, creamy consistency.
Since sufficient linseed meal to balance a ration of corn or other cereals
often renders it unpalatable to pigs, many feeders prefer to give
less linseed meal and add a small allowance of other supplements,
such as skim milk, tankage, or middlings. Especiallv for brood sows,
it is often highly beneficial to add a small amount of linseed meal to
the ration on account of its laxative effect.

Other protein-rich concentrates. — Cottonseed meal, as now pre-
pared, is poisonous to swine, and no uniformly successful method of
feeding it has yet been found, tho a few feeders, guided by experi-
ence, use it with little loss. If cottonseed meal is not fed continuously
for over 40 days and does not form over one-fourth of the ration, and
if the pigs are freely supplied with green forage or graze on pasture,
the risk is slight. It is considered safe to have pigs follow steers
■which are being fed cottonseed meal, for the meal does not seem to be
poisonous after passing thru the cattle. One should see that the steers
do not throw so much meal out of the feed boxes that the pigs may
be poisoned by eating it.

Field peas, rich in protein, are well suited to supplement corn and
the other cereals. In certain irrigated mountain valleys of the West
large numbers of pigs are fattened by turning them into fields of
peas, or peas grown with oats or barley, after they have matured, an
acre of good peas producing about 400 lbs. of gain.

Pigs fed soyheans and corn made slightly larger gains than others
fed linseed meal and corn at the Indiana Station," and required some-
what less feed for 100 lbs. of gain. No more soybeans should be fed
than is needed to balance the ration, for when fed in large amount
they produce soft pork, dark in color. They are commonly ground
for pigs.

Cowpeas are of great importance in the South for economical pork
production. The seed may be used as a supplement to corn or other
carbonaceous feeds, or the pigs may be turned in to harvest the crop
when the pods are well matured.

Peanuts, likewise of great importance for pork production in the
South, are commonly harvested by letting the pigs gather the crop.
Peanuts alone produce soft pork, but this may be overcome by feed-

11 Skinner and Cochel, Ind. Buls. 126, 137.

FEEDS FOR SWINE 369

ing corn during the last part of the finishing period. Peanuts can be
grazed during only a relatively short season, for after a time the nuts
sprout or rot if left in the ground, especially in wet weather.

Gluten meal and gluten feed give satisfactory results when fed with
corn and some other supplement, such as skim milk, tankage, or lin-
seed meal. It is not advisable, however, to use these corn by-products
as the sole supj?lement to corn for pigs in the dry lot, for the pigs
then receive op y corn protein, which, as we have seen in Chapter IX,
is somewhat unbalanced in composition.

Rice hran and rice polish are economical feeds for pigs in the rice-
growing districts of the South, 100 lbs. of rice polish being equal to
133 lbs. of corn, and 100 lbs. of rice bran equalling 112 lbs. of corn.^^

III. Forage Crops, Pasture, and Other Succulent Feed; Hay

Value of forage crops and pasture. — Thru the use of suitable forage
and pasture crops, pork may be produced at a much lower cost than
where pigs are maintained in dry lots on expensive concentrates alone.
Spring pigs will thrive amazingly on good pasture supplemented by a
limited allowance of concentrates and if not finished by the close of the
pasture season will be in condition to make most economical gains in
the dry lot. Not only do pigs at pasture make cheaper gains, but the
succulent feed and the exercise they obtain aid in keeping them thrifty
and healthy. When pigs are fed in dry lots it is difficult to save the
manure unless they are confined closely, and thus much fertility is
wasted. With pigs at pasture the manure is uniformly distributed
on the fields. By using forage crops thruout the growing season and
legume hay during the winter the cost of maintaining brood sows may
be materially reduced, Tho pasturage is of prime value for pigs in
all sections of the country, it is especially important in the southern
states, where, by a well-selected rotation of pastures, green feed may
be furnished nearly the entire year.

As Evvard of the Iowa Station ^^ writes : An ideal forage for hogs
should show: (1) adaptability to local soil and climate; (2) palatabil-
ity; (3) a heavy yield of digestible nutrients, being high in protein
and mineral matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, and low in
crude fiber; (4) succulence; (5) long pasturing season ; (6) ability to
endure grazing: (7) permanency; (8) reasonable cost and ease of
seeding ; (9) capability of furnishing quick pasture at any time during
the growing season. "These essentials are not found in any single
forage, but alfalfa, the clovers, and rape have most of them."

Amount of grain to feed on pasture. — Owing to the high price of

12 Dvoracliek, Arkansas Sta., information to the authors.
"Iowa Bui. 136.

370

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

concentrates, it is a question of prime importance to find how much
of them should be fed to pigs on pasture. It is never profitable to
force young pigs to live on pasture alone, for even on the best alfalfa,
clover, or rape pasture they barely maintain their weight. Except
in districts of the West where alfalfa is abundant and grain unusually
high in price, it is usually most profitable to feed 2 lbs. or more of

Fig. 104. — Alfalfa Excels as a Pasture for Pigs

Where alfalfa thrives, it is the best permanent pasture for pigs, on account of
the rapid orains it will produce and the large number of pigs it will carry per
acre. (From The Field.)'

corn daily per 100 lbs. of pigs than to feed less, even when the pigs
are on good pasture. Full-grown brood sows not suckling pigs will
fatten with less grain while on pasture than will growing pigs.

Alfalfa pasture. — Wherever it thrives alfalfa is the best perma-
nent pasture crop for pigs, as these animals do not bloat. It provides
pasturage during a longer season than any other single crop, starting
early in the spring and remaining green and succulent in late sum-
mer when bluegrass has dried up and even clover grows hard and
woody. Since the heavy pasturing of alfalfa is injurious to the stand,
the number of pigs should be restricted and the plants allowed to grow
up, being cut for hay 2 or 3 times a year. In tests at the Iowa Sta-
tion by Evvard and Kennedy " in which pigs were fed corn and tank-

i*Iowa Bui. 136.

FEEDS FOR SWINE 371

age on alfalfa pasture the alfalfa produced 623 to 865 lbs. of pork
per acre, after deducting the gains to be credited to the concentrates
fed, and without crediting the alfalfa with the hay cut from the pas-
ture. In one trial an acre of alfalfa, supplemented by corn and
tankage, carried an average of over 16 spring pigs for 180 days, pro-
ducing 1.05 lbs. of gain per head daily. In addition nearly 2 tons
of hay was cut per acre from the plot during the season. With corn
at $0.50 per bushel and tankage at $50 per ton, the concentrates fed
cost only $3.40 per 100 lbs. of gain.

Pigs fed corn alone on alfalfa pasture make fairly satisfactory
gains, since the alfalfa goes far toward balancing the corn allowance.
More rapid gains are, however, secured when some concentrate is fed
in addition, 5 lbs. of tankage to 95 lbs. of corn (or an equivalent
amount of other supplements) being sufficient for pigs weighing 100
lbs. or over.

Clover pasture. — In the northern and central states red clover is
one of the most valuable pasture crops for pigs, being surpassed only
by alfalfa and perhaps by rape. Since early pasturing may kill
clover, pigs should not be turned on until it has made a good growth.
Clover does not furnish as constant a supply of succulent feed as does
alfalfa, tending to become woody late in the summer, but clipping will
greatly aid in inducing a new growth. On soils too wet or too acid
for red clover, alsike clover may be grown. Especially in the south-
eastern states crimson clover, sown as a winter annual, furnishes valu-
able spring pasture for pigs.

On soils not well adapted to alfalfa or red clover, sweet clover may
often be used to advantage as a pasture for pigs. The first year's
growth is best suited to pigs, as it is less coarse and woody. To en-
courage the growth of new shoots the crop should be pastured reason-
ably close and the tall growth clipped with a mower.

Rape pasture. — Over the greater part of the northern United States
rape is unsurpassed as an annual forage crop for swine. As it may
be sown both early and late in the season, forage may be provided at
any desired time. The best yields are usually obtained with spring
seeding and if the crop is not pastured too closely growth will con-
tinue until fall. Pigs should not be turned on the rape until it is
10 to 14 inches high and when it is pastured down to 4 or 5 leaves to
the plant the animals should be transferred to another plot to give
the crop a chance to recover. Rape is often grown in combination
with oats or oats and field peas for pig pasture.

In 6 trials at corn-belt stations in which rape pasture was compared
with alfalfa, the pigs on rape pasture made practically as large aver-
age gains as those on alfalfa pasture and required only 340 lbs. of con-

372

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

centrates per 100 lbs. of gain, which was slightly less than the pigs
on alfalfa required. Rape is surpassed by alfalfa where the latter
thrives, not because alfalfa makes larger gains, but because it will usu-
ally carry more pigs per acre and need not be reseeded each year.
Evvard of the Iowa Station ^^ found that the portion of the rape plant
eaten by pigs is nearly as rich in protein, on the dry matter basis, as is

Fig. 105. — Rape Is One of the Best Annual Crops for Pigs

Over most of the northern states, rape is the best annual forage crop for pigs,
furnishing excellent pasture from early summer till late in the Tail. (From Wis-
consin Station.)

alfalfa, and that pigs fed corn on rape pasture do not need the addi-
tion of more than 5 per ct. of tankage, or an equivalent of other sup-
plement, to the corn allowance.

Other pasture crops. — Field peas, sown either alone or with oats
or oats and rape, are a most satisfactory summer forage crop for pigs
in the northern states. As has already been mentioned in this chap-
ter, large numbers of pigs are fattened on field peas m certain moun-
tain valleys of the West.

Soylean pasture in the North is surpassed by alfalfa, clover, rape,
and field peas, except perhaps on light, sandy soil, where the soybean
may produce a larger crop. In the South, however, the soybean is
one of the best allies of the pork producer. In three trials at the
Alabama Station ^® the feed cost of 100 lbs. gain by pigs fed corn

16 Iowa Bui. 136.

!• Gray, Ridgeway, and Eudaly, Ala. Bui. 154.

FEEDS FOR SWINE 373

meal on soybean pasture was only $2.59 to $3.36, with corn at 70
cents per bushel and soybean pasture at $8 per acre. Soybeans are
often grown with corn and the combined crop hogged down.

Especially on poorer soils in the southern states, the cowpea is an
important forage crop for swine, as it flourishes where other legumes
will not produce good crops. Cowpeas are excelled by soybeans where
the latter thrive, as they yield more seed. Like soybeans, cowpeas
and corn are frequently hogged down.

As has been already mentioned, peanuts are an important crop for
fall feeding in the South. Velvet beans furnish excellent pasture for
pigs in the extreme South where they thrive.

Among the permanent grasses, hluegrass provides the best pasture
thruout the northern states. As bluegrass makes little growth dur-
ing mid-summer, other crops should be provided for this season, the
bluegrass being relied on for grazing in spring and early summer and
again in early fall. With pigs fed corn« on bluegrass, a somewhat
larger allowance of protein-rich supplements is needed than on legume
or rape pasture, tho very young bluegrass is fairly rich in protein.
In the South, Bermuda grass furnishes the best permanent grass pas-
ture for pigs.

Wheat, rye, oats, and harley are unexcelled for fall and early
spring pasture in the North and for pasture from late fall thruout
the winter and spring in the South. Winter rye and winter oats will
furnish pasture thruout the entire winter in the South, greatly de-
creasing the cost of maintaining brood sows and raising fall pigs.

Bipe grain, usually rye, bald barley, or wheat, is frequently hogged
down, the pigs being turned into the field when the crop is nearly
ripe. This practice is especially common in the grain districts of the
Pacific Northwest, where the summers are dry. It is doubtful whether
it is generally profitable to hog down the small grains in the humid
districts, if labor can be secured to harvest the crop.

Especially on grain farms of the West, stuhhle fields are an impor-
tant factor in economical pork production. Where the grain is har-
vested by the header, considerable is left ungarnered and this was
formerly wasted ; now many farmers are hog fencing their fields and
turning pigs on the stubble to glean the scattered heads of grain.
Gains made on such waste are almost clear profit.

Roots. — We have seen in previous chapters that for cattle and
sheep silage from corn and the sorghums is about as satisfactory a
succulent feed as roots, and usually costs much less. With pigs, how-
ever, silage will not replace roots, for they can not utilize large
amounts of such coarse, fibrous feeds as silage. The value of roots
for pig feeding is well shown by the average results from 8 trials at

374 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

various stations, in which the pigs in one lot were fed an average of
5.4 lbs. of concentrates per head daily and those in a second lot 3.6
lbs. of concentrates and 5.6 lbs. of roots. The pigs given no roots
required 499 lbs. of concentrates for 100 lbs. of gain, while those fed
roots in addition required only 358 lbs. of concentrates and 631 lbs. of
roots. In these trials each 448 lbs. of roots saved 100 lbs. of concen-
trates. With the high prices now ruling for concentrates, many
farmers can profitably grow roots for winter succulence for their pigs.
Danish farmers grow no Indian corn, and yet, by means of waste prod-
ucts of the dairy, purchased feeding stuffs, and root crops, mostly
beets, they lead the M'orld in the production of pork, both as to quality
and also as to quantity, considering the area of the country.

Roots not only add variety to the ration but reduce the amount of
concentrates required, and aid in maintaining the health of the ani-
mals. On account of their slightly laxative effect and their bulkiness,
roots are especially valuable for brood sows in winter. As they tend
to growth rather than fattening, they are also excellent for young
pigs. Indeed, in finishing pigs the allowance of roots should be re-
stricted, or the desired finish will not be secured. For fall feeding,
root crops may be gathered economically by turning pigs in to graze
the field.

The relative feeding value of the various root crops depends on the
amount of dry matter they yield per acre in any particular locality.
According to Day,^^ sugar beets are most readily eaten by pigs, man-
gels ranking second in palatability.

Potatoes should be cooked for pigs and fed with concentrates, pro-
tein-rich feeds being included in the ration. In various trials 340 to
442 lbs. of potatoes have saved 100 lbs. of grain.

Sweet potatoes are an excellent root crop for fall and early winter
feeding in the South, especially for the cut-over pine lands. Planted
in June and early July, they are ready for feeding by the middle of
October. Since the tubers are low in protein, pigs grazing sweet po-
tatoes should be given such feeds as soybeans or cowpeas.

Silage. — Clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay is generally more sat-
isfactory for pigs than silage of any kind. Corn silage is too woody
and too low in digestible matter to be valuable for swine. If shotes
and breeding stock live on a limited allowance of rich concentrates
alone, they may suffer from lack of proper bulk in the ration. In
such cases, if roots or legume hay are not available, even corn silage
will be helpful in distending the digestive tract.

The legume hays. — With the prices of feeding stuffs ruling high,
the swine feeder must make the largest possible use of alfalfa, clover,

1" Productive Swine Husbandry, p. 206.

FEEDS FOR SWINE

375

vetch, cowpea, soybean, and other legume pasture in summer, and in
winter feed freely of well cured hay from the legumes, in order to
have healthy animals and to keep down the cost of production. The
finer parts of clover and alfalfa hay, especially the first cutting of
clover and the last cutting of alfalfa, are often as valuable for feed-
ing pigs as is the same weight of expensive wheat middlings. The
southern planter has a specially choice list of equally valuable legumes
in the cowpea, soybean, velvet bean, peanut, etc. Legume hay may

r

Fig. 106. — Brood Sows Eatixg At>falfa Hay FKO^r Uacks

Fine. Avell-cured legume hay should be provided for all brood sows and may
often be used with profit for other pigs. (From Breeder's Gazette.)

be fed to pigs from slatted racks or from boxes with openings low on
the sides from which the animals can eat at will. The legume hays
not only furnish protein, so essential for building all the lean meat
tissues and the organs of the body, but they also carry much calcium
(lime), which is needed in bone building. They are therefore doubly
useful in supplementing Indian corn and the other cereals, which are
rather poor in both protein and calcium.

Leafy, bright alfalfa hay is the best of all hays for the pig. Not
only is this hay useful for brood sows and stock pigs but it is a cheap
and fairly efficient supplement to corn or the other cereals for fatten-
ing pigs. While fattening cattle and sheep will consume enough
alfalfa hay to make a fairly well balanced ration with corn, the fat-

376 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

lening pig has not this capacity for roughage, and hence will not con-
sume enough hay to balance his ration sufficiently to produce maxi-
mum gains. For example, in trials at the Kansas Station ^^ pigs fed
a ration of 6.6 lbs. of corn and 0.9 lb, tankage gained 1.58 lbs. per
head daily, while others fed 6.5 lbs. corn and 1.2 lbs. alfalfa hay in a
rack gained only 1.13 lbs. With corn at $19, alfalfa hay at $8, and
tankage at $41 to $45 per ton, the pigs fed tankage made cheaper
gains than those fed alfalfa hay.

On the other hand, with corn and barlej^ at $20, tankage at $40, and
alfalfa hay at $5 per ton, the Colorado Station ^^ found alfalfa a much
more economical supplement than tankage. Whether to use alfalfa
hay or purchased concentrates to balance the ration of fattening pigs
will therefore depend on the relative price of these feeds. Alfalfa
hay is most efficient as a supplement in fine winter weather when the
pigs have good appetites for the hay" and corn. In unfavorable
weather or when the pigs are out of condition the use of some nitroge-
nous concentrate, like tankage, linseed meal, or shorts, aids in stimu-
lating the appetite and hence results in larger gains.

QUESTIONS

1. Give the results of feeding trials in which corn has been fed alone and
with a supplement to pigs.

2. Discuss the hogging down of corn.

3. Wliat is the value for pigs of wheat, rye, oats, emmer, the grain sorgliums,
millet, liominy feed?

4. What is the best supplement to corn from the standpoint of gains pro-
duced ?

5. How much skim milk would you feed per pound of corn to pigs of various
weights ?

6. \Yhat is the value of buttermilk and whey for pigs?

7. How much tankage is needed to balance the ration of corn-fed pigs?

8. Discuss the value for pigs of the other protein-rich concentrates fed to
swine in your locality.

9. Name 9 essentials of a good forage crop for pigs.

10. What are the best forage crops for swine in your locality, and why are
they the best?

11. Discuss the value of roots and of silage for swine.

12. How may legume hay be used in swine feeding?

IS Waters and Kinzer, Kan. Bui. 19i
19 Morton, Colo. Bui. 188.

CHAPTER XXIX

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY

Poultry husbandry is a generalized latlier than a specialized indus-
try, for no other class of live stock is kept so widely, yet relatively few
rely upon poultry raising for their main income. Both on the farm
and on the city lot poultry consume much waste material, converting
it into highly nutritious and palatable eggs and meat. On the farm,
poultry occupy a distinctive place, for a fair-sized flock may be kept
to a considerable extent on land occupied by crops. Here they will not
only gain much free food, but they will also benefit the crops by devour-
ing injurious bugs, grubs, and worms. They are largely cared for
by the women and children, and thus do not compete for labor with
other lines of farming. General conditions are highly favorable for
the farm flock of moderate size, even tho the feeding and care often
receive little attention. Range is
abundant, numerous buildings and
trees provide protection from sun
and wind, and epidemics of disease
are much less serious than where
large numbers of birds are kept
under intensive conditions. It is
due to these advantages of the farm
flock that most of the spectacular,
large scale poultry enterprises have
failed.

In the economy with which she
produces human food, the hen
ranks next to the pig, as is shown
in Chapter V. She returns 5.1 lbs.
of edible solids (water-free) in
eggs or 4.2 lbs. in meat from 100 lbs
When poultry are kept as a side-line, their economic efficiency is
really greater than these figures indicate, because a large part of their
food is material that would otherwise be wasted.

Importance of poultry. — Under the term poultry are included fowls,
turkevs, ducks, geese, swan, guineas, pigeons, peafowl, and pheasants,

377

Fig. 107.-

-A Brood of Profit
Makers

Chicks make use of many waste
products and may be easily raised on
the farm or on a city lot. (From
Halpin, Wisconsin, Station.)

of digestible matter in her ration.

378 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

In aggregate value the annual yield of poultry and eggs in the United
States amounts to $750,000,000, exceeding the value of all the gold,
silver, iron, and coal mined annually in this country. According to
the Census of 1910, over 88 per ct. of all the farms reported flocks of
poultry, the average farm income from poultry for these farms being
$105, in addition to the eggs and meat consumed on the farm. The
value of the eggs produced in this country amounts to about twice as
much as the value of the meat.

Of the total number of poultry in the United States, about 95 per ct. '
are chickens, about 4 per ct. ducks, turkeys, and geese, and the remain-
ing 1 per ct. guineas, pigeons, pheasants, and other domestic birds.
Because of their importance, the following discussions deal al-
most entirely with chickens. The popularity of chickens is due to the
fact that they are usually much better egg producers than the other
species and that they, moreover, furnish a most convenient source of
fresh meat on the farm.

The digestive system of poultry.— The digestive tract of poultry is
quite different from those of the larger farm animals. Poultry have
no teeth with which to chew their food, the teeth and lips being replaced
by a horny mandible on each jaw, which forms the beak, or bill. Such
soft feeds as vegetables, green herbage, or meat can be torn into pieces
by the beak, but hard substances like grain are swallowed whole. Since
no chewing is done in the mouth, abundant saliva is not needed and
the salivary glands are imperfectly developed.

From the mouth the food is forced down the gullet into the crop, a
pouch-like enlargement of the gullet just before it enters the body
cavity. No enzymes are secreted in the crop, but the feed is softened
as in the paunch of ruminants, such hard materials as grain remaining
in the crop about 12 hours. From the crop the food passes thru the
second part of the gullet into the glandular stomach, where the gastric
juice is secreted. Passing thru the glandular stomach, the food, with
the acid gastric juice, enters the gizzard, or muscular stomach. This
is a powerful, muscular grinding apparatus, with a tough, horny lining,
and in it the food is finely ground with the aid of small stones and
grit. The gizzard has a truly remarkable grinding and crushing
power, being able to bend pieces of iron and wear smooth the edges of
pieces of broken glass.

From the gizzard the partially digested food passes into the small
intestine, in which the digestive processes are similar to those in the
other farm animals. The large intestine in poultry has but small ca-
pacity. It consists of a small rectum and two caeca, or blind guts, at
the juncture of the small intestine and the rectum. A further pecu-
liarity of poultry is that the urine and feces are not voided separately,

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY

379

LOWta MANDIBLE
TONGUE

OPENING TO TRACHEA

MUSCLES CONTROLLING
TONGUE

OPENING INTOGULLET

GLANDULAR
STOMACH

GALL-BLAODEB.
BILE DUCT

PANCREAS
DUODENAL LOOP

Fig. 108. — The Digestive System of the Fowl

Tlie digestive system of the fowl differs in several respects from those of the
larger farm animals. (From Lippinoott, Poultry Production.)

but both are excreted thru a common chamber, the cloaca. Most of
the water in the urine is reabsorbed in the cloaca, and the urine is
voided as a whitish paste with the feces. The nitrogenous waste is
excreted chiefly in the form of uric acid, instead of as urea, as with
mammals.

Nowhere in the digestive tract of poultry does much digestion of

380 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

crude fiber take place. The food remains in the crop too short d
time for any appreciable digestion there thru bacterial action, such as
occurs in the paunch of ruminants, and little bacterial action takes
place in the large intestine. Due to this, crude fiber has little value for
poultry, but serves simply to give bulk to the ration. Hence, the feed
of poultry must be more concentrated in character than that for other
farm stock.

Digestibility of feeds by poultry. — Since the urine is not voided sep-
arately by poultry, digestion trials can not be conducted satisfactorily
in the same manner as with other animals. In general, the digestibility
of feeds by poultry resembles that of swine, tho poultry digest even
less fiber. The digestibility of grain for poultry is not increased by
grinding, as all seeds are ground fine in the gizzard, if grit is available.

Feeding standards and nutrient requirements of poultry. — Owing
to the fact that satisfactory digestion coefficients have not been obtained
for poultry, our knowledge of their actual nutrient requirements is
less definite than for other classes of stock. Wheeler of the New
York (Geneva) Station ^ has presented the most complete standards
which have yet been advanced. These, converted to the same terms
as the Modified Wolff'-Lehmann Standards, are given in Appendix
Table V. It will be noted that poultry require a much larger amount
of nutrients per 1,000 lbs. live weight than do the other farm animals.
This is due to their small size and the consequent greater radiation
of heat from the body, and to their high body temperature and great
activity. No figures are given for the amount of total dry matter,
but, as mentioned previously, on account of the nature of their diges-
tive tract, rations for poultry must be more concentrated than for
other stock, even swine.

