——_. PICT IVE| < =e ON ‘ o \ (" MAR31 1898 ‘) \ a. a) ‘Op arV n€ { rors a Sp ee of Cong A Ce = ~~ en LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ae = ees No UNITED STATES OF soe ee ye hy a era Foy mendes ae y th | ne Cor). pe Abs: Mise oi aa FEEDS AND FEEDING A HAND-BOOK FOR THE STUDENT AND STOCKMAN 7 W. Av HENRY Dean of the College of Agriculture, and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Wisconsin “The eye of the master fattens his cattle.” — German adage. PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR MADISON, WIS. . 1898 2g ote Lee L. /5GF— 1) FT62 2nd Copy, 1898, Copyright, 1898, By W. A. HENRY. M. J. CANTWELL, PRINTER, MADISON, WIS. PREEAGE. For more than a generation past many of the ablest scientists of the Old World have devoted their energies to a study of the laws of animal nutrition. American Experiment Stations, although of recent origin, have added much to our store of knowledge concerning the application of science to stock feed- ing. From these fruitful sources the writer has endeavored to select data important in establishing principles and helpful in directing rational practice. In addition there has been gathered from all available sources the experiences and observations of stockmen. Much space is occupied by tables, which are usually condensed and arranged from the original sources, to which references are made. By their help it is hoped the student will be able to determine for himself to what extent the deductions drawn are warranted by the facts. Moreover, the data they contain may form the basis for new studies with those specially interested, and may make additional conclusions possible. The stockman whose training has been solely in the school of experience often holds in light regard that which is written con- cerning his vocation. Let him remember that facts and truths are the same whether their repository is a book or the human mind. Held by the latter, all perish with the possessor; in the keeping of the former, the whole world may be benefited. On the other hand, novices usually underestimate the importance of experience, often thinking that by reading they can acquire the knowledge necessary in the prosecution of their business. That stock feeding is an art and not a science, and that experience and judgment must rule in its successful conduct, is recognized in this volume by placing on the title page the adage, ‘‘The eye of the master fattens his cattle.’’ In this we have followed the iv Preface. German author Kiihn in his popular work on the same topic. In the successful management of live stock abstract knowledge can- not take the place of experience, though it will prove of the highest value when both are rightly combined. The stockman who in addition to experience possesses some knowledge of the composition of the nutrients of feeding stuffs, and has considered how the animal grows and is nourished by them, is certainly thereby better equipped for wisely and economically administer- ing feed to the animals under his care. And in the deeper in- sight and wider range of vision which these studies insure, there comes keener enjoyment and a greater satisfaction to the posses- sor, in his daily round of duties. Acknowledgment is due my co-worker, Prof. F. W. Woll, for assistance, especially in collating the data published by foreign investigators. His familiarity with this source of information has been of the highest utility. Mr. A. M. Troyer, a graduate student in agriculture, has assisted in preparing and verifying the tables from American sources. W. A. HENRY. Mapison, WIs., February, 1898. CONFENTS. Part I.— PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL NUTRITION. CHAPTER. Vir: PAGE. The Plant; How it Grows and Elaborates Food for Animals . . Mastication, Digestion aa iaetratntion Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry . Animal Nutrition The Source of Muscular Pacey: Contpesition of nae mals Before and After Fattening Influence of Feed on the Animal Body Explanation of Tables of Composition and Pesaing Standards— Methods of Calculating Rations for Barm > Antimals: ete: Gakuen) Meee ser oe: acu Part II.— FEEDING STUFFS. Leading Cereals and Their By-products Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds and Their By-products Indian Corn as a Forage Plant The Grasses, Fresh and Cured — Straw Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs . : Soiling Cattle — Preparation of Besdine Stuffs The Ensilage of Fodders Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs Part III.— FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. Investigations Concerning the Horse Feeds for the Horse Feed and Care of the Home Calf Rearing . See Results of Sieer-feadine Trials ‘atk ie Stations 3 Factors in Steer Fattening—Final Results .. . Counsel in the Feed Lot .. . RLU d er aii Neem The Dairy Cow —Scientific eel sinaeuhvani eta 1 12 26 40 63 97 119 143 163 178 195 211 231 245 263 271 292 311 334 345 364 vi CHAPTER. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVITI. XXTX. XXX. XXXII. XXXII. XXXITI. XXXIV. XXXV. Contents. PAGE. Station Tests with Feeding Stuffs for Dairy Cows . 413 Influence of Feed on Milk — Wide and Narrow Rations 437 Public Tests of Pure-bred Dairy Cows— Cost of Pro- ducing Milk and Fat in Dairy Herds at Various MX periment Stations: *. wens. s win Cer eeuies ets 448 Feed and Care of the DairyCow ..... . 463 Investigations with Sheep . . 480 Experiments in Fattening Sheep — Wool Pronuction « 407 General Care of Sheep — Fattening 514 Investigations with Swine . 535 Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs 556 Danish Pig-feeding Experiments : 583 Feeding and Management of Swine— Effect oe Reed on the Carcass of the Pig. . . Pees A 604 PEEDS AND FEEDING, PART I. PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL NUTRITION. CHAPTER I. THE PLANT; HOW IT GROWS AND ELABORATES FOOD FOR ANIMALS. I. Plant Growth. {. Concerning plant cells.— Since plants and their products in some form, directly or indirectly, constitute the food of animals, it is proper in these studies that we briefly examine how the plant grows and elaborates this food. The unit of plant growth is the cell. If we study a grain of corn or a corn stalk we find it made up of cells variously modified,, the whole group together taking on the form of the object under consideration. In their primary condition all cells are closed sacs, and contain the juices and other substances incident to plant growth. The walls of the plant cells are composed of a woody substance called cellulose. These walls may be thin and tender to the teeth of the animal, as in the young plants of the fields, or thick, woody and tough, as in the stems of the forest trees. Before studying more intimately the plant cell, its contents, and what “occurs within it, let us consider the substances essential to plant growth. 2. Elements essential to plant life.-—The elementary substances required for plant life are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 2 Feeds and Feeding. potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, chlorin and sulfur. The plant can make no use of these elements in their uncombined form, with the single exception of oxygen, of which it may utilize a small amount in elementary form. All the other elements, as well as oxygen for the most part, must be combined with one another in some form to be of use to the plant. The mineral substances which are taken up by the roots of the plant inay be grouped as follows: Sulfates Potassium Phosphates f Calcium Nitrates and ‘ Magnesium and Chlorids Tron. Nitrogen in the form of nitrates and as ammonia is taken up by the plant through its roots. Legumes (peas, clover, etc.) possess the power of fixing the free nitrogen of the air through the intermediate action of certain species of bacteria harbored by the roots. Otherwise such nitrogen is not directly available for plant growth. 3. Water required by plants.— Water, as we may judge from its abundance in plants, is of the highest importance to them. Half-grown clover plants may contain as much as 92 per cent. water, or more than is found in skim milk. ‘The turnip contains from 87 to 92 per cent. water. When a crop of corn is partially grown, nine-tenths of its whole weight may be water. Plants exhale a large amount of water through their leaves during growth. A sunflower plant 3.3 feet high has been known to exhale 1.25 pounds of water through its leaves during twelve hours. Lawes and Gilbert found in the moist climate of England, that wheat, barley, beans, peas and clover exhaled during five months of growth about 200 times their dry weight of water. King, of the Wisconsin Station, ! measuring the water given off through leaf evaporation as well as by the soil supporting the plants, found that foreach pound of dry matter produced by the plant in root, stem, leaf and seed, there were required for corn 301, for barley 401, and for oats 501 pounds of water. The transpi- ration of water by the leaves causes an upward progress of that liquid from the roots through the stem of at least 1.3 inches 1 Rept. 1891. How the Plant Grows. 3 per minute. Under certain conditions the upward movement of water in plant stems may exceed 30 inches per minute. 4. How plants gather food.— Carbonic acid, which is next to water in the amount utilized by plants, is taken up by them through the medium of the leaves. Ten thousand volumes of air eontain about three volumes of carbonic acid gas; thirty-two hundred cubic yards of air hold one pound of this gas. An acre of growing wheat will gather during four months one ton of car- bonic acid gas, or an amount equal to all the air contains over the same area of land to a height of three miles. In the leaves of plants, mostly on their under side, are numerous minute openings leading into the interior. Air passing through these carries with it carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the leaf cells. The feeding roots of plants are clothed with minute hairs, which take up water from the soil, together with mineral matter and nitrogen compounds in solution. There are no direct open- ings in these root hairs, the material being taken up by diffusion. Roots are capable of dissolving and absorbing solid ingredients from the soil particles with which they come in contact. Though they take up some matter which is useless to the plant, roots exercise a very considerable selective power in the materials absorbed, and do not seem to gather plant food indiscriminately. 5. Plant building.— Having learned what the plant lives upon and how it gathers its food, let us consider how it grows. In the active cells, especially those of the leaves, there is found a trans- lucent, jelly-like substance called protoplasm. The life of the plant may be said to exist in this protoplasm. The green coloring of leaves and stems is due to a substance called chlorophyll con- tained within the protoplasm. Chlorophyll is formed only in sunlight. The carbonic acid gas gathered by the leaves is ab- sorbed by the cells containing protoplasm charged with chloro- phyll. The plant everywhere is bathed with juices called ‘‘ sap,’’ a very large portion of which is water brought in by the roots. In this sap are mineral matter and nitrogen compounds. And now for the wonderful transmutation. The carbonic acid gas and water commingling in the cells are decomposed and their atoms re-arranged and welded into a new 4 Feeds and Feeding. substance by the energy of sunlight and heat guided by the life principle of the protoplasm with its chlorophyll. The result of the union of the gas and water is starch, with some oxygen left as a by-product. The oxygen escapes to the air, while the starch is retained by the plant for manifold uses. It is possible that. starch is not the first substance formed, but it is the first with which we have to deal. 6. Starch.— The great building material of the plant is starch. The plant has use for little or none of the starch in the cells where it is manufactured, but requires it elsewhere. Being insol- uble in water and forming in cells which are closed sacs, the starch cannot be transferred to other parts of the plant in its. original form. The difficulty is overcome by the protoplasm of the cell changing the starch into sugar and soluble substances: closely allied to starch, as we shall presehtly see. Sugar is solu- ble in the juices of the plant, and by diffusion it is readily trans- ferred from cell to cell until it reaches the place where needed. The principle which renders starch soluble is an unorganized ferment called ‘‘diastase,’’? which can change two thousand times its own weight of starch into soluble compounds. The walls of the innumerable cells of the plant framework are constructed of cellulose, a substance having the same composition as starch. Where growth occurs in the enlarging plant, the newly- formed cells are tender and filled with protoplasm. Each cell divides into two or more cells, the newly-formed members growing to full size. The cell walls thus enlarged are built of soluble sugar changed to insoluble cellulose through the action of pro- toplasm. 7. Growth from the chemist’s standpcint.— Let us review the subject of plant growth, as we have studied it to this point, from the position of the chemist, in order to fix more clearly in mind the process of plant growth. With the chemist, ‘‘O”’ stands for oxygen, ‘‘H’’ for hydrogen, ‘(© for carbon. Water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen chemically united with one of oxygen. This molecule, which is the smallest division of the water particle, they symbolize as H,O. In the same manner carbonic acid gas is indicated by CO,. How the Plant Grows. 5 The chemist writes the substances formed from carbonic acid gas and water in the plant thus: Starch Cellulose } CraHa Oi Cane sugar C,,H,,0,, Glueose (CHO), Let us now consider from the chemist’s standpoint how starch may be formed by the plant from carbonic acid and water, and, when once formed, how: it may be changed to sugar, glucose or cellulose. This may be shown by the following equations: Taken in by the plant. Changed in the plant to — Carbonie acid Water Starch Oxygen 12K CEO, easy 0: GEL, ©)... =a pO), ig Oy ois 240 Starch by the addition of one part of water becomes cane sugar; thus: Starch Water Cane sugar C,,H,,9,, + H,O = C,,H,,0,, Cane sugar plus one part of water becomes glucose, thus: Cane sugar Water Glucose C,,H,.0,, + H,O = O,,H,,0;, In the above we observe that 12 molecules of carbonic acid united with 10 molecules of water form 1 molecule of starch with 24 atoms of oxygen remaining. By the second equation we learn that if one molecule of water is added to the starch molecule, a molecule of cane sugar results. The addition of another mole- cule of water to cane sugar gives glucose. The removal of one molecule of water from cane sugar and two from glucose reduces these substances back to starch, or to cellulose. In the above cases the hydrogen and oxygen stand in the same relation to each other as in water, there being two atoms of the former to one of the latter. For this reason, starch, cane sugar, cellulose and similar substances are called carbohydrates. 1 8. Plant oils.— Another group of building materials found in the plant comes under the term ‘‘fats’’ or ‘‘oils.’”’ Though they 1 For information concerning scientific and technical terms the student will consult the Glossary at the end of the volume. 6 Feeds and Feeding. are composed of the same three elements found in the carbo- hydrate group, the hydrogen atoms are not always twice the number of oxygen atoms. These oils are usually compounded of several simple oils, the principal of which, with their formule, are as follows: Stearin C,.H,,,0% Palmitin C,,H,,O, Olen sCz EE Oe Oils give off much more heat during combustion than the car- bohydrates because they contain a relatively larger quantity of carbon. While found in nearly all parts of the plant, the oils and fats are chiefly stored in seeds, as flax, cotton, rape, etc. Oats, wheat and corn contain some fats or oils. 9. Protein compounds.— Thus far we have considered the plant compounds which result from the union of the three ele- ments, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. We now come to a more complex group of plant substances containing two additional ele- ments, viz., nitrogen and sulfur. It is held that the nitrates taken up through the roots of plants on reaching the protoplasmic masses in the active cells are broken up, and the nitric acid and sulfur are united with starch or a starch derivative, forming a protein compound. Protein substances may be produced in pro- toplasmic masses which may or may not contain chlorophyll. The protoplasm of active cells, where the work of assimilation goes on, is itself a protein substance. Very little protein is found in the woody, older portions of the plant, the greater amount existing at the point of growth and in the seeds or reproductive parts. In the seed the protein exists quite largely in the germ itself, and also in the surrounding envelopes. For a definition of protein, see Glossary. The protein compounds of plants are divided into two groups — albuminoids and amides. 10. The albuminoids.— One group of protein substances is characterized by the term ‘‘albuminoids.’? Vegetable albu- men closely resembles the white of egg, and like it, is coagulated by heat. Gluten, another albuminoid, is found in the wheat grain. It may be separated from the starchy portion of wheat flour by washing the dough in running water, the sticky mass How the Plant Grows. 7 remaining constituting crude gluten. The nitrogenous portion ot beans, peas, clover seeds, ete., is likewise an albuminoid called ‘legumin.’’ il. Amides.— The amides are nitrogenous bodies which are erystalline and soluble in water. Being soluble, they can pass through the cell walls of plant tissues, and thus are capable of diffusing from one part of the plant to another. Since the amides are found in the immature and growing parts of plants, it is probable that their function is the transfer of organized nitrogen from one part of the structure to another in the process of plant building. (2. Mineral compounds.— Though occurring in relatively small amounts, mineral matter in various combinations is essential to the life and development of all plants. The elaboration of food materials in the protoplasmic masses referred to in the previous paragraph, as well as the development of the young plants from the seed, require the presence of mineral matter, which is found everywhere in the plant substance. The leaves of plants contain more ash or mineral matter than the other portions. This is probably due to the constant evaporation of water from the leaves, the ash matter in solution being left behind. 13. The end of plant effort—If we study the life history ot an individual plant we observe that its first effort is directed toward self-establishment and enlargement. All of the food elaborated from the compounds taken from air and soil is trans- ferred to the growing parts, that the plant may be built up and reach perfection. As the period of maturity approaches, all the energies of the plant are changed to that of reproduction or mul- tiplication. The food materials, which were at first used for leat multiplication and enlargement or for the growth of more and larger stems and roots, are now joined into a current which flows to the reproductive parts. First come the blossoms, and then the young, enlarging fruits. Into these the sugars, protein com- pounds and mineral substances gathered from air and soil, and elaborated in the green parts, are poured in a steady current. The wheat plant resulting from a single kernel bears a hundred fruits in the shape of grains; the Indian corn plant may produce 8 Feeds and Feeding. a thousand fold. In each of these grains is a miniature plant,— the germ, about which is stored a generous supply of nutriment. This is placed in compact, concentrated form, awaiting the time when the germ begins life on its own account. In the potato tuber there is a liberal storage of starch. In the beet root the stored materials are held in the form of cane sugar, reserved for seed production the following season. Each germ, or repro- ductive part, is surrounded with food elements, arranged after nature’s choicest plan to aid in reproduction. 14. The sun the source of plant lifen—Thus far we have spoken of the plant as though it accomplished all these wonder- ful transmutations through self-contained powers. This is incor- rect. A plant can no more unite the elements of carbonic acid and water into starch, or move this starch, changed to sugar, to needed points, than can the wheels of a great factory move with- out the impelling force of steam or the electric current. The source of all life and power is the sun, the energy of which in the shape of light and heat is absorbed by the protoplasmic mass and its chlorophyll particles. In the plant cells the all-powerful energy of the sun, guided by the mysterious principle of life, works all the wonderful transmutations we have recorded. 15. Plants the support of animal life.— Nature has decreed that it is the function of the plant, through the sun, to build inorganic compounds into organic matter, in which operation the energy employed becomes latent. Through digestion and absorption the various plant compounds are incorporated in the animal body, or are broken down within it into simpler compounds than those of the plant structure. In this dissolution the energy which was hidden in the plant is again revealed in all the manifestations of animal life. In the coal burning in the grate we observe the re-appearance of the energy of the sun which was stored in plants ages ago. In the stalks and ears of corn which we feed to cattle, we are furnishing energy received from the sun and rendered dormant in plant building during the previous summer. When supplying plants and seeds to the animals under his care, the stockman observes in their growing bodies warmed by internal fires the energy of the sun transmitted by the plant to the animal. How the Plant Grows. 9 II. How the Chemist Groups Plant Substances. 16. Ilustrations.— The agricultural chemist divides plant sub- stances into groups, differing in some cases from those made by the physiological chemist. In the following table a few stock feeds are Shown as grouped by the agricultural chemist, such pres- entation being for the purpose of guiding the student in his con- sideration of this subject. Composition of certain American feeding stuffs, as arranged by the agricultural chemist. Percentage composition. Cd ic) Feeding stuffs. e analyses. ‘ Nitro- Water.| Ash. |Protein. Crude gen-free meeps * lextract.| ract. pm ff | SE SS ch atsceone ss 75.3 2.5 4.0 5.9 11.4 9 Mangels..........«0 9] 90.9 ae 1.4 a) 5.5 2 WON ot -eo- esc 86 | 10.6 1.5 10.3 2.2 70.4 5.0 Red clover hay..| 38 | 15.3 6.2 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 The first column presents the names of the feeding stuffs exam- ined. The second column states the number of analyses from which the subsequent data are derived. As a rule these analyses have been made by chemists at different points in the country, so that when a considerable number have been secured we may regard the average as representative of the plant or plant sub- stances under consideration. The remainder of the table comes under the general heading ‘‘ Percentage composition.’’? Let us consider its several divisions. 17. Water.— The chemist places a small quantity of the food material, usually finely divided by chopping or grinding, into a small vessel and ascertains its weight. The balance used is so delicate that a thimbleful of corn meal can be weighed with a smaller percentage of probable error than is usual when a farmer weighs a wagon-load of corn on a good scale. The sample is then placed in an oven, where it is dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr. for several hours, or until a constant weight is secured. The heat drives off the water, and the difference between the two 10 Feeds and Feeding. weights represents the amount of water which the sample origi- nally contained. We learn by the third column of the table that the water in pasture grass is 75.3 per cent. of the whole amount; that is, such grass is about three-fourths water. Corn carries 10.6 per cent. of water, while red clover hay contains 15.3 pounds to the hun- dred weight. 18. Ash.— Flaving determined the water in the sample, the chemist next burns it to ascertain its ash content. Care is taken that no charcoal is left, only the clear ash remaining. The next column shows the percentage of ash in the feeding stuffs under consideration. In 100 pounds of pasture grass there are 2.5 pounds of ash. Indian corn has only 1.5 pounds of ash for 100 of grain, while red clover hay yields 6.2 pounds. This large amount comes in part from the accumulation of ash in the leaves of the clover plant, and in some measure is due to earth washed up on the stems of the plant by rain, and to the dust which set- tles on plants, and on hay before it is placed in the barn. Such foreign material is really not ash, but of necessity is reported as such. 19. Protein.— The process of determining the protein in a feeding stuff is too complicated for presentation here. Suffice it to say that the nitrogen contained therein is determined, and that the sum so secured is multiplied by 6.25 to determine the protein, since it has been found that about 16 per cent. of protein sub- stances consist of nitrogen. By the table we find that the protein of pasture grass amounts to 4, mangels to 1.4, corn to 10.3, and red clover hay to 12.8 pounds per hundred weight. We are shown that pasture grass is much richer in protein than are mangels, and that clover hay is likewise richer than the grain of the corn plant. 20. Crude fiber.— The amount of crude fiber is determined by boiling a sample of the fodder successively in weak acid and alkali solutions, which dissolve all the softer parts. That which remains after washing is called ‘‘ crude fiber.’’ It consists for the most part of cellulose, which, as we have already learned, con- stitutes the framework of the plant. Corn grains contain only How the Plant Grows. 11 2.2 per cent. crude fiber, while clover hay yields nearly 25 per cent. 21. Ether extract or fat.— A sample of the fodder, dried so as to be free from water, is treated with ether, which has the power of dissolving fat, wax, resins and similar substances. The matter extracted by ether is quite commonly called ‘‘ fat’’ in works on plant analysis. In this book it is always spoken of as ‘‘ ether extract.’? In seeds nearly all the ether extract is fat or oil, and has a corresponding feeding value. In plant leaves and stems much of the ether extract is wax, chlorophyll and other substances of lower feeding value than fat. Mangels are shown by the table to yield only .2 of a pound of ether extract per 100, while corn reaches 5 per cent. 22. Nitrogen-free extract.— Nitrogen-free extract signifies what is left of the organic matter of the plant after deducting the pre- ceding groups of compounds. It contains starch, sugar, pento- sans, gums, organic acid and other bodies. The nitrogen-free extract and the crude fiber together constitute the carbohydrates of the plant physiologist. Nitrogen-free extract is determined by difference. The total dry matter in the fodder, minus the ash, ether extract and crude fiber, equals the percentage of nitrogen- free extract present. The great difference between plants and seeds as to woody matter is shown in the table. Over 70 per cent. of the substance of corn and only about 38 per cent. of clover hay is nitrogen-free extract. CHAPTER II. MASTICATION, DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION, ! 23. Prehension.— The horse when grazing gathers herbage with the lips, which are very sensitive, and act with great mo- bility. The food thus gathered is severed with the incisor or front teeth of the upper and lower jaws. When feeding on hay and grain, the horse still makes free use of the lips in working the food into the mouth. The ox seizes herbage with the outstretched tongue, and by a swinging motion of the head severs it as it passes between the teeth in the lower jaw and the cartilaginous pad of the upper jaw. The sheep, like the ox, has no teeth in the upper jaw; like the horse, it makes free use of the lips when grazing. The horse in grazing crops the herbage nearer to the ground than does the Ox, and the sheep still closer than the horse. The shape and direction of the front teeth of the hog show an omniverous feeder. Probably the grazing quality of the hog varies considerably with the breed, and also in different strains of the same breed, the skulls and jaws of hogs presenting re- markable variations in size and shape. 24. Mastication.— The food consumed by the animal is reduced to fineness by the molar teeth, assisted by the lips, tongue and cheeks, which pass it to the place for grinding and hold it in position. With herbivorous animals the lower jaw is much narrower than the upper. In the horse, when the upper and lower grinders of one side are in contact, those of the lower jaw on the other side are nearly or quite an inch to the inside of their mates above, so that grinding is possible on but one side of the mouth at a time. As mastication proceeds, the feed is mixed 1 Most of the text and tables in this chapter are adapted from the Physiology of the Domestic Animals, by Robert Meade Smith, which excellent work should be consulted by the student seeking further infor- mation on these subjects. Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 13 with saliva poured upon it from glands opening into the mouth at several points. The food materials in the mouth are gradually formed into a rounded mass or bolus for swallowing. Colin esti- mates that a horse requires one and one-half hours to masticate four pounds of dry hay, and that this amount will make from sixty to sixty-five boluses, the rate of mastication being from thirty to eighty strokes of the teeth per minute. Saliva aids mastication, and a suppression of the flow prolongs the operation. Colin diverted the flow of saliva by fistulas or openings, and recorded results as follows: Time required by the horse in masticating hay — Colin. |All the saliva} Saliva of Saliva of poured into | one parotid | both parotids the mouth. escaping. escaping. Average duration of mastica- tion of one bolus, seconds.. 31.7 34.2 74.8 Strokes of teeth, numbert...... 38.6 36.6 74.1 The molar or grinding teeth of the horse wear faster than the incisors or cutting teeth, and the former would soon fail to meet were it not that the incisors with increasing age gradually incline forward, forming a sharper and sharper angle. The seeds of plants are not all crushed during mastication, and those escaping are distributed over the fields in the excreta, often still possess- ing ability to germinate. 25. Insalivation.— While the food is being ground, it is modi- fied by the saliva poured upon it from glands situated about the mouth cavity. By means of ingenious experiments, Colin deter- mined the amount of saliva secreted by the horse, and found that when feeding on hay there was poured out from eleven to thir- teen pounds of saliva per hour. Oats require a little more than their own weight, green fodder half, and dry fodder four times its weight of saliva during mastication. If the food of the horse for one day amounts to 11 pounds of hay and 11 pounds of other dry fodder, this will require four times its weight of saliva, or 88 pounds, to which must be added 4.4 pounds secreted during rest, making 92.4 pounds in all. 14 Feeds and Feeding. Smith! states that the ox secretes 112 pounds of saliva daily. In the horse the parotid glands, located at the base of the upper jaw and emptying near the second molar teeth, yield seven-tenths of all the saliva secreted. Animals chew their food on one side of the mouth only at a time. It has been found that the parotid gland of the horse yields saliva only on the side where the food is being masticated, the other gland resting until grinding starts up on its side. The chemical composition of mixed saliva, which varies somewhat in different animals, is given for the horse as follows: INVENT cette Oe Be oc acc iat ar Ue ce ad, peice a 992.00 IVICA CES Gs HE OIDIMGM. . dnc c cereesetnee oc cmon cane mercies 2.00 Ailikainie * CAR DONATES: 0.0508. eed iaeedoc sss beceeuneae 1.08 PAD eae CMM OVS 08s sosaqsnenseuemeneet 3.462 7.169 Fat formed through decomposition of protein.* 1.779 3.685 Fat formed from carbohydrates....................00- 8.003 18.155 * Protein consumed xX 51.4. (78) Four to six times as much fat was consequently formed in the bodies of these animals as could have been derived from the fat and protein of the food. Even if there was some difference in the condition of these animals at the end of the prelimin- ary feeding, it could not be large enough to overthrow the conclusion that the carbohydrates were the source of the greater portion of the fat produced during the experiment. Meiss] and Strohmer,! also experimenting on swine, fed two kilograms of rice daily to a one-year old pig weighing 309 pounds. During a part of the time the pig was confined in a Pettenkofer respiration apparatus and the respiration products determined. Of the data obtained the following are reproduced: 1 Jahresb. d. Thier Chemie, 13, p. 39. 54 Feeds and Feeding. Carbon, Nitrogen, erTrams. grams. Disested trom the foods.) <1 <.ccnceoee ee eae 765.37 18.67 Outgo in respiratory and excreted products... 476.15 12.59 Remaining in the body of the animal............ 289.22 6.08 The surplus of nitrogen corresponds to the formation of 38 grams of protein, (58) containing 201 grams of carbon; there is then left for the formation of fat from the carbon surplus 269.12 grams. This would be contained in 269.12 x1.3, (58) or 349.9 grams of fat. The total quantity of fat in the food amounted to 7.9 grams, so that if this was digested and deposited in the body, 342 grams of fat must have been formed from other sources. The nitrogen excreted as urea showed a decomposition of 65.4 grams of protein in the body of the animal. This quantity of protein could at best form no more than 65.4x.514, (78) or 33.6 grams of fat, leaving 308.4 grams of fat deposited in the body to be derived from carbohydrates. Seven to eight times as much fat, therefore, originated from this source as could have been formed from the protein and the fat in the food. The formation of fat from carbohydrates in the nutrition of ruminants, especially cattle, is conclusively proved by the results of experiments conducted by G. Kithn during 1882-90. } 77. Formation of fat in milk.— Collier? has shown in the case of a herd of pure-bred cows that the fat in the food was sufficient to account for the fat produced in the milk during all but the first two months of their lactation period. The average ratio of fat in food to fat in milk for the whole period of lactation for all cows was 121: 100. It should be remembered, however, that the fat in the food consumed by the cows was not wholly digested, and was, moreover, the ‘‘crude fat’’ or ether extract of chemical analysis. This extract contains chlorophyll and other impurities dissolved from the fodders by the ether in the process of analysis. Allowing 17.4 per cent. for impurities, Collier says there is still enough fat in the food to account for the fat recovered in the milk. The experiments with milch cows have not given as decisive 1 Landw. Vers., 44, pp. 1-581. 2N. Y. Expt. Station (Geneva), 1891, p. 126. Animal Nutrition. 55 results as those made with sheep, pigs, geese and ducks, some of which have been reported in the preceding pages;! but as the formation of fat from carbohydrates has been established in the case of other animals, it follows that cows also have the same ability, since the nutritive processes are essentially the same in all the higher animals. The formation of fat from carbohydrates was long considered impossible because no intermediate steps in the transformation were known. Lately, however, it has been found that butyric, capronic and higher solid fatty acids are formed from carbohy- drates in putrefactive processes. We have seen that the fatty acids are readily taken up by the animal system and changed into fats, which may be deposited in the body or oxidized, according to the supply of nutrients and the nutritive condition of the animal. (75) This being true, there is no theoretical difficulty in the way of the formation of the fat of milk from carbohydrates. 78. Fat from protein.— It has long been known that fatty acids may be formed from protein substances in putrefactive processes, both in the animal body and elsewhere, and also through oxidizing agents. In certain diseases, especially cases of phosphorus poison- ing, fatty degeneration will occur in the body; the muscles waste and a waxy fat appears in their stead, and is also deposited on the internal organs. In one case the dry matter in the liver of a man who died from phosphorus poisoning contained the enormous amount of 76.8 per cent. of fat.2 In an experiment by Bauer, * a dog was poisoned with phosphorus after having been starved twelve days. It died seven days later. The excretion of urea was quite constant from the fifth to the twelfth day of the experi- ment, amounting to 7.8 grams daily. After the poisoning had begun, the excretion increased until it amounted to 23.9 grams per day, ¢. e., three times the normal amount. It was ascertained with another dog treated the same way, but kept in a respiration apparatus, that the excretion of carbonic acid and the amount of oxygen taken up decreased one-half after the phosphorus feeding 1 For a review of the extensive literature on the subject up to August, 1881, see B. Schulze, Landw. Jahrb., LI, p. 57. * Wolff, Landw. Ftitterungslehre, 1888, p. 44. 8 Zeitschr. f. Biologie, VII, p. 76; Voit, Physiologie, p. 248. 56 Feeds and Feeding. began. In this case there was a greater decomposition of protein into urea and fat, with a smaller absorption of oxygen, and con- sequently a decreased oxidation of the fat, both processes com- bining to produce fat in the body. The muscles of the poisoned dog contained 42.4 per cent. of fat, and the liver 30 per cent., or three times more than was present in the normal nutrition of the dog, and at least ten times more than would have been found after twenty days of starvation, if phosphorus had not been administered. According to Henneberg,! 100 pounds of protein will form 33.45 pounds of urea on decomposition; the remainder, 66.55 pounds, after uniting with 12.3 parts of water, may form 51.4 pounds of fat and 27.4 pounds of carbonic acid. The maximum quantity of fat which protein can form under the most favorable conditions is, therefore, 51.4 per cent. III. Formation of Fat in the Body. 79. Concerning fat.— Having ascertained the sources of fat in the animal body, we next consider the principles governing its formation and consumption. The formation of fat in the body will take place when the supply of nutrients in the food exceeds the immediate demands of the system. To study the effect of single nutrients on fat formation and consumption, we follow the plan employed in the study of protein consumption, and investi- gate the conditions which are most favorable to the formation of fat in the animal body and least favorable to its consumption. 80. Feeding with fat alone.— While exclusive protein feeding induces only protein consumption in the body, and does not con- tribute to the formation of flesh, an exclusive fat diet has no influence on the decomposition of fat in the body, the same amount being deposited whether much or little fat is fed. A dog experi- mented with by Pettenkofer and Voit lost 96 grams of fat daily dur- ing hunger. When 100 grams of fat were fed daily, an average of 97 grams of fat was oxidized, showing that the loss of fat in the body was barely covered by the feeding of fat.2 010'.0sceeeseofecvenadonsasss< 5.3462 51 ‘The record of the actual quantities is sufficient to show that much less nitrogen was excreted by both experimenters during and after than before the ascent. But the calculated amounts of 1 Loe. cit. 5 66 Feeds and Feeding. nitrogen excreted per hour during each of the periods, as given in the last column of the table, bring the main results more clearly to view. It is seen that, on the average, only about two-thirds as much nitrogen was excreted per hour during and after the ascent as prior to it, when there would be more or less residue in the system from the last albuminous meal.”’ Had the nitrogenous tissues of the body been broken down directly in proportion to the labor performed, there would have been a large increase of nitrogen in the urea of these persons dur- ing and just after their fatiguing work, but such is not the case. In 1866, Frankland, ! studying the sources of muscular power, made numerous calorimetrical determinations of the energy evolved by the combustion of muscle, urea and various foods, or constituents of food, and concluded that the transformation of muscular tissue alone cannot account for more than a small frac- tion of the muscular power developed by animals. 94. The excretion of carbonic acid.— Let us now study the quantities of carbonic acid given off by animals under different conditions of labor and rest. The great increase in the carbonic acid exhaled during work, and its decrease with the cessation of work, are clearly brought out in trials by Smith, ? as shown in the following table: Amount of carbonic acid exhaled by the horse under varying condi- tions — Snvith. Carbonic acid exhaled per hour. Pony (work | Horse (work | Horse (work trotting). galloping). | galloping). Cubic feet. Cubie fect. Cubic feet. IRROSG ir soe aenaccdenedentesiecwossacess ORT GAS I A Sess scwssdcosecmactnal iecos mtceateeceeeene RV VOI Kee actrnins So sion ouecienesicetioos’s 9.3954 20.6265 12.4353 BASTTO TW OM Kee eccdcwen rae nncestecees 4631 1.3133 1.1693 1 Phil. Mag. 1866, 4th Ser., Vol. XXXII, p. 182; loc. cit. 2 Jour. Physiology, 1890, No. 1; loc. cit. The Source of Muscular Energy. 67 The following table by the same investigator shows the great increase in the carbonic acid gas exhaled with increasing labor: Carbonic acid exhaled by the horse at rest and at work — Smith. Carbonie acid exhaled per hour. Series A. Series B. Cubie feet. | Cubic feet. PCR peeae sree sw etnennnesaes casas tuacaes-osddeceeoueteremenedtss 1.0282 1.2346 EV Veliiccimnions Pesce ge cteciactacsisciece sca soeswnale ss esewleclnecem meets 1.0972 1.0586 BUN BUI OF ora ance tite sete Se eicliSoie dic eesie Se iceleloulepsle mommandeetmeeti ne 2.9482 4.8309 QWETNTOTIM Oe conige scence cclsee cecie salsee'eeccieecace veemecmuastattcs 4.9159 5.0080 CEREAL UA epee s 8 25 Bhat at 3 ba oe os nic cineo oe vee VEE Site Meee ee EeE These tables show the variation in the amount of carbonic acid given off by the lungs of animals during labor, and the rapid increase as the labor increases. No such findings are on record with regard to the excretion of nitrogen in the urea. The con- clusion is irresistible that the carbohydrates and the fat of the food and of the body, and not protein, are the main sources of body energy. 95. Body heat does not measure the energy of food.— On this subject Wolff writes:! ‘‘The great increase in the combustion of fat during work has led to the assumption that this constitutes the chief source of muscular energy, that the work done is the result of the heat produced, and that in the animal body a con- version of heat into force takes place, just as the steam-engine produces work through the heat of the burning fuel by the inter- vention of steam, or as the hot-air engine executes work by means of the heated air. The non-nitrogenous food stuffs are directly concerned in this heat production, and it has been calculated that '20 per cent. of the heat produced by their combustion is con- verted into work, which is a far larger proportion than that yet attained by the most efficient steam-engines, which only convert about 10 per cent. of the heat they receive into work. It is open to question, however, whether the heat produced in the body can be directly converted into mechanical work as in the case of the 1 Farm Foods, English edition, pp. 82, 83, Cousins. 68 Feeds and Feeding. air engine, or can even be considered its direct source, since the necessary conditions of alternate heating and cooling of the whole or a part do not hold good in the animal body, and make a com- parison between the two impossible. . . . . The increased production of heat during work and the increased respiration are but secondary effects, the result of work, and can by no means be regarded as its primary or direct cause. The increased heat produced in work is dissipated in evaporation from the body and by greater heat radiation, and is eventually reduced again to the normal.’’ 96. Food requirements for work vary.