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—COLLECTOR’S MANUAL
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- NATURAL HISTORY

PREPARED BY MEMBERS OF THE STAFF
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

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(PUBLICATION 3766) i
PUBLISHED BY
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WASHINGTON, D. C.
1944

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"FIELD COLLECTOR’S MANUAL
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NATURAL HISTORY

PREPARED BY MEMBERS OF THE STAFF
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

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(PUBLICATION 3766)

PUBLISHED BY
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
WasHINGTON, D. C.
1944

CONTENTS

Page

_ TESHPEG FECES HON 2A SI a A Ce ea RD EP EN Bo 1
CM CEAMINSEICTIONS Ne Mace tle ome am Conta ee eke ee 3
LLDICVSIIS TS een Nas aera ire Steet nl ue In eA an ra Ria Cea Gee 3

J Ei) IO ee arte a Me a ha Dar co UO as ie RR te 4
MSE OU OVER 9 tintetae tare ral rap snl Peg le OZ AT ee AN a A 5
_SVELB SSR SOT NS) SE a gems eae ett eo IO eae LA ae oA 6
Witectrons tor large mammalsyay 3 ven coos soe es 18
‘SUSI SUE OL CIS aN oe ot etn AMR Sas WRN SIR Ue ea Ue Da PoP
ISPINGS) cick ce gesi ttle yale Be AI A pera Ta I Ree eS TC UB cl tee Rela i 2s
JENS RS 0. NAS ee a On Bra Pa AE RU etn Ae WU Rae er 40
“SYSIEI SOIC a a cr GS ae Do ee Ua atest ocia A a/S 4]
Reptiles (lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodiles, alligators)....... 42
Amphibians (frogs, toads, salamanders, caecilians)........... 45
JESSIGSS a ciel i BR SRR I ate RA A A eT al PRR ce OLS ua 48
PICOLMEWOLINS MCDAlANOCIOSSIAS) eb) 5 kee h ee a elec Oo acd bie e oe 52
HUG LTPSES Cs a? ae HR eg a a ent ae AS NP eg ga cele 54
J ERSECUS, Ce an eee Boi eI MAN Salona caUNoP asl ti Caine: 57
SPENT ISTES 7 618 oR aI Meas aac cI MA De lee CRO aS AI Ue Waa 60
Crustaceans and miscellaneous invertebrates...............0. 61
BATE OLMstae yore ae erat Anca sili ye ee Waa HL Val LCT 66
LS (SVGp DVIS ASAE DN CH gre a a Re eT AE RY eS eS 67
HE TA CLE TEMAS Paes Ga CPA SMe ae beueeis U epe tae Eun Oly. a eh 69
SIZES « USP EON Cth ice alee aed i rx one] a ees amen A nt aOR RU av 69
Starfishes ....... SE NB MTNA AMMA (Satie OaiTest. seine RIAN ho i 70
FESTUTUsHALeS el pcre UA GaN ae ee NR Meee Naa LC Soe ni oii 71

iv CONTENTS

Page

Critioids or featherstars: ....... 3... . 23.352 ee 71
Holothurians or sea cucumbers... =. -...:.. /-222 oe eee 7k
Corals 2. eC ote c Veceeeids veeed oa bool 1 oe cee eee 72
Plants oe ssc fc cee cbs Webs yeas cee ses le ee 4
Wo0dS: ice os odie ak ee tee oe ote o ek oh od lee oe eee 77
Living animals... 22.5 .g65.05. 2553538 e eee 79
Anthropological matenals -.......: <3... 23s +. se 6 eee 83
Fossil vertebrates <0: 023 5-2 bic di coe sess s oO eee 86 -
Fossil invertebrates and planis.s. . -:... 1-22. 0.2) ee 97
Locating fossil-bearing ledges. ............. 42.5 = eee 101
Collecting invertebrate fossils: .-....:......22 see 103
Fossil plants °..2 05.222 So0%6 6 eines Does | eee 107
Rock specimens and ores. > ....5.2 .. 2. 5. sees ee eee 112
Minerals: ..3..055.555 60d oakce ts oe fen te hee eee 114

A FIELD COLLECTOR’S MANUAL IN NATURAL
HISTORY

PREPARED BY MEMBERS OF THE STAFF OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION

INTRODUCTION

Many of the men serving in our armed forces who have been
sent to all parts of the world have a keen interest in the animals,
plants, rocks, and other objects about them, and, as their duties
permit, find recreation in examining them. It is normal for those
who enjoy such activities to wish to know the names and kinds
of the things they see. In order to keep specimens for identifica-
tion and scientific study or for future display among friends, it is
necessary to preserve them in some way. The brief instructions
on procedure that follow have been prepared to this end.

In the wilder sections where our service men are stationed, the
military and naval authorities have instituted commendable regu-
lations against useless destruction of the native animal and plant
life. It is wise that this has been done, as numerous species of birds,
mammals, and other forms of life count but few living individuals
at any one time, particularly when they are found on small
islands, or have a limited range for other reasons. The mere
presence of forces of men, with the attendant use of the land
for housing facilities and installations concerned with war, in
many cases seriously affects plants and animals native to the

1

2 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

area. Thoughtless shooting or useless destruction may result in
the extermination of interesting and curious forms.

The naturalist in studying the life about him will never take
specimens to the detriment of any species. No harmless mammal,
bird, plant, or other form of life that is reduced in numbers until
only a few individuals remain alive should be disturbed, and
with others only those needed for preservation and future exami-
nation should be collected. It is believed that Commanding
Officers will recognize the merit of those men who are seriously ~
interested and will grant them the necessary permission to make
small collections. The preparation of specimens requires time and
patience, and the true naturalist will kill or take nothing that
cannot be preserved.

Care should be used also to prevent needless disturbance of
mounds, old ruins, or deposits in caves left by ancient men who
now have disappeared. The remains of their pottery and their
implements of stone, bone, wood, or metal found in such places
are the main evidence of their manner of living. When road
building or other excavations expose such things, they should
be preserved for scientific examination. But do not dig in un-
opened deposits unless you are a trained archeologist who can do
the work properly, as otherwise you will destroy valuable evidence
relating to the early history of the human race. If you want
curios and souvenirs, get them in some way that is not destruc-
tive to things of scientific value.

In many areas remote from battle zones there will be stations
where routine duties will become monotonous. Here natural-
history studies will provide welcome and valuable recreation for
those interested, and may add to human knowledge. The United

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 3

States National Museum, a branch of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, throughout its existence has received large and valuable
additions to its collections from service men in many regions and
stands ready always to identify and provide information on
plants and animals of all kinds. Special arrangements are offered
for such identifications in connection with that work of the Army
and Navy Medical Corps which deals with insects, mollusks,
mammals, and other creatures that may harbor or carry disease-
bearing agents that affect man. These same arrangements may be
utilized for specimens that have interest for themselves alone.

The collections of the United States National Museum are
among the most extensive and valuable that exist anywhere in
the world, but many gaps exist im its series of all kinds of
materials. The collections grow steadily through the interest of
friends of the Museum, and studies based on them add constantly
to human knowledge. Specimens from any foreign regions make
valuable additions, and there are still many places in the United
States from which collections are desirable.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Specimens of various kinds are often wanted in series, but never
collect more of any kind than can be properly preserved or used.
To take more than needed is useless waste, particularly where
specimens are killed. Such action, besides being needlessly destruc-
tive, may prevent others from obtaining specimens or may even
cause disappearance of the supply.

Labels.—Alil specimens should be accompanied by labels giving
the necessary information regarding the place, date, collector,

4 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

and other pertinent data. Specific instructions for labels are
included under the various headings. The label should be written
when the specimen is prepared. Do not trust to memory at a
later date, as this will certainly lead to many errors. Specimens
incorrectly labeled, or without data, lose much or all of their
scientific value.

The matter of exact labeling may be difficult for service men
who in wartime may be under orders not to send out information
that will indicate to others the location of their units. This may ©
be avoided by placing numbers on the specimen labels that refer
to a catalog or memorandum where full data are set forth. The
catalogs should be sent in as soon as practicable after the speci-
mens have gone. Always keep a copy until you know that the
original has arrived, and always take great care of such catalogs
so that eventually, when the need for secrecy is past, the lists
may be united with the specimens. Details relating to the
preservation of these data will need to be worked out individually.
Remember always that the data accompanying a specimen are as
important as the specimen itself, if the latter is not to be
considered merely as a curio.

The field label, when it can be prepared in full, is part of the
permanent record that in many cases remains constantly with
the specimen. Use as much care as practicable to write or print
legibly on as good grade paper as may be available. Carbon ink
is the most desirable but probably will not be at hand; next best
is a fairly soft black pencil. Do not write with ordinary ink or
indelible pencil, as such writing will run and become ilegible if
wet or even moist.

Packing —Proper packing for safe transportation is as important

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 5

as care in collecting or preserving. Excellent specimens may be
damaged or destroyed in transit unless properly protected. Speci-
mens should always be firmly secured so that they will not shake
or jostle about as this may break, wear, or destroy them. Never
pack fragile objects with more durable ones. For shipment select
containers that will not be broken or crushed. In packing miscel-
laneous materials small objects should be sorted out and put in
small boxes or other containers that then can be placed in wooden
boxes or otherwise protected. More detailed instructions are
given in the sections that follow.

Shipping—Shipments intended for the National Collections
should be addressed to:

U.S. National Museum,
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C.

In some cases it may be possible to forward through the Quarter-
master Corps. Small lots may be sent by parcel post. Shipments
from foreign lands sent by other means should be addressed to
the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., care of U. S.
Despatch Agent, New York, New Orleans, or San Francisco,
according to the section of the world from which the material is
forwarded. Such shipments are sent from the place of entry to
Washington in bond and are cleared through customs there.

All specimens that merit permanent preservation will be re-
corded as gifts from the donor, who will be given due credit in
the Museum’s records.

COLLECTOR’S MANUAL
MAMMALS

A scientific mammal specimen ordinarily consists of two items,
the skin and the skull. Skins of small, and even of large mammals,
may be removed with a small pocket knife if no other tool is
available. The following equipment, however, is ordinarily used
by preparators:

Small scalpel.

Large scalpel.

Small, pointed scissors.

Slender forceps or tweezers.

Small pliers with wire cutter.

Dividers for measuring specimens.

Steel tape or rule, marked in millimeters and inches.

Focioren for removing dirt, dried blood, and sawdust from
skins.

File, three-cornered or flat.

Carborundum or oilstone.

Needle and thread.

Suitable toygh paper for labels.

Pins.

Cotton, tow, and excelsior for stuffing.

Fine hardwood sawdust or corn meal for absorbent.

Arsenic.

Alum.

No. 23 wire for mouse legs; No. 23 or No. 20 wire for mouse tails.

No. 20 or No. 17 wire for legs of rats or small squirrels.

No. 17 wire for rat or squirrel tails.

No. 17 or No. 15 wire for legs of large squirrels, rabbits, or skunks.

No. 15 wire for tail of large squirrels, rabbits, or skunks.

A soft-rubber bulb syringe or a piston syringe is useful for
removing brains from small skulls.

Prepare two labels, one for the skin, the other for the skull.
The label data shown (fig. 4) are standard for mammal specimens.

MAMMALS 7

Use black pencil or waterproof ink. On the label to be attached
to the skin write: (1) The number assigned to the specimen;
(2) sex (¢ = male; ?=female); (3) locality; (4) date; (5) name
of collector; (6) total length of the animal, tip of nose to end
of tail vertebrae, taken preferably with the animal stretched tight
on its back (fig. 1); (7) length of tail taken by turning tail at
right angles with back and measuring from base to tip (fig. 2);
(8) length of hind foot, from heel to tip of most distant claw
(fig. 3). These data should be entered in your catalog opposite
the number of the specimen. On the label to be attached to the
skull write the same number as on the skin label and the initials
of the collector (fig. 4).

Mammals should be skinned as soon as possible after the blood
has coagulated in death. After taking measurements, writing
labels, and recording all data, lay the mammal on its back, hold
the skin taut along midline of abdomen, and cut the skin from
about hinder end of breastbone to a point in front of vent (fig. 5).
Commence on one side to work the skin loose until the hind leg
is visible. Push the leg from the outside toward the opening
(fig. 6) and at the same time pull the knee joint inward, sever
the knee joint, and then work the skin downward as far as the
heel. Strip the meat from the bone left on the hind leg, and
then repeat the operation on the other hind leg. The free use
of fine hardwood sawdust or corn meal on the exposed flesh will
keep the fur clean and prevent hair from sticking to the body
while skinning. Fine dry earth may be used, lacking the others,
but is not as good. Use the finger or the flat end of a scalpel to
work the skin loose from the body. Cut the skin and the vent
free from the body. Work the skin loose around the base of the

8 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

~

WS I

SN XS x
. VS = \ ee Wa \
IS RRA FA

SS

Fic. 1—Measurement for total length.

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Fic. 2—Measurement for tail.

MAMMALS 9

tail. Then hold the skin at the base of the tail firmly with the
thumb and fingers of one hand, and with the thumb and fingers
of the other hand pull the tail vertebrae out of the tail skin, taking
care not to tear off the tail skin from the body skin (fig. 7).

Hold the body by the hind
quarters with one hand, and with
the other work the skin forward
free from the body until the fore
limbs are exposed. Manipulate
the skin gently, and do not pull
so hard that it will be stretched.
Free the forelegs from the skin
in the manner described for hind
legs.

Continue to work the skin for-
ward until it binds at the base of
the ears. Carefully cut through
the cartilaginous ear bases so as
not to injure either the skin or
the skull. The eyes are next en-
countered. Work skin forward to
behind the eyes and then cut as Fic. 3—Measurement for
closely as possible to the skull. hind foot.

With care and practice the mem-

brane holding the skin to the eye sockets will be cut without
injury to the eyelids. Cut away the skin from the snout until
the lips are free. The skin now hangs attached by the nose
only. Cut through the cartilage at the end of the nose taking care
not to injure the delicate nasal bones or the skin of the muzzle
(fig. 8).

10 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

All noticeable fat, adherent flesh, and loose tissue should be
removed from the raw side of the skin, taking care not to stretch
it. Fat, when present, must be removed by scraping the inside
of the skin with a knife or scraper. Loose scraps of fat and
grease may be removed by applying corn meal or fine sawdust
as an absorbent and then scraping them off.

4 miles ve T.1-494 |=
Sungei Tongkam 7 ~-240/2
HE 44/2

Fic. 4—Sample skin and skull labels for mammals.

Large skins may be scraped more readily on the rounded
surface of a smooth log than on a flat surface. For them a hack-
saw blade makes a satisfactory scraping tool.

The tails of mammals with a hard shell (armadillos) or with
a covering of scales (pangolins) should be split down the center
of the under side to remove the vertebrae. South American spiny
rats have tails that break off at the base with the slightest tug.
It is therefore necessary to apply rolling pressure with the flat
surface of a large knife to the entire length of the tail to
loosen the attachment of the skin to the flesh and vertebrae before
attempting to slip the tail vertebrae from the skin.

MAMMALS 11

The preservative recommended as most satisfactory for the
skins of small mammals is a mixture of powdered arsenic (dry
white arsenic trioxide) and powdered alum (ammonium) in the

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Fic. 5—Opening cut on abdomen in small mammals.

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proportion of half and half by volume. This mixture is especially
good where the climate is very hot and moist. Arsenic may be
used alone if alum is not available. The dry preservative mixture

Fra. 6—Skinning out hind leg.

12 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Fig. 8—Skin and skull before latter is cut loose.

MAMMALS 13

may be kept in wide-mouthed bottles, or wide-mouthed tins with
friction or screw-top covers. Arsenic is a poison and should be
conspicuously labeled.

Dust this preservative over the entire inner surface of the skin

Fic. 9—Method of sewing lips.

so that every part is covered. Shake surplus poison back into
the container and then sew the lips together by passing the needle
from side to side and then through the front of the two lips (fig. 9).
Knot the ends of the thread after drawing it tight. Turn the
skin right side out. If any blood or dirt still adheres, remove by

2

14 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

brushing. If this is not sufficient, wash carefully with clean,
cold water and a bit of cotton, being careful not to wet a larger
area than necessary. Then dry by dusting in fine sawdust or
corn meal. This drying is hastened if the wet area is moistened
with benzine or a good grade of straight gasoline.