The nutritive ratios recommended for growing chicks and for lay-
ing hens are narrower than for nearly all other classes of farm animals.
This is because chicks and other young poultry grow very rapidly in
proportion to their size and hence store large amounts of protein
in their bodies. Laying hens require a narrow nutritive ratio be-
cause they are yielding a product very high in protein. Eggs con-
tain about 65.9 per ct. water, 12.8 per ct. crude protein, 10.6 per
ct. fat, and 10.7 per ct. mineral matter. The protein thus forms
about 38 per ct. of the total dry matter. On account of these facts,
rations for growing and laying poultry should contain a rather
larger proportion of protein-rich feeds than for other farm animals.
For fattening poultry less protein is needed and the nutritive ratio
may range from about 1 : 6.2 for young birds which are still growing
to 1:8 for mature poultry.

1 Jordan, The Feeding of Animals, pp. 303-5.

FEEDING AND CAKE OF POULTRY 381

Mineral matter. — The shells of eggs, which comprise about 11 per ct.
of their total weight, consist almost entirely of calcium carbonate
(carbonate of lime). Laying hens must therefore have a supply of
calcium in addition to that furnished in the grains and other common
feeds. Trials by Halpin - at the Wisconsin Station show that calcium
is as important as any other part of the ration. Hens produced but
few eggs when fed rations excellent for egg production except that
they were deficient in calcium. When plenty of calcium was supplied
a normal yield of eggs was secured.

Oyster shells are the best form in which to supply calcium. They
should be placed in hoppers or boxes in the poultry house so that the
fowls can help themselves. Clam shells, sometimes used in place
of oyster shells, are not considered as good. Growing chicks require
an abundant supply of both calcium and phosphorus for the building
of their skeletons and body tissues. Therefore, unless the feeding
stutt's of the ration furnish an abundance of these mineral nutrients,
they should be supplied by giving some form of bone. Granulated
hone and hone meal are most commonly used. Green cut bone, dis-
cussed in the following chapter, furnishes both mineral matter and
protein. Trials at the New York (Geneva) ^ and Rhode Island * Sta-
tions indicate that ground bone is a better source of these minerals
than is rock phosphate.

Grit, or crushed rock, should also be supplied poultry to aid in the
grinding of feed in the gizzard, unless they have access to plenty of
coarse sand or fine gravel. Several kinds of rock are crushed for grit,
the best form being a light-colored lime rock. Commercial grits are
commonly furnished in chick size, medium, and large size.

Animal food.— Trials at various stations indicate that for the best
results poultry should receive animal food of some kind. When given
abundant range in summer they secure it in the form of bugs, grubs,
and worms. Opportunity for range has a two-fold advantage, for in
addition to the free animal food, the poultry destroy insects which
would damage crops. Whenever the insect and worm supply runs
short, one of the substitutes discussed in the following chapter should
always be provided.

Salt; water.— Salt is needed by poultry as well as by other stock
and therefore a small amount should be added to the mash. Wheeler ^
recommends 5 ounces per 100 lbs. of feed for mature stock but ad-
vises that young stock be given no salt until 2 months old.

2 Information to the authors.

3 Wheeler, N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 242.
4Hartwell and Kirkpatrick, R. I. Bui. 145.
5N. Y. (Geneva) Ept. 26.

382

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED

A constant supply of fresh, clean water is an essential for all classes
of poultry. The watering arrangement should be so constructed that
the birds will not roost upon it and foul the water with their drop-'
pings, and should be high enough to prevent litter being scratched

into it. For chicks a vacuum foun-
tain is desirable. The simplest
form of such a fountain is simply
a jar filled with water and inverted
on a pan of water. As the chicks
drink the water from the pan, air
enters the jar and water flows out
into the pan until the water level
rises.

Charcoal and condiments. — A
supply of charcoal, sold on the mar-
ket as granulated charcoal, should
be kept before poultry as it acts as
a regulator of the digestive tract.
The use of such condiments as pep-
per, ginger, and mustard is not to
be recommended for poultry.

Shelter. — There is no need of
building an elaborate, expensive
house for poultry, but to be healthy
and profitable the farm flock needs
dry, well-ventilated, well-lighted
quarters, free from drafts. Fowls
have no sweat glands and suffer
from too close and warm quarters
even more than do other animals.
It is important that the house be easy to disinfect. Hence, all the
fixtures — nests, perches, coops for broody hens, feed hoppers, etc. —
should be simple and removable. A dropping board below the perches
is desirable. So that they will have plenty of room for exercise, at
least 4 square feet of flo^r space should be allowed each hen, and 6 to
10 inches of roost space, depending on the size of the fowls. Venti-
lating systems, such as the King, which depend on the difference in
weight between heated and cold air, do not work well in poultry houses,
because there is too much cubic space per 100 lbs. live weight of fowls
to warm the air enough. For ventilation, the poultryman must rely
on having part of the windows protected only by muslin or by open
Klats, or left entirely open as in the ''open front" house. The house
should be well-bedded with straw which is renewed when it becomes

Fig. 109. — Interior of Continu-
ous Poultry House at
Wisconsin Station

This house is sunny, well-lighted,
well -ventilated, dry, and free from
drafts. Note the shelf on which
stand water crock and self feeders for
grit and dry mash. (From Halpin,
Wisconsin Station.)

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 383

damp or filthy. Two or three times a year the house and all fixtures
should be thoroly disinfected.

The quarters should be located on well-drained soil, and preferably
on a south slope, an east slope being next best. The site should have
good air drainage and have ample range adjacent. Trees near the
house provide summer shade and keep out the wind. Fowls also ap-
preciate some low shrubbery nearby under which they may hide.

Poultry houses are of three types: (1) The portable colony house
with a single pen, (2) the long, continuous house of two or more pens,
and (3) the large, single-unit house. The permanent house has cer-
tain advantages for housing the flock in winter in the northern states,
but on every farm where a good-sized flock is kept there should be
at least one portable colony house. In this the young stock may be
reared on the range and later the pullets be kept apart so that they
will not be abused by the older fowls.

Preparation of feed; dry and wet mash. — It has been pointed out
previously that grinding grain does not increase its digestibility for
poultry. However, poultrymen have found it profitable to feed fowls
about one-third of the ration ground In the form of a "mash," as
this saves the birds considerable energy. The rest of the ration com-
monly consists of grain, fed whole, except in the case of corn, which
is often cracked coarsely. The grain is usually thrown on the straw
used for bedding the house, where the fowls must scratch to secure it,
thus getting ample exercise. Feeding the mash dry in self-feeding
hoppers saves labor and gives the best results except for fattening
fowls, which may be induced to eat more if the mash is moistened and
fed in a trough. It is well, for variety, to give all fowls a wet mash
three times a week, perhaps made of the same feeds that make up the
dry mash but moistened with water or milk. For chickens a wet mash
should be crumbly and not sticky.

Green feeds. — Some green food is essential for the best results with
poultry. The value of these feeds lies not so much in the nutrients
they furnish as in the stimulating effect on the appetite and on the
digestive tract. Where poultry have plenty of range, they will secure
an abundance of green feed during the growing season. Successful
poultrymen agree that provision should be made to continue the sup-
ply of green feed thruout the winter. Where little or no range
is available in spring and summer, soilage or pasture crops should
be specially grown.

Types of fowls. — Two classifications may be followed in grouping
the various breeds of fowls: (1) the so-called "standard" classifica-
tion of the American Poultry Association, which is based primarily
upon the origin and distribution of the breeds, and (2) the utility

384 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

classification, which is based upon the suitability of the breeds for
the production of eggs and meat. According to the latter classifica-
tion," the breeds are grouped as follows: (1) egg breeds; (2) meat
breeds; (3) general-purpose breeds; (4) fancy breeds.

The egg breeds, developed primarily for egg production, are small
or -medium-sized fowls, active, nervous and sprightly, slender in body,
relatively long-legged, and early maturing. These breeds do best on
ample range and show the least tendency to sit of any type. They
may be compared to the dairy cow, the racing horse, and the fine-
wooled sheep. Breeds of this type belong chiefly to the Mediter-
ranean class, so named because they originated in Elediterranean coun-
tries. All lay eggs white in color. B}^ far the most important breeds
of this type in the United States are the Leghorns, followed by the
Minorcas and Anconas.

The meat breeds are comparable to beef cattle, draft horses, mut-
ton sheep, and lard hogs. They are relatively large in size, compact,
thickly fleshed, wide of back and breast, and late maturing. The most
important breeds of this type in the United States are the Brahmas and
Cornish.

The general-purpose breeds are the most common on American
farms. Midway between the other two types in shape and disposition,
they yield good carcasses for the table and are fair to excellent layers.
At the same time they make good mothers. This type includes both
the American and the English classes. The most important breeds of
the former are the Plymoutli Rocks, the Wyandottes and the Rhode
Island Reds; while the Orpingtons and Sussex are the most impor-
tant representatives of the English class. The general-purpose
breeds furnish by far the larger part of the poultry meat consumed in
this country.

The fancy breeds include breeds and varieties kept mainly for ex-
hibition purposes, such as the Polish, Bantams, Silkies, and Frizzles.

Feeding laying- hens. — To secure a high egg production, it is essen-
tial that a complete, well-balanced ration, containing grain, mash, ani-
mal feed, green feed, shell, and grit, be fed. About 50 per ct. of the
ration should be grain, 20 per ct. mash (not including animal feed
sometimes mixed Avith the mash), 10 per ct. animal feed, 15 per ct.
green feed, and 5 per ct. mineral feed. As in feeding other classes
of stock, successful poultrymen differ quite widely in the exact routine
followed in feeding.

Commonly a short time after the birds are off the perch in the morn-
ing a light feed of grain is scattered on the straw with which the pen
is littered, and is well kiclied in, to make the birds work in securing

6 Lewis, Productive Poultry Husbandry, p. 78.

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 385

a meal. A heavy feed of grain is given on the litter two or three hours
before the fowls go to roost, so that they will go on the perch with
full crops. The birds should be examined occasionally after they have
gone to roost to see whether they have enough grain. At night it is
better to feed a little more than will be eaten than not to feed enough.
However, the morning feed must be light enough so that the grain will
be entirely cleaned out of the litter before the afternoon feeding.

The dry mash should be supplied in self-feeding hoppers, to which
the fowls may be allowed free access at all times, except in the case of
the meat breeds. As these tend to overeat, the hoppers should be kept
closed during the forenoon. The green feed is commonly given at
noon, as much being supplied as will be eaten in 20 to 30 minutes.
For variety, it is well to feed a mash moistened with milk or water
about three times a week in a trough. Fresh water should be given in
the morning, at noon, and also at the afternoon feeding, except in cold
weather.

In spring and summer plenty of range should be provided, if pos-
sible, so that the fowls will not only have plenty of green feed but may
also secure most of the animal feed they need in the form of insects
and worms. No special precaution need be taken then to enforce ex-
ercise, for the fowls will be busy all day hunting for choice morsels.
On good range, the amount of additional animal feed supplied may
be reduced materially. When ample range is not available, some of
the green feeds discussed in the next chapter should be specially grown
for the flock.

Good laying rations for winter. — As is shown in the following
chapter, which discusses in detail all the important feeds used for
poultry, the poultryman has chance for a wide selection in devising
rations for his flock. From the available feeds he should choose those
which will provide a well-balanced, satisfactory ration at least cost.
Tho the particular combinations of feeds employed will differ widely
in different sections of the country, the following rations, recom-
mended by Halpin, will be suggestive, as they have all given good re-
sults.

Ration 1. — Feed in deep litter a mixture of 2 parts each by weight of corn and
wheat and 1 part each of oats and barley (a light feed in the morning and a
heavy one at night).

Feed in hopper (all the time) a mixture of 100 lbs. each of wheat bran, wheat
middlings, and ground corn; 50 lbs. each of dry malt sprouts and meat scraps;
and 2 lbs. of salt.

Feed in trough (3 times a week) the same mixture, moistened with milk.

Green feed — sprouted oats and mangels.

Grit, oyster shell, and charcoal, supplied in small boxes or grit hoppers.

Water — fresh and in abundance.

386 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Ration 2. — Feed in deep litter a mixture of 2 parts each of corn and wheat
and 1 of barley ( a light feed in the morning and a heavy one at night ) .

Feed in hopper (all the time) crushed oats.

Feed in trough (3 times a week) a moist mash of equal parts bran and corn
meal. Salt slightly.

Milk — sour milk or buttermilk to drink.

Green feed; grit; oyster shell; charcoal; and water as in Ration 1.

Ration 3. — Feed in deep litter a mi.xture of 2 parts each of corn and wheat
and 1 of oats (a light feed in the morning and a heavy one at night).

Feed in hopper a mixture of 100 lbs. each of wheat bran, wheat middlings,
corn meal, and meat scrap, with 2 lbs. salt. (Let the hens eat this when they
wish.)

Green feed; grit; oyster shell; charcoal; and icater as in Ration 1.

Ration 4. — Feed in deep litter a mixture of 4 parts corn, 2 parts wheat and
1 part oats (a light feed in the morning and a heavy one at night).

Feed in hopper a mixture of 200 lbs. wheat bran, 100 lbs. ground corn, 100 lbs.
gluten feed, 75 lbs. oil meal, and 3 lbs. salt.

Feed in trough (3 times a week) the same mixture, moistened with milk.

Milk to drink, or add 50 lbs. meat scrap, or give meat scrap in small hopper,
or give 3 ounces green bone to each hen per week.

Green feed; grit; oyster shell; and charcoal as in Ration 1.

Ration 5 (known as the Wisconsin simplicity ration). — Feed in deep litter
only corn (a light feed in the morning and a heavy one at night).

Milk — sour milk before the flock at all times, no water.

Green feed; grit; oyster shells; and charcoal as in Ration 1.

On extremely cold days heat ear corn on the back of the stove, break into small
pieces, and feed on the cob early enough so that the hens have a chance to pick
ofT all they want before they go to bed.

The eggJ — In several respects an egg is similar to a grain, siicli as
a kernel of corn. In each there is a germ, from which the new life
develops, and each contains food for the nourishment of this germ. In
the grain the stored food material is starch, fat, and protein, while in
the egg the nutriment is stored in the form of protein and fat. While
the grain must absorb much water for germination, the egg contains
sufficient for its own development. Moreover, a much higher tempera-
ture is required for the hatching of the egg than for the germination
of a seed.

An egg consists of five parts : (1) the shell ; (2) the shell membrane ;
(3) the albumin; (4) the yolk; and (5) the germ. The shell, consist-
ing of 3 layers, makes up from 10 to 11 per ct. of the weight of the
entire egg. It is composed chiefly of calcium carbonate (carbonate
of lime). The shell memlyrane consists of two layers, the inner one
being the thinner. At the large end of the eg,g these layers separate,
forming the air sac. The albumin, or the white of the egg, which forms
about 59 per ct. of the weight, contains about 14 per ct. dry matter,
this being nearly all protein. When an egg is cooked, this albumin

7 Largely adapted from Lippincott, Poultry Production, 1916.

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY

387

coagulates or hardens. The yolk, forming about one-third of the egg,
is enclosed in a delicate membrane which keeps it spherical in shape.
The yolk contains about 49 per ct. water, 18 per ct. protein, 32 per ct.
fat, and 1.5 per ct. ash. The germ in the fresh-laid egg is a white
speck about one-eighth of an inch in diameter on one side of the yolk.

The eggs of the different breeds of chickens vary somewhat in size,
the average hen's egg being 2.27 inches long and 1.72 inches in di-
ameter, and weighing about 2 ounces. This brings the weight of a
dozen eggs to 1.5 lbs. Eggs from pullets are generally smaller than
those laid by mature hens.

Selecting the flock.* — Under any method of feeding and care, suc-
cess with poultry is possible only when good stock is kept. Since pure-
bred fowls or eggs from such fowls for hatching can be obtained at rea-
sonable prices, the wise poultryman will start with good stock and, if
possible, keep improving it. To obtain the best chicks, eggs should be
saved from strong, vigorous, reasonably mature stock. Only the best
of each year's crop of pullets, those which mature early and are per-
sistent layers, should be selected for breeding purposes. Such stock
should be mated with vigorous males from a high-producing strain.

It will pay everyone who

raises poultry to spend a lit-
tle time during the fall and
winter in marking the laying
hens and pullets, leg bands
being commonly used for this
purpose. Good layers are
first of¥ the roost in the morn-
ing and the last to go to roost
at night, are always busy
looking for feed, and have
full crops at night. They
are bright-eyed, go about
singing, and have full-sized
red combs that are pliable and
inclined to be slippery. Late
moulting hens are really the
best layers, but are discarded by many farmers, who have a mistaken
belief that early moulting hens are the winter layers. Tho the close
observer can usually distinguish between hens which are layers and
those which are drones, the breeder who wishes to build up a high-pro-

8 This and the following paragraphs on incubation and raising and feeding
chicks are largely adapted from Halpin, Wis. Bui. 261.

Fig. 110. — A Hen in a Trap Nest

By using trap nests the poultryman can
find out how many eggs each hen actually
produces. (From Halpin, Wisconsin Sta-
tion.)

388 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

ducing flock should install trap nests and find out not only which hens
are laying but also how many eggs each lays.

Halpin points out : ' ' Instead of breeding from the best hens, poul-
trymen often breed from the poorest. In many farm flocks there are
hens that do not lay an egg during the fall or winter. In the spring
these hens get out-of-doors and begin to lay. They are not used to
the nests in the house and often hide their nests under a brush pile or
in some other hiding place where they are not discovered. A hen of
this type frequently lays but fifteen or twenty eggs a year. By ' steal-
ing' her nest she manages to furnish half of the chicks that are raised.
This is equal to saving heifer calves from the poorest cows in the herd."

Saving eggs for hatching. — To produce good eggs for hatching, the
flock should be liberally fed and encouraged to take plenty of exercise,
but should not be forced by a stimulating ration. When an incubator
is used, eggs are commonly kept until enough have accumulated to fill
the machine. Eggs should be kept only as long as is necessary, for
the fresher the egg, the quicker the hatch, and the larger the chick
produced. When held in a cool room at a temperature of about 50 de-
grees, eggs can be kept from 10 to 14 days without serious injury. It
is best to keep the eggs on an egg tray or padded table top and to turn
all of them each day.

A sufficient number of vigorous males should be placed with the fe-
males to ensure fertile eggs. With good strong males, from 10 to 15
hens of the general purpose breeds and 20 to 30 of the egg breeds may
be mated to each male. When the fowls are confined to a sma^l yard,
less can be mated than when they have free range.

When enough eggs have been secured for hatching, the males should
be kept separate from the flock, for males are not required for the
maximum production of eggs and one of the largest losses in market
eggs in spring and summer is caused by the development of the germ in
fertile eggs. With infertile eggs this cannot occur.

Incubation. — Many people hatch the chicks too late in the season.
They then seldom reach maturity before cold weather, and hence the
pullets produce few if any winter eggs. This also results in stunting
the pullets, for it is difficult to grow them well in winter in an ordinary
house, and in the spring they have not reached normal size when they
begin to lay. If hens are used for hatching, they should be well cared
for during the winter so they will want to sit early in the spring. The
smaller breeds have so little tendency to sit that usually an incubator
must be used to secure early chicks.

Incubators are easy to operate, if the directions furnished with the
machine are carefully followed. It is important to have the machine
well regulated before putting in the eggs, to use good oil, and to keep

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 389

the lamp and flues clean and the wick carefully trimmed so as to give
a rounded flame. At hatching time the machine should be kept dark-
ened so the chicks will sleep. The chicks are better if kept confined to
the egg tray until dry or partially dry and then removed to the
brooder, rather than letting them drop down into the nursery of the
incubator. About 19 days are required for the incubation of eggs of
the light breeds and 21 for those of the meat breeds.

Hatching eggs with hens.— When the eggs are hatched with hens,
clean, roomy nests at least 14 inches square should be prepared in some
building where the hens will not be disturbed while sitting. The nest
should be placed over a layer of 3 or 4 inches of soil or sod and then lit-
tered with soft straw, hay, or shavings, the corners being well packed
with litter. After placing 2 or 3 nest eggs in each nest, the hens are
moved to the nest just at dark. The next day they should be taken off
and given feed and water. If they do not return to the nests in 20 to 30
minutes they must be driven back or caught and fastened in the nest.
As soon as the hens settle down they should be given the eggs. Until
the eggs start to hatch, the hens should be taken off or allowed to
come off each day. They should be fed all the whole corn they will
eat, with an occasional allowance of mixed grain. Fresh water should
be supplied daily and in hot weather it is wise to place a cup of water
in each nest, as this saves much bowel trouble, which frequently spoils
many hatchings. The hens should be allowed to wallow in a dirt bath
and should be kept free from lice and mites by dusting with a good in-
sect powder as soon as they become accustomed to the nest and at the
end of the first and second weeks. In case mites are discovered move
the hen and eggs to a new nest and disinfect the infested nest. Where
possible, several hens should be set at one time. The infertile eggs
should be removed toward the end of the first week, and, if there are
many infertile ones, the fertile eggs can be given to a few of the hens
and the rest be given fresh eggs.

Brooding chicks with hens. — In rearing chicks with hens, the essen-
tials are few. The hen, quiet and motherly, should be placed in a light,
portable coop which will allow the chicks free range but in which the
hen can be confined if desired. The coop should protect the hen and
the chicks from the weather and from enemies, and should be located
on a grassy, shady range. Early in the season it is usually best to have
board bottoms in the coop, but later in the season and in dry weather
this is not necessary. When bottoms are used they should be kept
clean and should be littered with chaff or fresh earth. When no bot-
toms are used the coop should be moved at least once every other day.
This will prevent killing the grass and will fertilize a larger area.

As soon as the chicks are 10 days old, the mother hen may be turned

390

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

toward night and allowed to rim with the brood. If she does no
damage, she can be given her liberty during the day when the chicks be-
come accustomed to following her. On most farms the hens with their
broods can be moved to some field where they can find a large part of
their living. When the hens wean their chicks, care should be taken
to see that the orphans do not desert some of the houses and all crowd
together.

Many find it practicable to hatch most of their chicks in incubators
and brood them all with hens. Others buy chicks from a central hatch-

FiG. 111. — Summer Hatched Chicks Need Shade

Chicks have tender skins which are easily sunburned. Keep those inexpensive
coops clean by moving them to a new spot every day. (From Halpin, Wisconsin
Station. )

ing station and rear them with hens. Broody hens are given a couple
of chicks to test them out just at dark, and early the next morning the
best mothers are selected and given from 12 to 30 chicks.

Artificial brooding. — While rearing chicks with hens is the proper
method where only a few chicks are raised, the use of brooders is ad-
visable where a large number must be cared for. Not only does this
save labor but it permits raising the chicks past weaning entirely free
from lice. Brooders are of two general types — indoor brooders and
outdoor brooders. The former must be placed inside of some building
for additional protection, while the latter may be used out-of-doors un-

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 391

der ordinary climatic conditions. The essential parts consist of a
heater (except in the case of tireless brooders for a few chicks), a warm-
air compartment called the hover, a cool-air compartment, and a venti-
lating system. In operating a brooder, the most important points are
cleanliness, steady and abundant heat under proper control, and op-
portunity for the chicks to get nearer the heat when they are cold and
room to get away from it when they are too warm. Unless the heat
is steady, the chicks may either be overheated or chilled at night be-
fore they awake and adjust their position nearer or farther away from
the source of heat.

The brooder should be started at least 24 hours before it is needed
for the chicks, and the temperature carefully regulated. After the
chicks are transferred to the brooder, most persons will have better
results if they do not depend on the thermometer in regulating the
heat, but watch the chicks instead. Give enough heat so that they do
not crowd to the warm part of the hover but spread out in the cooler
part with their heads sticking out from under the curtain at night,
or so that a chick that walks to the hottest part of the brooder stays
there only a short time. To prepare the chicks for removal to the
range, they must be hardened off gradually by reducing the tempera-
ture of the brooder after the second week. Heat is needed for
about 6 weeks in the early spring in the northern states and for only
3 to 4 weeks later in the season. When heat is finally dispensed with
a "cold frame" may be substituted for the hover. This is simply a
box with a slitted curtain of soft, warm cloth on one side and a cover
of similar cloth which is so loose that it sags down in the center and
rests on the chicks' backs when they go into the frame to sleep or get
warm.