— Wolff further writes:! ““The food required to produce work varies with the form of muscular activity or the work done. Katzenstein, for instance, found that work done by men turning a wheel with the arms produced a greater expenditure of material in the body than the same work done with the legs. The volume of oxygen used per kilogram-meter of work done with hand-labor amounted to 1.96 cubic centimeters, but when the work was done with the legs, only from 1.19 to 1.51 cubie centimeters.’’ Further, the degree of practice in a particular kind of work influences the expenditure of material in the body, as Gruber found by experiments on himself. The carbonic acid produced every twenty minutes amounted to the following: Climbing. Rest. |Walking. ‘a Sera Out of In practice. | practice. Carbonic acid, grams.............. 12.83 22.42 38.83 31.00 Work; Kilogram=meterc.c. 2:.2.s-)|-ssoscseseneeen|saskes==see=es 7376 7639 Zuntz and Lehmann obtained similar results in their experi- ments on the horse. ‘‘It can be deduced from the total experi- mental results that no constant relationship can be set up between the production of work and consumption of food; the entire organization of an animal, its individual and variable peculiarities and condition, ete., create great differences in the economical 1 Farm Foods, pp. 84, 85. The Source of Muscular Energy. 69 employment of its power in doing the same piece of work; with the same individual the quality and intensity of the work produces great differences, and further researches are required to reduce the variations in question by regular use to an individual and perhaps a typical average value.”’ 97. The sources of muscular energy.— Wolff further says:! ‘‘The essential sources of muscular power are seen in the decom- position processes in the body, ¢. e., in the destruction which portions of the body or the food resorbed from the digestive tract undergo by the passage of the plasma through the tissues. To this end, as we have already seen in the case of fat-production, both nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances contribute. As these materials are resolved by the influence of oxygen into simple groups of atoms, the energy of chemical force which previously linked the atoms together in more complicated group- ings is set at liberty, and can be employed as kinetic energy for the external work of the body. In a condition of rest, this energy serves for the internal work of the organs or is converted into electric current, etc. The animal body often stores up a certain amount of energy; as soon as this store has been rapidly exhausted by work, a period of rest is necessary to enable fresh material to flow through the tissue-cells and generate fresh energy for the production of more active work. The force-production and all phenomena resulting from the combustion of organic matter in the animal body must obey the law of the conservation of energy.’’ 98. Conclusion.— Taking the experiments here presented and many others by the investigators for guidance, we may conclude that in the exercise of force there is greatly increased expenditure of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food (carbohydrates and ether extract), and but little of the nitrogenous. (440) At the same time the importance of nitrogenous food must not be under-estimated, for, as Wolff tells us: ‘‘No one expects much work from men or animals fed on a diet poor in nitrogen, such as potatoes and rice. Fatness of body is never considered a sign of muscular strength.”’ 1 Farm Foods, pp. 85, 86. 70 Feeds and Feeding. ‘‘ A highly liberal diet is absolutely hecessary to preserve the flesh and fat in the body, and at the same time to keep it ina powerful condition. An addition of fat, which is the most intense respiration material, is often a desirable addition and nearly as important as albumen; and it is asuggestive fact that the working classes have a decided taste for fatty dishes, and that oats—a food proportionately rich in fat— are recognized as an excellent food for horses.’’! In the above we have the strongest statements possible in favor of the importance of protein for the production of work. When we consider the large proportion of carbohydrates and ether ex- tract in the ration, and remember that fat contains more than twice the heat units of protein, we must concede that these food-groups furnish most of the energy developed in the animal body. (438- 441) II. Composition of Steers, Sheep and Pigs, and their Increase during Fattening. 99. Investigations of Lawes and Gilbert.— The only extended investigations concerning the composition of the bodies of farm animals and of the increase during fattening are those conducted by Lawes and Gilbert of the Rothamsted (England) Station. These investigations, which were begun in 1848, were first pub- lished in 1859.2. The second part, relating to the composition of the ash of the entire animal and certain separate parts, was pub- lished in 1863.2 This work will stand for all time a witness to the high standard of painstaking research established by these pioneer English experimenters in agricultural science. Only a brief summary of their work can here be given, taken mainly from their recent contribution on The Feeding of Animals. 4 To determine the ultimate composition of steers, Sheep and pigs, the entire bodies of ten animals of each group were subjected to analysis. The findings are condensed in the table here given: 1 Farm Foods, p. 91. 2Phil. Trans., Part II, 1859; Jour. Roy. Agi. Soc., 1860. 3 Phil. Trans., Part III, 1883; Rothamsted Memoirs, Vols. IT, IIT, IV. 2 4 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1895. See also Bul. 22, Office of Experiment tations. Composition of Animal Body. 71 Percentage composition of the entire bodies, the carcasses and the offal of ten animals of different descriptions, or in different conditions of maturity — Lawes and Gilbert. Description of animal. Division I. Percent. in the entire animal (fasted live weight). 1 DEN a0): CAB aa een are VAGIATID s cccwcessacesecs Store sheep .............. Half-fat old sheep..... Fat sheep Extra-fat sheep........ ser eeececescscses PSUORO PES: soe sencescedence A Os bak fact ase scence LENT} (0). CRBS ERE eoapeer ee eee e ee eeececes Half-fat old sheep..... Fat shee Extra-fat sheep ........ sere eeeceeeresene BROMO TUG, Jacasescscadsc as: PCSOs. tase ccsses sexes. Means of all......... Mineral | Nitroge- matter |/nous sub- (ash). stance. Fat. Total dry sub- stance. 80 15.2 14.8 33.8 63.0 66 16.6 19.1 40.3 51.5 92 14.5 30.1 48.5 45.5 94 12S 28.5 43.7 47.8 16 14.8 Sra 36.7 57.3 17 14.0 23.5 40.7 50.2 81 12.2 39.6 50.6 3.4 90 10.9 45.8 59.6 35.2 67 13.7 230 Smif 55.1 65 10.9 42.2 54.7 41.3 7 13.5 28.2 44.9 49.0 Division II. Percent. in carcass. 48 16.6 16.6 Sled 62.3 56 17.8 22.6 46.0 54.0 56 15.0 34.8 54.4 45.6 63 10.9 36.9 51.4 48.6 36 14.5 23.8 ADS 57.3 13 14.9 31.3 50.3 49.7 45 11.5 45.4 60.3 39.7 77 ad 59.1 67.0 33.0 57 14.0 28.1 44.7 55.38 40 10.5 49.5 61.4 38.6 69 13.5 34.4 51.6 48.4 Water. Contents of stom- ach and intestin’s in moist state. MoO=I oo Or C1) SC O10 Go eoocoun CO ht et onNweaid > — for) = oo see eeeereree see eeeeoreee see eeeseeeee see ecceesees se eecceesees eee ceceseee see eeeecseee sane ee eeeeee Division III. Percent. in offal (excluding contents of stomach and intestines). AT OR eGresces oeesuone tore SHEEP .s25-.0.9-0 Half-fat old sheep ..... Fat sheep Extra-fat sheep ........ eee eee ee ee SUGTOUPIG A cies sascessene HAG DUES oa sadtans cpatarsns- — oo) . (oo) Ore-190 0 [o) Tont a a ~I <3) Iginla 1. eaee toi | 40.4 | 59.6 96.3 | 47.2 | 52.8 1) 41.5 | 585 16.1 | 36.3 | 63.7 18.5 | 38.9 | 61.1 96.4 |) 44.8 | 55.2 BG alll 54.90 IynASil 15.0 | 32.1 | 67.9 Ba ANG.) 5004 SiO, |s Anse | 58.8 a eee ee eeeeee sent eeeeeee see eres eeeee sete ewe eeeee steer wrens eee e errr eey 72 Feeds and Feeding. The first division of the table relates to the composition of the entire body (fasted live weight) of the animal. Referring to the second column, headed ‘‘ mineral matter,’’ we learn that in every 100 pounds of the body of the fat calf there are 3.8 pounds of ash or mineral matter; that is, if the body of the calf were consumed by fire, there would remain that amount of ash for each 100 pounds of body weight. With the half-fat ox the ash amounts to 4.66 pounds, while for the fat ox it falls to 3.92 pounds for each 100 pounds live weight. In like manner we learn that in 100 pounds of live lean pig (fasted weight) there are 2.67 pounds of ash or mineral matter, while in the fat pig there are only 1.65 pounds. The pig has less mineral matter in its body than other farm animals. 100. Nitrogenous substance.—In the muscles, tendons, liga- ments, hide, hair, horns, blood, nerves and organic matter of the bones is found the “nitrogenous substance of the body. Most of the nitrogenous substance is in the red meat or lean portion of the flesh. For each 100 pounds of body weight the fat calf has 15.2 pounds of nitrogenous substance. This is slightly increased for the half-fat ox, and reduced for the fat ox. In the lean sheep and pig there is less nitrogenous substance than in the fat calf, while for the extra-fat sheep and fat pig the lean meat constitutes only 10.9 pounds in each 100 pounds of body. 101. Fat of the body.— In the fat calf there are 14.8 pounds of fat for 100 pounds of body weight. This is increased to 19.1 for -the half-fat ox and 30.1 pounds for the ox when fat. Lean sheep show 18.7 pounds of fat, while in extra fat sheep it runs up to 45.8 per 100 pounds weight. The lean pig shows 23.3 per cent. and the fat pig 42.2 per cent. of fat. It is interesting to observe that the body of the fat calf contains almost as much fat, and that of the fat ox more than two pounds of fat, for each pound of nitrogenous or lean-meat substance. Even in lean sheep there is more fat than lean meat, and with the extra-fat sheep there is four times as much fat as dry lean meat. The same is true of the fat pig. 102. Water and dry substance in the body.—In the next two columns of the table is a statement of the total dry substance and Composition of Animal Body. 73 the water in the animal’s body. It is shown that 63 out of every 100 pounds live weight of the fat calf’s body is water. With the half-fat ox, this is materially reduced, and with the fat ox it amounts to 45.5 per cent. Thus we learn that considerably more than half the body weight of the calf, and nearly half that of the fatted ox is water. In extra-fat sheep the water content falls to 35.2 pounds, the lowest of all farm animals, while for the fat pig it is 41.3 pounds for each 100 pounds. On the average, for all animals studied, 49 pounds in every 100 of body weight is water. The supreme importance of this neutral fluid to the animal sys- tem is strikingly brought out by these figures. 103. Composition of the increase while fattening.— Lawes and Gilbert’s researches furnish data showing that the process of fattening is really what the term implies—the laying-on of fat. During fattening the pereentage of total dry matter in the body is considerably increased, and the fatty matter accu- mulated is much greater than the nitrogenous substance. The increase during fattening of moderately fattened oxen will con- tain scarcely more than 1.5 per cent. of mineral matter, 8 per eent. of nitrogenous substance, and 65 per cent. of fat, the total dry substance put on during fattening ranging from 70 to 75 per eent. The remainder of the increase is water. If steers grow as well as fatten, there may be more mineral matter and nitrog- enous substance, less fat and more water in the added growth, than just reported. In such case about two-thirds of the increase is dry substance and one-third water, while if the steer is mature, the added weight while fattening consists of as much as three- fourths dry substance and one-fourth water. Studies of sheep lead to the conclusion that the increase during fattening will contain not less than 2 per cent. of mineral matter and frequently more —a decided increase over the ox, due largely to the growth of wool during fattening. Of the added weight of sheep during fattening, from 70 to 75 per cent. may be fat. While fattening, the pig adds scarcely any mineral matter to the body, and rarely more than 7.5 per cent. of nitrogenous substance, the fat forming as much as 70 per cent. of the increase. Of the gain in weight made by the pig during fattening, about 75 per cent. is dry matter and 25 per cent. water. The increase of less 74 Feeds and Feeding. highly fattened pigs contains more nitrogenous substance, more water and less fat. 104. Comparative fattening qualities of different farm animals.— Gathering their results into a single table for the purpose of study- ing the comparative fattening qualities of farm animals, Lawes and Gilbert present the following table, giving the proportion of the various organs and parts of the body, the feed consumed weekly, gains, etc. : Comparative fattening qualities of farm animals —Lawes and Gilbert. Relation of parts in 100 pounds live weight. Oxen. | Sheep. | Pigs. PREPAC COR 5.8.1 ssid assis ces geo ds se damsmacticseaaaeenaanc 16 249 59 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Stomachs Amd: COmbemtss « .o< cc <-snvenccsedeertgncenetes 11.5 7.4 1.3 Intestines’ and'contemtay: :..2oco:sc.tcacceeamenteenect eee 2.8 3.5 6.2 14.3 10.9 7.5 Tnabermal loose fa tiscticiiss sade dace ted vavegewoaenmaseesensa 4.6 7.0 1.6 Heart, aorta, lungs, windpipe, liver, gall-blad- der and contents, pancreas, spleen and blood..| 7.0 7.3 6.6 OTLB er OA ATES 8 os cas occate sapienahsapondeaseeconedes 13.0 15.0 Pa Rotall offal parts su. 2s ech eles Eeahawedeateevaee 38.9 40.2 16.8 CRTC ABS io Fs ta tins eA memes eng cea aucndanousesuessenes 59.3 59.7 82.6 INGE" by CVAPOTAVION, ClO lool. cccccvnden.s.cescsunccearees 1.8 0.1 0.6 Pea teal ese REEL Aes ced ese dae Saeee 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 Per 100 pounds live weight. Dry substance consumed in food per week ...... 12.5 16.0 27.0 imerease yielded) per week: i. ..20c 3 II caf 2 1¢¢ I cg en t D j) tP z 1¢ &% s(alaleluiuip[oleleiate.ale(nle\pielsininiele\aieicie\wiestalsisieieie eis UBIg ‘s]20Y9 | 4o'T S Poe ace SSS aie oe Sess & GC eae A oe ee L LI 8° &F LI Rieece cecvieecccesaesceciocslaceecaiapeclee vie [vour uio ‘ (a) eee HOE TR go Ss rental aad aE x Gge 6 g C4 ZS LLP im Gla\n)ele/e\o(eiaialeleleleiuiele «) vleieia e/ewie [eour ulo0o $ ‘poo]q g ee 40'T 8 = = = ee cae 3 oye! “ULSUODSYAL Ss G ye a °F L'1z Z'9¢ GT | [PetrsRiecsseeseiavawasn [Boul U10d & ‘MTU oy 6 oO ee ee ey ele eS ae eae ae a Tee 9 IZ I 9 0 og FOF LI Coe evececcccccevcecveces [vou uUloo I ‘yyru Ge Ti 40'T Ss 3 £13 9°IF Zit tttt tte eeeeeeeseeesececseerecsnnee on [BeU UL09 TI 4o'T = €0¢ 9°6L ole o'¢ 6°93 Pr S¢ (eae he ar pooTq ‘ssurrpprur ‘xT ‘T yory S ee eee teoeee eeee G: Gg aaa ge a CRA a = ne | ee = aera © ae eae UP 6° Ig eneccescsens 1Z ee reccccenccrsececece Cocccccccccccsccce eo: [Boul U10D TI 4o'T S 0 GP IT L ¥ SF eeececcoccece €% wie Se venecceatece Sopenh stem Ore = OOTG ‘SSUI[PPTIL T 40'T = *8q'T ‘ZO ‘ZO ‘ZO ‘ZO ‘ZO 4U09 Jog PhO, 5 ‘au0q YSsIqy Aaa eee | ae ee. wali ele ee | ae Jo yjsueyg | “PAPI SVT |'ujojrepuay| *soupyyy *IDATT *poolg ee ee a “*SSBOIBO POssolp JO 1YSIOM Paipuny Yove I0j Javd 10 uvS10 JOVYSTOM “es "supb1o0 PousaqUL pup hipog fo sjund youanas ayy fo syybren jouoysodoud pun aboymays Guynoys 2190) Guypooard ayy worl paarsap ppg ‘ase_UpIYS “pegy pue uojeg 82 Feeds and Feeding. 109. What the tables show.— The first table shows that in every instance the protein-rich ration produced heavier gains than the others. In the several columns are given the weights of various parts and organs of the body. Since pigs fed on the several rations reached different weights at the time of slaughter, the weights are reduced to a common standard for comparison. This is done in the second table, where the weights of the different parts are stated for each 100 pounds of dressed carcass. It is seen in the second table that the pigs fed the protein-rich rations usually show a larger shrinkage than those getting corn meal. This is accounted for in part by the larger amount of blood, heavier livers and other organs of the protein-fed pigs. In nearly every instance the pigs receiving the protein-rich rations yielded more blood than those fed corn. In the Kansas trial the pigs getting shorts and bran had 51.2 ounces of blood to 100 pounds of carcass, while the corn-fed pigs had only 36.8 ounces. In Fortier’s trials in France, the blood of the corn-meal- fed pigs was less than half that of the pigs receiving the protein- rich ration, the ratio standing 55.1 to 26.1. The only exception was in the Wisconsin trial, where the pigs were made very fat by feeding milk. In every instance the pigs fed the protein-rich rations had heavier livers than the others, the difference often being very marked. For example, in the Missouri trial the pigs fed mid- dlings had livers weighing 48.4 ounces to 100 pounds of carcass, while those of the lot fed corn weighed only 31.9. Generally, the kidneys of the protein-fed pigs are heaviest, though in Fortier’s trials the reverse occurs. The tenderloin muscles lying along the back of the pig are easily dissected from the remainder of the carcass, and in one trial in Wisconsin and in the Kansas trial these muscles were separated and weighed. In both cases the muscles of the pigs getting the protein-rich rations were heavier in proportion to the weight of the body than those of the pigs fed corn. This is proof of more lean meat in the carcasses of pigs fed the most protein. The pigs getting corn meal gave more leaf lard than the others, excepting in the French trial, where the results were practically equal. Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 83 110. Strength of thigh-bones.— In the Wisconsin and Kansas trials the strength of the thigh-bones of the pigs in the different lots was determined in the following manner: The two rounded iron-supporting edges of the testing machine were set four inches apart, and on these the thigh-bones were placed, one at a time, always in the same position. The rounded edge of the breaking bar rested on the bone midway between the two supports. The pressure downward upon the bone, which was gradually increased, was measured on the tilting-beam of the machine, and the weight which the bone supported at the time it broke was recorded. In every instance the pigs fed the protein-rich ration possessed the strongest bones, the difference often being very marked. For example, in one Wisconsin trial the bones of the corn-fed pigs broke at 380 pounds on the average, and those of the pigs fed milk, blood and middlings at 503 pounds. These weights are for each 100 pounds of dressed carcass, and show in favor of the mixed ration by 32 per cent. ill. What analysis revealed. In one of the Wisconsin trials we went further into details, making partial analyses of some of the body organs. In this trial there were four pigs in each lot. To the first lot was fed a ration consisting of one-third dried blood and two-thirds corn meal, by weight. The second lot received one-half pea meal and one-half corn meal, while the third was fed corn meal only. All lots received hard-wood ashes, salt and water additional. The weights and gains of the pigs are shown in the following table: Weights and gains of pigs variously fed — Wisconsin Station. Average Average ee ee || AA VELA eae = Feed. Mi penne gain dur- ee tbe. ning. | 778 June gain. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, 4 dried blood, # corn meal......... 96 202 409 Lot II, 4 pea meal, $ corn meal............ 98 180 449 Lot ELL,- -corn meal only .............:..c0¢008 99 155 481 It is shown by the table that the lot fed dried blood and corn meal made the best gains with the least food, that receiving pea 84 Feeds and Feeding. meal coming second, while corn meal gave the poorest returns with the most feed consumed for a given gain. The dry matter of the blood and dry matter and fat in the kidneys were deter- mined with the results presented in the following table: Results of partial analyses of blood and kidneys of pigs fed on dried blood, pea meal and corn meal — Wisconsin Station. Fed | Fed Fed Results for 4 pigs. pa oe corn corn. | corn. oaty. Average dressed weight, POUNAB............scccscccssscsessees 248 | 228 | 212 Blood per 100 Ibs. dressed weight, grams................:. 1332 | 1263 | 1237 Percents diny matter sim blood eee eee contested csses sisi 24.24 |24.58 |24.09 Dry matter in blood per 100 lbs. dressed weight, grams} 323 | 310 | 298 Kidneys, grams per 100 lbs. dressed weight............... 111 96 79 Following for 2 pigs each lot only: Per cent. dry matter im Kidneys. .-:.-..ss-scssscseoesesooees se 24.41 |25.80 |26.26 Rerrcent, fab imvkrdMey sie bce pescrecsnessesaeeectestnesesciinas 4.71 | 4.49 | 6.41 Dry matterin kidneys to 100 lbs. dressed wt., grams.....|28.4 24.4 |20.7 Dry matter in kidneys less fat per 100 lbs. dressed RW CLONING, MO TAIMNE Les ccals cums seenuce onecmcs eens eucdtaadeededcstne 18.8 {20.1 |15.6 The table shows the dry matter in the blood to be quite uniform for the three lots, the corn-fed lot containing the lowest percent- age. The total dry matter of the kidneys is highest with the corn-fed pigs, the difference being due to the larger amount of fat in the kidneys. The highest percentage of dry matter in the kidneys to dressed carcass is for the pigs fed peas and corn, with those fed blood and corn coming second. 112. Modifications of carcass.— That the bodies of the pigs were affected by the feed given in these trials is made plain by the colored engravings presented by Fortier of France and the writer, 1 and by the half-tone reproductions from photographs by Shelton? and the writer.? These views show what Sanborn origi- nally announced, viz., that there is more lean meat in proportion to fat in the careasses of protein-fed pigs than in the carcasses of those getting corn meal. 1 Rept. Wis. Sta., 1886. 2 Bul. 9, Kan. Sta. 3 Rept. Wis. Sta., 1888. Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 85 Sanborn’s analyses and statements were further substantiated by the writer in the following manner: From one side of the car- cass the sixth rib and the flesh lying over it were cut out. The rib and the skin were removed and the remaining flesh of the sec- tion analyzed. As before stated, the tenderloin muscle of the back, lying in the angle made by the spinous processes and the ribs, is quite free from connection with adjacent tissue. That por- tion of this muscle lying over the seventh and eighth ribs was selected for analysis, with the average results presented in the following table: Analyses of sections of the carcasses of pigs fed on dried blood, pea meal and corn meal — Wisconsin Station. Sixth-rib cut. Tenderloin muscle. Four pigs in Se CR each lot. | Water. | Fat. | D'YJ8"]) water. | Fat. | Pry lean meat. meat. Percent. | Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. | Percent.| Percent. Blood-fed..... 27.16 64.68 8.16 67.96 8.22 20.02 Peas-fed ...... 28.41 62.94 8.65 69.49 Giahz 24.34 Corn-fed...... 20.16 73.56 6.28 67.45 9.41 23.14 For present purposes we may assume that the flesh lying over the sixth rib is representative of the whole carcass. This being true, the carcasses of the protein-fed pigs contained eight parts more water and ten parts less fat to the hundred pounds than the carcasses of the pigs fed corn. For dry lean meat the results are a little more than six per cent. for the corn-fed pigs and above eight per cent. for the other lots. There was, then, about one- third more lean meat in the carcasses of the protein-fed pigs than in the carcasses of those getting corn. The analysis reveals more fat and somewhat less lean meat percentagely in the tenderloin muscles of the corn-fed pigs. 113. Misconception concerning the experiments.— There has been misconception concerning the purpose and interpretation of these experiments.! A few writers have inferred that claims were advanced by some of the investigators that lean meat can 1 Harris on the Pig, 2d Ed.; Agr. Science, vol. 2; Rept. Kan. Bd. Agr., Apr. 1889. 86 Feeds and Feeding. be produced in the body of the pig at the will of the feeder. Others interpret the investigations as an attack upon Indian corn for swine feeding, while still others declare the experiments: inaccurate, or that the figures show nothing unusual. These writers refer to the experiments by Lawes and Gilbert in which the carcasses of pigs fed bran, beans and lentils showed no dif- ference in the proportion of muscle to fat over those receiv- ing carbonaceous foods. They overlook the vital point in the problem, viz., that these later experiments were with growing pigs, while the early ones were with animals well advanced toward maturity. In the Lawes and Gilbert trials the protein feeds used were not altogether suitable for pigs. How much their results were modified by this fact it is impossible to state. For a discussion of the practical bearing of these experiments see articles 936-940. II. Strengthening the Bones of Pigs Kept Exclusively on Corn. 114. Hard-wood ashes and bone meal for pigs fed corn.—W hen feeding corn to pigs as the exclusive ration, the writer observed a strong craving by the pigs for wood ashes, considerable quantities of which were consumed, if opportunity offered. Were the ashes. a benefit to the pigs or not? To answer this question three exper- iments were conducted. ! In each trial six pigs, all from one litter, were used, the animals being from 105 to 128 days old when the feeding began. The previous feed had been liberal in variety and supply, and the pigs were well started in their development when the trial began. They were divided into three lots of two each, and all lots were fed liberally on corn meal, with salt and water additional. Lot I received nothing else. Lot II was allowed hard-wood ashes. supplied in a separate trough. Instead of ashes, Lot III was. given a spoonful of bone meal with each feed. In regard to the amount of these articles consumed, it may be stated that in one of the trials, which lasted 112 days, two pigs consumed 10.5 pounds of bone meal and 7.5 pounds of salt, and in the same time two other pigs consumed 33 pounds of hard-wood ashes and 1 Rept. Wis. Expt. Sta., 1896; Bul. 25. Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 87 8 pounds of salt. The pigs were confined in pens, with small yards at the rear for exercise. The ground in these yards was covered with boards to prevent the animals from rooting in the earth and eating quantities of it, as those not getting ashes or bone meal would have done had opportunity offered. The trials lasted from 84 to 128 days without any of the animals dying or becoming sick, a surprising fact for the lots living wholly on corn meal, salt and water. 115. What the trials revealed.— As the trials progressed it became evident that none of the pigs were properly nurtured, though the difference in favor of those getting bone meal or ashes was very marked. The pigs allowed neither ashes nor bone meal were most plainly dwarfed. It was evident that the corn meal, salt and water did not supply all the elements essential to build- ing a normal framework of bone and muscle. These dwarfs became so fat that the jowls and bellies of some of them nearly touched the ground. The pigs getting ashes or bone meal grew very well for some time, but toward the elose of the trial they made only fair gains, showing that the nutrients supplied were still too limited in character to allow normal development. On slaughter, the several lots showed no difference in the proportion of fat to lean, nor was there any difference in the size or character of the various internal organs. The bones, however, were a most interesting study. In the same manner as described in the pre- ceding topic, the thigh bones of these pigs were broken in a test- ing machine with the results shown below: Results with pigs living on corn meal with or without bone meal and hard-wood ashes in addition — Wisconsin Station. When bone!,x, W hen meal was |“ mee males neither was fed. WEte APCs fed. Corn meal required to produce 100 pounds of gain, pounds.............. 487 491 629 Average breaking strength of thigh bones, POUNS ...........eeeeeeeeeeeees 680 581 | 301 Average ash in thigh bone, grams 166 | 150 | 107 88 Feeds and Feeding. After being broken, the bones were burned to determine the ash they contained. By the table we learn that feeding bone meal or hard-wood ashes to pigs otherwise confined to a corn-meal diet effected a saving of 23 per cent. in the corn required for 100 pounds of gain. We further find that by feeding hard-wood ashes or bone meal to pigs otherwise living wholly on corn, the strength of the thigh bones was about double that of pigs not allowed bone meal or ashes. It was further found that when the bones were burned, those of the pigs getting ashes or bone meal contained about 50 per cent. more ash than the others. This latter fact was sub- stantiated in another interesting way. After burning, the bones of the pigs which had received no ashes or bone meal crumbled at once on handling, while those from the pigs fed ashes or bone meal still retained their form after burning and did not crumble when carefully handled. IIL. Influence of Wide and Narrow Rations on Growth and Fattening. 116. The Maine Station trial— At the Maine Station,! Jordan conducted a trial with growing and fattening steers, beginning with calves and feeding to maturity, for the purpose of deter- mining the influence of a ration rich in protein and one relatively poor in protein on the rate of growth and character of the flesh produced. This is the most elaborate experiment of the kind yet conducted in this country, having been wisely planned and carefully carried out in all its numerous details. 117. Plan of experiment.— Four high-grade Short-horn steer calves, ranging in age from 5 to 7 months when the trial began, were used. Two of these calves were fed a ration rich in protein, as given below, while the other two received one ample in its supply of nutrients but relatively poor in protein. (133-5) After feed- ing 17 months, one steer in each lot was slaughtered and the carcasses analyzed; after ten months’ more feeding, or 27 months in all, the remaining two were slaughtered and the carcasses likewise analyzed. The four steers were fed alike at all times on roughage, which consisted mostly of timothy hay, some fodder Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 89 corn and corn silage being fed during the first winter only. The concentrates for the two lots were as follows: Lot I. Lot IT. Steers 1 and 2. Steers 3 and 4. Protein-rich ration. Protein-poor ration. Linseed meal, 2 parts. Corn meal, 2 parts. Corn meal, 1 part. Wheat bran, | part, by weight. Wheat bran, 1 part, by weight. Nutritive ratio, 1 : 5.2. Nutritive ratio, 1: 9.7. In this trial no attempt was made to force the steers to rapid growth, the aim being rather to keep them gaining steadily. The trial was carried to a successful termination, no serious interrup- tions of any kind occurring. The feed and gains are presented in the following table: Total feed eaten and total gains by four steers — Maine Station. Lot I. Lot II. Fed protein-rich|) Fed protein-poor food. food. Steer 1.) Steer 2.|} Steer 3.) Steer 4. Wumiber of months fed. ............--.2se.-: 17 27 27 17 Wumiberiol days fed 1.2) igsceksse see ut lo. 514 843 833 521 Total hay eaten, pounds .................... 8,414 | 7,783 6,811 | 3,520 Total fodder and silage eaten, pounds..| 4,173 | 4,728 4,493 | 4,469 Total mixed grains eaten, pounds ...... 2,211 |} 4,818 4,737 | 2,255 Total food eaten, pounds..................... 9,700 | 17,3829 || 16,041 | 10,234 Initial weight of steers, pounds......... 221 | 345 285 318 End weight of steers, pounds............. 958 | 1,307 |} 1,290 870 Total gain of each steer, pounds ........ 737 962 || 1.005 552 118. Digestible nutrients consumed.— The table shows the total feed consumed; the digestible nutrients in this feed are given in the accompanying table: Digestible matter consumed by the steers — Maine Station. Carboh Ett Total sebuete Santee rbohy- r ex- z Pe Protein. Gienieel neee feed. Se pound gain. Protein-rich fed. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Steer 1, fed 17 mos. 619 2,869 160 3,648 4.95 Steer 2, fed 27mos.} 1, 265 5,853 321 7,439 7.73 Protein-poor fed. Steer 3, fed 27 mos. 700 6,128 295 7,123 7.08 Steer 4, fed 17 mos. 370 3, 264 154 3,788 6.86 90 Feeds and Feeding. 119. Concerning gains.— Our attention is next directed to a con- sideration of the gains made by two steers up to the end of the 17-months period. These are given in the following table: Total and relative gains of two lots of steers — Maine Station. | Weight | Weight | Greater | Increase pair fed | pair fed | weightof| of differ- more pro-| less pro- | protein | ence in tein. tein. pair. weight. Lbs Lbs. Lbs Lbs At beginning of experiment... 566 603 = BT i Wesecesemaenenas At end of three months ......... 778 746 32 69 At end of six months............ 1,010 921 89 57 Atend of nine months........... 1,379 1,249 130 41 At end of twelve months.......). 1,618 1,475 143 13 Atend of fifteen months........ 1,861 Gna 184 41 At end of seventeen months...| 1,981 1,807 174 —10 The steers getting the richer protein ration made the more rapid gains up to 17 months of age, at which time they weighed 174 pounds more than the other pair. Jordan reports that those getting the most protein showed the effects of their food in better general appearance and greater thrift. 120. Gains of remaining steers.— As before stated, at the end of 17 months’ feeding one steer from each lot was killed and the carcasses subjected to analysis. The feeding of the other two steers, one in each lot, continued for 10 months longer under the same conditions. It is interesting and significant to observe that during these last 10 months the steer getting the protein-rich ration did not gain as rapidly as the one fed the protein-poor ration, so that at the end of 27 months the two animals were nearly equal in weight. This is shown in the accompanying table: Gain of steers fed for the longer period, 27 months — Maine Station. Protein-rich Protein-poor fed. fed. Lbs Lbs Weight of steer at beginning............... 345 285 Weight of steer at end..................--200 1,307 1,290 Net gain, 27 MONUHS......g5...20---.s00ec0-s 962 1,005 Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 91 Here we are shown that while the steer getting the protein-rich ration gained 962 pounds in 10 months, the one receiving the protein-poor ration made a gain of 1,005 pounds, or 43 pounds more than the one fed the ration which at first gave the best returns. This result is the surprise of the investigation. 121. Digestible matter for one pound of growth.— In the follow- ing table is presented the digestible matter required for one pound of growth during different periods: Amount of digestible matter required to produce one pound of growth with steers — Maine Station. . Steers fed |Steers fed less Both steers of each lot, by periods. more protein.| protein. During first three months......................000 4.06 5.96 During second three months .................606. 4.26 5.53 During third three months.......................- 3.83 4.35 During fourth three monthg.....................-. 6.45 6.87 During filth three Months....1.......c06.sesseses 6.97 8.08 PAV OCTAGON ricectescetesscrsssavesasissrss teen sssceeecsces 5.11 6.16 Each steer, whole period fed. Steer No. 1, 514 days (17 months)........... Be Oy | achonwaaesienscceses Steer No. 2, 843 days (27 months)........... TOT ma eM Riise ceva ses Btcer ING: 3, Soo GAYS) (27 MHOMTHS)...... 02602). .3.ceeevecceera0sts 7.08 Steer No. 4) ofl days (iv mi0nths):......c2<|; | Dry sub- ) Water. | cisnce. || Protein. | Fat. Ash. Two steers fed 27 months, pounds.......). 1,072.9 924.6 829.3 492.6 | 102.6 Two steers fed 17 months, pounds........ 829.2 593 .2 248 .0 276.9 68.2 243.7 331.4 81.3 215.7 34.4 Per cent. composition younger Steers: .-....... 58.2 41.8 41.8 46.7 11.5 Per cent. composition increase for next 10 ATEOMIUINS =. ce mew ceeries dee 0s 42.4 57.6 24.5 65.1 10.4 Here we are shown that the bodies of the steers fed 17 months contained 58.2 per cent. water and 41.8 dry substance. Taking younger steers for the basis, the increase of the older ones during the final 10 months of feeding is shown in the last line of the table. From this we learn that 42.4 per cent. increase in weight of the steers during the last 10 months was water, while 57.6 per cent. was dry substance. Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 93 123. Composition of carcass.— The data of the composition of the dressed carcass are given in the following table, these being divided into groups according to the feeding of the steers: Percentage composition of dressed carcass, fresh substance — Maine Station. Water. |Protein.| Fat. Ash. Aiea Steer1, fed17 mos.| 59.02} 17.89 | 18.58 | 4.56 Protein-rich food { Steer®’ fed27mos| S191 | 16:93 | 25:86 | 5.30 . Steer 3, fed 27mos.| 52.16 | 17.10 | 25.32 | 5.42 Protein-poor food { Steer 4’ fedi7imos,| 56:30 | 17:82] 20°27] 5:61 Let us first study the carcasses of the steers fed for 17 months. That of the steer getting the protein-rich ration contained more than 3 per cent. more water, the same amount of protein, and nearly 2 per cent. less fat than the other. This is in line with other work in showing that one of the results of feeding much protein to growing animals is a carcass containing more water. For the steers carried through 27 months of feeding there is practically no difference in the composition of the carcasses. 124. Conclusion.— Reviewing this experiment we are led to con- clude that rations rich in protein are more conducive to rapid growth and finer general appearance of the animal when young, than rations rich in carbohydrates and rather poor in protein. It appears that when the protein-poor ration contains enough nitro- gen and ash to supply the actual demands of the body, the animal carefully conserves them, being enabled thereby to fulfill the laws of its nature as to growth. No doubt if the steers getting the least protein had been supplied with less protein and ash than nature requires for good body-building, they would plainly have shown it by an abnormal development; but, fortunately, such con- ditions were not laid down in this experiment. This experiment and its teachings should be compared with the feeding trials with pigs by Sanborn, the writer and others, reported in the first part of the chapter, where strongly one-sided rations were fed. 94 Feeds and Feeding. III. Exclusive Meal Feeding — Withholding Coarse Forage from Ruminants. 125. Exclusive meal feeding.— In 1874 Mr. Linus W. Miller, of New York, reported that for several years he had successfully maintained a herd of dairy cows while dry in winter for a period of about eight weeks by giving to each animal as its sole feed not above three quarts of finely-ground corn meal, daily.1 It was his practice to cut off the hay supply when meal feeding began. At first the animals were more or less restless, but they soon quieted down, all rumination ceasing. Only a small quantity of water was drank. The animals remained in fair flesh. In the spring, on changing back to normal feeding, a limited amount of hay was at first given and the supply gradually increased. Calves from cows thus maintained were strong and healthy. A committee was appointed by L. B. Arnold, president of the American Dairyman’s Association, to visit Mr. Miller’s stable and report to the Association its findings. The committee reported that it found that cows weighing about 900 pounds each had been fed exclusively on corn meal for seven weeks at the time of inspection, the animals receiving on the average three quarts of corn meal each, daily. It further reported: ‘‘The cows did not ruminate. Were very quiet; did not evince any inordinate desire for food when hay was shown them; not so much as is dis- played by cows that are fed on hay alone, in the usual way of feeding, a little less than they will eat. Were much more quiet than cows fed mostly on meal with a small feeding of hay; say, four to five pounds per day. We could not discover any signs of suffering or unrest in any way whatever.’’ On a second visit of the committee, thirteen days after hay feeding had been resumed in the spring, the cows were ‘filled up’? and did not appear different from others which had been wintered in the usual way. The committee further reported that the calves from these cows ‘‘are of more than ordinary size, fleshy, strong, active and healthy.”’ 1 Rept. American Dairyman’s Association, 1874; Meal Feeding and Animal Digestion, a text-book for all who feed condensed food (2d Ed.), by Linus W. Miller, pub. by author; Country Gentleman, 1876; Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, pp. 378-383. Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 95 This system of feeding, or absence of feeding, excited much discussion in the agricultural press at the time, but the practice seems never to have become general and the subject is now almost forgotten. 126. Sanborn’s trials.—— At the Utah Station,! Sanborn main- tained a calf six weeks in winter on grain and milk, when, through its cravings for coarse forage, the sawdust used for bed- ding was eaten, with death as a consequence. Sheep were success- fully maintained for several months on grain and roots, with no coarse forage whatever. They shrank in weight at first, but after the paunch was cleared of coarse feed they made fair gains. A two-year-old steer weighing 635 pounds on April 13, was fed grain only, with water, until December 2 following, when it weighed 825 pounds. Rumination ceased upon withdrawal of eoarse feed. It was observed that gains in these trials were made on about the same amount of feed as is required with pigs. Cattle so fed drank very little water, voiding a larger proportion as urine than those fed in the usual manner. The first and second stomachs of sheep and cattle so fed weighed less than the average for such animals, the first stomach notably so. When slaughtered the first stomach was found hardly half full. The blood of the steer weighed more than the average, and the lungs less. 127. Davenport’s experiments.— At the Illinois Station, ? Daven- port maintained calves upon skim milk or skim milk and grain for long periods. A June calf was maintained exclusively upon skim milk until the following January, seven months, by which time it refused its feed, could not hold up its head and appeared nearly dead. When straw and hay were placed before it they were greedily consumed, and three hours later the calf was ruminating in contentment, thereafter making satisfactory gains upon mixed feed. In a second experiment a calf dropped in May subsisted on skim milk only until September, when, although consuming seventy pounds of skim milk daily, the creature showed great unrest. Some grain was then fed in addition to milk, with still unfavorable indications. In October, when hay was offered, it was greedily eaten and rumination began five 1 Bul. 46. 2 Bal. 21. 96 Feeds and Feeding. and one-half hours later. Another calf was maintained from June until September upon milk and mixed grains. By the latter date it evinced no desire for feed and would not rise. Later it suddenly died. It was observed in these trials that although enormous quantities of milk or milk and grain were consumed, there was no fat on the carcass or about the kidneys of the calf that died. The muscles, instead of being shrunken, were plump but exceedingly dense and rigid to the touch. {28. Conclusions.— The investigations of Davenport show that the quantity of food consumed by an animal is not necessarily an indication of its economic use, enormous amounts being taken by . these calves in the vain effort to satisfy an abnormal appetite. Under this form of starvation, for such it was, even with the liberal supply of the particular food given, there was observed ‘Ca ravenous appetite followed by enlargement and stiffening of the joints, spells of dizziness and difficult locomotion, all followed by periods of relief, and finally by a settled feeling of indiffer- ence to food.’’ From these several trials it is evident that mature ruminants can be maintained for a considerable period upon a limited amount of ground grain, and if liberally supplied therewith they may even gain in weight. With young animals the demand of nature seems more imperative, and it appears that calves can- not be brought to maturity upon grain and milk, either singly or combined, as the sole feed, but must have some coarse forage, without which rumination is impossible. CHAPTER VII. EXPLANATION OF TABLES OF COMPOSITION AND FEEDING STAND- ARDS — METHODS OF CALCULATING RATIONS FOR FARM ANI- MALS, ETC. I. Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards. 129. Nutrients of feeding stuffs.