The skin is now ready for stuffing. A properly made skin
should have essentially the same length measurement as before

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yy.

Fic. 10.—Inserting body filling.

skinning. Take a piece of cotton batting that when rolled will
approximate the original size of the animal’s body. With the
forceps, grasp the rolled cotton at the end which is to go into
the head, and insert it through the opening (fig. 10) cut in the
abdominal region of the skin. With the other hand slip the skin
over the roll of cotton until the end held by the forceps reaches
the nose. Remove the forceps and work the skin backward over
the hinder part of the rolled cotton.

i LOT

MAMMALS - 15

Wires should now be inserted in the legs and tail. Insert the
thin wire alongside the leg bone into the foot (taking care not
to distort the heel). Now twirl or wrap a small piece of cotton

SS S
S \ Ny \ \
SN Sy
ee Ay
=

Fic. 11—Method of twisting cotton around leg bones, when leg
wires are not available.

around the inserted wire and leg-bone to fill out the skin of
the leg. If wire is not available, wrap strips of cotton around the
leg bones before the skin is reversed (fig. 11).

16 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Considerable practice is required to wrap cotton satisfactorily
around the tail wire (fig. 12A). Splinters of tough wood or of
bamboo may be substituted when wire for the tail is not available.
A long thin shred of cotton of satisfactory quality must be selected
and this twisted or wound around the tail wire, tightly at the
end that is to go to the tip of the tail, more loosely toward the

—
SS ee =
————S ——— =
A gine :
as

Fic. 12—Sewing the finished skin. A, wrapped tail wire
ready for insertion.

base, so as to resemble a tapering form like that of the tail bones.
To accomplish this the straight tail wire should be rotated be-
tween the fingers of one hand while the thin shred of cotton
that winds around the wire is played out with the other hand.
The cotton must be wound smoothly on the tail wire, without
lumps or loose strands. Before insertion, the wrapped tail wire
should be dusted with arsenic. After inserting the tail wire,
the free end of the wire should be bent into a loop which will lie

MAMMALS 17

beneath the center of the artificial body to give support to the
tail when the skin is sewed up (fig. 12). Uneven places in the
stuffed skin should be filled in with pieces of cotton before the
skin is sewed up. Insert forceps between lips and push the cotton
body filling forward into the nose, molding it with the fingers to
proper form. Sew as indicated in the illustration (fig.12), pulling
the thread tight finally to bring the edges of the opening together.
Make a loose knot in the thread and, with the point of the
needle, slip it down tight against the skin. Then cut the thread.

When cotton batting or tow is not available, paper folded to
the proper size may be used to advantage. The folded paper
will separate the opposite raw surfaces while the skin is drying.
Flat skins filled with folded paper should not exceed + inch
in thickness.

The skull is an important part of the specimen, and hence
eare should be taken not to damage the back of it when it is
severed from the neck. Under ordinary conditions do not attempt
to remove the eyes, tongue, or large muscles from the skull of
any mammal smaller than a rat. Remove the brain by squirting
water from a soft-rubber bulb syringe or a piston syringe into
the opening for the spinal cord on the back of the skull, or
carefully scoop the brain out with a wire loop of a size that
will enter the opening and bent slightly at one end to form
a hook. One end of the thread attached to the skull label can
be forced with forceps through the flesh at the fork of the
lower jaws and out of the side of the mouth and the two ends
then securely tied. The skulls as they accumulate may be strung
on a cord or wire passed through the loops of thread on the
labels. Hang out of reach of prowling animals such as cats,

18 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

and where necessary dry by artificial heat or direct sunlight.
Never put salt, alum, or formalin on a skull. If skulls are in-
fested with maggots or are otherwise obnoxious because of
disagreeable odor of decay, dip them briefly in boiling water.
Tie the skin label securely to the right hind foot close above
the heel (fig. 13). The skin should now be pinned down on a
board, preferably of soft wood. Pin the feet with the soles down
placing the hind feet as close as possible to the tail (fig. 13).

Fic. 13—Finished skin labeled and pinned for drying.

The fore and hind feet when pinned down should not project out-
ward beyond the sides of the body.

The final shaping is given as the stuffed skin is pinned down.
Flatten the specimen somewhat for convenience in handling and
storage. The specimen may now be set away in a safe place to
dry. In very damp climates it may be necessary to dry in direct
sunlight or by artificial heat. If exposed to sunlight for drying,
the skins should be covered with paper.

Directions for large mammals.—Take the following measure-
ments in millimeters or inches before skinning (fig. 14): (1) Total
length of animal, in a straight line, from tip of nose to end of

MAMMALS 19

tail vertebrae; (2) length of tail (from base to terminal tail
vertebrae; (3) standing height at shoulder, from sole of foot to
above shoulder blade; (4) length of hind foot.

The diagrams (figs. 15 and 16) indicate where cuts are made
to remove the skin. Note that the cut for the legs in deer (fig. 16)
and related animals is different from that in wolves (fig. 15) and

I
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"I 4p
a i / i BY :
» My ys none
peaks Baa if si
(ea 3
fe
i/
MH
W |
Wd :
w gy. (/

Fig. 14—-Measurement diagram for large mammals.

cats. The cuts should be made on the hinder side of the fore and
hind limbs as indicated. The skin should be worked free of the
body with the hands, and, where necessary, carefully cut loose
with a knife. On species with horns or antlers remove the head
(fig. 17) by a short cut down the back of the neck and a transverse
cut between the bases of the horns. Carefully cut through the
thick skin to the bone of the skull around the base of each horn.
Sever the head from the neck and then free the skin from the

20 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

head. In large mammals, the ear cartilage has to be skinned out
carefully, leaving it attached to the skin (fig. 18).

Common salt is the best preservative for fresh hides and scalps
of large mammals. Salt should be applied plentifully to the raw

Fic. 15—Opening cuts for skinning wolves, cats, and
related species.

side of the hide as soon as possible after skinning. Care should
be taken to work the salt in around the small bones left attached
to the toenails in the feet, as well as around the cartilage and
skin of the ear. When salt has been thoroughly applied to the
skin, the head with the ears turned hair side out should be

MAMMALS PAA

folded over and laid in the center of the skin. Wet salt should
then be placed in the ear cavities from the outside and laid
over the ear tips. Feet and legs may then be folded over and

Fic. 16—Opening cuts for skinning deer, sheep, antelope, and
related species.

the skin rolled compactly together with the hair side out. Place
folded skin in the shade where it can be kept as cool as possible
for 24 hours. Then the skin should be unrolled and the loose
salt and water shaken off. It should then be resalted, rolled,

22 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

and left in a cool place for another day if convenient. Then
without shaking off the loose salt turn the skin flesh side out and
hang over a line or a pole, in the shade, until partially dry,
but not too dry to fold (hair side in) to a size convenient for
packing and shipping. In damp climates it may be necessary
to dry in the sun or by gentle artificial heat.

Fic. 17—Opening cuts for skinning
head in horned mammals.

With large salted skins make a label of a flat piece of wood
marked with the number and tie this through the eye opening or
fasten it otherwise securely. Send the paper label in separately,
since, if attached to the skin, salt water and blood will make it
illegible.

Skeletons—Complete skeletons of mammals are valuable for

BIRDS De

many studies. Specimens so decomposed in hot weather that the
hair slips and the skin is valueless may be utilized advantageously
in this way. To prepare skeletons remove the hide and the entrails.
Cut the flesh away from legs and body, being careful not to mar
the bones. Small skeletons may be left intact, but in the case of
larger ones it is necessary to disarticulate the legs and the skull.
Clean out the brain and cut away the cheek and head muscles
on skulls larger than that of

a squirrel. Do not attempt Sa

this _ on skulls of small x FOS oe
species. ERR eG

Larger skeletons should be
tied in compact bundles for

convenience in packing, and Fic. 18—Skinning out cartilage
all should be thoroughly in ear from inside in large mam-
dried in the sun before they mals.
are shipped. Do not salt
skeletons, but dry them without preservative, except that the
smaller ones may be placed in alcohol if desired. Never use for-
malin. If the skeletons become infested with insect larvae, these
will not harm the bones. Skeletons and skins should not be packed
together for shipment, however, as the insect larvae will ruin the
skins.

Be certain that data tags are securely tied to each skull and
skeleton.

BIRDS

Birds generally are collected by shooting with small shot, the
size depending on the size of the bird. Birds may also be obtained

24 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

from natives who trap them, though these are often in too
mutilated a condition for specimens.
The tools for preparation are as follows:

Small scalpel or knife.

Small, pointed scissors.

Small, pointed forceps or tweezers.

Needle and thread.

Tough paper for labels.

Arsenic and alum mixed.

Hardwood sawdust or corn meal for absorbent.
Cotton, tow, and excelsior for stuffing.

In case of necessity birds may be skinned with no other instru-
ments than a small sharp knife.

After shooting a bird, pick it up and handle it by the feet or
bill, never by the tail, as some movement may pull out the
feathers. Immediately sprinkle dry corn meal or dry earth as
an absorbent on any blood that may be on the feathers. When
this is absorbed scrape it off carefully with the point of a knife
and apply more of the absorbent. Plug the mouth and throat
with clean cotton to prevent bleeding. Keep the feathers as
clean as possible as this will save work in washing them later.
Put small birds head first in a paper cornucopia to keep the
feathers from ruffling while carrying. Larger specimens may be
wrapped in paper or carried by the feet, using care not to break
the feathers of wings and tail. In hot weather unwrap specimens
at once on reaching house or camp so that they will cool. Do
not try to skin birds until the blood is thoroughly coagulated.

Prepare a label as indicated (fig. 19), giving locality, date,
collector's name, and number, and color of eyes, bill, and feet

BIRDS JAD,

if these are peculiar. The same data are repeated in your catalog
opposite the number of the specimen. The sex is added when
the bird is skinned, as usually it cannot be ascertained externally.
When ready to skin, replace the cotton in the throat with a
fresh plug. If an eye is damaged and leaking on the feathers,
pull it out carefully with forceps or knife point, and sprinkle
absorbent in the socket, putting in a small plug of cotton.

United States National Museum.

—_
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Smithsonian

Costa Ricat : a A. WETMORE
Liberia Oct.19,1940

Fic. 19—Sample label for birds.

The best preservative for birds is powdered arsenic (dry white
arsenic trioxide) and powdered alum (ammonium) mixed in the
proportion of half and half by volume. In using, dust this on the
inside of the skin with a fluff of cotton held in the forceps. The
hind foot of a rabbit with the claws clipped off makes an
excellent brush for applying preservative.

Lay the bird on its back in front of you with its head to your
left Gf you are left-handed, reverse the position), and blow on
the bird’s belly to part the feathers. In most species this reveals

26 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

a bare space along the middle, but in ducks and other water
birds the feather covering may be practically continuous. If the
wings are in the way, break the large bone, the humerus, as near
the body as possible, which allows the wings to be pushed aside.
With a sharp knife cut the skin on the midline from the end
of the breastbone (which you can easily feel) to the vent (fig. 20).

eS

Fig. 20—Line of opening cut on abdomen.

Try not to cut the abdominal membrane. Sprinkle some absorbent
along the cut and, using the handle of the knife or your finger,
separate the skin from the end of the breastbone. Continue this
loosening as far as possible on either side of the cut down
toward the vent, exposing the knees. Holding the foot, push
the knee farther into view (fig. 21) and clip the leg at that point.
Do this for both legs, thereby severing them from the body.

BIRDS PA

During the entire process of skinning, sprinkle corn meal or fine
hardwood sawdust on the exposed surfaces to absorb blood and
other fluids so that these will not soil the feathers. Keep the
fingertips dry by dipping them in the absorbent for the same
reason. If nothing else is available, fine, dry earth may be used.

Using your fingers rather than a knife, press the skin away from
the body on either side of the rump until it is free all around.
connected only at the tail. With scissors cut the body loose at

—

—=

the base of the tail (fig. 22) and sprinkle the cut with absorbent.
Press the tail and rump skin over and off the body. Do the same
with the under side until the skin, inside out, is free up to the
wings (fig. 23), using absorbent freely.

Cut off the wings where they join the body, and continue the
process of pushing the skin back over the neck. Press the skin
carefully over the back and sides of the head. Soon a membranous
piece of skin attached to the skull will appear on either side.
This is the ear (fig. 24). Carefully pull the ear skin from its

28 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

attachment on the skull without tearing it. Press the skin forward
until the membrane joining the eyelids with the skin appears.
Cut this membrane in such a manner as to avoid injuring the

Vipelti

Ss

Fic. 22—Severing the tail.

lids or the skin (fig. 25). Remove the eyes with forceps or knife.
Free the skin from the skull clear to the base of the bill. On
the lower side cut the membrane below the tongue so that the
tongue and the plug of cotton in the throat are free.

29

BIRDS

AN Sa SSS
| oa
|E
B ZZ
—— ZK

Fic, 28—Skinning the body.

30 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

With scissors make a cut across the roof of the mouth, between
the branches of the lower jaw below the eye sockets, so that it
enters the forepart of the brain cavity (fig. 26). Then make

Fic. 25—Side of head to show eye.

another cut on either side from the end of the first one to the
upper base of the skull, and a fourth cut connecting the upper
ends of these two. The base of the skull and all of the body,

BIRDS 31

now free of the skin, may be pulled loose and put to one side.
Clean out the brain through the cut end of the skull. If there
is much meat on the side of the skull, scrape it away. Dust the
skull with the arsenic and alum preservative. Make smooth balls
of clean cotton for eyes and put one in each eye socket. Dust
the inside of the head and neck skin with arsenic and alum and
work it back over the skull.

Large-headed birds like ducks, woodpeckers, and hornbills
have heads too big to allow the skin of the neck to be worked

Fic. 26.—Line of cuts on skull.

over them. In such cases, when the base of the skull is reached,
cut it loose from the bones and muscles of the neck. When you
have finished the rest of the preparation of the skin, poison it
and turn it right side out. Then make an incision down the back
of the head (fig. 27) and loosen the skin around it until you
can skin and prepare the head as directed above for ordinary
birds. After the head skin is poisoned and the eyes are in place,
sew up the cut in the back of the head with fine stitches.

Free the wing bones as far as the joint and clean off any meat.
Skin along the top of the wing to expose the meat on the second
joint and remove this also (fig. 28). In sandpipers, goatsuckers,

32 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

and large birds leave this process until the skin is turned right
side out. Then make a cut on the under side along the second
joint, free the skin, and then remove the meat (fig. 29). Poison
carefully, and in large birds sew up the cut with a few stitches.
Remove the flesh from the legs. Cut off the surplus meat and
fat from the base of the tail, making sure to remove the oil
gland immediately above it, but using care not to weaken the

Fic. 27 —Line of cut on head for woodpeckers and some other birds.

attachment of the tail feathers. This operation requires much
skill. Carefully remove any fat and flesh that adheres to the
inside of the skin. Dust the inside of the skin with arsenic and
alum and turn it back right side out. If the skinning process
has taken long and the skin is dry, moisten the inside slightly
with water to soften, then poison. Use the arsenic mixture in
sufficient quantity to coat the inside of the skin without leaving
any loose particles.

Holding the skin by the
bill, shake it gently to aid
in getting the feathers back
in place.

In large birds and all
water birds, including sand-
pipers and plovers, it is
necessary to pull out the
long tendons in the feet.
Make a cut in the bottom
of the foot (fig. 30) and
you will see the cordlike
tendons which can then be
pulled out by pushing an
awl or strong forceps under
them. Cut them off at the
point of attachment. Then
make a cut on the under
side of each toe at the
outer end, pull out the ten-
don, and cut 1t off.

Make a cotton body the
size of the bird’s body on
a small, dry stick, one end
of which, only slightly cov-
ered with cotton, should
protrude by the length of
the bird’s neck (figs. 31
and 32).

BIRDS 33

Fic. 28—Method of skinning wing
from inside.

34 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

In larger birds form the body of fine excelsior, pulling out the
fibers until they make a smooth surface, and then wrap firmly,
but not too tightly, with thread to the proper shape. Make the
neck of cotton. In large birds and water birds it is necessary to

NYG tT
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Fic. 29——Cut for skinning wing in large birds from outside.

fasten the wings together inside the skin. Pass a strong thread
or light string between the two bones of the forewing on one
side, tie it, and then make another knot at a distance from the
first one equal to the width of the back. Pass the cord between
the two bones of the wing on the other side, draw it up to the
second knot and tie it. When the skin is right side out, the

BIRDS 35

ends of the large bones of the wing, the humeri, after tying
should lie at the same distance apart as when in position in the
bird before skinning.