Feeding the chicks. — Just before hatching, the yolk of the egg,
which has hitherto not been used for food by the chick, is drawn into
the body and supplies it with food for several hours after hatching.
Due to this, it is advisable not to give chicks any solid food for some
time after they are hatched — with incubator chicks at least 48 hours.
After the first few days, the chicks must be fed liberally for they grow
with great rapidity. Several methods may be followed with equal suc-
cess in feeding chicks. The following, given by Halpin, will be sug-
gestive :

First method. — Give the chicks sour milk in a small dish when they are 24
hours old. Keep this before them until they are about 72 hours old, when they
are given good, sweet chick feed in a litter of chopped clover or alfalfa. This
chick feed may he a mixture of finely cracked corn, cracked wheat, steel-cut
oatmeal, and kafir, or such a mixture as 2 parts of finely cracked corn, 2 parts
of cracked wheat, and 1 part of steel-cut oats. The chick feed is scattered over

392 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

the litter at least 5 times a day, pains being taken to have the chicks out from
under the hover to see the feed when it falls. The next day and thereafter they
are given a very light feed of moist mash made up of equal parts of corn meal,
rolled oats, bran, and middlings. This is moistened with sour milk. Any mash
that is not eaten after 15 or 20 minutes is removed. This method of feeding is
continued until the chicks are 3 weeks old, when the rolled oats are gradually
dropped from the ration. At about this time whole wheat and medium cracked
corn are added to the chick feed and are increased as rapidly as the chicks learn
to eat it. As soon as they show a willingness to eat the coarser feed the fine
feed is omitted. When the chicks are 2 weeks old, a small hopper is filled with
a mash of 2 parts ground corn, 2 of bran and 1 of middlings. Another hopper
containing meat scrap of a good grade is also placed in the pen. The chicks are
given free access to these feeds. Green feed, grit, charcoal, and water should
always be before them.

Second method. — Stale bread crumbs moistened with sour milk are fed after
the chicks are 48 hours old. Squeeze bread nearly dry. Give sour milk or water
to drink. After the first 5 days give a moist mash of bran and ground corn
with chopped onions or other green feed. Feed wheat screenings and cracked
corn after the first Aveek. Early in the season stir this into a litter of clover
chaff.

Third method. — Feed Johnny cake for the first 10 days. This is made as
follows: Mix 1 pint of finely ground corn, 1 teacupful wheat bran, 1 teaspoon-
ful ground meat, 1 teaspoonful soda, and 1 teacupful sour milk, and bake 1 hour.
Feed 4 times a day. Stir a little chick feed or other fine grain into the litter.
Provide green feed, grit, water, and charcoal.

Fourth method. — Feed chick feed in litter 5 times a day for the first 10 days;
after that feed chick feed .3 times a day. Give in addition a moist mash made
of equal parts of bran, ground corn, and ground barley (with coarse hulls sifted
out) twice daily. Give milk, green feed, grit, water, and charcoal as recom-
mended in first method.

When the chicks have ample range, they can often pick up in the
form of worms and insects practically all of the animal feed that is nec-
essary. However, where chicks are raised on a large scale, it always
pays to supply additional animal matter. For this purpose, skim
milk and buttermilk are the best, if they can be obtained. Other
forms of animal feed are discussed in the following chapter. Ground
bone, which should be fed in a hopper, supplies mineral elements that
help the chick to grow a good, strong frame. Fresh, finely ground
green bone can also be supplied, but care should be taken to see that
it is fresh and sweet, and is fed in small quantities.

From the start the chick should have access to finely crushed rock,
coarse sand, fine gravel, or specially prepared commercial grit. The
"chick size" white limestone is especially valuable. Fine charcoal
should also be supplied whenever possible. Both the grit and the char-
coal may be mixed with the scratch feed and fed in small quantities,
or each may be put into a separate compartment of a hopper after
the first few days.

Pullets and cockerels. — Pullets should be grown in a movable colony

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 393

house on the open range wherever possible. When given free range
they may be allowed to help themselves to grain and mash in self-
feeding hoppers. The grain feed may consist of equal parts of wheat
and cracked corn, and the mash of equal parts of wheat bran,
wheat middlings, and corn meal. If insects are not abundant
meat scrap or milk should be given. Green feed should be supplied
in case of drought. Water, grit, charcoal, and oyster shell should be
accessible at all times.

The care of cockerels for the breeding flock does not differ from
that for pullets. Those not to be kept for breeding may be sold while
still on the range or may be fattened in crates. Successful crate fat-

DucK Ranch

Several poultrymen liave made a pronounced success of raising ducks on a
large scale. (From Wisconsin Station.)

tening demands young and vigorous stock kept closely confined in clean
crates or coops. The usual concentrate mixture consists of about 60 lbs,
corn meal and 40 lbs. red dog flour or flour wheat middlings. Oat flour
or barley flour are sometimes added. This feed is mixed with butter-
milk at the rate of 1 quart of buttermilk to 1 lb. of dry feed. The
fowls are given just a trifle less feed than they will clean up. Feed-
ing is carried on for about 14 days and gains of about 35 per et. in
live weight are common.

Ducks. — The most profitable ducks are marketed at about 10 weeks
of age when they weigh from 5 to 6 lbs. each. Young ducks should
always be fed on ground feed, animal feed, green feed, and grit mixed

394 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

into a crumbly mash. They may be started on 4 parts wheat bran,
1 part wheat middlings, and 1 part corn meal, with 5 per ct. grit
added. From 4 to 6 days of age np to 4 or 5 weeks of age add 5 per
ct. of meat scrap and plenty of green feed. From this time up to
six weeks reduce the proportion of wheat bran to 3 parts. Then feed
equal parts of wheat bran and corn meal, with 10 per ct. of meat scrap,
15 per et. of middlings, and 10 per ct. of green feed. After 8
weeks of age, corn meal should form half the ration. The balance may
be equal parts bran and middlings with 10 per ct. of the entire ration
consisting of meat scrap, 3 per ct. of grit, and about 5 per ct. of
green feed. At ten weeks they should be ready for market.

Old ducks during the laying season may be fed an ordinary
poultry mash, with plenty of green feed and with 10 per ct. of the
ration consisting of meat scrap. When not laying give good pasture
and not over 5 per ct. of meat scrap in their mash.

Geese. — ^Breeding geese should have good pasture during the sum-
mer and clover hay, oats, and bran in winter. Young goslings are
best started on bread and milk with plenty of green feed. After 2
weeks feed a light feed twice a day of equal parts wheat bran and
corn meal moistened with milk. Always supply plenty of green stuff.
When pasture is abundant they will need no other feed after 3 or 4
weeks of age.

Turkeys. — Young turkeys should be fed sparingly a mixture of
finely chopped hard boiled eggs, green stuff, and rolled oats. Feed
only what the poults will eat in about five minutes. Fine, sweet chick
feed follows in a few days. Feed sparingly and allow the poults
to "pick" as much of their living as possible on the range. Over-
feeding kills many each year. Breeding turkeys should be fed a
mixture of grains and occasionally be given some green feed during
the winter.

Hints on feeding- poultry. — For good production, either of meat or
of eggs, animals must consume a large amount of feed. Hence, feeds
must be provided which are palatable and attractive. The art of
feeding lies in stimulating the appetite of the flock so that the
birds will eat heartily; yet over feeding must be avoided, for this
causes loss of appetite and makes the birds lazy. The skilled feeder
seeks to feed growing, laying, or fattening poultry just a little less
than they would like to eat. It might appear that feeding young
stock on the range grain in hoppers or allowing laying hens to eat
dry mash in hoppers at all times is contrary to this rule. However,
as Lippincott points out,^ in both these cases the amount of the most
palatable kind of feed is limited. On range the chicks are so eager

9 Lippincott, Poultry Production, 1916, p. 366.

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 395

to secure bugs and worms that they do not overeat of the hopper-
fed grain. The laying hens prefer the scratching grain fed in the
litter to the finely ground dry mash fed in the hopper, and usually
eat only enough of the latter to piece out the allowance of scratch-
ing feed.

Feeding and watering should always be done at regular times for
all classes of poultry. At the customary feeding hour the birds will
congregate at the place of feeding, waiting for the appearance of the
feeder. If feeding time is long delayed, they become irritated and
tend to eat less, which cuts down production.

Supplying a considerable variety of feeds stimulates the appetite
and encourages the consumption of a large amount of feed. At least
two grains should preferably be given in the scratch feed and three
different feeds in the mash, in addition to green feed, and such animal
feed as meat scrap or milk. All feeds should be sound and wholesome,
as stale, moldy feeds often cause loss of appetite, diarrhea, and other
digestive disorders. Also, feeds should always be given in clean
litter, troughs, and hoppers.

QUESTIONS

1. How doet, the hen compare in efficiency of food production with other live
stock ?

2. Tell how the digestive system of poultry differs from that of other farm
animals.

3. Discuss the nutrient requirements of poultry.

4. \Yhat forms of mineral matter are fed to poultry and why?

5. Discuss the requirements of poultry for animal food, salt, water, and char-
coal.

6. Describe the kind of poultry house you would build.

7. Why is mash commonly fed to poultry?

8. What is the value of green feed for poultry?

9. Describe the various types of fowls.

10. Tell how you would feed laying hens.

11. Give an example of a good laying ration.

12. Describe the structure of the egg.

13. What points are of special importance in selecting the flock?

14. Discuss (a) saving eggs for hatching; (b) incubation; (c) hatching eggs
with hens; (d) brooding chicks with hens; and (e) artificial brooding.

15. How would you feed (a) chicks; (b) pullets; (c) fattening cockerels?

16. Tell about tiie feeding (a) of young ducks; (b) laying du^-ks; (c) geese;
(d) turkeys.

CHAPTER XXX

FEEDS FOR POULTRY
I. Carbonaceous Concentrates

Because of the nature of their digestive tract, poultry can utilize
but little roughage, so important a part of the rations for horses,
cattle, and sheep. Indeed, poultry make even less use of feeds high
in fiber than do swine. The common cereals and their by-products are
usually bulky enough for poultry, and roughages have small place
in their rations, except when fed green for succulence. Since the
cereals are all rather low in protein, they should be supplemented by
protein-rich feeds, such as meat scrap, skim milk or buttermilk, wheat
bran, linseed meal, etc.

Indian corn. — Corn is the chief grain fed to poultry in most parts
of this country, principally because they prefer it to all other cereals,
because it is rich in starch and fat, and because it is commonly the
cheapest source of digestible nutrients among the grains, from the corn
belt eastward. Since it is low in protein and mineral matter and is
also very concentrated, corn should not be fed alone, but should be
supplemented by bulkier feeds and those rich in the nutrients it lacks.
The low egg production of many farm flocks is undoubtedly often due
to the exclusive feeding of corn. Properly combined with feeds rich
in protein and mineral matter, especiall}^ calcium and phosphorus, and
fed with some bulky feed, such as green food or cut clover, corn
gives excellent results. Yellow corn produces darker colored yolks and
yellower body fat than white corn or the other cereals.

Cracking or grinding corn does not increase its digestibility for
poultry, but many crack it to force the birds to take more exercise in
picking up a full meal. Except for chicks, the grain is coarsely
cracked. Corn meal is the foundation of most poultry mashes.

Wheat; wheat screenings. — Wheat, commonly considered the best
single grain for poultry, is preferred by them to all other grain ex-
cept corn. Because of its high cost, it is not usually economical to
feed wheat as the chief grain, but a limited amount is an excellent
addition to the ration. Tho carrying more protein than corn, it should
be supplemented by protein-rich feeds. Soft wheat is more palatable
to poultry than that having hard kernels. Shrunken wheat, which is

FEEDS FOR POULTRY 397

unfit for flour making and is hence cheaper, is richer in protein and
fully as valuable for feeding as plump wheat.

Wheat screenings, when of good quality and not musty or smutted,
are satisfactory for poultry. The value depends on the proportion of
shrunken wheat and weed seeds to worthless trash.

Oats. — Due to the large amount of fiber in the hulls, oats rank

Lt

F iiii^i ,1 -iifci^wN^,.....^— P

llfftHMHH&^^^^9

^^^^P^^P^^

'■ '*"*'.''''„ . •'

Fig. 113. — Poultry Raising Fits into Intensive Agriculture

The truck gardener or the fruitgrower can often increase his profits by raising
poultry. The illustration shows chickens ranging on land planted to corn and
young fruit trees. (From Indiana Station.)

below corn or wheat for supplying nutrients. They are also usually
costly compared with corn and are not well relished by poultry.
However, mixed with other concentrates, they are useful in giving bulk
to the ration and adding variety. Plump, heavy oats should be used
for poultry as the hulls are almost worthless for them. Whole oats
or clipped oats are often fed as part of the scratch feed, rolled oats
and pin-head oat meal are favorite feeds for baby chicks, and hulled
oats are esteemed for older chicks. As pointed out later in this chap-
ter, sprouted oats are an excellent succulent feed.

Barley. — Tho less palatable than corn or wheat, barley is an ex-
cellent grain for poultry, being nearly equal to these grains in feeding
value. In sections of the West it is the most common grain for poul-
try.

398 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

The sorghums ; millet.— Kafir is well liked by poultry and is nearly
equal in value to corn or wheat. It is used in many proprietary poul-
try feeds. Milo should be equal or slightly superior to kafir. Seed
from sweet sorghum and broom corn is also satisfactory for poultry.
Millet seed is often used as a feed for young chicks. However, as it
is higher in fiber than wheat or corn, it is less valuable than these
grains. It may be injurious when fed in large amounts.

Other carbonaceous feeds. — Rye is fed but little to poultry in
America, as the other cereals are much more palatable.

Rice is not commonly fed to poultry except when off grade. Broken
rice, resulting from the manufacture of table rice, is used in some
commercial chick feeds.

Buckwheat is usually relished by poultry and forms a welcome addi-
tion to the scratch feed. It is usually too high in price to feed except
in districts where it is grown.

Emmer is well liked by poultry and resembles oats in feeding value.

Sometimes salvage grain may be secured at a price which makes its
use economical.

H-ominy feed, tho little used for poultry, is worth fully as much as
corn meal.

Dry, stale bread, which can often be secured cheaply from bak-
eries, gives good results as part of the mash. Dried bread crumbs
or cracker crumbs soaked in milk are often fed to young chicks.

II. Protein-rich Concentrates

Meat scrap. — ^As has been pointed out in the preceding chapter,
feeds of animal origin are of especial importance for poultry. In
summer poultry having abundant range can gather a considerable
amount of animal feed in the form of insects and worms, thus reducing
the amount that need be supplied. Of animal feeds, the most widely
used is meat scrap, tho in dairy districts it is wisely being replaced
by skim milk and buttermilk. In purchasing meat scrap, special at-
tention should be paid to the guaranteed amount of protein, for the
high-grade brands, carrying 55 to 60 per ct. of protein or over, are
usually much more economical than the lower grades, which usually
cost but a few dollars per ton less. Meat scrap should form from
5 to 25 per ct. of the dry mash, depending on the amount of protein
supplied in the other ingredients of the mash and in the scratching
grain. Of course, less need be supplied poultry which have ample
range in summer. Poultry do not relish dried blood or tankage.

Fresh meat. — When fresh meat or meat scraps can be secured
cheaply, they are even more satisfactory than dried meat scrap, on

FEEDS FOR POULTRY

399

account of their greater palatability. It should be remembered that
fresh lean meat contains but about 40 per ct, as much protein as
high-grade dried meat scrap, and consequently more must be used to
balance the ration.

Skim milk; buttermilk; whey. — These dairy by-products are fully
as satisfactory protein-rich feeds as dried meat scrap. They may be
given as a drink or may be used to mix with the mash, the latter
being a common practice in the commercial fattening of poultry.
Skim milk or buttermilk is especially valuable for young chicks.
Sour skim milk is preferred to sweet for poultry.

Whey, tho of much less value than skim milk or buttermilk, may be
used with good results as a drink or for moistening mashes. In using
whey, it should be remembered that it is only fairly rich in protein.

Fig. 114. — Mtlk Is an Ideal Feed for Growing Chicks

(1) Chicks, 6 weeks old, fed wheat and green clover; (2) chicks, same age, fed
cracked corn, green clover, and milk; (3) chicks, same age, fed cracked corn and
green clover. The chicks fed milk gained about 4 times as much as Lot I or
Lot in. None of them died, while the death rate in Lot I was IG per ct. and in
Lot III 40 per ct. (From TIalpin, Wisconsin Station.)

Fish scrap; fresh fish. — ^A good grade of fish scrap, from which
most of the oil has been expressed, is a satisfactory substitute for meat
scrap. The kind of fish scrap usually sold for fertilizer should not be
emj)loyed. Fresh fish are frequently fed in winter but care should
be taken to see that all tainted or spoiled meat is rejected, lest the
fowls be made sick or bad-flavored eggs result.

Milk albumin. — This is a trade name for a by-product obtained in
the manufacture of milk sugar from skim milk. In the process the
casein is precipitated by lime and the resulting cake, composed of
casein and lime, is ground and sold as milk albumin. It is a good
source of protein and is palatable to poultry, but is usually high in
price.

Green cut bone. — Many poultrymen secure from meat shops fresh
bones with adhering meat, grind them in bone cutters, and feed while

400 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

still fresh. Green cut bone of good quality is a highly satisfactory
animal feed, but its use is limited, as it will keep but a short time,
and it is often difficult to secure a supplj^ regularly. When neces-
sary to hold fresh ground bone even for d comparatively few hours
it should be spread out thinly. A paper sack full of fresh ground
green bone will frequently spoil over night, even in a cold room.
If spread out thinly it can be kept in a warmer room, where there is
no danger of freezing.

Wheat by-products. — Wheat Iran forms part of most mashes for
poultry, adding bulk to a mixture of heavier concentrates. Even
when bran is high in price, compared with other feeds, the use of a
limited amount may be advisable on account of its slightly laxative
and cooling effect. 31iddlings are used in most poultry mashes.

Linseed meal. — Because of its beneficial effect on the digestive sys-
tem and its laxative action, linseed meal is a valuable feed for poultry,
but should not form over 10 per ct. of the ration. It is undesirable
for use in wet mashes because of its gummy nature and is unpalatable
when fed in large amounts. Old-process linseed meal is especially
helpful during the moulting season and in fitting birds for shows, as
it hastens the growth of feathers and gives them luster.

Cottonseed meal. — Contradictory results have been secured in trials
where cottonseed meal has been fed to poultry. In some cases it has
been substituted successfully for dried meat scrap, but in others the
results have been much less satisfactory. As a result, poultrymen
at present do not favor this concentrate.

Sunflower seeds. — Sunflower seeds, rich in oil and high in protein,
are often used in fitting poultry for shows and as a conditioner during
the moulting season, since they hasten the growth of feathers and give
luster, the same as does linseed meal. They are frequently grown for
shade in poultry yards, the heads being fed to the flock. Except when
thus used they are rarely economical for general use in balancing the
ration.

Miscellaneous protein-rich concentrates. — Wet drewers' grains are
excellent for poultry, if fed fresh, for they are palatable and succulent.

Dried hrewers' grains are often economical to use as part of the
mash. Gluten feed, palatable and satisfactory for poultry, is com-
monly an economical protein-rich feed, due to its richness in protein
and its high digestibility.

Buckwheat middlings and buckivheat bran of good grade may be
used as a substitute for wheat bran in mashes. Low-grade bran, con-
taining much hulls, should not be fed to poultry.

Field peas, soybeans, and coivpeas are all satisfactory for poultry,
but are not commonly fed because they are usually high in price.

FEEDS FOR POULTRY 401

Meal from these protein-rich seeds may be used as part of the mash
to balance the ration.

III. Succulent Feeds and Roughages

Mangels. — For winter feeding, mangels are one of the best succulent
feeds, due to the ease of growth and large yield, and to the fact that
they keep well during the winter. A good method of feeding is to
split the beets lengthwise and stick the halves on nails driven in the
walls of the pen, about 18 inches from the floor, and then allow the
fowls to pick at them.

Cabbag-e. — Cabbage is highly relished by poultry and is probably the
best green feed for fall and early winter use. Experiments at the
"Wisconsin Station ^ seem to give cabbage first place among the green
feeds, especially while the hens are moulting. The cabbage should
be fastened to a wire clamp on a string suspended from the ceiling,
and should be about 18 inches above the floor, so that the birds may
reach it easily.

Sprouted oats. — The sprouting of oats to furnish succulent feed
during the winter is increasing in popularity among poultrymen.
Tho oats may be sprouted in several ways, ,the following is the
method usually employed: The oats are placed in a pail or tub,
which is filled with water at a temperature of not over 100° F., to
which are added 10 drops of formalin for each 10 quarts.- The oats
are allowed to soak over night in a warm room and next morning they
are spread to a depth of one inch on a tray. This is commonly placed
in a rack, made to hold at least 7 trays. The oats are kept in a
room in which the temperature is not lower than 60° F., and are
sprinkled with warm water once or twice a day. In 7 to 10 days the
top sprouts will be 2 to 3 inches long and the oats ready for use.
They are usually fed in broad, flat troughs, no more being given than
the birds will clean up within half an hour.

Other succulent feeds for winter. — Sugar beets are satisfactory for
poultry but are usually more expensive per pound of dry matter
contained than are mangels. Turnips and rutabagas may be fed to
poultry but should be used in moderation or they will impart a bad
flavor to the eggs. They are especially suited for fall feeding, as
they do not keep as well as mangels.

Silage of good (luality may be fed to poultry with good results, but
nearly all poultrymen prefer some other form of succulence. In feed-
ing corn silage care should be taken to choose the leafy part rather

1 Halpin, Information to the authors.

2 Lewis, Productive Poultry Husbandry, 11)14, p. 189.

402 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

than that which is largely corn. Silage should be fed in small
quantities until the flock becomes accustomed to it.

Green feeds for spring and summer. — For early spring rye pasture
is an excellent green feed. To prevent scours the fowls should not be
allowed to eat a large amount of the rye until they become accustomed
to it. Green alfalfa and green clover furnish excellent grazing for
poultry or may be cut as soilage and fed to birds confined to bare lots.
Rape, planted early, may be pastured thruout the season, or will
yield several cuttings, if not cut below the crown. Lettuce is excellent
for broiler chicks in early spring before other green feed is available.
Onion tops and onions are relished by poultry when fed in small
amounts, and give variety to the ration. Too large amounts fed to
laying hens will taint the eggs. Sliced onions are the best of all
green feeds for very small chicks but are not usually fed in large
quantities because of the high cost.

Legume hay. — The only dry roughage of any value for poultry is
cut or ground legume hay. This is often used as part of the dry
mash to increase its bulk, up to one-fourth of the mash consisting
of the legume hay. Alfalfa hay is used somewhat more commonly than
clover hay, tho there is little difference in their value. Poultry, how-
ever, prefer clover to alfalfa. Cut alfalfa or clover hay, when
steamed, may be used as a temporary substitute for succulent feed.
On the farm, the leaves which shatter from legume hay in feeding to
other stock should be saved for the poultry. Alfalfa or clover meal
is not better than the finely cut hay.

QUESTIONS

1. What precautions should be used in feeding corn to poultry?

2. What grain is commonly considered the best single grain for poultry?
Discuss its use.

3. How do oats and barley compare with corn and wheat for poultry?

4. What is the value for poultry of the sorghums, millet, rye, rice, buckwheat,
emmer, hominy feed, and stale bread?

5. Discuss the value of the most widely used animal feed.

6. Tell what yoti can about 6 other animal feeds used for poultry.

7. What is the use in poultry feeding of wheat bran, wheat middlings, linseed
meal, cottonseed meal, and sunflower seeds?

8. Discuss the value of the 3 best succulent feeds for winter feeding.

9. W'hat other succulent feeds are used in flocks in your vicinity in winter
and in the growing season?

10. How is legume hay used in poultry feeding?

APPENDIX

Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs

The following averages, showing the composition of the most important
American feeding stuffs, are taken from the much more extensive table in the
unabridged edition of Feeds and Feeding. Tliis table and Appendix Tables II
and III are based upon an exhaustive compilation, made by the authors, of the
analyses and digestion coefficients reported by the State Experiment Stations
and the United States Department of Agriculture. The completeness and ac-
curacy of the data here presented is evident from the fact that merely the
preparation of the unabridged tables required the time of trained assistants
equivalent to one person working steadily for three years, in addition to the
supervision of the authors. The student desiring to know the composition and
digestibility of feeding stufl's not given in these tables is referred to the ex-
haustive tables in the unabridged Feeds and Feeding.