— We have already learned how the chemist divides the constituents of feeding stuffs into groups, which are placed in tables for convenient reference. From Table I of the Appendix there is here abstracted the fragment marked Example Table A, for the purpose of discussing the subject of nutrients in feeding stuffs. Example Table A, showing the water and total nutrients found by the chemist in several common feeding stuffs. Total in 100 pounds. Feeding stuffs. - | Crude | Nitrogen- | Ether Water. |Protein.) fher. {free extract.| extract. | a Roughage. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Corn stover, field cured..) 40.5 3.8 19.7 31.5 Ded Red clover hay ............ 15.3 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 TiMOth y Way: c.<.ssssv0c0-0 13.2 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5 OAE SUTAW,<.acsso4ocesseseaeee 9.2 4.0 37.0 42.4 2.3 Concentrates. Morn) Gent. 5.1. 11.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0 Wy Heat Dans: .....66.05 5035. 11.9 15.4 9.0 53.9 4.0 Linseed meal, O. P........ 9.2 32.9 8.9 35.4 7.9 In tables of this character the results stated are always the average of all analyses for each feed on record at the time of com- pilation. The table shows that 100 pounds of average field-cured fodder corn contain 40.5 pounds of water —a much larger amount than the feeder will, off*first thought, suppose possible in what he has 7 98 Feeds and Feeding. always regarded as ‘‘dry’’ forage. Of the nutrients in 100 pounds of stover, 3.8 pounds are protein, while the same weight of oat straw contains 4 pounds. Were it not for the large amount of water in corn stover, it would exceed straw in protein. Of erude fiber, the least valuable constituent of fodders, the stover contains 19.7 pounds, or only about one-half as much as oat straw. Tn nitrogen-free extract straw again leads, containing 42.4 pounds azainst 31.5 in stover. The table shows that the concentrates usually contain a higher proportion of protein than the coarse fodders, red clover and other legumes excepted. Corn is low in crude fiber, while oats are relatively high because of the husk which surrounds the oat kernel. The cereals, especially corn, are rich in nitrogen-free extract, which is principally starch. Corn and oats each contain five pounds of ether extract, and linseed meal eight pounds, practically all oil. 130. Digestion coefficients.— Elsewhere it is shown how the animal physiologist through feeding trials and analytical work ascertains what percentage of the several nutrients in a feeding stuffis digested by farm animals. ‘Table IT of the Appendix sum- marizes the results of digestion trials with the leading feeds. Example Table B, here given, shows the average digestion coef- ficients for the feeding stuffs given in Table A. Example Table B, showing the average coefficients of digestibility for the feeding stuffs presented in Table A. Percentage digestibility. INO OE )||== Feeding stuffs. | separate : i 8 ers Dry Protein Crude Ae Ether matter. ‘| fiber. extract extract. Roughage. Corn stover, all varieties....... 8 60 45 67 61 62 Red clover hay 2 55 55 46 64 53 Timothy hay... 26 57 48 52 63 60 Oat straw........ 19 48 30 54 44 33 Concentrates. GOUMUC A ccseese: 12 91 76 58 93 86 Obits sediesstore: 39 70 78 20 76 83 Wheat bran..... 11 61 79 22 69 68 Linseed meal, OTP et ecewcnsae 3 79 89 57 78 89 Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards. 99 The second column of the table shows that eight feeding trials have been made with corn stover to determine the digestibility of its several components. Sixty per cent. of the dry matter, 45 of the protein, 67 of the crude fiber, 61 of the nitrogen-free extract, and 62 per cent. of the ether extract are, on the average, digested from this fodder by the fluids of the alimentary tract and absorbed by the animal body. In statements of this character, the aver- age of a large number of determinations is more satisfactory and reliable than the data of a single trial. Table A shows that oat straw contains more protein than corn stover. Table B shows that 45 per cent. of the protein in corn stover, and only 30 per cent. of that in oat straw, are digestible. It shows that the nutrients in the concentrates are more digestible than those in roughage, crude fiber excepted. For example, 78 per cent. of the protein in the oat grain, and only 30 per cent. of that in oat straw, are digestible. In corn stover 61 per cent. of the nitrogen-free extract is digestible, and in the corn grain 93 per cent. It thus appears that a given quantity of total nutrients in concentrated feeding stuffs is usually more valuable than the same amount in coarse forage. 131. Total digestible nutrients.— Example Table C is a por- tion of Table III of the Appendix. Having learned the composi- tion of the several common feeding stuffs from Table A, and the percentage digestibility of each of these nutrients from Table B, the student is now in position to consider the third table, derived from them, presenting the digestible substance in 100 pounds of each of the feeding stuffs under consideration. The statement for each nutrient in this table is determined by multiplying its composition, as given in Table A, by the factor of digestibility in Table B. 100 Feeds and Feeding. Example Table CO, showing the digestibility in feeding stuffs considered under Tables A and B. ie Total digestible substance ota in 100 pounds. atts Feeding stuffs. dry PieLem ia ic waglinve matter. Protein,| Catbohy-| Ether i ‘| drates. |extract. Roughage. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. CornystOveren eee 59.5 i 67 32..4 0.7 220 Red clover hay............ 84.7 6.8 35.8 1.7 1:5.8 PUNTO VAY 2c. cst vere 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.5 IES USSU Oatrstrawe. co es 90.8 2 38.6 0.8 een, Concentrates. Corn or corn meal........| 89.4 7.8 66.7 4.3 1ESORS ORISE ies emcee cere tre 89.0 972 47.3 4.2 Ib BD a7/ Wiheatiboranes.cesceeee: 88.1 1A 39.2 PBR Wo 322 4/ Oilmeal OOP. ccc 5escces. 90.8 29.3 32.7 7.0 IBY Table A shows that corn stover contains 3.8 pounds of protein and oat straw 4 pounds; 45 per cent. of the protein in stover, and only 30 per cent. of that in straw, are digestible; consequently 100 pounds of average corn stover contain 1.7 pounds of digestible protein, while the same weight of oat straw contains only 1.2 pounds. Thus it is shown that although oat straw contains more total protein than corn stover, the latter has more digestible pro- tein. In digestible protein clover hay stands in strong contrast with oat straw,— 100 pounds of the former containing 6.8 pounds against 1.2 pounds for the straw. Corn contains 66.7 pounds of digestible carbohydrates per hundred weight, while corn stover contains 32.4 pounds, or one-half as much. 132. Nutritive ratio.— This expression, not heretofore used, is common with the student of feeding problems and should be understood by all, since it is helpful in studying different feeding substances. By ‘nutritive ratio’? is meant the ratio which exists between the amount of the digestible protein in a given feeding stuff and the amount of the digestible carbohydrates and ether extract it contains. It is ascertained in the following manner: The amount of digestible ether extract is multiplied by 2.4, because ether extract is considered as having this heat value com- Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards. — 101 pared with the carbohydrates.1_ The product obtained is added to the total quantity of digestible carbohydrates in the given fod- der and the sum is divided by the digestible protein. The method of calculating the nutritive ratio for corn stover, the digestible nutrients in which are protein 1.7, carbohydrates 32.4, and ether extract 0.7, is as follows: Ether Heat extract. equivalent. ay Xx 2.4 = 1.68 Carbohy- drates. 1.68 i 32.4 — 34.08 Protein. 34.08 + a lay — 20 + Nutritive ratio 1 : 20. In expressing the nutritive ratio of corn stover thus, 1 : 20, it is meant that for each pound of digestible protein in corn stover there are 20 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and ether-extract equivalent. The nutritive ratios of the several feeds are placed in the last column of the table. The nutritive ratio of oat straw is Shown by the table to be 1 : 33.7. This is called a ‘‘ wide’’ ratio because of the very large quantity of carbohydrates contained in this feed in proportion to the protein. With Indian corn the nutritive ratio is 1:9.8. Such an expression is spoken of asa ‘‘medium’’ ratio. In oil meal the nutritive ratio is 1:1.7, the protein almost equaling the carbohydrates and fat combined. Such an expression is called a ‘‘narrow ”’ nutritive ratio. 133. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards.— Step by step we have advanced until it is shown in the last table what portion of feed- ing stuffs is available for the nutrition of farm animals. Let us next direct attention to the quantity of the several nutrients in feeding stuffs required by farm animals. While analytical work and digestion trials were in progress by the physiologist and chemist, feeding trials were being conducted to determine how much protein, carbohydrates and ether extract were required to properly nurture farm animals of the several classes, under various 1 American writers generally use the factor 2.2 or 2.25. See Article 61. 102 Feeds and Feeding. conditions. The following Example Table D from Table IV of the Appendix presents the food requirements of certain farm animals: Example Table D, showing the amount of dry matter and digestible nutrients required daily by farm animals per 1,000 pounds live weight. Digestible nutrients. Dryas Nutritive matter... . |Carbohy-| Ether ratio. nO UT drates. extract. Ox at complete rest in SS aie lbs: Lbs: Gta Ai crecaasescesccconstnss 18.0 0.7 8.0 0.1 PrH38 Fattening cattle (first PCTIOM iesceo.gee-cssecesaeaee 30.0 2.5 15.0 0.5 1:6.5 Milch cow (yielding 22 pounds daily).............. 29.0 2.5 13.0 0.5 Liat Horse (medium work)....| 24.0 2.0 1 On 0.6 1:6.2 Nore.— The ‘Sum of nutrients”’ in the larger table has been omitted from this table in order to simplify the explanation. The first subject for consideration is the amount of nutrients required to maintain an ox weighing 1,000 pounds when at rest in the stall, neither gaining nor losing in weight. The table states this to be as follows: Dry matter, 18 pounds; digestible protein, .7 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 8 pounds; ether extract, .1 pound. A ration containing these nutrients has a nutri- tive ratio of 1 : 11.8. (443) Although the ox is referred to as ‘at rest,’’ nevertheless work is being accomplished. The heart is forcing blood currents through the body, and digestion and assimilation are in progress; even the act of standing and breath- ing constitutes werk. ach of the many manifestations of life calls for food-fuel and repair material. Conceding that the above feeding standard is correct, the ox which receives less nutrients than here stated will lose in weight, while if more are allowed he will increase in weight. II. Calculating Rations for Farm Animals. 134. Ration for the steer at rest.— With Table C, giving the digestible nutrients in several common feeding stuffs, and Table D, stating the requirements of the ox for maintenance, we have the Calculating Rations for Farm Animals. 103 data for calculating how much feed should be supplied in order to maintain this animal. For the trial ration, we decide to use 10 pounds of corn stover and 10 pounds of oat straw. Let us ascertain the digestible nutrients these will supply. Calculations for dry matter and digestible nutrients in corn stover and oat straw. Corn stover. In 100 In 10 pounds, pounds. Dry matter sb. t- 25. 59.5 = 100 X 10 = 5.95 20/7 S10 eee eee LT SSM OR LO: Shee Carbohydrates......... 32.4 + 100 K 10 = 3.24 HMther extract .......:: COR a On = O.7, Diy WAGER ssccsetsece 90.8) == 1000 = 9.08 Proce .4 24 eB. 1:2) 100X100) = 12 Carbohydrates......... 38.6 + 100 x 10 = 3.86 Ether extract ......... 8 = 100° x 10 = .08 Arranging these in a table, with the Wolff-Lehmann standard for comparison, we have: First trial maintenance ration for ox at rest weighing 1,000 pounds — Wolff-Lehmann Standard. Digestible nutrients. Dry || 1 Ntritive Feeding stuffs. ‘ . matter.|/,.,.,,:,, | Carbohy-| Ether ratio. oe drates. jextract. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Corn stover, 10 pounds...| 5.95 a7, 3.24 SOT Mee ceseeceota ec Oat straw, 10 pounds...... 9.08 12 3.86 OBL hs |neveceueapetes's First trial ration............. 15.03 29 ClO U8 ae ee Pe Wolff-Lehmann stand’rd| 18.0 ae 8. 10 Letts The trial ration falls below the standard in everything except ether extract, the deficiency being especially marked as to protein. 104 ‘ Feeds and Feeding. To complete the ration there is added one pound each of oil meal and corn meal. Ascertaining the nutrients in these as before, we have the second trial maintenance ration, which is as follows: Second trial maintenance ration for ox at rest weighing 1,000 pounds — Wolff- Lehmann Standard. Digestible nutrients. Feeding stuffs. Diy sarap ee matter. . | Carbohy-| Ether ratio. Protein. drates. jextract. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ration as above............ 15.03 .29 7.10 Pa a ardent (ae Se a Oil meal, 1 pound........... 908 - 293 .327 OT), -. lsscceaecsenecs Corn meal, 1 pound........ 894 .078 .667 «O48 | ccngmemenamenee Second trial ration ......... 16.832 .661 8.094 - 203 Pees Wolff-Lehmann stand’rd| 18.0 all 8.0 .10 1S Tate This second trial ration falls below the standard by more than a pound of dry matter, but this deficiency is of small importance. In protein the ration is almost up to the standard, exceeding it slightly in carbohydrates, and considerably in ether extract. The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1:12.5. The ration approx- imates the standard as closely as can be attained without using fractions of pounds, and near enough for purposes of illustration. From this we learn that ten pounds each of corn stover and oat straw, and one pound each of oil meal and corn meal per day, will nurture a steer weighing 1,000 pounds so that he will neither gain nor lose in weight —that is, such a combination constitutes a ‘¢maintenance’’ ration. 135. A ration for the fattening steer. Example Table D shows that the fattening steer (first period) requires more than three times as much protein, five times as much ether extract, and nearly twice as much carbohydrates, as constitute a maintenance ration, with the nutritive ratio narrowed to 1: 6.5. It is apparent that more concentrated feed must enter into this ration than into the first one. For a trial ration we choose 10 pounds of corn Calculating Rations for Farm Animals. stover, 8 pounds of oat straw and 12 pounds of corn. the nutrients in these as in the first instance, we have: 105 Calculating First trial ration for the rapid fattening of a steer weighing 1,000 pounds ( first period) — Wolff-Lehmann Standard. Digestible nutrients. : i Dry Nutritive Feeding stuffs. matter. Protein Carbohy-| Ether ratio. ‘| drates. jextract. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Corn stover, 10 pounds...| 5.95 Pal 3.24 Tir [Sideacacue sees Oat straw, 8 pounds........| 7.264 096 3.088 WGA Gis. Zeccunacaaas Cor, 12) pounds. :.....:<..c.. 10.728 936 8.004 HOMME le ccwewanee caer First trial ration............. 23.942 || 1.202 14.332 e OOO Al awsenteesece <5 Wolff-Lehmann stand’rd| 30.0 2.5 15.0 50 i650 This trial ration falls below the standard in each nutrient, especially in protein. Some feed rich in protein should be added, and accordingly 4 pounds of oil meal, O. P., are used. Second trial ration for the rapid fattening of a steer — Wolff-Lehmann Standard. Digestible nutrients. . Dry Nutritive Feeding stuffs. matter. Protein Carbohy-| Ether ratio. ‘| drates. jextract. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ration as above.............. 23.942 1.202 14.332 UGDe Aisa ees wees Oil meal, O. P., 4 pounds] 3.632 || 1.172 1.308 SES ac aciesuenteas Second trial ration ......... 27.574 2.374 | 15.640 .93 WON 5D Wolff-Lehmann stand’rd| 30.0 2.5 15.00 .500 1:6.5 This ration falls below the standard by nearly 2.5 pounds of dry matter and a little more than .1 of a pound protein. is an excess of both carbohydrates and ether extract. ducing the allowance of corn meal one pound and increasing There By re- 106 Feeds and Feeding. the oil meal by the same amount, the standard would be more nearly reached, although there is already a fairly close agreement. This shows that the fattening steer weighing 1,000 pounds will be nurtured to very nearly his full requirement when receiving the following ration: 10 pounds of corn stover, 8 pounds of oat straw, 12 pounds of corn, 4 pounds of oil meal. 136. Calculating a ration for the dairy cow. a ration for a dairy cow yielding 22 pounds of milk daily, we choose from the list of feeds in Table C, 8 pounds of red clover hay, 10 pounds of corn stover, 3 pounds of oat straw, for rough- age, and 5 pounds each of corn meal and bran for concentrates. The digestible nutrients in these are ascertained as follows: In determining Calculations for dry matter and digestible nutrients in trial ration for dairy cow. Red clover hay. In 100 In8 pounds. pounds. 84.7 +100 X8=6.776 6.8+-100 X8= .544 35.8100 X8=2.864 1.7 +100X8= .186 Oat straw. In 100 ha & pounds. pounds. 90.8+100 X3=2.724 1.2+100X3= .036 38.6+100 X3=1.158 .8+100X3= .024 Corn stover. In 100 In 10 pounds. pounds. 59.5+100 X10=5.95 1.7+100 X10= .17 32.4100 X10=3.24 .7+100 X10= .07 Corn meal. In 100 Ind pounds. pounds. 89.4+100 X5=4.47 7.8--100 X5= .39 66.7 +100 X5=3.335 4.8+100X5= .215 Bran. In 100 In5 pounds. pounds. 88.1+100 X5=4.405 12.2+100x5= .61 39.2 +100 X5=1.96 2.7+100X5= .135 Arranging these results in tabular form, with the Wolff-Leh- mann standard for comparison, we have the following: Calculating Rations for Farm Animals. 107 First trial ration for dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of milk daily —Wolff-Lehmann Standard. Digestible nutrients. ea on Dav Nutri- eeding stuffs. x tive - S matter. Protein Carbohy- Ether a ‘| drates. j|extract. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Red clover hay, 8 pounds..| 6.776 .044 | 2.864 LGN eteacens cee Corn stover, 10 pounds....... 5.95 wey 8.24 SOM Thee seasons Oat straw, 3 pounds.......... 2.724 .086 | 1.158 SODA Nhises ciate Corn meal, 5 pounds. .........} 4.47 .39 8.385 MLO lass coven cece Brant oO POUNS).: ji.ccgees.nces. 4.405 61 1.96 culo |tesesesen ats iTS tba TATION ce. ece-ss-c-e 24.825 1.750 | 12.557 TOO bre Mevocr erst Wolff-Lehmann standard..| 29.0 2.5 13.0 50 LR wet This trial ration falls considerably below the standard, espe- cially in protein, and to correct this, 3 pounds of oil meal are added. Second trial ration for dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of milk daily —Wolff-Lehmann Standard. Digcstible nutrients. Feedi tuffs. tive ae matter. Protein,| Catbohy- | Ether | ratio. ‘| drates. |extract. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. RAIOMEAStAWOV Cs srccscceecesse: 24.325 1.750 12.557 PHS Cal sscasceneaee Oil meal, 3 pounds............ 2.724 .879 .981 py lee a Reeser eps Second trial ration ............ 27.049 2.629 13.538 .79 18 9) Wolfi-Lehmann standard ..| 29.0 2.5 13.0 .00 12 SL / The second trial ration is 2 pounds below the standard in dry matter, something of little significance as it is really of satisfactory volume as it stands. All the nutrients are slightly in excess of the standard, the nutritive ratio being 1:5.9, while the standard calls for 1: 5.7. We learn from this that a satisfactory ration for a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of milk daily may be composed of the following: Red clover, 8 pounds; corn 108 Feeds and Feeding. stover, 10 pounds; corn meal and bran, each 5 pounds; oat straw and oil meal, each 3 pounds. 137. Concerning rations.— Jn preparing a ration it is well to start with what may be called a ‘‘trial’’ ration, composed of two or more kinds of coarse forage with a moderate supply of some desirable concentrate. When the nutrients these furnish have been placed in tabular form, a few trials will determine the quantity of other concentrates necessary to bring the ration up to the standard. It is usually impossible to compound rations for ruminants from common American feeding stuffs which will furnish the large amount of dry matter called for by the Wolff- Lehmann standard. While volume is an important factor in feeding, it is better to allow the ration to fall below the standard in dry matter than to add so much coarse forage with its large percentage of inert matter. Our common feeding materials are of such composition that in placing enough of them in the ration to furnish the requisite protein and carbohydrates, there is usually an excess of ether extract according to the standard, but this cannot be avoided. There is no direct way of calculating the exact quantities of the nutrients to be used in formulating rations, the desired result being reached only by repeated trials, each bringing the calculation nearer the desired standard. With the explanations given, the stockman should find no difficulty in calculating rations for the farm animals under his care. Til. Feeding Tables and Standards. 138. The first feeding table.— The first attempt to systematically compare various feeding stuffs one with another was by Thaer, * who in 1810 published a table giving what he termed ‘hay equivalents.’? With common hay as the standard unit, the feed- ing values were in part as follows: One hundred pounds meadow hay is equal in feeding value to— 200 pounds potatoes. 602 pounds cabbages. 625 pounds mangels. 91 pounds clover hay. 417 pounds rutabagas. 91 pounds alfalfa hay. Naturally, opinions varied as to the comparative values of vari- 1Thaer, Landwirtschaft, New Ed., 1880, p. 211. Feeding Tables and Standards. 109 ous feeding stuffs, and so there were about as many tables of ‘‘ hay equivalents’’ as there were writers on economic agriculture. Im- perfect as it was, Thaer’s table served to draw attention to an important subject and was the beginning of something far more elaborate and useful. 139. The first feeding standard.— In 1859 Grouven! proposed the first feeding standard for farm animals, based on the total quantity of protein, carbohydrates and ether extract found by analysis in feeding stuffs. This standard fell short of require- ments, since it considered the total nutrients instead of the digesti- ble portion. 140. Wolff's standards.— In 1864, Dr. Emil v. Wolff, the great German scientist and author, published for the first time, in Mentzel & v. Lengerke’s Agricultural Calendar, standards based upon the digestible nutrients of feeding stuffs. In these stand- ards the attempt was made to meet the physiological require- ments of the animal by supplying sufficient protein, carbohydrates and ether extract for all the needs of the body, without waste of any of the nutrients. Wolff’s feeding standards have become popular among the more progressive American farmers and stockmen and have been used wherever agricultural science is recognized. Their popularity is due in a large measure to their simplicity, ease of application, and the positive character of the statements made. In these standards, accompanied by tables of digestibility, the stockman has before him the data necessary to calculate rations for the different farm animals, little or nothing being left in uncertainty. 141. Kuehn’s position.— The strength of Wolff’s standards is also their weakness, for such mathematical statements cannot stand without marked qualifications when dealing with the com- plex problem of animal life and its nurture by food. Julius Kiihn, another German writer and investigator of the highest repute, holds? that Wolff’s standards ‘‘are objectionable and misleading to the farmer.’’ According to this author, Wolff 1 Feeding Standards for Domestic Animals, Expt. Sta. Rec., vol. IV; also Agricultur-Chemie, K6ln, 1859, p. 603. 2 Feeding Standards for Domestic Animals, Expt. Sta. Rec., vol. IV, pp. 6-13. 110 Feeds and Feeding. is incorrect when he bases the total quantity of food to be sup- plied on the organic substance contained, instead of the dry matter, as originally stated by Lingenthal and Grouven. Again, Wolff places the allowance of organic matter required by the dairy cow at 25 pounds; Kuhn tells us this may vary between the extremes of 20 and 33.5 pounds. Changes in the amount of dry matter supplied should, however, always be gradual. Kuhn fur- ther protests against prescribing exact quantities of nutrients as norms or standards. ‘‘For the individual nutrients, as for the total amount of food, it is essential to determine the amount for each individual case, and in doing this the particular conditions should be considered.’? Wolff does not distinguish between digestible albuminoids and amides; Kiihn holds that the lower nutritive effect of amide compounds can no longer be doubted, and that these amides can at best serve only as albuminoid con- servers, like the carbohydrates, and further that the non-albu- minoid protein includes compounds which do not even exert this conserving action and whose nutritive function is very doubtful. Grouven fixed the total protein (digestible and indigestible) for the dairy cow at 2.74 pounds, while Wolff places the standard at 2.5 of digestible albuminoids and amides. Kuhn states that the cow of high productive capacity during her largest flow of milk requires more than 2.5 pounds of digestible protein, while smaller amounts than Wolff names should be given with dimin- ishing milk flow. Again, the ether extract or so-called ‘‘fat”’ of food varies in nutritive effect according to its origin; that from oil cake, for example, having a higher feeding value than that found in coarse fodders. In the same way, nitrogen-free extract includes substances of variable composition, some of which are of questionable nutritive value, and to count all these as equiva- lent to starch for feeding purposes is far from correct. Finally, Kiihn lays stress on the importance of individual feeding, declar- ing that the stockman must carefully study the requirements of each animal and nourish it according to its individual wants, instead of placing all members of the herd or flock on inflexible rations constructed according to definite standards. He con- cludes that fodders vary so greatly in composition that to use Feeding Tables and Standards. 111 average analyses in calculating rations with the exactness pre- scribed by Wolff may lead to very unsatisfactory results. 142. The Wolff-Lehmann standard.—Wolff’s feeding standards were given annually in the Mentzel-Lengerke Agricultural Cal- endar from 1864 to 1896. The calendar for 1897 was prepared by Dr. C. Lehmann of the Berlin Agricultural College. This table is changed from Wolff’s in several particulars. ‘‘Dry matter”’ takes the place of ‘‘organic matter’? in Wolff’s table. A double column not used by Wolff is headed ‘‘Sum of nutrients.’’ In the first of these columns all of the digestible crude fiber is included with the other nutrients. In the second column only one-half of the crude fiber found digestible is included. Leh- mann recognizes the varying wants of dairy cows by classifying them in four divisions according to the milk they yield, the heaviest milkers receiving the most nutrients. While Wolff’s tables have heretofore been universally used in this country, it seems proper to adopt the modifications of Lehmann. 143. Introduction of standards in America.— Feeding standards were first brought to the attention of Americans by Atwater! in 1874, and the efforts of this teacher and investigator have fortu- nately been continued in the same line to the present time, greatly to the advancement of scientific agriculture in this country. Armsby’s Manual of Cattle Feeding, based on Wolff’s book? on the same subject, appeared in 1880 and marked an era in the educational development of this topic. From these sources the students in our agricultural colleges, writers and lecturers have come to know of feeding standards, and through them, thousands of feeders have learned to calculate rations for farm animals. IV. The Several Feeding Standards. 144. The maintenance ration for the ox.— In 1879 Sanborn, * of the New Hampshire Agricultural College, reported that the steer could be maintained on a smaller amount of hay than called for by Wolff’s standard. Subsequent experiments by this investi- 1 Rept. Me. State Bd. Agr., 1874; Rept. Secy. Conn. Bd. Agr., 1874-5. 2 Fiitterungslehre, Ist ed., 1874; 6th ed., 1895. 8 Rept. N. H. Bd. Agr., 1879. See also subsequent reports. 112 Feeds and Feeding. gator confirmed his statement that Wolff’s maintenance standard was really sufficient in nutrients to allow the animal to make a gain in weight. These statements were at first controverted, ! the assumption being that the Germans must be right and the Ameri- can investigator wrong. At the Cornell University Station, ? Caldwell, feeding four steers on a ration containing the following nutrients: dry substance 15.3, protein .68, carbohydrates and fat 8.6 (nutritive ratio, 1: 13.2), secured the following: Weight of 4 steers, January 20, 3,492 pounds. Weight of 4 steers, March 21, 3,672 pounds. Here is a gain of 180 pounds in two months on a maintenance ration according to Wolff. Reviewing his own and the work of others, Caldwell wrote: ‘The results of the many tests to which they (standard rations) have been subjected at various places in the country make it evident that with such data as we at present have at command, no ration can be calculated that will do the same work or pro- duce the effect for which it was calculated in all cases, and per- haps not even in a majority of cases, and that sometimes such rations entirely fail to accomplish the purpose for which they were calculated and used.”’ 145. Kuehn’s standard maintenance ration.— Investigations ex- tending from 1882 to 1890 by G. Kitthn? show that the full-grown ox kept in perfect quiet in the stall can be maintained on .7 pounds of digestible protein and 6.6 pounds of digestible nitrogen- free extract for each one thousand pounds of live weight. If more nutrients than these are supplied, each one hundred grams of digestible starch may cause a deposit of 20 to 24 grams of fat in the body of the ox. 146. Woll’s findings.— At the Wisconsin Station, 4 Woll ascer- tained by correspondence with a number of the leading dairymen of America the composition of the rations which they had used successfully with their herds. Reports were received from the managers of 128 herds including more than 3,000 cows. 1 See various articles, Rural New-Yorker, 1882, 2 Rept. 1883-85. ' 8 Ldw. Vers. Stat., 44, p. 257. 4 Bul. 38; Rept. 1894. Feeding Tables and Standards. 113 Grouping the returns by sections, and calculating the dry and digestible matter in the rations reported, the following table was prepared: Rations fed by 128 American dairymen as ascertained by Woll— Wisconsin Station. Digestible matter. : No. of | Nr Where ration was : 7 . fas vee rations matter. Pros Car- Ether tive fed. bohy- | ex- |Total.| ratio. tein. drates. | tract. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Eastern states...... 55 24.38 | 2.20 UB eiliteal LOM Melee One Middle states........ 56 24.64 | 2.08 IB By S| Ue ila eS 72 Southern states..... 2 OS ASt P2ROOM eae Oe ae TO 2 Western states...... 6 29.28 | 3.05 14.58 FON LSva8|| sone Canadas oe ce. osoee 9 QI Si Ler6 11.69 alos |) Oe) 1b S724 In these averages we observe a wide variation in the nutrients fed, the minimum falling much below Wolff’s standard, while the maximum materially exceeds it. As a summary report of the rations fed by leading American dairymen, this table is valuable, representing as it does the practice of so many experienced feeders. On the other hand, it is unsatisfactory because in many cases the feed was not weighed, the figures reported being estimates. 147. Studies by the Connecticut (Storrs) Station.— Atwater and Phelps, of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station, ! studied in person the rations used by a number of dairymen in their state. Their work included weighing and sampling the feed and the milk, both of which were analyzed by the Station. (681) The following table presents the extremes observed in these studies: Minimum and maximum rations fed by Connecticut dairymen as deter- mined by Atwater and Phelps — Connecticut (Storrs) Station. E Shae ether ex- | earbohy-| tive FLUE) Bee tract. drates. | ratio. Lbs Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Minimum, 27 rations....} 20.5 1.35 .56 10.47 | 1: 4.5 Maximum, 27 rations ...| 33.7 3.48 1.36 Se Jor} |) des LARS Average 27 rations...| 25.5 2.36 87 Lear ily Grad 1 Rept. 1896. 8 114 Feeds and Feeding. 148. Standard rations for dairy cows.— From the reports of 128 American dairymen gathered by Woll, that investigator deduces what he calls the American ration for dairy cows. Based on their personal study of dairy herds covering three winters as just noted, Atwater and Phelps of the Storrs Station offer a tentative standard. Below are grouped the several standards for convenient reference by the student. American and German feeding standards for dairy cows.— Digestible nutrients per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. Digestible nutrients. Dry Ration. matter. -_ | Carbohy-| Ether ratio. Protein. drates. jextract. Wolff original (German) Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. feeding Tatton y:....25-.00 0.602 24.0* || 2.5 12.5 0.4 1:5.4 Woll proposed American PA GUO sa aiaareesedonicecededy neki 24.5 2.15 13.27 TA | D609 Atwater & Phelps pro- posed standard............... 25.0* || 2.5 12to13 | .5 to .8} 1:5.6 WolffLehmann German MAVELO Me saeseeee sos scceeee I. When giving 11 Ibs. of aul leo ENA Becanccosoepooce 25.0 1.6 10.0 0.3 1267 II. When giving 16} lbs. of milk daily:..../s.. <<. 27.0 2.0 11.0 0.4 1316.0 III. When giving 22 lbs. of milk daily............ 29.0 2.5 13.0 0.5 Dba7 IV. When giving 273 lbs. of milk daily............ 32.0 3.3 13.0 0.8 1:4.5 * Organic matter. Kihn’s! standard ration for a thousand-pound dairy cow under varying conditions is as follows: Pounds. (DTA 7 TRIE D2 P. Secooanoqdodad boundesonobonoobad aS EDdndudecuoosGoKdcoeddognnoccooOaoRSooDESNONE 20-33. Dicestible albumiimOud ss... .2...c8 a2: de sean 1,860 Carola yates: ois... eeeee ee see 1,860 PWeR-EXACHC, . io «ies xcn come seer 4,240 It has been proposed that these Calorie values be assigned to the digestible nutrients of the ration for the purpose of simplify- ing the results. Atwater writes on this point:! ‘‘This use of fuel values gives a means of simplifying the calculation of rations. It will be understood that the proportions of fats and carbohy- drates are only relative; in other words, that one may be dimin- 1 Rept. of Storrs (Conn.) Expt. Sta., 1890, p. 179. 116 Feeds and Feeding. ished if the other be correspondingly increased. If our theories are correct, the important matter is to provide sufficient protein and sufficient total energy without varying too much from the most desirable relative proportions of the fats and carbohydrates.’’ The Calories in the second trial ration for the dairy cow reported under Article 136 are determined in the following manner: The digestible protein and digestible carbohydrates of the ration are added together and the sum is multiplied by 1,860, the fuel value of one pound of these nutrients. In the same manner the ether extract is multiplied by 4,240, its fuel value. The calculations are as follows: In ration. Protein Carbohydrates Total Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 2.629 -}- 13.538 = 16.167 Protein and Calories in Carbohydrates one pound Lbs. Calories. 16.167 x 1,860 = 30,070 Ether extract Lbs. ahs) x 4,240 == 3,350 Potala Pablon..2.cks sci 33,420 Arranging the digestible nutrients and: Calories for the standard ration for the cow when giving 22 pounds of milk daily, and for the second trial ration for the dairy cow as calculated above, the following table is derived: Digestible nutrients. Calories. . Carbohy-| Ether ieceobn drates. | extract. Lbs Lbs. Lbs Wolff-Lehmann standard for ALIVE COW o8~ ices asestaseacracs coos 2.5 13.0 50 30,950 Second trial ration for dairy COW eas. toon cedeh nae recserseseancses 2.629 13.538 79 33,420 By the table we learn that the digestible nutrients in the stand- ard ration for the cow when giving 22 pounds of milk daily, would, on combustion, yield 30,950 Calories, while the second trial ration given in Article 136 yields 33,420 Calories, an excess above the standard of nearly 10 per cent. Value of the Different Nutrients. 117 While it is important from a scientific standpoint to study the fuel value of rations, such use in compounding them for practi- cal purposes is hardly warranted, since a statement of the several nutrients themselves is more explicit and satisfactory. 150. Conclusions relative to feeding standards.— The vast amount of work of the chemist and physiologist as shown in the several tables under discussion in this chapter must be apparent to every student who has followed the subject to this point. When one learns that these tables after all are not what they first seem as to exactness and reliability, he is tempted to cast them aside as of no value inthe conduct of his feeding operations. Due reflection will check such a course, for enormous gain has already come to our stock interests from this source. Tables of chemical composition and feeding standards are efforts toward a desired end, and the student will always study these with interest, and the prudent feeder will never ignore them in his care of live stock. V. Placing Money Values on the Different Nutrients in Feeding Stuffs. 151. Character of the inquiry.— Since commercial fertilizers are sold on their content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, it seems possible to ascertain the values of the several common feed- ing stuffs from their content of digestible protein, carbohydrates and ether extract. (420) This matter takes concrete form in the questions asked at farmers’ meetings and in the agricultural papers as to the relative values of different feeds; for example, the value of a ton of bran or oil meal when corn or oats are worth a certain sum per bushel. 152. Studies of values. studying the by-products of flouring mills and oil factories, More than a generation ago Wolff, based calculations on the current prices of these several feeds, and found that, allowing the nitrogen-free extract a value of 1, protein had a relative value of 2.4, and ether extract 3. Konig placed the ratio of protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract at 2.7:2.9:1. The German Natural History Society,! after investigating the matter, concluded that the average values of nutrients of the leading feeding stuffs of Germany were as 3:3: 1 1 Landw. Jahrb. 9, p. 805. 118 Feeds and Feeding. for protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract, respectively. Several American Stations have also endeavored to ascertain the money value of concentrates according to the nutrients they contain, with the results presented in the table below: Valuations of nutrients in American concentrated feeding stuffs — various Experiment Stations. Value in cents per A pound. Ratios. . efer- |= ee a aie Melby! ence. | pro. [Ether| Car- | pyro. |Ether| Car- FO RA Wale bohy- tein, | .°= bohy- tract.| drates. * | tract.| drates. Conn....|Jenkins...|Rept. 1888} 1.60 | 4.2 0.96 1.7} 4.4 1 Conn....|Jenkins...|Rept. 1890] 1.40 | 2.9 1.40 TAO) |} al 1 Deli st: Penny..... Rept. 1889} 1.23 | 4.45 | 0.52 2.4 | 8.6 it Ind ......| Huston ...|Bul. 37.....1 1.00 | 2.75 | 0.63 1.6] 4.4 il N. J...../ Voorhees..|Rept. 1891) 0.91 | 5.91 | 1.12 0.8 | 5.3 1 Wis.2...5 Woll........|Rept. 1891] 1.52 | 3.58 | 0.47 Sea leas 1 Vt......../H., B. & J/Rept. 1895} 2.02 |—.19 | 0.91 2.2 | —.21 1 The data in the above table were secured in the following manner: The market values of all the concentrated feeding stuffs in the state were tabulated, together with the pounds of digestible protein, carbohydrates and ether extract they contained. Then by a mathematical process the supposed relative value of each of the nutrients was determined, with results presented in the table. In Connecticut, for example, it was found that taking all the common concentrated feeding stuffs offered in the market at cur- rent values, each pound of digestible protein in these feeds cost on the average 1.6 cents, one pound of digestible fat 9.4 cents, and a pound of digestible carbohydrates .96 cents. Hills, Boyce and Jones, of the Vermont Station, calculating the commercial values of concentrates for their state, found by the process usually employed that digestible fat had a value of — .19 cents, or that it was worth less than nothing,— an absurdity of course. Surprised at this, they investigated the subject in a broad manner and came to the conclusion that the method employed to determine these values is inaccurate and without merit. At present it is impos- sible to state the value of one feeding stuff in terms of another from calculations based upon the nutrients contained in each. PART IE FEEDING STUFFS. CHAPTER VIII. LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS. I. Indian Corn and its By-products. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. Digestible nutrients ||Fertilizing constitu- Dry ‘in 100 pounds. ents in 1,000 pounds. Matter.||—\> os pean Ee a an Name of feed. in 100 || pro. | Carbo-| Ether || witro- Phos- ” ounds. Ves ex- o pho Pp tein. | qrates.| tract. || 2: |"acia. |952- Lbs. || Lbs. | Lbs. se o m & o e iS er yp eS lon R Average of all analyses......) 89.1 7.9 | 66.7 | 4.3 || 18.2] 7.0 | 4.0 MDG COEM RY ce cateenteee cece 89.4 TES | BEST Ie CoSBs DIES | Beasssced bensee AE CON Meeeencececeessecenstcee 88.7 Seu MGGen|e aes ||slGrS) |tscecercslocwees WCC COLMe yesccsscecsceoss coses 91.2 S289 AGS eee sO! ||| LSeGi lk seeeseceloes see (GOTT CONS Sask. checsncececs cneees 89.3 0.4 | 52.5 | 0.3 5.0 .6 | 6.0 Corn and cob meal............ 84.9 AVANGOROMN eer OM Ae toe Ae Coma bran’- 5.2 eee 90.9 TAM ISOECn I 4eG lpl6.o loo GS Giutenemealiessccsecccscescscees OI Sal P2onSeipaoron eee O) |, 50)oull ero. | Oceb Germ meal teietossecesce secs: 89.6 9.0 | 61.2 | 6.2 || 26.5 | 8.0 | 5.0 Starcherefiuse sias.csesccccscosess CIPS) |) MASSA Gon 2224 | 7 Onno. GTANO-CIVGEN. «.<.2cc.c0scesae0s- 94.3 || 26.7 | covets. 41) 49.8 1 6.1) b.5 Hominy CHOpst:.t..0<.cs..0205: 88.9 T5eSae2o V6u8 I) 16).3- |) 9.89) -4:9 Glucose meal s..5...ccc0 Brooks grew 37.2 bushels of millet seed, weighing forty-seven pounds per bushel, on a half acre of land. Different varieties yielded as follows: ® Panicum ital- 1 Country Gentleman, March 28, 1876. 2 Rept. on Amber Cane and the Ensilage of Fodders, 1881. 3 Rept. 1885. 5 4 Rept. U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1889. Bulls. ® Rept. 1892. 148 Feeds and Feeding. icum, 55 bushels; Panicum crus galli, 69 bushels, and Panicum miliaceum, 28 bushels per acre. Brooks concludes that millet cannot successfully compete with Indian corn under conditions prevailing in Massachusetts. Millet seed resembles oats in com- position, but we cannot point to experiments which definitely settle the feeding value of the several varieties. Stewart! writes: ‘‘ Millet meal is a highly appropriate food for young or mature horses. It has a higher proportion of albu- minoids and a higher nutritive ratio than oats, but having less oil. It is found, when well ground (and it cannot properly be fed without grinding), to be one of the best rations for horses, being particularly adapted to the development of muscular strength.”’ The culture of sorghums and millets for grain and forage is to be recommended for the warmer districts of the United States, where there is scant rainfall and where hot, drying winds prevail. Where Indian corn flourishes, these crops are not able to compete with that great cereal. (272) IV. Oil-bearing Seeds and their By-products. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. Digestible nutrients ||Fertilizing constitu- Dry in 100 pounds. ents in 1,000 pounds. IMAtter law aed Res Caw | [Osea a | cee an a | Name of feed. in 100 — Carbo- Ether Braet Phos- =a unds. ; Vai X= phoric tt tein. | grates. tract. || 2°". cid ash Lbs. |} Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. || Lbs. | Lbs. |Lbs 0) 1p iC 720 ER aa hae ee 9038" || 2056.) Vet | 2970) || S61 Mange Loss Linseed meal, old process..}| 90.8 || 29.3 | 832.7 | 7.0 || 54.3 | 16.6 [13.7 Linseed meal, new process.| 89.9 || 28.2 | 40.1 | 2.8 || 57.8 | 18.3 |13.9 WOutoniseed rea ecees SOT Nl 1255) 1730.0) Loa aes eer lolsena Cotton-seed meal .............. 91.8 || 87.2.) 1629! | 1282) 67S ueeSESs sad Cotton-seed hulls .............. 88.9 O4Es || eiell iks'Z 6.9 2.5 {10.2 Cocoanutmieallli cee. sce- sees 89.7 || 15.6 | 88.3 | 10.5 || 82.8 | 16.0 |24.0 Palm Tbammeall vesesecccs = soseees 89.6 || 16.0 | 52.6 OO p26E Oe ela OnlPo sO Sunflower seed ................. OF ae Let 20287) 29205 22e6n aoe || ono Sunflower cakes ............... OLS leo SQ Os 6 a Ze Sil oaDs on ele ee Peart Call cccewcasecasteeses 89.8 || 42.9 | 22.8 629 ullwone 3.1 |15.0 Rape-seed meall................. 90.0 || 25.2 | 23.7 | 7.5 || 49.6 | 20.0 13.0 199. Concerning oil-bearing seeds.