Lay the bird skin on its back and insert the protruding end of
the stick into the body, through the neck, pressing it into the
roof of the mouth so that the
head fits on it firmly. The tip
of the bill should be on a line
with the body (see fig. 35).
Carefully fit the skin into place
around the body and sew it to-
gether across the belly with two
or three stitches (fig. 33).

Make sure the bill is closed
evenly, if necessary tying it
shut. Arrange and smooth the
feathers of head, neck, and
body. Fold the wings as in a
bird when at rest. With your
fingers pinch the skin away Fig. 30—Removing tendons
from the body on the upper from foot and toes in large
back and press together the birds.
wing bones there so that they
are in place above the body. Holding the bird in your hand, make
sure the two wing tips are even, then lay the specimen on a
square sheet of cotton about the length of the bird (fig. 34).

Open the carcass by cutting it on the left side. Press the in-
testines to one side and look for the sex glands on the midwall
of the lower back. If the bird is a male, there will be two testes,

36 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

whitish or blackish, narrow, bean-shaped bodies lying side by side.
lf it is a female, the ovary, normally on the left side (usually
only one, but two present in some birds), will show as a mass or
cluster of small round bodies. This is the only certain way of
determining the sex of the specimen. The organs are large in
the breeding season, very small at other times. If the body

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Bivpscagi tpt tporipone
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Lily, ”) ie, Milf (A Uys
Lil yh fois yl
Fics. 31-32—Form of body for stuffing.

cavity is bloody so that the organs are not readily seen, wipe it
out with a fluff of cotton. Write the sex (male=d, female = 9)
on the label and in your catalog.
Cross the feet and tie them together. Tie the label to one of
the feet above where it is fastened to its companion (fig. 35).
Arrange the feathers in place and carefully wrap the now
completed skin in the cotton sheet to keep its shape while drying,

BIRDS 37

drawing the cotton from either side toward and over the bird,
leaving only the tail feathers protruding. Arrange the tail feathers
to insure their drying in place and shape the skin carefully. Large
birds may be wrapped in paper or thin, soft cloth. Place wrapped

xe

MMMM

Fig. 33.—Closing the body cut by sewing.

bird skins carefully in a tray or other flat place to dry for a few
days. Once dry, they can stand being moved without serious
damage.

In skinning hummingbirds, after making the opening cut loosen
the skin on the sides of the abdomen, cut off the tail as usual

38 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Wee

> SSS

= eS : SSS SSS SSIS
; « LA
— x

Fig. 35—Dry skin to show form and methods of tying feet and
attaching label.

BIRDS 39

and work the skin up over the back. Continue this until the
legs are fully exposed, cut them at the usual joint and clean them.
Fat left on skins will ruin them eventually, but care must be
taken in removing it not to have grease run out on the feathers.
It is necessary to use quantities of the very fine hardwood sawdust
or corn meal to absorb it. In handling water birds that are very
fat, where corn meal is available, heat the meal in a pan, apply
it hot, and scrape the fat off with the meal. Apply more hot
meal and repeat the scraping until all grease is absorbed.
Tt is often necessary to cut carefully with the point of a very
sharp knife between the projecting bases of the feathers on the
inside of the skin where these are buried in fat to get out all
the grease. In doing this, follow the feather rows, using care
not to cut through. The side of an ordinary tablespoon makes
an excellent scraper for large skins. Hold it with the thumb
against the back of the bowl to support it and scrape by pushing
gently. In pelicans and some other species the inner surface of
the skin is covered with air cells that penetrate between the bases
of the feathers. It is necessary to cut carefully through all these,
following the feather rows, to allow the arsenic to reach the skin.
Very large birds may be skinned out and not made up, but
thoroughy salted and sent in from the field in that condition.
This is especially desirable if the birds are greasy, as they can
be cleaned more efficiently in the museum than in the field. Rub
fine salt thoroughly into the flesh side of the skin, being sure to
work it in around the base of the bill, into the wings, base of the
tail, and into the openings in the feet from which the tendons
have been drawn. Turn the skin right side out, smooth out the
feathers and dry well, in the sun for a brief time if needed, and

40 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

pack separately from made-up skins. In large birds turn the
head on the breast to make a more compact specimen. In damp
climates where salted specimens will not dry, instead of salting,
poison the inside of the skin with arsenic and alum and dry. Such
specimens can be made up by the museum taxidermists.

If specimens are to be kept in the field for some time, they
should be exposed to the air until thoroughly dried. If the
weather is wet and drying is difficult, expose the wrapped skins
to the sun or before a campfire on every occasion until they are
really dry. Then pack in a box with naphthalene flakes to keep
out insects. Specimens should be rolled in fairly stiff paper before
shipping away and packed firmly enough so that they cannot
shift about but not so tightly that they will be crushed. Many
well-prepared skins have been ruined by careless packing. Large
and small skins should be packed separately. The smaller kinds
may be packed in cardboard boxes which may then be placed in
a larger, wooden box.

Eggs—Special drills and a blowpipe to be obtained only from
dealers in natural-history supplies are necessary to prepare eggs.
Eggs should be collected in sets, that is, all the eggs from one nest
should be kept together.

Each set of eggs should be accompanied by a label giving name
of the bird or the number of the skin of the parent, date, locality,
and a note as to whether the eggs were fresh or much incubated.
Eggs collected without seeing the parent bird at the nest are
worthless, as they cannot be positively identified. If possible,
collect the parent bird and send it in with the eggs. When num-
bers of eggs are collected, each set should be packed so that the
labels will not be mixed. It may be necessary to use numbers

BIRDS Al

for each set. In placing small numbers on eggs with ink or very
soft pencil, great care is necessary to avoid breaking them.

Eggs are prepared by blowing. A small hole is drilled into the
side of the egg (not the end) with an egg drill, and into this is
placed the small end of the blowpipe. Blow gently and steadily
through the blowpipe and the contents of the egg will run out.
Do this until the egg shell is entirely empty, then fill the mouth
with water and blow it into the eggshell to rinse it. Then blow
air in to get rid of all the water. Place the egg hole downward
to let it drain. When corn meal is available, the eggs may be
placed on this to dry. When they are dry, wrap carefully in
cotton and pack in small boxes, placing the labels with the eggs.

Skeletons—For preservation as skeletons select birds that are
not badly broken by shot. Broken wings or legs do not matter,
but do not skeletonize those with badly injured heads. It is
often possible to preserve the skeletons of birds with injured or
missing feathers or that are too bloody or dirty to skin. Prepare
a label giving locality, date, collector, and number in the same
form as for skins and tie to one foot.

Pull off the skin of the body and neck with the feathers, leaving
the skin and feathers on the head, and the large feathers in the
wings and tail. These will serve to identify the species later.

With a knife cut off the large muscles on the breast, legs, and
wings, using great care not to injure the bones or to cut off
delicate processes of bone. Remove the viscera, being sure to
ascertain whether the bird is male (¢) or female (@), and write
this in your catalog and on the label. In this preparation corn
meal, fine hardwood sawdust, or dry earth may be used to absorb
excess blood.

42 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Fold the wings and legs against the body, turn the head and
neck on the back, and wrap with string or thread firmly, but not
too tightly, and tie to make a compact bundle. Tie a string
through the loop made by the neck vertebrae and hang up in the
sun in a safe place to dry. Small skeletons may be preserved in
alcohol, but never put formalin on skeletons. When they are
completely dry, wrap skeletons in paper and pack in boxes that
will not crush in shipping.

Always pack skeletons separate from skins as they may be
attacked by insects. These will not injure bones but will destroy
skins.

REPTILES
(Lizards, Snakes, Turtles, Crocodiles, Alligators)

Lizards and snakes are usually killed during capture, or they
may be dispatched by striking a quick blow on the neck back of
the head. Always use utmost care in handling snakes you do not
know; they may be poisonous. In shooting lizards or snakes, use
fine shot. Those captured alive may be drowned in 30 to 60 percent
alcohol, a method that may serve for small turtles. Large turtles
may be killed by cutting the spinal cord in the neck just before
it joins the shell, while alligators and crocodiles may be shot
through the heart or vertebral column. Do not injure the head.

Snakes may be captured alive by means of a slip noose of cord
or fine wire on the end of a stick (fig. 36). They are carried best
in small bags of heavy muslin or light-weight canvas, one animal
to a bag. Always use great care in handling any that may be
poisonous.

REPTILES 43

Small lizards and snakes are not difficult to preserve, requiring
only a preserving solution made of 3 parts of full-strength alcohol
to 1 of water, or of 4 or 5 percent formalin. With small specimens
proceed as instructed fer amphibians. Cut quarter- to half-inch
slits at 1- to 2-inch intervals on the belly of snakes, with one or
two under the tail, to insure preservation. Lizards over 5 inches
long need one or two slits in the abdomen for the same reason.
With large lizards make incisions along the under side of the
legs also.

CORD OR WIRE
STICK. FASTEN TO STICK HERE ¥

EYE OR STAPLE

LOOSE END OF WIRE TO
BE PULLED BY OPERATOR

Fig. 36.—Stick for capturing or handling poisonous snakes.

Larger snakes present a more difficult problem. It is often
advisable to skin out the body of a large snake by cutting along
the midventral region from chin to anus, take that part of the
body out entire, and leave the head with 2 or 3 inches of neck,
and the entire tail, attached to the skin. This may be kept in
preservative and will occupy much less space. Dried snake skins
are not very desirable as museum specimens.

Turtles are hard to preserve. With a large hypodermic syringe
inject pure alcohol or formalin at the base of each leg. Tf a
hypodermic syringe is not available, jab a knife deep into the
body between the foreleg and neck, and between the hind leg
and the shell, to make fair-sized holes for the preservative to

44 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

enter. Prop the mouth open with a cork or stick, and pull the
neck out of the shell as far as it will come. Then place in a
container of 75 to 90 percent alcohol for curing. After a few
days, if no “soft” (decayed) spots show on the specimen, it can
be wrapped in a cloth wrung out in alcohol and placed, with label
attached, in a tin shipping container, which should be soldered
shut.

A larger turtle can best be made into a dried skin, that is, a
shell with the flesh removed from inside the legs, tail, and neck,
which remain attached to the shell by a part of their leathery
skin. The skull should be dried inside the head skin, as its
structure is rather delicate. If time is lacking, the shell alone
can be “roughed out,” that is, cleaned of flesh, the legs discarded,
and only the head dried and saved with the shell. Labels for
large dried specimens may be made of flat pieces of wood on
which the data are printed with black pencil.

Alligators and crocodiles present the same difficulties. The
ones preserved in alcohol undoubtedly are the best for later
scientific study; hence those less than 2 feet in length should
be so preserved. Many injections of pure alcohol or strong
formalin into the fleshy parts of the body are necessary. The
specimens may then be kept in 75 to 90 percent alcohol until
ready for final packing.

Large lizards, alligators, and crocodiles should be skinned out,
leaving the legs attached as well as the head and tail. Salt may
be used as an additional preservative if the skins are slow in
drying.

It is advisable to make measurements of any specimens in-
tended for skinning and drying, as well as to weigh them, if that

AMPHIBIANS 45

is possible. The nature of the stomach contents should be noted.
Packing, labeling, and shipping of alcoholic specimens of reptiles
is the same as that noted below for amphibians. Too much
emphasis cannot be placed upon the need for complete and
legible labels, one for each specimen, or one for a group of
specimens all collected on the same day at the same place.

Remember that the inconspicuous, secretive animals that are
hardest to find are likely to be the rarest in museum collections.
Well-preserved and accurately labeled material from any part of
the world is of value.

AMPHIBIANS
(Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, Caecilians)

Frogs and toads are most common around water or in moist
places. Marshes and ponds are attractive to many, while other
kinds will be found on or around trees and stones in forests.
Parasitic plants and mosses covering branches and trunks in
tropical forests harbor many. Salamanders live under logs, be-
neath bark, in damp decayed wood, or under stones. A few kinds
are found in water. Caecilians are wormlike, burrowing amphibians
confined to the Tropics; they live in the mud of swamps, from
which they emerge sometimes after rains. The more secretive
the specimen, the rarer it usually is in collections, and hence the
more desirable.

Night collecting is profitable, as many amphibians remain
concealed by day. Use a flashlight, or a gasoline lantern that
throws light in all directions.

The best means of killing all species is to drown them in a

4

46 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

20 to 40 percent solution of alcohol, as this kills quickly and
they remain relaxed. A few drops of ether in water makes a
good killing solution for frogs but does not serve for salamanders.
Do not use chloroform, as it causes the muscles to tighten, making
distorted specimens. Lacking alcohol or ether, use warm water
which also leaves the animals relaxed. Take good series of each
kind whenever possible, preserving large and small, light and dark
specimens as they come, in order to get the full range of
variation.

After killing, the best procedure is to arrange the animals in a
natural position in a pan of 10 percent formalin for 3 or 4 hours
until they are stiffened, when they may be removed for preser-
vation to 60 percent alcohol, made by adding 4 parts of water
to 6 parts of full-strength alcohol. If formalin is not at hand they
may be placed directly in 60 percent alcohol. If alcohol is not
available, preserve in 2 to 3 percent formalin.

With large toads and frogs—over 5 inches in length—make a
short incision in the stomach and others in the fleshy part of
the under side of the legs with a knife or scissors to allow the
preservative to enter. Prop the mouth open with a cork or
small piece of wood, so that the preserving fluid may penetrate
the alimentary canal.

Specimens should not be packed tightly when first preserved—
not more than three or four to a Jar at first if possible—as the
muscles set within the first few hours and distortion results when
they are crowded. Leave them in the original preserving fluid
for 2 or 3 days, then put them in a fresh solution of the same
mixture for permanent storage. The original fluid discolors and
weakens after freshly killed animals have been put in it. Keep

AMPHIBIANS 47

specimens from different localities in different jars, or wrap those
from separate localities in thin cloth to avoid mixing them. Each
specimen should be labeled with the locality, date, collector, and
also any observations on food, habitat preferences, or breeding.

The best labels are small rectangles of pure sheet tin or sheet
lead on which a number corresponding to that in a catalog is
scratched deeply so that it will remain legible. Metal stamps for
making numbers are better if these are available. Thread this
label through a hole punched in one end and tie securely to the
specimen. In the catalog opposite the number write locality, date,
collector, and other circumstances under which the specimen was
found. If metal labels are not available, use a slip of tough paper
that will not dissolve in the fluid, and write the data on it in soft
black pencil. Place this in the jar with the specimen. Be sure
to make a label that will be legible when the specimen finally
arrives at its destination, as this is of the greatest importance to
those who will later study your collections. Do not use ordinary
ink, as it will dissolve in the preserving fluid. If specimens are
carried about before packing for final shipment, wrap in cloth
so that the label will not rub and become illegible.

It is possible to ship very small specimens in vials or small
bottles filled with fluid, packed in boxes in straw or other packing
material. In such cases ink may be used on labels pasted on the
outside of the bottle, but experience has taught that soft pencil
is better, as fluid from a broken bottle may render ink labels
illegible.

Keep the jars of preserved specimens in a dark place, as light
bleaches the original skin colors very quickly. Hot weather delays
thorough preservation of specimens. The jars should be inspected

48 -COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

once a day for the first few days after the specimens are put into
them, and if any soft spots develop—usually greenish sunken
areas above the stomach or intestines—a deep puncture of the
skin above the soft places should be made, and a little fresh
preserving fluid added. In the Tropics it is necessary to put a
freshly killed animal into preservative almost as soon as it has
been killed, to prevent drying out and decaying.

For shipping, specimens should be loosely wrapped and tied
in a piece of white cheesecloth or other light-weight cloth, with
the label attached to each specimen or group of specimens coming
from a single locality. Saturate the cloth with preserving fluid
and lay the bundles of specimens in a clean gasoline tin, the top
of which may be soldered shut when it is full. Do not let the
skin of any specimen come directly in contact with the tin, for
it will rust, especially if the preserving fluid is formalin. Do not
crowd the specimens too tightly, but use packing material—
excelsior, cotton, or cloth—if necessary to keep the bundles from
shaking around in the can. Be sure that packing material is
white or light-colored, as dark-colored material may discolor the
specimens and labels.