This table and Appendix Tables II and III are fully protected by copyright.

Feeding stuff

Water

Ash

Crude
protein

Perct.

Perct.

Perct

9.3

2.7

11.5

11.8

29

10.2

12.1

2.1

10.8

10.5

1.5

10.1

12.2

1.5

10,4

30.6

1.0

7.4

9.3

1.8

11 5

10.4

1.5

8.5

11.4

2.8

96

9.5

4.6

8.9

9.4

4.6

19.5

11.6

3.4

23.6

9.9

2.0

10.1

8.7

3.7

11.9

10.8

1.5

11.5

9.2

4.3

22.6

12.6

3.8

26.2

11.8

1.7

11.1

12.5

2.8

9.7

9.9

1.9

10.5

9.1

3.3

11.8

10.7

2.8

107

10.3

3.1

10.0

9.2

3.5

12.4

Carbohydrates

Fiber

N-iree
e.xtract

Fat

Perct.

Perct.

Per ct.

4.6

69.8

2.1

8.2

63.5

3.4

10.3

62.2

2.5

2.0

70.9

5.0

1.5

69.4

5.0

1.2

56.0

3.8

2.3

67.2

79

7.9

67.6

4.1

7.4

65.0

3.8

13.7

59.7

3.6

22.6

24.9

19.0

4.1

55.8

1.5

1.7

72.8

3.5

10.1

63.7

1.9

1.2

71.7

3.3

7.1

23.2

33.7

7.1

49.4

0.9

2.3

70.1

3.0

6.4

65.9

2 7

1.5

71.9

4.3

7.8

64.7

3.3

2.4

70.5

2,9

5.9

68.1

2.6

10.9

59.6

4.4

No. of

anal-

CONCENTRATES

Grains and seeds

Barley

Broom-corn seed

Buckwheat

Corn, dent

Corn, flint

Corn, soft

Corn, sweet, mature

Corn-and-cob meal

Corn and oat feed

Corn and oat feed, low grade . .

Cotton seed

Cowpea

Durra grain

Emmer (spelt)

Feterita grain

Flax seed

Horse bean

Kafir grain

Kafir-head chops

Kaoliang grain

Hog, or broom-corn, millet seed

Jlilo grain

Milo-head chops

Oats

298
4

18
440

52
154

67

1,789

386

38

30

5
37

1
50

2
135

21
12
52

125
40

490

403

404

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table I. Average Composition of Amekican Feeding Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuff

CONCEX TR ATES — COn .

Grains and seeds — con.

Peanut, with hull

Pea, field

Rice, rough

Rye

Shallu grain

Sorghum grain

Soybean

Velvet bean, seed

Velvet bean, seed and pod

Wheat, all analyses

Wheat, spring

Wheat, winter

By-products of factories, etc.

Beet pulp, dried

Beet pulp, molasses-

Beet pulp, wet

Brewers' grains, dried

Brewers' grains, wet

Buckwheat bran, high grade

Buckwheat feed, good grade

Buckwheat feed, low grade

Buckwheat hulls

Buckwheat middlings

Cocoanut meal, low in fat

Corn bran

Corn cob

Pold-pressed cottonseed cake

Cottonseed meal, choice

Cottonseed meal, prime

Cottonseed meal, good

Cottonseed feed

Cottonseed hulls

Distillers' grains, dried, from corn
©istillers' grains, dried, from rye

Distillers' grains, wet

Flax feed

Flax screenings

perm oil meal

Gluten feed

Gluten meal

Hominy feed

Linseed meal, new process

Linseed meal, old process

Malt sprouts

Molasses, beet

Molasses, cane, or blackstrap ....

Per ct.

6.5
!).2
9.G
9.4
9.7
12.7

9.9
11.7
12.3
102
10.1
10.9

8.2
7.0
90.7
7.5
75.9
11.2
11.8

11.9
10.3
12.0

9.0
10.0
10.0

7.9

7.5
7.8
7.9
8.3
9.7
60
7.2

77.4
9.4
8.6
8.9
8.7
9 1

10.1

9.6

9.1

7.6

25.3

25.8

ferct.

4.1
3.4
49
2.0
1.6
1.0

5.3
2.6
4.0
1.9
2.0
1.8

3.5
5.6
0.4
3 5
1.0
4.2
4,4

3.2

2.1
4.8
4.0
2.4
1.5
4.2

6.2
6.6
6 4
4.9

2.7
26
3.9

0.6
7.3
8.2
27
21
1.1

2.6
5.6
5.4
6.1
5.2
6.4

Crude
proteiu

Perct.

20.4
22.9

7.6
11.8
12.5

9.2

36.5
20.8
17.1
12.4
12.5
11.7

8.9
9.5
0.9
26.5
5.7
22.3
19,3

13.3
44

28 3

20.9
9.7
2.0

26.1

44.1
39.8
376
245
4.6
30,7
23,1

45
166
15.4
22.6
25.4
35.5

10 6
36.9
33 9
26.4
3,5
3.1

Carbohjdrates

Perct,

16.4
56
9 3
1.8
1.7
2.0

4,3

7.5
143
2.2

2.7
2.0

18.9

15.9
2.1

14.6
3.6
7.1

17.9

28.5
43,7

4.8
11.2

9,8
318
24.0

8.1
10.1
115
21.4
43.8
11.6
10.9

2.8
11.2
15.5
9.0
7.1
2.1

4.4

8.7
8.4
12.6

N-free
extract

Perct.

16.4
57.8
66.7
73.2
71.1
70.8

26.5

510
47.7
712
70.5
71.6

59.6
60.7
5.7
41.0
12.1
49,4
41.4

39.7
38.5
42.7
45.3
62.4
54.3
30.1

25.0
27.4
28.4
34 6
37.3
36.3
47.1

13.1
41.3
40.5
46.0
52.9
47.5

64 3
36.3
35.7
45.6
66.0
64.7

At>PENDlX

405

Table 1. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuff

Crude
proteiu

Carbohydrates

Concentrates — con.
By-products of factories, etc. — con.

Oat bran

Oat dust

Oat feed, low grade

Oat hulls

Oat middlings

Peanut cake, from hulled nuts . . .

Potato flakes, dried

Red dog flour

Rice bran, high grade

Rice bran, low grade

Rice hulls

Rice polish

Rye bran

Rye feed ( middlings and bran ) . .

Rye middlings

Soybean meal, fat extracted

Wheat bran

Wheat feed (middlings and bran)

Wheat flour, patent

Wheat middlings, flour

Wheat middlings, standard

(shorts)

Wheat screenings

Animal products

Buttermilk

Cow's milk, whole

Dried blood

Fish meal, high in fat

Meat-and-bone meal, 30-40% ash

Meat scrap, high grade

Meat scrap, fair grade

Poultry bone

Skim milk, centrifugal

Tankage, over 60% protein

Tankage, 55-60% protein

Tankage, 45-55% protein

Whey

Dried Roughage

Hay and cured forage from grasses
and cereals

Barley hay, common

Bermuda hay

Bluegrass hay, Kentucky

Brome hay

Crab grass hay

Corn fodder ( ears, if any, remain-
ing), very dry, from barn or
arid districts

Perct. Peret

6.4
6.6

10.2
6.8
7.3

10.7

12.1
11.1
10.1
9.5
n.3
10.0

11.4
11.5
11.4
11.8
10.1

10.1
12.3

10.7

10.5
10.2

90.6
86.4
9.7
10.8^
6.0
7.5
6.7

7.3
90.1
7.4
7.5
7.5
93.4

7.4
9.7
13.2
8.5
9.5

9.0

6.1
7.0
4.0
6.0
3.2
4.9

4.0
2.5
9.7
11.3
16.9
4.8

3.5

3.8
3.7
5.4
6.3

5.2
0.5
3.7

4.4
3.9

0.7
0.7
3.3
29.2
36.8
16.6
25.5

01.7
0.7
10.5
13.6
19.7
0.7

7.7
8.5

Perct.

12.2
12.6
9.6
4.0
16.3
47.6

7.1
16.8
12.1
10.9

3.3
11.9

15.3
15.3
15.7
■414
16.0

16.8
10.9
17.8

17.4
• 13.3

3.6
3.5

82.3
48.4
39.8
59.3
52.0

24.3

3.8
63.1
58.1
51.7

0.8

7.0
7.1

Perct. Perct.

9.9
8.0

18.3
18.7
18.5
29.2
4.6
5.1

2.9

2.2

12.4

15.8

35.4

1.9

4.0
4.7
4.6
5.3
9.5

7.6
0.4
4.7

6.0
7.4

2.1

29.7
25.6
28.3
31.3

28.7

27.2

52.3
49.9
53.8
52.3
61.8
23.7

73.6
63.3
44.3
42.7
34.0
62.3

62.7
61.5
61.2
28.7
53.7

55.7
74.6
58.1

56.8
61.1

5.0
5.0
3.8

4.1
5.0
5.4

3.6
5.2
2.5
2.9
4.2
4.8

47.3
48.2
40.7
40.2
42.9

47.3

4.7
5.2
3.9
1.7
6.8
8.0

0.3
4.1
11.4
9.8
1.1
9.1

3.1
3.2
3.4

7.4
4.4

4.6
1.3
5.0

4.9
4.1

0.1
4.4
0.9
11.6
11.2
11.6
10.4

3.1
0.2
12.9
13.0
14.0
0.3

406

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuff

Dried Roughage — con.
Hay and cured forage from grasses

and cereals — con.
Corn fodder, medium in water . . .

Corn fodder, high in water

Corn fodder, sweet

Corn stover (ears removed), very-
dry

Corn stover, medium in water . . .

Corn stover, high in water

Fowl meadow grass hay

Foxtail or wild barley hay

Japanese cane fodder

Johnson grass hay

Kafir fodder, dry

Kafir fodder, high in water

Kafir stover, dry

Millet hay, barnyard

Millet hay, common, or Hungarian

Millet hay, German

Milo fodder, dry

Natal grass hay

Oat hay

Orchard grass hay

Para grass hay

Prairie hay, western

Red top hay

Sorghum fodder, dry

Sorghum fodder, high in water . .
Sudan hay

Teosinte hay

Timothy hay, all analyses

Timothy hay, cut before bloom . . .
Timothy hay, cut at early to full

bloom

Timothy hay, cut at late bloom . .

Timothy rowen hay

Wheat hay

Hay from the legumes

Alfalfa, all analyses

Alfalfa, before bloom

Alfalfa, in bloom

Alfalfa, in seed

Alfalfa meal

Alfalfa leaves

Beggarweed

Clover, alsike

Clover, bur

Clover, crimson, or scarlet

Crude
protein

Carbohydrates

Water

Ash

N-free

Fat

e.xtraet

Per ct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Per ct.

18.3

5.0

(J. 7

22.0

45.8

2.2

39.3

3.0

4.8

16.7

34.2

1.4

12.3

9.0

9.2

26.4

41.3

1.8

9.4

5.8

5.9

30.7

46.6

1.6

19.0

5.5

5.7

27.7

40.9

1.2

41.0

3.8

3.9

20.1

30.2

1.0

11.1

73

9.8

28.8

40.4

2.7

7.5

8.8

7.0

27.4

47.3

2.0

6.8

2.0

1.4

20.G

67.3

1.9

10.1

7.5

6.6

30.2

43.5

2.1

9.0

9.4

8.9

26.8

43.1

2.8

28.3

3.3

6.5

21.6

37.6

2.7

16.3

8.3

5.1

27.4

41.2

1.7

13.5

8.2

8.3

27.6

40.8

1.6

14.3

6.3

8.3

24.0

44.3

2.8

8.7

6.9

8.0

27.3

46.5

2.6

11.1

9.9

12.0

18.4

44.1

4.5

9.8

5.0

7.4

36.8

39.2

1.8

12.0

6.8

8.4

28.3

41.7

2.8

11.6

6.9

7.9

30.3

40.4

2.9

9.8

6.6

4.6

33.6

44.5

0.9

6.5

7.7

8.0

30.5

44.7

2.6

9.8

6.8

7.4

28.7

45.0

2.3

9.7

7.8

7.4

26.1

45.9

3.1

37.4

3.1

3.9

17.8

35.0

2.8

10.0

6.4

6.1

30.6

45.4

1.5

10.6

10.3

9.1

26.4

41.7

1.9

11.0

4.9

6.2

29.9

45.0

2.5

7.2

6.6

9.8

28.1

45.1

3.2

12.8

4.6

6.3

29.5

44.2

2.6

14.9

4 5

5.5

28.3

44.0

2.8

15.1

6.9

14.4

24.3

.34.9

4.4

8.1

6.4

6.2

24.7

52.6

2.0

8.6

8.6

14.9

28.3

37.3

2.3

62

100

22 0

20.5

37.1

4.2

7.5

10.0

15.0

30.2

.35.5

1.8

10.4

7.0

12.2

27.6

40.3

2.5

8.8

9.0

14.3

30.1

35.8

2.0

66

13.6

22.5

12.7

41.2

3.4

9.1

8.4

15.4

27.5

37.3

2.3

12.3

8.3

12.8

25.7

38.4

2.5

7.0

10.8

19.2

23.0

37.0

3.0

10.6

8.8

14.1

27.3

36.9

2.3

APPENDIX

407

Table I. Average Compositiox of Ameeican Feedixg Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuff

Carbohydrates 1

Crude
protein

Ash

Fiber

Nfree
e.xtract

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

G.2

10.8

27.0

34.2

7.1

12.8

25.5

38.7

7.4

13.1

23.1

39.1

6.0

11.6

21.9

33.8

6.4

9.9

28.5

42.3

6.1

8.0

29.9

40.8

7.2

14.5

27.4

40.1

8.0

16.2

23.2

41.0

7.3

16.5

20.4

37.3

11.9

19.3

22.5

34.0

5.8

12.1

25.9

41.6

7.!)

15.1

24.5

37.9

7.3

11.4

25.6

36.5

6.8

13.3

24.3

37.4

8.7

9.1

20.2

.36.8

8.6

16.0

24.9

39.1

7.4

16.4

27.5

38.4

8.2

17.3

26.2

38.7

8.6

19.9

24.8

31.6

6.7

10.6

27.2

37.3

6.8

14.5

27.2

34.4

5.7

3.5

36.0

39.1

7.2

7.3

30.8

42.9

5.5

5.2

43.0

35 1

5.4

6.8

44.5

33.6

7.0

7.5

38.8

32.9

7.0

7.2

42.5

32.9

5.2

36

35.8

39.7

11.5

5.9

25.7

46.3

5.4

3.6

36.3

40.8

14.5

3.9

33.5

39.2

3.2

3.0

38.9

46.6

6.8

5.6

36.8

37.2

7.2

4.2

28.0

44.8

5.2

3.1

37.4

44.4

2.]

3.3

0.0

11.0

2.3

3.0

8.0

18.9

2.8

4.1

8.7

14.8

2.9

4.2

9.3

15.1

3.6

4.6

8.0

19.5

1.2

1.9

5.2

13.0

1.2

1.9

5.5

13.9

1.1

1.6

4.3

7.6

Dried Roughage — con.
Hay from the legumes — con.

Clover, mammoth red

Clover, red, all analyses

Clover, red, in bloom

Clover, red, after bloom

Clover and mi.Ked grasses

Clover and timothy

Clover, sweet, white

Clover, white

Clover rowen

Cowpea

Lespedeza, or Japan clover

Pea, field

Peas and oats

Peanut vine, with nuts

Peanut vine, without nuts

Soybean hay

Velvet bean

Vetch, common

Vetch, hairy

Vetch and oats

Vetch and wheat

Straic and chaff

Barley straw

Bean straw

Buckwheat straw

Cowpea straw

Crimson clover straw

Fla.v: shives

Millet straw

Oat chaff

Oat straw

Rice straw

Rye straw

Sovbean straw

Wheat chaff

Wheat straw

Fresh Green Roughage

Green forage from grasses and

cereals

Barley fodder

Bermuda grass

Bluegrass, Kentucky

Brome grass, smooth

Buckwheat, Japanese

Corn fodder, all analyses

Corn fodder, dent, ail analyses . .
Corn fodder, dent, in tassel

Perct.

18.7
12.9
13.9
22.1
10.1
12.2

8.1
14.8

9.7
11.8
11.1
16.6

7.S

21.5
8.6
7.2
7.1
12.3
15.7
15.0

14.2

10.5
9.9
8.5

12.3
7.2

14.2

8.2
11.5

7.5

7.1
11.9
14.4

8.4

76.8
66.8
68.4
67.0
63.4
78.1
76.9
85.1

3.1
3.1
3.4
4.6
2.8
2.4
2.2

2.9
3.7
2.6
2.8
3.5
2.6
10.4

3.7
2.8
3.1
2.5

2.8

1.5
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.5
3.2
1.5

2.4
2.4
1.4
1.2
1.7
1.4
1.5

0.8
1.0
1.2
1.5
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.3

408

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuff

Crude
protein

Carbohydrates

Water

Ash

Fiber

N-free
extract

Fat

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct

80.1

1.1

1.6

4.9

11.7

0.6

74.9

1.1

2.1

5.6

15.4

0.9

73.8

1.2

2.0

6.2

16.2

0.0

65.2

1.4

2.7

7.4

22.3

1.0

79.3

1.0

1.9

4.6

12.6

0.6

79.7

1.2

1.9

4.4

12.2

0.6

78.5

1.3

1.0

5.6

12.0

0.4

69.1

4.3

2.7

9.1

13.8

1.0

64.3

3.5

4.9

11.8

14.1

1.4

70.9

2.0

2.5

9.3

14.4

0.9

76.4

1.9

2.4

6.6

12.0

0.7

78.7

1.6

1.7

6.7

10.7

0.6

72.4

2.1

2.9

8.4

13.3

0.9

81.3

1.6

1.8

6.2

8.8

0.3

77.3

1.4

1.8

7.0

12.1

0.4

70.3

3.0

5.1

6.3

13.8

1.5

69.2

1.8

3.0

10.6

14.1

1.3

73.9

2.1

3.2

7.8

11.9

1.1

87.0

1.6

4.9

1.7

4.0

0.8

70.8

2.5

2.9

9.8

12.9

1.1

72.8

2.4

1.7

9.2

13.4

0.5

60.7

2.7

3.1

12 2

20.2

1.1

78.7

1.7

2.6

7.3

9.0

0.7

75.1

1.4

1.5

7.0

14.0

1.0

78.7

2.0

1.7

6.7

10.4

0.5

62.5

2.2

3.1

11.7

19.3

1.2

72.6

2.7

3.6

7.5

12.8

0.8

74.7

2.4

4.5

7.0

10.4

1.0

80.1

2.3

4.7

4.2

7.9

0.8

74.1

2.5

4.4

7.8

10.4

0.8

70.2

2.2

2.9

12.8

11.3

0.6

72.9

3.2

4.2

7.5

11.7

0.5

75.7

2.4

4.1

6.5

10.7

0.6

79.2

2.3

5.1

3.9

7.8

1.7

82.6

1.7

3.0

4.7

7.4

0.6

74.9

2.3

4.0

7.3

11.0

0.5

73.8

2.1

4.1

7.3

11.7

1.0

72.7

1.6

3.0

8.5

13.3

0.9

75.6

2.1

4.4

7.0

10.2

0.7

78.2

2.7

4.6

4.2

9.5

0.8

83.7

2.0

3.0

3.8

7.0

0.5

80.0

1.8

2.1

5.3

10.4

0.4

81.3

1.7

1.5

5.5

9.5

0.5

82.4

2.0

3.6

4.2

7.3

0.5

83.4

1.6

3.6

4.0

6.9

0..5

Fresh Green Roughage — con.
Green forage from grasses and
cereals — con.

Corn fodder, dent, in milk

Corn fodder, dent, dough to glazing
Corn fodder, dent, kernels glazed
Corn fodder, dent, kernels ripe . .
Corn fodder, flint, all analyses . . .
Corn fodder, sweet, roasting ears
or later

Corn fodder, sweet, ears removed

Crab grass

Foxtail or wild barley

Johnson grass

Kafir fodder

Millet, barnyard ^

Millet, common, or Hungarian . . .

Millet, pearl, or cat-tail

^Milo fodder

Mixed grasses, immature

^lixed grasses, at haying stage . . .

Oat fodder

Oat fodder, 8 in. high

Orchard grass

Para grass

Red top

Rye fodder

Sweet sorghum fodder

Teosinte

Timothy

Wheat fodder

Green legumes

Alfalfa, all analyses

Alfalfa, before bloom

Alfalfa, in bloom

Alfalfa, after bloom

Beggarweed

Clover, alsike

Clover, bur

Clover, crimson

Clover, mammoth red

Clover, red

Clover and mixed grasses

Clover, sweet

Clover, white

Cowpeas

Cowpeas and corn

Cowpeas and sorghum

Horse bean

Peas, field, Canada

APPENDIX

409

Table I. Average Composition of Ajiehican Feeding Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuff

Fkesh Green Roughage — con.
Green legumes — con.

Peas and oats

Kudzu vine

Lespedeza, or Japan clover

Serradella

Soybeans

Soybeans and corn

Soybeans and kafir

Velvet bean

Vetcli, common . . . .

Vetch, hairy

Vetch and oats . . . .
Vetch and wheat . .

Roots, tubers, etc.

Artichoke

Beet, common

Beet, sugar

Carrot

Cassava

Chufa

IMangel

Parsnip

Potato

Rutabaga . . .
Sweet potato
Turnip

Miscellaneous green forages

Apple

Apple pomace

Cabbage

Cactus, cane, entire plant ....

Cactus, prickly pear

Kale

Kohlrabi

Pumpkin, field

Rape

Saltbush, Australian
Sugar beet leaves . . .
Sugar beet tops . . . .

Silage

Alfalfa

Apple pomace

Barley

Clover

Corn, well matured .
Corn, immature . . . .

Perct.

77.4
G9.4
63.4
70.8
7(5.4
702

S2.0
82 1
70.6
81.8
73.-)
77.3

79.5
87 0
83 6
88.3
07.4
705

no.o

834

788
80.1
088
00.5

81.8
70.7
01.1

80.0
83 5

88 7

91.0
91.7
83.3
70.7

88.4
88.6

75 4
79 4
75 0
72.2
737
79 0

2.0
22
3.5
3.0
2.4
1.7

2.1
2.0
2.1
2 2
2.3
1.0

1.7
1.5
1.1
1.2
1.0
0.4

1.0
13
1,1
1.0
1.1
0.9

0.4
10
0.8
1.7
3,4
1.9

1.3
0.9
2.2
5.4
1.8
2.0

2,0
1.0
2.0
2.5
1.7
1,4

Crude

proteiu

2,0
3.5
3,8
4.2
3.8
33

2.0
1.0
1.6
1.2
1.1
0.7

1,4
17
2 2
12
1.8
1,4

05
1.0
2.2

0.9
08
2.4

2,0
1.4
2,9
3,7
1.9

3.5
1,0
2,6
3.7
2,1
19

Carbohydrates

Perct,

6.3

8.3
10.7
4.8
0,3
5.4

6.2
5 1

5.5
5.0
7.5
7.1

0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.4

OS
1.3
0.4
1.4
1.3
1.1

1.3
4.6
0.9
1.1
2.3
1,5

1,3
1,3
2.0
4.4
1.1
1.2

8,2
4.5
9.4
90
6.3
5 8

N-free
I'Xtract

Perct.

10.1
13.0
14.7
8.8
9.8
13.2

0.2
0,0
8.5
6 3
12.0
10.1

15 0
8 9

12.0
8.0

28,8
10,5

0,1
11,9
17.4

7,0
20,4

5,9

150
14,5
4.7
6 5
9.7
5.0

43
42
8.4
9.4
6,5
5.3

8.6
122

9.4
11.5
154
113

1.0
1.0
1.0
0.7
1.0
0.8

0.6
0,7
0,5
0.5
0,0
0.6

01
01
0 1
0 2
0.3
6.6

01
0,4
01
0 3
00
0,2

0.4
16
03
0.2
0.3
0.5

0.1
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.3

1.4
13
1.0
1,1
0.8
0,6

410

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuff

Crude
protein

Carboiiydrates

Water

Ash

Fiber

N-free
extract

Fat

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

Perct.