— The leading oil-bearing seeds in this country are from the flax and cotton plants. Others 1 Weeding Animals, 7 ‘ Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 149 of much importance in foreign countries are little known here. Flax grain carries a considerable quantity of protein with an excess of oil. There is no starch in well-matured flax seeds. On account of the high commercial value of the oil, flax seed is rarely used as a feed. At the Iowa Station,! Wilson fed ground flax seed with skim milk to calves with excellent results. (519) When flax seed was fed to cows at the rate of eight pounds per head daily, no ill results followed such heavy feeding. Some feeders claim that flax seed should only be fed in a very limited quantity, since it contains a cathartic principle. 200. Oil cake and oil meal.—At the oil mills, after crushing the seeds, the oil is removed by one of two processes. In the first the crushed seed is heated and placed between cloths or in sacks which are piled one on another and the mass subjected to hydraulic pres- sure, to extract the oil. The residue after pressure, stripped of the wrappings, appears as hard slabs or cakes, about an inch thick by one foot in width and two in length. These slabs constitute the oil cakes of commerce, and inthe entire form are shipped abroad for-use by farmers in other countries. The unbroken cake is preferred for shipping, as it is the most condensed, and because the foreign feeder, suspicious of adulteration, knows that such cakes are always as pure as the seed from which they were pro- duced. When required for feeding, the cake is reduced to the size of small hickory nuts or hazel nuts in a mill, the material being known as ‘‘nut cake.’’? In this country the cake is usually ground to a meal at the factory and is then shipped in bags. Where the oil is secured by direct pressure from the ground flax seed as described above, the by-product is known as ‘‘ old process ”’ cake or oil meal. 201. New-process oil meal.— In the manufacture of new-process oil meal, according to Woll,? the seed is crushed and heated to 165° Fahr., as in the production of old-process meal. The crushed mass while warm is placed in large vertical cylinders or percola- tors, and over it naphtha, a volatile petroleum compound, is 1 Buls. 14, 16, 19, 35. 2 Rept. Wis. Sta. 1895. o 150 Feeds and Feeding. poured and allowed to drain out at the bottom of the cylinder. Naphtha dissolves the oil from the ground flax seed, being repeat- edly added until nearly all the oil is extracted. After this has been accomplished, steam is let into the percolator, and the naphtha which did not drain off is gradually driven out of the mass as vapor. This is so effectively done that no smell of naphtha is noticeable in the residue. From the percolators, after steaming, the meal is transferred to driers, from which it is elevated to the meal bins. This by-product is known as ‘‘new-process’’ oil meal. 202. The swelling process.— Woll' gives the following simple method of ascertaining whether oil meal is new- or old- process: ‘‘Pulverize a small quantity of the meal and put a level table- spoonful of it into a tumbler; then add ten tablespoonfuls of boiling hot water to the meal, stir thoroughly and leave to settle. If the meal is new-process meal, it will settle in the course of an hour and will leave about half of the water clear on top.’? Old- process meal will remain jelly-like. 203. Adulteration of oil meal.— Adulteration of oil meal may be brought about through using immature flax seed or that con- taining weed seed, or, finally, foreign matter may be added to the meal after grinding the cake. Immature flax seed contains starch, while fully mature seed contains none. Weed seeds contain much starch. If then starch grains are found in linseed meal, it is because of immature flax-seed grains, weed seeds, or both. The manufacturer of oil meal endeavors to have the flax-seed as free from foreign substances as possible, for the reason that such foreign matter absorbs and holds oil, thereby reducing the amount available. Any serious adulterations of oil meal must therefore occur through the direct addition of foreign material to the meal after the oil has been extracted. Woll found no oil meals purposely adulterated, though he examined many samples. 204. Relative value of old- and new- process oil meal.— Woll, ? conducting artificial digestion trials with twelve samples of old- process and nine samples of new-process oil meal, found that 94.3 per cent. of the protein in old-process and 84.1 per cent. of pro- 1 Loe. cit. 2 Loe. cit. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 151 tein in the new-process meal were digestible. The lower digesti- bility of the new-process meal is doubtless due to the action of steam used in driving off the naphtha, as heat has been found to lower the digestibility of nitrogenous compounds in food sub- stances generally. Because of the more complete extraction of the oil, new-process meal contains more protein than does old-process. Because of the lower digestibility of new-process meal, a given weight of this feed contains somewhat less digestible protein than does old-process meal. Old-process meal is poorer in carbohy- drates but considerably richer in oil than new-process. At the Iowa Station,! Wilson and Reed, testing the relative merits of the two meals with fattening cattle, found that new-pro- cess gave equally as good returns as old-process meal when fed in connection with other fodders. 205. Value of oil in oil cake.— Russian flax-seed oil cake carries more oil than does American. To decide the merits of oil cake con- taining much or little oil, tests were conducted in England by Cooke? under direction of the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, with Sir John B. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker as counselors. Sixty Sheep were divided into two lots of thirty each; to the first lot was given cake containing six to seven per cent. oil, while the second lot received cake containing from fifteen to sixteen per cent. oil. The by-fodders were the same with both lots. Results of feeding linseed cake, low in oil and rich in oil, to sheep — Cooke, Norfolk, England. Low-oil cake. | High-oil cake. Feed consumed per week. inseed cake, MOUNGG)...11¢..+:50..00ss000. 4.8 Clover hay chaff, pounds....:.........0.0. 4.8 Swedes (turnips), pounds................. 87.8 Gain in weight. Per head during experiment, pounds 33.5 38. Increase per head, per week, pounds 2.1 1 Bul. 33. 2 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1889, 152 Feeds and Feeding. We observe that the cake rich in oil produced nearly five pounds more gain per head than cake low in oil. The sheep receiving the cake rich in oil brought a higher price per pound than the others. The conclusion was that, ‘‘ weight for weight, linseed oil to the extent of fifteen per cent. in a cake has a much higher feeding value than have the other constituents of a linseed cake which in the absence of the oil would replace it.’’ 206. Oil cake or oil meal as a feeding stuff.— There is no more healthful feed than oil meal or oil cake. Its general effect is to place the animal in fine condition, with a pliable skin, an oily, sleek coat and a good quality of flesh upon handling. No other farm feed has such a general beneficial effect on the digestive tract as has oil meal, and the feeder should always have a quantity on hand to deal out to his stock whenever judgment directs its use. A small quantity of oil meal may be fed to horses, but as it is fattening and does not make hard flesh, the allowance should always be limited. (472) It is with fattening steers and with sheep that oil meal shows at its best. For steers two or three pounds can be given daily in connection with other feeds. Larger amounts may be used if prices permit. Clay! reports starting yearling steers on grass with two or three pounds of oil meal daily in addition to oat bran. Gradually the amount of meal was increased, until in the fall twelve pounds of meal were fed daily to each steer with satisfactory returns. (545, 553) Voelcker,? conducting experiments with sheep at Woburn, England, writes: ‘‘ From these results it must be concluded that it is more profitable to feed sheep on linseed cake alone than on one-half linseed cake and half barley.’’ Owing to the price of oil meal, it should generally constitute not more than one-third of the grain ration, but to this limit it has a high value because of its helpful effect on the digestive tract, and in stimulating through its palatability a heavy consumption of the feeds with which it is mixed. For growing calves, oil meal is of great utility and has already come into general use with pro- gressive stockmen. 1 Live Stock Rept., Chicago, Jan. 20, 1893. 2 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1892. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 153 The effect of oil meal on the quality of milk and butter has been questioned, but if not over two or three pounds are fed daily per cow, no ill results but much good will follow its use. (646-7) A handful of oil meal at a feed will prove healthful to growing pigs, and advertise itself in their sleek coats and general healthy appearance. (892) The American farmer should give up the use of oil meal and adopt the practice of his English brother in feeding this valuable article in the nut form, which is more pala- table with cattle. 207. Castor-oil seed in linseed meal.— Fatalities are occasion- ally reported among cattle by English feeders through using oil meal containing the pomace or beans of the castor-oil plant, which deadly poison occasionally gets into the meal by accident, in warehouses or elsewhere. The presence of castor beans or pom- ace in the ration is shown by severe purging of the animal eating even avery small amount of it, followed occasionally by death. Leather! reports a method of detecting the castor bean or castor pomace in stock feeds, which though too complicated for the feeder is useful to the chemist. 208. Fertilizing constituents in linseed meals.— Linseed cake or meal is rich in the elements of fertility, especially nitrogen, and for this reason as well as its general good qualities and nutritive effect it is a favorite feeding stuff with the English stockman. The voidings of animals receiving this feed should be carefully saved, for in the fertility they contain rests quite a fraction of the first cost of this feed. 209. Home use of oil meal.— A large portion of the oil cake produced in this country from flax seed finds a market in Huro- pean countries. The quantity shipped abroad varies greatly from year to year, according to the relative prices ruling for feeding stuffs in European and American markets. Woll ? estimates that if half the oil cake manufactured in this country is shipped abroad, it means an annual loss of more than thirteen million pounds of nitrogen, four million pounds of phosphoric acid and three and a half million pounds of potash, representing an aggregate value, as 1 Analyst. Vol. 17; Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1892. 2 Rept. Wis. Sta., 1895. 154 Feeds and Feeding. commercial fertilizers, of over two million dollars. This loss of fertility to American farms is a serious matter, which can easily be prevented by feeding the oil cake at home. See Chap. XVI. 210. Cotton seed.! — The products of the cotton plant used as food for live stock are cotton seed, cotton-seed cake or meal, and cotton-seed hulls. The cotton crop of the United States amounts to over 9,000,000 bales annually on the average, yielding about 4,500,000 tons of cotton seed as a by-product, since for each pound of fiber the cot- ton plant produces about two pounds of seed. No one can acquaint himself with the great value of cotton seed and its by-products, and then consider this enormous annual output of seed, without becoming deeply impressed with the great possibilities for stock feeding at the South. Previous to 1860 almost all this vast sup- ply of stock feed was wasted by the Southern planter, who allowed the seed to rot back of the gin house in ignorance of its worth, while meat and other animal products were purchased at high cost from Northern farmers. The utilization of the cotton seed and its products as food for both man and beast is an excellent exam- ple of what science has accomplished for the advancement of agriculture. According to the report of the Tenth Census, one hundred pounds of cotton seed yields approximately: Pounds. Cotton-seed meal.........:.. 37.5 Cotton-seed oil............... 12.5 Cotton-seed hulls............ 48.9 Short lint from hulls...... iil 211. Feeding cotton seed.— Seed as left by the cotton-gin is now a common feed at the South for steers and dairy cows. It is usually supplied to cattle without treatment of any kind, though in some cases it is roasted, boiled or steamed before feeding. Trials at the Texas Station? by Gulley and Curtis show that seed at seven dollars per ton made cheaper though somewhat smaller gains than cotton-seed meal costing twenty dollars per 1 Much of the data here presented is from Bul. 33, The Cotton Plant, C ffice of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. Agr. 2 Buls. 6, 10. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 155 ton. Connell and Carson, of the same Station,! conclude that boiled or roasted cotton seed is more palatable, less laxative and produces more rapid gains than raw cotton seed, but that the latter makes the cheaper gain. They state that the advantages obtained from roasting the seed do not pay for the expense involved. At the Mississippi Station,? Lloyd, summarizing three years’ work, concludes that steamed cotton seed is better and cheaper for producing milk and butter than either raw seed or cotton- seed meal. Butter produced from cotton-seed meal cost twice as much as that produced from steamed or raw seed. The wise planter, knowing the value of whole cotton seed as a stock food, will not dispose of good seed to the oil mills at prices below its worth to him. 212. Cotton-seed cake and meal.— At the oil mills the envelope of the cotton seed is cut by machinery in such a way that the oily kernels are freed from it. These seed-envelopes are known as cotton-seed hulls; they are dry, leathery and covered with lint. The oily kernels, separated from the hulls, are crushed, heated, placed between cloths or sacks and subjected to hydraulic pres- sure to remove the oil. The residue is a yellowish board-like cake about one inch thick, one foot wide and two feet in length. In this form it is shipped abroad as cotton-oil cake. For home use the cake is reduced to meal by grinding, and transported in sacks the same as linseed meal. 213. Cotton-seed meal for horses.— Gebek? reports draft horses doing well on a ration containing two pounds of cotton-seed meal. The use of cotton seed-meal for horses will be greatly extended at the South if experiments reveal equally good results. 214. Feeding steers cotton-seed meal and hulls.— The practice of fattening steers exclusively on cotton-seed hulls and cotton-seed meal was begun in the South about 1883. The business has so grown that it is estimated that 400,000 cattle were fattened at the oil mills of the South for the season of 1893-94, besides large numbers of sheep. In these establishments the ration for steers at Pale Di 2 Bul. 21. 3 Landw. Vers. Sta., 42, p. 294. 156 Feeds and Feeding. first consists of three or four pounds of cotton-seed meal, which is gradually increased to six, eight or even ten pounds per head daily, with all the hulls the steers will eat additional, which amounts to about four pounds of hulls for each pound of meal. The feeding period lasts from ninety to one hundred and twenty days. (558-560) In reply to an inquiry from the writer, Swift & Co. (Packers, Chicago) state that cotton-seed meal makes a good quality of beef. They express the opinion that a still better quality is produced where the meal is fed in connection with other concentrates. 215. Effects of cotton seed on steer fat.—At the Texas Sta- tion,! Harrington and Adriance found the kidney, caul and body fats of steers fed raw, roasted or boiled cotton seed to have melt- ing points of 4.1,° 3.2° and 8.7° C. higher than the correspond- ing fats of corn-fed steers. The influence on tallow was somewhat less than that produced with butter; while on mutton suet it was marked as with butter. Butterine from beef tallow of steers fed cotton-seed by-products might give Becchi’s test, thus confusing ordinary chemical tests for pure butter. 216. Cotton-seed meal for dairy cows.— At the Maine Station, ? Jordan found that the substitution of cotton-seed meal for an equal quantity of corn meal increased the production of milk and butter to a profitable extent. At the Pennsylvania Station, * Hunt fed six pounds of cotton-seed meal per day to cows without apparent injury to health, and by substituting equal weights of cotton-seed meal for wheat bran increased the milk yield one-fifth. In general, feeding cotton-seed meal to dairy cows has proved satisfactory when the allowance has not exceeded five or six pounds daily for short periods, and three or four pounds for long periods. (637, 644, 646, 723) 217. Effects of cotton seed on the quality of butter.— At the Texas Station, * Harrington and Curtis, experimenting with cot- ton-seed and its by-products with dairy cows, conclude that these feeds materially raise the melting point of butter and lower its 3 Bul. 17. ¢ Agricultural Science, ITT, p. 79; Rept. 1889; Buls. 11, 29. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 157 volatile fatty acids; that when cotton seed is fed alone or forms a large part of the ration, a light-colored butter of inferior quality results. Butter produced from the heavy feeding of cotton seed showed poor flavor and had the appearance of being overworked. Fed in reasonable amount, cotton seed and its by-products pro- duce satisfactory butter, which is firmer and will stand shipment better in warm climates than where no seed is fed. Harrington’s results were corroborated by Wiley, ! and Lupton and Anderson. * The results of recent experiments at the Iowa Station * go in the opposite direction. The preponderance of evidence at hand shows, however, that cotton-seed meal hardens butter, gives it a tallowy consistency and makes it deficient in natural color. 218. Cotton-seed meal for calves and pigs.— At the North Carolina Station, + two calves getting from one to six ounces of cotton-seed meal daily, died after one month’s feeding. Other instances of the same kind are reported. The use of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal for swine has been extensively investigated at the Texas Station > by Curtis. As a check in his experiments one lot of pigs was fed corn in each trial, and these pigs always made excellent gains, with no deaths, thereby showing that normal conditions generally prevailed. On the other hand, many pigs fed cotton seed or cotton-seed meal sick- ened and died in from six to eight weeks after feeding began. The mortality of the pigs receiving cotton-seed meal was 87 per cent. ; when roasted seed was fed it was 75 per cent., and for boiled seed, 25 per cent. In these experiments no trouble occurred until sev- eral weeks after feeding commenced, and it was observed that pigs escaping sickness and death for thirty days beyond the time when the trouble usually began were safe from attack, though they were permanently stunted in growth. Asa result of his studies Curtis concludes: ‘‘ There is no profit whatever in feeding cotton seed in any form, or cotton-seed meal, to hogs of any age.”’ 219. Cotton-seed poisoning.— According to Curtis, ‘‘the first sign of sickness appears in from six to eight weeks after cotton- 1 Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Science, 1889, p. 84. 2 Bul. 25, Ala. Sta. 3 Bul. 32. 4 Bul. 109. 5 Bul. 21. 158 Feeds and Feeding. seed meal is added to the ration. It is shown by a moping dull- ness of the animal, with loss of appetite and tendency to lie apart. . . . . The fatal cases all show spasmodic breathing, and in many instances the animal will turn in one direction only. When exhausted by his efforts the animal drops dete suddenly, sometimes flat upon the belly, sometimes on its haunches, with his fore legs well apart to keep from falling over, almost always with evidence of more or less acute internal pain. At death a quantity of bloody foam exudes from mouth and nostrils.”’ Cornevin! fed two three-months old pigs 4.3 and 6.6 pounds, respectively, of brownish-yellow Egyptian cotton-seed meal, with fatal effect. A dog weighing fifty-three pounds was killed by subcutaneous injections of a watery extract from 1.7 pounds of seed. In all cases examination showed the digestive tract of the animals to be highly inflamed. The oil pressed from the seed had no poisonous properties. All efforts to determine the poisonous principle in the cotton seed — if there really be one — have thus far proved futile, and the matter is still a mystery. The ill effects have been ascribed to the lint of the seed, to the leathery seed coats causing injury to the delicate lining of the digestive tract, to moulds, to changes in the composition of the meal when exposed to the air, and to some definite poisonous principle in the seed itself, as in the ease of the castor-oil bean. 220. The rational use of cotton seed and cotton It may be stated in general terms that when cotton seed or its by- products are fed in reasonable quantity with a proper complement of other feeding stuffs, satisfactory results are secured with all farm animals except calves and swine. Wet or mouldy cotton seed, or that which has heated, should not be fed. Good cotton-seed meal has a bright yellow color and a fresh, pleasant taste. Meal of a dull red color, due to exposure to the air, that from musty seed as well as that which has fer- mented, should not be used for feeding purposes. 221. Cotton-seed hulls.— Until recently cotton-seed hulls were regarded as of no value except for fuel at the mills. It was soon 1 Ann. Agron. 1896; Milch Zeit. 1897, p. 342. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 159 found, however, that cattle would eat them freely, and they have come into extensive use for steer and cow feeding, having a market value of from two to four dollars per ton. Cotton-seed hulls, as shown by the table, contain less digestible nutrients than oat straw, but since they are a by-product which would otherwise be wasted, they are of considerable advantage to feeders in proximity to the mills. Where broken kernels of the cotton seed adhere to the hulls, their feeding value is considerably increased. 222. Fertility in cotton seed.—So rich is cotton-seed meal in fertilizing elements that no small part of it goes at once from the oil mills to fertilizer works, there to be mixed with other sub- stances, and to be sold back to planters as a fertilizer. In the lint, which is the one object sought in cotton growing, there is but a trace of nitrogen and mineral matter, while the seed is rich in these elements of fertility. In the 4,500,000 tons of seed which must be grown each year in producing the cotton crop of the South, the amount of fertility taken from the land is almost beyond comprehension. In this continuous drain of fertility by cotton growing we have a partial explanation of the present poverty of the soils in many of the cotton districts. If the cotton grower will adopt mixed farming and feed cotton seed and cotton-seed meal to his stock, returning the manure to the land, two values will be received from the crop, and a rational agricult- ural practice inaugurated, which is sorely needed in a region where nature has done so much and man so little to place agricult- ure upon a substantial basis. 223. Cocoanut meal.— The residue in the manufacture of cocoa- nut oil is known as cocoanut or cocoa meal. It is used quite exten- sively by dairymen in the vicinity of San Francisco. Cocoanut meal has the reputation of producing fine butter of considerable firmness and is therefore recommended for summer feeding to dairy cows. It may be used with advantage for swine and sheep, serving also as a partial substitute for oats with working horses. (474) 224. Palmnut meal.— This residue in the manufacture of palm oil has been extensively used in Europe as a stock food. It has good keeping qualities, is appetizing and easily digested. The 160 Feeds and Feeding. oil palm is cultivated in Africa, South America and the West Indies, from which countries the meal is largely shipped to Europe. Palmnut meal is highly prized as a food for dairy cows. 225. Peanut meal.— The by-product in the manufacture of oil from the peanut or earth-nut is used in various European countries for stock feeding. Peanut meal is one of the richest known foods in the amount of protein it yields. Voelcker ! states that peanut cake proved on trial to be a useful feeding material for cattle, having a value about equal to beans. (892) 226. Sunflower seed cake.— The sunflower is grown in Russia on a commercial scale, one variety with small seeds producing an oil which serves as a substitute for other vegetable oils. The large seeds of another variety are consumed as a dainty by the people. The average of five experiments conducted by the North Caro- lina Station? in as many parts of the state showed a yield of sixty-five bushels of sunflower seed per acre. Mammoth Russian sunflower seed weighed 26.7 pounds per bushel, with 21.5 per cent. oil; Black Giant seed weighed 32 pounds per bushel, with 20.8 per cent. oil. Bartlett, of the Maine Station,? concludes that, ‘‘ With the same cultivation, corn produces a third more protein and twice as much carbohydrates as sunflower heads.’’ 227. Fertilizing constituents.—In general all the oil-bearing seeds are rich in fertilizing constituents, especially nitrogen. The extraction of the oil removes none of the fertilizing value, but concentrates it in the residue. The stockman who is interested in the fertility of his land as well as the nourishment of his stock should never forget these facts when considering the purchase of various feeding stuffs. 1 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc., 1893. 2 Bul. 90 b. 3? Rept. 1895. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 161 V. Leguminous Seeds. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. Digestible nutrients ||Fertilizing constitu- Dry in 100 pounds. ents in 1,000 pounds. matter a SE EEE OTC ES in 100 Pro- | Carbo-| Ether || nitro. | Phos- 4 ounds. F hy- ex- phorie| ~~ , tein. |drates.| tract. gen. | ‘acid. Piatt Lbs. |} Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. |} Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. JERS tte ok oe Ee Oe en aD 89.5 || 16.8 | 5158 | 0.7 || 30.8 | 8.2 | 9.9 Soja (soy) bean................. 89-2) NW, SOG Ors W441i 5350) 1857 1929 | O50) 27 Re ae Pe 85. 27 1853) oa alieel an betas | eese eee ememer IFTOTSe POCA. sce seh eces sence oes Soe Te | 2204" | A983 Le 4057 |), 1250) 1229 228. The field pea. Canada for stock feeding, succeeding also along the northern rim of the corn belt and still farther north, where in some measure it takes the place of corn for feeding purposes. The richness of the pea in protein marks it as particularly useful with growing ani- mals, dairy cows and pigs. A part of the protein in peas as well as in other leguminous seeds is identical in composition with the casein of milk, and is termed ‘‘ vegetable’? casein. This has led some writers to affirm that meals from these seeds are useful in mixtures for calf feeding. Pea meal is sodden in character and too heavy to be fed as the only grain allowance. It should be lightened or extended by mixing with it bran, ground oats or corn The field pea is extensively grown in meal. Peas may be harvested while still green by turning pigs into the pea field as soon as the seeds are well formed. Under this sys- tem the animals harvest the crop without labor to the stockman, and, receiving that sort of food which forms bone and muscle, they are prepared for final fattening on corn or other dry food. Peas are often sown with oats, the latter plants forming support for the weak vines. (fl, 31f, 860) 229. Soja (soy) bean.— This Japanese plant flourishes in the Southern states and as far north as Kansas. In Japan it serves for human food, but in this country it is used only by stock- men. Like all leguminous seeds, the soja bean is rich in pro- tein, standing perhaps at the head of the list; unlike many in its class, it is also rich in oil. Because the seeds must be 11 162 Feeds and Feeding. gathered by hand, the plant has generally been used only for forage. At the Kansas Station! this plant gave yields ranging from 12.5 to 19 bushels of beans per acre. At the Massachusetts Station? a comparative test of soja-bean meal with cotton-seed meal terminated in favor of the former for milk and butter pro- duction. (310) See Farmers’ Bul. 58, Office of Experiment Sta- tions, Dept. Agr., Washington. 230. Cowpea.— This plant now holds an important place with Southern stockmen because of its rapid growth and the large amount of forage it yields. The earlier varieties will make a satisfactory growth as far north as Wisconsin, though all the seeds will not ripen before frost. As with the soja bean, the seeds which ripen first must be gathered by hand. For this reason the crop is usually cut for hay or silage. At the Alabama Station, ? Duggar fed cowpeas to fattening pigs with excellent returns. More lean meat was found in the bodies - of pigs fed cowpeas than those fed corn meal only. (109, 863) At the Texas Station,* the cowpea gave yields ranging from eight to thirty-five bushels per acre. These findings point to the value of the plant for producing concentrated feed. (309) 231. Horse bean.—This legume is used in England for feeding stock, especially horses. The horse bean grows fairly well in some parts of Canada, but has never proved a success in the United States. 232. The common field bean.— Many varieties of the common field bean are grown in this country for human food. , In bean- growing districts, cull beans are purchasable in large quantities, usually at low prices, and should be used by stockmen, since they are then a cheap feed. Sheep are fond of beans administered in araw state. For other animals they should be cooked. Since they are rich in protein, corn meal is a natural addition to the porridge. 233. Fertilizing constituents.— All leguminous seeds are rich in nitrogen with from fair to rather high mineral content. The soja bean is of particular value in the nitrogen and ash it carries. 1 Bull.82: 2 Rept. 1893. 3 Bul. 82. 4 Bul. 34. CHAPTER X. INDIAN CORN AS A FORAGE PLANT. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. Digestible nutrients || Fertilizing constitu- in 100 pounds. ents in 1,000 pounds. Name of feed. Dry i, matter.|| Pro- ene Babee Nitro- Eee Pot- tein. |4 27, ox gen. || PAOMC lash. drates.| tract. acid. Green fodder corn (aver- sls: | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. |} Libs. | Lbs. | Lbs. age, all varieties) ........... 20.7 120s OI Gr | O24 AL) eon ens Fodder corn, field-cured....| 57.8 2.0 | 34.6 | 1.2 |) 17.6 | 5.4] 8.9 Corn stover, field-cured.....; 59.5 1.7 | 32.4 | 0.7 || 10.4] 2.9 |14.0 234. Concerning Indian cora.— Indian corn (maize) is the im- perial agricultural plant of America. This giant annual grass reaches a height of from seven to fifteen feet in four or five months’ growth, producing under favorable conditions from 30,000 to 50,000 pounds of green forage per acre, of which from 5,000 to 9,000 pounds are dry matter. If grown ina dense mass but little seed forms, and we have a rank grass which cures into a bright, nutritious coarse hay. If the plants are grown at some distance one from another, a large yield of grain results, with excellent forage as a secondary product. Were a reliable seedsman to advertise Indian corn by a new name, recounting only its actual merits while ingeniously conceal- ing its identity, his words would either be discredited or he would have an unlimited number of purchasers for this seed-novelty at almost any figure he might name. The possibilities of American stock farms in the live stock they may carry and the animal prod- ucts they may turn off is measured only by the quantity of corn and clover which the land will produce, and this, under good management, seems almost unlimited. 235. Definitions.— To avoid confusion the term ‘‘ fodder corn’”’ or ‘‘corn fodder,’’ used in this book, is applied to stalks of corn, 164 Feeds and Feeding. either green or dry, which are grown for forage and from which the ears or ‘‘nubbins,’’ if they carry any, have not been removed. ‘‘Stover’’ applies to the dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been removed. Fodder corn or corn fodder, then, is the corn plant, either fresh or cured, with or without ears, which has been grown for forage; stover is shock corn minus the ears. 236. Thickness of planting and nutrients.— At the Illinois Sta- tion! Morrow and Hunt, studying the results of thick and thin seeding on the yield of nutrients, reached conclusions at the end of three years’ study which are summarized in the table below. In these trials dent corn was planted in varying rates, from one kernel every three inches to one every twenty-four inches, the corn rows being three feet eight inches apart. Results of planting corn kernels various distances apart in rows, aver- age of three years’ trials — Illinois Station. é i oe Digestible sub- < *knes lanting. Yield. Sry a x Sto- Thickness of planting stance per acre. | Sto- | yer = = ver for 4s Cernels : per ; Distance between yee Good | Poor | Sto- Grain|Total.| acre: in oh exe x Ss . J Fe 2 rs. rE rs. y Ps na ce . . kernels in row acre, | CaS: | ear ver corn. Bu. | Bu. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. |Tons. | Lbs.. Bamehes:..t:ss-0- 47,520 | 13 | 46 | 8,968] 2,250] 6,218] 4.8] 3.6 Gunches.di:6.0:5¢. 23,760 | 37 | 39 | 3,058] 2,922| 5,980| 3.7] 1.9: 9) imches)..o..5.5..55, 15,840 | 55 | 22 | 2.562] 2.977| 5,589] 3.1] 1.5 12 inches.............. 11,880} 73 | 16 | 2,480] 3,113] 5,593] 3.0] 1.3 15. AMCHES...22/.50.-<0. 9,504 | 63 | 11 | 2,398] 2,782| 5,180| 2.9] 1.4 24 InCheS.......00.000: 5,940 | 49 6 | 2,066] 2,141] 4,207] 2.5] 1.5 i We observe that with the kernels three inches apart in the row, or 47,000 per acre, there were thirteen bushels of sound ears and forty-six bushels of poor ears or nubbins per acre. Poor as are these returns from the standpoint of grain produc- tion, we gather the interesting and exceedingly important fact that with thick planting there were the largest returns in total digestible nutrients per acre. Over 6,000 pounds of digestible dry matter were secured in nearly five tons of stover and corn harvested. With this thickness of seeding there were 3.6 pounds. of stover for each pound of grain. The largest yield of sound tee los Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 165 ear corn was returned from planting the kernels twelve inches apart in the row, or about 12,000 per acre, from which the returns were seventy-three bushels of sound ears and sixteen bushels of poor ears per acre, with only about 600 pounds less digestible matter than was returned from planting the kernels four times as thick. Morrow holds that, for Illinois conditions, 10,000 good stalks of corn per acre (secured by planting about 12,000 kernels) give the best returns in grain. The lesson from the above table is confirmed by the work of other Stations, and teaches that when the stockman is seeking the greatest amount of nutrients possible from the corn crop he will plant the seed so thickly as to choke the ears to about half their natural size. If, on the other hand, his aim is to produce grain, with stover secondary, then he will plant the seed grains at such distances one from another as will allow each individual plant to produce one or more full-sized ears of corn. No rule can be given which is applicable in all cases for guidance as to the amount of seed corn to be planted per acre. ‘This varies greatly and is determined by local condi- tions. One must know quite accurately the capacity of his land for this crop and seed accordingly, bearing in mind, as shown above, that thick seeding gives the most total nutrients, while medium seeding gives the most sound grain. 237. Increase of nutrients during maturity.x— At the New York (Geneva) Station! Ladd conducted investigations in relation to the storage of nutrients by the growing corn plant, and has arranged his data in excellent form for study. His findings are substantiated by results in the same line obtained at several other Stations. The great importance of the subject is sufficieut excuse for the space here occupied. The stockman should know what the corn plants in nis field are doing in the way of gathering food between early growth and maturity. He should have a keen appreciation of this wonderful process of food-gathering, and as full knowledge as possible of when and under what conditions the maximum results are obtained by the plant. Ladd’s study of the corn plant extends from the time it was tasseled until the kernels were 1 Rept. 1889. 166 Feeds and Feeding. ripe. To the novice, when a field of corn is fully tasseled, it has about completed its growth, but the following table shows in a most effective manner that great changes are still going on within the stalks and that the storage of nutrients has only fairly begun: Water and dry matter in corn crop at different periods after tasseling — New York (Geneva) Station. Dr Corn | Water y Patect Stage of growth. per per eae g. acre acre acs July 'S0,..:) Bully tasseled 22% 2iece. cose csencss covenoes 9.0 8.2 8 AM Ove se|| MULL Y, CERO. 4iio0 i sclosoonaee oc scnantedeodtese 12.9 11.3 1.5 Aug. 21....| Kernels watery to full milk........... 16.3 14.0 2.3 BSepte 725.3) kernels ola zing ii..dc ic veensetesieces sence Ga 12.5 3.6 RSC bse eal CECUDON, cacunarsdasms svedeeonecneseecste: seerEees 14.2 10.3 4.0 The table shows that an acre of corn when fully tasseled weighed nine tons, more than eight of which were water. The water in the corn continued to increase in total amount until August 21, at which time the kernels had reached the full milk stage, after which it decreased. The total dry matter increased from the beginning. Between the milk and glazing stages there was the remarkable increase of over a ton of dry matter per acre of crop in seventeen days. From glazing to full ripeness there was a further increase of dry matter, though it was small. 238. Nutrients at different stages.— Ladd found the percent- age of nutrients in the crop at different periods to be as given below: Percentage of nutrients in the dry matter of ripening corn — New York (Geneva) Station. July 30.| Aug. 9. | Aug. 21] Sept. 7.| Sept. 28 INS ea eee cue teaacbedeacesceastion’ ‘8.6 6.5 5.0 4.2 4.6 YN oyrinaubovos(s Rec esacaonceeeeaderece 14.8 14.2 10.3 8.9 8.6 Orde nibeniciccsesce co ccsccsscstcces 81.8 98.4 iD) 24.4 21.9 Nitrogen-free extract ............ 40.4 45.5 52.6 58.9 61.0 SCH OINGXUTA CL ecsccuceesecees soccer 4.5 5.0 4.9 oO 4.0 Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 167 In studying the foregoing table the reader should bear in mind the great increase in dry matter which occurs as the plant ripens. 239. Total nutrients of the corn crop.— The preceding table would be misleading were it not followed by another showing the total nutrients in the crop at different periods of maturity: Water and nutrients in an acre of corn at different stages of matu- rity — New York (Geneva) Station. Tas- : : Ripe Silked, | Milk, | Glazed,| <2P© Per acre. July 30, Aug. 9, Aug. 21, Sept. 7. Sa Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Wield ee esse Ae whol L. 18,045 .0/25, 745 ..0/32, 600. 0/32, 295 0/28, 460.0 Nia 2 aes aa 6 ee el Re 16, 426 .0|22, 666 .0|27, 957 .0/25,093 .0/20,542.0 PIBye MAGEE sc nolo! chose. Seacesbhees. 1,619.0) 3,078.0] 4,643.0] 7,202.0] 7,918.0 Vo ON SG a ee 138.9] 201.3) 232.2) 302.5] 364.2 AlipuMINOIGS be..02..c0cd..ebede.-s. 239.8] 436.8] 478.7| 643.9] 677.8 Ciradias filer: 05.00.05. cascades. 514.2} 872.9] 1,262.0] 1,755.9] 1,734.0 Nitrogen-free extract ............ 653.9| 1,399.3] 2,441.3] 4,239.8] 4,827.6 Wen GXtPACb....is..c.cccsnc.co0s. 72.2) 167.8] ° 228.9] 260.0] 314.3 From the above we learn that the crop increased about 10,000 pounds in weight between tasseling and maturing. Of this increase about 4,000 pounds were water, the remainder being dry matter. The dry matter in the crop, which amounted to only 1,600 pounds at tasseling time, increased to 7,900 pounds when the corn was ripe. The analyses show that between the milk and the glazing stages and on to the final period of ripening there is a constant and remarkable increase in the nutrients stored by this plant. 240. Changes in protein.— Ladd also made a study of the albu- minoid and amide nitrogen in the crop with the following results: Albuminoid and amide nitrogen of the ripening corn crop — New York (Geneva) Station. Albu- Aree Total teat Amide Date. Stage of maturity. nitrogen. be canes nitrogen. gen. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. July 30:-:... PHSSLGUe rnecssrevasesssss0eoceceaee 388.4 27.4 11.0 gap Os 2c. Bilked)-.<24...- steconceceeeosnseeee 69.9 44.6 25.2 RUC eZee. Kemelsyin mule... csc. 77.6 66.4 ies Sepie 37. fcc: Worn glazed... 0.53 ...025 svaccedes 103.0 78.5 24.5 Sept. 23...... SGMTMETIDG tnavecesseore Armsby, studying this plant for soiling purposes, con- cludes that it has no special value for that state. Amber-cane sorghum gave a yield of but little over ten tons of green forage per acre, while dent corn under similar conditions returned from ten to fifteen tons. In the semi-arid region of the Southwest, sorghum grows with great vigor, withstanding drought and drying winds remarkably well. Because of these characteristics and the abundant nutriment contained in stems, leaves and seed heads, the sorghum plant is destined to occupy a prominent place in the 1 Bul. 19. 2 Bul. 22. 3 Bul. 20. 4 Farmers’ Bul. 18, U. S. Dept. Agr. ® Rept. 1889. 190 Feeds and Feeding. agriculture of this district, furnishing green forage to stock dur- ing shortage of pastures in summer and fall, and the best of dry fodder in winter. (194) 275. Dangers from second-growth sorghum.— The agricultural press reports cattle dying suddenly after eating very small quanti- ties of second-growth sorghum. Coburn! quotes: Pritchard, the Kansas state veterinarian, as saying: ‘‘Second-growth sorghum under certain conditions is very destructive indeed to cattle, small quantities killing them almost instantly. . . Just what this destructive agent is I am unable to say.’’ Inthe same report ref- erence is made to Kaffir corn causing the same trouble. Tracy? reports that second-growth ‘‘ chicken corn,”’ a variety of sorghum found in the Gulf states, when eaten by cattle, sometimes pro- duces fatal results within a few minutes. Hesays: ‘‘It seems to affect only certain animals, or perhaps only certain plants produce the ill effects, as generally only a few animals in a herd are killed, and these are commonly found near together.’? No one knows why second-growth sorghum should cause trouble in the way noted, and no remedy is known. Prevention is the only means at hand. 276. Sorghum hay.— In the semi-arid region of the Southwest, the sorghum plant possesses many advantages for producing a coarse hay of high feeding value. In parts of Kansas and Texas, stockmen plant the seed by means of grain drills; at other times it is sown broadcast. Sorghum may also be planted in wide drills and cultivated like corn. This giant grass, when sown broadcast, is cut with a mower, and after partially drying is gathered into windrows, and finally into bunches of considerable size, where it remains until required for feeding, or the bunches are gathered into stacks. When planted in drills, sorghum should be harvested in shocks, as is common with Indian corn. The stems of the saccharine sorghums are rich in sugar and are eagerly consumed by farm stock in winter. The leaves of all varieties of sorghum forma bright, palatable, nutritious hay, free from dust and very useful 1 Rept. Kan. Bd. Agr., Sept. 1894. 2 Bul. 20, Miss. Expt. Sta. The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 191 for feeding horses especially, also for sheep and cattle. The sor- ghum plant may be successfully used for silage. 277. The cereals as forage plants.