FISHES

Fish may be collected by ordinary hook-and-line fishing, or
with small nets. A tow net is useful for obtaining fish at sea,
especially at night, as oceanic fishes come closer to the surface
at night than in the daytime. A submarine light placed over the
side of a ship or boat will attract fishes so that they can be
caught in dip nets or a throw net. Fishing over the side of a
ship when at anchor, and trolling off the stern while the ship

FISHES 49

is in motion if the speed is not too great, often result in fine
captures of oceanic fishes. Seining along the beaches of islands
and bays, especially at night, is a highly successful method of
obtaining specimens.

Small fish, even half an inch or less in length, should not be
rejected, for some of the most valuable specimens are the small
ones. It is desirable to obtain series of specimens of each species.
With common species of small size that are found in large
numbers, collect the same species in different localities, and take
series in all localities. In general, preserve all fish that are
collected as far as available containers and preservative will
permit.

Small fish should be placed alive, if possible, in a solution of
formalin made by mixing 1 part of commercial formalin with
9 parts of water. This is of sufficient strength to preserve speci-
mens up to 5 inches in length in about 3 days. Larger ones
should be left for a greater length of time, depending on their
size. In all specimens over 3 inches in length make a small slit
in the side of the abdomen, or inject formalin with a large
hypodermic syringe into the abdomen and also at intervals of 2
inches in the muscle tissue. They should be left in the formalin
solution for 5 to 7 days or more. At the close of the periods
indicated, fish of all sizes may, if desired, be transferred to water,
and the formalin soaked out for 1 or 2 days, when they are
placed in 75 percent alcohol for preservation.

One precaution should be observed—never crowd the fish in
the containers. Crowding hardens them in distorted shapes, and
they may spoil for lack of preservative. If it is necessary to
leave the specimens in formalin indefinitely, they may be trans-

50 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

ferred to a weaker solution made up as follows: 1 part formalin
to 15 or 18 parts of water, to which there should be added 2
teaspoonfuls of borax to each gallon of preservative. This weaker
solution is usually of sufficient strength to preserve the fish in-
definitely if the container is closed tightly. Always fill the
containers full of liquid.

If alcohol is used, specimens should be placed while alive, if
possible, in 35 percent alcohol and after about 6 hours removed
to 75 percent alcohol. If the specimens are at all crowded, the
fluid should be poured off and fresh 75 percent alcohol added
the next day. If specimens become soft, another change of alcohol
should be made, again using 75 percent.

In general, formalin preservation is best at the start, and
should be used instead of alcohol because the formalin hardens
the specimens. However, after the fish have been in formalin a
week, they should be transferred, if possible, to 75 percent alcohol,
after thoroughly washing out the formalin, because the acid in
the formalin has a tendency to soften the bones unless it is
neutralized.

Either fresh water or salt water is practicable in preparing
formalin solutions, but with alcohol only fresh water may be used.

Labels giving locality, date, collector, depth, and any other
information that seems pertinent, such as method of capture and
ecological data, should be placed in the jar with the fish when
collected. The labels may be written in pencil on any good
grade of linen paper. Do not use paper that will disintegrate in the
liquid, and do not write with ordinary ink, as this will wash off
the label. Large fish may have tags tied onto them, preferably
through the lower jaw, with all essential data written on the

FISHES eal

tag, or a number may be used and the data recorded under the
same number in a notebook.

Be sure that all containers are completely filled with preserva-
tive so that there is a minimum of air space in the container.
If the fish are allowed to shake around with air in the jar, their
fins will become frayed, and the rays and scales worn.

As a rule, fish should be left in the preservative for 1 or 2
weeks, depending on their size, before being wrapped for shipment.

When preservation is complete, proceed as follows: Stack the
small fish in rows (as wocd is piled) with the heads outward
on both sides and the tails toward the center so that the tails are
protected, and then wrap in white cheesecloth or other thin cloth.
Sew the ends together firmly or tie with string to make a package.
Larger specimens should be wrapped individually in cloth to
prevent rubbing. Be sure to protect all the fins when wrapping.
Clean gasoline cans make good shipping containers if a con-
siderable collection has been made. They should be completely
filled with packages of fish, or the excess space filled with
excelsior or clean, dry grass. Do not use paper, as it softens and
dissolves and does not fill the spaces. After the container is
completely filled any excess liquid may be poured off; enough
of the preservative should remain so that the contents are wet.
Be sure the container is sealed to prevent evaporation. In the
case of metal cans, the top should be soldered.

If neither formalin nor alcohol is available, fishes may be
preserved in salt. They should be soaked first in a saturated
brine solution, and when thoroughly impregnated, packed in dry
salt for shipment. As in the case of other methods of preserva-
tion, the abdominal cavity should be opened to allow the salt

52 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

solution to enter freely. It may be necessary in the case of fishes
that feed on vegetation to open the intestinal tract and remove
the accumulated vegetable matter.

Fish too large for preservation in the containers available
should be skinned. Make a slit along the abdomen and remove
from beneath the skin the flesh from both sides of the body, but
leave all the fins in place. The head and tail should be left attached
to the skin. This skin can then be placed in formalin or alcohol,
or it may be salted. It is best to remove most of the fat and
all flesh from the skin. In case of moderately large fish, it may be
well to cut away the flesh so as to leave the vertebral column
intact.

ACORN WORMS (BALANOGLOSSIDS) -

The acorn worms or balanoglossids (fig. 37) are unfamiliar even
to most experienced collectors, but their importance as the
lowest forms definitely related to the vertebrates makes them
valuable finds. They are soft, slimy, wormlike burrowers, from
1 to 20 mm. in diameter, and from 2 to 100 cm. in length. The
distinctive feature is the collar with projecting proboscis and
elongate trunk. The proboscis may be 3 to 10 times longer than
the collar, or there may be a single great fold on each side of
the trunk; otherwise all species look much like figure 37.

Acorn worms are sluggish creatures that live in sand or mud,
occasionally under rocks or among seaweed roots. Black mud,
if the sea water is not too brackish or stagnant, and clean coral
sand are equally likely habitats, but wave-washed beaches are not.
Sand flats exposed at low tide and coral-sand tide pools are
typical situations. They are found in all latitudes.

ACORN WORMS 53

These animals, rarely found exposed on the surface, are usually
obtained by digging or turning over rocks. Some species may be
located by the coiled casting of sand thrown up in a cone at one
end of the burrow, but many are encountered only by chance
when digging in appropriate situations. They usually break and
are obtained as pieces. These fragments are valuable and should
not be discarded in the hope of finding whole specimens. But

Fic. 37—An acorn worm.

if one fragment is recognized as a balanoglossid, efforts to find
others should be made. Balanoglossids should be carried back
to the working quarters in containers separate from any other
material collected at the same time, as they often give off great
quantities of mucus.

They should be preserved within a few hours of capture. All
serious study of balanoglossids depends on their subsequent
cutting into thin sections, so that careful preservation is necessary.
If possible, place them in a tray of clean sea water and allow
evacuation of sand from the gut for an hour or so. Then slip

54 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

off the mucus sheath with all the sand grains and drop the
animals into fixative. This may be 10 percent formalin, which
is made up of 1 part of the commercial article in 10 parts of
sea or fresh water. Alcohol may serve if nothing else is available.
If alcohol is used, kill in 50 percent solution; after 3 to 4 hours
transfer to 70 percent and on the following day to fresh 70
percent solution.

In any case change the fluid, preferably twice in the first 24
hours, and again after several days. The label should give the
locality, date, color, method of preservation, and name of
collector.

Some technicians may have facilities available for preparing
Bouin’s Picro-formo] fluid for a fixative. This is made as follows:
Picric acid, saturated-aqueous solution, 75 parts; formol 25 parts;
acetic acid 5 parts. Place the specimens in Bouin’s Picro-formol,
change to 50 percent alcohol after first day, and to 70 percent
alcohol on third day for preservation.

MOLLUSKS

Mollusks may be found almost everywhere. Some live in the
tops of tropical forest trees, others in shrubbery, and still others
on the ground, in lakes and streams, and in the sea, where they
range from the shore line to great depths. Full-grown mollusks
vary in size from that of a pin head to a weight of 700 pounds.
The smaller species are the least known and therefore the
most interesting. —

The group is divided into five classes: bivalves (fig. 38),
snails (fig. 39), tooth shells (fig. 40), coat-of-mail shells (fig. 41),
and cephalopods (fig. 42).

MOLLUSKS 55

Mollusks are easily prepared for museum specimens. In small
kinds the animal can be allowed to dry up without harming
the shell or causing a smell. Larger specimens should be dipped
in boiling water for a couple of minutes, when the animal can
be extracted with a bent pin or piece of wire.

Fic. 38.—A clam.

Most cephalopods and slugs are mollusks without shells, and
should be preserved in 80 percent alcohol. It is well to change this
two or three times so that it may not become too diluted by
the extraction of water from the specimen, which might cause
it to spoil. In these changes, 10 times as much alcohol should
be used as the bulk of the specimen. After the changes indicated

56 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

have been made, the mollusks can be preserved in as small a
quantity of alcohol as the bulk of the animal.

Care should be taken in preparing shells of mollusks for ship-
ment to avoid injury or breakage. Delicate specimens should
be wrapped in paper or other soft material. Place a label written
in pencil with each lot, giving locality, date, and collector.

Fic. 41 —A coat-
tooth shell. of-mail shell.

When packing small living mollusks, wrap the label in cloth to
prevent the animals from eating it.

For shipping, all should be packed in wooden boxes with paper,
excelsior, clean, dry grass, or other packing to keep them from
jostling. In tropical countries fragile specimens may be packed
in joints of dry bamboo (which make excellent mailing tubes).
Empty cartridge shells also make good containers.

INSECTS aye

For shipping cephalopods and slugs preserved in alcohol, pack
the containers carefully to prevent breakage. With these speci-
mens use labels of a good grade paper that will not disintegrate
when wet.

<<]

Fic. 42—An

e092”

octopus.

INSECTS

The collector of insects must have, first and most important,
a good killing bottle, and second, some sort of a net. Any
wide-mouth bottle, such as a pickle bottle, will do for the first.
If it has no stopper, whittle one from a piece of wood. If
cyanide is available (it can sometimes be had at a drug store
or photographic supply house), wrap a piece the size of a lima
bean in damp, soft paper and ram it tightly in the bottom of
the bottle. In handling cyanide remember that it is a deadly
poison. Cut a piece of blotting paper to fit tightly over the plug

58 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

of cyanide and seat that firmly. The cyanide will immediately
produce enough gas to kill insects, but not enough to be a
danger to the collector. However, do not stick your nose into
a killing bottle to find out whether it is still strong. If cyanide
is not available, plug the bottom of the bottle with soft, wadded
paper and moisten the paper each time you go collecting with
carbon tetrachloride (Carbona), chloroform, or ether. The cyanide-
type bottle will last for months and, when necessary, may be
easily cleaned out and recharged.

A net frame, similar to a fisherman’s landing net, can be made
from flexible branches and string. If you are where the rattan
palm grows, a few yards of rattan will make an excellent frame.
A torn mosquito bar that is no longer good enough to sleep under
will provide the netting.

Carry also a small bottle or two partly filled with strong alcohol
if available. Many kinds of insects are better killed in fluid than
in cyanide. Carbon tetrachloride (Carbona) can be substituted
for the alcohol. .

For extensive collecting a beating net and cloth are desirable.
The beating net is made with a frame of heavy wire 12 inches
in diameter fastened to a strong handle. The net bag is of strong
white cloth. This is used to sweep grass and other vegetation,
gathering whatever insects may be present. The beating cloth
is a 3-foot square of strong white cloth with a narrow pocket
sewed in each corner. Light, flexible sticks of the proper length
are thrust crosswise into the corner pockets to extend the cloth
like a sheet. Hold the cloth with the sticks uppermost beneath
branches and beat the leaves and trunks with a stick so that
insects will fall on the sheet.

INSECTS 59

At night a light set behind a white sheet or thrown on a white
wall will attract many insects.

Insects live in all sorts of places. Hunt for them on leaves of
trees and bushes, on flowers of all kinds, on and under rotten
fruits, under loose bark of dead trees, in rotten stumps and
logs, under stones, and in water. About the only place where
you will not find living insects is in the sea, but after a few days
of off-shore breeze plenty of dead ones will wash ashore at high

Ei ry

Fig. 43.—Folding a triangle to preserve insects.

tide in a neat row on the beach. Collecting is often good under
the ridge of seaweed usually found at this line.

Kill fragile insects (butterflies, moths, and mosquitoes) and
hairy kinds (bumblebees and flies) in cyanide; others are best
put directly in fluid. ©

Remove specimens killed in cyanide from the killing bottle
soon after they are dead. Place them then in paper triangles
for storage and shipping (see fig. 43 for method of making tri-
angles). For the larger butterflies and moths put only one in a
triangle; other less fragile kinds may be placed several together.

Write on the triangle before folding where and when each
specimen was collected, the date, and the collector’s name. Do

60 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

not put specimens from different places in the same triangle.
Do not write on triangles after the insects are in them as this
may injure the specimen. If, because of military regulations,
these data cannot be sent out with the specimens, keep a
notebook, number the lots to correspond with entries in the
notebook, and send these data separately. Be sure to keep a
copy of the data yourself in case that sent is lost. Specimens
without data have practically no scientific value.

When ready to ship specimens, find a small wooden box if pos-
sible, or a tin box such as is used for English-type biscuits. Make
sure that the insects cannot shake about by putting a small plug
of cotton or white cloth tightly on top of them. A bubble of
air plowing back and forth through a mass of insects preserved in
fluid can do much harm in the journey to the Museum. Wrap
the bottles separately and pack the box full, using crumpled
paper to fill all extra space.

Pack specimens in paper triangles in a box separate from
those in alcohol, always making sure that the contents of the
box cannot shake about. Never pack heavy objects of any kind
in the same box with paper insects.

SPIDERS

Spiders occur in the same situations as insects. In the popular
mind all spiders are poisonous, but actually only the species of
black widows are really dangerous, and even these rarely bite unless
cornered. However, if one prefers, spiders may be handled by
means of tweezers which can be made from two wood splints.

All spiders should be preserved in alcohol and labeled and
handled as described above for insects.

CRUSTACEANS—INVERTEBRATES 61

CRUSTACEANS AND MISCELLANEOUS INVERTEBRATES

The larger species are. usually readily observed and captured,
but not the smaller, rarely seen forms, which are often more
important than the larger ones. They need to be specially sought.

On land, along sea, lake, or stream shores, turn over stones,
logs, and debris and examine the ground beneath, as many small
crab- or shrimp-like animals, as well as spiders, snails, beetles,
and other creatures find protection in such habitats. A most
fertile field is the seashore at low tide, where the receding water
leaves the bottom exposed. Small crustaceans, marine worms,
and other forms seek protection beneath stones and rocks, and
also burrow into the mud or gravel. If clumps of seaweed, other
marine growths, or encrusted rocks are vigorously rinsed in a
bucket of fresh or sea water to which about half a pint of
formalin has been added, many small creatures become detached.
The water may then be poured off carefully, or run through a
fine-mesh strainer, and the small animals put into alcohol.

Many small inhabitants of sea beaches are nocturnal and may
be trapped, sometimes in considerable numbers, by placing a
shallow pan containing 2 inches of weak alcohol, or even sea
water, upon the beach above high-tide mark, and leaving it
overnight.

For the capture of small specimens seen moving in water, a
small, fine-mesh, hand dip net is necessary. Such a net may be
made with a stout wire bent into a loop, covered with a piece
of fine-mesh cloth or, better, fine wire screening soldered in place,
fastened to a short handle. The mesh should be one-half or
one-fourth the size of fly screen. A small strainer such as is
used in cooking, if not too coarse-meshed, may be used. Nets

5

62 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

made for museum collectors are about 4 inches in diameter, with
a 5- or 6-inch handle.

For handling larger and, to the collector, more questionable
animals, a pair of long forceps is useful. These can be improvised
from light bar-iron, wire, or pieces of wood and a spring. A erab
slapped down with the flat of the hand does not get a chance
to use his pincers, and can be picked up by taking hold of the
shell near the hind end, or grasping the two legs of the last
pair with one hand. If one leg is seized, the crab usually parts
with it and so escapes.