80.4

1.4

1.4

6.3

9.8

0.7

71.4

2.2

3.3

7.7

14.5

0.9

75.3

2.0

2.5

6.7

12.5

1.0

78.0

2.2

3.2

6.3

9.4

0.9

72.1

2.6

3.8

7.8

12.5

1.2

77.6

2.0

1.5

8.6

9.7

0.6

69.2

2.5

1.8

9.9

15.5

1.1

68.4

3.4

2.8

9.7

14.6

1.1

71.7

1.9

2.0

9.8

13.3

1.3

72.5

2.8

3.8

9.6

10.0

1.3

76.8

1.3

2.8

6.5

11.3

1.3

72.8

2.1

3.0

9.8

11.6

0.7

77.2

1.6

1.5

6.9

11.9

0.9

67.7

2.2

2.4

8.5

18.2

1.0

72.9

3.5

3.9

8.1

10.3

1.3

77.0

4.4

2.8

4.7

10.6

0.5

90.0

0.3

1.5

3.1

4.7

0.4

69.9

2.4

3.5

9.8

13.4

1.0

70.2

1.2

6.4

4.5

15.6

2.1

Silage — con.
Corn, from field-cured stover

Corn and clover

Corn and soybean

Cowpea

Field pea

Japanese cane

Kafir

Millet

Oat

Oat and pea

Pea-cannery refuse

Rye

Sorghum, sweet

Sorghum and cowpea

Soybean

Sugar beet leaves

Sugar beet pulp

Vetch

Wet brewers' grains

APPENDIX 411

Table II. Average Digestibility of Important Feeding Stuffs

The following digestion coefficients, obtained in experiments with ruminants,
for some of the most important American feeds are taken from the extensive
table in the unabridged edition of Feeds and Feeding. The coeificients marked
'•H & M" have been compiled by the authors; those marked "L" are from the
compilation by Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station; and those marked "M"
are from Mentzel and Lengerke's Landicirtschaftliche Kalender.

Feeding stuff

Concentrates

Barley

Beet pulp, dried

Brewers' grains, dried . .

Corn cob

Corn-and-cob meal

Corn meal

Cottonseed meal

Cowpea meal

Distillers' grains, largely

from corn

Emmer

Flax seed

Gluten feed

Hominy feed

Kafir, ground

Linseed meal, old process

Malt sprouts

Molasses, cane, or black-
strap

Oat hulls

Oats

Rice polish

Rye meal

Skim milk

Soybeans, ground

Wheat, ground

Wheat bran

Wheat feed

Wheat middlings, flour . .
Wheat middlings, stand'd

Dried Roughage

Alfalfa hay

Barley hay

Bermuda grass hay

Bluegrass hay, Kentucky

Brome grass hay

Clover hay, alsike

Clover hay, crimson

Clover hay, red

Clover and timothy hay. .
Corn fodder, dent, mature

No. of

trials

109

4

9

7

11

15

13

25

13

30

Dry

matter

Per (■
88
75
61
54
79
90

Crude
protein

Per ct.

78
52
81
19
52
74
84

Carbohydrates

Fiber N-free
" "'^'^ extract

Per ct.

78

89
50
84
93
95

74

95

88
86
85
91
70

89
85

412

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table II. Average Digestibility of Important Feeding Stuefs — continued.

Feeding stuflf

Dried Roughage — con.

Corn stover

Cottonseed liulls

CoAvpea hay

Johnson grass liay

Kafir fodder

Kafir stover

Millet hay, Hungarian . .

Oat hay

Oat straw

Orchard grass hay

Peas and oats hay

Prairie hay, western ....

Red top hay

Sorghum fodder

Soybean hay

Timothy hay

Vetch hay, hairy

Fresh Gree.v Roughage

Alfalfa

Beet, sugar

Clover, red

Corn fodder, dent, mature

Cowpea

Mangel

Oat fodder

Pea, field, Canada

Peas and oats

Potato

Rape

Red top

Rutabaga

Sorghum fodder

Soybean

Timothy

Vetch, hairy

Silage
Corn, dent, well matured

Corn and soybean

Kafir, well matured

Oat and pea

Sorghum, well matured .

Carbohydrates

Dry

matter

Crude

trials

protein

Fiber

Nfree
extract

Fat

Per ct.

Perot.

Per ct.

Per ct.

Perct.

35

57

37

66

59

62

13

41

6

47

34

79

4

59

68

47

68

39

9

57

44

67

57

46

8

59

46

60

67

60

5

56

34

67

60

75

2

65

60

08

67

64

22

54

54

52

56

61

18

54

28

00

51

39

3

58

60

61

56

55

7

62

73

58

61

59

16

58

53

42

3

60

62

61

63

53

20

58

38

61

63

65

4

60

73

57

64

44

58

55

48

50

02

50

8

67

79

59

71

67

o

61

74

42

72

38

30

72

34

97

o

66

67

53

78

05

23

09

54

59

75

75

4

68

76

60

81

59

6

S4

59

78

94

5

73

55

63

70

8

03

81

49

74

54

10

70

74

59

68

64

30

51

90

4

86

89

87

92

49

3

61

61

62

50

o

87

80

74

95

84

G

65

44

55

73

64

23

64

77

45

75

53

3

63

48

56

66

53

14

71

S3

64

77

72

27

66

51

65

71

82

8

69

63

62

77

83

3

55

57

62

50

2

65

75

61

67

75

3

57

58

64

56

APPENDIX

413

Table III. A\terage Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con-
stituents IN American Feeding Stuffs

The data in this table which includes the important American feeding stuffs are
taken from the much more extensive table in the unabridged edition of Feeds
and Feeding. The digestible nutrients have been computed from the data in
Appendix Table I and the extensive compilation of digestion coefficients given in
the unabridged edition of this book. Where no digestion coefficients are available
for any feed, the digestion coefficients for a similar feed have been used and
that fact indicated by an asterisk. The total digestible nutrients given in the
fifth column is the sum of the digestible crude protein, the digestible carbo-
hydrates, and the digestible fat X 2.25. For convenience in computing rations,
the nutritive ratio of each feeding stuff is shown in the sixth column.

The figures for dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible
nutrients are printed in black-face type, since these values are the only ones
needed in computing rations according to the Modified VVolff-Lehmann Standards
given in Appendix Table V.

Ihe fertilizing constituents given are mostly from an exhaustive compilation
by the authors of the analyses reported by the State Experiment Stations and
the United States Department of Agriculture. A fev/ values have been taken
from Mentzel and Lengerke's Landivirtschaftliche Kalender for 1914, and other
sources.

This table is fully protected by copyright.

Feeding stuff

Concentrates
Grains and seeds

Barlej'

Broom-corn seed * .

Buckwheat

Corn, dent

Corn, flint

Corn, soft

Corn, sweet *

Corn-and-cob meal .
Corn and oat feed,

high grade * ....
Corn and oat feed,

low grade *

Cotton seed

Cowpea

Durra grain *

Emmer (spelt) . . . .
Feterita grain * . . .

Flax seed

Horse bean

Kafir grain

Kafir-head chops . . .
Kaoliang grain * . .

Total dry
matter In
100 lbs.

Lbs.

90.7
88.2
87.9
89.5
87.8
69.4
90.7

89.6

90.5
90.6
88.4

90.1
91.3
89.2
90.8
87.4
88.2
87.5
90.1

DiEestible nutrients in 100 lbs.

9.0
8.3
8.1
7.5
7.7
5.5
8.5

7.3

6.0
13.3
19.4

8.2

9.5
9.3
20.6
22.8
9.0
6.1
8.5

Lbs.

66.8
62.9
49.7
67.8
66.1
53.3
64.5

63.7

60.6

52.4
29.6
54.5

67.9
63.2
66,6
17.0
49.1
65.8
56.6
67.0

1.6
2.6
2.5
4.6
4.6
3.5
7.3

3.7

3.1

16.5

1.1

2.7
1.7
2.5
29.0
0.7
2.3
2.0
3.3

Lbs.

79.4
77.0
63.4
85.7
84.2
66.7
89.4

78.1

75.6

65.4
80.0
76.4

82.2
76.5
81.5
102.8
73.5
80.0
66.7
82.9

11.1
9.5

11.

Fertilizme

n 1000 lbs.

Nitro-
gen

Phos-

Potash

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

1S.4

8.5

7.4

16.3

17.3

10.0

7.0

16.2

6.9

4.0

16.6

6.8

3.9

11.8

5.4

3.1

18.4

13.8

5.8

6.3

15.4

7.5

4.8

14.2

5.7

5.1

31.2

15.0

15.0

37.8

10.1

14.9

16.2

19.0

7.6

5.7

18.4

36.2

15.0

9.5

41.9

12.4

13.4

17.8

5.7

3.1

15.5

16.8

414 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

Concentrates — con .

Grains and seeds —

con.

Millet seed, hog, or

broom corn

Milo grain *

Milo-head chops * . . .

Oats

Peanut, with hull * .

Pea, field

Rice, rough *

Rye

Shallu grain *

Sorghum grain * . . . .

Soybean

Velvet bean, seed *
Velvet bean, seed and

pod *

Wheat, all analyses

Wheat, spring

Wheat, winter

By-products of fac-
tories, etc.
Beet pulp, dried ....
Beet pulp, molasses- .
Beet pulp, wet * . . . .
Brewers' grains, dried
Brewers' grains, wet *

Buckwheat bran, high
grade

Buckwheat feed, good
grade *

Buckwheat feed, low
grade *

Buckwheat hulls * . .

Buckwheat middlings

Cocoanut meal, low in
fat

Corn bran

Corn cob

Cold-pressed cotton-
seed cake

Cottonseed meal,
choice

Cottonseed meal,
prime

Total dry
matter 'n
100 lbs.

90.9
89.3
89.7
90.8
935
90.8
90.4

90.6
90.3
87.3
90.1
88.3

87.7
898
89.9
89.1

91.8
92.4
9.3
92.5
24.1

88.8

88.2

88.1
89.7
88.0

90.4
90.0
90.0

92.1

92.5

92.2

Dieesbble

In 100 lbs.

8.4
8.7
6.3
9.7
18.4
19.0
4.7

9.9
10.1

7.5
30.7
18.1

14.9
9.2
9.2
8.7

4.6
5.9
0.5
21.5
4.6

10.5

3.7

0.4

24.6

18.8
5.8
0.4

21.1

37.0

33.4

63.7
66.2
58.1
52.1
15.3
55.8
64.6

68.4
66.3
66.2

22.8
50.8

51.7
67.5
67.2

67.8

65.2

68.0

6.5

30.5

8.7

30.4

30.2

24.0
13.9
38.3

42.0
56.9
47.3

33.2

21.8

24.3

2.4
2.2
1.9
3.8
32.6
0.6
1.7

1.2

2.6

2.6

14.4

5.3

3.8
1.5
1.6
1.4

0.8
0.6
0.2
6.1
1.5

3.2

2.9

2.1
0.7
6.1

77.5
79.9
68.7
70.4
107.1
76.2
73.1

81.0
82.2
79.5
85.9
80.8

75.2
80.1
800
79.7

71.6
75.3
7.4
65.7
16.7

48.1

45.8

32.4
15.9
76.6

79.0
73.1
48.1

70.9

78.2

75.5

8.2
8.2
9.9
6.3
4.8
3.0
14.6

7.2
7.1
9.6
l.S
3.5

4.0

7.7
7.7
8.2

14.6

11.8

13. S

2.1

2.6

3.6

4.0

7.8

38.8

2.1

3.2

11.6

119.2

2.4

1.1

1.3

Fertilizing constituents
in 1000 lbs.

18.9
17.1
16.0
19.8
32.6
36.6
12.2

18.9

20.0
14.7
5S.4

27.4
19.8
20.0

18.7

14.2
15.2

1.4
42.4

9.1

35.7

30.9

21.3

7.0

45.3

33.4

13.5

3.2

41.8

70.6

63.7

APPENDIX

415

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

FsBdine stuff

Concentrates — con.
By-products of fac-
tories, etc. — con.
Cottonseed meal,

good *

Cottonseed feed

Cottonseed hulls ....
Distillers' grains,

dried, from corn . .
Distillers' grains,
dried, from rye . . .

Distillers' grains,

wet *

Flax feed *

Fla.x screenings * . . .

Germ oil meal

Gluten feed

Gluten meal

Hominy feed

Linseed meal, new

process

Linseed meal, old

process

Malt sprouts

Molasses, beet *

Molasses, cane, or

blackstrap

Oat bran *

Oat dust *

Oat feed, low grade .

Oat hulls

Oat middlings

Peanut cake, from

hulled nuts

Potato flakes, dried *

Red dog flour *

Rice bran, high grade
Rice bran, low grade

Rice hulls

Rice polish

Rye bran *

Rye feed (middlings
and bran )

Rye middlings * ....

Soybean meal, fat ex-
tracted

Total dry

92.1
91.7
90.3

93.4

92.8

22.6
90.6
91.4
91.1
91.3
90.9

89.9

90.9
92.4
74.7

74.2
93.6
93.4
89.8
93.2
92.7

89.3
87.9

89.9
90.5

90.7
90.0

88.5
88.6

31.6
14.2
0.3

22.4

13.6

3.3
12.0
11.1
16.5
21.6
30.2

7.0

31.7

30.2

20.3

1.1

1.0
8.8
9.1
6.9
2.0
13.0

42.8
3.6

14.8
7.9
7.1

0.3
8.0
12.2

12.2
12.6

2 38.1

Carbo-
hydrates

Lbs.

25.6
30.7
33.3

40.4

38.0

13.3
34.2
35.1

42.6
51.9
43.9

61.2

37.9

32.6
47.4
59.4

58.2
36.1
34.9
37.0
45.2
54.9

20.4
67.2
56.5
38.1
37.7

12.3
57.2
56.6

55.8
55.5

33.9

Fat Total

7.8
5.7
1.5

11.6

G.6

1.5
12.5

10.4

10.4

3.2

4.4

7.3

2.8

6.7
1.3

7.2
0.2
3.5
8.8
7.5

0.7
7.5
2.8

2.9
3.1

5.0

74.8
57.7
37.0

88.9

66.4

20.0
74.3

82,5
80.7
84.0

84.6

75.9

77.9
70.6
60.5

59.2
53.7
53.7
51.1
50.1
82.1

79.4
71.2
79.2
65.8
61.7

14.2
82.1
75.1

74.5
75.1

83.2

1.4

3.1

122.3

3.0

3.9

1.6

2.5
54.0

58.2
5.1
4.9
6.4

24.1
5.3

0.9

18.8

4.4

7.3

7.7

46.3
9.3

5.2

1.2

Fertilizine
in 1000 Ibi

Nitro- K;
Een ^-^
*"" acid

Lbs.

Lbs.

60.2

39.2

7.4

26.6

14.7

3.6

49.1

6.8

37.0

8.3

7.2
26.6
24.6
36.2
40.6
56.8

1.6

3.5

13.2

6.2

5.5

17.0

12.4

59.0

17.7

54.2

42.2

5.6

17.0

16.5

0.5

5.0
19.5
20.2
15.4

6.4
26.1

2.4

...

2.1
12.7

76.2
11.4
26.9
19.4
17.4

11.6

20.0

22.2
22.6

5.3
19.0

24.5

0.9
30.8
15.4

24.5
25.1

5.6
5.6

66.2

...

416 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

Concentrates — con.
By-products of fac-
tories, etc. — con.

Wheat bran

Wheat feed (mid-
dlings and bran) . .
Wheat flour, patent *
Wheat middlings,

flour

Wheat middlings,

standard (shorts)
Wheat screenings . . .

Animal products

Buttermilk *

Cow's milk

Dried blood

Fish meal, high in fat
Meat-and-bone meal,

30-40% ash *

Meat scrap, high

grade *

Meat scrap, fair

grade *

Poultry bone *

Skim milk, centri-
fugal

Tankage, over 60%
protein *

Tankage, 55-60%
protein *

Tankage, 45-55%
protein *

Whey*

Dried Roughage

Hay and cured forage
from grasses and
cereals

Barley hay, common .

Bermuda hay

Bluegrass hay, Ken-
tucky

Brome hay

Crab grass

Corn fodder (ears, if
any, remaining),
very dry, from barn
or arid districts . .

Total dry
natter In
100 im.

Lbs.

89.9

89.9
87.7

89.3

89.5
89.8

94
13.6
90.3
89.2

94.0

92.5

93.3

92.7

9.9

92.6

92.5

92.5

926
90.3

86.8
91.5
90.5

91.0

Disestible nutrients in 100 lbs.

12.5

12.9
8.1

15.7
134

3.4

3.3

69.1

37.8

37.0

55.1

48.4

22.6

3.6

58.7

54.0

48.1
0.8

4.6
3.7

4.7
5.0
3.5

3.5

41.6

45.1
69.6

52.8

46.2
47.3

4.9
4.9

5.1

4.7

4S.2
37.9

43.5
44.2
40.0

51.7

Fat

Lbs.

3.0

4.0
0.9

4.3

4.3
3.6

0.1

4.3

0.9

11.6

11.0

11.4

10.2

3.0

0.2

12.6

12.7

13.7
0.3

1.5

Total

60.9

67.0
79.7

78.2

69.3
65.0

8.4
17.9
71.1
63.9

61.8

80.7

71.4

29.4

9.1

87.0

82.6

78.9
6.2

54.8
43.4

51.6
51.2
45.7

58.6

Nutritive
tatio

3.9

4.0

4.2
5.8

1.5
4.4
0.03
0.7

0.7

0.5

•0.5

0.3

1.5

0.5

0.5

0.6
6.8

10.9
10.7

10.0

9.2

12.1

15.7

Fertilizing constituents
in 1000 lbs.

Nitro-

25.6

26.9
17.4

28.5

27.7
21.3

5.8

5.6

131.5

77.4

63.7

38.9

6.1

101.0

93.0

82.7
1.6

11.2
11.4

13.3
15.8
12.8

APPENDIX

417

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

Fertli;ine constituents

Total div
matter In
100 lbs.

Dgestible nutrients in 100 lbs.

Nutritive
ratio

in 1000 lbs.

Feadins stuff

Nitro-
gen

Phos-

Crude
proiein

Carbo.
hydrates

Fat

Total

Potash

Dried Roughage

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

1:

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Hay and cured forage

from grasses and

cereals — con.

Corn fodder, medium

in water

81.7

3.0

47.3

1.5

53.7

16.9

10.7

3.3

8.9

Corn fodder, high in

water

60.7

2.2

35.5

1.0

399

17.1

7.7

2.5

6.6

Corn fodder, sweet . .

87.7

5.9

47.6

1.3

56.4

8.6

14.7

4.0

11.8

Corn stover (ears re-

moved), very dry .

90.6

2.2

47.8

1.0

52.2

22.7

9.4

4.5

12.9

Corn stover, medium

in water

81.0

2.1

42.4

0.7

46.1

21.0

9.1

4.0

11.5

Corn stover, high in

water

59.0

1.4

31.1

0.6

33.9

23.2

6.2

2.9

8.3

Fowl meadow grass

hay *

88.9

6.1

43.0

1.4

52.3

7.6

15.7

Foxtail or wild barley

hay *

92.5

4.0

48.4

1.1

54.9

12.7

11.2

Japanese cane fodder *

93.2

05

55.n

1.2

58.2

115.4

2.2

Johnson grass hay . .

89.9

2.9

45.0

1.0

50.1

16.3

10.6

4.2

11.3

Kafir fodder, dry . . .

91.0

4.1

45.0

1.7

52.9

11.9

14.2

Kafir fodder, high in

water

71.7
83.7

3.0
1.7

38.2
43.1

1.6
1.3

44.8
47.7

139

27.1

10.4

8.2

Kafir stover, dry ....

Millet hay, barnyard

86.5

5.1

40.5

0.8

47.4

8.3

13.3

5.5

25.3

Millet hay, common,

or Hungarian ....

85.7

5.0

46.0

l.S

55.0

10.0

13.3

3.6

21.5

Millet hay, German * .

91.3

4.8

49.7

1.7

58.3

11.1

12.8

3.5

14.4

Milo fodder, dry ....

88.9

1.9

36.3

2.8

44.5

22.4

19.2

Natal grass hay * . . .

902

3.7

37.9

0.8

43.4

10.7

n.s

Oat hay

88.0

4.5

38.1

1.7

46.4

9.3

13.4

8.0

32.7

Orchard grass hay . .

88.4

4.7

41.1

1.6

49.4

9.5

12.6

4.0

19.4

Para grass hay

902

2.3

38.7

0.4

419

17.2

7.4

Prairie hay, western

935

4.0

41.4

1.1

47.9

11 0

12.S

Red top hay

90.2

4.6

45.9

1.2

53.2

10.6

ll.S

4.4

18.8

Sorghum fodder, dry

90.3

2.8

44.8

2.0

52.1

17.6

11.8

Sorghum fodder, high

in water

62.6

1.5

32.9

1.8

38.4

24.6

6.2

Sudan hay

90.0

2.7

45.4

0.7

49.7

17.4

Teosinte hay *

89.4

5.6

40.2

0.9

47.8

7.5

14.6

7.5

42.6

Timothy hay, all

analyses

88.4

3.0

42.8

1.2

485

1.5.2

0.9

3.1

13.6

Timothy hay, cut be-

fore bloom

92.8

4.7

42.0

1.6

50.3

0.7

1.5.7

Timothy hay, cut at

early to full bloom

87.2

36

44.7

1.2

510

13.2

10.1

418 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

Fasdinc stuff

Dry Roughage — con.

Hay and cured forage

from grasses and

cereals — con.

Timothy hay, cut at

late bloom

Timothy rowen hay *
Wheat 'hay *

Hay from the legumes

Alfalfa, all analyses
Alfalfa, hefore

bloom *

Alfalfa, in bloom . . .
Alfalfa, in seed * . . .
Alfalfa meal *

Alfalfa leaves * ....

Beggarweed *

Clover, alsike

Clover, bur

Clover, crimson, or
scarlet

Clover, mammoth
red *

Clover, red, all
analyses

Clover, red, in bloom

Clover, red, after
bloom *

Clover and mixed

grasses

Clover and timothy .
Clover, sweet, wliite .

Clover, white

Clover rowen

Cowpea

Lespedeza, or Japan
clover *

Pea, field

Peas and oats

Peanut vine, with
nuts

Peanut vine, without
nuts

Soybean hay

Velvet bean *

Total dry
100 lbs'

851
84.9
91 9

91.4

93 8
925
89.6
91.2

934
90.9
87.7
93.0

89.4

81.3

87.1
861

77.9

87.8
91.4
91.9
85.2
90.3

882
88.9
83.4

92.2

78 5
91.4
92.8

Dieestble

in 100 lbs.

hydrates

2.4
8.2
4.0

10.6

15.4
105
8.5
10.2

15.8
11 6
7.9
15.6

9.7

6.4

7.6
8.1

68

4.7
40
109
11.8
10.7
13.1

8.6
12.2
8.3

9.6

66
11.7
12.0

39.0
35.8
48.5

39.0

35.5
38.5
39.2
38.7

35.1
3G2
36.9
42.8

36.8

37.2

39.3

38.8

34,1

39.9
39.7
3S.2
43.3
33.1
33.7

41.1
40.1
37.1

39.6

37.0
39.2
40.3

1.4
2.1

0.8

0.9

1.6

0.7
1.0
0.8

1.3
0.7
1.1
0.2

].0

1.3
1.1

0.7
1 5
2.2
1.0

1.1
1.9

1.5

8.3

3.0
1.2
1.4

Total

48.7
54.3

51.6

54.5
50.6
49.9
50.7

53.8
49.4
47.3
58.8

48.7

47.6

50.9
50.9

46.7

47.5
46.2
50.7
58.5
48.8
49.0

52.2
56.6
48.8

67.9

50.4
53.6
55.5

17.6

4.9

12.6

9.1
10.6
3.7
4.0
3.6
2.7

3.6
3.6

Fertilizine constituents
in 10D0 lbs.