— Wheat, oats, barley and rye plants may serve for pasture and hay production in many cases with profit. These grasses, for such they are, may be sown at almost any time during the growing season, and will soon cover the ground with a carpet of green, affording much nutritious pasture, where otherwise nothing of value would be produced. Rye sown in August will furnish pasture, three or four weeks later, that will continue useful until winter sets in, and is again available as soon as vegetation starts in the spring. Stewart} states that fifty sheep may be continuously pastured in summer upon six acres of land sown to rye the previous fall, if, in addi- tion to the pasture, they are fed a little linseed meal and corn. Green rye, when used for soiling or pasturing cows, has the reputation of imparting a bad flavor to milk. This trouble can usually be averted by turning the cows to pasture, immediately after milking, for two or three hours, after which time other feed should be given. Barley furnishes an excellent pasture in a short time after seeding, and yields liberally of green forage. Sown in fields from which a grain crop has been harvested, barley will grow two or three feet in height and may even head out before heavy fall frosts. At the Alabama (Canebrake) Station? a field seeded in the fall with barley yielded 23,100 pounds of green forage by the following March. Winter wheat can likewise be used for pasture and yields a nutritious herbage suitable for soiling. In southern Kansas winter wheat pastured by cows in mild weather is said to impart a grass flavor to what otherwise would grade as winter butter. 278. Oats or barley and peas.— The value of oats and peas and barley and peas for forage crops has been tested by Roberts and Clinton at the Cornell Station. They write: ‘‘ Ranking next to corn as a forage crop and a close second, comes oats and peas. In the two years in which we have been conducting experi- 1 “Feeding Animals.” 2 Bul. 9. 3 Bul. 135. 192 Feeds and Feeding. ments in the production of forage this combination has proven itself well worthy of a place on every farm where stock is kept. It is valuable either for pasture, for cutting as a soiling crop, or when allowed to mature it may be cured for hay, making a most valuable article. When planted in succession of about two weeks, the first planting being as early in the spring as conditions will permit, a succession of highly nutritious forage is produced which is greatly relished by stock. If a more general use was made of oats and peas for summer feeding it would greatly decrease the expense of the production of milk and the cost of maintaining cattle and economize land very materially. A highly nutritious forage would be obtained, rich in protein and furnishing nearly a balanced ration for milch cows. A large amount can be produced per acre and it may be grown from early spring to late fall. A slight freeze does not affect it, and it may be sown in the spring before frosts are over, and the late forage frequently remains in good condition until December. The oats and peas at this Station sown August 1, 1896, were in good condition for feeding until a severe freeze on the night of December 2 cut them down. For late forage, however, barley and peas are recommended instead of oats and peas. For sowing any time after July 1st, substitute barley for oats. The reason for this is that in late summer barley makes more rapid growth, is less likely to attacks of rust and other fungous diseases than are oats.”’ 279. The smali grains as hay crops. Wheat, oats and barley, used as grasses, are capable of producing excellent hay if har- vested at the proper time. Barley constitutes the common hay crop of the Pacific Slope outside the alfalfa region, and there is no reason why this plant, as well as oats and wheat, should not be employed as a hay producer in other portions of the country. If the meadows fail to yield the usual supply of hay, the loss can be made good by having recourse to small grain grown as a substi- tute. When used for hay production, grasses from the cereal grains should be cut when the seed is in the early milk stage, at which time the stems and leaves may be easily cured into bright, dust-free hay of a quality well suited for feeding horses or dairy cows. The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 193 Crops of the cereals which have made too heavy a growth of straw because of wet weather usually lodge badly, and when this occurs the yield of grain is unsatisfactory. Such overgrown grain can be converted into hay with more profit than would result from a light crop of poor grain, which costs much to harvest. 280. Straw.— While primarily used for bedding purposes, the softer kinds, especially oat and barley straw, are serviceable for feeding purposes. In Canada and England chaffed straw is com- monly mixed with pulped roots and the mass allowed to soften and even ferment slightly; thus prepared, cattle readily consume large quantities with satisfactory returns. Oat straw, because of its nutrients and its-soft, pliable stems, leads for feeding purposes, with barley following. Wheat straw, being coarse and stiff, is not as satisfactory, though some will be eaten by cattle. Rye straw is woody, harsh and should be used for bedding purposes. 281. Chaff.— Wheat and oat chaff contain more protein than straw, and because of their fineness and softness they are useful in feeding stock. Often with chaff there are found light and broken kernels which have escaped the threshers; by these the value of chaff, so called, is materially increased. 282. Flax straw.— Where flax is grown for the seed, the straw or haulm is generally wasted. Stockmen who have fed flax straw to horses and cattle report satisfactory results from its use. Tre- quently some flax seed is left in the straw, which increases its value. There seems no foundation for the statement that the fiber of flax straw forms balls of indigestible matter in the stomachs of farm animals. It is no doubt digested the same as other fibrous matter — the lint of cotton, for example. Some flax straw may always be fed, and during times of scarcity it will prove a boon to the stockman who overcomes his prejudice and supplies it freely to his hungry animals. 283. Ergot.— At times the grains of the rye plant and seeds of the grasses are attacked by a fungus called ergot which causes them to become several times their normal size. Ergot grains are usually spur-like in form, quite rigid, and nearly black in color. Being quite large on rye, ergot grains may be detected when the observer is some distance away. On the heads of the 13 194 Feeds and Feeding. smaller grasses they can only be found by close inspection, but this is not difficult when one is familiar with their appearance. When eaten by animals ergot may produce convulsions, paralysis of the hind limbs, slowness of heart action and death by exhaus- tion. With pregnant animals in an advanced period of gestation it may produce abortion. Epidemics of abortion in cows have been traced to this cause, and veterinary surgeons employ ergot to expedite languid labor. Ergotism shows itself most commonly in deranged nutrition; the limbs of the animal affected turn black and shrivel, dying as though attacked by dry gangrene. } There have been several serious outbreaks of this disease in the last form noted in different parts of the United States, gener- ally in the Western states. Much needless excitement has been caused in some instances through reports current in the press that the ailment was the dreaded contagious ‘‘ foot-and-mouth” dis- ease. Only cattle have so far been attacked. Horses, it is said, reject hay containing ergot. The observant stockman can usually forestall all trouble from ergot by examining the grass heads in the meadows and pastures immediately before haying and avoiding grass carrying the fungus. A little study will enable one to detect ergot grains even on grasses as fine and small as blue grass and redtop, while they are seen without difficulty on heads of timothy and wild rye. Ergot poisoning generally makes its appearance in late winter or early spring with cattle in poor condition that are subsisting wholly or largely upon hay. It announces its presence by a dis- eased condition of the limbs, the extremities of which are cold and almost lifeless. The trouble may continue until the hoofs slough off with dry gangrene. Cattle that are aifected should have their feed changed at once to remove the cause of the trouble; they should be warmly housed and given a variety of nourish- ing feed. Stalker 2 affirms that cattle fed corn are never poisoned by ergot,— probably because this feed is nourishing and furnishes an abundance of heat to the body. (177) 1}or account of ergot and ergotism see article Ergota, National Dis- ensatory; also Special Report on Diseases of Cattle and Cattle Feeding, feport Bureau Animal Industry, 1895-6. U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington. 2 Bul. 17, Lowa Sta. CHAPTER XII. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR GREEN FORAGE AND HAY. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. | Digestible nutrients ||Fertilizing constitu- Dry in 100 pounds. ents in 1,000 pounds. Bie Ch ieed 100 eras Carbo-| Ether || hitro- Phos | Pot- - = X- or pounds Niels arates. | igaed. eon eid. | ash. Green forage. Lbs. || Lbs. | Lbs. } Lbs. |} Lbs. | Lbs. |Lbs. Red clover at different SUMP Stee se cee ee cence tc ens 292 DO ee Se |r 5.3 1.3 | 4:6 FAUSIKe a1 OOMIRe..sscecsesscsess 25 2 allel spel 0.6 Ate Wate ah 0) AOTIMSOMECLOVEL acesecceese eee: 19.1 Pie balla TL 0.5 4.3 1.3) 4.9 PANIIT SAS freee Ss oeeess osec saceiecouees 28.2 3.9) peel ORS eau ols atone WOW DORE es ore ron seccescstnosesiace 16.4 18s |e Cranln Oe 2 IOn eon OH WERE... oes ocscscacocessscc. 24.9" || “S20 Sa On Ofer | 2.98 Esc ove Hay and straw. Red clover, medium ......... 84.7 6.8) 30.8 | 137 || 20:7 | 3.8 122.0 Red clover, mammoth...... 78.8 D. (elo2sOn es LOnIE 2223" eo, on ilae2 PANI SUK EN CLOVENE ceccsesccen scones 90.3 8.4 | 42.5 NN eebie Aaa | eal aero WVihiberClOWeIe-setetse sce ecaten: 9023 )||| 1S eae eS ledon |imore Ween Crimson ClOVET ssi. scccess cco 90.4 || 10.5 | 34.9 2085 4.0 |138.1 PAUP eA meet Ee eoaiionataethclrent S165 AROS RS ORGa ely Zee On mess ll Ges COMMER est snensesecscuecostiee 89.3 || 10.8 | 38.6 TW LOR Salome Ay Soja-bean straw..............+. 89.9 ed ||P 2OUON| Se) || 175) |) 4.0) 3 2 IPGA=VANE: SULA Weeessseces.scceese 86.4 Axon |ozieo: O-8 |) 14:3 | 3.0 [10.2 | 284. Concerning legumes.— The prominent characteristic of the true grasses, including the corn plant, is their large content of carbohydrates with a meager amount of protein; in the legumes we have a relatively large proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fat. Each of these great groups of agricultural plants, then, presents to the feeder what the other lacks, and so are comple- mentary to each other. The highest use of the corn plant is bearing grain, with a large secondary place in supplying forage. In the legumes we have for the most part forage plants only, the seeds being generally too small to be useful for food, though beans and peas are an excep- tion. Another marked difference between the legumes and the grasses, including the cereals, is their after or residual effect upon 196 Feeds and Feeding. the soil. When the latter have been grown for a period upon a tract they have exhausted its fertility in some measure. Where clover is grown, although much fertility is removed with the crop, the land still seems in excellent heart for other crops which follow. The discovery that the free nitrogen of the air can be fixed by the legumes and turned over to the soil, thus securing without cost to the farmer one of the most precious elements so largely required by plants, has at last explained what was so long a mystery, and should make us doubly appreciative of these most useful plants. In the northeastern United States the clovers are the commonly cultivated leguminous plants. In the southern portion of our country, crimson and Japan clover, the cowpea, soja bean and other legumes flourish, while the whole western half of the United States is served by that wonderful representative, the alfalfa or lucern plant. 285. Red clover.— This plant is found on every well-regulated farm in the northeastern United States, where with grasses it stands prominent in rotation with corn and the cereals. Red clover serves for both pasture and hay purposes, yielding large returns. At the Wisconsin Station,! Woll, cutting clover three times during the season, secured the results given below: Yield of three crops of red clover — Wisconsin Station. Green Dry Dry Date of cutting. clover. matter. | matter. Lbs. Per cent. Lbs. PSG CLO PEAY, 2O)eaecccccwessceannsusevsnerss soto 29, 220 8.2 2,402 Second Gro p ly HG ec snece sno swonscecsanee- 16,020 22.5 3,599 Third crop, Sept. i scavdsee cueaeccoscenssssveuncees 7,221 | 27.5 1,986 Here is a yield of over twenty-five tons of green forage per acre, which may be regarded as representing the maximum return for this crop. From one-half to two-thirds this amount may be relied upon by the stockman as a fair crop under practical conditions. 1 Rept. 1889. Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. ng7 It will be seen that the first crop contained but 8.2 per cent. of dry matter, or less than is found inskim milk. Itis evident that this crop was cut some time before it had reached the proper maturity for making hay. Here isan explanation why early-cut green clover, when used for soiling cattle, often gives such un- satisfactory returns; such forage is mostly water, and the cattle receiving it cannot consume enough to gain the nourishment they . require. The total dry matter of the three crops amounted to nearly four tons —a most satisfactory showing. 286. Development of nutrients in the clover plant.— Hunt, of the Illinois Station,! has arranged the results of studies relating to the development of the clover plant for hay production, con- ducted by himself and others, in tables, portions of which are here presented: Yield of hay, and nutrients in the same, from the clover plant cut at different stages — various Stations. Stage of growth at time of Brest | prose ee Gmde| ne Gutiiie sub- fees ber gen-free} Ash. = stance. * | tract. *|extract. Medium red clover. Illinois (Hunt). Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. HUPDLOOIN sci swsccesecatceceaccess 3,600 | 400] 197] 660] 1,052} 217 Three-fourths heads dead...... 3,260 | 379} 156 | 672] 1,024) 196 Pennsylvania (Jordan). Pleads in: bloom’..........s......-.- 5.18 5.52 Plates Cross drilled: ic..ccasscceee ose 5,25 5.12 Plat WV... Press drilled:..2.......5..0e-e= 5.08 4,22 The third cutting was from five to ten per cent. lighter than the first two, which were practically equal. The hay was found to be of excellent quality, apparently no more difficult to cure than that from clover. Further experience is necessary to determine whether this plant will stand winter conditions in Iowa, but at the date of reporting all was favorable. 301. Alfalfa compared with corn.— At the Colorado Station, ? Cooke compared a crop of dent corn from one acre of land with returns from a like area of alfalfa three years seeded on an adjoin- ing plat. The corn crop was a fair one, equaling fourteen tons of 1 Bul. 34. 2 Bul. 26. Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 205 green forage per acre. The alfalfa was cut three times, yielding 4,600 pounds of hay at the first cutting, 3,350 pounds the second, and 3,250 pounds at the third cutting, or a total of 5.6 tons of hay per acre. The total digestible nutrients of the two crops are pre- sented in the following table: Comparative yield of corn forage and alfalfa hay — Oolorado Station. Total. Digestible. Corn. Alfalfa. Corn. | Alfalfa. TyAAMIA LUCE iso! enol) ccsassidesscoccetts 5,539 | 10,304 || 3,605] 5,611 ATBUMINOIES 2 3.c 1, 155 Weight of their sires, pounds............ 1,065. 1,095 1,066, 11,071 Period of gestation, dayS.................08. 343 337 338 340 Foetal growth per day, pounds ......... .29 .38 .30 36: 428. Increase in weight of foals.— Meston ? recorded the in- crease in weight of trotting-bred foals up to four months, with the results shown in the following table: Growth of suckling trotting-bred foals up to four months — Meston, Allen Farm. Extremes in Av. growth per! No. erowth — Ibs. Ay. |day of foals of—| of No. : foals per day. Age of foals. of | 8 oh SS labovels = ye “outs ay bea Above ae Max. | Min. under o ee: * | foal. | foal. Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. From 38to 9days.| 15 3.70 3.76 3.62 u 6.00* | 1.60 From 11 tol9days.| 14 3.34 DA 3.53 6 4.71 | 2.00 From 22 to 28 days.| 12 2.80 2.78 2.84 3* || va201) )e2700 From 31 to39 days.} 16 2.67 2.64 2.79 5 3.08 | 1.82 From 40 to 49 days.| 15 2.67 2.55 2.81 7 BEZON a LSS From 52 to59days.} 10 2.46 2.38 2.56 3 2.94 | 1.72 From 60 to69 days.! 11 2.33 2.22 2.81 2 2.94 | 1.84 From 70 to79 days.| 13 2.35 2.3 2.39 7 8.00 | 1.55 From 80 to88days.| 8 2.14 2.13 2.16 2 268° Vhs Over 3 and under 4 IMOMCNS oo s.c.c6-<-- 14 2.10 2.00 2.28 5 2.03. Wid to IW * Doubtful. 1 Country Gentleman, 1894, pp. 656-7. 2 Loc. cit. Investigations Concerning the Horse. 273 429. Mare’s milk.— The following table presents the composi- tion of mare’s milk, with cow’s milk for comparison, according to Konig: ? Percentage composition of mare’s milk; cow’s milk being given for comparison — Konig. Casein Water. | and albu-| Fat. | Sugar. | Ash. men. Average 47 analyses mare’smilk.| 90.78 1.99 121 || or Gm WV O230 3.69 | 4.8 7 Average 793 analyses cow’smilk.| 87.17 3.50 It is shown that mare’s milk contains more water than that of the cow, the casein, albumen, fat and ash being about one-half that found in cow’s milk, while the sugar is nearly one per cent. higher. If cow’s milk is used for feeding foals, it should be diluted with water and sugar added. The quantity of milk yielded by mares has been determined in only a few cases. According to Goltz,? Tartarian mares produce from 450 to 500 pounds of milk per year in addition to that required by their foals. Such mares remain in milk two years. Vieth 3 reports that good milking mares on the steppes of south- eastern Russia yield from 4 to 5 liters (quarts) of milk daily when milked five times a day, as is the practice. Il. Wolff’s Studies of Feed Consumed and Work Performed by the Horse. 430. Plan of investigation.—W olff’s feeding and digestion ex- periments with the horse are the first extensive and systematic efforts in this line. From the necessities of the case his work was done with single animals. He first studied the comparative digestibility of various feeding stuffs with the horse, and later the relation of feed consumed to the amount of work performed. To discuss the results of these investigations intelligently it is necessary to first consider the method adopted for measuring the work done by the horse. 1 Chem. d. Mensch. Nahr. u. Genus-mittel. 2 Landw. ITIL, p. 520. 8 Ldw. Vers. Sta. 31 (1885), p. 354. 18 274 Feeds and Feeding. 431. Measuring the work of horses.— In measuring work done, the engineer uses as the unit a foot-pound (or foot-ton), the term meaning the work accomplished in lifting one pound (or one ton) one foot high. In comparing the work performed by horses under varying conditions it will be necessary to use the same expres- sion. A nominal horse-power is 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This amount of work was ascertained by James Watts, the in- ventor of the steam-engine, in a series of experiments with com- pound pulleys. As the capacity of animals for hard work is limited, no horse can work constantly more than eight hours a day. The work done by a horse during a day will be represented by 33,000 x 8 x 60=15,840,000 foot-pounds. This is, however, an excessive amount of work. An average horse will do only about 22,000 foot-pounds per minute. This work continued for eight hours gives 10,560,000 foot-pounds, which is regarded as an or- dinary day’s work for a medium-sized horse. In the Hohenheim experiments! the following figures were obtained for eight hours, constituting a day’s work: Foot-pounds. Av Hauling om level track ccsiicaeccess-ssostesses 7,999,800 B. Working in horse-sweep..........cseseeeees see 12,996,000 Perels? gives the following data for a day’s work of eight hours for strong, well-fed horses: A. Hauling on level track — Foot-pounds. TET CAWAY2 WiOLLG cesses ccna sesesenccssnetensresmsaas 17,051,000 Ordinary WOLrk,....c.cssssesscatocemencsnasaes 12,996,000 B. Working in horse-Sweep............csecseseeeee 10,136,900 432. Wolff's dynamometer.— To measure the work performed by the horse ina giventime, Wolff constructed a horse dynamom- eter, which may be described as a sweep, the axis of which consisted of two parts—a lower stationary cast-iron base and an upper loose cast-iron cover. This cover was connected with the sweep, and could be weighted so that the friction between the re- volving cover and the stationary base on which it rested could be increased at will. The details of the dynamometer, and the ar- 1 Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, Suppl. I, p. 115. 2Deutsche Ldw. Presse, 1878, Sept. 18; Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, Suppl. I, p. 116. Investigations Concerning the Horse. 275 rangements for controlling the work performed, are very com- plicated and nced not be described here.1 In the first series of experiments with the dynamometer conducted during the summer of 1877,? the daily work performed by the horse during the five periods of the experiment amounted to 3,429,500, 6,864,000, 10,288,500, 6,859,000 and 3,429,500 foot-pounds. The ration fed daily throughout the experiment was 13.2 pounds of oats, 11 pounds of hay, 3.3 pounds of cut winter-wheat straw, and .4 ounces of salt. The weight of the horse was 1,177 pounds. 433. What was shown by the digestion trials.— Digestion trials conducted during each period showed that the amount of work performed by the horse did not exert any influence on the digestibility of the ration fed. The digestion coefficients found during the five periods were: for dry matter, 57, 56, 56, 54, 53 per cent.; for protein, 71, 68, 70, 67, 68 per cent.; for nitrogen- free extract, 68, 70, 68, 68, 64 per cent., ete. The somewhat lower digestibility of the ration during the last period is accounted for by the influence of the storing of the hay —the digestibility of hay decreasing with age. The animal was never overworked during the digestion experiments, the hardest labor being easily within its capacity. The heavier work done during the third period was accompanied by a greater quantity of water drank and a decrease in the live weight of the animal. The results obtained were corroborated in a second trial, when a highly nitrogenous ration containing field beans was fed (16.5 pounds of hay and 8.8 pounds of beans), and also in still later experiments by the same investigator. The results obtained by Grandeau and Leclere with French cab horses (442) do not quite correspond with those found by Wolff with German farm horses, as given above, the former investigators finding a small depression in the digesti- bility of rations fed to horses doing slow work compared with that obtained when resting in the stall, and a somewhat larger depression when doing harder work. The differences obtained were within three per cent. of those found by Wolff, and are not, therefore, of much practical importance. 1 For a detailed description of the apparatus, with illustrations, see Ldw. Vers. Sta. 21, 1877, p. 21. 2 Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, 1879, Suppl. I, p. 73. 3 Ibid., p. 78. 276 Feeds and Feeding. 434. Nutrients required for maintenance and work.— Wolff’s ex- periments show that a horse of average size will do medium hard work and maintain his weight on a ration containing about 12 pounds of digestible matter. A nutritive ratio of 1: 6.4 proved better than the narrow ration of 1:3. When, as in the later ex- periments, less than 9.5. pounds of digestible matter were supplied in the ration, the weight of the horse decreased, the decrease being, under otherwise similar conditions, more marked when a narrow nutritive ratio (1:3.4) was fed than when a wider ratio (1:5.6) was given. (445) When heavier work was done, a sup- ply of 12 pounds of digestible matter did not suffice to maintain the weight of the horse. This could only be attained by furnish- ing larger quantities of nutrients, viz., about 15.5 pounds. The digestible nutrients necessary to maintain a horse of 1,100 pounds in a medium nutritive condition, when not performing any mechanical work, was found in repeated experiments with three horses to be 9.25 pounds on an average, when a consider- able portion, at least one-half, of the ration was made up of coarse feed, viz., meadow hay. ‘This proportion of coarse feed will hold good for farm horses doing an average day’s work in rather slow time. Horses which are required to do heavy work and in rapid time, as, for instance, mail-coach or army horses, must have rations which are easily digested, and they should consist of concentrated feeding stuffs with some chaffed straw and little or no hay.? 435. Value of the various components of fodders.— According to Wolff's experiments, the digestible albuminoids of the feed have, beyond a certain minimum, no higher value for production of work than the same quantity of starch or of the starch equiva- lent of digestible non-nitrogenous substances. (Chapter V, pt. 1.) He found that the digestible organic substances in coarse fodders, mainly meadow hay, have considerably lower value for the pro- duction of work in the case of the horse than have the same sub- stances in concentrated feeding stuffs,— for instance, oats. The explanation given, the correctness of which is disputed by good authorities, is that the crude fiber, largely present in the coarse 1 Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. ITI. Investigations Concerning the Horse. 277 fodders, is of no value to the horse either for maintenance or for production of work, the decomposition of cellulose taking place in the colon through the action of ferments, after it has passed the digestive tract. For keeping a horse of 1,100 pounds weight at maintenance, 9.25 pounds of digestible matter are required in the ration, as has been seen. Of crude fiber-free nutrients, 7.28 to 7.50 pounds were found necessary, an average of 7.59 pounds. This result is an average of thirty-eight experiments with three horses and agrees closely with the findings of Grandeau and Leclerc, who obtained 7.47 pounds as the average of six closely agreeing experiments with two horses. 436. Work possible from one pound of 'feed.— Beyond the 7.39 pounds of digestible crude fiber-free nutrients required for the maintenance of a 1,100 pound horse, each additional .22 of a pound (100 grams) of the crude fiber-free digestible nutrients will, ac- cording to Wolff, increase the power of the horse for muscular work about 400,000 foot-pounds. The table presented below shows the total available work possible from one pound of com- mon feeding stuff on this basis: Work, in foot-pounds, obtainable from one pound of various food substances when fed to the horse — Wolff. No. of | Total Equivalent to work. No. of] diges- | digesti- JU ide Feed. anal-|tion ex-| ble or-| rude | Crude nae Se Whiacute ganic | ber, | fiber in- | fiber ex- ments. | matter. . areal elated Foot- Foot- pounds. | pounds. Meadow hay ......... 16 23 40.6 11.4 736,500} 529,800 Clover hay............ 5 % 41.1 12.0 745,600) 527,900 Alfalfa DAY. .ccce.nsncs 4 6 46 .2 11.0 838,100} 638.600 Wheat straw......... 4 7 15a 7.6 284,800} 147.000 OBES, «os dane snsenss opus, 8 22 60.2 2.0 | 1,092,000! 1,055,000 BATCYis.2 cc sesece esate 1 1 70.7 4.1 | 1,282,000) 1,209,000 COUN cob cdekis sss seests. i! i! 80.0 1.5 | 1,452,000} 1,424,000 Field beans........... 1 5 72.4 4.5 | 1,313,000} 1,232,000 PRAS i r.6.izeeccebscadesee 1 1 66.7 0.5 | 1,210,000} 1,201,000 EUUITOS os-os tonite 1 1 63.4 8.7 | 1,150,000) 992,400 Juinseed cake......... f 1 Gor eeleecdtacrsess 1,150,000) 1,150,000 WismBeed Ns. . :.22.s2. 1 1 PAO tes teeenk 1,343,000) 1,343,000 B20) 15) 0 Pear ee 1 1 QU iiea heaceneccens 890,000) 390,000 MUA POS 5252520000 sen 22 1 1 Gi | eenaaitecees 108,800} 108,800 278 Feeds and Feeding. 437. Feed requirements for work.— The manner of calculating the amount of feed necessary for the performance of a certain amount of work may be illustrated by an example cited by Wolff.t Ifa riding horse in average condition, weighing 937 pounds, and 1,157 pounds with rider and saddle, travels 20.5 miles daily, he performs the amount of work shown in the table, which calls for corresponding quantities of nutrients. Nutrients required for work of varying degrees — Wolff. Move- ment | Time | Enersy Total _ |Digestible Movement. ea used per peas nutrients Bes a Tequired. second. meres required. Foot- Foot- Feet. | Seconds. pounds. pounds. Lbs. WWallkamoy geese.s-e 4.1 26,400 301,998 | 7,971,700 2.85 SON ROLE asseaannonce 8.2 13, 200 1,207,978 | 15,945,300 5.70 @amiteryn te tes.cse. 20.5 5, 280 7,356,502 | 38,842,900 | 18.9 To the digestible nutrients given in the last column must be added the quantity necessary to maintain the animal, aside from the performance of any work, which will amount to 6.70 pounds per 1,000 pounds weight (7.39 for 1,100 pounds), so that ordi- narily the supply of digestible matter in the ration would be re- spectively 9.13, 11.97 and 20.17 pounds. The two amounts in the last column are larger than any horse will be able to assimilate, but a continuous canter or even slow trot for the whole distance of 20 miles represents an amount of work rarely performed by the horse. If we assume that one-third of the distance was traveled in a walk, one-third in a slow trot, and one-third ina canter, we find that the total time required would be 14,960 seconds, the total energy used 11,874,000 foot-pounds, and the corresponding feed requirements 4.25 pounds of digestible matter. This added to the feed required for maintenance amounts to 10.52 pounds of digestible matter. A horse walking 20 miles will require seven hours and twenty minutes. If equal distances are traveled in walk, trot and canter, it will take four hours and nine minutes. The total energy spent in the former 1 Landw. Jabrb., 1887, Suppl. ITI, p. 120. Investigations Concerning the Horse. 279 ease with a rider will call for 9.12 pounds of digestible sub- stances in the feed (exclusive of crude fiber), and in the latter 10.52 pounds. Bul. 36. 6 Fuhling’s Landw. Zeitung, 39, 1890, p. 63. 7 Jahrsb. Agri. Ch., 1890, p. 641. 300 Feeds and Feeding. 471. Kloepfer’s conclusions concerning corn.— Dr. Kloepfer 1 draws the following conclusions from investigations conducted by himself and others concerning the value of Indian corn as a food for horses: ‘‘Corn is well adapted to replace oats, since the chemical composition of both cereals, especially as regards protein and fat, are nearly the same. The whole grain feed may be made up of corn in winter time and three-fourths of it in summer time. Five pounds of corn are equivalent to six pounds of oats. The heaviest feed should be given at night. The change from oats to corn feed should occur very gradually, the transition period last- | ing from two to four weeks according to the extent to which the oats are to be fed in connection with the corn. New corn should not be fed to horses. The American dent varieties of corn are the best adapted to horse feeding.”’ 472. Feeds rich in protein compared with oats for colts.— Jordan, of the Maine Station, 2 conducted feeding experiments with colts in which oats were fed against a mixture of other concentrates, such as peas and wheat middlings, in the first trial, and gluten meal, linseed meal and middlings in the second trial. In the first trial, which lasted 137 days, oats when fed to three grade Per- cheron colts, 9, 16 and 18 months old, produced less growth than an equal weight of a mixture of peas and middlings, the relation of growth made being as 100: 111. In the second trial, two Per- cheron colts, both 11 months old, were fed oats against middlings, gluten meal and linseed meal, in the proportion of 60 : 35: 15. Ten pounds of hay were fed each colt daily in addition to the grain. The experiment lasted 84 days, the results being as follows: Feeding mixed grain to colts in opposition to oats — Maine Station. “ | Daily gain when on — Period I: |Period IL.| Weight at rite Oats beginning. ees mixture. ; 5 5 Grain : mixture. Oats. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Colt TF ccd: 6 7 711 1.51 43 Coltiiiener 5 6 602 116 .93 1 Biederm. Centralbl. 1895, p. 2765. 2 Repts. 1891-92. Feeds for the Horse. 301 In both experiments a greater growth was obtained from the mixed grains with both animals. (206) These trials show that when oats are high priced other concentrates may be substituted for them in colt feeding without checking growth. Some oats should be fed, if possible, because of their tonic effect. - 473. Peanut meal and malt sprouts.— Rusche ! gives results of experiments showing that peanut meal and malt sprouts may be used with advantage as a feed for foals in place of oats. 474. Cocoanut meal.— The French war department investi- gated the value of cocoanut meal for horses.2. Ten army horses were fed cocoanut meal for four weeks in place of an equal quan- tity of oats in the ordinary ration. Five horses receiving the ordinary oat ration were included in the experiment and given the same work as the others. They were exercised only a little during the first period, January 12 to 30, viz., 8to9 miles. They were worked harder for the next two weeks, January 31 to Feb- ruary 12, 15-17.5 miles.' Weighings were taken before and after the change was made with averages as follows: Cocoanut-meal ration. Ordinary ration. Pounds. Pounds. TAMURA WD: ce cvesccevectoevens 963.4 986.4 DAUUALY | Blerecs sevens ae 977.5 992.9 Webruary U2. .cccscsscs>ssenes period. | ning. | 5 a | 2) a5 z 3 a 3 alal|s 3 00 MITE Ne te TRG TUSK: | caesshdoccs sdescdcee sees tencasone seen suaversmancddapsnessdeseesseees 2 80 PNG vbet sa P tena a atte cals deeconsac-coe= 4s sdesenctecdeadtenee tenaamactates ses onesies 79 30 Less 500 pounds pork made on droppings of steer, at five cents.... 25 00 Net Gost 12 to 24 MmOnths..........cacsdecascanedes suet obec sonace mean. chs 54 30 Weight of steer at 24 months 1,600 pounds, at six and ahalf cents 104 00 Brett at ION ths Of AMCs i.<..0.escecsen.omseeseceiicraeanenes sevccnsedsbesesire 49 70 Cost from twenty-four to thirty-six months of age. Value of steer at 24 months Of age..............c.csecssscsssescedasenecceseoese $104 00 Value of shock corn consumed in entire year, 125 bus., at 35 cents 48:75 Paste! Maye 1 tio NOs Lise... 55.5005 6 saaamueencboaptveseedenssssacnedocwsesqsass 4 00 RUPEE eM Gl Ta Sisee bos ac see rde oe oe dossn s+ Svs -cebaceeaaasdnsdauendensiae'ctvnseisisekn sos 8 32 PAO Soaes. epee cee tet 2a sas on..s ba soensencerer ds seenaRmeesaecuence-5se%enoes 160 07 Cost at So maton Of AMe:..2..<.-.-ca-nesomerseare sn eaeWucorjccsss d-oreee-= 135 07 Weight at 36 months of age, 2,200 pounds, at seven cents............ 154 00 [Profitvat o6 IONths OF AVEC. «....5..csscecscsece woneseedeces ns 104s seucwvonwedvecess 18 93 1 Fugitive paper copied into Farmers’ Review, Chicago, Dec. 7, 1882. 390 Feeds and Feeding. In those days prices for grain, interest rates, and especially prices of fat cattle, were higher than at present, and the student in using the figures must make allowance for the changes wrought by time: the lesson taught still stands. 597. Modern market demands.— Some readers will recall the period when it was not considered advisable to fatten a steer until he was five years old; a much larger number will recollect the early exhibits at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, where prizes were given for ‘‘big steers’’ often five or more years old and weighing up to twotons. The long-legged, raw-boned creat- ures that competed for premiums in those days are a thing of the past, though there is still room for improvement. The butcher now calls for ‘‘ handy ’’ steers, ranging from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds in weight. These are well described in the following, taken from Bell’s Messenger:! ‘‘The winner now has to be short-legged, broad and deep, full in the flank, well sprung ribs, and good twist. His bottom lines should be as straight as his top lines, and as wide, and he should have no thick, patchy fat anywhere. Experience has shown that thick-bodied, short-legged steers, with full flanks, pay the feeder best, and give best profit to the butcher. Big ones are no longer needed. Small sizes are best, with plenty of quality, and with youth on their side the meat is juicy and tender. Age is counted in months now, instead of years, and the change is for the better.”’ To produce steers which meet these requirements a high degree of skill and judgment must be exercised in breeding and feeding. From the tables we are taught the important lesson that less feed is required to bring animals to the required standard because of the smaller size of the individuals when fattened. High skill in breeding and feeding thus oppose the plainer breeding and slower feeding of former times. 598. Early maturity.— What can be accomplished in the way of early maturity is illustrated by results obtained by Mr. W. A. Harris, of Linwood, Kansas.* Mr. Harris fed pure-bred and grade Short-horn calves, coming in December, January and Feb- t Quoted in Live Stock Rept., Chicago, July 19, 1895. 2 Breeder’s Gazette, Chicago, 1890, p. 437. Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 391 ruary, until the following December, at which time they averaged eleven months old. These calves received most of their dam’s milk until six or seven months old. Mr. Harris calculates that they consumed — 20 bushels Of Car COT, WOTtD........0..cccrcscesscessccscssvscescesces $5 1,000 pounds Of bran, WOTth ...............cccsecscscsecsecscsscnseers 6 300:pounds of oil meal, WOrth........5..5..sccecasectdesacccseceseoess 3 OGM COS Of STALIN ic. noes cones tdecoMaenacseecsescessasceces sees $14 In addition they had pastures and what hay they would eat, valued at $4. These calves weighed from 910 to 920 pounds each at eleven months and sold from $3.80 to $5 per hundred, which returns are certainly satisfactory when the short time for turning the capital involved is considered. All farmers are not in position to follow such forcing methods as these, yet it is well to bear this extreme example in mind, and consider whether or not the results cannot be approximated if not actually attained. 599. Low-pressure feeding.— Under the system just recom- mended, much costly concentrated feed is required. There are farms on which the high-pressure system is not advisable, but where cattle may be profitably fed by following an almost oppo- site method. On farms where there are large quantities of hay, straw and corn forage, together with ample pastures, it is possi- ble to practice a system which utilizes all these, reserving most of the grain grown for use during the final fattening period. Under this system the calves designed ultimately for beef are fed a small amount of grain only during the first year, receiving an abun- dance of roughage in winter and running on good pastures in sum- mer. Such stock should more than hold its weight in winter and gain heavily on the pastures in summer. Heavy feeding with grain begins when the steers are two years old. Well-bred steers from 30 to 36 months old raised in this manner, fed grain in quantity only during the last five or six months, should weigh from 1,300 to 1,500 pounds —a size ample for market demands. 600. The feed lot.— Dry, protected yards, with sheds on the windward side under which the animals may lie in comfort, form the ideal place for steer feeding. ‘To keep the steer stanchioned or confined by a rope in the stable entails useless labor on the 392 Feeds and Feeding. stockman, prevents proper exercise, and conduces to a filthy ap- pearance of the animal, thus working against the best gains and the highest sale price. Crude as has been much of the open-yard feeding in the West, the cattle so fed have really experienced more comfort than had they been confined in the stable, as is common in the East. The fattening steer places the excess food in an increasing layer of fat under the skin, which retains the heat. His food is heating in character, and, being in a plethoric condition, he much prefers the open air and sunshine with the freedom of the yard, even in winter, to the confinement of the stable with its foul air and cramped quarters. 601. Feed racks.— Let the sheds be so constructed as to afford protection from the winds and driving storms. Either under the shed, where accessible by wagon, or in an open lot which the shed faces, and close by, arrange racks for fodder and boxes for grain. It is not well to have feed boxes and fodder rack combined, since the litter from the forage falling upon the feed renders it distaste- ful to cattle with dainty appetites. 602. Frequency of feeding.— There is nothing helpful on this point from experiments, and when we turn to feeders for light we find a diversity of opinion as to the proper practice. It is rea- sonable that all young animals should be fed at least three times a day, while those approaching maturity and not heavily fed are amply provided for in two feeds. Maturing cattle prosper, and perhaps do their best, when supplied grain but once a day, with roughage to run to at pleasure. It is certain that many of the best feeders at the West supply grain but once a day. The once- fed steer goes to the trough with paunch well emptied and ap- petite at the best; filling himself to the utmost, he has ample time for rumination and subsequent digestion. 603. Getting cattle to full feed.— The fattening steer should be brought to full feed gradually, the time required in reaching that point varying from one to two months. Steers which have pre- viously been fed grain take to it readily, while those which have always lived on roughage and pastures must be carefully managed in this particular. Young cattle are more difficult to bring to full feed than mature ones. By supplying an abundance of rough- Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 393 age of good quality there is less danger in bringing cattle to full feed. When once the feeding period is well inaugurated, all sudden changes in attendants, place and manner of feeding as well as of the feed itself should be carefully avoided. Everything should move with quiet, clock-like regularity. The cattle come to know not only the hour but almost the minute of the feeder’s arrival and watch for him. On his coming they expect the same sort of feed as before and the same little attentions. All of this means better gains than are possible from any irregular system. If changes in feed are necessary, aS they sometimes are,— for ex- ample, changirg from ear corn or shelled corn to corn meal, — the transition should be gradual rather than immediate and violent. Sometimes stockmen are tempted to give their cattle bits of un- usual food in expectation of stimulating the appetite and getting heavier gains. This practice is often worse than useless. The gourmand steer is content with uniformity in his rations, and if not led to anticipate unusual attentions is satisfied with a limited bill of fare, provided always the supply is ample. 604. Close attention required.— The ability to fatten cattle rapidly and profitably is a gift, to be increased and strengthened by experience and study. The ability to carry a steer through asix months’ fattening period without once getting him ‘‘ off feed ”’ is possessed by many a stockman; but how this faculty is attained is something he cannot always impart to others. In general, when the steer has reached full feed, all the grain he will readily consume should be supplied, but any Jeft in the feed box, to be breathed over, is worse than wasted. Scouring, the bane of the stock feeder, should be carefully avoided, since a single day’s laxness will cut off a week’s gain. This trouble is generally induced by over-feeding, by unwhole- some food, or by a faulty combination in the ration. Over-feed- ing comes from a desire of the attendant to push his cattle to better gains, or from carelessness and irregularity in measuring out the feed supply. The ideal stockman has a quick discern- ment which takes in every animal in the lot at a glance, and a quiet judgment which guides the hand in dealing out feed ample 394. Feeds and Feeding. for the wants of all, but not a pound excess. Cattle of the same age, or at least those of equal size and strength, should be fed in the same enclosure. Weak animals, and those unable for any rea- son to crowd to the feed trough and get their share, should be placed where they can be supplied in quiet. 605. Other points to be observed.— The droppings of the steer are an excellent index of the progress of fattening. While they should never be hard, they should still be thick enough to ‘‘ pile up’’ and have that unctious appearance which indicates a healthy action of the liver. There is an odor from the droppings of thrifty, well-fed steers known and quickly recognized by every good feeder. Thin droppings and those with a sour smell indicate something wrong in the feed yard. The conduct of the steer is a further guide in marking the prog- ress of fattening. The manner in which he approaches the feed box; his quiet pose while ruminating and audible breathing when lying down, showing the lungs cramped by the well-filled paunch; the quiet eye which stands full from the fattening socket; the oily coat,—all are points that awaken the interest, admiration and satisfaction of the successful feeder. 