Whenever possible, a number of specimens of each kind should
be preserved.

Proper labeling of material is most important, as ordinarily an
animal without locality label is not worth saving. Field labels
should be plainly and legibly written in soft pencil, giving the
place, date, depth at which taken in the case of aquatic animals,
and name of the collector. These data may be supplemented
usefully with notes regarding the conditions under which the
material was taken, environment, other organisms with which
the specimens were associated, host in the case of parasites, and
notes on color. A good grade, heavy bond paper should be used
if it can be obtained. Shipping tags or the usual tablet or writing
papers go to pieces in any kind of liquid. Formalin is particularly
hard on paper. If possible, the label should be protected against
abrasion by wrapping or tying it in a piece of cloth, especially
if there is any doubt about the quality of paper used. The label
should be placed in the bottle or container with the specimens
in all cases. It may be supplemented by a label pasted or tied
to the outside, but never omit the inside label as the outside one
may become detached.

CRUSTACEANS—IN VERTEBRATES 63

Most invertebrates are best preserved in alcohol. For per-
manent preservation a 70 percent solution is used. Certain animals
become too rigid or brittle and others excessively contracted
when killed in solutions that are too strong. Therefore all
animals should be killed in 30 or 40 percent alcohol. Marine
crustaceans, shrimps and crabs, that spend their lives in the sea,
may be killed by placing them in containers of fresh water.
Those that live on land or in fresh water must be killed in the
weak alcohol. As far as practicable, animals should be killed in
individual containers. This is especially important with larger
specimens, such as crabs, as if placed together they often fight
and tear each other. Tin cans are useful as killing containers.

Immediately after death, time and materials permitting, the
killed specimens should be put into a 60 per cent solution of
alcohol overnight before being transferred to the final 70 percent
solution for permanent preservation. If there is no time for this,
they may be placed directly in a 70 percent solution from the
weak killing solution. In lieu of other preservatives, strong
spirits, such as whisky or rum, will usually preserve invertebrates
until they can be given further attention. Since the alcohol is
diluted by the extracted body fluids of the animals, it is advisable
either to change it or to bring it up to 70 percent strength by
adding undiluted alcohol after a day or two. Use fresh water to
dilute alcohol.

Formalin makes a good pickling solution for all types of
animals if alcohol is not available, and is the best preservative
for jellyfish. The commercial article, formaldehyde, is usually
labeled as being a 87 percent solution of formic acid in water.
This is mixed in proportion of 1 part of formalin to 20 parts of

64 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

water. Either sea water or fresh water may be used for mixing.
Formalin, unlike alcohol, does not need to be brought up to
strength subsequently. At all times crowding of specimens in
containers should be avoided; see also the remarks under alcohol
with respect to brittleness and killing. When killing animals with
formalin a little of the prepared solution should be added from
time to time to the water in which the animals are killed. After
killing, the specimens should be transferred to a fresh solution of
formalin. ae
Soft-bodied animals such as worms are preferably killed i
an expanded condition. A very gradual addition of alcohol to
fresh water, or formalin to either fresh or salt water, will serve
to put them to sleep if no other narcotizing agents are at hand.
For marine animals one of the best and most easily obtained
narcotizing agents is magnesium sulphate, to be used in the
proportion of 154 grams to the liter of water (5.5 oz. to 2.1 pints).
The animals may be placed directly in this solution at sea
temperature or preferably cooler. When insensitive to being
touched, they can be transferred first to weak alcohol or
formalin for killing, and then to the strong solution for permanent
preservation. In the Tropics narcotizing must not be too pro-
longed, as unless the process is carried out in a refrigerator, the
animals will macerate because of the high temperature.
Containers, if not otherwise provided, can usually be obtained
from the camp or ship’s cook. Pickle, preserve, and mayonnaise
jars with screw caps are good. In place of gaskets, waxed paper
over the mouth of the bottle under the lid is usually satisfactory,
if not broken when the lid is screwed down tight. Tin cans with
spring tops are excellent containers. Tin cans with slip-over

CRUSTACEANS—INVERTEBRATES 65

tops can be sealed by means of adhesive tape so that evaporation
will not occur.

In order that there will be room enough for sufficient preserving
liquid properly to pickle the collected animals, the bottle or
container in which they are preserved or stored should not be
filled more than two-thirds full of specimens, except in extreme
cases when they will not remain crowded for long periods of
time. This caution is especially to be observed in the Tropics
or other regions where high temperatures obtain. Moreover, in
such situations, if tightly sealed or clamp-top containers are
used, the tops must be opened from time to time during the
first few days, to allow accumulated gases to escape; otherwise,
the container may blow up or the specimens be ruined.

Ordinarily, for shipment a bottle or can full of liquid provides
sufficient cushion for the contents against shock or breakage en
route. Under no circumstances should raw cotton be put in any
bottle to take up vacant space as these specimens become
hopelessly entangled in it. If packing material is deemed
necessary, soft paper or thin cloth should be used. Where weight
of shipments becomes an important factor, as in air transport,
the specimens may be shipped without any liquid whatsoever,
provided that they are shipped in liquid-tight containers which
will keep the contents from evaporation. A well-preserved animal,
guarded against desiccation, will keep indefinitely. At the same
time, the containers can be packed brimful. Where convenient,
tins may be lined with cloth, preferably light cotton, to prevent
the animals from becoming rust-stained, particularly if old cans
are used. The cloth should be moistened with some of the
liquid in which the animals are preserved. Shipment of moist

66 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

specimens without liquid should not be attempted unless the
animals have remained in the full-strength pickling solution 10
days or 2 weeks. Only in emergency cases should incompletely
preserved animals be shipped moist, for the chances are that
they will spoil before they reach their destination, and so be
of little or no value.

EARTHWORMS

Earthworms are of considerable scientific interest; several
specimens should be preserved from every locality in which they
are found.

The animals are best killed in 8 to 10 percent alcohol in a
flat dish. This solution should straighten out the animals; those
that do not straighten out can be manipulated by hand. As soon
as the worms are dead, they should be placed in about 10 percent
formalin composed of 1 part of the commercial article in 10
parts of water. When time suffices, it is well before killing to
allow the earthworms to clear the alimentary tract of ingested
material. This often contains soil and sand and therefore inter-
feres with later sectioning of the animals, which may be desirable
for purposes of study. The clearing is best accomplished by
permitting them to feed overnight on soft, moist paper.

Narcotized specimens tend to shrink less on preservation.
Narcotization can be accomplished by suspending a rag saturated
with chloroform in a jar containing the worms. After they are
insensible to touch, they can be placed in the 10 percent formalin
solution.

Label as directed for other invertebrates.

LEECHES 67
LEECHES

Leeches are of considerable medical importance and form
valuable museum materials. Their collection requires considerable
care. The methods used for their preservation are applicable to
other soft-bodied worms.

Study of leeches is greatly facilitated by properly prepared
material and is equally hampered by faulty preparations. The
preserved leeches should be straight, moderately extended, and
undistorted. They should be well fixed and preserved in fluids
strong enough to prevent maceration or softening, but not so
strong as to render them overhard and brittle. They are com-
pletely ruined by drying, which often happens when collectors
are busy with other things.

As leeches contract excessively and irregularly on contact with
irritating preserving fluids, the first step in good preparation is
to stupefy or anesthetize them. Many narcotic drugs will ac-
complish this, but the best one, if available, is carbon dioxide,
found in soda water in siphons or other carbonated waters. Chloro-
form or ether fumes, chloral, chlorotone, cocaine hypochlorate (of
about 1-1000 strength), a very weak nicotine or tobacco decoction,
magnesium sulphate, alcohol, or very weak acid like lemon juice,
added very gradually to water in which the leeches are confined
are satisfactory narcotizing agents, and the animals will usually
die in them extended. Place the leeches in a small covered
vessel or stoppered bottle nearly filled with clean water to ~
prevent escape from the stupefying agent. Leeches are very
sensitive to nicotine, and in the field one of the best and simplest
methods is to drop a few shreds of smoking tobacco into the

68 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

water with them, just enough to give the water a very faint
tint. The leeches will usually be completely narcotized and
relaxed in 30 to 60 minutes. If the decoction is made too strong
they will die quickly, contracted.

When the leeches no longer respond to pinching with a forceps
or similar stimulation they are rapidly drawn between the thumb
and fingers to remove the excess mucus and then are laid ex-
tended side by side in contact in a flat dish. To keep them in
place and to prevent distortion when the fixing fluid is poured >
on, a piece of muslin or other thin cloth, or of tissue or filter
paper moistened with the fluid, may be placed on them. The
fixing fluid is then gently poured on, usually at first not quite
enough to cover them. This avoids floating and disarrangement.
After allowing 10 minutes, or longer for large leeches, for them
to harden partially, sufficient fluid is added to immerse them
completely, care being taken to prevent floating. For ordinary
museum or taxonomic purposes 50 percent alcohol or 2 percent
formaldehyde, which can be made by diluting the formalin solu-
tion described above (page 63) with an equal quantity of
water, will answer perfectly, the latter being preferable as less
likely to cause the cuticle to separate. After the fluid has
thoroughly penetrated and the leeches have fully stiffened, they
are transferred to stronger solutions and finally preserved in 85
percent alcohol or 5 percent formaldehyde (the formalin solution
described on page 63). They should be placed in wide-mouthed
bottles or vials of sufficient length and diameter to keep them
straight and to avoid crowding and distortion. Wads of surgical
gauze or cheesecloth may be used to hold them in place if
necessary.

ECHINODERMS 69

The label, written in pencil or carbon ink on good grade paper
that will not dissolve in the preservative, should record place and
date of capture and the name of the collector. As some of the
coloring matters of leeches are freely dissolved or altered by the
fixing and preserving fluids, it is desirable also, if practicable, to
record the living colors on the label. Every additional ecological
or other fact added to the record increases the value of the
specimens. A number oi specimens of each kind should be
collected.

ECHINODERMS

This group includes the sea urchins, starfishes, brittlestars,
crinoids or featherstars, and holothurians or sea cucumbers. Take
samples of the larger ones but direct attention mainly to collect-
ing the smaller and less conspicuous kinds, which are less well
known. They are also easier to preserve and occupy less space
in shipping.

Sea urchins—These are more or less common everywhere, from
between tide marks down to great depths. There are three main
types: Globular, with more or less long and numerous spines;
oval, with short, or mixed short and long spines; and flat, solid
ones with very short spines, usually called sand dollars. The
globular ones live on rocky or hard bottom, or among seaweeds,
and are oiten common in tide pools. Some bore holes in rock,
in which they live. A few hide in holes or dark places during
the day, coming out at night. The oval ones live either exposed
on soft or hard bottom or, like the sand dollars, burrow beneath
the surface of sandy mud.

Specimens preserved in alcohol are preferable, but because of

70 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

the large amount of water in them strong alcohol, over 70 percent,
must be used and changed at least twice, which may not be
practicable in the field except in the case of very small individuals.

All sea urchins may be preserved dry. After capture they
should be placed in fresh water for a few hours; this will cause
them to straighten out their spines. They should then be boiled
for a quarter to half an hour to harden the tissues, after which
they may be dried, either in the sun or by artificial heat. In
the Tropics artificial heat is usually necessary for thorough drying.
Where facilities are limited, they may be dried directly after their
removal from the sea.

In the Indo-Pacific region is a type of sea urchin that it is
well to leave alone. It is low and flattened, 4 to 6 inches in
diameter, and has a very soft, parchmentlike shell, with short
and widely scattered spines which are fine and exceedingly sharp;
many of these.spines are provided with poison glands which are
capable of inflicting dangerous wounds. It lives mostly in rather
deep water and is not likely to be met with along the shore.
It is well known to native divers.

It is well, also, to avoid the common dark-colored urchins with
very long, slender spines which may be 15 inches in length. These
spines can inflict painful wounds. One of these needle-urchins,
found in the Indo-Pacific region, has short, fine poison spines
among the long ones.

Starfishes—Starfishes occur along all coasts, some kinds on
reefs, rocks, or hard bottom, others buried just beneath the
surface of sandy mud. They should be placed in fresh water
for a few hours, which will cause them to straighten out their
arms, then boiled and thoroughly dried, by artificial heat if
possible. All starfishes are harmless.

ECHINODERMS 7ak

Brittlestars—Brittlestars are found everywhere, usually under
stones, in the interior of coral heads or sponges, about the roots
of seaweeds, clinging to gorgonians or other plantlike animals,
or buried in mud. Some live only among the spines of sea urchins,
especially on the under side, or on crinoids or sea lilies. Many
may be found by breaking up coral heads or cutting up large
sponges. They should be dropped at once into 70 percent alcohol.
The larger, tougher kinds may be dried after a few days in
alcohol. The arms of the larger ones may usually be manipulated
under alcohol so that they all point in one direction, which saves
space in packing them for shipment.

Crinoids or featherstars—Featherstars are often common on
reefs, particularly below low-water mark on the windward side,
or clinging to fringing gorgonians or other growths. They are
usually found under large stones or in shaded situations. They
should be placed at once in strong alcohol (75 percent solution).
They almost always become more or less broken, but this does
not prevent their being studied.

Some crinoids, known as sea lilies, grow up from the bottom
on long stalks. These are especially desirable, as very little is
known about the species occurring in relatively shallow water.
It is possible that some of these may be obtained from divers.

Holothurians or sea cucumbers—Sea cucumbers are found on
rocks between tide marks on reefs, under fragments of rock,
among seaweeds, or buried in mud. They vary in length from
less than an inch to about 4 feet. Small ones may be dropped into
70 percent alcohol. It is scarcely practicable to attempt to pre-
serve any over a few inches in length without abundant facilities,
as they must be narcotized and then injected and carefully
hardened because of the great amount of water in their tissues.

ge COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Note—In packing dried echinoderms it is important to avoid
any contact with cotton or other finely fibrous material, which
will become hopelessly entangled in the fine serrations and other
processes on their spines. They should be protected from the
packing material by newspaper or some similar material.

Use alcohol to preserve all echinoderms, as formalin destroys
their delicate skeletal structures.

CORALS

Along the shores and in shallow waters of tropical islands many
beautiful corals may be found. These are desirable as museum
specimens.

If material thrown up on the beaches is collected, care should ~
be taken to select specimens that have not been worn by being
rolled about by the waves. Living corals form the best specimens.
When removed from the water the flesh disintegrates and pro-
duces an offensive odor. Before shipping they should be sun dried.

The main difficulty in coral collecting lies in packing the
delicate specimens for shipment. They require individual wrap-
ping and secure packing to keep them from rubbing each other
and breaking in transit, and must be shipped in strong containers.
For each lot note on the label the place and date of collection
and the name of the collector.

PLANTS

The preparation of plant specimens for botanical study is a
simple matter and does not require previous experience. The
most important points are: To make complete specimens, to dry

PLANTS 73

them under pressure quickly and thoroughly, to label them
properly, and to pack the specimens for shipment with care.
For digging plants of ordinary size a small pick is best, and
for cutting branches from trees’ and shrubs a sharp knife is
essential. A collecting portfolio of some sort must be provided
also, to keep the specimens from wilting before being placed
in the press. The simplest kind is one made of two pieces of
rather stiff cardboard measuring 12 by 17 inches, each with slits
near top and bottom toward either end, through which a pair
of stout cords are passed. The bottom of the portfolio is thus
readily adjustable to the number of specimens obtained, and the
top can be kept closed by tying together the free ends of the
cords. For cenvenience in carrying, a shoulder strap may be
placed beneath the cords. If so desired, a more elaborate lattice-
like portfolio may be made out of thin, slightly flexible wooden
slats about an inch wide, criss-crossed at right angles and made
fast by small nails properly clinched. Within the portfolio place
sheets of newspaper, folded once so as to measure 11 by 16 inches.
Probably most of the material to be collected will consist of
flowering plants. These are classed as herbaceous or woody. Of
the former, which include many plants that do not have showy
lossoms, collect only those having flowers or fruit, in addition
to leaves; if you can obtain both, so much the better. Except
in very special cases, do not collect plants bearing leaves only,
for such material is hard to classify and is mostly of little value.
Plants 3 feet high or less should be collected entire—roots, stem,
foliage, flowers, and fruit, and if too long for the folder, they
may be bent sharply in the form of a narrow V or N, to ac-
ecommodate them to the collecting sheet, a free space always

74 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

being left at the right-hand lower corner for the label, when the
specimen is mounted in the museum.