Nitro- K:

8.8

23.0

9.9

23.8

35.2
24.0
19.5
22.9

36.0
24.6
20.5
30.7

22.6

17.3

20.5
21,0

18. G

15.8
13.8
23.2
25.9
26.4
30.9

19.4
24.2
18.2

21.3

5.4

6.1

6.3

10.3
6.7
6.6

14.6 2.2
25.6 6.8
26.2 5.5

APPENDIX

419

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

1

Fertilizing constituents

Total dry
matter in
100 lbs.

Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs.

Nutritive
(abo

in 1000 lbs.

Fudins stuff

Nitro-
een

Phos-

IS

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fat

Total

Potash

Dry RouGHAGE^con.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

1:

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Hay from the leg-

nmes — con.

Vetch, common

92.9

11.6

42.8

1.6

58.0

4.0

27.7

7.9

18.6

Vetch, hairy

Vetch and oats

87.7

15.7

37.1

1.9

57.1

2.6

31.8

10.3

26.2

84.3

6.9

37.0

1.4

47.1

5.8

17.0

6,0

12.7

Vetch and wheat ....

85.0

10.7

41.1

1.3

54.7

4.1

23.2

Straw and chaff

Barley straw

Bean straw *

85.8

0.9

40.2

0.6

42.5

46.2

5.6

1.8

12.0

89.5

3.6

42.4

0.7

47.6

12.2

11.7

4.2

13.6

Buckwheat straw * . .

90.1

4.2

26.3

1.2

33.2

6.9

8.3

1.3

11.3

Cow pea straw *

91.5

3.4

39.1

0.7

44.1

12.0

10.9

Crimson clover straw *

87.7

3.8

36.5

0.9

42.3

10.1

12.0

Flax shives

92.8
85 8

5.8
1.0

25.2
41.7

3.0
0.6

37.8
44.1

5.5
43.1

11.5
5.8

1.9
1.8

10.5

Millet straw *

17.3

Oat chaff

91.8
88.5
92.5
929

2.2
1.0
0.9
0.7

34.3

42.6
37.8
39.6

1.2

0.9
0.3
0.4

39.2

45.6
39.4
41.2

16.8
44.6

42.8
57,9

9.4
5.8
6.2
4.8

1.3
2,1
1.4

2.8

4.5

Oat straw

15.0

Rice straw

15.4

Rye straw

7.9

Soybean straw

88.1

2.8

38.5

1.0

435

14.5

9.0

1.2

8.9

Wheat chaff

85.6

1.1

25.7

0.6

28.2

24.6

6.7

4.0

8.4

Wheat straw

91.6

0.7

35.1

0.5

36.9

51.7

5.0

1.3

7.4

Fresh Green

Roughage

G7-een forage from

grasses and cereals

Barley fodder

23.2

2.3

11.5

0.4

14.7

5.4

5.3

1.3

6.8

Bermuda grass * . . . .

33.2

1.4

17.0

0.5

19.5

12.9

4.8

1.5

7.4

Bluegrass, Kentucky

31.6

2.3

14.8

0.6

18.5

7.0

6.6

1.9

7.1

Brome grass smooth *

33.0

2.9

15.0

0.2

18.3

5.3

6.7

2.0

8.6

Buckwheat, Japan-

ese *

36.6

2.2

17.4

0.5

20.7

8.4

7.4

2.0

9.3

Corn fodder, all an-

alyses *

21.9

1.0

12.8

0.4

14.7

13.7

3.0

1.1

3.7

Corn fodder, dent, all

analyses

23.1

1.0

13.7

0.4

15.6

14.6

3.0

1.1

4.5

Corn fodder, dent, in

tassel

14.9

1.1

8.2

0.3

10.0

8.1

2,6

Corn fodder, dent, in

milk

19.9

1.0

12.1

0.5

14.2

13.2

2.6

Corn fodder, dent.

dough to glazing *

25.1

1.3

15.4

0.7

18,3

13.1

3.4

Corn fodder, dent,

kernels glazed ....

26.2

1.1

15.8

0.4

17.8

15.2

3.2

Corn fodder, dent,

kernels ripe

34.8

1.5

21.1

0.8

24.4

15.3

4.3

420

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

Feedini stuff

Fresh Green
Roughage — con.

Green forage, etc. — con.

Corn fodder, flint, all
analyses

Sweet corn fodder,
roasting ears or
later

Corn fodder, sweet,
ears removed * ...

Crab grass *

Foxtail, or wild
barley *

Johnson grass * ....

Kafir fodder

Millet, barnyard ....

Millet, common, or
Hungarian

Millet, pearl, or cat-
tail *

Milo fodder *

Mixed grasses, imma-
ture

Mixed grasses, at liay-
ing stage

Oat fodder

Oat fodder, 8 in.
high*

Orchard grass

Para grass *

Red top

Rye fodder

Sweet sorghum fodder

Teosinte *

Timothy

Wheat fodder *

Green legumes
Alfalfa, all analyses .
Alfalfa, before bloom *
Alfalfa, in bloom * . .
Alfalfa, after bloom *

Beggarweed *

Clover, alsike *

Clover, bur *

Clover, crimson

Clover, mammoth
red *

Total dry
matter in
100 lbs.

21,5
30.9

35.7
29.1
23.6
21.3

27.6

18.7
22.7

29.7

30.8
26.1

13.0

29.2
27.2
39.3
21.3
24.9
21.3
37.5
27.4

25.3
19.9
25.9
29.8
27.1
24.3
208
17.4

25.1

DiEestible nutrients in 100 lbs.

1.0

1.2

1.0

1.3

2.4
1.2
1.1
1.0

1.7
2.3

34

1.7
0.8
1.9
2.1
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.8

3.3
3.5
3.3
2.1
3.1
2.7
3.4
2.3

2.7

12.4

13.1

14.2

15.9

14.7
12.4
12.1

10.4
12.7

14.5

15.2

11.8

4.1

13.0
14.0
20.0
12.2
14.1
11.9
19.3
15.1

10.4

7.5

10.8

13.5

11.6

11.8

8.2

8.1

12.

0.4

Total

14.3

14.8
16.6

19.9
17.0

14.4
14.0

18.1

11.9
14.2

20.1

183
15.9

0.3

Nutritive

0.6

16.1

8.5

0.3

15.5

18.4

0.6

23.3

11.3

0.5

15.4

6.3

0.6

16.2

22.1

0.3

13,6

12.6

0.6

22.2

13.8

0.6

19.3

5.9

0.4

14.6

3.4

0.3

11.7

2.3

0.3

14.8

3.5

0.2

16.0

6.6

0.2

15.1

3.9

0.4

15.4

4.7

1.1

14.1

3.1

0.4

11.3

3.9

15.8

13.:;

13. S
11.8

7.3
13.2
12.1
13.0

8.5

9.8
16.8

4.6

9.8
5.9

fertilizing constitu
in 1000 lbs.

Nifro-

3.0

3.0

2.6

APPENDIX 421

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued.

Feadine stuff

Fresh Green
PvCUGHAge — con.

Green legumes — con.

Clover, red

Clover and mixed
grasses *

Clover, sweet *

Clover, white *

Cowpeas

Cowpeas and corn * .

Cowpeas and sor-
ghum *

Horse bean *

Peas, field, Canada . .

Peas and oats

Kudzu vine *

Lespedeza or Japan

clover *

Serradella *

Soybeans

Soybeans and corn * .
Soiv'beans and kafir *

Velvet bean *

Vetch, common

Vetch, hairy

Vetch and oats

Vetch and wheat ....

Roots and tubers

Artichokes *

Beet, common *

Beet, sugar

Carrot

Cassava *

Chufa*

Mangel

Parsnip *

Potato

Rutabaga

Sweet potato *

Turnip

Miscellaneous green
forages

Apple *

Apple pomace *

Total dry
100 lbs.

Lbs.

26.2

27.3
24.4
21.8
16.3
20.0

18.7

17.6
16.6
22.6
30.6

20.2

23.6
23.8
17.1
17.9
204
18.1
26.5
22.7

20.5
13.0
16.4
117
32.6
20.5

9.4
16.6
21.2
10.9
31.2

9.5

18.2
23.3

2.8
29

2.4
4.2

4.5
2.1

3.2
1.7
0.9
2.7
2.7
3.5
2.8
2.4

10
0.9
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.4

0.8
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.9
1.0

Carbo-
hydrates

13.0

14.1

10.3

9.6

8.0

11.4

10.0

7.4

7.1

10.6

13.9

17.1

10.2

13.6

7.9

7.2

8.9

8.1

13.3

12.2

14.6
9.1

12.6
8.6

26.4

10.2

6.4
12.5
15.8

7.7

24.2

6.0

15.6
15.6

0.6

0.6
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.3

0.3

0.3
0.3
0.6
0.5

0.6
0.5

0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
3.3

0.1
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.2

Total

17.1

17.7
14,3
13.8
11.0
13.4

11.4

10.9
10.7
14.4
19.2

23.0
12.1

14.5
16.7
9.7
10.8
12.3
12.5
17.0
15.3

15.8
10.2
14.0
9.9
27.4
18.0

7.4
14.7
17.1

9.4
25.8

7.4

0.2 16.4
0.8 I 18.6

5.3

7.0
3.3
3.5
3.8
9.3

15.3

2.9
2.7
5.0
3.6

Nitro-
gen

1.3

4.1

10,7

4.8

4.6

1.3

4.1

3.5

6.6

1.8

5.7

8.S

4.3

1.1

4.0

9.8

3.2

3.0

5.6

1.3

4.5

3.6

6.1

1.6

5.0

2.6

6.7

1.4

5.1

5.1

6.1

1.6

6.3

5.4

5.3

14.8

3.2

1.4

4.9

10.3

2.6

1.0

8.5

10.7

2.6

0.8

3.2

10.0

1.9

1.1

2.7

44.7

1.8

1.0

4.0

44.0

1.1

8.2

2.2

0.4

2.2

103

2.7

1.3

4.9

14,5

3.5

1.2

5.3

84

1.9

1.2

5.0

?^7 7

2.9

0.9

5.1

6.4

2.2

1.3

2.9

4fl0

OS

0.3

1 ti

14.5

2.6

0.6

1 5

422

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing CoNSTiTUENTS--co«H«Med

Feeding stuff

Fresh Green
Roughage — con.
Miscellaneoiis green
forages — con.

Cabbage

Cactus, cane, entire

plant *

Cactus, prickly pear

Kale

Kohlrabi *

Pumpkin, field

Rape ,

Saltbush, Australian
Sugar beet leaves * . .
Sugar beet tops * . . .

Silage

Alfalfa*

Apple pomace *

Barley *

Clover

Corn, well matured .
Corn, immature

Corn, from field-cured

stover *

Corn and clover * . . .
Corn and soybean . . .

Cowpea

Field pea *

Japanese cane *

Kafir

Millet*

Oat*

Oat and pea

Pea-cannery refuse * .

Rye*

Sorghum

Sorghum and cow-
pea *

Soybean

Sugar beet leaves * . .
Sugar beet pulp * . .

Vetch

Wet brewers' grains *

Total diy
matter in
100 lbs.

8.9

10.4
16.5

11.3
9.0
8.3
16.7
23.3
11.6
11.4

24.6
20.6
25.0
27.8
26.3
21.0

19.6
28.6
24.7
22.0
27.9
22.4

30.8
31.6
28.3
27.5
23.2
27.2
22.8

32.3
27.1
23.0
10.0
30.1
29.8

0.4
0.4

1.9
1.7
1.1
2.6
2.8
1.2
1.7

1.2
0.9
2.0
1.3
1.1
1.0

0.5
2.1
1.6
1.8
2.8
0.6

0.8
1.6
1.5
2.8
1.6
2.4
0.6

0.9
2.6
2.1
0.8
2.0
5.2

5.6

5.8
8.9

4.7
5.6
4.5
10.0
5.9
6.3
5.4

15.0
12.0
9.5
15.0
11.4

15.9
13.8
10.1
13.1
11.2

15.3
15.3
13.8
12.6
11.6
16.1
11.6

16.6
11.0
10.0
6.5
15.2
11.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.3
0.1
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1

0.6
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.7
0.4

0.4
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.9
0.3

0.6
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.8
0.5
0.5

0.6
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.8
1.9

7.9

6.4
9.7

7.3
75
6.7
13.3
9.1
7.7
7.3

10.4
17.3
15.8
11.9
17.7
13.3

11.3
19.6
17.2
13.3
17.9
12.5

17.5
18.7
17.3
17.6
15.0
19.6
13.3

18.9
15.2
13.0
8.0
19.0
20.6

3.2

15.0
23.2

2.8
3.4
5.1
4.1
2.2
5.4
3.3

7.7

18.2

6.9

8.2

15.1

12.3

21.6
8.3
9.8
6.4
5.4

19. S

20.9

10.7

10.5

5.3

8.4

7.2

21.2

20.0
4.8
5.2
9.0

"8.5
3.0

Fertilizine constituents
in 1000 lbs.

Nitro-
een

1.4
1.3

38
3.2
2.2
4.6
5.9
3.0
4.2

5.6
2.6
4.2
5.9
3.4
3.0

2.2
5.3
4.0
5.1
6.1
2.4

2.9
4.5
3.2
6.1

4.5
4.8
2.4

3.8
6.2
4.5
2.4
5.6
10.2

Phos-
phoric
acid

0.7

0.3
0.7

1.7

2.2

4.4
3.5

4.5
3.8
2.3

7.0

6.9
1.9

7.1

APPENDIX

423

Table IV. Wolfp-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm Animals

It has been pointed out in Chapter VII that we now have more accurate data
on the nutrient requirements of various classes of animals than were possessed
by scientists when the Woltf-Lehmann Feeding Standards were drawn up. For
students and stockmen who desire to compute rations substantially in accordance
with the Wolff-Lehmann system, but taking into consideration the results of
recent feeding trials at the Experiment Stations, the authors have drawn up the
"Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards" given in Appendix Table V. The
Wolff-Lehmann Standards, as last presented by Lehmann in Mentzel and Len-
gerke's Landwirtschaftliche Kalender for 1906, are here given, however, on account
of their historical importance.

The standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the lactation period
with animals yielding milk of average composition. The standards for growing
animals contemplate only a moderate amount of exercise; if much is taken, add
15 per ct. — mostly non-nitrogenous nutrients — to the ration. If no exercise is
taken, deduct 15 per ct. from the standard. The standards are for animals of
normal size. Those of small breeds will require somewhat more nutrients,

amounting in some cases to 0.3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of n
nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 poimda of live weight of anim

non-
limals.

Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight

Dry

matter

Digestible nutrients

Crude
protein

Carbo-
hy-
drates

Nutri-
tive
ratio

1. Oxen

At rest in stall

At light work

At medium work

At heavy work

2. Fattening cattle

First period

Second period

Third period

3. Milch cows, yielding daily

11.0 pounds of milk . . . .
16.6 pounds of milk . . . .

22.0 pounds of milk

27.5 pounds of milk

4. Sheep

Coarse wool

Fine wool

5. Breeding ewes

With lambs

6. Fattening sheep

First period

Second period

7. Horses

Light work

Medium work

Heavv work

0.7
1.4
20

2.8

2.5
3.0

2.7

1.2
1.5

2.9

3.0
3.5

1.5
2.0
25

8.0
10.0
11.5
13.0

15.0
14.5
15.0

10.0
11.0
13.0
13.0

10.5
12.0

15.0

15.0
14.5

9.5
11.0
133

0.1
0.3
0.5
0.8

0.5
0.7
0.7

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8

0.2
0'.3

0.5

0.5
0.6

0.4
0.6
0.8

11.8

7.7
6.5
5.3

6.5
54
62

6.7
6.0
5.7
4.5

9.1

8.5

5.6

54
4.5

70

6.2
60

424 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table IV. Wolff-Lehmanx FEEDI^'G Standards for Farm Animals — continued.

Per day per

1,000 lbs. live weight

Digestible

nutrients

Animal

Dry

matter

Crude

Carbo-
hv-

Fat

Nutri-

drates

ratio

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

1:

22

2.5

155

0.4

0.6

9. Fattening sicdne

First period

36
32

4.5
4.0

250
24.0

0.7
0.5

5.0

Second period

63

Third period

25

2.7

18.0

0.4

7.0

10. Groicing cattle, dairy breeds

Age in Av. live wt.

months per head. lbs.

2- 3 150

23

40

13.0

20

4.5

.3- 0 300

24

3.0

12.8

1.0

5.1

6-12 500

27

2.0

12.5

0.5

6.8

12-13 700

26

1.8

12.5

0.4

7.5

18-24 900

26

15

12.0

0.3

8.5

11. Groicing cattle, beef breeds

2- 3 160

23

4.2

130

20

42

3- 6 330

24

3.5

12.8

1.5

4.7

6-12 550

25

2.5

13.2

0.7

6.0

12-18 750

24

2.0

12.5

0 5

6.8

18-24 950. . . .

24

1.8

12.0

0.4

7.2

12. Growing sheep, icool breeds

4-6 60

25

34

15.4

07

5.0

6- S 75

25
23

2.8
2.1

13,8
11.5

0.6
0.5

5.4

8-11 80

6.0

11-15 90

22

1.8

11.2

0.4

70

15-20 100

22

1.5

10.8

0.3

7.7

13. Groicing sheep, mutton breeds

4- 6 60

26

4.4

15.5

on

4.0

6-8 80

26

3.5

15.0

0.7

4.8

8-11 100

24

3.0

14.3

0.5

5.2

11-15 120

23

O ')

12.6

0.5

6.3

15-20 150

22

2.0

12.0

0.4

6.5

lA. Groicing sicine, breeding stock

2-3 50

44

7.6

2S.0

1.0

4.0

3-5 100

35

4.8

22.5

0.7

5.0

5- 6 120

32

3.7

21.3

0.4

6.0

6- 8 200

28

2.8

18.7

0.3

7.0

8-12 250

25

2.1

15.3

0.2

7.5

15. Growing, fattening swine

2-3 50

44

7.6

28.0

1.0

4.0

3- 5 100

35

5.0

23.1

0.8

5.0

5- 6 150

33

43

22.3

0.6

5.5

6- 8 200

30

36

20.5

0.4

6.0

9-12 300

26

30

18.3

0.3

6.4

APPENDIX

425

Table V.

Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for
Farm Animals

Recent investigations of the Experiment Stations of this and other countries
have shown that the original VVoltl-Lehmann Standards are inaccurate in many
instances. Therefore, the following standards have been presented by the authors
to provide a more accurate means of computing rations substantially according
to the VVolfl"-Lehmann method. The sources of the recommendations given for the
various classes of animals are shown in Chapter VII and the method of computing
rations in accordance with these standards is fully explained in Chapters VII and
VIII. Modihed standards are not presented for growing dairy cattle, gra\ving
sheep, and growing pigs ( breeding stock ) , on account of the lack of sufficient data.

In most instances a minimum and a maximum are indicated for dry matter,
digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. As has been pointed out
in the text, when protein-rich feeds are cheaper than carbonaceous feeds, some-
what more digestible crude protein may be supplied than is stated in the standards.
This will narrow the nutritive ratio beyond the limits here indicated. On the
other hand, the amount of protein should not fall much below the lower amount
indicated.

Digestible crude

Total digestible

protein

nutrients

Lbs.

Lbs.

/. Dairy cows

0.700

7.925

To allouance for maintenance add:

For each lb. of 2.5 per ct. milk

0.045-0.053

0.256

For each lb. of 3.0 per ct. milk

0.047-0.057

0.286

For each lb. of 3.5 per ct. milk

0.049-0.061

0.31C

For each lb. of 4.0 per ct. milk

0.054-0.065

0.346

For each lb. of 4.5 per ct. milk

0.057-0.069

0.376

P'or each lb. of 5.0 per ct. milk

0.060-0.073

0.402

For each lb. of 5.5 per ct. milk

0.064-0077

0.428

For each lb. of 0.0 per ct. milk

0.007-0.081

0.454

For eacli lb. of 6.5 per ct. milk

0.072-0.085

0.482

For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk

0.074-0.089

0.505

The amount of dry matter to be fed daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight to dairy
cows may range from 15.0 lbs. or even less with dry cows to 30.0 lbs. with cows
yielding 2.0 lbs. of butter fat per head daily. Cows producing 1.0 lb. of fat per
head daily should receive about 21.0 to 25.0 lbs. of dry matter daily per 1,000 lbs.
live weight. The nutritive ratio may readilv be found by computation; for
example, a 1,200-lb. cow yielding daily 30.0 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk will require
for maintenance and production 2.31 to 2.67 lbs. digestible crude protein and
18.99 lbs total digestible nutrients. The nutritive ratio should hence not be
wider than 1:6.1 to 1:7.2.

The standards given under Division 2 for growing, fattening steers weighing
1,000 to 1,200 lbs. are for animals being finished on a moderate allowance of
concentrates It will be noted that the amount of total digestible nutrients
is considerably lower than the amount indicated under Division 3 for fattening
2-year-old steers on full feed. As has been pointed out in the text, cattle
fed a small allowance of concentrates will not make maximum gains. However,
under certain conditions this system may return the most profit.

426

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table V. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards — continued.

2. Growing, fattening steers

Weight 100 lbs

Weight 150 lbs

Weight 200 lbs

Weight 250 lbs

Weight 300 lbs

Weight 350 lbs

Weight 400 lbs

Weight 450 lbs

Weight 500 lbs

Weight 550 lbs

Weight 600 lbs

Weight 700 lbs

Weight 800 lbs

Weight 900 lbs

Weight 1,000 lbs

Weight 1,100 lbs

Weight 1,200 lbs

3. Fattening 2-year-old steers

on full feed

First 50-60 days

Second 50-60 days

Third 50-60 days

^. Ox at rest in stall

5. Wintering beef cows in calf

6. Horses

Idle

At light work

At medium work

At heavy work

7. Brood mares suckling foals,

but not at work

8. Growing colts, over 6

months

9. Fattening lambs

Weight 50-70 lbs

Weight 70-90 lbs

Weight 90-110 lbs

10. Sheep, maintaining, mature

Coarse wool

Fine wool

11. Breeding ewes, icith lambs

Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight

Dry

matter

Lbs.

14.1
20.7
24.0
25.6
26.7
25.3
24.3
24.1
23.9
23.6
23.2
22.6
21.4
20.2
19.7
18.1
17.3

22.0-25.0
21.0-24.0
18.0-22.0

13.0-21.0

14.0-25.0

13.0-18.0
15.0-22.0
16.0-24.0
18.0-26.0

15.0-22.0
18.0-22.0

27.0-30.0
28.0-31.0
27.0-31.0

18.0-23.0
20.0-26.0
23.0-27.0

Digestible
crude
protein

3.2
3.3
SA
3.0
2.7
2.4
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.5

2.0-2.3
1.9-2.3
1.8-2.1

0.6-0.8

0.7-0.9

0.8-1.0
1.1-1.4
1.4-1.7
2.0-2.2

1.2-1.5
1.6-1.8

3.1-3.3

2.5-2.8
2.3-2.5

Lbs.

16.6
17.2
17.4
17.7
17.9
16.8
15.8
16.1
15.8
15.6
15.4
14.8
14.3
13.6
13.5
12.6
12.3

18.0-20.0
17.0-19.5
16.0-18.5

8.4-10.4

9.0-12.0

7.0- 9.0
10.0-13.1
12.8-15.6
15.9-19.5

9.0-12.0
11.0-13.0

19.0-22.0
20.0-23.0
19.0-23.0

11.0-13.0
12.0-14.0
18.0-20.0

APPENDIX

427

Table V. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards — continued.

Per day

per 1,000 lbs. live weight

Nutri-
tive

Animal

Dry

Digestible

Total

crude

digestible

ratio

protein

nutrients

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

1:

12. Fattening pigs

Weight 30-50 lbs

46.2-51.0

7.8-8.5

41 0-45 4

4.0- 4.5

Weight 50-100 lbs

37.0-40.8

5.5-6.0

32.9-36 4

5.0- 5.6

Weight 100-150 lbs

32.4-35.8

4.4^.9

28.8-31.9

5.5- 6.2

Weight 150-200 lbs

29.0-32.0

3.5-3.9

25.8-28.5

6 2- 7.0

Weight 200-250 lbs

25.5-28.1

3.0-3 4

22.7-25.0

6.5- 7.3

Weight 250-300 lbs

22.4-24.8

2.6-2.9

20.0-22.0

6.7- 7.5

13. Brood sows, tcith pigs . .

20.0-24.0

2.4-2.7

18.0-21.0

6.0- 7.0

For the convenience of those wishing to compute rations for poultry, the Wheeler
Standards, as given in Jordan's The Feeding of Animals, have been converted
into the same terms as the Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standards and are here in-
cluded. Because of the small size of poultry, these standards give the require-
ments per 100 lbs. live weight rather than per 1,000 lbs. live weight.