606. Preparing steers for shipment.— Clay! writes: ‘‘ A day or two previous to shipping, feed the cattle in a pen, and feed hay only. The secret of shipping all classes of cattle is to place them on the cars full of food but with as little moisture as possible. A steer full of water is apt to have loose bowels and show up badly in the yards; properly handled cattle should arrive in the sale pens dry behind and ready for a good fill of water; not very thirsty but in good condition to drink freely. Many shippers think that by salting their cattle or feeding them oats they can fool the buyers, but it always goes against them to use unnatural amounts. As to feed on the road, nothing equals good sweet hay, which excels corn or other grains because it is easily digested and does not fever the animal. Of water if mid-summer, care must be taken to supply the animal wants, whereas in winter a steer can go for many hours without a drink. Cattle should arrive at the sale yards at from 5 to 8 A. M., appearing on the scene as 1 Live Stock Report, Chicago, Sept. 28, 1894, Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 395 near the latter hour as possible, since they always look better just after they have been fed and watered.”’ Funkhouser! advises feeding all the hay the cattle will eat, and reducing the grain fed at least one-half two or three days be- fore shipping. For steers in transit allow 250 pounds of hay and one and one-half bushels of grain per car. Steers on pasture that have had corn should be taken off pasture twenty-four hours be- fore shipping, and allowed half a feed of corn with plenty of hay. II. Rations for Fattening Steers. 607. Theoretical rations for fattening steers.— To show the amount of feed a steer should receive according to the Wolff-Leh- mann standard, two rations are presented which are reasonably close to the requirements. In the first, corn is the leading con- centrate, with oil meal additional to furnish the protein; in the second, silage furnishes the roughage, with bran, corn and cob meal and cotton-seed meal for the concentrates. See Chapter VU, Part II. Rations compounded in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard for steers weighing 1,000 pounds, first period. Digestible nutrients. Dry matter.| Pro. | ©@TPO-| ther tein. deities! extract. Ration No. 1. Wolff-Lehmann standard.................. 30 2.50 15.00 .00 ConnsfoddernSqOuUNdS eer. va cocce'- cece: 4.62 .20 PBI 03 @lovershaiy 2 WOUMOS Ir. 0.256. ssscccseomn 1.69 13 72 .03 Dent corn, Te pounds.....//...........602.005 12.52 1.09 9.3 60 Oil meal, O...P. 4 pounds 257. 4.25ccceceed- 3.63 ALT. 1.31 .28 WNC Bee er ee ia Gok ee 22.46 2.59 14.14 94 Ration No. 2. Cor) silage,-30 poumdss..:.......:..002..2---- 6.27 27 3.39 21 Oib BiTA Wy.d) POUNDS: 252505 (60.5 h..s sc css ances 4.54 06 1.93 04 Roller bran, 10 pounds..........c000s0.20..6. 8.81 1.22 3.92 27 Corn and cob meal, 4 pounds............-. 3.40 18 2.40 wl Cotton-seed meal, 2 POUNGS, =. 05.552 c0252 1.84 74 .38 24 Ua 2. cccaens Corp ck todd ueslesvoseesdassod| meeeeee 2.47 12.02 .88 t Breeder’s Gazette, Chicago, Jan. 18, 1893. 396 Feeds and Feeding. Tn both rations there is much less dry matter than is called for by the standard. This departure is not of much significance, as the ration possesses a reasonable volume. The carbohydrates are less than called for by the standard, but this is nearly made good by the excess of ether extract. These rations are constructed on purely theoretical grounds, but will be found satisfactory where the feeding-stuffs called for are reasonable in price. 608. Rations used at the Experiment Stations.— In the feeding trials at various Experiment Stations numerous rations have been used, a few of which are here presented, care being taken in their selection to present as wide a range of feeding materials as possible. Ontario Agricultural College. } Roots and barley. Lbs. Roots and corn. Lbs. Av. wt. of steers fed......... 1,061 Av. wt. of steers fed......... 1,106 Daily Paine. .204-...seesseee tees: 2 An- Wall yigaim.isscceosseereseeaset 2.31 RAN eae ee alecise ceieoiece ee civee ec e- 12. PETRY. Sic.civaes devscnoowseseceseeties 9.5 WROOES ices ccwoee anata tes Soeen tent os 46. ROOt8 siiecessinctenspantenadagteaes 34. ATA NYC asp scicoseasep conse scasensiag 5. TAT cosine cetaceans 3.5 BAT Wie ecsesccesarssacareces-ses 1,20) CORN. 0.555 ines scan csmeasmateetees 9.25 Towa Experiment Station. ? Oregon Experiment Station. Corn and oil meal. Lbs. Wheat and silage. Lbs. Av. wt. of steers fed......... 1,340 Av. wt. of steers fed.......... 847 1D Fel oarice’ hohe penee cet cee ere ee eer 228 eeDailivel ailcctecseceseessceeseees 2. Snapped COMM..:.1...0..0=.--05 22.5 Chopped wheat ......... ..... 10.3 Wari meals a scsdens--snensoes Bat POLOVETIND Yn. cn. ever ccomeance 8. @illeT eae cavassssocsse sce 4.2; (Cormsilages...c.cse. 3 1.240 | 20.81 | 16.66 | 31.25] 17.5 II. Less of beef type...| 4 945 | 20.37; 21.02 | 26.42] 15.1 IIL. Lacking depth of DOUG: sec scbictesscese 3 875 | 19.95 | 23.00] 25.54) 14.6 IV. Dairy type..........., 12 951" ZU864)" 23-58) eos ee Discussing the results, Haecker writes: ‘‘The productive capacity of the cow depends more upon type and conformation than upon size or breed. Those of the beef type produced fat at a cost of seventeen and a half cents per pound; those carrying a medium amount of flesh produced fat at a cost of fifteen and one- tenth cents per pound; the spare cows lacking in depth of body produced fat at a cost of fourteen and six-tenths cents per pound, and the spare cows having deep bodies produced fat at a cost of twelve and one-tenth cents per pound.”’ 620. Effect of age of cow on productivity of feed.— Studying the Ohio Station herd, Thorne! reports on the influence of age as follows: Effect of age of cow on returns for feed given — Ohio Station. : Fat 100 Li i Age. No. of | Days since ay ake ive weight. cows. calving. iter Gus Toe Lbs Lbs. Lbs 3 and 4 years... if 127 2.95 DOV); |«enmeaseemanaae DV CAESs-cecocsess 7 260 2.99 2d: | ilaeceveneseseres 6 VEATS.......00006 10 135 3.45 PALE BecreangescobGee UP AEE is Heopaneecaee 6 157 SaAGZ yl Tollstecwccetecece gf Sey CAT eesasssseatas 4 115 3.14 OS 9 lseehisewesedientie OiV GNIS. coecnesc-- 5 172 3.05.” ) |. sssadsatep cece 12 RONVCATS.ccccarceees 6 105 Bi2d | eceameensesces 9 11 and 13 years.. 2 133 Dot i\cuacoemeesecees 15 1 Rept. Ohio Sta., 1893. The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 407 We learn that from her first calf up to and including the seventh year, the cow gives gradually increasing returns for a given quantity of feed; after the seventh year they gradually diminish until the eleventh to the thirteenth year, when the returns from feed are less than with the heifer. There is an in- crease in weight during the first years, followed in later years by some loss in weight. This table is in harmony with the ex- perience of dairymen as to the most profitable years in the life of the cow. 621. Advance in lactation and productivity of feed.— Thorne! also studied the feed consumption and fat returns of thirty-one cows used in tests at the Ohio and Wisconsin Stations, and deduced the table given below for the purpose of showing the returns from the cow as the lactation period advances: Returns for feed consumed as time since calving increases — Ohio and Wisconsin Stations. No. Hat per Live weight. Distance from calving. of aes cows y Less than 60 days; average 39 days......... 3 MGR OS AU 04 From 60 to 120 days; average 91 days...... 9 3.32 GS. raateescnens From 120 to 180 days; average 142 days..| 138 3.05 cA) |sesacasessee More than 180 days; average 256 days..... 6 2.90 seals Secaconede We learn that shortly after calving the cow is at her best in the fat she returns for feed consumed, and that during this period there is usually a loss in body weight. As time since calving increases the return of fat for feed consumed is reduced, the cow, when well nurtured, increasing somewhat in weight. Dur- ing the last stages of lactation the cow returns only about three- fourths as much fat for feed consumed as shortly after calving. 622. Influence of time from calving on milk flow.— Sturtevant, 2 studying the diminution in milk flow of cows from month to month after calving, reached the conclusion that this decrease 1 Loc. cit. 2 Rept. New York (Geneva) Sta., 1886. 408 Feeds and Feeding. may be placed at about nine per cent. of the yield for the preced- ing month. The actual average yield of a herd and the theoret- ical yield, according to this factor, appear in the following table: Monthly decrease in milk flow of dairy cows, actual and theoretical — Sturtevant. | For cows that went For whole herd. dry between 8th and 12th month. Actual | Theoretical] Actual | Theoretical daily milk} daily milk |daily milk} daily milk yield. yield. yield. yield. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Stemroniblierss: cccesccceoessssee OG 200i 26.9 26.9 Ode MOM biisceee acceso asecescewe 24.4 23.4 25.2 24.5 Sauammomiblaesescsetenseeteaeenete 22.0 DIES D228 DIRS Abinsrvvormitilas ccc cenocsseseeer ees 19.9 19.4 20.6 Dalla) SelM OMPMectenseccsseeeececcces ies LZ Ath 18.7 18.5 (Hilo Toa Vov aA Ob eoqaganocoocboonesoor 16.5 16.1 17.0 16.9 Tiwaviaaver nll NG Ae wasyndddoscoosacde 14.9 14.7 15.0 15.4 Stlammomibltee-seseecsecnsceceees 13.4 13.4 OA 14.0 OTM OM Ws seecceedeaecenecesss- 23 122 eG 12.8 HO tHMTVOMTN peste cecocsecen ces ileal TU 10.4 11.6 In the table given above, the theoretical yield for each month was obtained by subtracting nine per cent. of the yield for the previous month from the yield for that month. We observe that the actual yield agrees closely with the theoretical in showing the possible yield of milk by the cow in any given month. 623. Heavy feeders may be the most profitable.— At the Penn- sylvania Station,! Waters and Hess, studying the returns from nine cows in the Station herd during a trial lasting 150 days, se- cured important data relative to the food consumed and the yield of butter. Cows which had been tested the previous year were used in this trial. Some of these had excellent butter records, while others were of average or low productive power. All were fed liberally according to their capacity for consuming food. Records were kept of consumption and production. In a table prepared by these investigators are summarized the butter yielded by each cow the preceding season, the cost of the 5 Rept. 1895. The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 409 feed eaten during the test and the net profit per cow daily. These results are shown below: Net profits of individual dairy cows —Pennsylvania Station. Yield of | Yield of |Digestible butter butter | material Average | Average pox. previous |during ex-jconsumed pales Cede year. |periment.| daily. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Cents. Cents. Nor Becta sh ssa e as. Sccees 365 211 15.8 18 25 NOs etecsis casisne nsevceeee 345 182 15.3 18 22 INGOs teetecesetsctoeces 365 164 14.1 ie Li IN AE oii ivnn Sen Sanan a 322 156 15.0 17 14 ING Gieescccss.ncesdoesete 318 152 14.5 ale 14 INGER Gay. Se desuieetesats 340 135 13.3 15 i INR oiettets.t.0rs stenoses 276 127 14.5 17 9 INOS Ort eerscsesvcscatee 231 117 13.7 16 8 INO. Osee tits cesses ce enct 178 90 13.7 16 3 We observe that, as a rule, the cows which ate the most gave the largest net returns; the smallest eaters gave the least. 624. Another illustration.— Armsby! presents an interesting study of the cows used in the ninety-day test at the Columbian Exposition, 1893. (Chapter XX VII, Part I.) These cows were arranged in eleven groups, irrespective of breed, according to the amount of total solids produced during ninety, days. Showing of the ninety-day butter test, Columbian Exposition—Armsby. er Average total yield of— Cost of Net : Feed cost per Ib. in UG CN ed ke i One & . |profits. Solids. Fat. = aa Solids. | Fat. Lbs. Lbs. Cents. | Cents. 8 COWS. «0020000 478.13 154.11 $24 84 | $57 41 | 5.19 16.11 6 COWS.......... 446 24 140.78 2278 | 6230] 5.11 16.18 8 COWS.......000 427.90 139.84 22:97 | 5166} 5.37 16.48 OreGWE: s.....4-5 400.60 126.41 20 95 | 4601 | 5.23 16.58 8 COWS........2- 375.83 125.68 2159 | 4518] 5.77 17.0% 8 COWS. <2....02. 346.70 107.53 20 55 | 35 87 |] 5.93 19.11 TiCOWS A. sacrnc.. 329.99 101.91 20 75 | 33 36 | 6.29 20.36 DP EOWSs ccc ocees- 315.09 99 .07 19 36 | 33 23] 6.14 19.54 TCOWBi ce ie: 301.63 98 .23 18 91 | 32 79 | 6.27 19.25 6 GCOWS.......5:. 278 .94 90.00 1918 | 28 34] 6.87 21.31 4 COWBan |not fat.} & ed. Lbs. | Lbs DETROY ccccissscotccocssesersa costes 568 37.5 | $15 00] $107] $086 | $1692] $570] $11 22 SHOTt-HOMM recccccecesceceesees 591 26.1 10 44 1 04 3 51 | 14 99 4 02 10 97 Il. Experiment Station Breed Tests. 687. Tests at the Stations.— Tests of pure-bred dairy cows covering considerable periods of time have been conducted at three Experiment Stations, viz.: New York (Geneva),! Maine, ? and New Jersey. 1 Rept. 1894. 2 Rept. 1890. 3 Rept. 1890. - 456 Feeds and Feeding. The results of the tests with each breed are considered in the following table: Trials with pure-bred dairy cows at three American Stations. No. of | Average yield | Av. Cost of — No. of| lacta- per year. per Breed. cows.| tion pe-|—___________| cent..| 100 lbs. riods. | ink. | Fat. | fat. | milk. [11> fat. Neus Work Sta: Lbs. Lbs. Cents. | Cents. tion. American Hold- CIMESS! esc; seraes 2 4 5,721 | 213.1 | 3.73 | 76.0 20.1 Ayrshire ........... 4 12 | 6,824) 94481360 | “74e0 1) oeee IDG VOM esc ccctscs 3 5 3,984 | 183.3 | 4.60 | 94.0 20.5 Guernsey .....,.... 4 6 5,385 | 285.5 | 6.3 86.0 16.1 EVO Steimes.ais.s--e: 4 4 7,918 | 266.1 | 3.36 | 65.0 19.1 JOTSC We seston easie: be: 11 5,045 | 282.1 | 5.60 | 90.0 16.1 Short-horn...:;....| 2 2 6,055 269.0 | 4.44 | 78.0 17.2 Maine Station. folstetie. a: 2 3 | 8,369 | 285.0 | 3.47 | 85.5 | 25.2 ASYIESHITEN.2ee- cea: 2 4 6,612 233.0 | 3.67 | 94.9 26.8 DORSEY. 805 cans esen 2 4 5,460 | 297.0 | 5.50 | 113.0 20.4 New Jersey Sta- tion. VAVIS HiT a: ..3ees4e5 4 4 7,461 | 275.3 | 3.69 | 76.0 20.6 Guernsey t.is5.:.06 4 4 7,446 | 379.0 | 5.09} 78.1 15.3 Efolstetny2.7.0.55.3. 3 3 8,455 | 300.2 | 3.55 | 79.7 22.4 Jersey Foteich.. des 3 3 7,695 | 376.3 | 4.89 | 87.5 Wie) Short-horn ........ 3 3 | 10,457 | 3896.3 | 3.79 79.0 20.8 688. Combining the resufts.— To secure better averages the figures last presented are combined in the following table, the cows being grouped by breeds: Summary of trials with pure-bred dairy cows at three American Stations. No. of | Average yield | Av. Cost of — , No. of| lacta- per year. per Breed. cows.| tion pe--__—_______| cent. | 100 Ibs. riods. | Milk. | Fat. | fat. | milk. {1 1b. fat. Lbs. Lbs. Cents. | Cents. American Hold- EINES apnea clases 2 4 DO, fae 213.15) Sis) aise 20.1 ACY ES ITES coe,»

| 82) s aloe 8 | BS SS/ a |ea] 8 | & a | Ee Bela |eelso | aia | & lax Lbs. | Lbs. } Lbs. | Lbs. } Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs COTTE ce ocsrcesce-ceeseesees 82 31 | 3.02 | 481 834].........] _ 966] 702) Confined. 44 corn, % bran.?...... 80 -25 | 8.85 | 639 421) ...cceces 1,515} 913) Confined. & wheat, ¥% oil INCOM eee ceea ess 80 -28 | 4.83 | 526 B04 cases 1,746} 804) Confined. 3 corn, 44 wheat?...| 85 y22 | 1.85 | 583 BS |eencesses 599| 965) Freedom of yard. 4 corn, 2 wheat?...| 84 18 | 2.03 | 786 §830|1,146 | 1,148] 1,397) Shorn 2d week of experiment. Corn and roots?...... 81 -38 | 1.87 | 406 243) 685 495| 641) Confined. Sugar beets ~............| 84 s1Si |) 40) |zeatescs- 1,018)}4,900 314; 1,516; Confined. 1 part oil meal, 2 parts cotton-seed meal, 4 pts. bran*] 59 .19 | 3.02 | 505 457| 880*| 1,598} 1,033 7 parts corn, 1 part OU USiacperacreeesesnsscsse 58 22 }1.10] 470 486) 501 505} 880) Warm barn. * Silage. 752. Weight of fattened sheep.— At the Ontario College, * Brown reports the following weights of fat shorn shearlings (sheep once shorn): Live weight of fat shorn wethers at 445 days — Ontario Agricultural College. Average | Average weight of} weight o tops. culls. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Leicester high grades.................+ DAD oe: sesmencessncee 242 54 WueICeSter STAGES ei. ..cdscddeesesoesencees 189. |edeectcstesoss 189 40 ORfOFdE SrA es... sccccrsasccdsesovs asses sei 186 147 167 37 Shropshire CTAGES 2. .<.csc.deccsceceses->s 185 148 167 37 Southdown erades......................-- 165 133 149 33 Merinio/ ST aden... 25.2.0. .dtsedconaadeencxs TSS TO eewsccesasconss 138 31 IMGHIE 5 te cceeas too sesess-nateeeeacewctedsu: 1037 Seg eee eee 175 .o9 1 Bul. 113, Mich. Sta. 2 Bul. 128, Mich. Sta. 3 Bul. 47, Cornell Sta. 4 Rept. 1882. 494 Feeds and Feeding. The weight of fat sheep of the several breeds competing for prizes at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, during the years 1878 to 1884, both inclusive,) are shown in the following table: Weight of fat sheep of various breeds — American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago. = | Wether Ewe 1 iu eve lyr. | Wether|Ewe 2) yr. ne Breed. od os and un-| under llyrs. or| and oye Over der 2 | yr. old.} over. }under obi ; ; yrs. 2 yrs. ; Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. ; Lbs. WOU WOU eee ot caer see beeen es 258 199 142 Ziio| Loo 127 Other long wools............... 263 239 151 238 | 204) 112 POUL GO Wilt socee sacs oeeeccces 205 172 119 169 130 97 Other middle wools........... 233 181 117 216 | 208 87 American merino............... 137 112 (1) 101 73 52 Grades OF CLOSSES.......:..2065+ 221 188 118 213 | 165°) 122 753. Daily gain for various breeds.— The best daily gains? with fat wethers at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, between the years 1879 and 1882, both inclusive, are as follows: Weight and daily gain of wether making the most rapid gain — Ameri- can Fat-Stock Show, Chicago. Wethers two and under three years. Av. gain per Year. Breed. dee Weight.| day since aed birth. i | Lbs. Lbs. TS7O: cleluGIGESteN.s. co. 1,103} 849] 71 211] .25 | 523 | : 402 Small Wheats... = os } A ° fo} a Ald A oO =) = 1e) p Ki Lbs. | Lbs.} Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Kansas. % Shelled corn. (Cooked with steam| 5 | 219 | 1.15 | 3,894 5203]) WIAD ewescoe vs. grain fed dry.) AG 2520 | lls OS) | iascesen. ; Dal lceseeeere 6380 owa. Shelled corn. (Not stated how] 3] 156] .87 | 1,680)......... 812 | 538 nce cooked. ) So 164 | PLTON ees ccnas 1P-G80 | STO) |Peccesess 443 Corn meal. (Not stated how] 3] 173 87" |"1680).......:.. 299 | 562 |....... ss cooked.) Boel GSn LCOS) csccecs: 1,680) 377 |....... 445 Oltawa. Ground peas, barley, rye, equal| 4 TGn | LeO9N P25 928 receenese 702 | 417 |......00 parts. (Cooked with steam.) | 4| 77 | .86 |......... 2,398] 564 |... 425 Sees 3 | 191 | 1.20 | 2,386 404 | 591 Cornmeal. (Cookedtoa mush.) | 3] 995 | 1:14 |...2.....[ 2,116] 383 |... 552 Wisconsin. Tee D7. \flel Gh WOGOLl| seecssee: (|| Zee | 7 LOOM 20! cocceenss 3,198] 707 452 Corn meal and shorts, equal pore 4 femme eo | lg Oli -sccnenes S800 | aLO | bece-enne {Cooked in large kettle.) Three| 4 SOm OS" ee encca ,603) 366 |......... 438 rials. —— | |] ——_ | —__| ___ | ——__|—_ | 2] 141 |.1.29 678). a2. TAS | AGS eoessstes QP 188) | S26) jasc -e-ee- 688} 141 |......... 488 Wisconsin. 10 | 103 | 1.03 | 3,204)........ «| 724 | 443 |....secc0 Two parts corn meal, one part| 10} 106 | 1.11 |......... OS sOLGI TCO seaeeseae 451 shorts. (Cooked in large kettle. )|—j|——|——_ |—__|—__ |—__ |__| Two trials. Ae TAZ) Wlicoae lie 292|e..cccces||) OMe | AQLU| ec rcenen 2A) 3 Uy I 9 a By TE Se 1,317} 298 |......... 442 SS SS SS SS = Average of ten trials...c.scssssessesees|scssee|ecseeeees | pe | Bet ee tes [eee 505 | 476 Including all the trials then, so far as known, that have been favorable to cooking feed, and omitting many, for lack of space, that are unfavorable to that operation, the average shows that 476 pounds of uncooked meal or grain were required for 100 pounds of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked 505 pounds were re- quired. This shows a loss of six per cent. of the feeding value of these substances through cooking. 837. Soaked meal versus dry meal. At the Wisconsin Station, ? the writer conducted two trials, lasting sixty-eight days each, with wet and dry meal, the feed used being corn meal and shorts, 1 Rept. 1888. 548 Feeds and Feeding. equal parts. One lot of pigs was fed dry meal, while the meal for the other lot was moistened with water after being placed in the trough. At the Minnesota Station,1-‘Smith conducted trials, lasting 112 days, with corn meal, shorts and oil meal, fed wet to one lot of pigs and dry to a second lot. At the Oregon Station, ? French fed two lots of Berkshire pigs on a mixture of shorts, wheat, oats and bran. The pigs were two and one-half months old at the beginning of the trial, which lasted 182 days. The grain mixture was fed dry to one lot, and allowed to soak between times of feeding for the other. At the Missouri Station, * four lots of pigs were fed wheat and wheat chop by Conner for 100 days, dry grain being used in com- parison with grain that had been soaked thirty-six hours. The results of these trials are summarized in the table: Results of feeding pigs wet and dry meal — Four Stations. Rise Grain Feed for Se eaten. 100 lbs. gain Sl Ore aD As 3 |Ba| 4 di Station and feed. 3 | 2B S S Ss | £2 > = Seed =) BS 4 See aes S}|/>S! & is is } iS Al< a) A S a A a Wisconsin. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. sues Lbs. | Lbs. Corn meal and is enn Ao aT 26 | 28 | eee 200) | ARIA ceseses shorts, equal SL Sa ELON | eee. SEROUS BB Be eespen 404 parts. 2 165 | 1.18 983) | scosesse- 161 GLO! eeces.ee= Prey Lirilan |G 2r| eeee eee 1,040) 220 ]......... 471 Minnesota. Two parts corn meal, 3 8451202) |e. ss: 1,500) 8439) <.2...... 437 two parts shorts, 3 29 Wd: )|| L085 cesses 246) | 440 eee one part oil meal 3 Boal) Ae W4O eee cace 249 | 408 |....cce0e (O2Bs): 3 B02) 80h A. .2..2 13233 |) G2COM| neces 458 Oregon. Shorts, chopped wheat, 2 GSa dlc2te 21) eee 453 | 467 |......... oats and bran. 2 Gla oe4b ee sa.c2- DSTO W (527. |Peseecees 440 Missouri. SHULER T (25339) sseracese O62) || CAG R ee secce Wheat chop. aaa 9.02 |... 37419] 605 |... 400 Four parts whole wheat, Sal LTS) 1.88) |) 2, 105) .-c--.- 4140), 508 ieeccccses one part bran. 3} 119 | 1.25 send] is Oe||, 0a: ||coveueres 549 FAV ETASC OM AGNI Seevcusescecesssvees| asus |sececsees laeeecanes||tuencncee|laceessens|=eanencer 483 |} 451 The table shows that on the average 451 pounds of grain or meal, when wet or soaked, were equal in feeding value to 483 1 Bul. 22. 2 Bul. 28. 3 Bul. 29. Investigations with Swine. 549 pounds of dry grain or meal, a difference of 7 per cent. in favor of using wet or soaked meal. The results show that the soaking of corn is about as useful in increasing its feeding value as grinding. Experiment Stations should give more data on both these important matters. 838. Value of exercise.— At the Utah Station,1 Mills gathered data on this subject with pigs during trials lasting four years. Some of the animals were confined in small pens, others in yards, while still others had the run of pastures. The pigs used were the common stock of the region, weighing about 75 pounds each when the trials began. A summary of these trials is as follows: Results of four years’ trials with pigs confined in pens and allowed exercise in yards and pastures — Utah Station. : Feed for Daily | “100 Ibs. Sli of gain. Pies contined im sma pens.............ccacoscressavcucsleee .90 Ibs. 512 Ibs. Pigs allowed exercise in yards and run of pastures.| 1.10 lbs. | 420 Ibs. These figures show .2 of a pound greater daily gain, and a sav- ing of 92 pounds of grain, or 18 per cent. of the feed, in making 100 pounds of gain, in favor of yard and pasture over close con- finement. The reader should remember that the results were obtained with shotes, and that the pastures should be credited with the food they furnished, which is of course an unknown amount. (903) 839. Value of shelter.— At the Kansas Agricultural College, * Shelton tested the value of shelter during winter with ten pure- bred Berkshires, weighing from 200 to 250 pounds each, divided into two lots of five each. One lot was placed in a warm base- ment, each pig occupying a pen by itself. The pigs in the other lot were likewise kept in separate pens, but in an open yard, the only protection being a board fence on the north. The trial began November 27, lasting ten weeks. The outdoor temperature ranged from 12 degrees below to 31 above zero, Fahr., and the indoor tem- perature from 19 to 42 degrees above. The pigs were given all the 1 Bul. 40. 2 Rept. Prof. Agr., 1883. 556 Feeds and Feeding. shelled corn they would consume without waste, with the results stated below: Sheltering pigs in basement of barn as opposed to keeping in the open yard — Kansas Agricultural College. Feed for Total feed ‘ Total gain. | 100 Ibs. consumed, gain. Biesikept in Warns. 2.5. .1sohssceessnne: 2,878 lbs. 604 Ibs. 476 lbs. Pigs kept in open yard.................. 2,844 lbs. 479 lbs. 593 lbs. We learn from the above that the pigs kept in the open yard required 117 pounds, or 25 per cent., more corn for 100 pounds of gain than those given shelter. 840. Food of support.— Sanborn’s investigations! in this line are the only ones reported for this country. In these trials pigs were fed middlings, the aim being to supply just sufficient food to keep the animal at even weight — neither gaining nor losing. The difficulties of such an undertaking are apparent to the thoughtful stockman. The findings are as follows: Maintenance allowance or food of support for the pig — Missouri Agricultural College. ence Per cent. No. of aunne. Days | Feed | Total Jjof live wt. Time pigs. | trial 8) fed. | eaten. | gain. ae i i aily Lbs. Lbs. Lbs 3 48 21 63 1.5 2:1 Summer. 6 172 18 852 | 20.0 1.9 Winter (warm). 6 173 10 172 3.0 17 Winter (warm). 12 175 28 1,184 3.0 2.0 Summer. In these trials the pigs always made a slight gain, but it was so small that we may ignore it, the error being on the right side. We learn that pigs weighing 48 pounds require 2.1 pounds of middlings for the maintenance or support of one hundred pounds of live weight, and that pigs weighing from 172 to 175 pounds required from 1.7 to 2 per cent. of their live weight in middlings 1 Bul. 28, Mo. Agr. Col. Investigations with Swine. 551 for maintenance. In general, then, and until this matter is worked out more fully, we may say that a pig requires for its main- tenance two pounds of feed of value equal to middlings for each 100 pounds of live weight. 841. Weight, gain, and feed consumed by pigs.— At many of our Stations records of weights and gains of pigs and feed con- sumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies con- cerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on the consumption of feed. All of the available data from trials of this character conducted in this country up to the time of going to press enter into the composition of the table given below. In compiling this table, six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation of these articles. For convenience of study, the data are presented for each period cov- ering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight of the pigs, however, being given for each division. Data relative to feed, weight and gain of pigs — Many American Stations. . : = oy siieret | on jee Bee | ac ie Sf |nS!] & Og a.) Bol iae ores a 4 3 | Bt St : o a O a £0 Sy mH a: 3 =} Weight of pigsin}] 3.5/°2/9 | 85/82} a5} 6% |= pounds. ai/S5|ea|ae| So | 82/9.) 8, S35 |s2\/e2/s8| §$ |os| sel os SFI SS /S5 1/68] 9 | $4] 53] Bo < A A = < = o.c-2.-5: 162 24.2 1.5 era Si Gil yea aes Half grain, half rye shorts......... 159 24.9 1.4 Qe ee Aa NG Rye shorts........... 145 26.6 t.3 3.7 1 eed al ec 16 The number of points for softness of pork increased rapidly with the feeding of rye shorts, and the classification of the car- casses showed that a poor quality of pork was produced when this feed was given. 896. Wheat bran compared with rye and barley.— Trials with wheat bran compared with barley or rye for pigs! were conducted during 1890-92 on five different farms and included 115 pigs, the trials lasting 112 days. Wheat bran was fed against rye on some farms and against barley on others, skim milk or whey being fed in addition. In four out of five trials the largest average gain was made by the lots fed grain, closely followed by those re- ceiving a mixture of five parts barley or rye and seven parts wheat bran for every ten parts of grain fed the other lots. Bran alone did not produce as good results as a mixture of equal parts of grain and bran. ‘The one-sided bran feeding in several instances caused sickness among the pigs, while none occurred in the other lots. Wheat bran has an appreciably lower nutritive value than barley or rye for pig feeding. In scoring the carcasses, the pork produced on wheat bran was found to be of poorer quality than that produced on grain, and shrank more in dressing, although the results were not so unfavorable with wheat bran as were the previous experiments with rye shorts. (175, 177-8, 855) 1 Rept. 26, 1892. Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 595 897. Grain compared with boiled potatoes.— Three series of ex- periments! were made to test the comparative value of cooked potatoes with grain, when both were fed in connection with skim milk or whey. Four pounds of potatoes were fed against one pound of grain, and the gains made were practically the same. Four pounds of boiled potatoes should thus be considered equal to one pound of grain in pig feeding. The quality of the pork produced from potato feeding was good and did not differ appre- ciably from that of lots differently fed. 898. Comparative feeding value of mangels? and grain.?— For the purpose of determining the comparative value of mangels and grain as feeds for pigs the trials reported below were conducted. All lots received skim milk or whey in addition to the grain and roots, except Lots E and F, to which an equivalent of additional roots was given. The average daily gains are shown below: Average daily gain of pigs fed grain and mangels — Copenhagen Station. 10 lbs. roots= 8 Ibs. roots= 1 lb. of grain. | 1 1b. of grain. Grain. | Roots. | Grain. | Roots. BoisrAs BC and Wisi Noise satseccseeks .76 lbs. | .83 lbs. | .85 lbs. | .86 Ibs. MV OPA ETC we ts. cg Suva wsslane'saovanaconeaiiaewensevens COG NOS, |i. eas ene .89 lbs. The above shows that ten pounds of mangels were more than equal, and eight pounds about equal, to one pound of grain in these trials. The quality of the pork produced by the different lots was very satisfactory; even where one-fourth of the daily feed was given in the form of roots, no deleterious effect was noticed. (38) 899. Grain compared with beets of different sugar content.— A preliminary feeding experiment* with beets of different sugar con- tent was made in 1890 to ascertain their comparative feeding val- ues. Mangels containing 12.71 per cent. dry matter and 8.93 per 1 Rept. 19, 1890. ? In the Danish experiments all roots were fed uncooked, unless other- wise noted, and either whole or sliced, generally the latter. (316, 658, 866 3 ‘rept. 1890. « Rept. 26, 1892. 596 Feeds and Feeding. cent. sugar were fed against fodder beets containing 19.86 per cent. dry matter and 13.8 per cent. sugar, or against barley. The experiment included 25 pigs averaging 79 pounds each, and lasted 70 days. The indications were that for pigs one pound of barley had a feeding value equal to six to eight pounds of mangels, or four to eight pounds of fodder beets. In experiments! during 1891-92, lots including 204 pigs were fed four kinds of roots in addition to dairy refuse and grain. The roots used were: (1) Eckendorf mangels, containing 11 per cent. dry matter and 6.7 per cent. sugar; (2) Elvetham mangels, con- taining 13.6 per cent. dry matter and 8.9 per cent. sugar; (3) fod- der sugar beets, containing 16.5 per cent. dry matter and 10.9 per cent. sugar; (4) sugar beets, containing 21.2 per cent. dry matter and 14 per cent. sugar. The lots fed barley only, made the largest gain, closely followed by those half of whose grain was replaced by roots in the following ratio: For 1 pound of barley was substituted 7.5 pounds of Eckendorf mangels, 6.5 pounds of Elvetham mangels, 5 pounds of fodder beets and 4 pounds of sugar beets. These quantities of the different kinds of roots proved nearly equivalent in feeding value. ‘The authorities conclude that about 40 per cent. of the daily ration of the pig may be advantageously made up of roots. The data secured at slaughtering time led to the conclusion that the feeding of roots to the extent practiced in these experiments produced pork of a quality fully equal to that resulting from grain feeding. (320) 900. Carrots compared with mangels.— In 1892-—94,? experi- ments were conducted on nine different estates with 893 pigs, divided into 175 lots. It was found in the comparative trials that carrots and mangels containing equal quantities of dry mat- ter had similar values in pig feeding; in other words, the amount of dry matter in roots is of importance rather than the total weight or the quantity of sugar contained. (317) 901. Turnips compared with whey.— When feeding barley and whey to pigs, turnips were substituted for part of the whey. In two experiments? with 30 animals, barley and whey gave an in- 1 Rept. 26, 1892. 2 Rept. 30, 1895. 2 Tbid. Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 597 crease of 1.08 pounds daily per head, while turnips gave only .96 pounds, showing that whey had a higher feeding value, pound for pound, than turnips. (319) 902. Grain compared with blood bread.— Blood bread prepared from blood and barley meal, baked in an oven the same as ordi- nary bread, was compared! with grain in two trials with 40 animals, lasting 138 and 120 days, respectively. Four lots of pigs were fed grain and four lots blood bread. Two lots in each trial received skim milk and two whey in addition to the con- centrated feed. The results are as follows: Results of feeding blood bread in comparison with grain — Copenhagen Station. : Av. daily gain Average weight. per Reo Feed per head per day. Grain Ouro (rye, or | Blood | Grain rye and | bread. | fed. ii barley). Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1.64 Ibs. cone. feed, 15.5 Ibs. milk..... 58.6 58.4 98 74 2.46 Ibs. cone. feed, 10.6 lbs. milk..... 58.4 58.4 .97 .65 PNT OTMO coho ae cis teranveasncncceabs uiescaue|batabeuscateess| tuscabaveons .98 .70 1.77 ibs. cone. feed, 20.6 lbs. whey, AAs. Sloman 3. dec sscacesins success ss 61.6 61.4 1.00 79 2.65 Ibs. cone. feed, 10.8 lbs. whey, HM) Miysteicina rake, 2a. 8s alesse sce «ee 61.6 61.4 1.13 87 PAV CTAD Clea sceocrseetethereccesatisstescetestHseenes iy Bestel eatbeie sees: 1.07 .83 Averare of both trials: 2.25 s.02s-2|/-ssessowserey-|onsdosceaes 1.02 .76 The blood bread contained more water than was supposed when the experiments were started. Its average percentage chemical composition was as follows: Water, 59.6; protein, 20; starch, 16.1; fat, 4; cellulose, 2.4; ash, 1.5. The trials showed the blood bread decidedly inferior to rye or barley when fed in connection with skim milk or whey. It was concluded that had it contained less water different results might have been secured. It is possible, however, that baking the bread may have lowered its feeding value for pigs, the same as 1 Rept. 15, 1889. 598 Feeds and Feeding. does cooking feed. A study at slaughtering time of the carcasses of the pigs fed as described on the preceding page gave the re- sults shown in the following table: Average data at slaughtering time with hogs fed blood bread and grain — Copenhagen Station. A oe No. of carcasses Feed. ioe live Shrink-| ¢hick- |Softness in class. weight.| 28°: | ness of Of Pork, |.) oie eee OES r. | 1. |rrr.| rv. Lbs. Lbs. | Inches.| Points. Grain with milk...... 192 26.0 1.6 Ue Uf Slicdvccalectees Blood bread with 182 32.2 1.3 Bcd | TOUS seen sees TN haere ae ch Grain with whey.....|. 178 26.4 1.4 2.8 T Mncocgteeaees 2 Blood bread with WHEY j.cs03. eeetoaset 158 29.2 12 4.6 oy Bees ese 5 The results show that the quality of the pork produced by the lot fed blood bread was on the whole inferior to that produced by the grain-fed lot. In regard to shrinkage, and the quality of pork as shown by the number of points for softness for the different lots, the live weights of the lots fed blood bread and milk were more in accord with the demands of the market than those of the correspond- ing lots fed grain. This explains why all animals in this lot were placed in ClassI. Besides yielding soft pork with consider- able shrinkage, the blood bread showed a tendency to produce too thin an external layer of fat, making what the pork-packers calf a ‘‘skinny’’ carcass. (338) Il. Various Problems in Pig Feeding. _ 903. Shelter for pigs.— Two experiments! were made with eight pigs each, separated into two lots, each pig receiving the following feed daily: 6.2 pounds skim milk; 6.5 pounds whey; 2.2 pounds rye, barley, corn and peanut meal, mixed. ‘ Lot I ran in the open yard during the day, while Lot II was 1 Rept. 10, 1887. Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 599 kept indoors. The experiment lasted 130 days, with the average weights and gains shown in the table: Results of shelter tests with pigs — Copenhagen Station. Experiment I. | Experiment IT. Av. daily Av. wt Av. wt. in Av. gain, at be- 3 at be- both pie |e | tee ee eg ning. | 84 ning. eat Pigs kept indoors................ 64.5 .80 63.8 81 .80 Pigs kept outdoors.............. 64.0 91 62.5 .87 .89 The number of animals in the trial is too small to allow gen- eralization, but the result favors exercise for light pigs. (838) 904. Effect of addition of water to feed.— Three experiments! were conducted with 68 pigs, the trials continuing 60, 120 and 160 days, respectively. In Experiment I the skim milk and buttermilk fed Lot A was diluted with twice its volume of water; Lot B received one-half this quantity of water. In Experiments Ii and III as much water was added to the milk of Lot A as there was skim milk. Lot B was allowed water at will, supplied separately. The feed eaten and gains are shown in the table: Results of watering the feed of pigs — Copenhagen Station. | . : be Daily Skim | Butter-| 3 in. |W AV es milk. | milk. = Grain. ater. wt. fe a Expt. I, Lot A..| 3.0 3-0. | s8s04) 428. |. 12.0) | 127.8 Expt. I, Lot B..| 3.0 BO) Seon 2S 6.0 | 129.0] .71 Expt. II, Lot A.| 14.5 1.0) (eee 26 | 14.5 | 72.71 92 Expt. II, Lot B.| 14.5 Lor os 2.3 2.6% | 72.2] 1.02 Expt. III, Lot A| 10.5 EGaleee 1,80. | -10y5y.| 27.0). 6s Expt. Il, Lot B] 10.5 10: sae 1.3 1.0% | 29.3] .67 * Water ad libitum. The average of the three trials shows a daily gain of .78 pounds for Lot A, getting water with their feed, and .80 pounds for Lot 1 Rept. 10, 1887. 600 Feeds and Feeding. B, getting less water. As the results are practically equal, it cannot be said that the addition of water to the skim milk was a disadvantage in these trials. 905. Winter and summer feeding compared.— Pig-feeding ex- periments conducted by the Copenhagen Station! since 1887 have been summarized with a view of obtaining information concern- ing the amount of feed required for 100 pounds of growth in winter and in summer. In all trials the skim milk, whey, roots, ete., fed have been reduced to their grain equivalent as deter- mined by the various trials. The animals were separated into three groups, according to their live weight. The following aver- age results as to feed eaten for one pound of increased live weight were obtained: Feed consumed for one hundred pounds increase with pigs in winter and in summer — Copenhagen Station. Feed eaten (grain | Feed (grain equiv- Period of —|No. ofexperiments} equivalent) per alent) for 100 growth and day per head. Ibs. gain. average weight am of pigs. Winter.| Summer. |Winter.| Summer. | Winter.| Summer. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 35to 75 Ibs..... 10 17 2.66 2.65 371 346 75 to 115 Ibs..... 43 39 3.96 38.92 446 397 115 to 15d Ibs..... 47 43 8.2 5.25 516 457 Totals and averages ...| 100 99 3.96 3.94 444 400 The table gives the average results of 100 experiments in win- ter and 99 in summer. Since each trial included from 20 to 30 animals, or more, we have the average results obtained with feeding at least 2,500 animals. The feed for one pound of gain, given in ‘‘totals and averages,’’ is the arithmetical mean of each set of three figures in the different columns, the data for each period of growth being considered of equal value without regard to the number of experiments included in each, since all the groups contain an ample number of experiments to give a true expression of the feed requirements of the animals embraced within each period. Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 601 We note that the pigs ate only a little more feed in winter than in summer, and that it required 44 pounds or 11 per cent. more feed in winter than in summer to produce 100 pounds of gain. The figures given doubtless express the feed requirements of pigs under ordinary conditions in Denmark. The climate of Denmark is tempered by cool summers and is not excessively cold in win- ter. The average temperatures observed during the trials are given in the following table, the figures being for the air, stable and feed: Temperatures recorded in pig-feeding trials — Copenhagen Station. No. of experi- Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit. ments. Period of owe Winter. Summer. IRCA Pt re) INSI EDS C8 BES eee ra pe Air.| Stable. | Feed.|Air.| Stable. | Feed. 35 to 75 Ibs.... 9 17 Bd.0lbs4 7200 | O0.2) 108.8] 6.2 | 5924 75 to 115 lbs... 36 35 34.3) 48.7 Sle [5922 6152 59.9 115 to 155 Ibs...) 25 24 36.0). 49.1 | 52.9 156.1) 59.9 | 58.3 The table shows there was an average difference of only 20 or 25 degrees Fahr. between the summer and winter temperature when the experiments were conducted. These differences show a narrower range than prevails in most parts of the United States. 906. Light versus heavy feeding.— In two series of experiments with 60 animals in all,! the influence of the intensity of feeding on gain was made a special object of investigation. One experi- ment lasted 120 days, the other 210 days. The feeds used were barley, buttermilk, skim milk and whey. Results from heavy and light feeding — Copenhagen Station. Av. wt. of : : : Grain for : Grain fed/pigs at be-| Gain per Feeding. daily. ginning of| day. TOONS: exp’t. gain. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Lbs Siphtee eee. | 3.61 34.9 92 391 i eh IE Ce ae eee ean arr ere Oem 4,23 35.0 1.07 397 Blears es, 4.51 | 35.1 1.12 404 1 Rept. 30, 1895. 602 Feeds and Feeding. These results indicate a tendency toward a poorer utiliza- tion of the feed in the heavier feeding; the differences obtained are not, however, so great as in the case of winter and summer feeding. 907. Feed required for 100 pounds of gain.— In the following table! the grain or its equivalent required for 100 pounds of gain is reported for 355 animals in 16 experiments. These trials were with pigs ranging from 35 to 315 pounds, live weight. The figures given in the second line of the table are the arithmetical means of all figures for pigs coming within the range of live weight given in each column. Seven experiments supplying additional data for the five intermediate periods are given in the third line. The results of these important investigations are summarized in the following table: Grain or equivalent fed to produce 100 pounds gain with pigs — Copenhagen Station. Average weight of pigs in lots — i Il. TIL. IV. We VI. VII. 35-75 |75—-115}115—155] 155-195 |195—235 |235-275|275-3 15. lbs. | Ibs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. No. of experiments..... 3 10 13 15 14 11 3 Av. feed required, Ibs..| 376 | 485 | 466 513 540 614 639 Av. feed required in seven comparative | experiments, Ibs.......|...:..+: | 437 | 465 499 543 624 | We notice a steady increase in the feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain with increasing weight of the animals. Pigs. weighing 275 pounds required nearly twice as much feed for 100 pounds of increase as those weighing from 35 to 75 pounds. (845) 908. Barrows compared with sows.— The following table, ? which includes data obtained from 1,216 animals, gives informa- tion concerning the comparative fattening qualities of barrows and sows. Although data from a large number of animals were employed in the computation, the table shows no practical difference in 1 Rept. 30, 1895. 2 Loe. cit. p Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 603 the results obtained for the two sexes as regards either gain, shrinkage, or quality of carcass. Comparative fattening qualities of barrows and sows — Copenhagen Station. No. of animals Barrow. | Sow. in trials. —_——_—— | |) | Av. wt. per head at beginning, lbs.| 54 55 586 630 Av. wt. per head at close, Ibs........ 167 165 575 613 Animals dropped during expts.....|.............sc]sssecesseese 11 17 Daily gain per head, Ibs............... 987 975 575 613 Shrinkage, per cent................s00 22.6 23.2 364 373 Thickness of pork, inches............ 