Ferns of moderate size may be prepared similarly. In all cases,
dirt should be shaken from the roots, or, if necessary, washed out.
Fine-leaved plants growing in water ordinarily collapse in a
tangled mass when taken bodily from water, but usually they
may be floated out gently on paper, if time permits.

In the case of woody plants, a branch about a foot long (or
several shorter branches) bearing flowers or fruit (preferably
both), besides leaves, should be collected, care being taken to
place loose fruits in envelopes within the folder, or, if bulky, to
wrap them in separate packages, carefully labeled.

The coarser seaweeds may be dried like flowering plants, but
the delicate kinds with fine threadlike divisions must be patiently
floated out on paper in sea water. Lichens and mosses should be
taken only when in fruiting condition, and dried under much
less pressure than flowering plants and ferns.

The usual plant press consists of (1) two slightly flexible lattice-
like frames measuring 12 by 17 inches, made from slats of ash
or some other tough wood, (2) driers (thick blotting papers) of
the same size, and (3) a pair of strong web trunk straps.

On return to base from a collecting trip the specimens must
be transferred from portfolio to press as speedily as possible,
especially during hot weather. Begin with the specimen first
collected. Transfer it to a dry newspaper folder like your col-
lecting sheet, at the same time straightening the leaves or flowers
if necessary, possibly removing portions so that all parts may be
seen. Give the specimen a serial number; write this on the out-
side of the folder and on any other folders containing additional

PLANTS Gd

specimens of the same plant collected at the same time and
place. Under this number—and this is important—enter full data
in your notebook, as explained in a later paragraph. The speci-
mens next in order will be handled similarly, a new serial number
being given to each different kind in turn. Now alternate with
driers the folders containing specimens, place the pile between
the press ends, and cinch the press tightly by means of the
trunk straps.

The drying operation has now begun. After 12 hours, and at
least once every 24 hours thereafter, fresh driers must be
substituted for the wet ones, which then should be dried for
further use. The process of changing driers at regular intervals
is highly important if good specimens are to result, and it must
be continued daily until the plants are dry. Grasses and ferns
will dry quickly; most other specimens will require only a few
days if plenty of warm, dry driers can be used. Fleshy plants
dry slowly, of course, and some of them make better specimens
if dipped in boiling water for a few seconds before being placed
in the press.

The drying of ali specimens can be greatly hastened by using
stiff corrugated cardboards alternately with the driers. If this is
done, the press should be placed in direct sunshine or over some
source of artificial heat, such as a stove, furnace, or engine, so
that there may be a continuous passage of hot air through the
hundreds of flues formed by the corrugations. However, only
strong corrugated cardboards, faced on both sides, should be
used; weak ones will prove a nuisance, as the corrugations are
bound to collapse under pressure and moisture. When dry, the
specimens (still in their numbered folders) should be sprinkled

76 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

lightiy with flake naphthalene and tied snugly in bundles of
about 50 each between tough flexible cardboards, ready for
shipment. It is essential that the packages be securely wrapped
and stored in a dry place. The naphthalene serves not only to
keep out destructive insects but to prevent injury from mildew
and bacteria as well.

When none or only a part of the equipment just mentioned is
available, makeshift apparatus must serve the purpose. If a
portfolio cannot be made, a closed container of some sort, such
as a rigid cardboard box, will serve admirably to carry plants
for short collecting trips. Press ends and straps may be dispensed
with also, if in their place a piece of strong board (12 by 17
inches) and a flat rock or other weight of 30 to 40 pounds are
available. In fact, if the specimens are not too bulky, the
follow-up pressure of the heavy weight may be better than the
slackening pressure exerted by straps. Blotting papers for use
as driers are, however, nearly essential. To a limited extent
newspapers (several thicknesses placed together) can be used
instead; but they do not absorb or give off moisture readily.
Old newspapers, cut neatly to folders measuring 1] by 16 inches,
make excellent collecting and specimen sheets. Incidentally,
place the folded edge at the left and write the serial number in
heavy lead pencil at the lower right-hand corner.

At the time a specimen is put in the press, all essential data
regarding it should be recorded in the collector’s notebook under
the same number. Of first importance, naturally, are the locality,
general region or country, altitude above sea level, date of
collection, and name of collector. But many facts that will not
be apparent when the specimen is received at the museum are

PLANTS “i

known to the collector, and these should be set down; for
example, the height of the plant, whether a tree, shrub, or woody
vine, its relative abundance, the kind of place in which it grows—
swamp, forest, open brushy slope, grassy plain, or beach—its
common name, the color of its flowers, and the like. Is the plant
poisonous? Has it medicinal uses? Do the natives use it as a
stupefying fish poison (suggesting that it may prove to be a
valuable insecticide)? Is the fruit edible? Any information of
this sort should be entered under each number and should cover
such points as cannot be made out by examining the specimen
itself.

One point more: Collection numbers should run from 1
upward in a single continuous series, no matter how many
years and countries are concerned. Do not start with number 1
each year or at each new locality. Failure to observe this rule
has resulted in great confusion.

Finally, remember that a few well-prepared ample specimens
accompanied by full data and special information are worth
dozens of poor specimens with scant or faulty data; and make
your specimens as nearly complete as possible. The botanist
needs complete specimens, but very often he does not get them,
even from professional collectors.

WOODS
Wood specimens to have the greatest scientific value must
be accompanied by mature leafy twigs and fruit or flowers from
the same tree, this material being prepared according to the
directions for collecting plants given above. All specimens from
one tree should bear the same collection number.
Collection is speeded by the use of loggers’ tools, an ax, cross-

6

78 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

cut saw, and steel wedges. A set of steel dies numbered 1 to 0,
at least 3 of an inch high, is the best means of marking specimens.

Trees selected for felling should be sound, without visible
defects, and in fairly adult stage of growth. Make a horizontal
saw cut at the side on which the tree is to fall, as near the ground
as possible, continuing the cut to about one-fourth of the diameter
of the trunk. ‘With the ax make a notch above to meet this saw
cut, the angle of the notch being about 45 degrees. Next make a
saw cut on the opposite side of the tree on the same level as the
first one. As soon as this is deep enough, insert wedges behind
the saw and drive them progressively until the tree falls.

When saws are not available, trees may be felled and trunk
sections cut with axes alone or with native cutting tools. Hard
wood wedges may replace the steel ones. If a tree may not be
felled, sections from a large limb may be taken.

After the tree has been felled, a trunk section must be cut from
the butt. The length of this section may have to depend some-
what on transportation facilities, but in no case should it be less
than 1 foot. With the metal dies, stamp on both ends the number
assigned to the herbarium material from this tree, or if this means
is lacking, mark otherwise in as permanent a manner as possible.
Enter in a catalog opposite the number given the specimen the
locality, date, name of collector, and altitude above sea level
as for ordinary plant specimens. In addition record the type of
forest association, as “hemlock-hardwood,” “rain forest,” etc.;
soil type, as “sandy,” “clay,” “sandy-loam,” “clay-loam,” etce.;
the diameter of the trunk breast-high, 44 feet above ground

3 6

LIVING ANIMALS 79

(usually written D.B.H.); age of tree (if possible); and color
and other description of bark.

As soon as woods reach camp or base, provision must be made
to air-dry them partially by proper stacking. Avoid damp places,
and do not place any specimen in contact with the soil. If
possible stack them away from direct sunlight, with the ends
toward prevailing winds so that air currents can pass through the
piles. Lay two poles on the ground and pile the blocks on them,
with the larger pieces at the bottom to prevent the pile from
becoming top-heavy. Separators made of small saplings should
be placed on top of each row in the stack to assist further the
passage of air. When collections are made during rainy seasons,
it is also necessary to erect some kind of shelter over the stacks.

When only a few specimens are collected, simpler drying
methods may be substituted, the main idea being not to dry
them so rapidly as to cause undue checking, nor so slowly as
to induce sap stain or fungus discolorations.

For shipping, pack the sections of logs in crates or boxes,
wedging them in with packing material so that they cannot rub
er move so as to be damaged.

LIVING ANIMALS

Members of the armed services and other travelers returning
from abroad frequently bring back as pets or mascots living
birds or other animals. Some of these come eventually to
zoological gardens, so that the National Zoological Park in

80 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Washington, a branch of the Smithsonian Institution, looks for-
ward regularly to receiving interesting kinds after they cease
to be pets, which, in the usual course, often happens. Species
that may be common in a foreign country, even some of those
considered pests, are usually desirable creatures for zoos here
at home.

In connection with any plans for shipping living animals, the
following points must be remembered: All members of the
parrot family, and all hoofed animals, including deer and wild
pigs, come under severe quarantine restrictions and except in
very special cases cannot be brought into the United States.
With so many other things available, it is not worth while to
collect such animals. All mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians
enter the United States under permits from the Fish and Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the Interior, Chicago, II.
In the case of specimens destined for the National Zoological Park
at Washington, send notice by telegraph or letter in advance of
arrival so that the necessary permits may be sent to the port
of entry.

With the thousands of interesting live things available, it is
not possible to give instructions for the care of all of them, but
the following notes will be of assistance.

While animals may be kept as pets loose or on leash, for ship-
ping they must be crated. The simplest and best crates are
made of wooden boxes (fig. 44). A door in front about one-third
the width of the box gives the animal behind it some privacy.
The rest of the front can be of wire mesh, or of wooden slats
fastened to a footboard raised a little distance from the bottom
so that food and water may be put in and the cage cleaned

LIVING ANIMALS 81

without opening the door. Place hay, straw, sawdust, or other
litter on the cage floor for bedding to facilitate cleaning.
Perching birds should have perches provided in their cages, the
size of the perch to be regulated to fit the foot of the bird.
Snakes and frogs can be kept for long periods without food.
Snakes may be carried in cloth bags, which should be moistened

— LE LEC

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TWO NAILS AND STRING WOODEN OR OTHER
OR WIRE FOR LOCK BARS OR SCREEN

7

Fic. 44—Shipping crate for living animals. For birds inside
perches are added.

from time to time. Frogs should be kept in damp grass, moss,
or other vegetable matter, which must be moistened regularly.
Large lizards, common in North Africa, the East Indies, Ausiralia,
and the South Seas, thrive on a diet of ground meat, sometimes
with raw egg or milk added to it. Ship them in cages.
Mammals, birds, and lizards should be kept moderately warm,
dry, and free from draft, and given enough room in their crates
to move about comfortably. Do not put them into excessively

82 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

large quarters, as they may be injured when the crate is shifted.
In the lands where they are acquired you will doubtless be told
something of the feeding habits of the various species, but some
people, even natives, often seem to know a lot of things about
animals that are not so. In the East Indies where rice is the
main article of human diet, the natives have a tendency to feed
everything else as they do themselves. So, be careful that they
do not persuade you to keep a flesh eater on rice.

Animals like to eat what is good for them, and if given a
variety of foods will select their own diet. Great quantities of
concentrated sweets such as candies or jams are detrimental.

Very young mammals require milk. Diluted tinned milk is
usually satisfactory. Small species of cats require milk when
young, and should be weaned on raw meat—chicken, beef, or
other flesh. Monkeys eat as humans do, but most of them require
very little meat. Heavy-billed birds require seeds or small grain.
Others, including birds of paradise, will eat insects (cockroaches
are obtainable even on shipboard), chopped meat, and fruits or
vegetables. Eggs, either raw or cooked, are relished by many
creatures.

Aboard ship all the variety of foods necessary to maintain al-
most any animal or bird may be found. Carnivorous mammals
or birds can be fed with scrap meat from the galley, preferably
raw; vegetarian species may be supplied the same way from scrap
vegetables, and the seed eaters with various dry cereals. Return-
ing home aboard ship from many collecting trips, we have found
that boiled rice, ripe bananas, and sweet potatoes raw or cooked,
are good staples for many vegetarian species.

Specimens intended for the National Zoo may be forwarded

ANTHROPOLOGICAL MATERIALS 83

express collect addressed to the National Zoological Park,
Washington, D. C. They should be accompanied by a letter
giving the place where the animal was obtained and the name
and address of the donor.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL MATERIALS

Anthropology, the science of man, is commonly divided into
four parts: Archeology—the study of prehistoric man and his
culture; ethnology—the study of living primitive peoples; physi-
cal anthropology—the study of man’s body; and linguistics—the
study of man’s language. Since this section is limited primarily
to the collecting of objects made by man, it will describe the
care, precautions, and, most important, the record which must
accompany the collection of such specimens.

The tools and utensils used by primitive people in their daily
life are all of interest. These include such things as axes,
arrows, pottery, stone, bone, and shell implements, objects
associated with religion and art, and those used for hunting,
fishing, agricultural pursuits, house furnishing, and body adorn-
ment. These should be things made by the natives themselves,
and not those that they obtain from foreign traders.

The service man who is a prospective collector of archeological
specimens should limit his activities to the preservation of
objects that may be uncovered incidental to war activities. Much
important scientific material from graves, kitchen middens, and
ancient structures has been destroyed by the enthusiasm of
unskilled investigators. Two important facts should be established
regarding the area in which you may be located: (1) legal

84 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

restrictions on the collecting of specimens or their removal from
the country, and (2) feeling of the native peoples regarding such
matters, so as not to arouse antagonism through activities that
possibly may be viewed as disrespectful to the spirits of their
dead. Disregard of these local taboos may result in serious diffi-
culties with local populations, particularly where specimens are

deliberately excavated and carried away.

The scientific usefulness of any specimen, and frequently its
desirability as a museum piece, is determined by the completeness
of the accompanying record. This record must include at the
very least the precise locality (country, state, city, subdivision,
river, island), the circumstances under which each piece was
recovered, the nature of the deposit, native name and use if
possible, the date, and the name and home address of the
collector. No detail should be left to memory; all data should
be recorded at once and tied to the specimen.

Many archeological specimens are sufficiently well preserved
so that they may be easily cleaned with water, brush, or cloth;
others may be so soft or fragile that only excess dirt can be
removed safely, and final cleaning should be left for the
recelving institution.

Ideally, in preparing for shipment, specimens should be packed
in substantial wooden boxes or paper cartons, with plenty of
excelsior, dried moss or grass, or other similar cushioning ma-
terials. Cotton batting or shredded paper are suitable for light,
fragile objects. In the field it may be necessary to substitute
whatever materials are at hand, leaving final paeking until
arrival at a base.

Ethnological specimens collected from primitive tribes, es-

ANTHROPOLOGICAL MATERIALS 85

pecially those in out-of-the-way places where foreign cultural
influence has had little or no effect on their behavior or cultural
objects, may require considerable care to remove them to a base
camp, and to protect them in transit by expert packing to guard
against damage or destruction by such agencies as moths,
beetles, borers, dampness, and warping.

Here again we must emphasize the fact that except in rare
cases the specimens have little scientific merit unless accompanied
by a detailed record. Such record must include the locality, in
sufficient detail so that it can be located on modem, large-scale
maps, the name of the tribe, and the function and use of the
specimen in relation to the culture.

Collections of human remains of use to physical anthropology,
and which are readily transportable, include the skull and other
parts of the skeleton, the brain, and hair samples. When such
remains are encountered, and there are neither local taboos against
their removal nor official prohibitions against their collection and
shipment, it is highly desirable that they be saved for scientific
study. Bones should be packed in stout containers, using dry
grass, excelsior, or shredded paper as packing material. Brains
ean be collected ordinarily only by those with medical training.
They may be preserved in 10 percent formalin solution, sur-
rounded with cotton or cloth, and sealed in metal containers.
_ Hair samples should be placed in separate envelopes.

The scientific usefulness of these again depends largely upon
the record obtained by the collector, which should include as
many as possible of the following items (listed in the order of
their importance): Locality, tribe, sex and age if available,
weight of brain upon removal, and region of body from which

86 COLLECTOR'S MANUAL

hair was obtained. To avoid the possibility of the record becom-
ing separated from the specimens, it is advisable to number the
lots with waterproof ink or black pencil, and to duplicate the
key to these numbers in a catalog.

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES

Successful fossil hunting requires persistence, concentration,
ingenuity, and keen powers of observation. Each specimen is a
problem in itself, and each collector will have his own way of
working out its details. Whether it be a skull, a few bones, or
a complete skeleton, the aim should be to remove the specimen
from its resting place in the field to the work table in the
laboratory with the least possible injury. An experienced collector
may spend hours or even days in taking up a valuable specimen
that would be ruined by haste. Months of laboratory work may
be required to piece together shattered fragments where the
work of removal is done carelessly.