14. Wheeler Standards for poultry
For maintenance

Capons of 9 to 12 lbs. wt. . .

Hens of 5 to 7 lbs. wt

Hens of 3 to 5 lbs. wt

For hens in full laying

Hens of 5 to 8 lbs. wt

Hens of 3 to 5 lbs. wt

For chicks

First 2 weeks

From 2 to 4 weeks of age . .
From 4 to 6 weeks of age . .
From 6 to 8 weeks of age . .
From 8 to 10 weeks of age .
From 10 to 12 weeks of age

For ducMings

First 2 weeks

From 2 to 4 weeks of age . .
From 4 to 6 weeks of age . .
From 6 to 8 weeks of age . .
From 8 to 10 weeks of age .
From 10 to 12 weeks of age

Per dav

per 100

lbs. live

weight

Nutritive
ratio

Digestible

Total

crude

digestible

protein

nutrients

Lbs.

Lbs.

1:

0.30

2.49

7.3

0.40

2.85

6.1

0.50

4.12

7.2

0.65

3.35

42

1.00

5.54

4.5

2.0

10.10

4.0

2.2

9.52

3.3

2.0

8.50

3.2

1.6

7.40

3.6

1.2

6.28

4.2

1.0

5.38

4.4

40

18.35

3.6

4.1

17.12

3.2

2.7

11.28

3.2

1.7

8.02

3.7

1.4

7.00

4.0

0.9

4.55

4.1

428

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table VI. The Feed-unit System

Amount of different feeds required to equal one feed unit '

Feed

Feed required to
equal 1 unit

Average

For dairy cows
Concentrates

Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried brewers'
grains, wheat middlings, oat shorts, peas, molasses beet
pulp, dry matter in roots

Cottonseed meal

Oil meal, dried distillers' grains, gluten feed, soy beans .

Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley feed, malt
sprouts

Alfalfa meal, alfalfa molasses feeds

Bay and Straw

Alfalfa hay, clover hay

]\Iixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and pea hay,

red top liay

Timothy hay, prairie hay, sorghum hay

Corn stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay, cut straw ....

Soiling crops, silage and other succulent feeds

Green alfalfa

Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, cannery refuse

Alfalfa silage

Corn silage, pea vine silage

Wet brewers' grains

Potatoes, skim milk, buttermilk

Sugar beets

Carrots

Rutabagas

Field beets, green rape

Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey

Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp

The value of pasture is generally placed at 8 to 10 units
per day, on the average, varying with kind and condi-
tion.

For pigs '

Indian corn, barley, wheat, oil cakes

Rye, wheat bran

Boiled potatoes

Skim milk

Whey

For horses

One lb. of Indian corn equals 1 lb. of oats or 1 lb. of dry
matter in roots.

1.0
0.8
0.9

1.1
1.2

2.0

2.5
3.0
4.0

7.0

8.0

5.0

6.0

4.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

12.0

12.5

1.0
1.4
4.0
6.0
12.0

* The values for pigs and horses are those given in the Danish valuation
table and those for dairy cows the values as revised by WoU for American
feeding stuffs, given in Wis. Cir. 37.

APPENDIX

429

Table VII. Armsby's Net Energy Values for Feeding Stuffs

The following net energy values for the most important American feeds are
taken from Armsby, Pennsylvania Bui. 142. These values were computed by him
from the data in Appendix Table 111 of Feeds and Feeding. For a full explana-
tion and discussion of the Armsby net energy values and the feeding standards
based thereon see Chapter VII.

Feeding stuffs

Grains and seeds

Barley

Bean, navy

Buckwheat

Corn, dent

Corn, flint

Corn andcob meal

Cotton seed

Cowpea

Oats

Pea, field

Rye

Soybean

Wheat

By-products^

Buttermilk

Brewers' grains, dried

Brewers' grains, wet

Buckwheat bran

Cottonseed hulls

Cottonseed meal, choice

Co.ttonseed meal, prime

Cow's milk

Distillers' grains, dried, from corn
Distillers' grains, dried, from rye

Gluten feed

Gluten meal

Hominy feed

Linseed meal, new process

Linseed meal, old process

Malt sprouts

Molasses, beet

Molasses, cane, or blackstrap . . . .
Rye bran

Sugar-beet pulp, dried

Sugar-beet pulp, wet - . .

Tankage, over 60 per cent protein.

Wheat bran

Wheat middlings, flour

Wheat middlings, standard

Eay and dry, coarse fodder

Alfalfa hay, all analyses

Clover hay, alsike

Clover hay, red, all analyses

Corn fodder, medium dry

Corn stover, medium dry

Cowpea hav. all analyses

Millet hay, Hungarian

Oat hay

Red top hay

Soybean hay

Timothy hay, all analyses

Digestible

Total dry
matter

Crude

True

protein

protein

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

90 7

9.0

8.3

866

18.8

16.4

87.9

8.1

7.2

89.5

7.5

7 0

87.8

7.7

72

89.6

6.1

5.7

906

13.3

11 9

88.4

19.4

16 9

90.8

97

8.7

90.8

19.0

16.6

90.6

9.9

9.0

901

30.7

27.3

89.8

9.2

8 1

9.4

3.4

3.4

92.5

21.5

20,2

24.1

4.6

4.4.

88.8

10.5

9.1

90.3

0.3

1

92.5

37.0

35.4

922

33.4

32.0

13 6

3.3

3.3

93.4

22.4

18.3

92.8

13.6

11.1

91.3

21 6

20.1

90.9

30.2

28.1

89.9

7.0

6.5

90'. 4

31.7

309

909

30.2

28.5

92.4

20.3

12.5

74.7

1.1

0.0

74 2

1.0

0.0

88.6

12.2

10.5

91 8

4.6

0.7

9.3

0.5

0.5

92.6

58.7

55.6

89.9

12.5

10.8

89.3

15.7

14.0

89.6

13.4

12.0

91.4

10.6

7.1

87.7

7.9

5.3

87.1

7.6

4,9

81.7

3.0

2.3

81.0

2.1

1.6

90.3

13.1

9.2

85.7

5.0

3.9

88.0

4.5

39

90.2

4.6

3.9

91 4

11.7

8.8

88.4

3.0

2.2

430 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table VII. Armsby's Net Energy Values for Feeding Stuffs — continued.

Feeding stuffs

Straw

Barley

Oat

Rye

Wheat

Fresh green roughage

Alfalfa, in bloom

Bluegrass, Kentucky, headed out
Corn fodder, dent, all analyses . .
Corn fodder, flint, all analyses .

Millet, Hungarian

Oat fodder

Rape

Sweet sorghum fodder

Timothy, in bloom

Roots

Beet, common

Beet, sugar

Carrot

Mangel

Potato

Rutabaga

Turnips

Silage

Clover

Corn, well matured, recent

Cowpeas

Soybeans

Total dry
matter

Lbs.

85.8

88.5

25.9
36.4
23.1
20.7

27.6
26.1
16.7
24.9
32.1

13.0
16.4
11.7
9.4
21.2
10.9

27.8
26.3
22.0
27.1

Digestible

Crude
protein

09
10
0.7
0.7

1.9
2.3
2.6
0.7
1.3

0.9
1.2
0.9
0.8
1.1
1.0
1.0

1.3

1.1
1.8

True
protein

0.6

0.8
0.5
0.3

1.8
2.2
0.8
0.8

1.1
2.0
1.7
0.4
0.8

0.1
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4

0.8

0.6

Net
energy
value

36 61

3-J.81

IV. 59

7.22

11.50
17.77
14.60
13.53

17.24
14 06
13.07
15.37
18.89

7.84
11.20

9.21

5.68
18.27

8.46

7.26
15 90
11 05
11.59

Table VIII. Armsby Feeding Standards for Farm Animals

The manner of computing rations in accordance with these standards has been
fully explained in Chapter VII. As a rough guide to tlie amount of dry matter
to be fed, Armsby recommends that: A 1,000-lb. ruminant receive 20 to 30 lbs.,
or an average of 25 lbs., dry matter per day, and the horse somewhat less.

A. Maintenance standards for horses, cattle, and sheep

Live
weight

Horses

Cattle

Sheep

Digestible
protein

Energy
value

Digestible
protein

Energy
value

Live
weight

Digestible
protefn

Energy
value

Lbs.

Lbs.

Therms

Lbs.

Therms

Lbs.

Lbs.

Therms

150

0.30

2.00

0.15

1.70

20

0.023

0 30

250

0.40

2.80

0.20

2.40

40

0 05

0.54

500

0.60

4.40

0.30

3.80

(iO

0.07

0.71

750

0.80

5.80

0.40

4.05

80

0.00

0.87

1,000

1.00

7.00

0.50

6.00

100

0.10

1.00

1,250

1.20

8.15

0.60

7.00

120

0.11

1.13

1,500

1.30

9.20

0.65

7.90

140

0.13

1.25

APPENDIX

431

Table VIII. Armsby Feeding Standards for Farm Animals — continued.
B. Standards for growing cattle and sheep

Cattle

Sheep

Age

Live

Digestible

Net energy

Live

Digestible

Net energy

weight

protein

value

weight

protein

value

Months

Lbs.

Lbs.

Therms

Lbs.

Lbs.

Therms

3

275

1.10

5.0

425

1.30

0.0

70

0.30

1.30

9
12

90

0.25

1.40

650

1.65

7.0

110

0.23

1.40

15

18

130

0.23

1.50

850

1.70

7.5

145

0.22

1.60

24

1,000

1.75

8.0

30

1,100

1.65

8.0

C. standards for horses

-

Required

per 1,000 lbs.

live weight

Digestible protein

Net

value energy

Lbs

Therms

1.0
1.4
2.0

9.8

12.4
16.0

Horse at medium wor

k

"^

D.

Standards for milch cows and fattening steers

For milk production, add to tlie maintenance standard 0.05 lb of digestible
protein and 0.3 therm for each pound of 4 per ct. milk to be produced.
^ For 2- to 3-year-old fattening cattle, add 3.5 therms to the standard for growth
for each pound of gain to be made.

E.

Bidl-Emmett standards for fattening lambs

Per 1,000 lbs. live weight

Weight

Digestible crude
protein

Net energy
value

Lbs.
3.1-3.3
2.5-2.8
2.2-2.4
1.4-1.9

Therms
17-19

18-20

17-20

16-19

432

FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED

Table IX, Weight of Various Concentrates

In computing rations for farm animals it is desirable to know the weight per
quart, or the bulk, of the diflerent concentrates. The following table, compiled
from Massachusetts Bulletin 136 by Smith and Perkins, Louisiana Bulletin llJf
by Halligan, and Indiana Bulletin J^l by Jones, Haworth, Cutler, and Summers
is therefore presented.

Feeding stuffs

Whole corn

Corn meal

Corn-and-cob meal . .

Hominy feed

Gluten feed

Gluten meal

Germ oil meal

Corn bran

Wheat

Wheat, ground

Flour wheat middlings
Standard wheat mid-
dlings

Wheat bran

Wheat feed ( shorts

and bran)

Wheat screenings . . .

Rye

Rye meal

Rye middlings

Rye bran

Rye feed (shorts and

bran )

Oats

Oatmeal

Oats, ground

Oat feed

Oat middlings

Oat hulls

Barley

Barley meal

Malt sprouts

Brewers' grains,
dried

One
quart
weighs

1.7
1.5
1.4
1.1
1.3
1.7
1.4

0.5
1.9

1.7
1.2

0.8
0.5

0.6
1.0
1.7
1.5
1.6

0.8

1.3
1.0
1.7
0.7
0.8

1.5
0.4
1.5
1.1
0.6

0.6

One
pound
meas-
ures

Qts.
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.9
O.S
0.6
0.7

2.0
0.5
0.6
0.8

1.3

2.0

1.7
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.6

1.3

0.8
1.0
0.6
1.4
1.3

0.7
2.5
0.7
0.9
1.7

1.7

Feeding stuff

Millet, foxtail

Rice polish

Rice bran

Buckwheat

Buckwheat flour . .
Buckwheat mid-
dlings

Buckwheat bran . . .
Buckwheat hulls . .

Cotton seed

Cottonseed meal . .
Cottonseed hulls . .
Flaxseed

Linseed meal, old
process

Linseed meal, new
process

Flax feed

Flax screenings . . .

Beans, navy

Cowpeas

Peas, field

Soybeans

Cocoanut meal ....
Cocoanut cake ....
Sunflower seed ....

Beet pulp, dried . . .
Distillers' grains,

dried

Molasses, cane, or

blackstrap

Molasses feed

Alfalfa meal

One
quart
weighs

1.6
1.2
0.8
1.4
1.6

0.9

0.6
0.5
0.8
1.5
0.3
1.6

1.1

0.9
0.8
1.1
1.7

1.7

2.1
1.8
1.5
1.3
1.5

06

0.6

3.0
0.8
0.6

One
pound
meas-
ures

Qts.

0.6
0.8
1.3
0.7
0.6

1.7
2.0
1.3
0.7
3.3
0.6

0.9

1.1
1.3
0.9
0.6

0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.7

1.7

1.7

0.3
1.3
1.7

INDEX

The References are to Pages

cows, 272-4; ewes,
244-5; pigs, 375;
sheep, 342 ; steers.

Absorption of nutrients, 29-31
Air required by farm animals,
Alfalfa. 180-5
Alfalfa feed, 184
Alfalfa hay, 181-3

for calves, 284;
327; horses,
poultry, 402 ;
314
Alfalfa meal, 184

for cows, 274; horses, 245; sheep, 320
Alfalfa ])asture, 183

for cows, 274; horses, 246; pijs, 370;
sheep, 345
Alfalfa silage, 184. 204
Alfalfa soilage, 184. 211
Alimentary canal, 20
Alsike Clover, see Clover, alsike
Amids, 10

in corn crop, 15

use by animals, 54
Amino acids, 10, 30

absorption of, from intestine, 30
Amylase, 25
Anabolism, 28
Animal, as a machine, 78

composition of, 18
Animal food for poultry, 381
Animals and plants compared, 18
Apples and Apple pomace, 198
Apple pomace silage, 205
Artichokes, 196
Ash in corn crop at different stages, 14

in feeds, how determined, 12

see Mineral matter
Ashes, wood, for farm animals, 57, 352
Available energy, 41

Baby beef, 293, 305
Bacon production, 359
Barley, 128-30

for cows, 269; horses, 239
poultry, 397; sheep,
310.

see Cereals
Barley by-products, 130-1
Barley feed, 131

Barley hay, pasture, and soilage, 172
Barley straw, 176
Beans, field. 145
Beans, horse, see Horse bean
Beans, velvet, see Velvet bean
Bean straw, 176
Beef calves, see Calves, beef
Beef cattle, see Steers

raising, 300-4
Beef cows, see Cows, beef
Beet, see Mangels and Sugar Beets
Beet leaves and tops, 194, 205
Beet pulp, dried, 150

for cows, 269; horses, 239; sheep,
Beet pulp, molasses, 151
Beet pulp, wet, 150

for cows, 279; sheep, 332,
steers, 311
Beet pulp silage, 150, 205
Beggar weed, 192
Bermuda grass, 172
Bermuda hay for horses, 242
Bile. 25

Bloat, in cattle, 24, 183, 186
in sheep, 183

pigs, 362 j
9 ; steers.

433

Blood, circulation of, 28

Blood meal, or dried blood, 149

for calves, 284; horses, 241
Bluegrass, Kentucky, 168
Bluegrass pasture vs. rape for lambs, 346
Bluegrass hay for sheep, 342
Boar, feed and care of, 356
Bone ash for farm animals, 57. 67
Bone, green cut, for poultry, 399
Bone meal, 150

for pigs, 352; poultry, 381
Bran, see Wheat bran, Rice bran, etc.
Bread, for poultry. 398
Brewers' grains, dried. 130

for cows. 270; horses 240; poultry,
400; sheep. 340; steers, 313
Brewers' grains, wet, 130
Brome grass, 171
Brome hay for horses, 242
Buckwheat and by-products, 137

for poultry, 398, 400
Bull, beef, feed and care of, 301
Bull, dairy, feed and care of, 288
Butter, effects of feeds on, 255

yellow color, cause of, 258
Buttermilk, 147

for calves, 286; pigs, 364; poultry, 399

Cabbage, 198

for poultry, 401
Cacti. 199
Caecum. 21, 26
Calcium, required by animals, 54-57, 66-7

see Lime
Calorie, 40
Calorimeter. 40

respiration. 40
Calves, beef, feed and care of, 301-4
Calves, dairy, 280-7

(For the value of the various
feeds for calves, see Corn, Oats,
etc.)

birth weights. 285

calf meals for. 286

concentrates for. 283

feeding- , minimum amount of milk, 286

gains made by, 285

hay for, 284

raising on skim milk, 280-5

raising on skim milk substitutes, 286-7

salt for, 285

scours, 287

succulent feeds for, 284

water for, 285
Capillaries, 28
Carbohydrates, 8, 37

a source of muscular energy, 77

determination in feeding stuffs, 13

digestion and absorption of, 29

effect on digestibility of other nutri-
ents. 47

energy lost in digesting, 41-3
Carbonaceous feed, 38
Carbon dioxid, 6

danger from, in silo filling, 207
Carbonic acid gas, see Carbon dioxid
Carrots. 195

for horses, 246
Cassava. 197
Castor bean, 201
Catabolism, 28

434-

INDEX

Cattle, see Steers, Beef production. Cows
Cellulose, 8

digestion of, 24, 30
Cereal hay and pasture, 172
Cereal hay for horses, 242
Cereal pasture, 172

for pigs, 373; sheep, 346
Cereals, 117-37

for silage and soilage, 172
Chaflf from the cereals, 176
Chaffing forage, 46

for horses, 225
Charcoal for pigs, 352; for poultry, 382
Chickens, see Poultry
Chufas, 197
Chyle, 29
Clover. 185-9

alsike, 187

bloat from, how prevented, 186

bur, 189

crimson, 188

Japan, see Lespedeza

mammoth, 187

red, 185-7

for pasture, soilage and silage, 18 5

sweet, 187

white, 187
Clover hay, red, 186

for calves, 284; cows, 274; ewes, 327;
horses, 244; pigs, 374; poultry,
402; sheep, 342; steers, 314

sweet, 187

for sheep, 342; steers, 314
Clover pasture, for pigs, 371; poultry, 402;

sheep, 345
Cocoanut meal or cake, 143

for cows, 272
Cocoa shells, 153
Coefficients of digestibility, 34-6; Appendix

Table II
Colts, see Foals
Concentrates, 14

feeding animals exclusively on, 60

proper amount to feed stock, 88, 112;
dairy cows, 259, 261; horses, 224,
228; pigs, 359, 369; sheep, 330-2;
steers, 295
Cooking feed, 46

for pigs, 350; horses, 226
Corn, Indian, 117-21

by-products of, 120-2

changes in, during ripening, 14-6

composition of, 120

effects of thick planting on, 158

feeding exclusively to pigs, 71-3

for cows, 267-9; horses, 237-9; pigs,
361-2; poultry, 396; sheep, 336-8;
steers, 308-10

nutrients in ears and stover, 158

races of, 118

shrinkage of ear corn, 119

soft, 119

see Corn crop
Corn-andcob meal, 120; see Corn, Indian
Corn bran, 122
Corn chop, see Corn meal
Corn cobs, weight and composition of, 120
Corn feed-meal. 120
Corn fodder. 157. 160

for cows, 275; horses, 242; sheep,
342: steers, 314

shredding, 163
Corn fodder or stover silage, 161
Corn gluten feed, see Gluten feed
Corn meal. 119
Corn silage, see Silage, corn
Corn soilage, 163
Cornstalk disease, 200

Corn stover, 157, 163

for cows, 275; horses, 242; sheep, 342;
steers, 314

shredded, 163
Corn stover silage, 161
Collectives for pigs, 352
Cotton seed, 137
Cottonseed cake, 138

cold- pressed, 139
Cottonseed hulls, 140

for cows, 276; steers, 316
Cottonseed meal, 138-40

for beef cows, 301; dairy cows, 270;
horses, 241; pigs, 139, 368; poul-
try, 400; sheep, 340; steers, 312,
317
Cowpea, 144, 189

for horses. 241; pigs, 368; poultry.
400; steers. 313
Cowpea hay, 189

for cows, 275; sheep, 342; steers, 314
Cowpea pasture, 189

for pigs, 373; sheep, 346
Cow])ea silage, 189
Cows, beef, feed and care of, 300
Cows, dairy, 247-79

(For the value of various feeds
for cows, see Corn, Clover hay,
etc.)

advanced registry, 251

as producers of human food, 247

calculating rations for. 107-11, 260

care before and after calving, 263-4

comfort, importance of, 262

composition of milk of various breeds,
252

concentrate allowance for, 259-60

cost of keep, 264-5

dairy vs. beef type, 247-9

dehorning, 258

drying off, 263

effects of advancing lactation, 253 ; age,
253; drought, 256; exercise, 256;
feed on richness and yield of milk,
254-6; temperature, 256; turning
to pasture, 256

feed and care of, 247-66

feeding as individuals, 260

feeding concentrates on pasture, 261

feeds for, 267-79

feeds required by. for one year, 264

frequency of feeding, 263

freshening in fall vs. spring, 264

gestation period. 264

good and poor producers, 249-50

grooming, 256

herd records, 250-2

kindness in care of. 257

liberal and meager feeding, 255-6

milk, see Milk, cow's

milking machines, 257

milking three times daily, 258

official tests, 251

order of feeding, 263

palatable feed, importance of, 262

pasture, supplementing short. 261

preparation of feed for. 263

ration for. should be well balanced, 261

regularity in care of, 257

rest, importance of, 263

salt for, 263

shelter for, 262

substituting legume hay for concen-
trates, 272-4

water for. 262
Cow-testing associations. 251
Crimson clover, see Clover, crimson
Crude protein, see Protein, crude

INDEX

435

Cud, chewing the, 21

Cutting hay and straw, see Chaffing

Dairy by-products, 146-8
Dairy cows, see Cows, dairy
Diastase, 130
Digestibility, 34-8

coefficients of, 34-6, Appendix Table II
depression of, 47
factors influencing, 45-8
method of determining, 34
of fgod by different animals, 48 ; by
poultry, 3^0
Digestible nutrient, 20
Digestible nutrients in feeding

stuffs, 36-8: Appendix Table III
Digestion, 19-27, 29-31

Digestion coefficients, 36; At)pendix Table II
Digestive tract of farm animals, 20
Distillers' grains, dried, 152

for cows, 271; horses, 241; sheep, 340;
steers, 313
Distillery slop, 153

Dried beet pulp, see Beet pulp, dried
Dried blood, see Blood meal
Dried brewers' grains, see Brewers' grains,

dried
Dried distillers' grains, see Distillers' grains,

dried
Dried fish, see Fish meal
Ducks, 393
Durra, 135

Economy in feeding live stock, 106-15
Egg, structure and composition of, 386
Emmer, 131

for cows. 269; pigs, 363; sheep, 339;
poultry, 398; steers, 311
Energy, 38-44

available and net, 41
muscular, production of, 77
net, 41

in feeding stuffs, 42
required for fattening, 70; growth, 64;
maintenance, 51: milk production,
81; work, 79, 224-5
of feeds, losses of. 42-4, 222
see Work
Energy values of feeds, Armsby's, 92, Api)en-

dix Table VII
Enzymes, 20
Erepsin, 25
Ergot, 200

Ether extract, see Fat
Ewes, breeding, feed and care of, 326-8
Exercise for farm animals, 61; see also
Dairy cows. Horses, etc.