1.5 GAY, | |Soateaccoscacss|teceeses tee Softness of pork, points................ 1.4 be OM ete has. cadeveineneonsensee Length of body, inches................ 33.3 Got pe lusts cass secede | Sacceweceaae Percentage classification: Oia) Mi siecds stivencusccteonevsddsles teens 44 56 160 209 iene Ein ccrcsisnvectsvevasccessceass 33 29 120 108 Clase UT isd Abies te esiesiledeceosthsan vas 20 12 72 43 SY ee rclan cose gacsees sencanancenene: 3 3 12 13 909. Breed tests.— Six essentially pure breeds of swine,? in- cluding 120 animals in all, were compared, the trials lasting 148 to 168 days each, with the following average daily gains: Results of breed tests — Copenhagen Station. Average weight at begin-| Average daily gain Brecd ning of trials. per head. I II III. i II III Lbs Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Viendsyssel. ci -sccsccc55: 20.5 URE a Mee cee .99 O48 liccceteesess INGUIN ee eens DOSER Rear kore 19.9 tO) Wael ees .92 EVGISTC DOs eeeeoseceeseses OY ME [eres mee roti) Seeker oo: BR Bacher eric Banecnce re TATNIWOLUN!-cccccecsestses| 7,9)|,28.6|..47.5 | 1:9 9 Red top, cut in bloom......... 8.7| 4.9] 8.0] 29.9| 46.4) 2.1 3 Kentucky blue grass........... 22 6.3 le F.8o2a.0 | S728. Sterol 622 Feeds and Feeding. Ss Percentage composition. Nitro- | Ether Water.| Ash. Er erade gen-free| ex- * }extract.| tract. Feeding stuffs. RouGHAGE — continued. tlay from grasses — con. Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed in milk...........| 24.4] 7.0] 6.3 | 24.5] 34.21] 38.6 Kentucky blue grass, cut WV IER SCEU TUDGs ss ccsseecenees 27.8 | 6-4) (s8-).23.8 | 3o22)) ao Hungearign: Srass, - 2.0 ..0-.-5-4. Tita) SGNOR tse | 2i.0-| ASCO sh eae Meadow; feSCier..c-scucsss- 0-00 2020.) 362851) 720) | 25:9 | ‘SS2a oem Malian rye! orass.:...0:.52..3.4 S255) GSI ieo: | 30e0) |) 450m neal Perennial rye grass............ 1430) S79 n OM |) 2524) “40con| eet Rowen. (Maxed)! 2: hiccnceennce 16.65) G38 a PhIsG6 122.0) ) 20nd sae Mixed grasses and clovers...| 12.9 | 5.5 | 10.1 | 27.6] 41.38 | 2.6 Barley hay, cut in milk.....) 15.0 | 4.2 | 8.8 | 24.7] 44.9] 2.4 Oat hay, cut in milk ......... TS 2On | os2e! e923 292251 “SONOm eas Span ay tls. se heats 1160) 6371.2 | 26.6 | 45.95 ee Salt-miarshohay (.).scc.25sseres- 10.4] 7.7] 5.5] 380.0] 44.1] 2.4 Wald-oat srassi.t 0s. se.csioe.8: 143888 10.0| 25.0 | 48-8 lie BUTLER CUPS Mies she Sedienwette OV Sh OR OM into eo | SORGH| wale money White. daisy. -.cccrssshedece cane 10/3) (Gi6) | 7.7 | 80:0 | 42.0) (ad SOHNSON PTASS 0.005 ck schetewnts 10.2:}7 6.3) 7.2 | 28.5 | 45.9 |) 20m Fresh grass. Pasture @8Aas!s.occss-ccses echoes 8020 | 2:0) 3:5 | 4.0 90°72). 0OR8 Kentucky blue grass........... Go. 1 258: j-4.0 O04 Weel aes Timothy, different stages...) 61.6 | 2.1] 38.1] 11.8|] 20.2); 1.2 Orchard grass, in bloom...... 7320) 280256 4 8.2) 13a eaee Red top, in bloom.............. Gots Zeon eco [ALO 7% one Oat fodder. .s..eestestedenee pee G20 2200 Ieee | Ad 20 POPS mee Eve fodder ye. i225 Bic seke ence (6VGol ie eSa | iee226" |) OIG 6.8} 0.6 Sormhum fodder «.:..2i.2.....-+% TOE Sue el elo! Gla elle Gis Barley fodders.f...s.5ssee. s.uee: COLO LE Se ee rie 8.0 | 0.6 Hungarian grass.............04. ABSA ied Wairoa) Fs cotegl Kin ada eee ERED} <0). Meadow fescue, in bloom...! 69.9 | 1.8] 2.4] 10.8] 14.3] 0.8 Italian rye grass, coming ANCO) DIOONI, et ene ase denset ces 73.2)|) Qo 3.1 1 6.8 | desea dee Tall oat grass, in bloom...... 69.5) | 220)))..2.4.| 9.4 | doe Seas Japanese millet................+. (EAD ON | TESST ASI al reroll]! 10) Barnyard millet................. 75.0 | 129 | 2.4) 7.0 | Td Ore Hay from legumes. Red! cloweryiz.cacsestiscene tee 1553) Gl 2e1F12-3 | 24.8) 88 ieee Red clover, in bloom.......... 20.8} 6.6 | 12.4 | 21.9 | 33.8 | 4.5 Red clover, mammoth........| 21.2 | 6.1 | 10.7 | 24.5 | 33.6] 3.9 Alsike clover, 2% ..ccdcsheancess: 9.7 |) 8.31 12.8 | 25.6 | 40.7) 2.9 White clover jet: ssctscssteseteuas 9.7 | S83 } 15.7.) 24.1. | o89.8ap 28 Crimsom Cloverics: ss; 2cdscn oe. OPCs SeG 15.2 | 272251" 36. 60lpees Japan Clover. ik ..oecsssssce: 11.0] 8.5 | 18.8 | 24.0} 39.0} 3.7 AN UECELLU eo care shee pucmeateetec aes: 8.4 |) eG | 14.8 |.25.0) |) 42 ee OW PCat dere seasatecteswede tee: 10.718 78 |):16.6 | 20.1) 422) sae PSO] se DOAN ot: docdat ocsuciesnhs as dus 11.3.|. 7:2 | 15.4 | 22.3] 88.6) 5.2 PCQEVITIONS © 2uh eee aneteabeesdsaes 15.0:)) 687 |. 18.7 | 24.7 | 387.6). 2.38 ABLE IT. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. No. of analyses, — DDD KH CORR RAE POW > one me bo a Phe PEEP IOURSAO ) Appendix. 623 TABLE I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. Percentage composition. 2 on Feeding stuffs. Pro- | Crude| Nitro- | Ether of Rey ee reritetns, siber: |S ee| wack. |g RouGHAGE — continued. Hay from legumes — con. Wetchit Sictetieetesscatesh anbcet TES ey FeOnte O | 2ol4 | 36.0 | Les 5 Serradella cccccsncocs seesesescesss ORO Tele oso lal G ah 442s 21206 3 Wat Wetitee.cct otek ecann sew eae Sols TAG 2209) (2622 | SPA 3.2 5 Peanut vines( without nuts)| 7.6 | 10.8 | 10.7 | 23.6 2.71 4.6 6 SHH TUIONW Ty ancnonoddadcousaaseosocdeas 1530 | 723) |) 14758" | 20241" 39.5) 3:20 1 Fresh legumes. Red clover, different stages.} 70.8 | 2.1] 4.4] 8.1] 13.5] 1.1] 48 AUSIKG) GION ED Jccssses-sec-eeceesce (AtSh ee ce ONlOron ioe. eel Onl ORS 4 OimMSOME COVERS sezscesceeccee es SOLIE Wea |e |p one 8.4] 0.7 3 2.15071] Lies i ae ee oe Ba TALBe |) 28 Tyce Si Tea EZ BPW, DO De WOWIDORE 6 de cdsetiesccscdescseesh ots SorG NAC Gli: | £58 tl Ose eae PIGJAMWEAT 05 cco std sc sbeeu ocvesas ea: Torte) ) 26s Gots! 1O6ul lL . Ou 27 DELTA CCT A WIRE ses aseeee escent a) WTA Arne Maya! SO | OS ee 9 IEVOTSC DCAM ve .3scteteseesessee oes SAPO eZ 258) 429 6.5 | 0.4 2 PMB CRE : nceente wcosdapeacepcs cect GOR Tene NO eiin econ |e Uae eels 2 Straw WiADGaG acc tcscces taeiceteeeereceaes 9.6} 4.2] 3.4] 388.1] 48.4] 1.3 U RIV Ob necaescats sc accesescneusseeie ese Too) Stl] §8204)-38 941 4666) bh 12 7 CUE a et Se a ae O59) ball 4.0 Si-O), 42,4.) 2:3 pee 12TH Shao ao ley Ca an 14e QS bea |e Sno) 3620) hr BOs0) 1 eae (Oe WiheatiGh afin. .: secctssseceesss ASE OE) eS onimoosO i S456) |) Mea icone aie alt ch owas see ecte econ cceeeecs 14S SOLON 42 On Sas0 | BG l2) ular lasses: Buckwheat straw ............... 9.9| 5.5] 5.2 | 48.0] 35.1 1.3 3 PEM PU IOANE 15.5 8 ced ok ethos oevess 10.1} 5.8] 4.6] 40.4] 37.4] 1.7 4 EVOTSCIDERIN cs. dee eee esncesececses: OPOD IP Shia |, SbStoiO) || is4e0)|| tee 1 Silage. MU OLIN at acnnieeste eset sees seccuets TOL ale Wee GLO} TOA nOSBih = 09 SAD LOTMA ry esG. chess sdeskeee cece (Obs ie ele OES: | G24. |) loronOls 6 HCC CLON CYS oe sea aicos sw a chnesaecd. 7220) |) e2e6r 422) 8.4 | 116.) a2 5 3,0) fe 2, Se 1 eae ey oe TAL ZED 2eOr eae Oe t GEO nl ean 1 Apple POMACEs......20.c..ec.ce: 85.0 | 0.6) 1.2] 3.3 SeSule elias 1 COWPEA VINE. 6. ele teecsecs. oe TOLD) hs Aron 6.0 W20\\, qlee 2 Cowpea and soja-bean vines, PRIME ec dict oAvosssceke becouse GOSH Pee on enor S ult Oro) slide lo ilies i Field-pea vine...................: SOM ono; | Peonen |p la20) |e. 2620) | abeG 1 Barnyard millet and soja [C20 Sconces ee TOO 228 268") 722. Mee) 0420 9 Corn and soja bean ............ BO cee Bee) 2h Abeas|, 058 4 EGY han tages eaneescre- sas sSecasecuseces 80.8 | 1.6] 2.4] 5.8 9.2} 0.3 1 Roots and tubers. POLALON cvecssnemesandeceseeeeeeaaees S91 Oe 2d |) O.6.) V8) Oty ae Beets, COMMON |........002.0000 SSron LEON he done O89 8.0} 0.1 9 Beet, SUGAR. 2. ..scctesonsesoses: S6z0) 1) OL9ri 18), O29 928) | OnLs eel Beet, mangel ....1sccsscceceees sss S059) | ae ean O29 5.5] 0.2 9 BRNEREDU cote a ds's - neon e bameasctee. © SOZS, | NOSSr i) ade 12 6.2| 0.2 3 EVUU AOA es -. cenecensen ces ecess SEGnledeom) ele2ii) 233 Ton] 10.2 4 624 Feeds and Feeding. TABLE I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. Percentage composition. He z On Feeding stuffs. Pro- | Crude| Nitro- | Ether} 62 Wares) oar |, vale) tihers | Breet | ieee Roots and tubers— con. CR IrOt ce secaccs sattestesiacecesie as S826) 220°], ie acs 7.6] 0.4 PASH Sere saasagsses asec cuceeete et $8.3 1) O07) 26-4 1.0.) 10,2 |. 0720s ATUICH OKO 22.2 eonsececsssvencesss 25" 1205) 2264 (028) > 15.0 aoe 2 Sweeb potato - 2. .0h sss wel We WO aie 23}: 24 Tahoe 6 MISCELLANEOUS. Cabbagers.!), G28 3. ied A 90.5} 1.4] 2.4] 1.5 3.9 | 0.4 2 SDUETY oki sc ciceraeweteu eee estes, Tost | AsO S270" |- 429°) 127 Ons 1 Sugar-beet leaves ............... 88.0} 2.4] 2.6] 2.2 4.4] 0.4 }...... Pumpkin (field)..f3.056360.2: 90:9 + > OLG7 a oily L.7 5.2) |) Oca Pumpkin (garden) ............ SOfS3|) O29n eal Smiles 79 ORSm | erence Prickly comfrey 2.035. s0s.) Feeding stuffs, om g = o m0 Rs S) ° 2 Ks) 2 og a S b ° 3 5 aa = w = He 4 O veee) s A A fy oO A ca a RouGHAGE — continued. Per | Per | Per | Per | Per Corn forage, green —continued Getike jeri Cents (Cents Cem Dent fodder corn, glazing, B. WANVEN((COATSE)) ec cenescanseecessess 2 52 24 46 59 78 M. Sweet fodder corn, roasting ear BEEN edc.cses.sedéscrcsndoescacowaaas 6 72 62 60 adi 79 M. Sw eet fodder corn, in milk...... 2 77 ae 75 81 74 | M Hay from grasses. Meadow hay, rich in protein...) 48 | 67 66 63 68 Bt Te Meadow hay, medium in pro- (PS yes SR Seen aA Sparta era ee 94; 61 57 60 64 53 | L Meadow hay, poor in protein..| 28 | 56 50 56 59 AQ) |e Kae Mumnothy, all’ trials.......)3.c00c0.5 26 | 57 48 52 63 57 | M. Timothy, cut in bloom............ 5 | 60 56 58 63 57 | M Timothy, cut soon after bloom! 10 | 53 45 47 60 53 | M. MTC RAT BTASSS, ccc: ceececcedsessee ress 3| 56 60 61 55 50 | M. BRIG Die esstacescesssenccvecbeneneevees 3] 60 61 61 62 of || M: RUS ATION o.0.0sccc-sesase-secescnsocs 2} 695 60 68 67 64 | M. Mixed, rich in’protein’...........< 20 | 58 58 60 59 48 | M. Mixed, medium in protein...... Dy leaner 40 49 58 50 | M. HROWEN, AVETALE, <2... csesesesnesese 8 | 65 68 66 64 47 | M. Dried pasture | TABS rccssceesesecct I) el 72 77 73 60 | M. PSION TVA. 3 sacaceccaceccccces | Me Sorghum, average.................. 4]| 67 46 59 7 74 | M Barley-simiblOOmME..2.c.csesescseees 4/ 67 72 61 7A 60 | M. Hungarian grass, early to late ROL OOUN tee cea okin eee gach sient 8 | 63 63 70 67 62 | M Barley and peas, full bloom.....| 2 | 60 77 43 61 602 aM Oats and peas, bloom(?) ......... 2] 68 81 57 66 745 SM Rowen grass, mostly timothy, two-thirds grown...............+. 2| 66 72 64 68 52 | M Hay from legumes. Red clover, in bloom.............. 46] 61 62 49 69 62 is Red clover, late bloom, fair CUNY eee cette es eeceteeene se ccd 2| 55 55 46 64 53 | M Red clover, good quality.........) 2] 52 49 48 58 43 | M JANSIKO ya oscsterevesteeecssttveccnensseues 3] 62 66 53 71 50 M WAGs oe.b fect ces coccacascuencexcs 1 | 66 73 61 70 51 | M QTAMSOIN sb .cssacscdanscveeesdeoseeneess 9| 62 69 45 2 44 | M AUPE. I euceamtesoncsaveccceosececves 28. | 60 74 43 66 39 | L Alfalfa, late bloom..............:..- Pa Ra 77 49 64 54 | M Alfalfa, stage not given........... sil Bees ease 69 43 72 48 |M Cowpea-vine, fair quality.........| 2 | 59 65 43 71 50 | M SO[A-WCAT Sate acy secteaacosmccateose & 2) 62 au 61 69 29 | M WWiG CCI sce ecaeescnaee eoaert ee teenace 6 | 65 76 54 66 60 L. Serradella, in bloom............... 2| 62 75 50 63 65 | L IP CAMMUIGRVIMES seakececesbecs vies csties ti 2} 60 63 2 70 66 | M SSQTOM Se needa eas asass vnes neers 2 G2 70 36 74 665) a Appendix. 629 TABLE II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued. a S res ~~ Feeding stuffs. % ce} Z RouGHAGE— continued. Legumes, green. Red clover, late bloom............ 2 Rowen, late bloom ................. 2 Crimson clover, late bloom......|. 3 PAUP ANT aye caccescscesiessecsesecccsessesss 2 Cowpea, ready for soiling........) 2 Soja n, before bloom.......... 2 Soja bean, seed half grown.....| 2 Canada peas, just before bloom Silage. Dent corn, grain milk stage to BOT DUPE eer ac toons sscascoasee-teevsts 17 Dent corn, immature.............. 13 Dent corn, stage uncertain...... 4 Dent corn, fine crushed (steers)} 2 Dent corn, fine crushed (sheep)} 2 Dent corn, uncooked, ears ma- EIDE scenes epeevane seve scccseusacescanss 1 Dent corn, cooked, ears mature} 1 Hint, ears clazing ..:5.0... 3B | 3 A i) Z Per Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | cent 66 53 78 61 52 65 69 56 74 67 45 76 76 57 84 66 50 ui 62 41 73 (il 62 71 64 62 69 64 70 66 60 56 68 64 75 65 54 64 55 Been ees 59 7 wadaaes'es 70 75 75 77 79 68 71 72 55 49 on 60 52 7 59 69 59 69 65 75 Shi MGs lessees 90 en eeey) lise oceses 91 SS eerie Wexssscee. 96 79 43 91 SONG QT ccosces 95 95 100 | 100 93 100 97 87 74 95 98 Ey eospcorees 98 88 83 62 91 63 (24 eed Inoeeece ee 100 93 OBR | reer eae Seadeenes SOK hee eecctedossoeae 82 63 83 84 630 Feeds and Feeding. TABLE II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued. B. Experiments with Pigs. mrt i ei 8 & | 4 : bs EB] 3 d aq. | soi See Feeding stuffs. % gq 3 2 3 3 ee g z Ps ° in Sta eet f= Z A Ay 6) Z? apo || ce Per | Per | Per} Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. Corn meal i A192) 86 40 95 76 L. Cornmeal Pee csienweteeenetecseds 2); 90 88 8 94 80 | M. Corn kernels, whole ............... 1{] 88 69 38 89 46 | M. Corn and cob meal.................. 1 76 76 29 84 82 | M. Peace R pos scst fencceeectieeenes 1] 90 89 78 95 50 | M. IBarleyoiMeal ii. s.cecsotevesdeatesee ts 8} 82 76 15 90 Go)ay | ee Barley Weal... oct. 06c-s00ncesee hee 1] 80 81 49 87 Bie Nie Wheat, wihole oisc.chscscc.-.tcsceciers ? 72 al 30 74 60 M. Wiheat, cracked. 23) sc.0c.4.s<020056 21 82 80 60 83 70 | M. When tishortsigiuntisscece ss tesvesane Daly fan ies 37 Sif. PRU M. IWiheatibranienc..eocsassdessassee: DA (iL 75 34 66 72 | M. TEU C DYARc.555cscnceecsosetectelosaceis-s 2a OG 66 9 75 58 | L 1 RYOLEEY ROR Heer eN Crier Same a ee Se eee 8 | 93 73 55 OR areas We IPOUREO eee sare reee een tne eek ee se uetemee: 4| 97 CPi hcssetes OBR ilaecees M. 1 Dyeiteye ba of Woyors Be eeen ecucaene cee ncee ca: 1 1} ated Geeesenee Vitel Perse se tt L IDES TNE AL soo aa sckcocaceneokosteoawss 8} 92 Die tecteoacs heaeecuee 87 GZ ROUEN NTN eevee eal cestonccseensiaacne 1] 95 UG iisesenan de 99 LS ayy (il Be Appendix. 631 TABLE IIT. AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTIL- IZING CONSTITUENTS IN AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. The data of this table for the digestible nutrients are derived mainly from the two preceding tables. In other cases they are from Bulletin 22, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington; Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen, Woll; Farm Foods, Wolff (English edition, Cousins), and Zusammensetzung der Futtermittel, Dietrich and Kénig. The fertilizing constituents are principally from the Year Book for 1895, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Washington, with additions from Wolff, Dietrich and Konig, and Bulletin 87, New Jersey Experiment Station. Digestible nutrients ||Fertilizing constitu- Dry in 100 pounds. ents in 1,000 pounds. Name of feed. aus Pros Carbo-| Ether Nie: Phos- ie Pounds.|! tein. |arates.| tract. || S¢2 | era. | 2s.- CONCENTRATES, Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Corn, all analyses........:..... 89.1 Goo (OG OAIS: Wn I Bad ve OP acg WQEWINGOUM ..3....ccscccoeresssers 89.4 Mio \MOGr te || ASN 16.5 Ue testcase. FBEMING COL: «J cacesnvesaceescedees 88.7 S20 66321 Ars: || 16.8 |incccssaclecases BIWEEE CODD :.c02.ccsccdecesceeess DIEZ OSES GSAT #750 VBE Glia ccde alco oes WOE CODE cocayc08 ots cesthe sees: 89.3 0.4] 52.5] 0.3 5.0 .6 | 6.0 Corn and cob meal......... 84.9 ACO LOM EO Tah bce | aoe (CAEP ad 01 58 0 Rn a ae ie 90.9 7.4 | 59.8 | 4.6 || 16.3 | 12.1 | 6.8 Glutem meal...................0. 91-8 >|) 25,8 "| 43.3) 11.0) 50:3) 3.3 | 0L5 RQERHMAMMNCAL i o2sctssesccevieeates 89.6 || 9.0 | 61.2} 6.2 || 26.5} 8.01] 5.0 Btarch Tefuse ..........05..0.00. 91.8 || 11.4 | 58.4 | 6.5 |) 22.4] 7.0] 5.2 GaAMO-OlN eM. ....-..ceckscocces 94.3 |) 26.7 | 38.8 | 12.4 || 49.8] 5.1] 1.8 ELOmMINY CHOPS.........00005+<.. 88.9 || 7.5 | 55.2] 6.8 || 16.3] 9.8 | 4.9 Gihuicose meso... o.vsec cess 0c: Oe ESOT alroonesells LAL yi Bite ae loctesevecleeee es Bipar meal ead tvev bones: 93.2) 18%, Polst|..8.7 | 86.8.) 4.1) | 08 Starch feed, wet............... S2sGn|| O20) 2b S723 SSP 10° 0 MONG, 3.5 shes ees. nadveddcen sede 8959, || LO Gd e2a i Lat 235e6 |. 79° ocO High-grade flour............... 87.6 S500 e224 1,059) 1 1869) 2520 Psa Low-grade flour ............... 87.6 8.2 | 62.7 | 0.9 || 28.9 | 5.6 | 8.5 Dark feeding flour............ 90.3 |} 18.5 | 61.3 | 2.0 |} 31.8 | 21.4 |10.9 WV CaaS S200. oc ackesascab 83.1 |) 12.2 /'39.2 |. 2.7 || 26.7 | 28.9 j16.1 Wheat bran, springwheat| 88.5. || 12.9 | 40.1 | 3.4 [[.........[ecscccce|eseone Wheat bran, warter wheat| 87.7 || 12.3 | 37.1 | 2.6 |\.......cslocsccesceleusess Wheat sihorte:s.......5..cc0..0. 88.2 || 12.2 | 50.0 | 3.8 || 28.2 | 13.5 | 5.9 Wheat middlings. ............ 87.9 || 12.8 | 53.0 | 3.4 || 26.3 | 9.5 | 6.3 Wheat screenings.............. 88,4 1) 9.8 | 61:0 | 2.2 || 24.4 | 11.71 8.4 DEG ipestee ct cece ol vsti cua tceuneues 88.4 Sra GOteG tO LTO TG | Sele aye Dress 4 i.c est eeescestcs. 88.4 || 11.5, |.60.3)' | 2.0 || 23.9) ) 22:8 |14.6 REGO SHOTS: .5..0<6sescculscesences 90.7 || 11.9 | 45.1 | 1.6 || 18.4 | 12.6 | 8.1 MS Gey ee seechs cawbiddetee tis dacatts 89.1 sigh | ESC ee alissal | erage BESTE SPLOUIS....6 2..00ec0s-c4e02 $9.8 1) 1826 | Soi. | 1.7 \).80-5 | 1453: ese ——————— eee Feeds and Feeding. TABLE III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. Name of feed. CoNCENTRATES — continued. Brewers’ grains, wet......... Brewers’ grains, dried....... BUCK WNEA Tees .ccecctsccestnes Buckwheat hulls.............. Buckwheat bran............... Sorghum seed............0.-006 Broom-corn Seed........0...+:: ECO COMME eases os eccnetee sense IMIG G cern snes ccdes seresheceneemes 1 EM Esp: 2g< {21210 Dahetyen cee eos cer eerie Linseed meal, old process.. Linseed meal, new process. Cottonisced tht e--s ne Cotton-seed meal .............. Cotton-seed hulls .............. Cocoanutameali es... Palm-anub mele eescaccscese Sunflower seed ................- Sunflower-seed cakes ........ Peat meal eee cece Soja ( Soy’) DeaMe,:..-cseecnseses WOWPedes: ses darensesendescenects FR OTHC DORI. 120s wctsiteedseces oe ROUGHAGE. Fodder corn. Fodder corn, green............ Fodder corn, field-cured.... Corn stover, field-cured..... Dry matter in 100 pounds. © © OO 0 CWwWhrMhL oO DnwHS SCH DNAUDHDUDHO Sahoto on Cra -T Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds. eros Carbo- Hither tein, anata tack: Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Sy) yg) .85 1.4 1527) | S655 5.1 9.2) AT.3 4.2 eos Poze 5.9 12.5 | 46.9 2.8 8.9 | 38.4 el 1a} (eR 0.6 ALS I 72.2 OFS 1.6 | 44.5 0.6 Som aon eo 9.0 | 56.4 6.5 7-7 | 4022) 1.8 2.1 | 27.9 | 0.6 7.4 | 30.4 1.9 FL ooo 5.5 22.0" |- 33.4 5.4 MeONS2.1/| 3.4 7.41) 48.3 2.9 (eS) || Ome 2.7 8.9 | 45.0 35771 20.6) Ur | 29:0 PAGS) || B45 7 7.0 28.2 | 40.1 2.8 £2.) 300) 17.3 Bia | 16290) 12.2 0.3 | 33.1 Lee LOLGosaen| LOLS: 16.0 | 52.6 9.0 220884]. 2920 obo 2) 1936, | 1258 42.9 | 22.8 6.9 25.2 | 23.7 7.5 16.8 | 51.8 0.7 29.6 | 22.3 | 14.4 18.3 | 64.2 ibeil 22.4 | 49.3 1.2 Te Om alan 0.4 2.5 | 34.6 12, NS h eerAge! 0.7 Fertilizing constitu- ents in 1 ,000 pounds. * Phos- Nitro- Hote h gen. | BDOTIC ag Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. 829 Sa ORS 36.2 | 10.3 | 0.9 Cs 17:2 (6 aulpaee D1.6) |. ee 6.2 | 24) gee 10.8 | 1.8} 0.9 5.8.1 ig) alee 7.1 |, :2.940gea 19.7} 26.7 Nga 14.4] 4.4] 2.1 4.9 | 0.7 | 5.2 36.4 | 17.8 |12.8 “42.8 | 21.9 |11.4 ees es eee ees rrr) 20.4 | 8.5 | 3.6 36.1 | 13.9 |10.3 54.3 | 16.6 |13.7 57.8 | 18.3 {13.9 31.3 | 12.7 |11.7 67.9 | 28.8 | 8.7 6.9 | 2.5 {10.2 32.8 | 16.0 |24.0 26.9 | 11.0 | 5.0 22.8 | 12.2 | 5.6 65.5 | 21.5 {11.7 75.6 | 13.1 |15.0 49.6 | 20.0 |18.0 30.8 | 8.2] 9.9 53.0 | 18.7 |19.9 BOs. [sipecsese|eeseee 40.7 | 12.0 |12.9 4.1} 1.5] 3.3 1736.) O42 Se 10.4 | 2.9 {14.0 Appendix. 633 TABLE III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. Digestible nutrients |/Fertilizing constitu- Dry in 100 pounds. ents in 1,000 pounds. Rea oe 10). || Pro. Pe Weiler | witeo:| EHOe | Bo pounds.!/ tein. drates. fee gen. |P ids, ash Sa ol Ta. abe. || Libs. | (ibe: | Labs: |l*Lbs:, | Libs) (Lbs. Fresh grass. Pasture grasses (mixed) ...| 20.0 || 2.5] 10.2] 0.5 || 9.1 | 2.3] 7.5 Kentucky blue grass......... BAU BaOn Apes |: OvSoieccccc, Meat aes Timothy, different stages...) 38.4 || 1.2| 19.1] 0.6 || 4.8] 2.6] 7.6 Orchard grass, in bloom....| 27.0 || 1.5 | 11.4] 0.5 || 4.3 | 1.6] 7.6 Redtop, in bloom.............- Py Mele? |) ee EO MUR 0 | Re J OSU OG MET sscse eke woos ocie'ens a0 37.8 DIG ASEGs|) 10 ASOh le Sein ses Rye FODDER si ocecessececcssacses=c 93.4 OMe MAwi 104 BY op My altel ees: Sorghum............ waceamileetaeas 20.6 0.6 | 12.2] 0.4 OES OaOmons Meadow fescue, in bloom..) 30.1 || 1.5 | 16.8 | 0.4 [[........[esseeeefeeseee Hungarian grass............... 28.9 OOulalexO) 0.4 3.9 IeGelnoee Green barley................0++ SD ede Osos! OLA Nessa aioee celts Peas and Oats.........0.c00.0ss PEO YARNS ele Pel lh NO Nie. ee all ose caliaes se Peas and barley................ EGO GW Foe Ms seme ences: leases : Hay. MEMO EY Heswscicchescacdedsseseees 86.8 DEST AS Ag As ONG woes IROEO Orca rd: STASS). oi: caw. cers: 90.1 AED CAD Ss lea Sidi eA Les RE GEOD sco ctr -n acasuhwrs co ceseseese 91.1 AS 46.9) 00 | is |) Sea, ove Kentucky blue grass......... 76 Sl) Ava Sr.Be <220>||- 11 Oe A On aa 7 Hungarian grass.............., 92.3 || 4.5] 51.7] 1.3 || 12.0] 38.5 |13.0 Mixed grasses................+.- 87.1 5 OS 400 9 12h TA ert 28 Rowen (mixed) ............... 83.4 || 7.9 | 40.1] 1.5 || 16.1] 4.3 /14.9 Meadow fescue................. 80.0 ALOT RARE OO Way, OF9) | 4202/2120 Soja-bean hay ...............0+. B87 N 108 S8o7 | V5 1-93.2. Guz 11028 Oat Day «00.0... eeeeeereerereeees OIL ae SAGAS Nhe dB nll aac s.suheecace see seree Marsh or swamp hay........ 68.40 Ora WOR MOM OoG ioe eee, s Marsh or swamp hay........ OO THe Be Sel AAT Oyo! sroceecon|hescsweds [oeoeds White daisy.................244 SND) 2| ests WC ae BA -a| A |9eae Pa Straw. PUNE wyueeaxcexnvcsasscesetaess 90.4 0.4 | 36.3] 0.4 Sohn enue MOO eens cssccnts sccessovsecanes es 92.9 || 0.6 | 40.6] 0.4 || 4.6] 2.8 | 7.9 UA Tite ese c ec vacecncctee sto ssseeeteees 90.8 12 paseo) OFS 6.2] 2.0 [12.4 PRION ia c3 5s weisocesie copes snateub se 85.8 One Alea VOLGul seth con 2069 Wiheat Chali. 355. .cscss0ccdse0ee 85.7 Ouse Poses LOLS TO 7. 0F hae RATE I oes ecatsoes cceesaec sea: Some iy leap iboon)|) (OT. lnemaeess[-cuesvesslacaes Fresh legumes. Red clover, different stages} 29,2 29) |l4e8) || OFF Seon led 0426 Alsace. DOOM: 262 22..2). 02 e0.005 25.2 2 ese || (O56 ACAD | mide eenO) C@rimson(Clover sin... .s CU cotét i) or) > CO CD et G> OD Carbo- hy- drates. Lbs. ~J 00h CO bo HH ho G0 69 (Se) cosy on MODNNO MWOWO PHOWDDDL eT ee oe Ether ex- tract. Lbs. see eceee 2 ait 0 8 ee SS FPORRrOHS sesesssss WNNNWNNR Ree t ei is mH} Cont Or “Tho bo OCOb WwW > Oroowt Wr oOo oO Fertilizing constitu- ents in 1,000 pounds. . hos- Nitro-ononie | BSE Lbs. | Lbs. |Lbs. 21.9} 5.1 16.8 19.5 5.2 |14.7 17.5 4.0 |13.2 14.3 3.0 [10.2 2.8 ae ial bas 3.2 1.2 | 4.6 2.4 | 0.9 | 4.4 Peas 1.0 | 4.8 1.9 0.9 | 3.8 1.8 1.0 | 3.9 ote) 1.2) 4.9 1.5 0.9 | 5.1 1.8 2.0 | 4.4 2.6] 1.4] 4.7 3.8 Heal || 4685 SO lt Zeon eae 4.1 Lon Gee Sara ellis a hai 4.2 healed) 773k) 4.5 1.5 | 3.6 SSO Mseomaene 113.9 EO) LO 77.5 1120.0 | 2.0 LAs OFZ Ore 14.6 0.5 156.3 5.3 1.9 1.1.8 28.2 | 6265) bal 5660 ]) 20nd 9 5.6 | 2.05129 4.8 Thave | le: 15) 1.4]1.8 Appendix. 635 TABLE IV. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. The table of feeding standards here presented is taken from Mentzel & Lengerke’s Landw. Kalender for 1898. It comprises the standards originally prepared by Dr. Emil v. Wolff for that publication, modified by Dr. C. Lehmann. The standards hay- ing been described at length in Chapter VII of this work, little remains to be added for the guidance of the student in their use. The standards are arranged to meet the requirements of farm animals under normal conditions. The student should not ac- cept the statements in the standards as absolute, but rather as data of a helpful nature, to be varied in practice as circumstances suggest. The statements in the column headed ‘‘Dry Matter’’ should be regarded as approximate only, since the digestive tract of the animal readily adapts itself to variations of 10 per cent. or more from the standard of volume. The column headed ‘‘Sum of Nutrients’? combines the data of the three preceding columns, the ether extract being multiplied by 2.4 before adding. In the first column of this division of the table, marked ‘‘ Crude Fiber=1,’’ all the digestible nutrients are included. In the second division, marked ‘‘Crude Fiber=4,’’ it is assumed that 30 per cent. of the digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients consists of crude fiber, and one-half of this, or 15 per cent., is deducted. This deduction should be made in the case of rations containing much coarse forage. The standards are for animals of normal size. Those of small breeds will require somewhat more nutrients, amounting in some cases to .3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of non- nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live weight of animals. Narrowing the nutritive ratio in feeding full-grown animals is for the purpose of lessening the depression of digestibility, (5!) to enliven the temperament, or to increase the production of milk at the expense of laying on fat. The different standards given for the same class of animals according to performance illustrate the manner and direction in which desirable changes should be made. 636 Feeds and Feeding. In considering the fattening standards the student should bear in mind that the most rapid fattening is usually the most econom- ical, so that the standards given may often be profitably increased. Standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the lacta- tion period with animals yielding milk of average composition. The standards for growing animals contemplate only a mod- erate amount of exercise; if much is taken, add 15 per cent.— mostly non-nitrogenous nutrients — to the ration. If no exercise is taken, deduct 15 per cent. from the standard. Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. S Digestible nutrients. Animal. 3 : 8 fe 4 d Ba 3 maeMente! ae 3 | $8 | sf | -——~_|2¢ ‘s ° Be ah Crude fiber | 5 3 A -¥ Sie elie =1 | =% |% 1 OxER. Lbs} Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. } Lbs. | Lbs. At rest in stall.............:..-. 18} 0.77) 8.0 | 0.1 | 78.9%) (75 nhEss At ight wotlker.:...<.2-as00s 227 1 45/10.051 003°) TO alata At medium work.............. 25 | 2.0] 11.5 | 0.5 | 14.7 | 12.0 | 6.5 At heavy-work..:....5..-....--| 28°) 2.87} 18.0°|> 0.8 |-17.7 | To.0 sax 2. Fattening cattle. - MiTst Period ssc: ..ce.ssnccoscteces 30 | 2.5] 15.0} 0.5 | 18.7 | 15.6 | 6.5 Second Period ...s...ccevecnzs. 30 | 3.0 | 14.5] 0.7} 19.2 | 17.0 | 5.4 MHird PErlOds....ececc..c-eere--e 20. |) 2a | LOLON|! Ola | Oca al nee $. Milch cows. When yielding daily — 11.0 pounds of milk......... 25 | 1.6) 10.0.) 0.3 | 12.8.) 10:2, 06a% 16.6 pounds of milk......... 27 | 2.0 | 11:0} 0.4 | 14.0 | 12.2 620 22.0 pounds of milk......... 29 | 2.5] 18.0] 0.5 | 16.7 | 14.4 | 5.7 27.5 pounds of milk......... 2 1) 3.3) 13.0) 0.8 | 48.2) 16.0 aes 4, Sheep. WOATSO WOOT ctor ccnrenssseecten 20°}) 252) 10:5 | (0.2 | 1222 |) OL OniesE BING WOO] to kesccsewcgescu ersten: 238} 1.5] 12.0} 0.8 | 14.2 | 12.0] 8.5 5. Breeding ewes. IVVAGVTAINIDS ccccascosssscesccne. 2 | 2.9 | 15.0] 0.5 | 19.1 | 16:3)\;826 6. Fattening sheep. Hirst PeOtOd ss neces. -sccesseee: 30} 8.0] 15.0] 0.5 | 19.2 | 16.5 | 5.4 Second period ...-...:.--...:--- 28 | 8.5] 14.5] 0.6 | 19.4] 16.9 | 4.5 7. Horses. NUT OMG WiOUK. jcccdaanonssseniea-eee 20°) 1.5) 9.8 | 024 | 12.0) 100n ere Medium, work, .......02:..s-/. 24.|. 2.0] 11.0 |} O16: | 14.5) ) Tans 6.2 TICS V Ys WOlKic nc csseesserinssccsse 26 | 2.5 | 18.3] 0.8.) 17.7 | 15.6) 620 2.5 | 15.5 | 0.4 19.0 6.6 SUBTOOG BOWS scrdecseecknssMibecesee- 22 TABLE IV. Feeding standards for farm animals— continued. Animal. §. Fattening swine. First period....... Second period ... Third period...... 10. Growing cattle. Dairy breeds. Coecerersees eee eeeeeees Age in Av. live wt. months, per head, lbs. Owiedessecdaeess oat 15 BeSsaS ances SANs cece sss seossace B00. : GMa cavesvetsvessceet « SOOT eseesres ge ho ee ee AU Sesscadecoos TOA sda saiccsececcnts SOOM Ssei ces. 35 11. Growing cattle. Beef breeds. 1 Deas SPSS at ee aS 6 = Oneeaccneeeceaenne 330 (Aa |p RaR eee Cee 550 1A INA Pe eas 750 Soke Sa ern 2, ke 950 12. Growing sheep. W ool breeds. i bal Shee PA A 60 (FANS eeres. crsosseche 75 Sah UR ees enke 80 Uren, os ccepeos 90 Mipma()bone connec roca. sc 100 18. Growing sheep. Mutton Boe 6 ee eer ee went eweee see eeesesees see eee eeene Se rr see rer esnees eee eeseeeee sete wee eeees sere eee eeres ewww ewenee eee tere ens sete e eens sete eeneee stew eee ee res Gur SSccuie vets GaSe Sect n cesses 80 Ul eresdsstscesuccs 100 UES |e eee eee 120 11a.) Sa ee 150 14. Growing swine. Breeding stock. Geese eres 50 GanOvscee engi 100 BG. austhonseeceesse 120 Gan Gries ucsosseees 200 po! WARS a eee 250 15. Growing, fattening swine De! Sree deussarawssets 50 Dai Ovcscdavassecsesves 100 i Mt eee ae 150 Grad aes ckni ccs xae8 200 dent wicagn ep sans 300 Appendix. Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. Digestible nutrients, Sum of nutrients, Crude fiber =] = 637 Nutritive ratio, 1 8 = co Hl & p> 2 A Ay Lbs| Lbs 36 4.5 32 4.0 25) 2.7 23 4.0 24 3.0 27 Ay) 26 1.8 26 1.5 23 4.2 24 BYE) 95 2:5 24 2.0 24 1.8 pe: 3.4 25 2.8 23 2.1 yeu 1.8 pede 1.5 26 4.4 26 3.5 24 3.0 23 2.2 Pepe 2.0 44 7.6 35 5.0 2 elt 28 2.8 25 2 44 7.6 35 5.0 33 4.3 30 3.6 26 3.0 — —_ ao ot lear { oo Nob bop w bo Or ouonwoaoe onuneco — t Sa SCAawon bo _ wONtIworo ooocor Dwr OO ooocre WE OD0OSO 2 rs Lbs. Slee 29.2 22.0 VANE fe) IePR LAO) sie (ell) LS | WS 7, 15.3 | 12.8 14727 | Tes 20.0))) 2L5 19.9 | 19.0 7 Aietoss 15.7 3.9 Ay Sel oee 20.5 | 18.4 LS sOMin Ses 14.8 | 12.8 14,0 | 12.0 TS OO neo 22 | 2029 ZORQ LTS 18.5 | 16.3 16.0 | 13 8 15208) 1258 88.0 30.0 26.0 D252, La, 38.0 30.0 28.0 25.1 22.0 MAIDA WOO PP IOoRO bach OC STS Ne oan) GLOSSARY. Technical terms which may not have been explained in the body of the book are here defined. The botanical names of a number of agricult- ural plants are also given to aid the reader who might otherwise be un- certain which species or variety is meant. Abomasum. The fourth stomach of ruminants. (28) Ad libitum. At pleasure. In case of feeding farm animals, all they will eat of any particular feeding stuff. Albuminoids. The more complex forms of protein. They are usually in- soluble in water or may be rendered so by heat. (10) See Protein. Alfalfa. Medicago sativa. Aliment. Food, nutriment. Alimentary tract or canal. The duct comprising the stomach, intestines, etc., by which food (aliment) is conveyed through the body, and the useless parts evacuated. (32) Alsike clover. Trifolium hybridum. Amides. Protein compounds simpler than the albuminoids, which are capable of transference in the plant, or such as have been reduced to their present form from the albuminoids. (7!) See Protein. Artichoke. Helianthus tuberosus. Ash. The partion of a feeding stuff which remains after it has been burned. Assimilate. The conversion of digested nutrients into the fluid or solid substances of the body. Balanced ration. A combination of farm foods containing the various nutrients in such proportion and amount as will nurture the ani- mal for twenty-four hours, with the least waste of nutrients. Barnyard millet. Panicum crus-galli. Bolus. A rounded mass; the portion of the food ready to be swallowed at one time. Burr clover. Medicago maculata. Calorie. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree Centigrade (or one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit). (61) Carbhydrates. See Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates. A group of nutrients rich in protein and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion in which they form water. The carbohydrates do not contain nitrogen, Glossary. 639 Carnivorous. A term applied to animals that feed chiefly on flesh. Casein. The protein substance of milk which is coagulated by rennet or acids. Castor oil bean. The seed of Ricinus communis. Cathartic. A medicine that acts as a purge. Cellulose. The cell tissue of plants. The lint of cotton and wood pulp are almost pure cellulose. See Crude fiber. Chyle. A milky fluid found in the lacteals, consisting of digested but unassimilated nutrients in solution, and the digested fatty matter of the food in a state of emulsion. (35) Concentrates. The more nutritious portion of the rations of farm ani- mals, embracing such feeding stuffs as corn, oil meal, ete. Corn. See Indian corn. Corn fodder, or fodder corn. Stalks of corn, either green or dried, which are grown for forage and from which the ears or mubbins; if they carry any, have not been removed. Corn stover. See Stover. Cowpea. Dolichos katiang, var. sinensis. Crimson clover. Trifolium incarnatum. Crude fiber. The framework forming the walls of the cells of plants. It is composed of cellulose and lignin, the latter being the more woody portion. (20) Crude protein. See Protein. Diastase. The ferment found in seeds while germinating, especially in malting barley, by aid of which starch is converted into glucose. Digestible matter. The part of feeding stuffs brought into solution or semi-solution by the digestive fluids. Digestible nutrients. The portion of any food constituent that is digested by animals. Digestion coefficient. The percentage of any particular nutrient of a feeding stuff which is found to be digestible. Digestive tract. See Alimentary tract. Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining after the water or moisture contained therein has been driven off by heat. €mulsion. A milk-like mixture of a liquid and a solid, or of two liquids in which one of the constituents, generally fat or oil, is present in suspension in an exceedingly fine mechanical condition. £Ensilage. Asa noun, the forage preserved in a silo; now usually termed silage, which see. Asa verb, to place in a silo. Ergot. A parasitic fungus of poisonous qualities found on some of the cereals and grasses. (283) ther extract. That which is dissolved from a water-free feeding stuff by means of ether. It is often termed ‘“‘fat’’ by agricultural writers. (21) 640 Feeds and Feeding. Excrement. The indigestible or refuse matter of farm foods voided by animals. Fertilizing constituents. The nitrogen and mineral components of feed- ing stuffs. Generally the term applies only to nitrogen, phos- phorie acid and potash, since these are most apt to be lacking in the soil or present in insufficient quantities. Field pea. Piswm arvense. Fodder corn. See Corn fodder. Foot-ton. The work performed in raising a weight of one ton to a height of one foot. Glucose, fruit sugar. The form of sugar found in fruits, honey, etc.; also in the alimentary canal. It can be obtained by treating starch or cane sugar (sucrose) with dilute mineral acids. Glycogen. A carbohydrate resembling starch, found in the liver. Grain equivalent. The term used to designate the comparative value of grain and less concentrated feeding stuffs, such as milk, whey, roots, ete. Gram. A metric weight. 453.6 grams equal one pound avoirdupois. Hairy vetch. Vicia villosa. Herbivorous. A term applied to animals that subsist on vegetable foods. Herd’s grass. See Timothy. Hungarian grass, German millet. Setaria italica, var. germanica. Ibid. In the same place; preceding reference. Indian corn, or maize. Zea mays. Intestine. The lower part of the alimentary canal. (32) Japan clover. Lespedeza striata. Japanese millet. Setaria ttalica, vars. June grass. See Kentucky blue grass. Kaffir corn. Sorghum vulgare. Kentucky blue grass, or June grass. Poa pratensis. Kilogram. A metric weight equal to 2.24 pounds. Lacteals. Minute tubes which take the chyle from the alimentary canal and convey it to the thoracic duct. See Lymphatics. Legumes. Plants belonging to the botanical family Leguminosee. Ex- amples: red clover, peas, beans. Levulose. Invert sugar, obtained with dextrose or grape sugar when cane sugar is heated with dilute mineral acids. Liter. A metric measure of capacity equaling 1.05-++ quarts. Loc. cit. In the place referred to; preceding reference. Lucern. See Alfalfa. Lymph. The colorless fluid found in the lymphatics of the animal body. Lymphatics. The vein-like vessels that convey lymph. (37) Lymphatic system. The system of lymph vessels which collect and con- vey the lymph. (37) Glossary. 641 Maintenance ration. An allowance of food sufficient to maintain a rest- ing animal— neither gaining nor losing in weight. Mammoth clover. Z’rifoliwm medium. Mangel, mangel-wurzel. Beta vulgaris. Masticate. To crush or grind food with the teeth. (34) Meadow fescue. Festuca pratensis. Metabolism. The process by which, on the one hand, the digested food is built up into living matter, and on the other, the living matter is broken down into simpler products within a cell or organism. Meter. A metric unit of length equaling 3.28 feet. Millet, common. Panicum miliaceum. Millo maize. Sorghum vulgare or Andropogon sorghum, var. Mineral matter. See Ash. (18) Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining when the moisture, ether extract and crude fiber are deducted; it includes starch, sugar, gums, etc. (22) Nitrogenous substance. Any food substance containing nitrogen. See Protein. Nutrient. Any food constituent or group of food-constituents capable of nourishing animals. Sugar, carbohydrates and protein are nu- trients. Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein to digestible carbo- hydrates and ether extract in a ration, the percentage of ether extract being multiplied by 2.4 and added to the carbohydrates. Oi! meal. As understood by American farmers, this term applies only to linseed oil cake reduced to meal by grinding. (200) Omasum. The third stomach of ruminants. (28) Omniverous. Eating or living upon animal or vegetable food indiscrim- inately. Orchard grass. Dactylis glomerata. Organic matter. The part of a feeding stuff which is destroyed by burn- ing. Parsnip. Pastinaca sativa. Pepsin. The digestive ferment found in the stomach of animals. (27) Period of gestation. The length of time of carrying the young; from conception to birth. Period of lactation. The time during which the animal suckles her young; with dairy cows, the period from calving to drying off. Prickly comfrey. Symphytum asperrimum. Protein. A term used to characterize the constituents of feeding stuffs which contain nitrogen. The organic part of the bones, muscles, tendons, internal organs, skin, etc., of the animal body are formed from the protein nutrients of feeding stuffs. Wheat gluten and white of egg are examples of protein. On the average, 16 per cent. 41 642 Feeds and Feeding. of protein compounds is nitrogen, the other elements being the same as in carbohydrates and fat. The protein compounds in feeding stuffs can be divided into albuminoids and amides, which see. The terms ‘‘ nitrogenous compound” and ‘‘ nitrogenous substance’’ have the same meaning as protein. Protoplasm. The jelly-like or granular substance of living plant-cells. (5) Provender. Forage, grain, or feed of any kind. Ptyalin. The ferment contained in the saliva. (25) Pumpkin. Cucurbita pepo. Rape. Brassica napus. Ration. The allowance of provender given to an animal during twenty- four hours. Red clover. Trifolium pratense. Redtop. Agrostis vulgaris. Rennet. The ferment found in the lining of the rennet stomach of young mammals. (27) Respiration apparatus. An apparatus for determining the waste matter thrown off by the lungs of an animal. (54, 55) Reticulum, or honey comb. ‘The second stomach of ruminants. (28) Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including such feeding stuffs as hay, corn fodder, silage, roots, ete. See Concentrates. Rumen, or paunch. The first stomach of ruminants. (28) Ruminant. An animal that chews the cud. Ruta-baga, Swedish turnip, Swedes. Brassica campestris, var. Saliva. The secretion of the salivary glands of the mouth, the office of which is to moisten the food and through its ferment, ptyalin, partially digest the starchy components of the food. (25) Scarlet or crimson clover. Trifolium incarnatum. Silage. A succulent forage preserved in the silo. Silo. An air-tight structure used for the preservation of forage in a suc- culent condition. : Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a barn or enclosure with fresh grass or green fodders, as corn, rye, oats, ete. Soja bean, or soy bean. Soja hispida. Sorghum. Sorghum vulgare, var. saccharatum. Spurry. Spergula arvensis. Stover. The dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been removed. Succulent feed. Feed containing much water, as grass, silage, roots. Swedish clover. See Alsike clover. Teosinte. Huchlaena luxurians. Timothy, or fierd’s grass. Phicum pratense. Villi. Minute hair-like projections on the inside of the intestines, through which the larger portion of the digested nutrients is absorbed. (35) White clover. Z'rifoliwm repens. INDEX. The references are to pages. Abomasum, 16, Absorption, 20. Acorn, 219. Age, effect of on gain of steers, 367. Age of cow, effect of on productivity of feed, 406. Albuminoids, 6. Alfalfa or lucern, 203. compared with corn, 204. for pasture, 208. in eastern United States, 207. Iowa experience with, 204, losses in hay making, 206. manner of growth, 207. yield of, 203. Alfalfa crop, nutrients in, 205. Alfalfa hay, 208. damage from rain, 206. fattening Western sheep on, 506, for sheep, 505. and grain for fattening sheep, 532, Alsike clover, 201. American Fat Stock Show, slaughter tests, * 380. American ration for dairy cows, 114. Amides, 7. ' influence on protein consumption, 48, Animal body, dry substance in, 72. fat in, 72. influence of feed on, 78. nitrogenous substance in, 72. water in, 72. Animal carcass, modification by roots, 214. Animal nutrition, 40. Artichoke, 214. for horses, 307. for pigs, 571. Artificial digestion, 31. trials, 238. Ash, 7, 10. retained and voided by farm animals, | | Bran and shorts vs. bran for horses, 295. « 265. Ashes, for pigs fed on corn, 86. for swine, 614. Asparagin, a nutrient, 48. influence on protein consumption, 48, Balanced ration, for steers, 357. Ball-teeding show pigs, 613. Barley, characteristics of, 133. fertilizing constituents of, 138, for cows, 474. for horses, 293. for swine, 562, 610, Barley vs. centrifugal skim milk for pigs, 586. vs. Indian corn for pigs, 591. vs. rye for pigs, 588. Barley and its by-products in brewing, 133. Barley and peas, 191. Barrows Vs. sows in swine feeding, 602. Beef, feeding for, 338. production, cotton seed for, 361. making, at the South, 361. value of breed in, 372. returns per acre of corn, 381. see Steer feeding. Beef and dairy cows compared, 405. Beet molasses, 224. - potash in, 225, Beet pulp, means of utilizing, 223. Silage from, 223. Beets of different sugar content vs. grain for pigs, 595. Beets and silage, relative cost, 252. Beets, see Roots. Bile, 17. | Blood, the, 22. plasma, composition of, 22, venous, composition of, 22. dried, feeding pigs on, 78. for sheep, dll. | Blood bread vs. grain for pigs, 597. Body fat, source of, 50. | Body heat not a measure of the ey of food, 67. Body. fissues, formation of, 40. Body waste, the, 41. | Bone and muscle development, limits, 616. | Bone meal for corn-fed pigs, 86. Bones, strength of pig’s, 83. | Bran for shecp, 499, 523, for steers, 383. - for swine,'610. vs. oats for horses, 295. see Wheat bran. Breed, value of, in beef making, 372. Breed tests with pigs, 543, 603. with cows, 455. with steers, 378, 375. with sheep, 487-89, Brewers’ grains, 136, for cows, 474. dried, 137. for horses, 293, wet, 137. 