Vertebrate fossils are most common in the finer-grained, sedi-
mentary or stratified rocks that have been deposited by wind
and water. Limestones, calcareous shales, and clays are often
fossiliferous; coarse sandstones and conglomerates seldom so.
Yet it may be found that rocks which ought to contain fossils
are barren, while coarse conglomerates may yield teeth and bones. .
The possibilities of each area must be discovered by careful
scrutiny.

Fossils may appear unexpectedly in drill cores from hundreds
of feet below the surface, in dredging and hydraulic operations,
road work, quarries, mining, tunneling, gravel pits. wells, railway

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES 87

cuts, and in caves. Examination of the refuse rock from such
workings and of newly cut banks will often be rewarded. As a
rule fossils not found in place, whether they have been transported
by human or other agencies, are much less desirable than those
collected undisturbed in the original beds.

Deeply eroded “badland” areas are particularly promising
collecting ground. The usual absence of soil or vegetation on
their sloping surfaces contributes to the ease of detecting any
protruding or broken pieces of fossil bone.

Fossil bones can usually be distinguished from recent deposits
of remains of living animals by their heavier weight, darker
color, and the way they crack apart in weathering. A fossil bone
breaks at right angles to the length, a recent bone into lengthwise
splinters and flakes. These observations apply only to fossil bones
that are mineralized, not to those found in caves and deposits
of little age that may not have changed from their original
condition.

Never dig hastily into a sorry-looking prospect, but always
work with care, for many an unpromising pile of surface fragments
has led to a good specimen. Carelessness may result in the
destruction of a fossil, or cause hours of unnecessary labor in
recovering pieces that have been needlessly broken.

The collector should have a stout leather or canvas knapsack,
with separate compartments for wrapping materials and small
tools. In this bag carry stout string, wrapping and tissue paper,
labels, awls (fig. 45), brushes, a small trowel, or similar tool,
and a small quantity of gum arabic with a receptacle in which
to mix it. A small hammer and two or three light chisels are

88

COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

often useful. The outfit also should include either a geologist’s
hammer or a short-handled pick (fig. 46) usually carried in the
hand. Always keep the collecting outfit down to a minimum.
Upon discovery of a specimen it is important to gather from
the surface and loose dirt all pieces of teeth and bones that may

. 45—Awl and
scraper.

have been broken off. These pieces should
be carefully wrapped and each package
marked to indicate whether it contains
scattered suriace fragments (float) or tooth
or bone pieces broken off by the collector.
This procedure will prove of great aid in
the laboratory in restoring the fragments
to their proper places.

The next step is the removal of the
overlying burden of rock and soil. In gen-
eral the work of excavating should begin
from above and not from the side of a
specimen. When you have dug to within
a few inches of the bone, proceed with
caution, using small tools and at the same
time keeping the work surface clean by
brushing so as to avoid the loss of project-
ing processes or loose pieces. Continue the

removal of the rock or soil until the whole specimen, whether it
be skull or skeleton, stands out in faint outline (see fig. 47).
Harden soft or shattered places in the bone, as the work pro-
gresses, by saturating them with a thin solution of shellac or gum
arabic, preferably the latter, which is allowed to dry. The best
solution is made by dissolving crystals of commercial gum arabic

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES 89

in an equal amount of water. Apply with a small, soft brush
either by sprinkling or directly brushing the surface to be hard-

ened.

When fossils occur in sand-
stone, limestone, or other con-
solidated rocks they can often
be quarried out in blecks, fol-
lowing the bedding planes and
natural seams, and then re-
duced in size by chipping off
the excess rock. In using this
method only the broken ends
or exposed sides of the fossil
need protection. A strip of
burlap dipped in paste, made
by mixing flour in water,
placed over the exposed sur-
faces usually gives ample pro-
tection. Often layers of tissue
paper pasted on with gum
arabic solution serve the same
purpose.

Where the fossils occur in
marls, sand, or soil, they are
often checked and broken in-
to innumerable pieces. To
keep these pieces in their nat-
ural relationships, and thus

Fig. AG “Short-handled pick.

avoid permanent damage to the specimen, as well as unnecessary
labor in the museum laboratory, such fragile specimens usually

90 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

should be taken up in blocks, preferably encased in a Jacket of
plaster of paris and burlap.

In preparing a specimen for jacketing continue excavating down-
ward all around the fossil, but with as little exposure of the
bones as possible, until the whole stands on a pedestal of earth

—— oS - <r = sy a
a a =—=S= -=SSS

Dy. “ II}

Fic. 47—Fossil skull exposed by removal of surface cover.

(fig. 48) with the sides overhanging and with rounded corners.
Next cover all exposed parts of the fossil with tissue or rice
paper painted smooth with gum arabic solution (fig. 49). This
will protect the bone surfaces from the plaster when the bandages
are applied. For bandages use loosely woven burlap, or gunny
sacking. Most old sacks are sewn with a chain stitch that will
ravel easily if properly started. Cut the pieces of sacking into

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES 91

strips 2 to 4 inches in width and 1 to 3 feet in length and place
in a pail of water to soak. Next sprinkle plaster of paris slowly
and evenly into a pail half filled with water until the dry plaster
begins to rise above the surface of the water. Allow the plaster

ar ae ‘4 :
Zou se Joe 1 IN :
; aa ii: ees

Fig. 48—Second stage in removal of fossil skull.

to settle slowly without much stirring, which will prevent lumps
from forming in the mixture.

Wring out a burlap strip and immerse it in the fluid plaster,
taking care that both surfaces are fully covered. As the burlap
is removed strip off the excess plaster with the fingers of the
free hand. Apply the strip across the top and sides of the block

92 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

being particular to press it into all inequalities of the surface.
Continue to apply similar bandages, first in one direction then in
another, until all of the top and sides are completely covered
(fig. 50). To complete the jacket apply strips low down on the
pedestal so that their overlapping ends form a continuous collar
that ties all together (fig. 51). Much of the success of the whole

ae

gi \
CS
(Ce wi (4
\

| y : ~ ‘yy \a\yy »\? \ Ay y,

seit
a) ws ake We wh rk vs ay

ae . we : ay m NOs

7 a AY Vg WEFAAN iN

i TIM. ~
ime”

Fia. 49.—Fossil skull protected by tissue paper before bandaging.

operation depends on the strength and proper placing of the
collar, for it is this bandage that prevents the spreading of the
jacket when the block is being turned over. Should it not hold,
the whole jacket may collapse and the specimen fall out. Often
it is necessary to strengthen the collar by additional layers. When

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES 93

the plaster has fully set, the block may be cut or broken loose
and turned over. Trim off the excess matrix and bandage the
newly exposed side. It is good practice to leave an inch or more
of matrix adhering to the bone rather than to clear the surface
entirely on the lower side.

Fic. 50.—Bandages of plaster and burlap.

The block should now be plainly marked with its field or
other identifying number. When thoroughly dry it is ready for
packing,

In collecting large blocks by the method described certain
modifications of the process are necessary. First, the block should

7

94 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

be reinforced by binding strong sticks or splints into the jacket
(fig. 51). Second, with wide blocks, after the jacket has been
applied to the top and upper part of the sides, dig a number of

* it Ae PARES a

:
> 9 fh

ar a b

Fig. 51—Side view of wrapped skull showing stick im place to
give greater rigidity to the block.

parallel tunnels through the pedestal from side to side. Then
pull strips of plastered burlap through the tunnels, tying their
ends into the top of the jacket. Sometimes it is desirable to
strengthen the bandages by the use of tightly twisted wire. The
whole purpose is to tie the open side of the jacket together, thus

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES 95

preventing the contents from falling out when the block is being
turned over.

In the absence of plaster of paris, ordinary flour paste may be
used for bandaging. It sets well in warm weather but cannot be
used on wet specimens or in rainy weather. Specimens prepared
with paste bandages are also subject to mold and to the attack
oi rats and mice. It is therefore necessary to keep the blocks
dry and to use packing boxes free from knotholes. On account
of the easy removal of paste bandages in the laboratory their use
is especially recommended in the collection of many delicate
fossils. Paste bandages can sometimes be used to advantage in
collecting wide, thin bones by applying the strips directly to the
surface of the bone. When dry, and after loosening around the
edges, the specimen may be picked up without further ado. After
removal apply bandages to the lower side.

Small, well-preserved specimens, after the surface has been
hardened may be readily collected by the application of successive
layers of tissue paper and gum arabic solution. When dry, turn
the specimen over and continue the process over the lower side.
When this method is used it is well to wrap the specimen in
strong paper.

Fragments of a specimen, including float, should be wrapped in
old newspapers or, if delicate, in cotton or tissue paper. When
the pieces are small, several can be wrapped together, taking
care to separate them so that their surfaces cannot rub. Add
others as the package is rolled up. Where there are many of
these packages it is often advantageous to tie them loosely
together in bundles. These can be packed readily, and the
connecting strings clearly indicate their relationship.

96 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

In addition to the written labels that should always be en-
closed in wrapped packages, it is desirable to keep a notebook
in which the data are duplicated under the proper number with
supplemental information. With jacketed specimens, for obvious
reasons, the data concerning them is entered in a notebook and
should always include the exact map locality, range, township,
and section. Be sure to number all specimens. If working in an
unsurveyed area, indicate the locality in relation to some
prominent local Jandmark or stream. Note the formation and
position in the geological section, name of collector, and date
of collection. A detailed statement of the observed parts of
the skeleton present in the block, and any other observations
that will be of assistance to the preparator in the laboratory
are useful. Include reference to field photographs made of the
specimen. Field notes should be written on the spot while the
information is freshly in mind.

Small shipments of wrapped materials may be packed in light
wooden boxes or heavy cartons. Heavy specimens require strong
wooden boxes made specially for them. Wrapped specimens
should be packed tightly so that they will not settle and shift
about during shipment. Unless separated by strong partitions
heavy specimens should not be placed in the same box with
fragile materials. Specimens may be packed in hay, straw, ex-
celsior, crumpled newspaper, or even leaves or small twigs and
brushwood, if nothing better is available. Press the packing
materials down firmly between and around the individual blocks.
A tamping stick in the form of a narrow piece of board will be
found useful in forcing the hay or straw in tight. Nail on the
top, one board at a time, and cram the packing material in

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS 97

solidly between it and the specimens. When a specimen has been
collected in several blocks, pack in as few boxes as possible.
Each box should be numbered, and under that number there
should be a complete inventory of its contents. When a skeleton
has been packed in several boxes, cross references to that fact
should be entered in your notes. In shipping the prepared
fossils, especially in the United States, they should be billed
as “fossils in rock” as a special freight rate applies to this
category of materials.

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS

Invertebrate fossils include remains of such ancient animals
as protozoa, sponges, corals, echinoderms (starfishes, crinoids,
sea urchins), worms, bryozoa, brachiopods, mollusks (clams,
snails, cephalopods) and arthropods (ostracods, insects, crabs,
trilobites). Fossilized remains of plants also often occur in rock
formations. These two groups of fossils, animals and plants, there-
fore, may be considered together. The beginner may gather speci-
mens of importance, and even after a century of collecting many
new fossils of scientific interest can be discovered. Indeed, finding
the good new things is often the fortune of the amateur and
beginner.

Although fossils generally have little money value they do
have scientific and economic importance in the information that
they furnish on past life. They are links in the chain of evolution,
which, when it is completely forged, may yield biological laws
of inestimable value to mankind. From the economic viewpoint
fossils are important in mapping rock layers and in locating oil

98 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

and mineral-bearing strata. The United States National Museum
in Washington maintains a large collection of such reference fossils
to help geologists identify their fossil specimens and thus classify
and map rock formations.

Speaking in general terms, fossils are found in sedimentary
rocks, that is, rocks that have been laid down in bodies of water
such as seas or lakes. Flood deposits of rivers and wind-laid
deposits such as sand dunes often contain invertebrate fossils or
plants although the specimens are likely not to be well preserved.
Searching for fossils in igneous rocks—those formed from molten
magmas or lavas—obviously would be a waste of time. The
same is generally true of metamorphic rocks which are composed
of sediments or other materials more or less profoundly changed
during times of mountain-building.

Limestone, sandstone, and shale constitute by far the greatest
percentage of sedimentary rocks. Generally, ancient sediments
can be recognized by their arrangement in layers or strata of
different kinds of rock of varying colors. These layers are often
flat as originally laid down, but in mountain-building they may
be much folded so that their edges protrude from the surface at
various angles. No specific rules can be given as to what kind
of rock will contain the most fossils. In general the finer-grained
rocks, such as the limestones and calcareous shales, contain more
and better-preserved fossils than the coarser sandstones. Never-
theless some coarse sands contain numerous fine fossils. The best
rule is to examine any exposure of sediments for fossils.

Fossils are preserved in many ways, varying from the entire
animal to traces such as a footprint or burrow. Most fossils
consist of the hard parts or skeletal portions only, preserved

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS 99

with more or less mineralization. Many occur as replacements
of the original skeletal substance or hard parts by several minerals,
the most important of which is silica (quartz). Mineralizations
of wood are found in which the cellular structure is faithfully
preserved. Here the cells have been filled and much of the wood
replaced by silica, lime, or other minerals. A few animals
(graptolites) and many plants are preserved by carbonization.
In this process some of the volatile hydrocarbons of the animal
or plant have been drawn off leaving only a black film. Through
such processes, acting on accumulations of plants, our great coal
beds have been produced.

One of the commonest occurrences of fossils, particularly in
sandy rocks, is in the form of impressions (molds and casts).
In such examples the limy, shelly, or skeletal material has been
dissolved by percolating water, thus leaving an impression of
the exterior of the fossil along with an inner cast representing
the mud that filled the interior. Many plants and parts of plants,
such as leaves, occur as imprints.

The following are common fossils:

Protozo2z—usually single-chambered, very tiny shells of infinite
variety (fig. 52).

Sponges—branching, conical, subspherical, or cupshaped, often
indefinitely-shaped bodies, having a skeleton composed of fibers
or spicules (fig. 53).

Graptolites—black, lustrous skeletons of colonial polyps usually
flattened and suggesting pencil markings on rocks (fig. 54). They
are most common in slaty rock.

Corals—solitary corals are shaped like a goat’s horn, while
some colonial corals suggest honeycomb (fig. 55). Some more

100 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Fic. 53.—A fossil sponge.

Fie. 54—Examples of graptolites.

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS 101

modern corals have skeletons of varying form, shaped like a
brain, staghorn, or flower.

Echinoderms—star-shaped (starfishes), liliform (crinoids) (figs.
56 and 57), bun- or biscuit-shaped (sea urchin) (fig. 58) covered
by a skeleton of calcite plates or ossicles that show the cleavage
of the mineral calcite when broken.

Worms—seldom found as actual fossils but as traces in the
form of burrows, tubular shells, or tracks.

Bryozoa—branching, lacy, or massive coralline skeletons con-
taining tiny pores in which the colonial animals lodged (fig. 59).

Brachiopods (fig. 60)—with two smooth or ribbed shells of un-
equal size, the larger one with a hole at the beak. Right and left
sides of the shells are identical (bilaterally symmetrical).

Mollusks—clams (fig. 61) have two nearly equal shells in each
of which the right and left sides are unequal. Snails (fig. 62)
have a single shell commonly coiled spirally, rarely coiled in one
plane. Cephalopod shells coil in a plane (rarely spiral) or are
straight and are divided into many chambers by transverse par-
titions or septa. Cephalopods in which the trace of the septa on
the side wall is a simple curve are called nautiloids (fig. 63) and
those with complicated septa, ammonoids (fig. 64).

Arthropods—invertebrates with jointed legs such as insects,
crabs, lobsters, and spiders. The commonest fossil arthrepods are
trilobites (fig. 65) which have a segmented body, head, and tail,
characterized by a more or less elevated central axis.