Farm animals, calculating rations fori
86115

composition of bodies of, 18

relative economy of, 70, 247

see Live stock
Fat, 9

digestion and absorption of. 29

how determined in feeds, 13

origin in body, 69

wool, 82
Fattenins, 68-75

comijosition of increase during, 68

factors influencing, 70

object of, 68

ration for, 69
Feces, 32
Feed, cooking, for farm animals, 46

effects on butter fat. 254-6

influence on body of pig, 71-3

Feed, continued

preparation for farm animals, 45-7, see
also Horses, Cows, etc.

regulation of sale, 154

returns from, by various farm animals,
70

soaking, 46
Feeding standards, . 84105

Armsby's, 93-5; Api.endix Table VII

Bull Emmet for lambs, 93

Eckles' for dairy cows, 100

Haecker's for dairy cows, 97-8

Kellner's, 92

Modified Wolff-Lehmann, 101-4, Appen-
dix Table V

Wolff Lehmann, 84-5, 90-2; Appendix
Table IV

Woll-Humphrev, 98
Feeding stuffs, 117-211

composition. 814; Appendix Table I

control, 154

digestible nutrients in, 36 ; Appendix
Table III

fertilizing constituents in, 214 6; Ap-
pendix Table III

guide in purchasing, 155

market prices not guid(' to value of, 106

mineral matter in, 12, 55-7, 66 7

mixed or proprietary, 153

selecting, for economical rations, 106 11

suitabilty of, considering in formulating
rations, 86

variations in composition of, 44

see Feed, also Feeding stuffs
Feed units, 95

Fertility, buying, in purchased feeds, 215
Fertility, selling, in croi)S. 216
Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs, 214;

Appendix Table III
Fertilizing value of feeds, recovered in

manure, 213
Feterita, 135, 136

for pigs, 364
Feterita fodder, 165
Fiber. 13

digestion of, 24

how determined in feeds, 13

loss of energy in digesting, 41-3
Field bean, see Bean, field
Field pea, see Pea, field
Fish and fish scrap for poultrv, 399
Fish meal, 149

Flax seed and by-products, 141-2
Flax straw, 176"
Flour, manufacture of, 124

red dog, 126
Foals, cost of raising, 234
feed and care of, 232-4
Fodder corn, see Corn fodder and Corn

forage
Food, see Feeds, also Feeding stuffs
Forage, coarse, see Roughage

effect of curing and ensiling, 47
Forage poisoning, 200
Foot-ton and footpound, 221
Fowls, see Poultrv
Fruit, 198

for horses, 246
Fuel value of feed, see Energy

Gastric .iuice, 22
Germ oil meal, 122

for cows, 270
Geese, 394

Gestation period, see Cow, Ewe, etc.
Glucose, 8

absorption of. 29

jnanufactured from corn, 120

436

INDEX

Gluten feed, 122

for cows, 270; pigs, 369; poultry, 400;
sheep, 340; steers, 313
Gluten meal, 122

for cows, 270; pigs, 369
Gluten of wheat, 124
Glvcogeu, 30, 77
Goats. 335
Grass, 167-75

gains of steers on, 304

nutrients at different stages, 167

see Hay, also Pasture
Grasses, mixed, 174
Greasewood, 198
Green feed for poultry, 401-2
Green forage, digestibility of, 47
Grinding grain for farm animals, 45

See also Cows, Horses, etc.
Grit for i)0ultry, 381
Ground bone, see Bone meal
Ground rock phosphate, see Phosphate, rock
Growing animals, 63 8

effect of checking growth of, 73-5

food requirements for, 64 7

roughing thru the winter, 112

Hay, chaffing or cutting, see Chaffing hay

changes while curing, 177

losses by stacking, 179

making, 177-9

measurement, 179

shrinkage, 179

vs. corn silage for dairy cows, 277

see Grasses, also Legumes
Hay, alfalfa, effects of rain on, 177
Heat, amount in coal, pure nutrients, and
feeds, 41

energy expended in body takes form
of, 43, 51

how it is produced and regulated in
body, 50

lost in digestion, 41

lost in warming water drunk, 58

requirements for maintenance, 50-3

see Energy
Heating water for cows, 262 ; farm ani-
mals, 58
Heifers, dairy, cost ot rearing, 288

feed and care of, 287-8
Hens, see Poultry
Hogs, see Pigs
Hogging down corn, 362
Hominv feed for cows, 269; pigs, 364;

poultry, 398
Honeycomb, or second stomach, 21
Horse bean, for horses, 241
Horse power, definition, 221
Horses, 221 46

(For the value of the various feeds
for horses, see Corn, Oats, etc.)

blanketing, 227

calculating rations for, 103-4

care of, hints on, 226

carriage, feed and care of, 229

cost of raising. 234

exercise for, 226

factors influencing work done by, 221-5

fattening, 229

feeding and care of, 221-35

feeds for, 236-46

grade, eff«ct on energy required for
work by, 225

grooming, 227

measuring work performed by, 221

nutrient requirements of, 222-5

roughage, excess of injurious, 241

saddle horse, feed and care of, 229

salt for, 226

Horses, continued

speed influences energy required for
work, 224

stables for, 226-7

tyi)es of work done by, 223

watering, 226

wintering farm horses, 228

work horse, feed and care of, 227
Hungarian grass, see Millet

Incubation of eggs, 388

Intestinal secretion, 25

Intestine, large, digestion in, 26

Intestine, small, digestion in, 25-6

Intestines, length and capacity of, 21

Invertases, 25

Iron in blood, 50, 55; in plants, 5

Japan clover, see Lespedeza

Japanese cane, 174

Johnson grass, 173

Johnson grass hay for horses, 242

Kafir, 135-6, 163-6

for calves, 282; cows, 269; horses, 239,
242; pigs. 364; poultry, 398;
sheep. 339; steers, 311
Kafir fodder, 164
Kafir silage. 165

for dairy cows, 277; Steers, 320
Kafir stover, 165

for beef cattle, 315
Kale, 198
Kaoliang, 135, 136

for pigs, 364
Kaoliang fodder and stover, 165
Kidnevs, 32
Kohlrabi, 198

Lactase, 26
Lactoals, 29
Lambs, see Sheep

fattening, 330-3

feed and care of, 328-35

hothouse, 333

spring, 334

weight of, at birth, 328

winter. 333
Legumes for forage, 180-92

for silage, 204

rich in protein and lime, 56, 180
Legume hay, importance of, for cows, 272;
horses, 244; pigs, 374; poultry,
402; sheep, 340: steers, 313
Leguminous seeds, 142-3; 144-5
Lespedeza, 192
Light for farm animals, 61
Lime, 55-7, 66

required for growth, 66

required for mninten.auce, 55-7
Linseed meal or cake, 141

for calves, 282; cows, 271; horses, 241;
pigs, 368; poultry. 400; sheep,
340; steers, 312

old and new ijrocess, 141
Lipase, 25
Liver, 25

Loco poisoning, 201
Lymph and lymphatic system, 28

Maintaining farm animals, 50-62
Maintenance ration, see Ration, maintenance
Maize, see Corn
Malt, 130
Maltase, 26

Malt sugar, 8, 26, 130
Malt sprouts, 130
for cows, 270

INDEX

437

Mammoth clover, see Clover, mammoth
Mangels, 194

dangerous to rams or wethers, 194
for cows, 277; pigs, 374; poultry, 401;

sheep, 343
see Roots
Manure, 212-19

care of, to prevent loss. 219
composition and value, 217
essential elements in, 212
fertilizing constituents recovered in, 213
losses in, 218
value as a fertilizer, 212
Manurial value of feeds, 215
Manyplies, 21 , „ „ „

Mare, brood, feed and care of, 230-2
Margin in fattening live stock, 291
Marsh gas, or methane, 24, 32, 41
Marsh hav, 174

for sheep, 342
Mastication, 21

energy lost in, 41-3
Meat for poultry, 398
Meat, marbling of, 68
Meat meal, see Tankage
Meat scrap, 149

for poultry, 398
Melons, 198
Metabolism, 27

Middlings, see Wheat middlings, Oat mid-
dlings, etc.
Milch cows, see Cows
Milk albumin for poultry, 399
Milk, cows, 64. 146, 252-8

color of, affected by feed, 258
colostrum, 64
composition of, 64, 252

factors lurtuencing, 252 8
effects of rich on young animals, 146
fat, source of, in, 81
flavor, factors influencing, 258
for calves, 280, 286; foals, 232
odors in, due to feed, 258
yield, factors influencing, 253-8
yield of great dairy cows, 252, 268
Milk, of different animals, 64
Milk, production of, 80-1

nutrients required for, 81
secretion of, 80
Milking machines, 257
Millet seed. 136

for poultry, 398; steers, 311
Millet hay, 171-2

for horses, 242; lambs, 342
Milo, 136

for horses, 239; pigs, 364; poultry, 398;
sheep, 339; steers, 311
Milo fodder and stover, 165
Mineral matter, 7, 12, 54, 66
digestion of, 31
effects on animals of lack of, 56, 66,

71 3
for colts, 234; cows, 81; pigs, 66,

71-3; poultry, 380
importance of, in food, 54
in feeding stuffs, 12, 56
required for growth, 66, 71-3
required for maintenance, 54-7
see Calcium and Phosphorus
Mixed feeds, 153
Molasses, beet, 151

for horses, 239; sheep, 339; steers, 312
Molasses, cane, 152

for horses, 239; steers, 311
Molasses-beet pulp, see Beet pulp, molasses
Molasses feeds, 152
for horses, 239
Molassine meal, 152

Mules, 221, 228

Muscular contraction, 51, 77

Muscular energy, production of, 77

Net energy, see Energy, net
Nitrogen in feeds as a fertilizer, 215; Appen-
dix Table III
Nitrogen-free extract in feeds, how deter-
mined, 13
Nitrogenous comiiounds in plants, 9
Nitrogenous feed, 38
Nutrients. 19

digestible, 20, 36

distribution and use of absorbed, 31

required by various animals, see Horse,
Cows, etc.

total digestible, 37, 38
Nutritive ratio, 37

how calculated and expressed, 38

narrow and wide, 37

Oat bv-products, 128
Oats, 126

clipped, 127

for calves, 283; cows, 269; foals, 232,
233; horses, 236-7; pigs, 363;
poultry, 397; sheep, 339; steers,
311

sprouted, for poultry, 401

see Cereals
Oat straw, 176

for horses, 243; sheep, 342; steers, 318
Oil cake, see Linseed meal or cake
Oils, see Pat
Orchard grass, 171
Oyster shells for poultry, 381

Palatability, 26, 88

Pancreas and pancreatic juice, 25

Parsnips, 195

Pasturage vs. soilage for cows, 209

Pasture, abuse of, 175

for beef cattle, 304-5; horses, 246;
pigs, 369-73; poultry, 402; sheep,
345
Paunch, 21, 24
Pea-cannery refuse, 189, 204
Peanut and bv-products. 143
Peanuts for pigs, 143, 368, 373
Pea, field, 144, 189

for horses, 241; pigs. 368, 372; poultry,
400; sheep, 340
Peavine silage, 204

fattening sheep on, 345
Pentosans, 8
Pentose. 13
Pepsin, 23
Peptones, 23

Phosphate, ground rock, for farm ani-
mals, 57, 67
Phosphoric acid in feeds as a fertilizer, 215;

Appendix Table III
Phosphorus, effect of low supply, 56. 66
feeds low in, and rich in, 56
in bran, 124

required for maintenance, 55
required for growth, 66
Pigs, 347-76 . , , ,

(For value of various feeds for
pigs see Corn, Clover hay, etc.)
bacon production, 359
birth weight of, 357
body of. composition, 19
breed tests, 354
digestibility of food by, 48
dressed carcass, per cent yielded by, 347
exercise for, 352
fattening, 359

438

INDEX

Pigs, continued

feed eaten daily, 347

feeds for, 361-76

feeding coini exclusively, 71-3

following steers, 299

gains from birth to maturity, 347

ground bone for, 352

hogging down corn, 362

hogging down ripe grain, 373

influence of feed on body, 71-3

mineral matter, for. 71-3, 352

number in litter, 356

nutrient requirements of, 348

l)reparation of feed for, 349-50

returns from, comjiared with other farm
animals, 70, 347

salt required by, 352

self feeders for, 351

shelter for, 352

sow, see Sows

strength of bones affected by feed, 66,
71-3

stubble fields, gleaning, 373

tuberculosis, thru dairy by-products, 147

types of, 354

■water required by, 350
Plants, composition, at different stages of
maturity, 14-6, 44
elements present in, 5
food of, 5-7
how they grow, 5-11
support animal life, 11
Plant substances, how grouped, 11-3
Poisonous plants, 200-1
Pork, effects of feeds on, 359
Potash in feeds as a fertilizer, 215; Appen-
dix Table III
Potatoes, 195

for cows, 278; horses, 246; pigs, 374
Poultry, 377-402

(For the value of different feeds
for poultry see Corn, Wheat, etc.)

animal food for, 381

brooding, artificial, 390

brooding chicks with hens, 389

charcoal for. 382

cockerels, 393

condiments for, 382 «

digestibility of feeds by, 380

digestive system of, 378

ducks, 393

eggs, structure and composition of, 386

feeding chicks, 391-2

feeding laying hens, 384

feeding standards for, 380

green feeds for, 383

grit for, 381

hatching eggs with hens, 389

hints on feeding, 394

incubation, 388

mash for, 383

mineral matter for, 380

nutrient requirements of, 380

oyster shells for, 381

preparation of feed for, 383

pullets, 392

rations for laying hens, 384

returns from, compared with other farm
animals, 70

salt for, 381

saving eggs for hatching, 388

selecting the flock, 387

shelter for, 382

turkeys. 394

types of fowls, 383

water for. 381
Prairie hay, 174

for cows, 276; horses, 242; sheep, 342

Preparation of feeds, 45-7
Prickly jjear, 199
Proprietary feeds, 153
Protein, 911

amount in rations, adapting to local

conditions. 111
complete and incomplete, 10, 66
crude, 10

how determined in feeds. 12
digestion and absorption of, 30
fat formed from, 69

required by cows, 81, 261; fattening
cattle, 292; horses, 224; sheep,
82; pigs, 348; poultry, 380
required for fattening, 69; growth, 64;
maintenance, 53 ; milk production,
81; wool production, 82
Proteoses, 23, 30
Protoiilasm, plant, 7
Prussic acid, plants carrying, 200
Ptyalin, 22
Pumpkins, 198

Quarters for farm animals, see Shelter
Quiet, importance of, for farm animals, 61

Ram, feed and care of, 328"
Rape, dwarf Essex, 197

for pigs, 346; sheep, 371
Rations, 20

balanced 20

bulkiness of, importance of, 87
calculating, for dairy cows, 98, 107-11;
steer, 90-2, 93-4; work horse, 103-4
economical, for farm animals, 106-15
factors affecting digestibility of, 44-9
general hints on computing, 86-90
maintenance, 50-62

economical, 43, 52
for various farm animals. Appendix
Tables IV and V, see also Horse,
Pig, etc.
Red clover, see Clover, red
Red dog flour, 126

for pigs, 367
Red top grass, 170

Regularity, importance of, for farm animals,
61; for dairy cows, 257; fattening
cattle, 299; horses, 227; poultry,
395; sheep, 332
Rennin, 23

Respiration apparatus, 39
Rice, 133

for horses, 239; poultry, 398; steers,
311
Rice bran, 133

Rice by-products for pigs, 369
Rice hulls, dangerous to animals, 133
Rice polish, 134
Rice straw, 177

Rock phosphate, see Phosphate, rock
Roots and tubers, 193-7

costly compared with corn silage, 194
for cows, 277-8; horses, 246; pigs, 373;
poultry, 401; sheep, 343; steers,
320
Roughages, 13

losses of energy in digestion of, 43
necessity of, for farm animals, 60
Ruminants, 20

digestion of, 24, 48
Rutabagas, 194

for cows, 278; horses, 246; poultry, 401
Rye, 131

for cows, 269; horses, 239; pigs, 363;

poultry, 398
see Cereal"

INDEX

439

Rye hay, 172
Rye pasture, 172
Rye straw. 176

Sagebrush, 198

Saliva, actipu on food, 22

Salt, common, 57

for calves, 285; cows, 263; horses, 226;
pigs, 352; ])oultry, 381; sheep,
325; steers, 299
influence of, on digestibility, 48
need of. by farm animals, 55, 57
Saltbush. 198 '
.Salvage grain, 153

for ijoultry, 398
Scarlet clover, see Crimson clover
Scours in calves, 287
Screenings, see Wheat screenings
Self feeders for pigs, 351; poultry, 385;

sheep, 326 ; steers, 297
Shallu, 135, 165
Sheep, 322-46

(For the value of different feeds
for sheep, see Corn, Clover hay,
etc.)
age, influence of, on gains, 324
cost of gains by, 337
danger from feeding mangels, 194, 343
dipping, 331

dressed carcass yielded by, 333
exercise for, 324
fattening, 330-3

amount of concentrates for, 332
different ages, 324
length of feeding period, 331
various methods of. 330-3
feeding and care of, 322 35
feed racks for, 3-6
feeds for, 336-46
flock, proiier size of, 323
gains of, 324, 331
general problems in sheep husbandry,

322-6
gestation period. 328
preparation of feed for, 325
returns compared with other farm ani-
mals, 70. 322
salt for, 325
self feeders for, 326
shelter for. 324
shrinkage in shipping, 333
stomach worms, 330
types of, 323
water required by, 325
wool production, see Wool
see Ewes, Lambs, and Ram
Shelter, for cows, 262 ; farm animals, 53 ;
horses, 226; pigs, 352; poultry.
382; sheep, 324, 328; steers, 297
Shock corn, 162

for steers, 309
see Corn fodder
Shorts, see Middlings, wheat
Shredding corn forage, 163
Silage, 202-9

advantages of. 203
alfalfa, 184. 204
amount to feed. 205
clover. 187. 204
Silage, corn, 159-61, 204

for beef cows, 301; dairy cows, 276;
ewes, 327; horses, 246; pigs, 374;
poultry, 401; sheep, 343-5; steers,
316-20
vs. corn fodder, 160
vs. hay for cows. 277
vs. roots, 194

Silage, crops suitable for, 205
cured corn fodder for, 161
digestibility of, 47
mouldy, dangerous, 205
preservation, manner of, 202
sorghums for. 165

southern vs. northern corn for. 161
si)ace occupied by, 204
summer. 206

for cows, 261, 279
weight of, 204
Silo, 206-9

capacity of, 208

danger from carbon dioxide in filling.

207
filling. 206
proper size of. 208
requisites of a good, 207
Skim milk. 146

for colts. 232; calves, 280-5; pigs,

364-6; poultry, 399
money value, for pigs, 365
pasteurizing to i)revent disease, 147
substitutes for, in calf rearing, 286-7
Smut, corn, 201
Soaking feed, 46

for horses, 226; pigs, 350
Soilage, 209-11

advantages and disadvantages of, 209
crops for, 211
for cows, 279
Sorgho, see Sorghum, sweet
Sorghum, sweet, 134. 136

for cows, 269; pigs, 364; poultry, 398
Sorghum fodder or hay, 163-5

for horses, 242; sheep, 342; steers, 315
Sorghum pasture. 165
Sorghum silage. 165

for cows. 277 ; sheep, 345 ; steers, 320
Sorghum soilage. 165
Sorghum stover, 165

for steers, 315
Sorghums, grain, 134-6

for cows. 269; horses, 239: pigs, 364;
poultry, 398; sheep, 339; steers.
311
Sows, feed and care of. 354 6

see Pigs
Soybeans. 142-3

for cows, 271; horses, 241; pigs, 368;
poultry, 400; sheep, 340; steers,
313
Soybean cake or meal, 143

for cows, 272
Soybean hay, 190
Soybean jjasture for pigs, 372
Soybean silage, 190
Spelt, see Emmer
Squashes, 198

Stallion, feed and care of, 234
Starch, 4

digested by ptyalin, 22
production of, from corn, 120
Starch values. Kellner's, 92
Steers, 290-321

(For the value of the various ft eds
for steers, see Corn, Corn silage,
etc.)
age, influence of on cost of gains, 67,

292
breed, value of in beef making. 296
calculating rations for, 90 2. 93 4
composition of. at different ages, 19
composition of increase during fatten-
ing. 68
cost of fattening. 300
degree of finish, influence on cost of
gains, 294

440

INDEX

Steers, continued

early maturity of beef breeds, 296

fattening, length of feeding period, 294
methods of, 304-7
on pasture, 304-5
on small amount of concen-
trates, 295

feed requirements of, 292

feeds for, 30o-321

frequency of feeding, 299

gains on grass, 304

gains on droppings, by hogs, 299

getting on feed, 299

grain feeding on pasture, 305

growing, 303

growth under adverse conditions, 73-5

hints on fattening, 299

margin required in fattening, 291

phases of beef production, 290

jiigs following, 299

preparation of feed for, 309

preparing for shipment, 300

quiet and regularity, importance of,
for, 299

returns from, compared with other farm
animals. 90

salt for. 298

self feeder for, 297

shelter for. 297

shrinkage in shipping, 300

summer vs. winter feeding, 304

water required by, 298

wintering growing, 303. 306
Steers and pigs, gains of, 293
Stock foods. 155
Stomach, capacity of, 21
digestion in, 22
Stomachs of ruminants, 21, 22
Stomach worms in sheep, 330
Stover, see Corn stover
Straw, 176

for cows, 276; horses, 225; sheep, 342;
steers, 304, 315
Succulent feeds, value of, 60

for cows, 276 9; horses, 245 6; pigs,
369-74; poultry, 4012; sheep, 343-
6; steers, 316 21
Sucrase, 26
Sudan grass, 173
Sugar beet pulp, see Beet pulp
Sugar beets, 194

for cows, 277; pigs, 374; poultry, 401;
sheep, 343
Sugar cane, 174

Sunflower seed and oil cake, 143
Sunflower seed for poultry, 400
Sweet clover, see Clover, sweet
Sweet potato, 197
Sweet potatoes for pigs, 374
Swine, see Pigs

Tankage, 148

for horses, 241; pigs, 367
Temperature, body, of farm animals, 50

see Heat
Teosinte, 172
Therm, 40
Timothy hay. 169-70

early and late cut. 169

for cows. 275; horses, 242; sheep, 342;
steers, 308, 313
Trypsin, 25. 30

Tuberculosis, spread by feeding infected
milk. 147

Tubers, see Roots and tubers
Turkeys, 394
Turnips, 195

for cows, 278; poultry, 401; sheep, 343

Urea, 32
Urine, 32

fertilizing coilstituents voided in, 218

heat carried off by, 41, 42

Variety of feeds, importance of, 89

Veal, feeding for, 303

Velvet bean, 192

Velvet bean pasture for pigs, 373

Ventilation, see Air

Vetch, hairy and common, 191

Villi, 29, 30

Waste of body, disposal of. 32
Water requirements of animals, 58; calves,
285; cows, 262; horses. 226; pigs.
350; poultry. 381; sheep, 325;
steers, 298
Water, evaporation of, carries heat from
body, 51

in feeds, how determined, 12

in plants, 5

warming for cows, 262

warming for farm animals, 58
Wet beet pulp, see Beet pulp, wet
Wet brewers' grains, see Brewers' grains,

wet
Wethers, see Sheep and Lambs
Wheat. 123

by-products of. 124 6

for cows. 269; horses. 239; pigs, 363;
poultry. 396; sheep, 339; steers,
310

see Cereals
Wheat bran. 124

for calves, 283; cows, 269; horses, 239;
pigs, 367; poultry, 400; sheep,
340; steers, 313
Wheat feed, 126

for cows, 270
Wheat hay and pasture, 172
Wheat middlings, 125

for cows, 270; horses, 240; pigs, 367;
poultry, 400
Wheat screenings, 126

for poultry. 397; sheep. 339
Wheat shorts, see Wheat middlings
Wheat straw. 176
Whey. 147

for calves, 286; pigs, 366; poultry. 399
Whole milk, see Milk, cow's
Winter lambs, 333
Wood ashes for farm animals, 57
Wool, composition of, 82
Wool production, 82
Work, 77-9, 221-5

factors influencing efficiency of, 79

heat i)roduced thru, 77

internal, produces heat, 42, 51

measurement of, 221

nutritive requirements for, 77, 222-4

of the horse, 221 5

production of, 77

relation of speed to, 224

value of feeds for, 222

see Energy and Horses

Yolk in wool, 82

APR 82

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