644 Brood sow, feed for, 604. importance of exercise for, 605. Broom-corn seed, 147. Buckwheat, for pigs, 566. wild, for sheep, 500. Buckwheat grain, 144. Buckwheat and its by-products, 144. fertilizing constituents of, 145. Bull, feed and care of, 467. Burr clover, 203. Butter, effect of cotton seed on quality of, 156. Butter fat, effect of feed on composition of, 442, see Fat and Milk fat, Buttermilk, 228. for pigs, 574. Cabbage, 216. Cactus, 217. Calf, composition of, 71. rearing, 334, 338. dairy, rearing, 339. see Calves. Calorie, 38. Calorimeter, 37. Calorimetry, 37. Calves, birth weight of, 334. cod liver oil for, 337. cotton-seed meal for, 157. fall, 342. flax seed for, 337. feed and care after weaning, 341. gravity vs. separator skim milk, 336. hay tea for, 341. oleomargarine for, 337. separator skim milk for, 335, skim milk fed, gain from, 388, skim milk for, 335. sugar for, 337. veal, feeding, 348. wet chaffed hay for, 243. whey for, 837, 340. withholding coarse food from, 95. whole milk for, 334. Calving, influence of time from, on milk flow, 407. Cane sugar, 5. molasses, 225. Carbohydrate nutrition, 25. Carbohydrates, influence on protein con- sumption, 44. potential energy of, 38. source of fat, 51. Carbohydrates and fat, effects of, 48. value of, 59. Carbonic acid, excretion of, 66. Carcass, modifications of, 84. of farm animals, nitrogen and ash, 77. Carriage horse, feeding of, 322. Carrots, 212. for horses, 307. vs. mangels for pigs, 596. Castor oil seed in linseed meal, 153. Cattle, dressed weight of, 379. Index. Cattle, fattening, feed and management, 381. range, fattening, 397, see Steer. Cellulose, 5. Cereals, as forage plants, 191. Chaff, 239. Chaffing, advantages of, 240. Charcoal, for pigs, 615. cob, how to make, 615. Chewing hay, work perform ed in, 29. Chewing oats, work performed in, 29, Christmas-lamb raising, 529. Chyle, 20. composition of, 21. Circulatory system, the, 21. Clover, red, 196. mammoth, 201. alsike, 201. crimson or scarlet, 202. Japan, 203. burr, 203. proper time for cutting, 198. Clover plant, development of nutrients, 197. Clover hay, for cows, 476. for horses, 303. for sheep, 506. for swine, 611. losses in curing, 199. making, methods of, 198. spontaneous combustion of, 200, use of, 200. with meal for pigs, 577. Coarse and concentrated feeds, digestion of, 31. Coarse fodders, digestibility of, 29, Coarse forage, withholding from rum nants, 94. Cocoanut meal, 159, for horses, 301. Cod liver oil for calves, 337. Coefficients of digestibility, 98. Colon, 18. Colostrum, 228. Colt, feeding after weaning, 316. protein feeds vs. oats for, 300. rations for, 331. see Foal. Columbian Exposition, dairy tests, 448. Commercial fertilizers, 267. Composition of feeding stuffs, 97. Concentrated feeds for dairy cows, 413. Concentrates, 97. Condimental foods, 229. notes concerning, 229. not recommended, 280. Confinement, of fattening steers, 364 vs. exposure, for sheep, 492. Cooked feed, value of, 235, function of, 239. for cows, 482. for horses, 238. for swine, 236, 545. experiments with, for swine, 515. Index. Corn, 119. a carbonaceous food, 120. alone and in combination,for sheep, 509. amount passing through steer, 349. as human food, 121. beef returns per acre, 381. composition of, 125, composition of the several parts of, 124. dry vs. soaked, for sheep, 498. for cows, 472. for fattening cattle, 381. for horses, 297. adverse report, 299. Kloepfer’s conclusions, 300. for sheep, 497, 522. for steers, plain feeding of, recom- mended, 381. for swine, 608. gain from a bushel of, with pigs, 581. nitrogen and mineral matter in, 125, preparation of, for feeding, 383. races of, 120. soaked, for steers, 346. time required to pass through steer, 349. vs. oil cake for pigs, 588. vs. rye or barley for pigs, 591. whole vs. corn and cob meal for cows, 413. waste in feeding to cows, 413. Corn and blue-grass pasture for pigs, 577. Corn and its by-products, 119. Corn and cob, weight of, 122. Corn and cob meal, 121. for pigs, 557. for steers, 348. Corn by-products, 123. for cows, 473. Corn belt, fattening sheep in, 531. Corn cob, 121. Corn cob and husks, for steers, 349. Corn cob charcoal, for swine, 615. Corn crop, nutrients of, 167. importance of maturity, 168. increase of nutrients during maturity, 165. influence of thickness of planting, 164. losses in field-curing, 171. Corn fodder, fertilizing constituents of, 177. pulling of, 174. see Fodder corn. Corn forage, cutting and shredding, 240. shock, feeding, 172. shocking, 172. stooking, 172. Corn-fed pigs, strengthening bones of, 86. Corn meal for cows, 473. only, for cows, 94. only, for pigs, 78, 86. vs. corn for pigs, 556. see Corn. Corn plant, changes in protein, 167. distribution of nutrients in, 169. in Georgia, 170. 645 Corn plant, increase of nutrients during maturity, 165. nitrogen-free extract in, 168. nutrients at different stages, 166. southern, time to cut for silage, 254. vs. northern, for silage, 253. under Maryland conditions, 170. Corn product, a new, 175. Corn silage, see Silage corn, Corn smut, 175. feeding experiments with, 176. Corn stover, 174, for cows, 477. for sheep, 508. vs. mixed hay and clover hay for cows, 425. see Stover. Corn-stalk disease, the so-called, 175, Correctives for swine, 614. Cost of finished steer, 389. Cotton seed, 154. effect of, on butter, 156. on steer fat, 156. feeding of, 154. fertility in, 159. for beef production, 361. Cotton seed and its by-products for cows, 419, 475. Cotton seed and cotton-seed meal, rational use of, 158. Cotton-seed cake and meal, 155. Cotton-seed hulls, 158. Cotton-seed meal, for calves, 157, for dairy cows, 156. for horses, 155. for pigs, 157. vs. Wheat bran for cows, 420. Cotton-seed meal and hulls for steers, 155. Cotton-seed poisoning, 157. Cows, advance in lactation of, and pro- ductivity of feed, 407. amount of water drank by, 410. annual feed consumption of, 459. barley for, 474. brewers’ grains for, 474. by-products of corn for, 473. care before and after weaning, 468. caring for, 464. clover hay for, 476. concerning feeding stuffs for, 472. confinement during heated periods, 470. consumption of dry matter by, 461. cooking feed for, 432. corn for, 472. corn meal for, 473. corn stover for, 477. corn stover vs. hay for, 425. cotton seed and its by-products for, 419, 475. cotton-seed meal vs. bran for, 420. dairy, compared with beef type, 406. rations for, 478. test at Columbian Exposition, 448. dairying based on maternity of, 463. 646 Cows, Danish experiments with, 442. distillery grains, dried, vs. oats for, 421. drinking at will, 411. dry feed for, 469. effect of age on productivity of feed, 406. effect of grooming, 412. exercise for, 464. fall and spring, 467. feeding exclusively with meal, 94. feeding fat to, 481. feeding grain in form of slop to, 433. feeding potassium chlorid to, 432. fish scrap for, 431. fodder corn for, 476. fodder corn vs. timothy hay for, 424. frequency in feeding of, 468. gluten feed vs. corn meal and bran for, 414. gluten meal vs. cotton-seed meal for, 415. heavy feeders the most profitable, 408. influence of work on quality of milk, 412, Japan clover hay vs. Bermuda hay for, 423. large vs. small, 405. linseed meal vs. cotton-seed meal for, 420. liberal and meager rations for, 437. liberal feeding of, 470. maize feed vs. corn meal and bran for, 414, milk of, and its by-products, 226. milk and skim milk for, 480. millet hay for, 476. necessity of shelter for, 464. oats for, 473. oats, ground, vs. wheat bran for, 418. oil cake vs. grain for, 421. on pasture, feeding grain to, 433. order of feeding, 469. potatoes for, 430. preparation of feed for, 469. rape for, 428. record for one year of, at Cornell Sta- tion, 460. regularity and kindness in handling, 465. relation of concentrates and roughage for, 471. relation of water drank to milk yield, 410. residual effect of grain feeding, 4385. Roberts’ system of caring for, 465. roots for, 477. roots vs. concentrated feeds for, 429. rye for, 474. salt for, 471. shorts vs. wheat bran for, 417. silage for, 477. silage vs. fodder corn for, 427. silage vs. hay for, 426. sorghum-seed meal for, 418. timothy hay for, 476. Index. Cows, timothy hay vs. meadow foxtail hay for, 428. upland prairie hay vs. timothy hay for, 422, value of shelter for, 411. warm vs. cold water for, 411. water for, 470. wheat bran and middlings for, 473. wheat bran vs. mixed grain for, 417. wheat meal vs. corn meal for, 415. wheat meal vs. mixed grain for, 416. whey for, 430. whole corn vs. corn and cob meal, 413. wide and narrow rations for, 445. see Dairy cow. Cowpea, 162, 209. Cowpeas for pigs, 567. Crimson clover, 202. overripe, dangerous to horses, 202. Crops for the silo, 255. Crude fiber, 10. Dairy by-products for swine, 611. Dairy calf, rearing, 339. Dairy cow, American rations for the, 114. calculating ration for, 106. care and management of, 463. cotton-seed meal for, 156. economy of, 401. feed for, 471. feed and care of, 463. investigations concerning, 401. period of gestation, 401. pure-bred, public tests of, 448. tests at Experiment Stations, 455. ratio of milk yield to body weight, 403. relation of live weight to yield of, 404. rations for, 478. : standard rations for, 114. yield of products, 402. see Cow. Dairy herds, Station findings with, 457. Danish experiments in cow feeding, 442. Danish pig-feeding experiments, 583. slaughtering tests, 584. Deglutition, 14. Diastase, 4. Digestible matter for one pound of growth, 91. Digestible nutrients, total, 99. ) Digestibility, depression in, 31. not affected by fat, 31. not affected by salt, 31. of coarse and concentrated feeds com- bined, 31. of feeds by various animals, 30. of fodder, affected by weather, 30. of fodder, not affected by drying, 30. of nutrients, 28. Digestion, artificial, 31. Digestion coefficients, 98. Digestion trial, with sheep, 26. with ox in respiration apparatus, 34. / Dipping fattening sheep, 524. Distillery grains, dried,vs. oats for cows,421. Index. Dried blood, 220. for pigs, 78. for sheep, 511. Dried brewers’ grains, 187. for horses, 293. Dried fish, 221. Dry matter required for 100 pounds of gain with steers, 370. Dry substance in the animal body, 72. Dutch system of veal making, the, 343. Dynamometer, Wolff’s, 274. Kar corn vs. corn meal for steers, 345. Ensilage, see Silage. Ergot, 193. Ether extract, 11. potential energy of, 38. Ewes, breeding, food for, 517. maintenance food for, in winter, 526. care and feed of, 530. - feed required for 100 pounds of milk, 484, flushing, 517. milking qualities of, 483. Ewe’s milk, composition of, 480. value of, for lamb growing, 484. Ewes and lambs, soiling of, 486. Exclusive meal feeding, 94. Excrement, amount of, voided by farm animals, 264, composition of, 266. Excretions, from the kidneys, 23. ' of the skin, 24. Exercise for cows, 464. importance of, in horse management, | 330. value of, for pigs, 549. Experiment Stations, findings with dairy herds by, 457. trials of pure-bred dairy cows at, 455. Exposure vs. confinement for sheep, 492. Farm animals, amount of excrement voided by, 264. calculating rations for, 102. comparative fattening qualities of, 74. manure produced by, 269. nitrogen and ash in carcass of, 77. nitrogen and ash retained and voided by, 265. Farm manure, value of, per ton, 270, Farm stock, silage for, 256. Fat, 11. cost of production, 448, 458. equivalent of foods for 100 parts of, 37. feeding to dairy cows, 431. feeding with, 56. in milk, formation of, 54, in the animal body, 72. formation of, 56. influence of, on protein consumption, 44, potential energy of, 38. value of, for fat formation, 59. Fat and carbohydrates, relative effects of, 48, 647 Fat consumption, influence of water on, 60, Fat formation, from car bohydrates, 51. from protein, 55. method of studying, 33. influence of feeding fat on, 56. influence of feeding protein on, 57. influence of feeding protein and carbo- hydrates on, 58. i influence of feeding protein and cd on, 57. Fat nutrition, 25. Fat of cow’s milk, 226. Fat of the body, disposition of, 617. source of, 50. Fat sickness, 363. Fat, see Butter fat. Fat-Stock Show, sheep at, 495. Fattening and feeds, 75. Fattening, composition of increase during, 73. influence of light on, 61. Fattening of steers, feed for 100 pounds gain during, 370. i; Fattening period, cost of gain increases with length of, 369. : for pigs, length of, 554. Fattening process, concerning the, 61. Fattening qualities, comparative, of dit ferent farm animals, 74. a: Fattening sheep, quar “ters for, 522, Fattening shorn lambs, 490. Fatty acids, feeding of, 50. : Feed, influence of, on animal body, 78, 616.- effect of, on composition of butter fat, 442. J on milk, a review of, 444, on teeth and skull of pigs, 542. on the body of the pig, 78. on quality of pork, 614. i concentrated, necessity of, for cows, 471, cooking, for swine, 236. dry, for cows, 469. for the dairy cow, 471. for live stock, preparation of, 235. influence of cost of, on economy of ra- tions, 446. preparation of, for cows, 469. required for 100 pounds gain with pigs, dol, 602. requirements for work with horses, 278. soaking of, 239, succulent, influence of, on milk, 439. wet, does not necessarily make watery milk, 440. Feed and care of the bull, 467. of the dairy cow, 463. Feed consumption, annual, by dairy cows, 459. Feed lot, counsel in the, 381. Feed racks for fattening sheep, 522, Feeding, liberal, of cows, 470. exclusively with meal, 94, frequency of, for cows, 468. order of, for cows, 469, 648 Feeding, previous, influence of, 43. Feeding horses, order of administering feeds, 325. Feeding dark flour, 129. Feeding, for beef, 338. swine, light vs. heavy, 601. exclusively on corn, 78, 86. Feeding standards, conclusions relative to, 117. explanations of, 97, 108. introduction of, in America, 111. W olff-Lehmann, 101. Feeding stuffs, digestibility of, 26. fertilizing constituents of, 263. for cows, 472. manurial value of, 268. money value of different nutrients in, 117. nutrients of, 97. valuation of fertilizing constituents in, 268. variation in digestibility of, 26. Feeding tables, explanation of, 108. Feed required in fattening, 75. Feeds, order of administering to horses, 325. ¥ermentations in the stomach, 20. Fertilizers, commercial, 267. essential constituents of, 263. Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs, valuation of, 268. Field bean, 162. #ield-curing corn, losses in, 171. Field pea, 161. common, vine of, 209. #ish scrap, 221. for cows, 431. for fattening steers, 356. for sheep, 511. Flat turnip, 213. Flavor of milk, butter, etc., feed influences on, 443. Flax seed, 148. for calves, 149, 337. Flax straw, 193. Flesh consumption, 40. Flesh formation, method of studying, 33. Flesh meal, 220. Flesh production, 35. influence of wide and narrow rations on, 47. Flour, dark, feeding of, 129. low-grade, feeding of, 129. Flock, quarters for, 516. size of, 515. winter care of, 516. see Sheep. Foals, 313. feeding, cow’s milk for, 317. feeding before weaning, 314. increase in weight of, 272. Palo Alto system of feeding, 314. rearing by hand, 317. trotting, weight at birth, 272. weaning, 315. Index. Foals, weight and growth of, 271. see Colt. Fodders, coarse, digestibility of, 29. pulling of, 174. value of components of, for horses, 276. Fodder corn and silage, feeding tests with, 249. Fodder corn, cured, 173. digestibility of, 248. for cows, 476. for horses, 304. for soiling, 172. dry, and silage, relative merits of, 249. dry, milk produced from dry matter in, 248. green, cost of placing in silo, 255. vs. timothy hay for cows, 424. see Corn fodder. Food, the basis of life, 63. energy of, not measured by body heat, 67. Food nutrients, digestibility of, 28. Food requirements for work, 68. Forage, rape, 218. coarse, withholding of, from rumi- nants, 94. Force, production of, 63. Formation of body tissues, 40. Fuel value of rations, 115. Gain, cost of, in steers, increases with age, 369. increases with length of fattening pe- riod, 369. Gastric digestion, 14. of ruminants, 16. Gastric fluid, composition of, 15. Glucose, 5. Gluten feed vs. corn meal and bran for cows, 414. Gluten meal vs. cotton-seed meal for cows, 415, for steers, 351. : Gluten meal and corn vs. wheat for pigs, 508. Glycogen, 25. Grain, feeding, to cows on pasture, 433. in form of slop to cows, 433. to lambs before weaning, 510. for lambs before weaning, 508. grinding, 243. mixed, vs. oats for colts, 300, relative merits of, for horses, 303. vs. beets for pigs, 595. vs. boiled potatoes for pigs, 595. vs. blood bread for pigs, 597. vs. mangels for pigs, 595. vs. rye shorts for pigs, 593. Grain-feeding cows on pasture, 433. steers on pasture, 358. residual effect of, 435. Grain feeds vs. skim milk for pigs, 586. vs. whey for pigs, 587. Grass, changes in, during ripening, 180. dry vs. green, 184. Index. 649 Grass, for pasture and soiling, 178, Hungarian, 188. mixed, 188. orchard, 187, redtop, 187. timothy, 186. time to cut for hay, 181. Grasses, at the South, 188. mixed, permanent, 188. see Hay and Pasture. Grinding grain, 243. for fattening sheep, 523. Grooming cows, effect of, 412. Growth and fattening, influence of wide and narrow rations on, 88- Hairy vetch, 210. Hard-wood ashes for corn-fed pigs, 86. Hay, 180, 185. aroma of, 182. chaffing, 239. long and chaffed, experiments with, 242. time to cut grass for, 181. treatment of, 185. wet chaffed, for calves, 243. see Grasses and Legumes. Hay and oats, relative value of, for horses, 298. Hay and potatoes for horses, 306. Hay crops, the small grains as, 192. Hay curing, changes during, 182. Hay making, losses due to weathering, 185, points in, 182. Hay tea for calves, 341. Heart-beats per minute, in horse and ox, 22. Heat-units of feeds, measurement of, 37. Heating water for cows, 411. Heiden’s method for calculating amount of manure produced, 265. Hemp-seed cake vs. grain for pigs, 588. Herd record for one year, 460. Herd’s grass, 186. Hogs, see Pigs. Honey-comb stomach, the, 16. Horse bean, 162. Horses, adverse report on feeding corn to, 299. army, rations for, 352. artichokes for, 307. barley for, 293. bran and shorts vs. oats for, 295. bran, wheat and shorts vs. bran and shorts for, 295. carriage, feeding of, 322. carrots for, 307. clover hay for, 303. cocoanut meal for, 301. cooked feed for, 238. conclusions concerning corn for, 300. dried brewers’ grains for, 293. effect of disturbed conditions on, 291. experiments in feeding, 306. feed and care of, 311. feed consumed and work performed by, 273. Horses, feeds for, 292. feed required by, for performing work, 285. feed requirements for work, 278. fodder corn for, 304. German army, 280. importance of exercise for, 330. variety of feed for, 328. Indian corn for, 297. influence of rapidity of work, 279. investigations concerning, 271. loss of weight of, during work, 286, 290. maintenance rations for, 282. malt sprouts for, 301. measuring the work of, 274. millet hay injurious to, 304. nutrients required for maintenance and work, 276. oats for, 292. order of administering grain, hay and water, 325. Paris Cab, rations fed to, 308. Paris Omnibus, rations fed to, 309. peanut meal for, 301. potatoes vs. hay for, 306. preparation of feed for, 325. protein required in maintenance ra- tions for, 283. range of feeding stuffs for, 311. rate of movement, 279. rations for, 308, 331. relation of speed to work of, 287. relative merits of grains for, 303. results of digestion trials with, 275, 281. roots for, 306. ruta-bagas for, 308. steamed potatoes for, 306. stover for, 304. straw for, 304. street-car, rations for, 332. substitutes for oats for, 292. systematic feeding of, of highest im- portance, 328. _time used in masticating hay, 13. timothy hay for, 303. variation in weight of, 291. water drank by, 286, 289. wheat and bran vs. oats for, 296. work done by, 288. wheat for, 294. work, compounding rations for, 301. work, feeding of, 323. work, nutritive ratio for, 284. Horse feeding, successful, a skilled art, 312. supervision of, 330. Horse-feeding experiments, 273, 280, 298. Horse feeds, digestion of, 280. Hungarian grass, 188. see Millet. Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 15. Increase during fattening, composition of, 73. Indian corn, see Corn. Insalivation, 13. 650 Intake of body in respiration and feeding, 34. Intestinal juice, the, 20. Intestines, large, 18. length of, of pigs, 542. of farm animals, length and capacity of, 19. Japan clover, 203. Japan clover hay vs. Bermuda hay for cows, 423. Japanese millet, 188. June’ grass, 185. Kaffir corn, value of, insteer droppings, 353. for pigs, 56d. for steers, 352. _, Tred, yield of, 146. _ Kentucky blue grass, 185. Kidneys, excretion from, 23. Kiihn’s rations, method of compounding, 115. Kiihn’s standard maintenance ration, 112. Labor, hard, nitrogen excretion during, 69. Lactation of cow, advance in, and produc- tivity of feed, 407. Lamb growing, value of ewe’s milk for, 484. Lambing, date of, 517. Lambing time, care of sheep at, 518. Lambs, compared with pigs, 482. fat, 521. fattening, rations for, 528. “ self-feed ’’ for, 490. feeding grain to, before weaning, 510. feeding milk to, 481. feeding of, 530. grain for, before weaning, 508. shorn, fattening of, 490. vs. sheep for fattening, 486. water drank by, during fattening, 493. weaning of, 519. weight at birth, 481. wiuter or Christmas, raising, 529. see Sheep. Lambs and pigs, relative economy of, 483. Lard, cause of low price of, 609. Large intestine, 18. Leaves and twigs, 219. Legumes, 195. fertilizing constituents of, 210. Leguminous plants for green forage and hay, 195. Leguminous seeds, 161. fertilizing constituents of, 162. Liebig’s theory concerning the function of protein, 64. Light, influence of, on fattening, 61. Linseed meal, 149. castor oil seed in, 153. fertilizing constituents of, 153. vs. cotton-seed meal for cows, 420. see Oil meal. Low-grade flour, feeding of, 129. Lucern, see Alfalfa. Lymphatic system, the, 21. Lymphatics, the, 21. Index. Maintenance food for breeding ewes, 526. | Maintenance rations, for horses, 282. for oxen, 111. Kiihn’s, 112. M : protein required in, 283. ‘Maize, see Corn. ‘Maize feed vs. corn meal and bran for cows, , 414. ‘Malt for stock, 136. Malting, 135. ‘Malt sprouts, 138. sae digestibility of, 27. _ for horses, 301. ay Mammoth clover, 201. : Mangels, 218. vs. carrots for pigs, 596. . -vs. grain-for pigs, 595. Manure, from the ox, 264. produced by farm animals, 269. produced, Heiden’s method for caleu- ' lating amount of, 265. Manurial value of feeding stuffs, 263. Manyplies, 16. ‘Mare, food for, 820. period of gestation of, 271. see Horse. Mare’s milk, composition of, 273. Mare and foal, investigations concerning, 271. Mastication, 12. time required by horse for, 13. Mating sheep, 529. Meal feeding, exclusive, 94. Meat scrap, 220. for. pigs, 575. for sheep, 511. Middlings for swine, 610. vs. corn for pigs, 561, see Shorts. Milch cows, salt for, 411. see Cows, Milk, 226. changing components of, 441. : changing ratio of solids to water in, 439. eost of production of, 448, 458. ’ cow’s, for foal feeding, 317. effect of feed on quantity of, 487. ewe’s, composition of, 480. feed required for 100 pounds of, 454. value of, for lamb growing, 484. fat globules of, 403. feeding of, to lambs, 481. feed in relation to, 437. influence of character of rations on, 437. influence of feed on, 437. influence of feed on flavor of, 443. influence of feed on, review of, 444. influence of pasture on, 439. influence of succulent feed on, 439. mare’s, 273. nitrogenous constituents of, 227. modifications of, by feeding, 487. per cent. of fat in successive portions of, 403. Index. Milk, sow’s, concerning, 536. ; quantity yielded, 537. composition of, 537. sweet vs. sour, for pigs, 573. whole, 228. for calves, 334. for pigs, 571. Milk and its by-products, fertilizing value of, 229. Milk and skim milk for cows, 430. Milk ash, 227. Milk fat, 226, 227. Milk flow, influence of time from calving on, 407. Milk serum, 226. Milk sugar, 227. Milk yield, influence of shearing wool on, 485. Milking qualities of ewes, 483. Millet, 147, 188. Japanese, 188. Millet hay, for cows, 476. injurious to horses, 304. for sheep, 507. see Hungarian grass. Millo maize, 189. Mineral compounds, 7. Molasses, for steers, 356.” from the beet factory, 224.” Money value of different nutrients in feed- ing stuffs, 117. Mule, the, work done by, 288. Muscular energy, source of, 63, 69. Muscular exertion, 60. Mutton breeds and the Merinos compared, 515. Narrow and wide rations, influence of, on flesh production, 47. Nitrogen, excretion during hard labor, 65. retained and voided by farm animals, 265. Nitrogen-free extract, ll. Nitrogenous substances, calculation of composition, 35. in the animal body, 72. see Protein. Nutrients, total, digestibility of, 99. in feeding stuffs, 97. placing money value on, 117. valuation of, in concentrated feeding stuffs, 117. Nutriotone, 230. Nutrition, animal, 40, Nutritive ratio, 100. Oat feed for pigs, 564. Oat grain, the, 139. Oat straw for sheep, 506. Oats, a stimulating principle in, 140, by-products of, 141. for cows, 473. for fattening sheep, 523. for horses, 292. boiled rye as a substitute for, 297. substitutes for, 292, : 651 Oats, for pigs, 564. for sheep, 499. ground, vs. wheat bran for cows, 418. new, unfit for feeding, 140. vs. bran and shorts, for horses, 295. Oats and hay, relative value of, for horses, 293. Oats and peas, 191. Oats and their by-products, 139. Oats, beans and corn, relative value of, for horses, 293. Oil-bearing seeds and their by-products, 148. Oil cake, value of oil in, 151. vs. grain for pigs, 588. vs. grain for cows, 421. Oil cake and oil meal, 149. as a feeding stuff, 152. Oil meal, adulteration of, 150. for steers, 351, 384. home use of, 153. new-process, 149. relative value of old- and new-process, 150. swelling process of, 150. see Linseed meal. Olein, 6.. Oleomargarine for calyes, 337. Omasum, 16. Orchard grass, 187. Ox, maintenance ration for, 111. manure from, 264. see Steer. Palmitin, 6. Palm-nut cake vs. grain for pigs, 588. Palm-nut meal, 159. Pancreatic juice, 18. Paris Omnibus Co., horse experiments con- ducted by, 298. r Parsnip, 213. Pasture, concerning, 178. droppings of corn-fed steers on, for pigs, 579. feeding grain to steers on, 358. feeding pigs on, only, 578. for pigs, 576, 612. grain-feeding steers on, 386. grasses for, 178. influence of, on milk, 439. possibilities of, for steer feeding, 386. producing veal on, 338. small vs. large, for steers, 385. time for turning steers to, 385. turning sheep to, 519. Pasture grass, yield of, 179. Pasturing steers, 358. Paunch, 16. Peanut cake vs. grain for pigs, 588. Peanut meal, 160. for horses, 301. Pear cactus, 218. Peas, 161. for pigs, 565, 611. Pea-vine hay, 209. 1 ) 652 Pellagra corn disease, the, 122. Pepsin, 15. Permanent grasses, mixed, 188. Pigeon-grass seed, for pigs, 567. for sheep, 500. Pigs, amount of feed consumed by, 552. artichokes for, 571. average daily gain by, 552. barley meal for, 562. barley vs. centrifugal skim milk for, 586. breed tests of, 543. buckwheat for, 566. buttermilk for, 574. carrots vs. mangels for, 596. centrifugal vs. gravity skim milk for, 584. clover hay with meal for, 577. compared with lambs, 482. com position of, 70. corn and blue-grass pasture for, 577. corn-fed, hard-wood ashes and bone meal for, 86. strengthening the bones of, 86. corn meail-vs. corn for, 556. cotton-seed meat for, 157. cowpeas for, 567. droppings of corn-fed steers for, 580. early gains of, 540. effect of addition of water to the feed for, 599. effects of feed on teeth and skull of, 542. fattening, 608. fat vs. lean, experiments with, 78. experiments with, misconception concerning, 85. feed for 100 pounds of gain of, 558, 602. feed for 100 pounds live weight of, 552. feeding of, 605. on pasture only, 578. through the dam, 541. following corn-fed steers, gains of, 580. food of support, 550. for shows, ball-feeding of, 618. gain from a bushel of corn by, 581. gluten meal and corn vs. wheat for, 558. grain vs. beets of different sugar con- tent for, 595. vs. blood bread for, 597. vs. boiled potatoes for, 595. vs. Oil cake for, 588. vs. rye shorts for, 593. hemp-seed cake vs. grain for, 588. increase, composition of, during fatten- ing, 70. influence of, on the growing body of, 78. Kaffir corn for, 565. length of fattening period for, 554. length of intestines, 542. mangels vs. grain for, 595. meat scrap for, 575. middlings vs. corn meal for, 561. oat feed for, 564. oats for, 564. Index. Pigs, palm-nut cake vs. grain for, 588. partial analyses of blood and kidneys of, 84. pasture for, 576. percentage gain of, from birth to matu- rity, 553. peanut cake vs. grain for, 588. peas for, 565. pigeon-grass seed for, 567. potatoes for, 568. rape forage for, 579. rice meal for, 567. roots for, 570. rye or barley vs. Indian corn for, 591. rye vs. barley for, 588, vs. centrifugal skim milk for, 586, separator skim milk for, 571. sheaf wheat for, 560. shelter for, 598. skim milk fed, gain from, 338. skim milk vs. grain for, 586. vs. Whey for, 535. soaked meal vs. dry meal for, 547. strength of thigh bones of, 88. sunflower-seed cake vs. grain for, 588. Sweet vs. sour milk for, 573. turnips vs. whey for, 596. value of corn and cob meal for, 557. value of exercise for, 549. value of shelter for, 549. value of various feeding stuffs for, 556. water drank by, 543. weaning, 607. weight, gainand feed consumed by, 551. at birth, 535, 540. wheat for, 559. wheat and corn meal for, 559. wheat bran vs. middlings for, 562, vs. rye and barley for, 594. with corn for, 562. whey for, 574. whey vs. grain for, 574, 587. whole milk for, 571. winter vs. summer feeding of, 600. young, exercise for, 606. see Swine. Pigs and lambs, relative economy of, 483. Pig feeding, centrifugal vs. gravity skim milk, 584, Pig-feeding experiments, Danish, 583. lessons for the breeder and feeder, 617. lessons from experiments in, 616. Plains sheep, fattening of, 531. Plant building, 3. Plant cells, 1. Plant effort, the end of, 7. Plant growth, 1. from the chemist’s standpoint, 4. Plant life, the sun the source of, 8. Plant oils, 5. Plant substances, how grouped by the chemist, 9. Plants, elements essential to, 1. how food is gathered by, 3. Index. Plants, the support of animal life, 8. water required by, 2. Planting corn, influence of thickness in, 164. Poisoning from cotton seed, 157. Pork, influence of feed on quality of, 614. lean, demand for, 609. production at the South, 582. skim milk and whey fed, quality of, 588. Potassium chlorid, feeding of, to cows, 482. Potato, 212. boiled vs. grain for pigs, 595. for cows, 480. for pigs, 568. steamed, for horses, 306. vs. hay for horses, 806. Potential energy of food nutrients, 88. Prehension, 12. Prickly comfrey, 217. Protein, 10. influence of, on fat formation, 57. potential energy of, 38. the source of fat, 55. Protein and carbohydrates, influence of feeding, on fat formation, 58. Protein and fat, influence of feeding, on fat formation, 57. Protein compounds, 6. Protein consumption, 42. influence of amides on, 48. influence of carbohydrates on, 44. influence of curbohydrates fed with protein on, 46. influence of fat on, 44. influence of mixed diet on, 44, influence of salt on, 49. influence of various nutrients on, 44, influence of water on, 49. Protein feeding, exclusive, 42, Protein nutrition, 24. Protein, see Nitrogenous substances, Pulp, sugar beet, 222. Pulse, frequency of, in farm animals, 22, Pumpkin, 217. Pure-bred steers, quality of, 378. Range cattle, fattening, 397. Rape, for milch cows, 428. for pigs, 579. for sheep, 502. second crop for sheep, 505. use of, 218. vs. blue-grass pasture for sheep, 504. Rations, calculating, 102. fed by American dairymen, 113. fed by Connecticut dairymen, 113. fed to Paris Omnibus Co. horses, 309. for army horses, 332. for dairy cows, 478. for farm animals, calculating, 102. for fattening lambs, 528. for fattening steers, 396. for horses, 308, 331." for street-car horses, 382, 653 Rations, for work horses, 301. fuel value of, 115. influence of character of, on milk, 487. influence of feed prices on economy of, 446. liberal and meager, for milk produc- tion, 437. theoretical, for fattening steers, 395. wide and narrow, for cows, 4387, 445. influence of, on growth and fatten- ing, 88. Red clover, 196. yield of three crops of, 196. see Clover, Redtop, 187. Rennet, 15. Rennet stomach, 16. Respiration, 28. exchange of gases in, 23. per minute in farm animals, 23, Respiration apparatus, 32. digestion trial with ox in, 34, illustration of use of, 33. Respiration studies, 32. Reticulum, 16. Rice grain, parts of, 143. Rice and its by-products, 143. Rice meal for pigs, 567. Robertson mixture, for silage, 256, Roots, dry matter in, 251, feeding of, 214. for cows, 477. for horses, 306. for pigs, 570. for steers, 354, 384. modification of animal careass by, 214. preparation of, 244, storing of, 214. vs. concentrated feed for cows, 429. yield of, 250. Root crops, not generally grown, 215. yield of, 211. yield of digestible nutrients, 212, Roots and tubers, 211. see Beets, Turnips, Carrots, ete. Roughage, 97. for cattle, steaming of, 236. for fattening sheep, 5.3. Rumen, 16. Ruminants, gastric digestion of, 16. withholding coarse forage from, 94. Ruta-bagas, 213. for horses, 308. Rye, for cows, 474. vs. barley for pigs, 588. vs. centrifugal skim milk for pigs, 586. boiled, as a substitute for oats, 297. Rye and barley vs. wheat bran for pigs, 594. Rye and its by-products, 132. as stock feeds, 132. Rye or barley vs. Indian corn for pigs, 591. Rye shorts vs. grain for pigs, 593. Saliva, composition of, 14, secretion of, 14, 654 Salt, for cows, 471. for sheep, 520. for steers, 387. influence of, on protein consumption, 49. Scarlet or crimson clover, 202. Scotch system of veal making, 343, Self-feed for fattening lambs, 490. Separator skim milk, for calves, $35. placing a money value on, 572. Shearing, frequency of, 513. influence of, on milk yield, 485. Sheep, at American Fat-Stock Show, 495. alfalfa hay for, 505. attacks of vermin, 521. bran for, 258, 499. breed tests of, 487, 489. care of, at lambing time, 518. comparison of the Mutton breeds and: the Merinos, 515. composition of, 70. corn alone and in combination for, 509. corn for, 497, 522. corn Silage vs. roots for, 501. corn stover for, 508. cost of gain, 525. daily gain of, for the various breeds of, 494. dipping, 524. dried blood for, 511. dry vs. soaked corn for, 498. English experience with wheat for, 498. exposure vs. confinement of, 492. fattened, weight of, 493. fattening, 514. feed consumed by, 524. feed racks for, 522. feeding, hints on, 526, fish scrap for, 511. food of, 514. general care of, 514. grinding grain for, 528. increase during fattening, 70. influence of protein on carcass of, 511. in the corn belt, 531. investigations with, 480. length of feeding period and gains of, 524. mating of, 529. mature, 521 meat scrap for, 511. millet hay for, 507. on alfalfa hay and grain, 582. oat straw for, 506. oats for, 499, 523. period of gestation, 480. Plains, fattening of, 531. rape for, 502. rape, second crop of, for, 505. rape vs. blue-grass pasture for, 504. regularity and quiet for, 526. rate of increase, 525. roughage for, 523. shrinkage of, in shipping, 496. Index. | Sheep, shrunken wheat, wild buckwheat and pigeon-grass seed for, 500. sugar beets for, 502. turning to pasture, 519. vs. lambs for fattening, 486. water and salt for, 520 weight of carcass of, 495. Western, fattening on alfalfa hay, 506. wheat for, 498, 552. wheat screenings for, 500, 5238. see Lambs. Shelter, for pigs, 598. influence of, in fattening steers, 364, necessity of, for cows, 464. value of, for cows, 411. for pigs, 549. | Shepherd and flock, 514. | Shock corn, feeding of, 172. Shorts, 130. vs. wheat bran for cows, 417. see Middlings. Shotes, feeding, 607. following steers, gain of, 347. | Shrinkage in shipping of sheep, 496. Silage, 245. any digestibility of, 248. - effect of, on quality of milk, 257, on careass of steers, 250. for cows, 477. for farm stock, for steers, 384. from beet pulp, 223. importance of proper horizontal area in feeding, 260. milk produced from dry matter in, 248. on the rational use of, 257. ' relative losses in, and drying, 246. , Southern vs. Northern seed corn for, 253. time of cutting Southern corn for, 254.; vs. fodder corn for cows, 427. : vs. hay for cows, 426. vs. roots for steers, 855. weight of, at different depths, 259. Silage and beets, relative cost of, 252. Silage and dry fodder corn, relative merits of, 249. space occupied by, 254. Silage and fodder corn, feeding tests with, 249. Silage and roots, dry matter in, 251. Silage, corn and roots, yield of, 250. Silage, corn, removing ears from, previous to ensilage, 252. ) corn, vs. roots for sheep, 501, yield of, 250. Silo, capacity of, 260. filling and covering, 261. building and filling of, 258. crops for, 255. rate of filling, 261. rectangular, 259. Silo construction, 258. Silo losses, character of, 247. 256. Index. 655 Siloing fodders, permanency of method of, | Steer, amount of corn passing through, 245. Size of the body, a factor in feeding, 60. Skim milk, 228. centrifugal vs. gravity, for pigs, 584. for calves, 335. gravity vs. separator, for calves, 336. separator, for pigs, 571. placing a money value on, 572. vs. grain for pigs, 586. vs. Whey for pigs, 585. Skim milk- and whey-fed pork, quality of, 588. Skin, excretions of, 24. Slaughtering tests of pigs, 589. Slop, feeding grain in form of, to cows, 483. Small grains, the, as hay crops, 192, Smut-feeding experiments, 176. Smut on corn, 175. Soaked meal vs. dry meal for pigs, 547. Soaking feed, 239. Soiling, advantage of, 231. experiments, concerning value of, 231. fodder corn for, 172. labor involved in, 234. partial, 234. Soiling cattle, 231. Soiling crops, 233. Soiling crops and pasture compared, 282. Soiling ewes and lambs, 486. > Soja bean, 161, 209. Sorghum, 145, 189. non-saccharine, 145. saccharine, 145, 147. second growth, dangers from, 190. yield of, 146. Sorghum hay, 190. Sorghum molasses, 225. Sorghum-seed meal for cows, 418. South, the, pork production at, 582. Southern vs. Northern seed corn for pillage; 253. Sows, milk yielded by, 536. composition of milk of, 587, quantity of milk yielded by, 587. vs. barrows in swine feeding, 602, Sows and pigs, feeding of, 605. Soy bean, 161, 209. Spontaneous combustion, 200. Spurry, 216. Stallion, the, feed and care of, 318. Standard Cattle Co., amount of grain and | | hay fed to cattle, 399. cost of feeding cattle, 400. daily feed consumed and gains of steers, | 399. number of cattle marketed and gains, 399. Standard rations for aie y cows, 114, Starch, 4, 5. Starch production, 124. Steaming roughage for cattle, 286. Stearin, 6. Steer, at rest, rations for, 102... unbroken, 349. amount of feed consumed, 372, balanced ration for, 357. bran for, 383. changes during fattening of, to be avoided, 365. composition of carcass of, 70, 92. composition of increased growth of, 92. corn and cob meal for, 318. corn, cob and husks for, 349. corn-fed, droppings of, for pigs, 580. droppings of, on pasture, 579. cost of feeding increases with age, 388. cost of finished, 389. cost of gain increases with length of fattening period, 369. dressed weight of carcass of, 374. dry matter required for 100 pounds of gain in, 370. ear corn vs. corn meal for, 345. early maturity of, 374, 390. effect of age on rate of gain of, 367. effect of silage on carcass of, 250. explanation of fattening process, 387. fattening, cost of 100 pounds of gain with, 370. experiments with, 88. fish scrap for, 356. Indian corn for, 381. rations for, 104, 395. rations used at Experiment Sta tions, 396. salt for, 387. variation in individual weight, 360. water for, 387. water drank by, 359. fed Kaffir corn, value of eonpince from, 353. feed for 100 pounds of gain during fat- tening, 370. frequency of feeding, 392. finished, cost of, 389. gluten meal for, 351. grain-feeding of, on pastures, 386. influence of wide and narrow rations on, 88. increase during fattening, 70. Kaffir corn for, 352. low-pressure feeding, 391. molasses for, 356. modern market demands, 390. oil meal for, 351, 384. on pasture, ‘feeding grain to, 358. pasturing of, 358. percentage of loose tallow to dressed weight of, 376. preparing corn for feeding, 383. preparing for shipment, 304. proportion of valuable parts in carcass of, 377. pure-bred, amount of feed consumed by, 372. less feed with, for given gain, 373. 656 Steer, value of, 378. roots for, 351, 384. salt for, 387. silage for, 384. silage vs. roots for, 355. soaked corn for, 346. time required for corn to pass through, 349. turning to pasture, 385. water drank during fattening, 359. water for, 387. wheat bran for, 351. wheat meal for, 350. withholding coarse feed from, 95. Steer fat, effect of cotton seed on, 156, Steer fattening, difficulties of, 345. influence of shelter and confinement, 364. Steer feeding, by Standard Cattle Co., 399. close attention required, 393. cost of gain increases with age, 369. demands of modern market, 390. factors in, 364. feed lot for, 391. feed racks for, 392. low-pressure, 391. trials, results of, 345. what Southern Stations have found, 361. see Ox and Cattle. Stomachs of farm animals, capacity of, 14, 19. Stover, 174. for horses, 304. results of shredding, 241, see Corn stover, Straw, 193. cut, 239. for horses, 304, Sugar, 225. for calves, 337, Bugar beet, 213. for sheep, 502, leaves, 217. pulp, 222. Sunflower-seed cake, 160. vs. grain for pigs, 588 Support, food of, for pigs, 550. Swede turnip, 213. Swedish clover, see Alsike. Swelling process, with linseed meal, 1590. Swine, administration of feeds to, 612. barley for, 610. bran for, 610. breed tests of, 548, 603. breeding stock, management of, 604. clover hay for, 611. confinement for, 613. cooking feed for, 236, 545. corn-cob charcoal for, 615. correctives for, #14. dairy by-products for, 611. feed for, 608. feeding corn to, 608. Index. Swine, light vs. heavy feeding of, 601. management of, 604. middlings for, 610. need of variety in feeding stuffs for, 613. pasture for, 612. peas for, 611. period of gestation, 535. pure-bred, tests with, 543. wheat for, 609. see Pigs. Tallow, in carcass of steers, relation of, to dressed weight, 376. Teosinte, 189. Thigh bones of pigs, strength of, 83. Timothy, or Herd’s grass, 186. ‘ yield of hay and nutrients from, 181. Timothy hay, for cows, 476. for horses, 303. vs. meadow foxtail hay for cows, 423. Trotter, feeding the, 320. Turnips vs. whey for pigs, 596, Upland prairie hay vs. timothy hay for cows, 422. Urine, composition of, 23, 24. Valuations of nutrients in feeding stuffs, 117. Veal, essentials in feeding for, 343. feeding for, 343. production of, on pastures, 338. Veal making, a Scotch system of, 343. the Dutch system of, 343. Vermin on sheep, 521. Villi, 20. Waste products in respiration and feeding, 35. Waiter, 9. drank by fattening lambs, 493. by horses, 286, 289. by pigs, 599. effect of addition of, to feed for pigs, 599. effect of, on fat consumption, 60, for cows, 470. for sheep, 520. influence of, on protein consumption, 49, in the animal body, 72. warm vs. cold for cows, 411. Water extracts, 32. Weaning lambs, 519. Weight, of horses, variation in, 291. loss of, in horses during work, 286, 290. of pigs, gain and feed consumed by, 551. Wheat, for feeding, 127. for horses, 294. for pigs, 559. for sheep, 498, 522. English experience with, 498. for swine, 609. sheaf, for pigs, 560. damaged, 128. shrunken, for sheep, 500. Wheatand bran vs. oats for horses, 296, Wheat and corn meal for pigs, 559. Index. Wheat and its by-products in milling, 126. Wheat bran, 130. and middlings for cows, 473. for steers, 351. vs. middlings for pigs, 562. vs. mixed grain for cows, 417. vs. rye and barley for pigs, 594. with corn for pigs, 562. see Bran. Wheat bread, feeding of, 129. Wheat feeding, character of flesh from, 127. Wheat grain, 126. composition of, 128. fertilizing ingredients of, 181. Wheat meal for steers, 350. vs. corn meal for cows, 415. vs. mixed grain for cows, 416. Wheat middlings, 130. Wheat screenings for sheep, 500, 5238. Wheat shorts, 180. see Shorts and Middlings. Whey, 229. for calves, 3837, 340. for milch cows, 430. for pigs, 574. vs. grain for pigs, 587. vs. skim milk for pigs, 585. vs. turnips for pigs, 596. Wide and narrow rations, influence of, on flesh production, 47. Winter lamb raising, 529. Winter vs. summer feeding of pigs, 600. Wolff’s dynamometer, 274. feeding standards, 109. investigations in horse feeding by, 273. 42 657 WolffLehmann feeding standards, 101, 111. Wool production, 497. influence of soil and climate on, 512. Work, by cows, influence of, on quality of milk, 412. feed required for performing, by horses, 285. food requirements for, 68. obtainable from food substances when fed to horse, 277. Work horses, compounding rations for, 324, feeding of, 328. nutritive ratio for, 284. World’s Columbian Exposition, test of dairy cows at, 448. Yield of alfalfa per acre, 204. Yield of corn varies with thickness of planting, 164. Yield of digestible nutrients in root crop, 212. Yield of hay and nutrients of timothy, four periods of growth, 181. Yield of milk per cow, various Experiment Stations, 459. Yield of milk at different stages of lacta- tion, 408. Yield of milk per cow yearly, 460. Yield of nutrients in clover crop at differ- ent stages of maturity, 197. Yield of nutrients in corn crop at various stages of maturity, 167. Yield of nutrients in pasture grass, per acre, 180. Yield of red clover crop, 196. Yield of root crops, 211. fy Can Rasy eR Aad y * LAS hip Liha iv Marea a, — _ miner Tenennec ands i.) Pia y A. et Dechvit toll ’ Oy Macehe pant ee Ae ae Fas ie CoA ic beatin : pu ; gps ee f i) a elk Ns Hel men Weg! i: ror ’ ie ve ae ka a fer Wy We ae aoe is en ri ‘ Ni ot a | ib 2 Ae i aloe iv lial lahe es x Niw Wiad) A verertt Pr, ae Baan gi Lhe ‘ney , nme % 3 i en. ov) : Hen, = { J cb Ct ey ae U vues WerAtal xy, re, wal ras ale a 1 es y why.) Me we fe a) eee “hai y es he Sk, Peta aah ¥ ae sae il “te SMe Se Uh ie ifr lative Mad * tyes Fa iy e 7 le Bee bath Por 1 Pagel 4 ey ie Le ' mn A Agadlhg _ me 1 F ae Te TL diab Vte Dey i Cx ae i Pcl sy fi 4 or] uy i Mir oye -s i y oy i : 1Oer ai 1h) 5 Pa HEAL bby a aa Nie : Pais Lt i \ ‘ ; : vw 5 Aas vAY si an? ay 7 " ‘P i) ais he wd) _ ne r -) i dM) it) ve ai, & Fe . : ial i i : a “a At NV t Ly ee ~ tie ' a. ri ti ps a) i ay | at uk \ i ? 1a : r 3 45 > as * 2 i ty ba ine vin re : f i ‘ Le j & “s \ j Ned Ny 4 be Be ! m ‘“ } - - J i} aa dee wei Ss | A i Toa Pes iW: 1%, * j A a} iy ) Soba eam , % 1* J oy , ob ; tbe > hens by 7 ] ii bi od), ——- aes : - — a « iy LIBRARY OF CONGRESS (PNRM tM [0008 94aag4