Locating fossil-bearing ledges—The accurate location of the exact
layer from which a collection of fossils is taken is most important.
Loose or drift fossils, or specimens lacking essential information
as to their locality, may have biological importance but will be

102 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

of little value to the geologist. Prospecting for fossils is not
unlike a search for minerals or metals. If working along a stream
or hillside, the collector should locate loose specimens or search
for any indication of fossils in rock debris. Such indications should
be traced to their source bed. When the fossil-bearing stratum is

235

ae

ooo eet ravamnse was
EET LLU YN, (8)
eRe eE ERE IE SET ci,"

—

Fig. 55—Fossil corals.

discovered, the collector can decide on the best means of attack
depending on such conditions as the hardness of reck, the ease
with which it can be split, accessibility, and amount of over-
burden (see under fossil plants, p. 107). The important item in
every case is to determine the exact layer from which the collection
is to be made, and to locate this layer with reference to harder or

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS 103

softer beds, conspicuously colored layers, or other permanent
natural features.

When collecting loose fossils on a slope derived from two or
more soft, fossil-bearing layers, it may be necessary to dig away
some of the surface debris in order to locate and collect specimens
from the underlying beds that yielded them.

Fic. 57—Segments of
Fic. 56—A crinoid head. crinoid stems.

Collecting invertebrate fossils—Fossils may occur embedded in
hard rock or loose on the surface. When they are found in a
hard matrix, it is necessary to break the rock to free the speci-
mens. For this purpose a hammer is necessary, preferably one
with a square face but, opposite to it, a chisel edge at right angles
to the shaft for splitting slaty rocks. In addition one or more
cold chisels or sharp points are desirable. A hand lens of 6 or 8
power is an indispensable item of equipment. Where the rock

104 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Fic. 59—A bryozoan, shown natu-

ral size at left and enlarged at
right.

~

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS 105

is massive, a light bar and small (4-pound) sledge hammer are
helpful to pry out and break up chunks. If fossils are numerous
and easily removed from the rock, a good collection may be made
by breaking up the larger chunks on the spot. Generally how-
ever, removal of a fossil from its matrix requires more time and
facilities than are available in the field. It is best, therefore, to

Fic. 60.—Views of two brachiopods.

bring in chunks of fossiliferous rock for more careful breaking
in the laboratory. Do not attempt to clean fossils of any kind
in the field.

Fossils usually occur on bedding planes along which the rock
cleaves naturally. Fossil impressions will then usually occur
on each side of a split piece, hence it is essential that both sides
be saved because each impression represents a different part of
the animal.

8

106 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

When broken open, fossil clams, brachiopods, and some other
fossils found as impressions often yield an inner kernel or lump
representing the ancient mud-filling of the inside of the shell.
Inexperienced collectors often preserve only this inner filling,
which is nearly worthless without the accompanying outer im-

VAN BENS

et ae

~

“ann fl
Sor
fe, are :

Fie. 62.—A fossil

FI. isa fossil clam. snail.

‘pressions. Both kernel and outer impressions must be saved, the
latter to determine shape and ornament, the former because of
impressions of internal organs and muscular marks.

In areas where the rocks have disintegrated, leaving fossils free,

be sure to use the lens to detect microscopic species such as

protozoa or young stages of the larger fossils. If microfossils

are noted, brush debris and possible contaminating material from

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS 107

a small area, then collect a small sack of the shale for washing
and sorting in the laboratory.

Fossil plants—Should traces of fossil plants be discovered on
an exposed slope, first prospect the slope from bottom to top
to locate the source of the fragments. Then open a quarry with
pick, shovel, and bar if necessary, by removing an area of cover

108 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

down to the fossil layer. This permits removal of large slabs
from the fossil-bearing layer and insures the possibility of getting
complete specimens. Do not nibble at the outcrop; this only
results in small, broken specimens. Split the slabs and lay the
fossils out of the way. Reduce specimens to convenient size but
do not attempt to clean them and do not attempt to trim them
too closely. If the slabs are hard and durable, wrap them as they
are, but soft clay and shale, in which fossil leaves often occur,
should be wrapped well as soon as they have dried somewhat.
Careful wrapping at the right time permits the specimens to
dry out gradually and thus prevents excessive checking. Do not
put shellac on any specimens.

Fossil leaf imprints come in counterparts like fossil invertebrate
impressions. Be sure to save both counterparts but wrap each
separately and then bundle the two pieces together so that they
can be identified as one individual.

It is well to lay out the collected slabs at some distance from
the quarry. Presently it will become apparent that the collection
can be separated roughly into species. Thus the collector will
see what is common and what should be looked for more care-
fully. The goal to be kept in mind is to obtain as complete a
collection, represented by good specimens, as can be got at the
locality. The fossil-bearing bed should be worked at several
places along the outcrop for greater variety.

Besides the leaves mentioned above, fruits, seeds, and wood
may be found in the same stratum. These are very important,
and every slab should be examined with the lens for small seeds.
It will help future identification to draw a ring around small
specimens with a red pencil. Cross sections of fossil wood should

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS 109

be examined with the lens to determine if cellular structure is
preserved. If none is evident and the wood structure is com-
pletely obliterated by mineral substance, it is worthless. Speci-
mens having cellular structure should be saved, in the form of
examples measuring at least 2 inches on the side.

Broken specimens, if good, may be taken for mending in the

Fic. 64—Two ammonoids.

laboratory. In the field hold the broken pieces together lightly
and make marks across the break (but not on the fossils), which
can be matched readily in the laboratory. Wrap the pieces
separately but bundle the wrapped pieces together.

A label giving the exact location and stating the formation
from which it came should accompany every specimen or collec-
tion when possible. However, some regions have not been studied
enough to give this geological information. The collector then

110 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

can designate the fossiliferous layer by a letter or number,
stating its relation to another conspicuous stratum at the

collecting locality.

Fic. 65—A trilobite.

In recording geographi-
eal data the location should
be so specific that the ex-
act collecting spot can be
found at any time in the
future. If location is by
military coordinates state
from what map they were
taken. Latitude and longi-
tude can be measured as
coordinates from most
maps. If locating from a
village state distance from
a prominent, permanent
landmark such as_ the
square, prominent church,
or courthouse. Elsewhere
make locations with refer-
ence to a prominent hill,
mountain, or other perma-
nent natural feature. Such

locations are best given with azimuth bearing and distance from
such major landmark, again stating from what map the reading

was plotted.

Write all labels in black pencil on good stout paper. Pencil
writing will not smudge or be obliterated if wet. Record the

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS LTT

position of the fossils in the geological section if possible, the
geographical location, the collector’s name, and the date. The
last two items should not be overlooked because this information
may be of considerable help in relocating a collection in case
part of the label is damaged or not clear.

Another method is to number each specimen, entering localities
and other details under the same number in a notebook. The
locality number is then attached to each specimen by means of
a small piece (4 to 4 inch) of adhesive tape. Mark the tape in
pencil or waterproof ink, preferably the former.

Large collections are desirable if the fossils are gathered for
scientific purposes. Animals of the same species vary considerably;
consequently, many specimens are needed to define a species
properly. Besides the biological value of large collections, the
additional material is available for exchange after study.

Packing requires, most of all, the exercise of common sense.
Wrap all specimens so they will not rub together. Bundle to-
eether all specimens from the same zone or layer. See that ail
bundles and packages have adequate labels. If delicate material
has to be packed with heavy specimens, pack the former in a
stout box by themselves; then add to the main lot. Pack all
bundles in stout wooden boxes, the stoutness of the box to
depend on the weight of material to be shipped. Nail kegs are
ideal because they are sturdy and not too heavy to handle even
if full of rock. Do not use pasteboard boxes unless they are the
only containers available, in which case tie them securely in
three directions. Address boxes clearly and put on sender’s name.
Also number all boxes and keep a list of the contents.

Loose fossils can be packed in small sacks or kegs, using

112 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

sawdust, if possible, as a packing medium. If clay or shale has
been collected for microfossils, the larger free specimens from
the same zone can be packed with the clay or shale sample.

ROCK SPECIMENS AND ORES

One who searches for new occurrences of minerals and ores is
called a prospector, and to this profession the civilized world owes
a great obligation. Wherever man travels it is important that
the rocks and ores of the area visited be collected for careful
inspection. The prospector should be equipped with the following
tools:

Flat, square-headed steel hammer.

Chisel, pick, or bar.

Packing material for specimens.

Notebook in which to record notes and make labels.

If recent excavations have been made in an area where you are
working, visit them to familiarize yourself with the type of
rocks exposed. Examine steep cliffs, as generally they are
composed of firm rocks which are not likely to be deeply
weathered. In some places is is almost impossible to get fresh
material. Usually the softer external, or weathered, part of rocks
can be removed by trimming with a hammer.

Before deciding on the specimens to be collected always take
time to become familiar with the general rock exposure. Be
certain that the material collected really represents the outcrop
in color, mineral assemblage, and texture. Do not collect freak
or unusual specimens until the typical ones have been obtained.
If more than one type of rock is present collect from each, and

ROCK SPECIMENS AND ORES 113

indicate on the labels their relative relationships and distribution.
Often this is most conveniently done by means of a sketch.
Always break specimens from the parent ledge, and not from
the loose material nearby, unless you are certain that this was
derived from the main ledge and is typical of it.

Do not collect specimens
unless you know they are in
place at the locality. Some- y
times large boulders have i,
been carried great distances
from their true geological po-
sitions.

If weathered material is
abundant and looks interest-

ing, collect separate samples a

“Sl nee

of this, but be certain to in-
dicate on the label the rela-

tionship of this to the fresh \

rock. \ \
Look for veins and dikes in

rocks, contacts where bedded N

rocks are placed against crys- a

talline, igneous formations, or — Fyg, 66 Shaping a rock sample.
where two different kinds of

igneous rocks have a common contact. Unusual minerals often
occur along such contacts. When large outcrops of ore minerals
are found, collect several specimens at different places in order
to have a good, representative sampling of the outcrop, and get
one or more specimens of the rock which encloses the ore body.

114 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Specimens should be regular in form, about 4 by 5 inches
across and 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Avoid irregular pieces
with sharp corners. With a little practice it is possible to trim
a specimen to a convenient size by striking the edge nearest you
with a flat-headed trimming hammer (fig. 66). A single hard blow
usually knocks off sizable chips.

After the specimens have been properly prepared write a field
label in black pencil or carbon ink, including the date, the
collector’s name, and the detailed location of the occurrence.
Trust nothing to memory. Rivers, towns, mountain peaks, and
other permanent landmarks are useful. Give exact distances and
bearings, plotted from a map if possible. If a map is used, give
a reference to it in the label. Fold the field label so that the
writing will not become blurred by rubbing against the sample.
Wrap each specimen with its label in paper to protect the
samples from grinding against each other during shipment. This
also keeps the label and the specimen together.

Always pack specimens tightly in strong containers so that they
cannot move around. Do not overload a box beyond the weight
that it can safely carry.

MINERALS

The collector must work carefully with mineral specimens so
that they are removed free from man-made scars. When a
mineral is formed in such a way that it is bounded by sharply
defined flat surfaces, it is said to be a crystal. It is not always
possible to obtain crystallized samples, but before effort is spent
on massive or shapeless minerals, search carefully to make certain
that no crystals are available.

Good specimens have been found in all types of rocks, but to

MINERALS 115

locate them may take keen observation and much careful
searching. After selecting the most promising localities for work,
take out as many good specimens as time will permit. Set these
in a, safe place, sort them over, and group them as to appearance
and mineral association. Try to get as many different mineral
associations as you can from each place. Do not pack the minerals
or make final selection until your prospecting for the day or
place has ended; then select only the most important.

If there are old, abandoned mines and quarries available, first
visit the dumps and old ore piles. Broken up rock usually offers
the best collecting; generally it is best to avoid large blocks of
rock. Never enter an abandoned underground mine alone, unless
you have had previous mining experience and are equipped with
a good light.

In areas of volcanic rocks search for those containing cavities.
Minerals often occur in these cavities. If the area is one of
granitic or coarse crystalline rocks, search for dikes or veins that
cut the rocks, as in these veins the minerals may be more coarsely
crystalline. Look along any open fractures or joints present.

In limestones look for minerals which weather out differently
from the rest of the rock. Search for solution cavities, and
examine bedding planes and joints. Split shales and slates hori-
zontally along the bedding to recover material between the layers.

Wherever two rocks of a different nature have a common
contact, examine this carefully for unusual minerals.

Rivers and beaches are excellent places to get a preliminary
idea of the types of rocks existing toward the headwaters of
the drainage area to which they belong. Examine the gravels
and the nature of the fine sand. Valuable deposits such as gold,
platinum, tin, and precious stones often exist in heavy sands.

116 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

Many saline minerals occur in the salt deposits of arid and
desert regions where natural seepages or old lakes have evaporated.
Often well-crystallized minerals can be found under such condi-
tions. Any deep depression should be examined. On deserts there
may be a separating of the minerals by the wind; sometimes
unusual specimens can be found exposed on the surface by this
type of erosion.

Whenever possible, clean your minerals before leaving the
locality where they were found. Washing them off in water will
give you a chance to see their true color and beauty. Then sort
them into different groups and select the best specimens for
packing. It is a waste of time to retain a lot of poor samples.

Only preliminary trimming should be done in the field. Never
attempt any trimming until the natural fractures in the specimen
have been determined, as otherwise you may ruin a choice
specimen. Always remove all loose fragmentary material before
wrapping, since this can mar or ruin an entire specimen.

The best of each day’s collection should be properly packed
and carried back to the base camp. There they should be un-
packed and spread out for comparison with the others obtained
from that same locality.

In the packing of the final selection for shipment, old news-
papers make excellent wrapping material. Wrap each specimen
with its accompanying label separately. Fold the label so that
the writing will not be blurred. If a specimen contains delicate
crystals, cover them with a soit pad of shredded paper and then
wrap with plenty of paper. Pack the individually wrapped ma-
terial in a box sufficiently strong for shipment, and make sure
that the contents plus packing completely fills the box.

METEORITES AG
METEORITES

Meteorites are the only objects we know that have originated
elsewhere than on this earth, and they are therefore of great
scientific importance. They are so rare that they are found
usually by accident rather than by search. They may hit the
earth anywhere, and no place is too remote for one. Meteorites
contain nothing in themselves of economic value to man, but
whenever one is encountered, it should be preserved for the
large collections where studies are made of these unusual objects.

Meteorites are of two kinds—stone and iron. The latter are
more easily recognized because of their weight and metallic
character. Nothing similar to them in appearance exists in nature.
It is unusual to find large masses of metallic iron scattered in
remote places, and consequently any metallic object answering
the following descriptions should be investigated.

The surface of iron meteorites is usually rusty brown and is
dotted with holes or depressions which resemble thumb marks in
putty. The sound produced by striking an iron meteorite with
a hammer or rock is different from that produced by striking a
large stone. Hammering on the surface only dents or batters
the metal, and chips do not easily break off as they do if boulders
are pounded. To remove a sample the collector usually has to
resort to cutting with a hacksaw.

Determine the dimensions of the specimen and estimate its
weight. If it weighs much more in proportion to its size than
other rocks in the vicinity, it may be a meteorite. If your dis-
covery is too large to collect for shipment to the museum, take
a photograph and send it in, together with detailed information

118 COLLECTOR’S MANUAL

as to location. The United States National Museum will be glad
to advise and assist if possible in the recovery of such specimens.

Stony meteorites are more difficult to recognize. They are
made up of heavy silicate minerals, and the presence of iron
inclusions adds greatly to their weight. Therefore a stony
meteorite is likely to be heavier proportionately than the other
minerals or rocks in its vicinity. It will also have a different
physical appearance from other rocks nearby. If a great number
of similar pieces are found scattered over wide areas, they are
probably not meteorites.

Freshly fallen stony meteorites are covered with a thin black
crust of fused material, but the external surface of old ones is
usually a rusty brown in color. The general shape is rounded
without sharp corners, unless broken since their fall. The surface
usually will be pitted with the “thumb marks” mentioned above
under iron meteorites.

If a freshly fallen one is carefully chipped, the paper-thin crust
is easily broken away, and the exposed interior will be light in
color. Ordinarily there are inclusions of bright metal masses
scattered throughout. If the meteorite is an old, weathered fall,
the interior may be brown, but the presence of metallic inclusions
usually is still discernible.

Collect the entire specimen wherever possible and submit it
for study. If it is too large to handle easily remove a piece
about the size of a silver dollar and forward this directly to the
United States National Museum for identification. Be sure to
include the location of your find and your name and address
on the accompanying label.

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42. INCHES

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CENTIMETERS

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